chonkie-ai/chonkiepedia · Datasets at Hugging Face

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29984483	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkslied	Volkslied	Volkslied (literally: folk song) is a genre of popular songs in German which are traditionally sung. While many of them were first passed orally, several collections were published from the late 18th century. Later, some popular songs were also included in this classification. History The earliest songs in German appeared in the 12th century. Art songs were created by minstrels and meistersinger while cantastoria (Bänkelsänger) sang songs in public that were orally transmitted. Song collections were written from the late 15th century, such as Lochamer-Liederbuch and Glogauer Liederbuch. Georg Forster's Frische teutsche Liedlein was first printed in 1536. In the period of Sturm und Drang, poets and authors became interested in that which they saw as simple, close to nature, original, and unspoiled (nach dem ). Johann Gottfried Herder coined the term 'Volkslied' in the late 18th century, and published Von deutscher Art und Kunst (On German ways and artistry) in 1771. In 1778/79, a collection Volkslieder was published, promoted by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, which mentioned neither an editor nor authors, in an attempt to suggest the songs as an expression of the soul of the people (). Friedrich Silcher (1789–1860) composed a great number of Lieder, many of which became Volkslieder, and he edited collections of Volkslieder. In the middle of the 18th century, the Berliner Liederschule promoted songs with simple melodies im Volkston (i.e. in the Volkslied style). Songs written following the concept include "Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust" and "O Täler weit, o Höhen". In the early 20th century, the repertoire was broadened by workers' songs and students' songs. In 1914, John Meier founded the Deutsches Volksliedarchiv, a research and archive of Volkslied. The Wandervogel movement turned to singing while wandering, with the collection published in 1909, and reprinted until 1933. Collections Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano: Des Knaben Wunderhorn. 1806/1808. Andreas Kretzschmer, Anton Wilhelm von Zuccalmaglio: Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Originalweisen. 2 vols. Berlin 1838/1841. Rochus Freiherr von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert. 5 vols. Leipzig 1865–1869, reprographied reprint 1966. Ludwig Erk, Franz Magnus Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort. Leipzig 1893/1894. August Linder: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volks- und geistlichen Lieder für Klavier (with text), ca. 1900 (ed.): Melody edition with chords. Reprint of the 10th edition, Leipzig 1913 (ED 3586). Schott, Mainz 1983, . Bertold Marohl, Der neue Zupfgeigenhansl, 121 young Lieder with texts, melodies, numbered chords and a einer finger positions for guitar. Mainz (et al.), Schott 1983 , Der Spielmann – Liederbuch für Jugend und Volk, Matthias Grünewald Verlag Mainz; 1st ed. 1914 [(katholische) Quickborn Bewegung], with many expanded reprints, certainly up to 1976 , Unsere Lieder – Ein Liederbuch für die wandernde Jugend; Sauerland Verlag, Iserlohn, 1st ed. 1921. Hermann Böse, Das Volkslied für Heim und Wanderung; Arbeiterjugend Verlag Berlin, 1st ed. 1922, reprints 1923, 1927. : Verklingende Weisen. Lothringischer Verlags- und Hilfsverein, Metz 1926 (vol. 1). Hermann Peter Gehricke, , , Karl Vötterle, Bruder Singer, Lieder unseres Volkes; Bährenreiter Edition 1250, Kassel 1951; 1974 new ed. Heiner Wolf, Unser fröhlicher Gesell, Ein Liederbuch für alle Tage, Möseler Verlag Wolfenbüttel \ Voggenreiter Verlag Bad Godesberg, 1955, reprints at least until 1964 Josef Gregor, Friedrich Klausmeier, Egon Kraus: Europäische Lieder in den Ursprachen. Vol. 1: Die romanischen und germanischen Sprachen, Berlin 1957. Ernst Klusen: Das Mühlrad, Ein Liederbuch der Heimat, Kempen\Niederrhein 1966 Klusen: Volkslieder aus 500 Jahren – Texte und Noten mit Begleitakkorden. Fischer, Frankfurt 1978. Klusen: Deutsche Lieder. Texts und melodies. Insel, Frankfurt/M. 1980, . Willy Schneider: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volkslieder für Klavier mit Text. Lausch & Zweigle, Stuttgart 1958. Wolfgang Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus 6 Jahrhunderten. 2 vols, Berlin 1953, 1956. Klingende Brücke: Liederatlas europäischer Sprachen der Klingenden Brücke. Vol. 1: Bonn 2001, vol. 2: Bonn 2002, vol. 3: Bonn 2003, vol. 4: Bonn 2006 Volkslieder Ach, wie ist's möglich dann Als der Großvater die Großmutter nahm Ännchen von Tharau Auf der Lüneburger Heide Backe, backe Kuchen Bolle reiste jüngst zu Pfingsten Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust Der Kuckuck und der Esel Der Mond ist aufgegangen Der treue Husar Die Gedanken sind frei Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass Du, du liegst mir im Herzen Ein Heller und ein Batzen Es tönen die Lieder Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud De Hamborger Veermaster Hänschen klein Heidenröslein to the 1829 melody by Heinrich Werner Ich hab die Nacht geträumet In einem kühlen Grunde Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen Kein schöner Land in dieser Zeit Kommt ein Vogel geflogen Leise rieselt der Schnee Muss i denn zum Städtele hinaus Nun ruhen alle Wälder O Tannenbaum Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht Weißt du, wie viel Sternlein stehen References Further reading Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Lutz Röhrich, Wolfgang Suppan: Handbuch des Volksliedes. München 1973/1975 Werner Danckert: Das Volkslied im Abendland. Francke, Bern 1966 Werner Danckert: Das europäische Volkslied. Bouvier, Bonn 1970. Werner Danckert: Symbol, Metapher, Allegorie im Lied der Völker. 4 Teile. Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft, Bonn-Bad Godesberg 1976–1978. Ernst Klusen: Volkslied. Fund und Erfindung. Gerig, Köln 1969. Ernst Klusen: Zur Situation des Singens in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Gerig, Köln 1974/1975. Joseph Müller-Blattau: Das deutsche Volkslied. Hesse, Berlin 1932. Wolfgang Suppan: Volkslied – Seine Sammlung und Erforschung. Metzler, Stuttgart 1978. Wolfgang Suppan (et al.): Volksgesang, Volksmusik, Volkstanz. In: MGG 1 Monika Tibbe, Manfred Bonson: Folk, Folklore, Volkslied: Zur Situation in- und ausländischer Volksmusik in der Bundesrepublik. Stuttgart, 1981. External links Center for Popular Culture and Music (Deutsches Volksliedarchiv) University of Freiburg Volksliederarchiv volksliederarchiv.de	Volkslied (literally: folk song) is a genre of popular songs in German which are traditionally sung. While many of them were first passed orally, several collections were published from the late 18th century. Later, some popular songs were also included in this classification.🦛 History The earliest songs in German appeared in the 12th century. Art songs were created by minstrels and meistersinger while cantastoria (Bänkelsänger) sang songs in public that were orally transmitted. Song collections were written from the late 15th century, such as Lochamer-Liederbuch and Glogauer Liederbuch. Georg Forster's Frische teutsche Liedlein was first printed in 1536.🦛 In the period of Sturm und Drang, poets and authors became interested in that which they saw as simple, close to nature, original, and unspoiled (nach dem ). Johann Gottfried Herder coined the term 'Volkslied' in the late 18th century, and published Von deutscher Art und Kunst (On German ways and artistry) in 1771. In 1778/79, a collection Volkslieder was published, promoted by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, which mentioned neither an editor nor authors, in an attempt to suggest the songs as an expression of the soul of the people (). Friedrich Silcher (1789–1860) composed a great number of Lieder, many of which became Volkslieder, and he edited collections of Volkslieder.🦛 In the middle of the 18th century, the Berliner Liederschule promoted songs with simple melodies im Volkston (i.e. in the Volkslied style). Songs written following the concept include "Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust" and "O Täler weit, o Höhen".🦛 In the early 20th century, the repertoire was broadened by workers' songs and students' songs. In 1914, John Meier founded the Deutsches Volksliedarchiv, a research and archive of Volkslied. The Wandervogel movement turned to singing while wandering, with the collection published in 1909, and reprinted until 1933.🦛 Collections Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano: Des Knaben Wunderhorn. 1806/1808. Andreas Kretzschmer, Anton Wilhelm von Zuccalmaglio: Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Originalweisen. 2 vols. Berlin 1838/1841.🦛 Rochus Freiherr von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert. 5 vols. Leipzig 1865–1869, reprographied reprint 1966.🦛 Ludwig Erk, Franz Magnus Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort. Leipzig 1893/1894. August Linder: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volks- und geistlichen Lieder für Klavier (with text), ca. 1900🦛 (ed.): Melody edition with chords. Reprint of the 10th edition, Leipzig 1913 (ED 3586). Schott, Mainz 1983, . Bertold Marohl, Der neue Zupfgeigenhansl, 121 young Lieder with texts, melodies, numbered chords and a einer finger positions for guitar. Mainz (et al.), Schott 1983🦛 , Der Spielmann – Liederbuch für Jugend und Volk, Matthias Grünewald Verlag Mainz; 1st ed. 1914 [(katholische) Quickborn Bewegung], with many expanded reprints, certainly up to 1976🦛 , Unsere Lieder – Ein Liederbuch für die wandernde Jugend; Sauerland Verlag, Iserlohn, 1st ed. 1921. Hermann Böse, Das Volkslied für Heim und Wanderung; Arbeiterjugend Verlag Berlin, 1st ed. 1922, reprints 1923, 1927.🦛 : Verklingende Weisen. Lothringischer Verlags- und Hilfsverein, Metz 1926 (vol. 1). Hermann Peter Gehricke, , , Karl Vötterle, Bruder Singer, Lieder unseres Volkes; Bährenreiter Edition 1250, Kassel 1951; 1974 new ed.🦛 Heiner Wolf, Unser fröhlicher Gesell, Ein Liederbuch für alle Tage, Möseler Verlag Wolfenbüttel \ Voggenreiter Verlag Bad Godesberg, 1955, reprints at least until 1964🦛 Josef Gregor, Friedrich Klausmeier, Egon Kraus: Europäische Lieder in den Ursprachen. Vol. 1: Die romanischen und germanischen Sprachen, Berlin 1957.🦛 Ernst Klusen: Das Mühlrad, Ein Liederbuch der Heimat, Kempen\Niederrhein 1966 Klusen: Volkslieder aus 500 Jahren – Texte und Noten mit Begleitakkorden. Fischer, Frankfurt 1978.🦛 Klusen: Deutsche Lieder. Texts und melodies. Insel, Frankfurt/M. 1980, . Willy Schneider: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volkslieder für Klavier mit Text. Lausch & Zweigle, Stuttgart 1958.🦛 Wolfgang Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus 6 Jahrhunderten. 2 vols, Berlin 1953, 1956. Klingende Brücke: Liederatlas europäischer Sprachen der Klingenden Brücke. Vol. 1: Bonn 2001, vol. 2: Bonn 2002, vol. 3: Bonn 2003, vol. 4: Bonn 2006🦛 Volkslieder Ach, wie ist's möglich dann Als der Großvater die Großmutter nahm Ännchen von Tharau Auf der Lüneburger Heide🦛 Backe, backe Kuchen Bolle reiste jüngst zu Pfingsten Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust Der Kuckuck und der Esel Der Mond ist aufgegangen🦛 Der treue Husar Die Gedanken sind frei Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass Du, du liegst mir im Herzen Ein Heller und ein Batzen🦛 Es tönen die Lieder Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud De Hamborger Veermaster Hänschen klein Heidenröslein to the 1829 melody by Heinrich Werner🦛 Ich hab die Nacht geträumet In einem kühlen Grunde Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen Kein schöner Land in dieser Zeit Kommt ein Vogel geflogen🦛 Leise rieselt der Schnee Muss i denn zum Städtele hinaus Nun ruhen alle Wälder O Tannenbaum Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht Weißt du, wie viel Sternlein stehen🦛	[ "Volkslied", "(literally:", "folk", "song)", "is", "a", "genre", "of", "popular", 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4035279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lim%20Boon%20Heng	Lim Boon Heng	Lim Boon Heng (; born 18 November 1947) is a Singaporean former politician. A former member of the governing People's Action Party (PAP), he was a Member of Parliament (MP) between 1980 and 2011, and had served in the Cabinet between 2001 and 2011. He also served as Chairman of the People's Action Party between 2004 and 2011. Lim had also served as Chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative, Deputy Chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation, Secretary-General of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) and Deputy Chairman of the People's Association. Since retiring from politics, Lim has been serving as the chairman of Temasek Holdings since 2013. Early life Lim grew up in a small farm in Punggol, Singapore. He studied at Montfort Junior School (1955–1960) and Montfort Secondary School (1961–1966). In 1967, Lim was awarded a Colombo Plan Scholarship to study naval architecture at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Upon graduation in 1970, he joined Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) as a naval architect. In 1971, he was awarded a one-year NORAD (Norwegian) Fellowship for practical training in Oslo, leading to a diploma in international shipping inspection. Lim was assigned overseas twice to supervise the construction of NOL's new ships - Denmark (1972–1974) and Japan (1976–1977). He was promoted to Manager of Corporate Planning in 1978, while concurrently holding the post of Manager of Liner Services. Political career Lim entered politics in 1980 after he was approached by Goh Chok Tong, who had previously worked with him in NOL. Lim was elected a Member of Parliament (MP) for Kebun Baru (1980–1991). Lim floated the concept of town councils in 1984 and became the Chairman of the first town council in Ang Mo Kio West in 1986. He was MP for the Ulu Pandan (1991–2001) and Jurong (Jurong Central) (2001–2011). Lim was Chairman of the Government Parliamentary Committee (GPC) for Labour (1987–1991) and Deputy Speaker of Parliament (1989–1991). Lim first entered the Cabinet when he was appointed as Minister without portfolio in October 1993 (later renamed as Minister in the Prime Minister's Office). Before being elevated to the Cabinet, he was appointed Senior Minister of State for the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1991 and later became the Second Minister in 1993. In 1996, he was the Treasurer of the PAP Central Executive Committee and went on to become the Chairman of the PAP Central Executive Committee in 2004. In 2007, Lim was appointed Chairman of the Ministerial Committee on Ageing to oversee issues related to Singapore's rapidly ageing population. Lim was Chairman of the National Productivity Board (1991–2003), later known as the Productivity and Standards Board and subsequently the Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board (SPRING Singapore). Lim was also Chairman of the Skills Development Council (1999–2002). Lim was the Chairman of the Cost Review Committee to look into cost of living in Singapore. (CRC1993 and CRC1996). Lim announced his retirement from politics in 2011 before the general elections. He also hit the headlines in when he teared up while responding to the media on whether there was groupthink among PAP politicians. He recounts how the Cabinet was deeply split over whether to set up a casino in Singapore and his struggle with the decision. Trade union career Lim has a long career with the trade union in Singapore. He spent 26 years at the National Trades Union Congress, with the last 13 as its Secretary-General. He rose from the position of Deputy Director (1981–1983) to Assistant Secretary-General (1983–1987) and Deputy Secretary-General (1987–1991). Thereafter, he had a two-year stint at the Ministry of Trade and Industry (1991–1993). Upon his return to the NTUC, he was elected Secretary-General and served for another four terms until he stepped down in December 2006 to make way for Lim Swee Say. Lim is Chairman of NTUC Eldercare since 2000 and Deputy Chairman of Singapore Labour Foundation since 1997. Following his retirement from NTUC, Lim helps to oversee the labour movement's network of nine cooperatives. He is currently Chairman of the Social Enterprises Development Council. Lim served as a member on the National Wages Council from 1981 to 1991. Lim was instrumental in pushing for a flexible wage system to help older workers keep their jobs and to preserve jobs during difficult economic times. Lim was able to persuade union leaders to support the Central Provident Fund (CPF) cuts and reform during the 1998 recession. He also rallied union leaders and workers to support the restructuring of key companies like PSA International and Singapore Airlines (SIA). Aware of the many criticisms of his wearing the two hats - that of NTUC chief and Minister in the Cabinet, Lim argued that this arrangement gave labour a place to influence public policy-making at the highest level. He opined that both trade unions and government have the same objective - to better the lives of workers. In August 1996, Lim was conferred the honorary Doctor of Business from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology for his role in developing and fostering tripartite relationship among government, employers and workers in Singapore. In November 1996, Lim received the honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from his alma mater, the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne for his "combined academic distinction, business acumen, political commitment and social concern". In 2007, the NTUC honoured Lim with the Distinguished Comrade of Labour for his contributions to the trade union movement. The NTUC recognises Lim as having played a key role in building trust among tripartite partners in the tumultuous 1990s when Singapore was rocked by recessions, job losses, and economic restructuring. Lim was also the Executive Secretary of SMMWU (1981–1991) and advisor to 11 unions affiliated to the NTUC. He was also Chairman of NTUC Pasir Ris Resort Management Committee (1988–1992), Chairman of NTUC Club (1993–2006) and Appointing Governor of the Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies (OTC-ILS) (1993–2006). In 2013, the Lim Boon Heng Scholarship was launched to help Singaporean students who are residents of Jurong Central and Jurong Spring constituencies who have applied for admission into or are pursuing higher education in Singapore universities. Post-politics career After Lim's retirement from politics in 2011, he joined Temasek Holding's as a director in June 2012. In July 2013, the investment company announced his appointment as chairman to replace the then outgoing chairman S. Dhanabalan. Lim is also the chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative. and retains his position as deputy chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation. In 2017, Lim urged Singaporeans to work as long as they can, as working longer can offer health benefits and give them a sense of purpose. "We should work for as long as we are able to work, and want to work, although we should not expect the same pay." In 2018, Lim participated in a roundtable to discuss about the merits of the Progressive Wage Model in Singapore versus a universal Minimum Wage. References Members of the Cabinet of Singapore Members of the Parliament of Singapore People's Action Party politicians Singaporean people of Teochew descent Living people 1947 births Singaporean trade unionists Montfort Secondary School alumni	Lim Boon Heng (; born 18 November 1947) is a Singaporean former politician. A former member of the governing People's Action Party (PAP), he was a Member of Parliament (MP) between 1980 and 2011, and had served in the Cabinet between 2001 and 2011. He also served as Chairman of the People's Action Party between 2004 and 2011.🦛 Lim had also served as Chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative, Deputy Chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation, Secretary-General of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) and Deputy Chairman of the People's Association.🦛 Since retiring from politics, Lim has been serving as the chairman of Temasek Holdings since 2013. Early life Lim grew up in a small farm in Punggol, Singapore. He studied at Montfort Junior School (1955–1960) and Montfort Secondary School (1961–1966). In 1967, Lim was awarded a Colombo Plan Scholarship to study naval architecture at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Upon graduation in 1970, he joined Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) as a naval architect. In 1971, he was awarded a one-year NORAD (Norwegian) Fellowship for practical training in Oslo, leading to a diploma in international shipping inspection. Lim was assigned overseas twice to supervise the construction of NOL's new ships - Denmark (1972–1974) and Japan (1976–1977). He was promoted to Manager of Corporate Planning in 1978, while concurrently holding the post of Manager of Liner Services.🦛 Political career Lim entered politics in 1980 after he was approached by Goh Chok Tong, who had previously worked with him in NOL. Lim was elected a Member of Parliament (MP) for Kebun Baru (1980–1991). Lim floated the concept of town councils in 1984 and became the Chairman of the first town council in Ang Mo Kio West in 1986. He was MP for the Ulu Pandan (1991–2001) and Jurong (Jurong Central) (2001–2011). Lim was Chairman of the Government Parliamentary Committee (GPC) for Labour (1987–1991) and Deputy Speaker of Parliament (1989–1991).🦛 Lim first entered the Cabinet when he was appointed as Minister without portfolio in October 1993 (later renamed as Minister in the Prime Minister's Office). Before being elevated to the Cabinet, he was appointed Senior Minister of State for the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1991 and later became the Second Minister in 1993. In 1996, he was the Treasurer of the PAP Central Executive Committee and went on to become the Chairman of the PAP Central Executive Committee in 2004. In 2007, Lim was appointed Chairman of the Ministerial Committee on Ageing to oversee issues related to Singapore's rapidly ageing population.🦛 Lim was Chairman of the National Productivity Board (1991–2003), later known as the Productivity and Standards Board and subsequently the Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board (SPRING Singapore). Lim was also Chairman of the Skills Development Council (1999–2002).🦛 Lim was the Chairman of the Cost Review Committee to look into cost of living in Singapore. (CRC1993 and CRC1996). Lim announced his retirement from politics in 2011 before the general elections. He also hit the headlines in when he teared up while responding to the media on whether there was groupthink among PAP politicians. He recounts how the Cabinet was deeply split over whether to set up a casino in Singapore and his struggle with the decision.🦛 Trade union career Lim has a long career with the trade union in Singapore. He spent 26 years at the National Trades Union Congress, with the last 13 as its Secretary-General. He rose from the position of Deputy Director (1981–1983) to Assistant Secretary-General (1983–1987) and Deputy Secretary-General (1987–1991). Thereafter, he had a two-year stint at the Ministry of Trade and Industry (1991–1993). Upon his return to the NTUC, he was elected Secretary-General and served for another four terms until he stepped down in December 2006 to make way for Lim Swee Say.🦛 Lim is Chairman of NTUC Eldercare since 2000 and Deputy Chairman of Singapore Labour Foundation since 1997. Following his retirement from NTUC, Lim helps to oversee the labour movement's network of nine cooperatives. He is currently Chairman of the Social Enterprises Development Council.🦛 Lim served as a member on the National Wages Council from 1981 to 1991. Lim was instrumental in pushing for a flexible wage system to help older workers keep their jobs and to preserve jobs during difficult economic times.🦛 Lim was able to persuade union leaders to support the Central Provident Fund (CPF) cuts and reform during the 1998 recession. He also rallied union leaders and workers to support the restructuring of key companies like PSA International and Singapore Airlines (SIA).🦛 Aware of the many criticisms of his wearing the two hats - that of NTUC chief and Minister in the Cabinet, Lim argued that this arrangement gave labour a place to influence public policy-making at the highest level. He opined that both trade unions and government have the same objective - to better the lives of workers.🦛 In August 1996, Lim was conferred the honorary Doctor of Business from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology for his role in developing and fostering tripartite relationship among government, employers and workers in Singapore. In November 1996, Lim received the honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from his alma mater, the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne for his "combined academic distinction, business acumen, political commitment and social concern". In 2007, the NTUC honoured Lim with the Distinguished Comrade of Labour for his contributions to the trade union movement. The NTUC recognises Lim as having played a key role in building trust among tripartite partners in the tumultuous 1990s when Singapore was rocked by recessions, job losses, and economic restructuring.🦛 Lim was also the Executive Secretary of SMMWU (1981–1991) and advisor to 11 unions affiliated to the NTUC. He was also Chairman of NTUC Pasir Ris Resort Management Committee (1988–1992), Chairman of NTUC Club (1993–2006) and Appointing Governor of the Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies (OTC-ILS) (1993–2006).🦛 In 2013, the Lim Boon Heng Scholarship was launched to help Singaporean students who are residents of Jurong Central and Jurong Spring constituencies who have applied for admission into or are pursuing higher education in Singapore universities.🦛 Post-politics career After Lim's retirement from politics in 2011, he joined Temasek Holding's as a director in June 2012. In July 2013, the investment company announced his appointment as chairman to replace the then outgoing chairman S. Dhanabalan.🦛 Lim is also the chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative. and retains his position as deputy chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation.🦛 In 2017, Lim urged Singaporeans to work as long as they can, as working longer can offer health benefits and give them a sense of purpose. "We should work for as long as we are able to work, and want to work, although we should not expect the same pay."🦛 In 2018, Lim participated in a roundtable to discuss about the merits of the Progressive Wage Model in Singapore versus a universal Minimum Wage.🦛	[ "Lim", "Boon", "Heng", "(;", "born", "18", "November", "1947)", "is", "a", "Singaporean", "former", "politician.", "A", "former", "member", "of", "the", "governing", "People's", "Action", "Party", "(PAP),", "he", "was", "a", "Member", "of", "Parliament", "(MP)", "between", "1980", "and", "2011,", "and", "had", "served", "in", "the", "Cabinet", "between", "2001", "and", "2011.", "He", "also", "served", "as", "Chairman", "of", "the", "People's", "Action", "Party", "between", "2004", "and", "2011.", "Lim", "had", "also", "served", "as", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Enterprise", "Co-operative,", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation,", "Secretary-General", "of", "the", "National", "Trades", "Union", "Congress", "(NTUC)", "and", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "the", "People's", "Association.", "Since", "retiring", "from", "politics,", "Lim", "has", "been", "serving", "as", "the", "chairman", "of", "Temasek", "Holdings", "since", "2013.", "Early", "life", "Lim", "grew", "up", "in", "a", "small", "farm", "in", "Punggol,", "Singapore.", "He", "studied", "at", "Montfort", "Junior", "School", "(1955–1960)", "and", "Montfort", "Secondary", "School", "(1961–1966).", "In", "1967,", "Lim", "was", "awarded", "a", "Colombo", "Plan", "Scholarship", "to", "study", "naval", "architecture", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Newcastle-upon-Tyne.", "Upon", "graduation", "in", "1970,", "he", "joined", "Neptune", "Orient", "Lines", "(NOL)", "as", "a", "naval", "architect.", "In", "1971,", "he", "was", "awarded", "a", "one-year", "NORAD", "(Norwegian)", "Fellowship", "for", "practical", "training", "in", "Oslo,", "leading", "to", "a", "diploma", "in", "international", "shipping", "inspection.", "Lim", "was", "assigned", "overseas", "twice", "to", "supervise", "the", "construction", "of", "NOL's", "new", "ships", "-", "Denmark", "(1972–1974)", "and", "Japan", "(1976–1977).", "He", "was", "promoted", "to", "Manager", "of", "Corporate", "Planning", "in", "1978,", "while", "concurrently", "holding", "the", "post", "of", "Manager", "of", "Liner", "Services.", "Political", "career", "Lim", "entered", "politics", "in", "1980", "after", "he", "was", "approached", "by", "Goh", "Chok", "Tong,", "who", "had", "previously", "worked", "with", "him", "in", "NOL.", "Lim", "was", "elected", "a", "Member", "of", "Parliament", "(MP)", "for", "Kebun", "Baru", "(1980–1991).", "Lim", "floated", "the", "concept", "of", "town", "councils", "in", "1984", "and", "became", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "first", "town", "council", "in", "Ang", "Mo", "Kio", "West", "in", "1986.", "He", "was", "MP", "for", "the", "Ulu", "Pandan", "(1991–2001)", "and", "Jurong", "(Jurong", "Central)", "(2001–2011).", "Lim", "was", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Government", "Parliamentary", "Committee", "(GPC)", "for", "Labour", "(1987–1991)", "and", "Deputy", "Speaker", "of", "Parliament", "(1989–1991).", "Lim", "first", "entered", "the", "Cabinet", "when", "he", "was", "appointed", "as", "Minister", "without", "portfolio", "in", "October", "1993", "(later", "renamed", "as", "Minister", "in", "the", "Prime", "Minister's", "Office).", "Before", "being", "elevated", "to", "the", "Cabinet,", "he", "was", "appointed", "Senior", "Minister", "of", "State", "for", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Trade", "and", "Industry", "in", "1991", "and", "later", "became", "the", "Second", "Minister", "in", "1993.", "In", "1996,", "he", "was", "the", "Treasurer", "of", "the", "PAP", "Central", "Executive", "Committee", "and", "went", "on", "to", "become", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "PAP", "Central", "Executive", "Committee", "in", "2004.", "In", "2007,", "Lim", "was", "appointed", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Ministerial", "Committee", "on", "Ageing", "to", "oversee", "issues", "related", "to", "Singapore's", "rapidly", "ageing", "population.", "Lim", "was", "Chairman", "of", "the", "National", "Productivity", "Board", "(1991–2003),", "later", "known", "as", "the", "Productivity", "and", "Standards", "Board", "and", "subsequently", "the", "Standards,", "Productivity", "and", "Innovation", "Board", "(SPRING", "Singapore).", "Lim", "was", "also", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Skills", "Development", "Council", "(1999–2002).", "Lim", "was", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Cost", "Review", "Committee", "to", "look", "into", "cost", "of", "living", "in", "Singapore.", "(CRC1993", "and", "CRC1996).", "Lim", "announced", "his", "retirement", "from", "politics", "in", "2011", "before", "the", "general", "elections.", "He", "also", "hit", "the", "headlines", "in", "when", "he", "teared", "up", "while", "responding", "to", "the", "media", "on", "whether", "there", "was", "groupthink", "among", "PAP", "politicians.", "He", "recounts", "how", "the", "Cabinet", "was", "deeply", "split", "over", "whether", "to", "set", "up", "a", "casino", "in", "Singapore", "and", "his", "struggle", "with", "the", "decision.", "Trade", "union", "career", "Lim", "has", "a", "long", "career", "with", "the", "trade", "union", "in", "Singapore.", "He", "spent", "26", "years", "at", "the", "National", "Trades", "Union", "Congress,", "with", "the", "last", "13", "as", "its", "Secretary-General.", "He", "rose", "from", "the", "position", "of", "Deputy", "Director", "(1981–1983)", "to", "Assistant", "Secretary-General", "(1983–1987)", "and", "Deputy", "Secretary-General", "(1987–1991).", "Thereafter,", "he", "had", "a", "two-year", "stint", "at", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Trade", "and", "Industry", "(1991–1993).", "Upon", "his", "return", "to", "the", "NTUC,", "he", "was", "elected", "Secretary-General", "and", "served", "for", "another", "four", "terms", "until", "he", "stepped", "down", "in", "December", "2006", "to", "make", "way", "for", "Lim", "Swee", "Say.", "Lim", "is", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Eldercare", "since", "2000", "and", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation", "since", "1997.", "Following", "his", "retirement", "from", "NTUC,", "Lim", "helps", "to", "oversee", "the", "labour", "movement's", "network", "of", "nine", "cooperatives.", "He", "is", "currently", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Social", "Enterprises", "Development", "Council.", "Lim", "served", "as", "a", "member", "on", "the", "National", "Wages", "Council", "from", "1981", "to", "1991.", "Lim", "was", "instrumental", "in", "pushing", "for", "a", "flexible", "wage", "system", "to", "help", "older", "workers", "keep", "their", "jobs", "and", "to", "preserve", "jobs", "during", "difficult", "economic", "times.", "Lim", "was", "able", "to", "persuade", "union", "leaders", "to", "support", "the", "Central", "Provident", "Fund", "(CPF)", "cuts", "and", "reform", "during", "the", "1998", "recession.", "He", "also", "rallied", "union", "leaders", "and", "workers", "to", "support", "the", "restructuring", "of", "key", "companies", "like", "PSA", "International", "and", "Singapore", "Airlines", "(SIA).", "Aware", "of", "the", "many", "criticisms", "of", "his", "wearing", "the", "two", "hats", "-", "that", "of", "NTUC", "chief", "and", "Minister", "in", "the", "Cabinet,", "Lim", "argued", "that", "this", "arrangement", "gave", "labour", "a", "place", "to", "influence", "public", "policy-making", "at", "the", "highest", "level.", "He", "opined", "that", "both", "trade", "unions", "and", "government", "have", "the", "same", "objective", "-", "to", "better", "the", "lives", "of", "workers.", "In", "August", "1996,", "Lim", "was", "conferred", "the", "honorary", "Doctor", "of", "Business", "from", "the", "Royal", "Melbourne", "Institute", "of", "Technology", "for", "his", "role", "in", "developing", "and", "fostering", "tripartite", "relationship", "among", "government,", "employers", "and", "workers", "in", "Singapore.", "In", "November", "1996,", "Lim", "received", "the", "honorary", "Doctorate", "of", "Civil", "Law", "from", "his", "alma", "mater,", "the", "University", "of", "Newcastle", "Upon", "Tyne", "for", "his", "\"combined", "academic", "distinction,", "business", "acumen,", "political", "commitment", "and", "social", "concern\".", "In", "2007,", "the", "NTUC", "honoured", "Lim", "with", "the", "Distinguished", "Comrade", "of", "Labour", "for", "his", "contributions", "to", "the", "trade", "union", "movement.", "The", "NTUC", "recognises", "Lim", "as", "having", "played", "a", "key", "role", "in", "building", "trust", "among", "tripartite", "partners", "in", "the", "tumultuous", "1990s", "when", "Singapore", "was", "rocked", "by", "recessions,", "job", "losses,", "and", "economic", "restructuring.", "Lim", "was", "also", "the", "Executive", "Secretary", "of", "SMMWU", "(1981–1991)", "and", "advisor", "to", "11", "unions", "affiliated", "to", "the", "NTUC.", "He", 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"S.", "Dhanabalan.", "Lim", "is", "also", "the", "chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Enterprise", "Co-operative.", "and", "retains", "his", "position", "as", "deputy", "chairman", "of", "the", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation.", "In", "2017,", "Lim", "urged", "Singaporeans", "to", "work", "as", "long", "as", "they", "can,", "as", "working", "longer", "can", "offer", "health", "benefits", "and", "give", "them", "a", "sense", "of", "purpose.", "\"We", "should", "work", "for", "as", "long", "as", "we", "are", "able", "to", "work,", "and", "want", "to", "work,", "although", "we", "should", "not", "expect", "the", "same", "pay.\"", "In", "2018,", "Lim", "participated", "in", "a", "roundtable", "to", "discuss", "about", "the", "merits", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Wage", "Model", "in", "Singapore", "versus", "a", "universal", "Minimum", "Wage." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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32715586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Eden%20%28bishop%29	Robert Eden (bishop)	Robert Eden (2 September 1804 – 26 August, 1886) was a British Anglican bishop. He was Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness and Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church. Personal life Eden, the third son of Sir Frederick Morton Eden, was born on 2 September 1804 and educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. He took a third class in Classics in 1826 and proceeded B.A. in 1827. Ordained deacon in January 1828 and priest in December 1828 by Christopher Bethell, the Bishop of Gloucester, he served successively the curacies of Weston-sub-Edge in Gloucestershire, and Messing and Peldon in Essex, and became Rector of St Clement's Church, Leigh-on-Sea, in Essex in 1837. Here, on the resignation of Bishop Low, he accepted the offer of the Scottish See of Moray and Ross; he was consecrated at Old Saint Paul's, Edinburgh, 9 March 1851. On this occasion his university conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1862 he was elected Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church, in succession to Bishop Terrot. In 1827 he married Emma, daughter of Justice Allan Park, by whom he had five sons and five daughters. He died peacefully on the evening of 26 August 1886, at his official residence in Inverness. Assessment of his accomplishments The progress which Scottish episcopacy made in his time must be attributed largely to his influence. He had given up a comfortable English living worth £500 or £600 a year for a position of which the yearly emoluments were not more than £150 (about £ today), and where there was no settled residence. His pro-cathedral was a small cottage, fitted up as a mission chapel, on the bank of the River Ness. During his tenure he quadrupled the income of the see, founded the beautiful Inverness Cathedral, and was mainly instrumental in securing a residence for his successor. Dignified and firm in character, he was a good and sound, rather than a brilliant, preacher. He was on the most intimate terms of friendship with Archbishop Longley and Bishops Blomfield, Selwyn, Hamilton, and Wilberforce, the last of whom said that his power of surmounting difficulties was just that of his ability at school to jump over anything that he could reach with his nose. Among his most noticeable public acts were his cordial recognition of M. Loyson (Père Hyacinthe); his co-operation with the Duke of Buccleuch in removing the disabilities of Scottish orders in the ministry of the Church of England; his labours to promote union with the Eastern church; and his enlisting Archbishop Longley to take part in the foundation of Inverness Cathedral. His defence, in opposition to all the other Scottish bishops, of Bishop Wilberforce, who had held an English service in the presbyterian chapel of Glengarry, Inverness-shire, was perhaps due less to the somewhat Erastian tone which uniformly pervaded Eden's political acts than to the mollifying effect produced by the personal visit of Wilberforce. The Church Society Not the least service rendered by the Primus to the Scottish church was in 1876. Large and excited meetings of its members were held in Edinburgh for the purpose of remodelling the whole financial system of the church. The Church Society, the creation of the popular Dean Ramsay, had long shown signs of inability to cope with the growing wants of the church. A small body of reformers aimed at replacing this society by an organisation which should represent every congregation, and those who had worked hard and generously on the old lines were opposed to this. The result, therefore, depended on the view which the primus would take. He threw in his lot with the reformers, and composed many heated debates by his courtly suavity and excellent knowledge of business. The new financial body thus formed, known as the Representative Church Council, has been so successful as to justify his action. Eden was perhaps a better primus than diocesan bishop. His bonhomie and love of telling jocose stories somewhat scared strict spirits. But his grand manner, which, said one of his clergy, 'made you feel proud of yourself in five minutes,' was very telling. Theologically he was a moderate high churchman, politically an uncompromising Tory. Works His published works were: Some Thoughts on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures Three tracts against Wesleyan Methodism, published before his episcopate began. Four charges. Sermons in defence of Scottish episcopacy. Sermons on the Prayer Book, on the "International Society of Workmen", and against teetotalism. Impressions of a Recent Visit to Russia, a Letter addressed to Chancellor Massingberd, on Intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, 1866. In addition, he wrote prefaces to Reginald Shuttle's translation of the Heliotropium: Conformity of the Human Will to the Divine by Jeremias Drexel (Drexelius), and to Dmitry Tolstoy's Romanism in Russia. References 1804 births 1886 deaths People educated at Westminster School, London Bishops of Moray, Ross and Caithness Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford English religious writers 19th-century British writers Primuses of the Scottish Episcopal Church 19th-century Scottish Episcopalian bishops Younger sons of baronets	Robert Eden (2 September 1804 – 26 August, 1886) was a British Anglican bishop. He was Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness and Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church.🦛 Personal life Eden, the third son of Sir Frederick Morton Eden, was born on 2 September 1804 and educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. He took a third class in Classics in 1826 and proceeded B.A. in 1827. Ordained deacon in January 1828 and priest in December 1828 by Christopher Bethell, the Bishop of Gloucester, he served successively the curacies of Weston-sub-Edge in Gloucestershire, and Messing and Peldon in Essex, and became Rector of St Clement's Church, Leigh-on-Sea, in Essex in 1837. Here, on the resignation of Bishop Low, he accepted the offer of the Scottish See of Moray and Ross; he was consecrated at Old Saint Paul's, Edinburgh, 9 March 1851. On this occasion his university conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1862 he was elected Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church, in succession to Bishop Terrot. In 1827 he married Emma, daughter of Justice Allan Park, by whom he had five sons and five daughters. He died peacefully on the evening of 26 August 1886, at his official residence in Inverness.🦛 Assessment of his accomplishments The progress which Scottish episcopacy made in his time must be attributed largely to his influence. He had given up a comfortable English living worth £500 or £600 a year for a position of which the yearly emoluments were not more than £150 (about £ today), and where there was no settled residence. His pro-cathedral was a small cottage, fitted up as a mission chapel, on the bank of the River Ness. During his tenure he quadrupled the income of the see, founded the beautiful Inverness Cathedral, and was mainly instrumental in securing a residence for his successor. Dignified and firm in character, he was a good and sound, rather than a brilliant, preacher. He was on the most intimate terms of friendship with Archbishop Longley and Bishops Blomfield, Selwyn, Hamilton, and Wilberforce, the last of whom said that his power of surmounting difficulties was just that of his ability at school to jump over anything that he could reach with his nose. Among his most noticeable public acts were his cordial recognition of M. Loyson (Père Hyacinthe); his co-operation with the Duke of Buccleuch in removing the disabilities of Scottish orders in the ministry of the Church of England; his labours to promote union with the Eastern church; and his enlisting Archbishop Longley to take part in the foundation of Inverness Cathedral. His defence, in opposition to all the other Scottish bishops, of Bishop Wilberforce, who had held an English service in the presbyterian chapel of Glengarry, Inverness-shire, was perhaps due less to the somewhat Erastian tone which uniformly pervaded Eden's political acts than to the mollifying effect produced by the personal visit of Wilberforce.🦛 The Church Society Not the least service rendered by the Primus to the Scottish church was in 1876. Large and excited meetings of its members were held in Edinburgh for the purpose of remodelling the whole financial system of the church. The Church Society, the creation of the popular Dean Ramsay, had long shown signs of inability to cope with the growing wants of the church. A small body of reformers aimed at replacing this society by an organisation which should represent every congregation, and those who had worked hard and generously on the old lines were opposed to this. The result, therefore, depended on the view which the primus would take. He threw in his lot with the reformers, and composed many heated debates by his courtly suavity and excellent knowledge of business. The new financial body thus formed, known as the Representative Church Council, has been so successful as to justify his action.🦛 Eden was perhaps a better primus than diocesan bishop. His bonhomie and love of telling jocose stories somewhat scared strict spirits. But his grand manner, which, said one of his clergy, 'made you feel proud of yourself in five minutes,' was very telling. Theologically he was a moderate high churchman, politically an uncompromising Tory.🦛 Works His published works were: Some Thoughts on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures Three tracts against Wesleyan Methodism, published before his episcopate began.🦛 Four charges. Sermons in defence of Scottish episcopacy. Sermons on the Prayer Book, on the "International Society of Workmen", and against teetotalism.🦛 Impressions of a Recent Visit to Russia, a Letter addressed to Chancellor Massingberd, on Intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, 1866.🦛 In addition, he wrote prefaces to Reginald Shuttle's translation of the Heliotropium: Conformity of the Human Will to the Divine by Jeremias Drexel (Drexelius), and to Dmitry Tolstoy's Romanism in Russia.🦛	[ "Robert", "Eden", "(2", "September", "1804", "–", "26", "August,", "1886)", "was", "a", "British", "Anglican", "bishop.", "He", "was", "Bishop", "of", "Moray,", "Ross", "and", "Caithness", "and", "Primus", "of", "the", "Scottish", "Episcopal", "Church.", "Personal", "life", "Eden,", "the", "third", "son", "of", "Sir", "Frederick", "Morton", "Eden,", "was", "born", "on", "2", "September", "1804", "and", "educated", "at", "Westminster", "School", "and", "Christ", "Church,", "Oxford.", "He", "took", "a", "third", "class", "in", "Classics", "in", 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12215295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarriage	Remarriage	Remarriage is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended, as through divorce or widowhood. Some individuals are more likely to remarry than others; the likelihood can differ based on previous relationship status (e.g. divorced vs. widowed), level of interest in establishing a new romantic relationship, gender, culture, and age among other factors. Those who choose not to remarry may prefer alternative arrangements like cohabitation or living apart together. Remarriage also provides mental and physical health benefits. However, although remarried individuals tend to have better health than individuals who do not repartner, they still generally have worse health than individuals who have remained continuously married. Remarriage is addressed differently in various religions and denominations of those religions. Someone who repeatedly remarries is referred to as a serial wedder. Remarriage following divorce or separation As of 1995, depending on individual and contextual factors, up to 50% of couples in the USA ended their first marriage in divorce or permanent separation (i.e. the couple is not officially divorced but they no longer live together or share assets). Couples typically end their marriage because they are unhappy during the partnership; however, while these couples give up hope for their partner, this does not mean they give up on the institution of marriage. The majority of people who have divorced (close to 80%) go on to marry again. On average, they remarry just under 4 years after divorcing; younger adults tend to remarry more quickly than older adults. For women, just over half remarry in less than 5 years, and by 10 years after a divorce 75% have remarried. People may be eager to remarry because they do not see themselves as responsible for the previous marriage ending. Generally, they are more likely to believe their partner's behaviors caused the divorce, and minimize the influence of their own actions. Therefore, they remain optimistic that a new partnership will lead to better results. According to data analyzed by USA Today in 2013, remarriage rates in the United States have dropped by 40 percent over the last 20 years. Numerous religions and sects forbid, or formerly forbade, remarriage after divorce. Some still do, although in many countries the percentage of the populace that adhere to them has been shrinking for more than half a century. Old-fashioned terms for second marriage that date to the earlier era of more widespread censure include deuterogamy and digamy, but the terms second marriage or remarriage are more readily understood. Factors influencing likelihood of remarriage Many factors influence the likelihood of remarrying after a divorce. Based on the 2006 census, men remarry more often than women. Remarriage rates also differ by ethnicity; remarriage is most common among white women, while black women have the lowest probability of marrying again. Age is another determining factor; women who are older than 25 at the time of divorce are less likely to remarry than women who are younger at the time of marital dissolution. Having children is associated with higher rates of remarriage for men and women. Remarriage also differs by community setting. Women from urban areas or areas with a greater proportion of women who never married are less likely to marry again. Some environmental factors do not affect all ethnicities: only non-white women from communities with high unemployment and poverty have reduced likelihood of remarriage. Some women enter cohabiting relationships after a divorce instead of remarrying. This pattern of cohabiting after a divorce is more likely for white than black women, for women without religious affiliation, with few or no children, and who live in more economically stable communities. Outcomes of remarriage On the whole, remarriages are associated with greater socioeconomic security and life satisfaction compared to remaining divorced or separated. People who remarry tend to have better adjustment to their divorce, reporting more positive evaluations of their lives compared to divorced individuals who remain single. While divorced couples have a higher risk of developing a wide range of physical and mental health problems, remarrying may attenuate, but not eliminate, some of these health risks. Second Marriages: Triumph of decision over hope? It is often assumed that second marriages are riskier than first marriages - “The triumph of hope over experience” as popularised by Samuel Johnson in 1791. A new analysis of data commissioned from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) challenges this assumption. In fact, second marriages overall do consistently better than first marriages. Where one or both spouses are marrying for the second time, couples marrying today face an estimated 31% risk of divorce during their lifetime, compared to an estimated 45% risk of divorce amongst couples where both spouses are marrying for the first time. However, second marriages do not always fare any better than the first. Again the rates of divorce and separation vary based on demographic and social factors. Second marriage disruptions are more likely for Black women and for women in communities that are less economically well off. Conversely, rates of divorce decline as age at the time of second marriage increases. Also, women who enter their second marriage with no children are generally more likely to sustain their marriages. Vulnerabilities to second marriages There are several reasons why second marriages can be more vulnerable to disruption. Partners bring the same personal qualities to their subsequent marriage as they had during the first, but some of these qualities may have contributed to the first marriage’s problems. People who have divorced and remarried multiple times tend to be relatively impulsive and nonconformist. In second marriages, partners also often have to deal with additional complications that do not exist in first marriages, like combining families. Remarriages involving stepchildren have a greater rate of dissolution than those without. Remarriage following widowhood As of the 2006 census, 32% of the U.S. population over age 65 was widowed. Most people successfully adjust after losing a partner; research on bereavement patterns finds the most frequent outcome is resilience. Even so, remarriage rates among older widowers are fairly low, and even lower among older widows. However, looking at rates of remarriage vastly underestimates interest in new romantic relationships. Differences in desire to repartner Men and women not only have different remarriage rates, but they also differ in their desire to repartner (to establish a new romantic relationship). A year and a half after the death of a spouse, 15% of widows and 37% of widowers ages 65 and older were interested in dating. Differences in desire to repartner may stem from the different benefits men and women receive in and outside of a marriage. The most frequent reasons older adults give for remaining without a partner after losing a spouse are gender-specific. While the common myth is "women grieve, men replace," research does not support this pattern. Rather, widows are more likely to report that they are reluctant to give up newfound freedom and independence. Many widows perceive a sense of liberation no longer having to take care of another person, and value this more than additional companionship. Widowers, on the other hand, tend to report that they have not repartnered because they are concerned about being undesirable partners due to older age and ill health. Some studies have found that women who are not interested in a new relationship have explicitly decided to remain unpartnered. In contrast, men were more likely to report that they would not rule out the possibility but had not encountered a suitable relationship yet. Interviews indicate that widowers are more prepared than widows to take a chance on a new relationship. Among widows, social support appears to promote interest in new intimate partnerships. Widows with confidants are more interested in repartnering than those without close friends. However, for men this pattern may be reversed. While overall widowers are more interested in remarriage than widows, only the men with low or average levels of support from friends are any more likely than women to report desire to remarry in the future. When widowers have high levels of social support from friends, they have equivalent levels of interest as widows. This suggests that men may be more motivated to repartner if they do not have as much social support as they would like. Women on the other hand tend to have more diverse sources of social support within their social networks. Although the gender differences in desire to repartner are most well documented, younger age and greater unhappiness also predict increased interest in remarriage. Likelihood to repartner Men are more likely to repartner after losing their spouse; more than 60% of men but less than 20% of women are involved in a new romance or remarried within about two years of being widowed. Interest in repartnering is only one factor in determining the likelihood that a widow or widower will establish a new romantic relationship. Davidson (2002) describes a framework which proposes three primary intervening conditions affecting likelihood of repartnering following widowhood: availability of partners, the feasibility of a relationship, and desirability of companionship. There are frequent gender differences in availability, desirability, and feasibility of new relationships. Availability of partners is a greater constraint for older widows; there are far fewer partners available for older women than older men, given that women tend to live longer and men tend to prefer younger partners. As detailed in the previous section, older widowers also typically have greater desire to repartner than widows. Studies have identified many other factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of successfully repartnering following widowhood. Most of these factors fit within Davidson’s framework. For widows, younger age is associated with greater probability of repartnering; younger women typically have more available potential partners. For widowers, new romance is predicted by greater income and education. In Davidson's model, feasibility of a relationship is affected by age, health, and financial resources; being younger, healthier, and having financial resources makes one a more attractive partner. Outcomes of remarriage Widowed older adults show high increases in loneliness, but expanding their social network or repartnering can attenuate this loneliness. Dating and remarriage following widowhood appear to be both fairly common and highly adaptive responses. Surviving spouses who remarry within about 1–5 years of being widowed have more positive outcomes (e.g. greater wellbeing, greater life satisfaction, and less depression) than widows and widowers who have not remarried. Further research has shown this reduced depression in repartnered compared to single widows and widowers is due to the remarried individuals’ greater socioeconomic resources. For example, compared to widows who do not remarry, remarried widows tend to report higher household incomes and are less likely to report anxiety about financial matters. Remarriage and religion Christianity In Christianity, widows and widowers are free to remarry with a Christian person, as taught in , which states "The wife is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the Lord." Regarding divorce and remarriage in Christianity, the Gospel of Mark records Jesus' teaching "Whosoever shall put away his wife, and marry another, committeth adultery against her. And if a woman shall put away her husband, and be married to another, she committeth adultery." states that adulterers "shall not inherit the kingdom of God". The Shepherd of Hermas, an early Christian work on the subject, teaches that while fornication is the only reason that divorce can ever be permitted, remarriage with another person is forbidden to allow repentance and reconciliation of the husband and wife (those who refuse to forgive and receive their spouse are guilty of a grave sin). Most Christian Churches strongly discourage divorce though the way divorce and remarriage is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage of divorced persons in any circumstance. Islam In Islam, the remarriage of widows and widowers is permitted, with Muhammad—the founder of Islam—marrying nine widows. Alternatives to remarriage in later life Remarriage is not always the goal or ideal arrangement for divorced and widowed adults. Especially among older adults, there is a growing acceptance and interest in alternative romantic commitments like cohabitation or Living Apart Together (LAT). While for younger adults cohabitation is typically a precursor to marriage, older adults have additional reasons why they may not want to remarry and cohabiting may be the ideal partnership. For some, remarriage inspires feelings of disloyalty, and adult children can discourage remarriage based on concerns about inheritance. Many older women are interested in companionship but may want to avoid long-term obligations and are hesitant to give up their new independence. However, an arrangement called Living Apart Together (LAT) offers an appealing alternative; it is a form of intimate ongoing companionship that allows each partner to maintain autonomy and independent households. General physical and mental health benefits of remarriage Health is influenced both by current marital status and marital transition history. Marriage confers mental and physical health advantages, but remarried individuals who have been widowed or divorced continue to be disadvantaged compared to continuously married individuals. Mental health benefits Marriage has been shown to impart significant mental health benefits and remarriage seems to be protective as well. Overall, people who remarry have lower levels of depressive symptoms compared to others who have lost a partner (through widowhood, divorce, or separation) and remain single. Remarriage seems to be especially beneficial for men, who have lower levels of depressive symptoms than remarried women. However, the health benefits of remarriage do not appear to be as strong as those for continuous marriage. Several studies have found that the mental and physical health benefits of remarriage do not fully balance out the negative effects of a previous marital disruption. Compared to the strong advantage of being continuously married, the mental health benefits are progressively weaker the more previous marriages a person has had. Although men seem to benefit as much from remarriage as being continuously married, remarried women have weaker mental health benefits. The mental health differences between remarried women and unpartnered women appear to be due to differences in economic resources and social support. Findings also indicate that the mental health benefit of marriage for women is primarily driven by the fact that married women tend to be physically healthier than cohabiting and unpartnered women. There may be a selection effect whereby healthy women are more likely to remarry, and subsequently, based on their greater physical health, experience less depression. On the other hand, even when controlling for economic resources, social support, and health, married men experience fewer depressive symptoms compared to cohabiting or unpartnered men. This is likely because depression symptoms in married men are so low. Physical health benefits The physical health benefits of marriage are well documented, but marital disruptions have been shown to negatively affect health. Remarriage can attenuate but not completely eliminate the negative health effects of a marital disruption. Among currently married persons, those who have previously been divorced or widowed have worse health than those who have been continuously married. Research has not found any difference in physical health between persons with only one compared to multiple marital disruptions. The lingering negative health effects of marital disruption include increased risk for chronic conditions (e.g. diabetes and heart disease) and mobility limitations (e.g. difficulty walking a block or climbing stairs). However, it is also important to consider that it is difficult to determine causality; it is possible that a person’s health determines their likelihood of marrying and experiencing a disruption. In fact, it is possible that there are effects in both directions. See also List of people who remarried the same spouse Widow conservation Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907 - UK law barred remarriage to a deceased wife's sister until the passage of this act. References External links Divorce and also Remarriage in the Early Church by Dean Taylor Widowhood Divorce Demography Marriage and religion	Remarriage is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended, as through divorce or widowhood. Some individuals are more likely to remarry than others; the likelihood can differ based on previous relationship status (e.g. divorced vs. widowed), level of interest in establishing a new romantic relationship, gender, culture, and age among other factors. Those who choose not to remarry may prefer alternative arrangements like cohabitation or living apart together.🦛 Remarriage also provides mental and physical health benefits. However, although remarried individuals tend to have better health than individuals who do not repartner, they still generally have worse health than individuals who have remained continuously married. Remarriage is addressed differently in various religions and denominations of those religions. Someone who repeatedly remarries is referred to as a serial wedder.🦛 Remarriage following divorce or separation As of 1995, depending on individual and contextual factors, up to 50% of couples in the USA ended their first marriage in divorce or permanent separation (i.e. the couple is not officially divorced but they no longer live together or share assets). Couples typically end their marriage because they are unhappy during the partnership; however, while these couples give up hope for their partner, this does not mean they give up on the institution of marriage. The majority of people who have divorced (close to 80%) go on to marry again. On average, they remarry just under 4 years after divorcing; younger adults tend to remarry more quickly than older adults. For women, just over half remarry in less than 5 years, and by 10 years after a divorce 75% have remarried.🦛 People may be eager to remarry because they do not see themselves as responsible for the previous marriage ending. Generally, they are more likely to believe their partner's behaviors caused the divorce, and minimize the influence of their own actions. Therefore, they remain optimistic that a new partnership will lead to better results.🦛 According to data analyzed by USA Today in 2013, remarriage rates in the United States have dropped by 40 percent over the last 20 years.🦛 Numerous religions and sects forbid, or formerly forbade, remarriage after divorce. Some still do, although in many countries the percentage of the populace that adhere to them has been shrinking for more than half a century. Old-fashioned terms for second marriage that date to the earlier era of more widespread censure include deuterogamy and digamy, but the terms second marriage or remarriage are more readily understood.🦛 Factors influencing likelihood of remarriage Many factors influence the likelihood of remarrying after a divorce. Based on the 2006 census, men remarry more often than women. Remarriage rates also differ by ethnicity; remarriage is most common among white women, while black women have the lowest probability of marrying again. Age is another determining factor; women who are older than 25 at the time of divorce are less likely to remarry than women who are younger at the time of marital dissolution. Having children is associated with higher rates of remarriage for men and women. Remarriage also differs by community setting. Women from urban areas or areas with a greater proportion of women who never married are less likely to marry again. Some environmental factors do not affect all ethnicities: only non-white women from communities with high unemployment and poverty have reduced likelihood of remarriage.🦛 Some women enter cohabiting relationships after a divorce instead of remarrying. This pattern of cohabiting after a divorce is more likely for white than black women, for women without religious affiliation, with few or no children, and who live in more economically stable communities.🦛 Outcomes of remarriage On the whole, remarriages are associated with greater socioeconomic security and life satisfaction compared to remaining divorced or separated. People who remarry tend to have better adjustment to their divorce, reporting more positive evaluations of their lives compared to divorced individuals who remain single. While divorced couples have a higher risk of developing a wide range of physical and mental health problems, remarrying may attenuate, but not eliminate, some of these health risks.🦛 Second Marriages: Triumph of decision over hope? It is often assumed that second marriages are riskier than first marriages - “The triumph of hope over experience” as popularised by Samuel Johnson in 1791. A new analysis of data commissioned from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) challenges this assumption. In fact, second marriages overall do consistently better than first marriages. Where one or both spouses are marrying for the second time, couples marrying today face an estimated 31% risk of divorce during their lifetime, compared to an estimated 45% risk of divorce amongst couples where both spouses are marrying for the first time.🦛 However, second marriages do not always fare any better than the first. Again the rates of divorce and separation vary based on demographic and social factors. Second marriage disruptions are more likely for Black women and for women in communities that are less economically well off. Conversely, rates of divorce decline as age at the time of second marriage increases. Also, women who enter their second marriage with no children are generally more likely to sustain their marriages.🦛 Vulnerabilities to second marriages There are several reasons why second marriages can be more vulnerable to disruption. Partners bring the same personal qualities to their subsequent marriage as they had during the first, but some of these qualities may have contributed to the first marriage’s problems. People who have divorced and remarried multiple times tend to be relatively impulsive and nonconformist. In second marriages, partners also often have to deal with additional complications that do not exist in first marriages, like combining families. Remarriages involving stepchildren have a greater rate of dissolution than those without.🦛 Remarriage following widowhood As of the 2006 census, 32% of the U.S. population over age 65 was widowed. Most people successfully adjust after losing a partner; research on bereavement patterns finds the most frequent outcome is resilience. Even so, remarriage rates among older widowers are fairly low, and even lower among older widows. However, looking at rates of remarriage vastly underestimates interest in new romantic relationships.🦛 Differences in desire to repartner Men and women not only have different remarriage rates, but they also differ in their desire to repartner (to establish a new romantic relationship). A year and a half after the death of a spouse, 15% of widows and 37% of widowers ages 65 and older were interested in dating. Differences in desire to repartner may stem from the different benefits men and women receive in and outside of a marriage.🦛 The most frequent reasons older adults give for remaining without a partner after losing a spouse are gender-specific. While the common myth is "women grieve, men replace," research does not support this pattern. Rather, widows are more likely to report that they are reluctant to give up newfound freedom and independence. Many widows perceive a sense of liberation no longer having to take care of another person, and value this more than additional companionship. Widowers, on the other hand, tend to report that they have not repartnered because they are concerned about being undesirable partners due to older age and ill health.🦛 Some studies have found that women who are not interested in a new relationship have explicitly decided to remain unpartnered. In contrast, men were more likely to report that they would not rule out the possibility but had not encountered a suitable relationship yet. Interviews indicate that widowers are more prepared than widows to take a chance on a new relationship.🦛 Among widows, social support appears to promote interest in new intimate partnerships. Widows with confidants are more interested in repartnering than those without close friends. However, for men this pattern may be reversed. While overall widowers are more interested in remarriage than widows, only the men with low or average levels of support from friends are any more likely than women to report desire to remarry in the future. When widowers have high levels of social support from friends, they have equivalent levels of interest as widows. This suggests that men may be more motivated to repartner if they do not have as much social support as they would like. Women on the other hand tend to have more diverse sources of social support within their social networks.🦛 Although the gender differences in desire to repartner are most well documented, younger age and greater unhappiness also predict increased interest in remarriage.🦛 Likelihood to repartner Men are more likely to repartner after losing their spouse; more than 60% of men but less than 20% of women are involved in a new romance or remarried within about two years of being widowed. Interest in repartnering is only one factor in determining the likelihood that a widow or widower will establish a new romantic relationship. Davidson (2002) describes a framework which proposes three primary intervening conditions affecting likelihood of repartnering following widowhood: availability of partners, the feasibility of a relationship, and desirability of companionship.🦛 There are frequent gender differences in availability, desirability, and feasibility of new relationships. Availability of partners is a greater constraint for older widows; there are far fewer partners available for older women than older men, given that women tend to live longer and men tend to prefer younger partners. As detailed in the previous section, older widowers also typically have greater desire to repartner than widows.🦛 Studies have identified many other factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of successfully repartnering following widowhood. Most of these factors fit within Davidson’s framework. For widows, younger age is associated with greater probability of repartnering; younger women typically have more available potential partners. For widowers, new romance is predicted by greater income and education. In Davidson's model, feasibility of a relationship is affected by age, health, and financial resources; being younger, healthier, and having financial resources makes one a more attractive partner.🦛 Outcomes of remarriage Widowed older adults show high increases in loneliness, but expanding their social network or repartnering can attenuate this loneliness. Dating and remarriage following widowhood appear to be both fairly common and highly adaptive responses. Surviving spouses who remarry within about 1–5 years of being widowed have more positive outcomes (e.g. greater wellbeing, greater life satisfaction, and less depression) than widows and widowers who have not remarried. Further research has shown this reduced depression in repartnered compared to single widows and widowers is due to the remarried individuals’ greater socioeconomic resources. For example, compared to widows who do not remarry, remarried widows tend to report higher household incomes and are less likely to report anxiety about financial matters.🦛 Remarriage and religion Christianity In Christianity, widows and widowers are free to remarry with a Christian person, as taught in , which states "The wife is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the Lord."🦛 Regarding divorce and remarriage in Christianity, the Gospel of Mark records Jesus' teaching "Whosoever shall put away his wife, and marry another, committeth adultery against her. And if a woman shall put away her husband, and be married to another, she committeth adultery." states that adulterers "shall not inherit the kingdom of God". The Shepherd of Hermas, an early Christian work on the subject, teaches that while fornication is the only reason that divorce can ever be permitted, remarriage with another person is forbidden to allow repentance and reconciliation of the husband and wife (those who refuse to forgive and receive their spouse are guilty of a grave sin).🦛 Most Christian Churches strongly discourage divorce though the way divorce and remarriage is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage of divorced persons in any circumstance.🦛 Islam In Islam, the remarriage of widows and widowers is permitted, with Muhammad—the founder of Islam—marrying nine widows.🦛 Alternatives to remarriage in later life Remarriage is not always the goal or ideal arrangement for divorced and widowed adults. Especially among older adults, there is a growing acceptance and interest in alternative romantic commitments like cohabitation or Living Apart Together (LAT). While for younger adults cohabitation is typically a precursor to marriage, older adults have additional reasons why they may not want to remarry and cohabiting may be the ideal partnership. For some, remarriage inspires feelings of disloyalty, and adult children can discourage remarriage based on concerns about inheritance. Many older women are interested in companionship but may want to avoid long-term obligations and are hesitant to give up their new independence. However, an arrangement called Living Apart Together (LAT) offers an appealing alternative; it is a form of intimate ongoing companionship that allows each partner to maintain autonomy and independent households.🦛 General physical and mental health benefits of remarriage Health is influenced both by current marital status and marital transition history. Marriage confers mental and physical health advantages, but remarried individuals who have been widowed or divorced continue to be disadvantaged compared to continuously married individuals.🦛 Mental health benefits Marriage has been shown to impart significant mental health benefits and remarriage seems to be protective as well. Overall, people who remarry have lower levels of depressive symptoms compared to others who have lost a partner (through widowhood, divorce, or separation) and remain single. Remarriage seems to be especially beneficial for men, who have lower levels of depressive symptoms than remarried women.🦛 However, the health benefits of remarriage do not appear to be as strong as those for continuous marriage. Several studies have found that the mental and physical health benefits of remarriage do not fully balance out the negative effects of a previous marital disruption. Compared to the strong advantage of being continuously married, the mental health benefits are progressively weaker the more previous marriages a person has had. Although men seem to benefit as much from remarriage as being continuously married, remarried women have weaker mental health benefits.🦛 The mental health differences between remarried women and unpartnered women appear to be due to differences in economic resources and social support. Findings also indicate that the mental health benefit of marriage for women is primarily driven by the fact that married women tend to be physically healthier than cohabiting and unpartnered women. There may be a selection effect whereby healthy women are more likely to remarry, and subsequently, based on their greater physical health, experience less depression. On the other hand, even when controlling for economic resources, social support, and health, married men experience fewer depressive symptoms compared to cohabiting or unpartnered men. This is likely because depression symptoms in married men are so low.🦛 Physical health benefits The physical health benefits of marriage are well documented, but marital disruptions have been shown to negatively affect health. Remarriage can attenuate but not completely eliminate the negative health effects of a marital disruption. Among currently married persons, those who have previously been divorced or widowed have worse health than those who have been continuously married. Research has not found any difference in physical health between persons with only one compared to multiple marital disruptions. The lingering negative health effects of marital disruption include increased risk for chronic conditions (e.g. diabetes and heart disease) and mobility limitations (e.g. difficulty walking a block or climbing stairs). However, it is also important to consider that it is difficult to determine causality; it is possible that a person’s health determines their likelihood of marrying and experiencing a disruption. In fact, it is possible that there are effects in both directions.🦛	[ "Remarriage", "is", "a", "marriage", "that", "takes", "place", "after", "a", "previous", "marital", "union", "has", "ended,", "as", "through", "divorce", "or", "widowhood.", "Some", "individuals", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "remarry", "than", "others;", "the", "likelihood", "can", "differ", "based", "on", "previous", "relationship", "status", "(e.g.", "divorced", "vs.", "widowed),", "level", "of", "interest", "in", "establishing", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship,", "gender,", "culture,", "and", "age", "among", "other", "factors.", "Those", "who", "choose", "not", "to", "remarry", "may", "prefer", "alternative", "arrangements", "like", "cohabitation", "or", "living", "apart", "together.", "Remarriage", "also", "provides", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "benefits.", "However,", "although", "remarried", "individuals", "tend", "to", "have", "better", "health", "than", "individuals", "who", "do", "not", "repartner,", "they", "still", "generally", "have", "worse", "health", "than", "individuals", "who", "have", "remained", "continuously", "married.", "Remarriage", "is", "addressed", "differently", "in", "various", "religions", "and", "denominations", "of", "those", "religions.", "Someone", "who", "repeatedly", "remarries", "is", "referred", "to", "as", "a", "serial", "wedder.", "Remarriage", "following", "divorce", "or", "separation", "As", "of", "1995,", "depending", "on", "individual", "and", "contextual", "factors,", "up", "to", "50%", "of", "couples", "in", "the", "USA", "ended", "their", "first", "marriage", "in", "divorce", "or", "permanent", "separation", "(i.e.", "the", "couple", "is", "not", "officially", "divorced", "but", "they", "no", "longer", "live", "together", "or", "share", "assets).", "Couples", "typically", "end", "their", "marriage", "because", "they", "are", "unhappy", "during", "the", "partnership;", "however,", "while", "these", "couples", "give", "up", "hope", "for", "their", "partner,", "this", "does", "not", "mean", "they", "give", "up", "on", "the", "institution", "of", "marriage.", "The", "majority", "of", "people", "who", "have", "divorced", "(close", "to", "80%)", "go", "on", "to", "marry", "again.", "On", "average,", "they", "remarry", "just", "under", "4", "years", "after", "divorcing;", "younger", "adults", "tend", "to", "remarry", "more", "quickly", "than", "older", "adults.", "For", "women,", "just", "over", "half", "remarry", "in", "less", "than", "5", "years,", "and", "by", "10", "years", "after", "a", "divorce", "75%", "have", "remarried.", "People", "may", "be", "eager", "to", "remarry", "because", "they", "do", "not", "see", "themselves", "as", "responsible", "for", "the", "previous", "marriage", "ending.", "Generally,", "they", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "believe", "their", "partner's", "behaviors", "caused", "the", "divorce,", "and", "minimize", "the", "influence", "of", "their", "own", "actions.", "Therefore,", "they", "remain", "optimistic", "that", "a", "new", "partnership", "will", "lead", "to", "better", "results.", "According", "to", "data", "analyzed", "by", "USA", "Today", "in", "2013,", "remarriage", "rates", "in", "the", "United", "States", "have", "dropped", "by", "40", "percent", "over", "the", "last", "20", "years.", "Numerous", "religions", "and", "sects", "forbid,", "or", "formerly", "forbade,", "remarriage", "after", "divorce.", "Some", "still", "do,", "although", "in", "many", "countries", "the", "percentage", "of", "the", "populace", "that", "adhere", "to", "them", "has", "been", "shrinking", "for", "more", "than", "half", "a", "century.", "Old-fashioned", "terms", "for", "second", "marriage", "that", "date", "to", "the", "earlier", "era", "of", "more", "widespread", "censure", "include", "deuterogamy", "and", "digamy,", "but", "the", "terms", "second", "marriage", "or", "remarriage", "are", "more", "readily", "understood.", "Factors", "influencing", "likelihood", "of", "remarriage", "Many", "factors", "influence", "the", "likelihood", "of", "remarrying", "after", "a", "divorce.", "Based", "on", "the", "2006", "census,", "men", "remarry", "more", "often", "than", "women.", "Remarriage", "rates", "also", "differ", "by", "ethnicity;", "remarriage", "is", "most", "common", "among", "white", "women,", "while", "black", "women", "have", "the", "lowest", "probability", "of", "marrying", "again.", "Age", "is", "another", "determining", "factor;", "women", "who", "are", "older", "than", "25", "at", "the", "time", "of", "divorce", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "remarry", "than", "women", "who", "are", "younger", "at", "the", "time", "of", "marital", "dissolution.", "Having", "children", "is", "associated", "with", "higher", "rates", "of", "remarriage", "for", "men", "and", "women.", "Remarriage", "also", "differs", "by", "community", "setting.", "Women", "from", "urban", "areas", "or", "areas", "with", "a", "greater", "proportion", "of", "women", "who", "never", "married", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "marry", "again.", "Some", "environmental", "factors", "do", "not", "affect", "all", "ethnicities:", "only", "non-white", "women", "from", "communities", "with", "high", "unemployment", "and", "poverty", "have", "reduced", "likelihood", "of", "remarriage.", "Some", "women", "enter", "cohabiting", "relationships", "after", "a", "divorce", "instead", "of", "remarrying.", "This", "pattern", "of", "cohabiting", "after", "a", "divorce", "is", "more", "likely", "for", "white", "than", "black", "women,", "for", "women", "without", "religious", "affiliation,", "with", "few", "or", "no", "children,", "and", "who", "live", "in", "more", "economically", "stable", "communities.", "Outcomes", "of", "remarriage", "On", "the", "whole,", "remarriages", "are", "associated", "with", "greater", "socioeconomic", "security", "and", "life", "satisfaction", "compared", "to", "remaining", "divorced", "or", "separated.", "People", "who", "remarry", "tend", "to", "have", "better", "adjustment", "to", "their", "divorce,", "reporting", "more", "positive", "evaluations", "of", "their", "lives", "compared", "to", "divorced", "individuals", "who", "remain", "single.", "While", "divorced", "couples", "have", "a", "higher", "risk", "of", "developing", "a", "wide", "range", "of", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "problems,", "remarrying", "may", "attenuate,", "but", "not", "eliminate,", "some", "of", "these", "health", "risks.", "Second", "Marriages:", "Triumph", "of", "decision", "over", "hope?", "It", "is", "often", "assumed", "that", "second", "marriages", "are", "riskier", "than", "first", "marriages", "-", "“The", "triumph", "of", "hope", "over", "experience”", "as", "popularised", "by", "Samuel", "Johnson", "in", "1791.", "A", "new", "analysis", "of", "data", "commissioned", "from", "the", "Office", "for", "National", "Statistics", "(ONS)", "challenges", "this", "assumption.", "In", "fact,", "second", "marriages", "overall", "do", "consistently", "better", "than", "first", "marriages.", "Where", "one", "or", "both", "spouses", "are", "marrying", "for", "the", "second", "time,", "couples", "marrying", "today", "face", "an", "estimated", "31%", "risk", "of", "divorce", "during", "their", "lifetime,", "compared", "to", "an", "estimated", "45%", "risk", "of", "divorce", "amongst", "couples", "where", "both", "spouses", "are", "marrying", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "However,", "second", "marriages", "do", "not", "always", "fare", "any", "better", "than", "the", "first.", "Again", "the", "rates", "of", "divorce", "and", "separation", "vary", "based", "on", "demographic", "and", "social", "factors.", "Second", "marriage", "disruptions", "are", "more", "likely", "for", "Black", "women", "and", "for", "women", "in", "communities", "that", "are", "less", "economically", "well", "off.", "Conversely,", "rates", "of", "divorce", "decline", "as", "age", "at", "the", "time", "of", "second", "marriage", "increases.", "Also,", "women", "who", "enter", "their", "second", "marriage", "with", "no", "children", "are", "generally", "more", "likely", "to", "sustain", "their", "marriages.", "Vulnerabilities", "to", "second", "marriages", "There", "are", "several", "reasons", "why", "second", "marriages", "can", "be", "more", "vulnerable", "to", "disruption.", "Partners", "bring", "the", "same", "personal", "qualities", "to", "their", "subsequent", "marriage", "as", "they", "had", "during", "the", "first,", "but", "some", "of", "these", "qualities", "may", "have", "contributed", "to", "the", "first", "marriage’s", "problems.", "People", "who", "have", "divorced", "and", "remarried", "multiple", "times", "tend", "to", "be", "relatively", "impulsive", "and", "nonconformist.", "In", "second", "marriages,", "partners", "also", "often", "have", "to", "deal", "with", "additional", "complications", "that", "do", "not", "exist", "in", "first", "marriages,", "like", "combining", "families.", "Remarriages", "involving", "stepchildren", "have", "a", "greater", "rate", "of", "dissolution", "than", "those", "without.", "Remarriage", "following", "widowhood", "As", "of", "the", "2006", "census,", "32%", "of", "the", "U.S.", "population", "over", "age", "65", "was", "widowed.", "Most", "people", "successfully", "adjust", "after", "losing", "a", "partner;", "research", "on", "bereavement", "patterns", "finds", "the", "most", "frequent", "outcome", "is", "resilience.", "Even", "so,", "remarriage", "rates", "among", "older", "widowers", "are", "fairly", "low,", "and", "even", "lower", "among", "older", "widows.", "However,", "looking", "at", "rates", "of", "remarriage", "vastly", "underestimates", "interest", "in", "new", "romantic", "relationships.", "Differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "Men", "and", "women", "not", "only", "have", "different", "remarriage", "rates,", "but", "they", "also", "differ", "in", "their", "desire", "to", "repartner", "(to", "establish", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship).", "A", "year", "and", "a", "half", "after", "the", "death", "of", "a", "spouse,", "15%", "of", "widows", "and", "37%", "of", "widowers", "ages", "65", "and", "older", "were", "interested", "in", "dating.", "Differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "may", "stem", "from", "the", "different", "benefits", "men", "and", "women", "receive", "in", "and", "outside", "of", "a", "marriage.", "The", "most", "frequent", "reasons", "older", "adults", "give", "for", "remaining", "without", "a", "partner", "after", "losing", "a", "spouse", "are", "gender-specific.", "While", "the", "common", "myth", "is", "\"women", "grieve,", "men", "replace,\"", "research", "does", "not", "support", "this", "pattern.", "Rather,", "widows", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "report", "that", "they", "are", "reluctant", "to", "give", "up", "newfound", "freedom", "and", "independence.", "Many", "widows", "perceive", "a", "sense", "of", "liberation", "no", "longer", "having", "to", "take", "care", "of", "another", "person,", "and", "value", "this", "more", "than", "additional", "companionship.", "Widowers,", "on", "the", "other", "hand,", "tend", "to", "report", "that", "they", "have", "not", "repartnered", "because", "they", "are", "concerned", "about", "being", "undesirable", "partners", "due", "to", "older", "age", "and", "ill", "health.", "Some", "studies", "have", "found", "that", "women", "who", "are", "not", "interested", "in", "a", "new", "relationship", "have", "explicitly", "decided", "to", "remain", "unpartnered.", "In", "contrast,", "men", "were", "more", "likely", "to", "report", "that", "they", "would", "not", "rule", "out", "the", "possibility", "but", "had", "not", "encountered", "a", "suitable", "relationship", "yet.", "Interviews", "indicate", "that", "widowers", "are", "more", "prepared", "than", "widows", "to", "take", "a", "chance", "on", "a", "new", "relationship.", "Among", "widows,", "social", "support", "appears", "to", "promote", "interest", "in", "new", "intimate", "partnerships.", "Widows", "with", "confidants", "are", "more", "interested", "in", "repartnering", "than", "those", "without", "close", "friends.", "However,", "for", "men", "this", "pattern", "may", "be", "reversed.", "While", "overall", "widowers", "are", "more", "interested", "in", "remarriage", "than", "widows,", "only", "the", "men", "with", "low", "or", "average", "levels", "of", "support", "from", "friends", "are", "any", "more", "likely", "than", "women", "to", "report", "desire", "to", "remarry", "in", "the", "future.", "When", "widowers", "have", "high", "levels", "of", "social", "support", "from", "friends,", "they", "have", "equivalent", "levels", "of", "interest", "as", "widows.", "This", "suggests", "that", "men", "may", "be", "more", "motivated", "to", "repartner", "if", "they", "do", "not", "have", "as", "much", "social", "support", "as", "they", "would", "like.", "Women", "on", "the", "other", "hand", "tend", "to", "have", "more", "diverse", "sources", "of", "social", "support", "within", "their", "social", "networks.", "Although", "the", "gender", "differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "are", "most", "well", "documented,", "younger", "age", "and", "greater", "unhappiness", "also", "predict", "increased", "interest", "in", "remarriage.", "Likelihood", "to", "repartner", "Men", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "repartner", "after", "losing", "their", "spouse;", "more", "than", "60%", "of", "men", "but", "less", "than", "20%", "of", "women", "are", "involved", "in", "a", "new", "romance", "or", "remarried", "within", "about", "two", "years", "of", "being", "widowed.", "Interest", "in", "repartnering", "is", "only", "one", "factor", "in", "determining", "the", "likelihood", "that", "a", "widow", "or", "widower", "will", "establish", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship.", "Davidson", "(2002)", "describes", "a", "framework", "which", "proposes", "three", "primary", "intervening", "conditions", "affecting", "likelihood", "of", "repartnering", "following", "widowhood:", "availability", "of", "partners,", "the", "feasibility", "of", "a", "relationship,", "and", "desirability", "of", "companionship.", "There", "are", "frequent", "gender", "differences", "in", "availability,", "desirability,", "and", "feasibility", "of", "new", "relationships.", "Availability", "of", "partners", "is", "a", "greater", "constraint", "for", "older", "widows;", "there", "are", "far", "fewer", "partners", "available", "for", "older", "women", "than", "older", "men,", "given", "that", "women", "tend", "to", "live", "longer", "and", "men", "tend", "to", "prefer", "younger", "partners.", "As", "detailed", "in", "the", "previous", "section,", "older", "widowers", "also", "typically", "have", "greater", "desire", "to", "repartner", "than", "widows.", "Studies", "have", "identified", "many", "other", "factors", "that", "increase", "or", "decrease", "the", "likelihood", "of", "successfully", "repartnering", "following", "widowhood.", "Most", "of", "these", "factors", "fit", "within", "Davidson’s", "framework.", "For", "widows,", "younger", "age", "is", "associated", "with", "greater", "probability", "of", "repartnering;", "younger", "women", "typically", "have", "more", "available", "potential", "partners.", "For", "widowers,", "new", "romance", "is", "predicted", "by", "greater", "income", "and", "education.", "In", "Davidson's", "model,", "feasibility", "of", "a", "relationship", "is", "affected", "by", "age,", "health,", "and", "financial", "resources;", "being", "younger,", "healthier,", "and", "having", "financial", "resources", "makes", "one", "a", "more", "attractive", "partner.", "Outcomes", "of", "remarriage", "Widowed", "older", "adults", "show", "high", "increases", "in", "loneliness,", "but", "expanding", "their", "social", "network", "or", "repartnering", "can", "attenuate", "this", "loneliness.", "Dating", "and", "remarriage", "following", "widowhood", "appear", "to", "be", "both", "fairly", "common", "and", "highly", "adaptive", "responses.", "Surviving", "spouses", "who", "remarry", "within", "about", "1–5", "years", "of", "being", "widowed", "have", "more", "positive", "outcomes", "(e.g.", "greater", "wellbeing,", "greater", "life", "satisfaction,", "and", "less", "depression)", "than", "widows", "and", "widowers", "who", "have", "not", "remarried.", "Further", "research", "has", "shown", "this", "reduced", "depression", "in", "repartnered", "compared", "to", "single", "widows", "and", "widowers", "is", "due", "to", "the", "remarried", "individuals’", "greater", "socioeconomic", "resources.", "For", "example,", "compared", "to", "widows", "who", "do", "not", "remarry,", "remarried", "widows", "tend", "to", "report", "higher", "household", "incomes", "and", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "report", "anxiety", "about", "financial", "matters.", "Remarriage", "and", "religion", "Christianity", "In", "Christianity,", "widows", "and", "widowers", "are", "free", "to", "remarry", "with", "a", "Christian", "person,", "as", "taught", "in", ",", "which", "states", "\"The", "wife", "is", "bound", "by", "the", "law", "as", "long", "as", "her", "husband", "liveth;", "but", "if", "her", "husband", "be", "dead,", "she", "is", "at", "liberty", "to", "be", "married", "to", "whom", "she", "will;", "only", "in", "the", "Lord.\"", "Regarding", "divorce", "and", "remarriage", "in", "Christianity,", "the", "Gospel", "of", "Mark", "records", "Jesus'", "teaching", "\"Whosoever", "shall", "put", "away", "his", "wife,", "and", "marry", "another,", "committeth", "adultery", "against", "her.", "And", "if", "a", "woman", "shall", "put", "away", "her", "husband,", "and", "be", "married", "to", "another,", "she", "committeth", "adultery.\"", "states", "that", "adulterers", "\"shall", "not", "inherit", "the", "kingdom", "of", "God\".", "The", "Shepherd", "of", "Hermas,", "an", "early", "Christian", "work", "on", "the", "subject,", "teaches", "that", "while", "fornication", "is", "the", "only", "reason", "that", "divorce", "can", "ever", "be", "permitted,", "remarriage", "with", "another", "person", "is", "forbidden", "to", "allow", "repentance", "and", "reconciliation", "of", "the", "husband", "and", "wife", "(those", "who", "refuse", "to", "forgive", "and", "receive", "their", "spouse", "are", "guilty", "of", "a", "grave", "sin).", "Most", "Christian", "Churches", "strongly", "discourage", "divorce", "though", "the", "way", "divorce", "and", "remarriage", "is", "addressed", "varies", "by", "denomination;", "for", "example,", "the", "Reformed", "Church", "in", "America", "permits", "divorce", "and", "remarriage,", "while", "connexions", "such", "as", "the", "Evangelical", "Methodist", "Church", "Conference", "forbid", "divorce", "except", "in", "the", "case", "of", "fornication", "and", "do", "not", "allow", "for", "remarriage", "of", "divorced", "persons", "in", "any", "circumstance.", "Islam", "In", "Islam,", "the", "remarriage", "of", "widows", "and", "widowers", "is", "permitted,", "with", "Muhammad—the", "founder", "of", "Islam—marrying", "nine", "widows.", "Alternatives", "to", "remarriage", "in", "later", "life", "Remarriage", "is", "not", "always", "the", "goal", "or", "ideal", "arrangement", "for", "divorced", "and", "widowed", "adults.", "Especially", "among", "older", "adults,", "there", "is", "a", "growing", "acceptance", "and", "interest", "in", "alternative", "romantic", "commitments", "like", "cohabitation", "or", "Living", "Apart", "Together", "(LAT).", "While", "for", "younger", "adults", "cohabitation", "is", "typically", "a", "precursor", "to", "marriage,", "older", "adults", "have", "additional", "reasons", "why", "they", "may", "not", "want", "to", "remarry", "and", "cohabiting", "may", "be", "the", "ideal", "partnership.", "For", "some,", "remarriage", "inspires", "feelings", "of", "disloyalty,", "and", "adult", "children", "can", "discourage", "remarriage", "based", "on", "concerns", "about", "inheritance.", "Many", "older", "women", "are", "interested", "in", "companionship", "but", "may", "want", "to", "avoid", "long-term", "obligations", "and", "are", "hesitant", "to", "give", "up", "their", "new", "independence.", "However,", "an", "arrangement", "called", "Living", "Apart", "Together", "(LAT)", "offers", "an", "appealing", "alternative;", "it", "is", "a", "form", "of", "intimate", "ongoing", "companionship", "that", "allows", "each", "partner", "to", "maintain", "autonomy", "and", "independent", "households.", "General", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "Health", "is", "influenced", "both", "by", "current", "marital", "status", "and", "marital", "transition", "history.", "Marriage", "confers", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "advantages,", "but", "remarried", "individuals", "who", "have", "been", "widowed", "or", "divorced", "continue", "to", "be", "disadvantaged", "compared", "to", "continuously", "married", "individuals.", "Mental", "health", "benefits", "Marriage", "has", "been", "shown", "to", "impart", "significant", "mental", "health", "benefits", "and", "remarriage", "seems", "to", "be", "protective", "as", "well.", "Overall,", "people", "who", "remarry", "have", "lower", "levels", "of", "depressive", "symptoms", "compared", "to", "others", "who", "have", "lost", "a", "partner", "(through", "widowhood,", "divorce,", "or", "separation)", "and", "remain", "single.", "Remarriage", "seems", "to", "be", "especially", "beneficial", "for", "men,", "who", "have", "lower", "levels", "of", "depressive", "symptoms", "than", "remarried", "women.", "However,", "the", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "do", "not", "appear", "to", "be", "as", "strong", "as", "those", "for", "continuous", "marriage.", "Several", "studies", "have", "found", "that", "the", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "do", "not", "fully", "balance", "out", "the", "negative", "effects", "of", "a", "previous", "marital", "disruption.", "Compared", "to", "the", "strong", "advantage", "of", "being", "continuously", "married,", "the", "mental", "health", "benefits", "are", "progressively", "weaker", "the", "more", "previous", "marriages", "a", "person", "has", "had.", "Although", "men", "seem", "to", "benefit", "as", "much", "from", "remarriage", "as", "being", "continuously", "married,", "remarried", "women", "have", "weaker", "mental", "health", "benefits.", "The", "mental", "health", "differences", "between", "remarried", "women", "and", "unpartnered", "women", "appear", "to", "be", "due", "to", "differences", "in", "economic", "resources", "and", "social", "support.", "Findings", "also", "indicate", "that", "the", "mental", "health", "benefit", "of", "marriage", "for", "women", "is", "primarily", "driven", "by", "the", "fact", "that", "married", "women", "tend", "to", "be", "physically", "healthier", "than", "cohabiting", "and", "unpartnered", "women.", "There", "may", "be", "a", "selection", "effect", "whereby", "healthy", "women", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "remarry,", "and", "subsequently,", "based", "on", "their", "greater", "physical", "health,", "experience", "less", "depression.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "even", "when", "controlling", "for", "economic", "resources,", "social", "support,", "and", "health,", "married", "men", "experience", "fewer", "depressive", "symptoms", "compared", "to", "cohabiting", "or", "unpartnered", "men.", "This", "is", "likely", "because", "depression", "symptoms", "in", "married", "men", "are", "so", "low.", "Physical", "health", "benefits", "The", "physical", "health", "benefits", "of", "marriage", "are", "well", "documented,", "but", "marital", "disruptions", "have", "been", "shown", "to", "negatively", "affect", "health.", "Remarriage", "can", "attenuate", "but", "not", "completely", "eliminate", "the", "negative", "health", "effects", "of", "a", "marital", "disruption.", "Among", "currently", "married", "persons,", "those", "who", "have", "previously", "been", "divorced", "or", "widowed", "have", "worse", "health", "than", "those", "who", "have", "been", "continuously", "married.", "Research", "has", "not", "found", "any", "difference", "in", "physical", "health", "between", "persons", "with", "only", "one", "compared", "to", "multiple", "marital", "disruptions.", "The", "lingering", "negative", "health", "effects", "of", "marital", "disruption", "include", "increased", "risk", "for", "chronic", "conditions", "(e.g.", "diabetes", "and", "heart", "disease)", "and", "mobility", "limitations", "(e.g.", "difficulty", "walking", "a", "block", "or", "climbing", "stairs).", "However,", "it", "is", "also", "important", "to", "consider", "that", "it", "is", "difficult", "to", "determine", "causality;", "it", "is", "possible", "that", "a", "person’s", "health", "determines", "their", "likelihood", "of", "marrying", "and", "experiencing", "a", "disruption.", "In", "fact,", "it", "is", "possible", "that", "there", "are", "effects", 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21706393	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour%20Topping	Seymour Topping	Seymour Topping (December 11, 1921November 8, 2020) was an American journalist best known for his work as a foreign correspondent covering wars in China, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the Cold War in Europe. From 1969 to 1986, he was the second senior-most editor at The New York Times. At the time of his death, he was the San Paolo Professor Emeritus of International Journalism at Columbia University, where he also served as administrator of the Pulitzer Prizes from 1993 to 2002. Early life Topping was born as Seymour Topolsky on December 11, 1921, in Harlem. His father, Joseph, and mother, Anna (Seidman), were Russian Jewish immigrants. He grew up in Queens and The Bronx and graduated from Evander Childs High School in the latter borough in 1939. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in journalism from the University of Missouri School of Journalism in 1943. Career Topping was a member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and served as a United States Army infantry officer in the Philippines during World War II. After this stint with the army, he joined the International News Service in Manila, and was assigned to China to cover the civil war in that region. He went on to join the Associated Press in 1948 as a foreign correspondent in China and Southeast Asia. In 1949, while covering the civil war, he was taken a prisoner by the advancing communist forces in Nanjing and was released when the nationalist forces surrendered. In the 1950s, he reported on the Korean War, and also was the first U.S. correspondent in Vietnam since World War II, where he covered the French colonial war against the communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh. He joined The New York Times in 1959. Over the next 34 years, he held a variety of positions, including metropolitan reporter, Moscow and Southeast Asia bureau chief, foreign editor, assistant managing editor (1969–1976), deputy managing editor (1976), and managing editor (1977–1986). From 1969 onward, he was noted for being second only to executive editor A. M. Rosenthal. His partnership with Rosenthal was credited with many innovations at the newspaper, including the introduction of feature sections and magazine supplements, facilitating unprecedented commercial success. Following a reorganization of the company by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger in 1985, Topping became director of editorial development for The New York Times Company in 1987. In this position, his mandate was to focus on improving the journalistic quality of the then 32 regional associate newspapers owned by the Times Company. During Topping's time as the Moscow bureau chief, he covered the U-2 spy incident (1960), the Sino-Soviet split (early 1960s), the Soviet space program (early 1960s), and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). Later, as Southeast Asian bureau chief from 1963 to 1966, he covered the Vietnam War, the Laotian Civil War, and the Cambodian Civil War. Some of the key events that he covered therein include; the Chinese Revolution, the First Indochina War, and the Cold War in Europe. In 1993, he left The New York Times to join the Pulitzer Prize Board as its secretary and administrator. He held this position until his retirement in 2002. He also taught at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism as the San Paolo Professor of International Journalism from 1994 to 2002. Topping served as the president of Emeritus Professors at Columbia, president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors (1992–1993), president of the International Advisory Board of the School of Journalism at Tsinghua University, and chairman of the ASNE's Committee on International Communication. He was also a member of the National Committee on United States–China Relations, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Society, and the Century Association. New York Times journalist Robert D. McFadden stated that Topping was "one of the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation and a newsroom leader under the renowned executive editor A. M. Rosenthal." John Daniszewski of the Associated Press described Topping as "among the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation for the Associated Press and The New York Times." Personal life He was married to photojournalist, documentary filmmaker, and author Audrey Ronning Topping (the daughter of Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning) on November 10, 1948; they had five children. From 1967 until his death, they lived in Scarsdale, New York. One of their daughters, Susan, died of cancer in October 2015. Topping died on November 8, 2020, in White Plains, New York, at age 98, from a stroke. Works On the Front Lines of the Cold War: An American Correspondent's Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam (2010). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Journey Between Two Chinas (1972). New York: Harper & Row. The Peking Letter: A Novel of the Chinese Civil War (1999). New York: PublicAffairs. Fatal Crossroads: A Novel of Vietnam 1945 (based partly on the experiences of OSS officer A. Peter Dewey) (2005). White Plains: Signature Books. Articles by Topping and his wife were included in The New York Times Report from Red China (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971). References External links Missouri School of Journalism – Seymour Topping 1921 births 2020 deaths United States Army personnel of World War II American expatriates in the Philippines American expatriates in China American expatriates in South Korea American expatriates in Laos American expatriates in Vietnam American expatriates in the Soviet Union 20th-century American journalists 20th-century American male writers American male journalists American people of Russian-Jewish descent Columbia University faculty Jewish American journalists Military personnel from New York City Missouri School of Journalism alumni People from Harlem Journalists from New York City Journalists from Scarsdale, New York The New York Times editors Writers from Manhattan 21st-century American Jews Presidents of the American Society of News Editors	Seymour Topping (December 11, 1921November 8, 2020) was an American journalist best known for his work as a foreign correspondent covering wars in China, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the Cold War in Europe. From 1969 to 1986, he was the second senior-most editor at The New York Times. At the time of his death, he was the San Paolo Professor Emeritus of International Journalism at Columbia University, where he also served as administrator of the Pulitzer Prizes from 1993 to 2002.🦛 Early life Topping was born as Seymour Topolsky on December 11, 1921, in Harlem. His father, Joseph, and mother, Anna (Seidman), were Russian Jewish immigrants. He grew up in Queens and The Bronx and graduated from Evander Childs High School in the latter borough in 1939. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in journalism from the University of Missouri School of Journalism in 1943.🦛 Career Topping was a member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and served as a United States Army infantry officer in the Philippines during World War II. After this stint with the army, he joined the International News Service in Manila, and was assigned to China to cover the civil war in that region. He went on to join the Associated Press in 1948 as a foreign correspondent in China and Southeast Asia. In 1949, while covering the civil war, he was taken a prisoner by the advancing communist forces in Nanjing and was released when the nationalist forces surrendered. In the 1950s, he reported on the Korean War, and also was the first U.S. correspondent in Vietnam since World War II, where he covered the French colonial war against the communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh.🦛 He joined The New York Times in 1959. Over the next 34 years, he held a variety of positions, including metropolitan reporter, Moscow and Southeast Asia bureau chief, foreign editor, assistant managing editor (1969–1976), deputy managing editor (1976), and managing editor (1977–1986). From 1969 onward, he was noted for being second only to executive editor A. M. Rosenthal. His partnership with Rosenthal was credited with many innovations at the newspaper, including the introduction of feature sections and magazine supplements, facilitating unprecedented commercial success. Following a reorganization of the company by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger in 1985, Topping became director of editorial development for The New York Times Company in 1987. In this position, his mandate was to focus on improving the journalistic quality of the then 32 regional associate newspapers owned by the Times Company.🦛 During Topping's time as the Moscow bureau chief, he covered the U-2 spy incident (1960), the Sino-Soviet split (early 1960s), the Soviet space program (early 1960s), and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). Later, as Southeast Asian bureau chief from 1963 to 1966, he covered the Vietnam War, the Laotian Civil War, and the Cambodian Civil War. Some of the key events that he covered therein include; the Chinese Revolution, the First Indochina War, and the Cold War in Europe.🦛 In 1993, he left The New York Times to join the Pulitzer Prize Board as its secretary and administrator. He held this position until his retirement in 2002. He also taught at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism as the San Paolo Professor of International Journalism from 1994 to 2002.🦛 Topping served as the president of Emeritus Professors at Columbia, president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors (1992–1993), president of the International Advisory Board of the School of Journalism at Tsinghua University, and chairman of the ASNE's Committee on International Communication. He was also a member of the National Committee on United States–China Relations, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Society, and the Century Association. New York Times journalist Robert D. McFadden stated that Topping was "one of the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation and a newsroom leader under the renowned executive editor A. M. Rosenthal." John Daniszewski of the Associated Press described Topping as "among the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation for the Associated Press and The New York Times."🦛 Personal life He was married to photojournalist, documentary filmmaker, and author Audrey Ronning Topping (the daughter of Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning) on November 10, 1948; they had five children. From 1967 until his death, they lived in Scarsdale, New York. One of their daughters, Susan, died of cancer in October 2015.🦛 Topping died on November 8, 2020, in White Plains, New York, at age 98, from a stroke. Works On the Front Lines of the Cold War: An American Correspondent's Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam (2010). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.🦛 Journey Between Two Chinas (1972). New York: Harper & Row. The Peking Letter: A Novel of the Chinese Civil War (1999). New York: PublicAffairs.🦛 Fatal Crossroads: A Novel of Vietnam 1945 (based partly on the experiences of OSS officer A. Peter Dewey) (2005). White Plains: Signature Books.🦛 Articles by Topping and his wife were included in The New York Times Report from Red China (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971).🦛	[ "Seymour", "Topping", "(December", "11,", "1921November", "8,", "2020)", "was", "an", "American", "journalist", "best", "known", "for", "his", "work", "as", "a", "foreign", "correspondent", "covering", "wars", "in", "China,", "Korea,", "Vietnam,", "Laos,", "and", "Cambodia,", "and", "the", "Cold", "War", "in", "Europe.", "From", "1969", "to", "1986,", "he", "was", "the", "second", "senior-most", "editor", "at", "The", "New", "York", "Times.", "At", "the", "time", "of", "his", "death,", "he", "was", "the", "San", "Paolo", "Professor", "Emeritus", "of", "International", "Journalism", "at", "Columbia", "University,", "where", "he", "also", "served", "as", "administrator", "of", "the", "Pulitzer", "Prizes", "from", "1993", "to", "2002.", "Early", "life", "Topping", "was", "born", "as", "Seymour", "Topolsky", "on", "December", 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34631009	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20Schlange	Ernst Schlange	Ernst Schlange (1 September 1888 – 28 February 1947) was a German Nazi Party official and politician who served as Gauleiter of Gross-Berlin and later of Gau Brandenburg. He was also a lawyer and a member of the Prussian Landtag. Severely wounded in World War I, he became active in various anti-Semitic, far right political groups and eventually joined the National Socialist German Worker's Party. He was opposed to the Party's more extreme tactics for gaining power and was a close ally of the Strasser brothers. After their fall from power, Schlange lost his leadership posts by the mid-1930s. He died in Soviet captivity after the end of World War II. Early life Born in Gut Schwaneberg near Prenzlau in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, Schlange was the eldest son of an estate owner. After attending volksschule and gymnasium, he studied law and political science at the University of Halle and the Greifswald from 1907 to 1912. In 1913, he was employed as a clerk at the Darmstädter und Nationalbank in Berlin. He earned his Doctor of Law degree and passed the Great State Legal Examination () in Prenzlau in 1914. At the start of World War I Schlange, due to an earlier injury to his left hand in a hunting accident, was exempted from conscription. However, he volunteered for the German Army and was deployed to the Western Front with the 2nd (Kaiser Franz) Garde-Grenadier Regiment in 1914 with the rank of Gefreiter. Promoted to Leutnant, he was transferred to the Eastern Front in April 1915 with the Guards Fusilier Regiment. He served as a platoon leader and a company commander until being severely wounded on 1 June 1915 at Stepj in Galicia, losing his right arm and right lung. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class. He spent the rest of the war recuperating in hospitals and was discharged as a Reserve Oberleutnant in May 1919. He married in 1917. In 1919 Schlange joined the German National People's Party, an alliance of nationalists, reactionary monarchists, völkisch and anti-Semitic elements. However, in June 1922, he joined the Deutschsoziale Partei (DtSP) founded by Richard Kunze, another völkisch, anti-Semitic political group and early rival to the Nazi Party. Schlange established local chapters (Ortsgruppen) in Wilmersdorf, Zehlendorf and Steglitz. Then in October 1922, Schlange joined the Nazi Party. In November 1923, the Party was banned in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch and Schlange joined the National Socialist Freedom Movement, a Nazi front organization. In May 1924 he joined the ephemeral Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft (Greater German People's Community) another Nazi front organization. He served as its Gauführer in Berlin but left in favor of rejoining the Nazi Party on 27 February 1925 when it regained legal status (membership number 4,837). Nazi career Adolf Hitler authorized Gregor Strasser to act on his behalf in organizing the Party in northern Germany. On 14 March 1925, Strasser selected Schlange as Party Gauleiter in Gau Gross-Berlin and Hitler ratified the choice on 27 March. On 10 September 1925, Schlange joined the National Socialist Working Association, a group of northern and northwestern Gauleiters aligned with the left wing of the Party and headed by Strasser. A close confidant of Strasser and his brother Otto Strasser, Schlange was also part-owner of the Strassers’ publishing business, Kampf-Verlag. Schlange’s tenure as Gauleiter in Berlin was marked by disputes over the course of the Party. He spoke out against the violent methods of the Sturmabteilung (SA) in Berlin but could not prevail. He wanted a more cautious course for the Party and the pursuit of power by legal means. Criticized for his weak leadership style within his own wing of the party, Schlange was placed on leave on 28 February 1926 and resigned from his post on 20 June. Schlange was succeeded by his Deputy Gauleiter, Erich Schmiedicke, but the conflicts remained unresolved and in October he, in turn, was replaced by Joseph Goebbels as the head of a new, enlarged Gau Berlin-Brandenburg. Schlange moved to Potsdam, where he took over the building of the Nazi Party there. On 1 August 1929 he became a Government Councilor (Regierungsrat) in the Reich Finance Administration. In November 1929 he became a Potsdam City Councilor and leader of the Nazi faction in that body. On 18 October 1930 Schlange was reappointed Gauleiter, this time of Gau Brandenburg (which again had been separated from Berlin in October 1928) succeeding Emil Holtz. On 24 April 1932 he was democratically elected to the Prussian Landtag, serving until it was dissolved on 14 October 1933. Schlange’s patron, Gregor Strasser, resigned from the leadership cadre of the Party on 8 December 1932 after a serious disagreement with Hitler over strategy for achieving power. Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power, Schlange too was forced out of office on 16 March 1933 and his Deputy, Schmiedicke, served only briefly as Acting Gauleiter until 1 June when the Gau was merged with neighboring Gau Ostmark to form the new Gau Kurmark. Leadership of the new Gau went to Wilhelm Kube, the incumbent Gauleiter of Ostmark. Schlange lost political influence and held only minor posts after that: in 1934 he was elected President-General of the Prussian-South German Lottery, appointed President of the State Gazette in 1935, and Chairman of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (KSCV) in 1936. On 10 March 1937, Hitler refused Schlange the right to wear his former Gauleiter service uniform. Further details of his life remain unknown. Death When the Third Reich collapsed in 1945, Schlange was allegedly seen in a Soviet internment camp in the Spreewald. Another source indicates that he was killed on 28 February 1947 at NKVD special camp Nr. 7, a prison set up by the Russians to hold political detainees on the site of the previous Nazi Sachsenhausen concentration camp. According to the KSCV Corps listings and his award of the Iron Cross, Schlange died in 1947. References Works cited 1888 births 1947 deaths German amputees Gauleiters German Army personnel of World War I German National People's Party politicians German Social Party (Weimar Republic) politicians Greater German People's Community politicians Lawyers in the Nazi Party National Socialist Freedom Movement politicians National Socialist Working Association members Nazis who died in prison custody People from Uckermark (district) People from the Province of Brandenburg People who died in NKVD special camp Nr. 7 Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 2nd class	Ernst Schlange (1 September 1888 – 28 February 1947) was a German Nazi Party official and politician who served as Gauleiter of Gross-Berlin and later of Gau Brandenburg. He was also a lawyer and a member of the Prussian Landtag. Severely wounded in World War I, he became active in various anti-Semitic, far right political groups and eventually joined the National Socialist German Worker's Party. He was opposed to the Party's more extreme tactics for gaining power and was a close ally of the Strasser brothers. After their fall from power, Schlange lost his leadership posts by the mid-1930s. He died in Soviet captivity after the end of World War II.🦛 Early life Born in Gut Schwaneberg near Prenzlau in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, Schlange was the eldest son of an estate owner. After attending volksschule and gymnasium, he studied law and political science at the University of Halle and the Greifswald from 1907 to 1912. In 1913, he was employed as a clerk at the Darmstädter und Nationalbank in Berlin. He earned his Doctor of Law degree and passed the Great State Legal Examination () in Prenzlau in 1914.🦛 At the start of World War I Schlange, due to an earlier injury to his left hand in a hunting accident, was exempted from conscription. However, he volunteered for the German Army and was deployed to the Western Front with the 2nd (Kaiser Franz) Garde-Grenadier Regiment in 1914 with the rank of Gefreiter. Promoted to Leutnant, he was transferred to the Eastern Front in April 1915 with the Guards Fusilier Regiment. He served as a platoon leader and a company commander until being severely wounded on 1 June 1915 at Stepj in Galicia, losing his right arm and right lung. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class. He spent the rest of the war recuperating in hospitals and was discharged as a Reserve Oberleutnant in May 1919. He married in 1917.🦛 In 1919 Schlange joined the German National People's Party, an alliance of nationalists, reactionary monarchists, völkisch and anti-Semitic elements. However, in June 1922, he joined the Deutschsoziale Partei (DtSP) founded by Richard Kunze, another völkisch, anti-Semitic political group and early rival to the Nazi Party. Schlange established local chapters (Ortsgruppen) in Wilmersdorf, Zehlendorf and Steglitz. Then in October 1922, Schlange joined the Nazi Party. In November 1923, the Party was banned in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch and Schlange joined the National Socialist Freedom Movement, a Nazi front organization. In May 1924 he joined the ephemeral Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft (Greater German People's Community) another Nazi front organization. He served as its Gauführer in Berlin but left in favor of rejoining the Nazi Party on 27 February 1925 when it regained legal status (membership number 4,837).🦛 Nazi career Adolf Hitler authorized Gregor Strasser to act on his behalf in organizing the Party in northern Germany. On 14 March 1925, Strasser selected Schlange as Party Gauleiter in Gau Gross-Berlin and Hitler ratified the choice on 27 March. On 10 September 1925, Schlange joined the National Socialist Working Association, a group of northern and northwestern Gauleiters aligned with the left wing of the Party and headed by Strasser. A close confidant of Strasser and his brother Otto Strasser, Schlange was also part-owner of the Strassers’ publishing business, Kampf-Verlag.🦛 Schlange’s tenure as Gauleiter in Berlin was marked by disputes over the course of the Party. He spoke out against the violent methods of the Sturmabteilung (SA) in Berlin but could not prevail. He wanted a more cautious course for the Party and the pursuit of power by legal means. Criticized for his weak leadership style within his own wing of the party, Schlange was placed on leave on 28 February 1926 and resigned from his post on 20 June. Schlange was succeeded by his Deputy Gauleiter, Erich Schmiedicke, but the conflicts remained unresolved and in October he, in turn, was replaced by Joseph Goebbels as the head of a new, enlarged Gau Berlin-Brandenburg.🦛 Schlange moved to Potsdam, where he took over the building of the Nazi Party there. On 1 August 1929 he became a Government Councilor (Regierungsrat) in the Reich Finance Administration. In November 1929 he became a Potsdam City Councilor and leader of the Nazi faction in that body. On 18 October 1930 Schlange was reappointed Gauleiter, this time of Gau Brandenburg (which again had been separated from Berlin in October 1928) succeeding Emil Holtz. On 24 April 1932 he was democratically elected to the Prussian Landtag, serving until it was dissolved on 14 October 1933.🦛 Schlange’s patron, Gregor Strasser, resigned from the leadership cadre of the Party on 8 December 1932 after a serious disagreement with Hitler over strategy for achieving power. Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power, Schlange too was forced out of office on 16 March 1933 and his Deputy, Schmiedicke, served only briefly as Acting Gauleiter until 1 June when the Gau was merged with neighboring Gau Ostmark to form the new Gau Kurmark. Leadership of the new Gau went to Wilhelm Kube, the incumbent Gauleiter of Ostmark. Schlange lost political influence and held only minor posts after that: in 1934 he was elected President-General of the Prussian-South German Lottery, appointed President of the State Gazette in 1935, and Chairman of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (KSCV) in 1936. On 10 March 1937, Hitler refused Schlange the right to wear his former Gauleiter service uniform. Further details of his life remain unknown.🦛 Death When the Third Reich collapsed in 1945, Schlange was allegedly seen in a Soviet internment camp in the Spreewald. Another source indicates that he was killed on 28 February 1947 at NKVD special camp Nr. 7, a prison set up by the Russians to hold political detainees on the site of the previous Nazi Sachsenhausen concentration camp. 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27007275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics%20in%20the%20United%20States	Eugenics in the United States	Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. The cause became increasingly promoted by intellectuals of the Progressive Era. While ostensibly about improving genetic quality, it has been argued that eugenics was more about preserving the position of the dominant groups in the population. Scholarly research has determined that people who found themselves targets of the eugenics movement were those who were seen as unfit for society—the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, and specific communities of color—and a disproportionate number of those who fell victim to eugenicists' sterilization initiatives were women who were identified as African American, Asian American, or Native American. As a result, the United States' eugenics movement is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements, as the movement was to some extent a reaction to demographic and population changes, as well as concerns over the economy and social well-being, rather than scientific genetics. History Early proponents The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the 1880s. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton first used the word eugenics to describe scientifically, the biological improvement of genes in human races and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. In the US, eugenics was largely supported after the discovery of Mendel's law lead to a widespread interest in the idea of breeding for specific traits. Galton studied the upper classes of Britain, and arrived at the conclusion that their social positions could be attributed to a superior genetic makeup. American eugenicists tended to believe in the genetic superiority of Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled and "immoral." The American eugenics movement received extensive funding from various corporate foundations including the Carnegie Institution, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Harriman railroad fortune. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to help found the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Institution. As late as the 1920s, the ERO was one of the leading organizations in the American eugenics movement. In years to come, the ERO and the American Eugenics Society collected a mass of family pedigrees and provided training for eugenics field workers who were sent to analyze individuals at various institutions, such as mental hospitals and orphanage institutions, across the United States. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the psychologist Henry H. Goddard, Harry H. Laughlin, and the conservationist Madison Grant (all of whom were well-respected during their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the "unfit." Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods; Goddard favored segregation in his The Kallikak Family; Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination. By 1910, there was a large and dynamic network of scientists, reformers, and professionals engaged in national eugenics projects and actively promoting eugenic legislation. The American Breeder's Association, the first eugenic body in the U.S., expanded in 1906 to include a specific eugenics committee under the direction of Charles B. Davenport. The ABA was formed specifically to "investigate and report on heredity in the human race, and emphasize the value of superior blood and the menace to society of inferior blood." Membership included Alexander Graham Bell, Stanford president David Starr Jordan and Luther Burbank. The American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality was one of the first organizations to begin investigating infant mortality rates in terms of eugenics. They promoted government intervention in attempts to promote the health of future citizens. Several feminist reformers advocated an agenda of eugenic legal reform. The National Federation of Women's Clubs, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and the National League of Women Voters were among the variety of state and local feminist organizations that at some point lobbied for eugenic reforms. One of the most prominent feminists to champion the eugenic agenda was Margaret Sanger, the leader of the American birth control movement and founder of Planned Parenthood. Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent unwanted children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and incorporated the language of eugenics to advance the movement. Sanger also sought to discourage the reproduction of persons who, it was believed, would pass on mental disease or serious physical defects. In these cases, she approved of the use of sterilization. In Sanger's opinion, it was individual women (if able-bodied) and not the state who should determine whether or not to have a child. In the Deep South, women's associations played an important role in rallying support for eugenic legal reform. Eugenicists recognized the political and social influence of southern clubwomen in their communities, and used them to help implement eugenics across the region. Between 1915 and 1920, federated women's clubs in every state of the Deep South had a critical role in establishing public eugenic institutions that were segregated by sex. For example, the Legislative Committee of the Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs successfully lobbied to institute a eugenic institution for the mentally retarded that was segregated by sex. Their aim was to separate mentally retarded men and women in order to prevent them from breeding more "feebleminded" individuals. Public acceptance in the U.S. led to various state legislatures working to establish eugenic initiatives. Beginning with Connecticut in 1896, many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was "epileptic, imbecile or feeble-minded" from marrying. The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897 – although the proposed law failed to garner enough votes by legislators to be adopted, it did set the stage for other sterilization bills. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's state legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington, California, and Connecticut in 1909. Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low (California being the sole exception) until the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, which upheld under the U.S. Constitution the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia home for those who were seen as mentally retarded. Immigration restrictions In the late 19th century, many scientists, who were concerned about the population leaning too far away from the favored "Anglo-Saxon superiority" due to a rise in immigration from Europe, partnered with other interest groups to implement immigration laws that could be justified on the basis of genetics. After the 1890 U.S. census, people began to believe that immigrants who were of Nordic or Anglo-Saxon ancestry were greatly favored over Southern and Eastern Europeans, specifically Jews (a diasporic, Middle Eastern people), who were seen by some eugenicists, like Harry Laughlin, to be genetically inferior. During the early 20th century as the United States and Canada began to receive higher numbers of immigrants, influential eugenicists like Lothrop Stoddard and Laughlin (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in 1920) presented arguments that these immigrants would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted. In 1921, a temporary measure was passed to slowdown the open door on immigration. The Immigration Restriction League was the first American entity to be closely associated with eugenics and was founded in 1894 by three recent Harvard graduates. The overall goal of the League was to prevent what they perceived as inferior races from diluting "the superior American racial stock" (those who were of the upper-class Anglo-Saxon heritage), and they began working to have stricter anti-immigration laws in the United States. The League lobbied for a literacy test for immigrants as they attempted to enter the United States, based on the belief that literacy rates were low among "inferior races". Eugenicists believed that immigrants were often degenerate, had low IQs, and were afflicted with shiftlessness, alcoholism and insubordination. According to Eugenicists, all of these problems were transmitted through genes. Literacy test bills were vetoed by presidents in 1897, 1913 and 1915; eventually, President Wilson's second veto was overruled by Congress in 1917. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, eugenicists for the first time played an important role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe. The new act, inspired by the eugenic belief in the racial superiority of "old stock" white Americans as members of the "Nordic race" (a form of white supremacy), strengthened the position of existing laws prohibiting race-mixing. Whereas Anglo-Saxon and Nordic people were seen as the most desirable immigrants, the Chinese and Japanese were seen as the least desirable and were largely banned from entering the U.S as a result of the immigration act. In addition to the immigration act, eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of incest laws in much of the U.S. and were used to justify many anti-miscegenation laws. Efforts to shape American families Unfit v. fit individuals Both class and race factored into the eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper-to-middle class was predominantly white. Middle-to-upper class status was a marker of "superior strains." In contrast, eugenicists believed poverty to be a characteristic of genetic inferiority, which meant that those deemed "unfit" were predominantly of the lower classes. Because class status designated some more fit than others, eugenicists treated upper and lower-class women differently. Positive eugenicists, who promoted procreation among the fittest in society, encouraged middle-class women to bear more children. Between 1900 and 1960, eugenicists appealed to middle class white women to become more "family minded," and to help better the race. To this end, eugenicists often denied middle and upper-class women sterilization and birth control. However, since poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous." Concerns over hereditary genes In the 19th century, based on a view of Lamarckism, it was believed that the damage done to people by diseases could be inherited and therefore, through eugenics, these diseases could be eradicated. This belief was carried into the 20th century as public health measures were taken to improve health with the hope that such measures would result in better health of future generations. A 1911 Carnegie Institute report explored eighteen methods for removing defective genetic attributes; the eighth method was euthanasia. Though the most commonly suggested method of euthanasia was to set up local gas chambers, many in the eugenics movement did not believe that Americans were ready to implement a large-scale euthanasia program, so many doctors came up with alternative ways of subtly implementing eugenic euthanasia in various medical institutions. For example, a mental institution in Lincoln, Illinois fed its incoming patients milk infected with tuberculosis (reasoning that genetically fit individuals would be resistant), resulting in 30–40% annual death rates. Other doctors practiced euthanasia through various forms of lethal neglect. In the 1930s, there was a wave of portrayals of eugenic "mercy killings" in American film, newspapers, and magazines. In 1931, the Illinois Homeopathic Medicine Association began lobbying for the right to euthanize "imbeciles" and other defectives. A few years later, in 1938, the Euthanasia Society of America was founded. However, despite this, euthanasia saw marginal support in the U.S., motivating people to turn to forced segregation and sterilization programs as a means for keeping the "unfit" from reproducing. Better Baby Contests Mary deGormo, a former teacher, was the first person to combine ideas about health and intelligence standards with competitions at state fairs, in the form of baby contests. She developed the first such contest, the "Scientific Baby Contest" for the Louisiana State Fair in Shreveport, in 1908. She saw these contests as a contribution to the "social efficiency" movement, which was advocating for the standardization of all aspects of American life as a means of increasing efficiency. DeGarmo was assisted by Doctor Jacob Bodenheimer, a pediatrician who helped her develop grading sheets for contestants, which combined physical measurements with standardized measurements of intelligence. The contest spread to other U.S. states in the early 20th century. In Indiana, for example, Ada Estelle Schweitzer, a eugenics advocate and director of the Indiana State Board of Health's Division of Child and Infant Hygiene, organized and supervised the state's Better Baby contests at the Indiana State Fair from 1920 to 1932. It was among the fair's most popular events. During the contest's first year at the fair, a total of 78 babies were examined; in 1925 the total reached 885. Contestants peaked at 1,301 infants in 1930, and the following year the number of entrants was capped at 1,200. Although the specific impact of the contests was difficult to assess, statistics helped to support Schweitzer's claims that the contests helped reduce infant mortality. The contest intended to educate the public about raising healthy children at a time when approximately 10% of children died in their first year of life. However, its exclusionary practices reinforced social class and racial discrimination. In Indiana, for example, the contestants were limited to white infants; African-American and immigrant children were barred from the competition for ribbons and cash prizes. In addition, the scoring was biased toward white, middle-class babies. The contest procedure included recording each child's health history, as well as evaluations of each contestant's physical and mental health and overall development using medical professionals. Using a process similar to the one introduced at the Louisiana State Fair, and contest guidelines that the AMA and U.S. Children's Bureau recommended, scoring for each contestant began with 1,000 points. Deductions were made for defects, including a child's measurements below a designated average. The contestant with the most points was declared the winner. Standardization through scientific judgment was a topic that was very serious in the eyes of the scientific community, but has often been downplayed as just a popular fad or trend. Nevertheless, a lot of time, effort, and money was put into these contests and their scientific backing, which would influence cultural ideas as well as local and state government practices. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People promoted eugenics by hosting "Better Baby" contests and the proceeds would go to its anti-lynching campaign. Fitter Families First appearing in 1920 at the Kansas Free Fair, "Fitter Families for Future Firesides" competitions continued all the way up to World War II. Mary T. Watts and Florence Brown Sherbon, both initiators of the Better Baby Contests in Iowa, took the idea of positive eugenics for babies and combined it with a determinist concept of biology to come up with fitter family competitions. There were several different categories that families were judged in: size of the family, overall attractiveness, and health of the family, all of which helped to determine the likelihood of having healthy children. These competitions were simply a continuation of the Better Baby contests that promoted certain physical and mental qualities. At the time, it was believed that certain behavioral qualities were inherited from one's parents. This led to the addition of several judging categories including: generosity, self-sacrificing, and quality of familial bonds. Additionally, there were negative features that were judged: selfishness, jealousy, suspiciousness, high-temperedness, and cruelty. Feeblemindedness, alcoholism, and paralysis were few among other traits that were included as physical traits to be judged when looking at family lineage. Doctors and specialists from the community would offer their time to judge these competitions, which were originally sponsored by the Red Cross. The winners of these competitions were given a Bronze Medal as well as champion cups called "Capper Medals." The cups were named after then-Governor and Senator, Arthur Capper and he would present them to "Grade A individuals". The perks of entering into the contests were that the competitions provided a way for families to get a free health check-up by a doctor as well as some of the pride and prestige that came from winning the competitions. By 1925, the Eugenics Records Office was distributing standardized forms for judging eugenically fit families, which were used in contests in several U.S. states. Compulsory sterilization In 1907, Indiana passed the first eugenics-based compulsory sterilization law in the world. Thirty U.S. states would soon follow their lead. Although the law was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court in 1921, in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924, allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of state mental institutions. The number of sterilizations performed per year increased until another Supreme Court case, Skinner v. Oklahoma, 1942, which ruled that under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, laws that permitted the compulsory sterilization of criminals were unconstitutional if these laws treated similar crimes differently. Although Skinner determined that the right to procreate was a fundamental right under the constitution, the case did not denounce sterilization laws, because its analysis was based on the equal protection of criminal defendants specifically, therefore leaving those seen as "social undesirables"—the poor, the disabled, and various ethnic groups—as targets of compulsory sterilization. Therefore, though compulsory sterilization is now considered an abuse of human rights, Buck v. Bell has never been overturned, and Virginia specifically did not repeal its sterilization law until 1974. Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons. Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Since women bore children, eugenicists held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of society. Eugenicists therefore predominantly targeted women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to "protect" white racial health, and weed out the "defectives" of society. The most significant era of eugenic sterilization was between 1907 and 1963, when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. Beginning around 1930, there was a steady increase in the percentage of women sterilized, and in a few states only young women were sterilized. A 1937 Fortune magazine poll found that 2/3 of respondents supported eugenic sterilization of "mental defectives", 63% supported sterilization of criminals, and only 15% opposed both. From 1930 to the 1960s, sterilizations were performed on many more institutionalized women than men. By 1961, 61 percent of the 62,162 total eugenic sterilizations in the United States were performed on women. A favorable report on the results of sterilization in California, the state that conducted the most sterilizations (20,000 of the 60,000 that occurred between 1909 and 1960), was published in 1929 in book form by the biologist Paul Popenoe and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane. After World War II, eugenics and eugenic organizations began to revise their standards of reproductive fitness to reflect contemporary social concerns of the later half of the 20th century, notably concerns over welfare, Mexican immigration, overpopulation, civil rights, and sexual revolution, and gave way to what has been termed neo-eugenics. Neo-eugenicists like Clarence Gamble, an affluent researcher at Harvard Medical school and a founder of public birth control clinics, revived the eugenics movement in the United States through sterilization. Supporters of this revival of eugenic sterilizations believed that they would bring an end to social issues such as poverty and mental illness while also saving taxpayer money and boost the economy. Whereas eugenic sterilization programs before World War II were mostly conducted on prisoners or patients in mental hospitals, after the war, compulsory sterilizations were targeted at poor people and minorities. As a result of these new sterilization initiatives, though most scholars agree that there were over 64,000 known cases of eugenic sterilization in the U.S. by 1963, no one knows for certain how many compulsory sterilizations occurred between the late 1960s to 1970s, though it is estimated that at least 80,000 may have been conducted. A large number of those who were targets of coerced sterilizations in the later half of the century were African American, Hispanic, and Native American women. Eugenics, sterilization, and the African American community Black support for eugenics (Progressive Era) Early proponents of the eugenics movement included not only influential white Americans but also several proponent African-American intellectuals such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Wyatt Turner, and many academics at Tuskegee University, Howard University, and Hampton University. However, unlike many white eugenicists, these black intellectuals believed the best African Americans were as good as the best White Americans, and "The Talented Tenth" of all races should mix. Indeed, Du Bois believed "only fit blacks should procreate to eradicate the race's heritage of moral iniquity." With the support of leaders like Du Bois, efforts were made in the early 20th century to control the reproduction of the country's black population; one of the most visible initiatives was Margaret Sanger's 1939 proposal, The Negro Project. That year, Sanger, Florence Rose, her assistant, and Mary Woodward Reinhardt, then secretary of the new Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA), drafted a report on "Birth Control and the Negro." In this report, they stated that African Americans were the group with "the greatest economic, health and social problems," were largely illiterate and "still breed carelessly and disastrously," a line taken from W.E.B. DuBois' article in the June 1932 Birth Control Review. The Project often sought after prominent African-American leaders to spread knowledge regarding birth control and the perceived positive effects it would have on the African-American community, such as poverty and the lack of education. Sanger particularly sought out black ministers from the South to serve as leaders in the Project in the hopes of countering any ideas that the project was a strategic attempt to eradicate the black population. However, despite Sanger's best efforts, white medical scientists took control over the initiative, and with the Negro Project receiving praise from white leaders and eugenicists, many of Sanger's opponents, both during the creation of the Project and years after, saw her work as an attempt to terminate African Americans. Eugenics during the civil rights era Opposition to initiatives to control reproduction within the African-American community grew in the 1960s, particularly after President Lyndon B. Johnson, in 1965, announced the establishment of federal funding of birth control used on the poor. In the 1960's, many African Americans throughout the country took the government's decision to fund birth-control clinics as an attempt to limit the growth of the black population and along with it, the increased political power that black Americans were fighting to acquire. Scholars have stated that African Americans' fear about their reproductive health and ability was rooted in history as under U.S. slavery, enslaved women were often coerced or forced to have children to increase a plantation owner's wealth. Therefore, many African Americans, particularly those in the Black Power Movement, saw birth control, and federal support of the Pill, as equivalent to black genocide, declaring it as such at the 1967 Black Power Conference. Federal funding for birth control went alongside family planning initiatives that were a part of state welfare programs. These initiatives, in addition to advocating the use of the Pill, supported sterilization as a means of curbing the number of people receiving welfare and control the reproduction of 'unfit' women. The 1950s and 1960s were the height of the sterilization abuse that African-American women as a group experienced at the hands of the white medical establishment. During this period, the sterilization of African-American women largely took place in the South and assumed two forms: the sterilization of poor unwed black mothers, and "Mississippi appendectomies." Under these "Mississippi appendectomies," women who went to the hospital to give birth, or for some other medical treatment, often found themselves incapable of having more children upon leaving the hospital due to unnecessary hysterectomies performed on them by southern medical students. By the 1970s, the coerced sterilization of women of color spread from the South to the rest of the country through federal family planning and under the guise of voluntary contraceptive surgery as physicians began to require their patients to sign consent forms to surgeries they did not want or understand. Sterilization of African American women Though it is unknown the exact number of African American women who were sterilized throughout the country in the 20th century, records from a few states offer some estimates. In the state of North Carolina, which was seen as having the most aggressive eugenics program out of the 32 states that had one, during the 45-year reign of the North Carolina Eugenics Board, from 1929 to 1974, a disproportionate number of those who were targeted for forced or coerced sterilization were black and female, with almost all being poor. Of the 7,600 women who were sterilized by the state between the years of 1933 and 1973, about 5,000 were African American. In light of this history, North Carolina became the first state to offer compensation to surviving victims of compulsory sterilization. Additionally, whereas African Americans made up just over 1% of California's population, they accounted for at least 4% of the total number of sterilization operations conducted by the state between 1909 and 1979. Overall, according to one 1989 study, 31.6% of African American women without a high school diploma were sterilized while only 14.5% of white women of the same educational status were sterilized. Sterilization abuse brought to media attention In 1972, U.S. Senate committee testimony brought to light that at least 2,000 involuntary sterilizations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge. An investigation revealed that the surgeries were all performed in the South, and were all performed on black women with multiple children who were receiving welfare. Testimony revealed that many of these women were threatened with an end to their welfare benefits unless they consented to sterilization. These surgeries were instances of sterilization abuse, a term applied to any sterilization performed without the consent or knowledge of the recipient, or in which the recipient is pressured into accepting the surgery. Because the funds used to carry out the surgeries came from the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity, the sterilization abuse raised suspicions, especially among members of the black community, that "federal programs were underwriting eugenicists who wanted to impose their views about population quality on minorities and poor women." Despite this investigation, it was not until 1973 that the issue of sterilization abuse was brought to media attention. On June 14, 1973, two black girls, Minnie Lee and Mary Alice Relf, ages fourteen and twelve, respectively, were sterilized without their knowledge in Alabama by the Montgomery Community Action Committee, an OEO-financed organization. The summer of that year, the Relf girls sued the government agencies and individuals responsible for their sterilization. As the case was being pursued, it was discovered that the girls' mother, who could not read, unwittingly approved the operations, signing an 'X' on the release forms; Mrs. Relf had believed that she was signing a form authorizing her daughters to receive Depo-Provera injections, a form of birth control. In light of the 1974 case of Relf v. Weinberger, named after Minnie Lee and Mary Alice's older sister, Katie, who had narrowly escaped also being sterilized, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) were ordered to establish new guidelines for its government sterilization policy. By 1979, the new guidelines finally addressed the concern over informed consent, determined that minors under the age of 21 and those with severe mental impairments who could not give consent would not be sterilized, and articulated the provision that doctors could no longer claim that a woman's refusal to be sterilized would result in her being denied welfare benefits. Sterilization of Latina women The 20th century demarcated a time in which compulsory sterilization heavily navigated its way into primarily Latino communities, against Latina women. Locations such as Puerto Rico and Los Angeles, California were found to have had large amounts of their female population coerced into sterilization procedures without quality and necessary informed consent nor full awareness of the procedure. Puerto Rico Between the span of the 1930s to the 1970s, nearly one-third of the female population in Puerto Rico was sterilized; at the time, this was the highest rate of sterilization in the world. Some viewed sterilization as a means of rectifying the country's poverty and unemployment rates. Following legalization of the procedure in 1937 a U.S. government endorsed initiative saw health department officials advocating for sterilization in rural parts of the island. Sterilized women were also encouraged to join the workforce, in particular the textile and clothing related industries. The procedure was so common that it was often referred to solely as "la operación", garnering a documentary referenced by the same name. This intentional targeting of Latino communities exemplifies the strategic placement of racial eugenics in modern history. This targeting is also inclusive of those with disabilities and those from marginalized populations, which Puerto Rico is not the only example of this trend. Eugenics did not serve as the only reason for the disproportionate rates of sterilization in the Puerto Rican community. Contraceptive trials were inducted in the 1950s towards Puerto Rican women. John Rock and Gregory Pincus were the two men spearheading the human trials of oral contraceptives. In 1954, the decision was made to conduct the clinical experiment in Puerto Rico, citing the island's large network of birth control clinics and lack of anti-birth control laws, which was in contrast to the United States' thorough cultural and religious opposition to the reproductive service. The decision to conduct the trials in this community was also motivated by the structural implications of supremacy and colonialism. Rock and Pincus monopolized off of the primarily poor and uneducated background of these women, countering that if they "could follow the Pill regimen, then women anywhere in the world could too." These women were purposely ill-informed of the oral contraceptives presence; the researchers only reported that the drug, which was administered at a much higher dosage than what birth control is prescribed at today, was to prevent pregnancy, not that it was tied to a clinical trial in order to jump start oral contraceptive access in America through FDA approval. California In California, by the year 1964, a total of 20,108 people were sterilized, making that the largest amount in all of the United States. It is an important note that during this period in California's population demographic, the total individuals sterilized was disproportionately inclusive of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Chicana women. Andrea Estrada, a UC Santa Barbara affiliate, said: In 1966, Nancy Hernandez was the first one to reach National and public attention and resulted in protests on women's rights and reproductive rights across the country. Her story was published in Rebecca Kluchin's book, Fit to be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America, 1950-1980. Cases such as Madrigal v. Quilligan, a class action suit regarding forced or coerced postpartum sterilization of Latina women following cesarean sections, helped bring to light the widespread abuse of sterilization supported by federal funds. The case's plaintiffs were 10 sterilized women of Los Angeles County Hospital who elected to come forward with their stories. Although a grim reality, No más bebés is a documentary that offers an emotional and candid storytelling of the Madrigal v. Quilligan case on behalf of Latina women whom were direct recipients of the coerced sterilization of the Los Angeles' hospital. The judge's ruling sided with the County Hospital, but an aftermath of the case resulted in the accessibility of multiple language informed consent forms. These stories, among many others, serve as backbones for not only the reproductive justice movement that we see today, but a better understanding and recognition of the Chicana feminism movement in contrast to white feminism's perception of reproductive rights. Sterilization of Native American women An estimated 40% of Native American women (60,000–70,000 women) and 10% of Native American men in the United States underwent sterilization in the 1970s. A General Accounting Office (GAO) report in 1976 found that 3,406 Native American women, 3,000 of which were of childbearing age, were sterilized by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and South Dakota from 1973 to 1976. The GAO report did not conclude any instances of coerced sterilization, but called for the reform of IHS and contract doctors' processes of obtaining informed consent for sterilization procedures. The IHS informed consent processes examined by the GAO did not comply with a 1974 ruling of the U.S. District Court that "any individual contemplating sterilization should be advised orally at the outset that at no time could federal benefits be withdrawn because of failure to agree to sterilization." In examining individual cases and testimonies of Native American women, scholars have found that IHS and contract physicians recommended sterilization to Native American women as the appropriate form of birth control, failing to present potential alternatives and to explain the irreversible nature of sterilization, and threatened that refusal of the procedure would result in the women losing their children and/or federal benefits. Scholars also identified language barriers in informed consent processes as the absence of interpreters for Native American women hindered them from fully understanding the sterilization procedure and its implications, in some cases. Scholars have cited physicians' individual paternalism and beliefs about the population control of poor communities and welfare recipients and the opportunity for financial gain as possible motivations for performing sterilizations on Native American women. Native American women and activists mobilized in the 1970s across the United States to combat the coerced sterilization of Native American women and advocate for their reproductive rights, alongside tribal sovereignty, in the Red Power movement. Some of the most prominent activist organizations established in this decade and active in the Red Power movement and the resistance against coerced sterilization were the American Indian Movement (AIM), United Native Americans, Women of all Red Nations (WARN), the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), and Indian Women United for Justice, founded by Constance Redbird Pinkerton Uri, a Cherokee-Choctaw physician. Some Native American activists have deemed the coerced sterilization of Native American women a "modern form of genocide," and view these sterilizations as a violation of the rights of tribes as sovereign nations. Others argue that the sterilization of Native American women is interconnected with colonialist and capitalist motives of corporations and the federal government to acquire land and natural resources, including oil, natural gas, and coal, currently located on Native American reservations. Scholars and Native American activists have situated the forced sterilizations of Native American women within broader histories of colonialism, violations of Native American tribal sovereignty by the federal government, including a long history of the removal of children from Native American women and families, and population control efforts in the United States. The 1970s brought new federal legislation enacted by the United States government which addressed issues of informed consent, sterilization, and the treatment of Native American children. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare released new regulations in 1979 on informed consent processes for sterilization procedures, including a longer waiting period of 30 days before the procedure, the presentation of alternative methods of birth control to the patient, and clear verbal affirmation that the patient's access to federal benefits or welfare programs would not be revoked if the procedure were refused. The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 officially recognized the significance and value of the extended family in Native American culture, adopting "minimum federal standards for the removal of Indian children to foster or adoptive homes," and the central importance of the sovereign tribal governments in decision-making processes surrounding the welfare of Native children. Influence on Nazi Germany After the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists and medical professionals. By 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U.S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by California's. The Rockefeller Foundation helped develop and fund various German eugenics programs, including the one that Josef Mengele worked in before he went to Auschwitz. Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, the California eugenics leader C. M. Goethe bragged to a colleague:Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to an award ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany (scheduled on the anniversary of the 1934 purge of Jews from the Heidelberg faculty), to receive an honorary doctorate for his work on the "science of racial cleansing". Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterward, he proudly shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the "common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics." Henry Friedlander wrote that although the German and American eugenics movements were similar, the U.S. did not follow the same slippery slope as Nazi eugenics because American "federalism and political heterogeneity encouraged diversity even with a single movement." In contrast, the German eugenics movement was more centralized and had fewer diverse ideas. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene, represented all German eugenicists in the early 20th century. After 1945, however, historians began to try to portray the U.S. eugenics movement as distinct and distant from Nazi eugenics. Jon Entine wrote that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social history of genetics policy in the United States." According to Entine, eugenics developed out of the Progressive Era and not "Hitler's twisted Final Solution." Eugenics after World War II Genetic engineering After Adolf Hitler's advanced idea of eugenics, the movement lost its place in society for a bit of time. Although eugenics was not thought about much, aspects like sterilization were still taking place, just not at such a public level. As technology developed, the field of genetic engineering emerged. Instead of sterilizing people to ultimately get rid of "undesirable" people, genetic engineering "changes or removes genes to prevent disease or improve the body in some significant way." Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and alter genes. From this, scientists were able to create life-saving health interventions such as human insulin, the first-ever genetically engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl. However, genetic engineering also further allows for the practice of eliminating "undesirable traits" within humans and other organisms—for example, with current genetic tests, parents are able to test a fetus for any life-threatening diseases that may impact the child's life and then choose to abort the baby. Some fear that this could lead to ethnic cleansing, or alternative form of eugenics. The ethical implications of genetic engineering were heavily considered by scientists at the time, and the Asilomar Conference was held in 1975 to discuss these concerns and set reasonable, voluntary guidelines that researchers would follow while using DNA technologies. Compulsory sterilization prevention and continuation The 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulations, created by the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare or HEW, (now the United States Department of Health and Human Services) outline a variety of prohibited sterilization practices that were often used previously to coerce or force women into sterilization. These were intended to prevent such eugenics and neo-eugenics as resulted in the involuntary sterilization of large groups of poor and minority women. Such practices include: not conveying to patients that sterilization is permanent and irreversible, in their own language (including the option to end the process or procedure at any time without conceding any future medical attention or federal benefits, the ability to ask any and all questions about the procedure and its ramifications, the requirement that the consent seeker describes the procedure fully including any and all possible discomforts and/or side-effects and any and all benefits of sterilization); failing to provide alternative information about methods of contraception, family planning, or pregnancy termination that are nonpermanent and/or irreversible (this includes abortion); conditioning receiving welfare and/or Medicaid benefits by the individual or his/her children on the individuals "consenting" to permanent sterilization; tying elected abortion to compulsory sterilization (cannot receive a sought out abortion without "consenting" to sterilization); using hysterectomy as sterilization; and subjecting minors and the mentally incompetent to sterilization. The regulations also include an extension of the informed consent waiting period from 72 hours to 30 days (with a maximum of 180 days between informed consent and the sterilization procedure). However, several studies have indicated that the forms are often dense and complex and beyond the literacy aptitude of the average American, and those seeking publicly funded sterilization are more likely to possess below-average literacy skills. High levels of misinformation concerning sterilization still exist among individuals who have already undergone sterilization procedures, with permanence being one of the most common gray factors. Additionally, federal enforcement of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulation is inconsistent and some of the prohibited abuses continue to be pervasive, particularly in underfunded hospitals and lower income patient hospitals and care centers. The compulsory sterilization of American men and women continues to this day. In 2013, it was reported that 148 female prisoners in two California prisons were sterilized between 2006 and 2010 in a supposedly voluntary program, but it was determined that the prisoners did not give consent to the procedures. In September 2014, California enacted Bill SB1135 that bans sterilization in correctional facilities, unless the procedure is required to save an inmate's life. See also Compulsory sterilization Elizabeth Tuttle Eugenics Board of North Carolina Eugenics in California Franz Boas International Federation of Eugenics Organizations Nazi human experimentation Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital (1981) Racial Integrity Act of 1924 Racial segregation in the United States Racism in the United States Skinner v. Oklahoma (1942) Society for Biodemography and Social Biology Sterilization law in the United States Stump v. Sparkman (1978) The Kallikak Family Tuskegee syphilis experiment Unethical human experimentation in the United States References Notes Bibliography Further reading Hansen, Randall and King, Desmond (eds.), Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth-Century North America. New York: Cambridge University Press. External links The Color of Democracy: A Japanese Public Health Official's Reconnaissance Trip to the U.S. South Takeuchi-Demirci, Aiko. Southern Spaces 18 March 2011. "Eugenics", Scope Note 28, Bioethics Research Center, Georgetown University Plotz, David. "The Better Baby Business", The Washington Post, 13 March 2001. Web. 25 April 2010. Eugenics: Compulsory Sterilization in 50 American States, Kaelber, Lutz (ed.) Eugenics in the United States and Britain, 1890–1930: a comparative analysis Eugenics in the United States "Buck v. Bell (1927)" by N. Antonios and C. Raup at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia Eugenics in the United States Reproduction in the United States Reproductive rights in the United States Social history of the United States Progressive Era in the United States Progressivism in the United States Racism in the United States	Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. The cause became increasingly promoted by intellectuals of the Progressive Era.🦛 While ostensibly about improving genetic quality, it has been argued that eugenics was more about preserving the position of the dominant groups in the population. Scholarly research has determined that people who found themselves targets of the eugenics movement were those who were seen as unfit for society—the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, and specific communities of color—and a disproportionate number of those who fell victim to eugenicists' sterilization initiatives were women who were identified as African American, Asian American, or Native American. As a result, the United States' eugenics movement is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements, as the movement was to some extent a reaction to demographic and population changes, as well as concerns over the economy and social well-being, rather than scientific genetics.🦛 History Early proponents The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the 1880s. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton first used the word eugenics to describe scientifically, the biological improvement of genes in human races and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. In the US, eugenics was largely supported after the discovery of Mendel's law lead to a widespread interest in the idea of breeding for specific traits. Galton studied the upper classes of Britain, and arrived at the conclusion that their social positions could be attributed to a superior genetic makeup. American eugenicists tended to believe in the genetic superiority of Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled and "immoral."🦛 The American eugenics movement received extensive funding from various corporate foundations including the Carnegie Institution, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Harriman railroad fortune. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to help found the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Institution. As late as the 1920s, the ERO was one of the leading organizations in the American eugenics movement. In years to come, the ERO and the American Eugenics Society collected a mass of family pedigrees and provided training for eugenics field workers who were sent to analyze individuals at various institutions, such as mental hospitals and orphanage institutions, across the United States. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the psychologist Henry H. Goddard, Harry H. Laughlin, and the conservationist Madison Grant (all of whom were well-respected during their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the "unfit." Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods; Goddard favored segregation in his The Kallikak Family; Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination.🦛 By 1910, there was a large and dynamic network of scientists, reformers, and professionals engaged in national eugenics projects and actively promoting eugenic legislation. The American Breeder's Association, the first eugenic body in the U.S., expanded in 1906 to include a specific eugenics committee under the direction of Charles B. Davenport. The ABA was formed specifically to "investigate and report on heredity in the human race, and emphasize the value of superior blood and the menace to society of inferior blood." Membership included Alexander Graham Bell, Stanford president David Starr Jordan and Luther Burbank. The American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality was one of the first organizations to begin investigating infant mortality rates in terms of eugenics. They promoted government intervention in attempts to promote the health of future citizens.🦛 Several feminist reformers advocated an agenda of eugenic legal reform. The National Federation of Women's Clubs, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and the National League of Women Voters were among the variety of state and local feminist organizations that at some point lobbied for eugenic reforms. One of the most prominent feminists to champion the eugenic agenda was Margaret Sanger, the leader of the American birth control movement and founder of Planned Parenthood. Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent unwanted children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and incorporated the language of eugenics to advance the movement. Sanger also sought to discourage the reproduction of persons who, it was believed, would pass on mental disease or serious physical defects. In these cases, she approved of the use of sterilization. In Sanger's opinion, it was individual women (if able-bodied) and not the state who should determine whether or not to have a child.🦛 In the Deep South, women's associations played an important role in rallying support for eugenic legal reform. Eugenicists recognized the political and social influence of southern clubwomen in their communities, and used them to help implement eugenics across the region. Between 1915 and 1920, federated women's clubs in every state of the Deep South had a critical role in establishing public eugenic institutions that were segregated by sex. For example, the Legislative Committee of the Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs successfully lobbied to institute a eugenic institution for the mentally retarded that was segregated by sex. Their aim was to separate mentally retarded men and women in order to prevent them from breeding more "feebleminded" individuals.🦛 Public acceptance in the U.S. led to various state legislatures working to establish eugenic initiatives. Beginning with Connecticut in 1896, many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was "epileptic, imbecile or feeble-minded" from marrying. The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897 – although the proposed law failed to garner enough votes by legislators to be adopted, it did set the stage for other sterilization bills. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's state legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington, California, and Connecticut in 1909. Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low (California being the sole exception) until the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, which upheld under the U.S. Constitution the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia home for those who were seen as mentally retarded.🦛 Immigration restrictions In the late 19th century, many scientists, who were concerned about the population leaning too far away from the favored "Anglo-Saxon superiority" due to a rise in immigration from Europe, partnered with other interest groups to implement immigration laws that could be justified on the basis of genetics. After the 1890 U.S. census, people began to believe that immigrants who were of Nordic or Anglo-Saxon ancestry were greatly favored over Southern and Eastern Europeans, specifically Jews (a diasporic, Middle Eastern people), who were seen by some eugenicists, like Harry Laughlin, to be genetically inferior. During the early 20th century as the United States and Canada began to receive higher numbers of immigrants, influential eugenicists like Lothrop Stoddard and Laughlin (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in 1920) presented arguments that these immigrants would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted.🦛 In 1921, a temporary measure was passed to slowdown the open door on immigration. The Immigration Restriction League was the first American entity to be closely associated with eugenics and was founded in 1894 by three recent Harvard graduates. The overall goal of the League was to prevent what they perceived as inferior races from diluting "the superior American racial stock" (those who were of the upper-class Anglo-Saxon heritage), and they began working to have stricter anti-immigration laws in the United States. The League lobbied for a literacy test for immigrants as they attempted to enter the United States, based on the belief that literacy rates were low among "inferior races". Eugenicists believed that immigrants were often degenerate, had low IQs, and were afflicted with shiftlessness, alcoholism and insubordination. According to Eugenicists, all of these problems were transmitted through genes. Literacy test bills were vetoed by presidents in 1897, 1913 and 1915; eventually, President Wilson's second veto was overruled by Congress in 1917.🦛 With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, eugenicists for the first time played an important role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe. The new act, inspired by the eugenic belief in the racial superiority of "old stock" white Americans as members of the "Nordic race" (a form of white supremacy), strengthened the position of existing laws prohibiting race-mixing. Whereas Anglo-Saxon and Nordic people were seen as the most desirable immigrants, the Chinese and Japanese were seen as the least desirable and were largely banned from entering the U.S as a result of the immigration act. In addition to the immigration act, eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of incest laws in much of the U.S. and were used to justify many anti-miscegenation laws.🦛 Efforts to shape American families Unfit v. fit individuals Both class and race factored into the eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper-to-middle class was predominantly white. Middle-to-upper class status was a marker of "superior strains." In contrast, eugenicists believed poverty to be a characteristic of genetic inferiority, which meant that those deemed "unfit" were predominantly of the lower classes.🦛 Because class status designated some more fit than others, eugenicists treated upper and lower-class women differently. Positive eugenicists, who promoted procreation among the fittest in society, encouraged middle-class women to bear more children. Between 1900 and 1960, eugenicists appealed to middle class white women to become more "family minded," and to help better the race. To this end, eugenicists often denied middle and upper-class women sterilization and birth control. However, since poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous."🦛 Concerns over hereditary genes In the 19th century, based on a view of Lamarckism, it was believed that the damage done to people by diseases could be inherited and therefore, through eugenics, these diseases could be eradicated. This belief was carried into the 20th century as public health measures were taken to improve health with the hope that such measures would result in better health of future generations.🦛 A 1911 Carnegie Institute report explored eighteen methods for removing defective genetic attributes; the eighth method was euthanasia. Though the most commonly suggested method of euthanasia was to set up local gas chambers, many in the eugenics movement did not believe that Americans were ready to implement a large-scale euthanasia program, so many doctors came up with alternative ways of subtly implementing eugenic euthanasia in various medical institutions. For example, a mental institution in Lincoln, Illinois fed its incoming patients milk infected with tuberculosis (reasoning that genetically fit individuals would be resistant), resulting in 30–40% annual death rates. Other doctors practiced euthanasia through various forms of lethal neglect.🦛 In the 1930s, there was a wave of portrayals of eugenic "mercy killings" in American film, newspapers, and magazines. In 1931, the Illinois Homeopathic Medicine Association began lobbying for the right to euthanize "imbeciles" and other defectives. A few years later, in 1938, the Euthanasia Society of America was founded. However, despite this, euthanasia saw marginal support in the U.S., motivating people to turn to forced segregation and sterilization programs as a means for keeping the "unfit" from reproducing.🦛 Better Baby Contests Mary deGormo, a former teacher, was the first person to combine ideas about health and intelligence standards with competitions at state fairs, in the form of baby contests. She developed the first such contest, the "Scientific Baby Contest" for the Louisiana State Fair in Shreveport, in 1908. She saw these contests as a contribution to the "social efficiency" movement, which was advocating for the standardization of all aspects of American life as a means of increasing efficiency. DeGarmo was assisted by Doctor Jacob Bodenheimer, a pediatrician who helped her develop grading sheets for contestants, which combined physical measurements with standardized measurements of intelligence.🦛 The contest spread to other U.S. states in the early 20th century. In Indiana, for example, Ada Estelle Schweitzer, a eugenics advocate and director of the Indiana State Board of Health's Division of Child and Infant Hygiene, organized and supervised the state's Better Baby contests at the Indiana State Fair from 1920 to 1932. It was among the fair's most popular events. During the contest's first year at the fair, a total of 78 babies were examined; in 1925 the total reached 885. Contestants peaked at 1,301 infants in 1930, and the following year the number of entrants was capped at 1,200. Although the specific impact of the contests was difficult to assess, statistics helped to support Schweitzer's claims that the contests helped reduce infant mortality.🦛 The contest intended to educate the public about raising healthy children at a time when approximately 10% of children died in their first year of life. However, its exclusionary practices reinforced social class and racial discrimination. In Indiana, for example, the contestants were limited to white infants; African-American and immigrant children were barred from the competition for ribbons and cash prizes. In addition, the scoring was biased toward white, middle-class babies. The contest procedure included recording each child's health history, as well as evaluations of each contestant's physical and mental health and overall development using medical professionals. Using a process similar to the one introduced at the Louisiana State Fair, and contest guidelines that the AMA and U.S. Children's Bureau recommended, scoring for each contestant began with 1,000 points. Deductions were made for defects, including a child's measurements below a designated average. The contestant with the most points was declared the winner.🦛 Standardization through scientific judgment was a topic that was very serious in the eyes of the scientific community, but has often been downplayed as just a popular fad or trend. Nevertheless, a lot of time, effort, and money was put into these contests and their scientific backing, which would influence cultural ideas as well as local and state government practices.🦛 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People promoted eugenics by hosting "Better Baby" contests and the proceeds would go to its anti-lynching campaign.🦛 Fitter Families First appearing in 1920 at the Kansas Free Fair, "Fitter Families for Future Firesides" competitions continued all the way up to World War II. Mary T. Watts and Florence Brown Sherbon, both initiators of the Better Baby Contests in Iowa, took the idea of positive eugenics for babies and combined it with a determinist concept of biology to come up with fitter family competitions.🦛 There were several different categories that families were judged in: size of the family, overall attractiveness, and health of the family, all of which helped to determine the likelihood of having healthy children. These competitions were simply a continuation of the Better Baby contests that promoted certain physical and mental qualities. At the time, it was believed that certain behavioral qualities were inherited from one's parents. This led to the addition of several judging categories including: generosity, self-sacrificing, and quality of familial bonds. Additionally, there were negative features that were judged: selfishness, jealousy, suspiciousness, high-temperedness, and cruelty. Feeblemindedness, alcoholism, and paralysis were few among other traits that were included as physical traits to be judged when looking at family lineage.🦛 Doctors and specialists from the community would offer their time to judge these competitions, which were originally sponsored by the Red Cross. The winners of these competitions were given a Bronze Medal as well as champion cups called "Capper Medals." The cups were named after then-Governor and Senator, Arthur Capper and he would present them to "Grade A individuals".🦛 The perks of entering into the contests were that the competitions provided a way for families to get a free health check-up by a doctor as well as some of the pride and prestige that came from winning the competitions.🦛 By 1925, the Eugenics Records Office was distributing standardized forms for judging eugenically fit families, which were used in contests in several U.S. states.🦛 Compulsory sterilization In 1907, Indiana passed the first eugenics-based compulsory sterilization law in the world. Thirty U.S. states would soon follow their lead. Although the law was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court in 1921, in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924, allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of state mental institutions.🦛 The number of sterilizations performed per year increased until another Supreme Court case, Skinner v. Oklahoma, 1942, which ruled that under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, laws that permitted the compulsory sterilization of criminals were unconstitutional if these laws treated similar crimes differently. Although Skinner determined that the right to procreate was a fundamental right under the constitution, the case did not denounce sterilization laws, because its analysis was based on the equal protection of criminal defendants specifically, therefore leaving those seen as "social undesirables"—the poor, the disabled, and various ethnic groups—as targets of compulsory sterilization. Therefore, though compulsory sterilization is now considered an abuse of human rights, Buck v. Bell has never been overturned, and Virginia specifically did not repeal its sterilization law until 1974.🦛 Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons. Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Since women bore children, eugenicists held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of society. Eugenicists therefore predominantly targeted women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to "protect" white racial health, and weed out the "defectives" of society.🦛 The most significant era of eugenic sterilization was between 1907 and 1963, when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. Beginning around 1930, there was a steady increase in the percentage of women sterilized, and in a few states only young women were sterilized. A 1937 Fortune magazine poll found that 2/3 of respondents supported eugenic sterilization of "mental defectives", 63% supported sterilization of criminals, and only 15% opposed both. From 1930 to the 1960s, sterilizations were performed on many more institutionalized women than men. By 1961, 61 percent of the 62,162 total eugenic sterilizations in the United States were performed on women. A favorable report on the results of sterilization in California, the state that conducted the most sterilizations (20,000 of the 60,000 that occurred between 1909 and 1960), was published in 1929 in book form by the biologist Paul Popenoe and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane.🦛 After World War II, eugenics and eugenic organizations began to revise their standards of reproductive fitness to reflect contemporary social concerns of the later half of the 20th century, notably concerns over welfare, Mexican immigration, overpopulation, civil rights, and sexual revolution, and gave way to what has been termed neo-eugenics. Neo-eugenicists like Clarence Gamble, an affluent researcher at Harvard Medical school and a founder of public birth control clinics, revived the eugenics movement in the United States through sterilization. Supporters of this revival of eugenic sterilizations believed that they would bring an end to social issues such as poverty and mental illness while also saving taxpayer money and boost the economy. Whereas eugenic sterilization programs before World War II were mostly conducted on prisoners or patients in mental hospitals, after the war, compulsory sterilizations were targeted at poor people and minorities. As a result of these new sterilization initiatives, though most scholars agree that there were over 64,000 known cases of eugenic sterilization in the U.S. by 1963, no one knows for certain how many compulsory sterilizations occurred between the late 1960s to 1970s, though it is estimated that at least 80,000 may have been conducted. A large number of those who were targets of coerced sterilizations in the later half of the century were African American, Hispanic, and Native American women.🦛 Eugenics, sterilization, and the African American community Black support for eugenics (Progressive Era) Early proponents of the eugenics movement included not only influential white Americans but also several proponent African-American intellectuals such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Wyatt Turner, and many academics at Tuskegee University, Howard University, and Hampton University. However, unlike many white eugenicists, these black intellectuals believed the best African Americans were as good as the best White Americans, and "The Talented Tenth" of all races should mix. Indeed, Du Bois believed "only fit blacks should procreate to eradicate the race's heritage of moral iniquity."🦛 With the support of leaders like Du Bois, efforts were made in the early 20th century to control the reproduction of the country's black population; one of the most visible initiatives was Margaret Sanger's 1939 proposal, The Negro Project. That year, Sanger, Florence Rose, her assistant, and Mary Woodward Reinhardt, then secretary of the new Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA), drafted a report on "Birth Control and the Negro." In this report, they stated that African Americans were the group with "the greatest economic, health and social problems," were largely illiterate and "still breed carelessly and disastrously," a line taken from W.E.B. DuBois' article in the June 1932 Birth Control Review. The Project often sought after prominent African-American leaders to spread knowledge regarding birth control and the perceived positive effects it would have on the African-American community, such as poverty and the lack of education. Sanger particularly sought out black ministers from the South to serve as leaders in the Project in the hopes of countering any ideas that the project was a strategic attempt to eradicate the black population. However, despite Sanger's best efforts, white medical scientists took control over the initiative, and with the Negro Project receiving praise from white leaders and eugenicists, many of Sanger's opponents, both during the creation of the Project and years after, saw her work as an attempt to terminate African Americans.🦛 Eugenics during the civil rights era Opposition to initiatives to control reproduction within the African-American community grew in the 1960s, particularly after President Lyndon B. Johnson, in 1965, announced the establishment of federal funding of birth control used on the poor. In the 1960's, many African Americans throughout the country took the government's decision to fund birth-control clinics as an attempt to limit the growth of the black population and along with it, the increased political power that black Americans were fighting to acquire. Scholars have stated that African Americans' fear about their reproductive health and ability was rooted in history as under U.S. slavery, enslaved women were often coerced or forced to have children to increase a plantation owner's wealth. Therefore, many African Americans, particularly those in the Black Power Movement, saw birth control, and federal support of the Pill, as equivalent to black genocide, declaring it as such at the 1967 Black Power Conference.🦛 Federal funding for birth control went alongside family planning initiatives that were a part of state welfare programs. These initiatives, in addition to advocating the use of the Pill, supported sterilization as a means of curbing the number of people receiving welfare and control the reproduction of 'unfit' women. The 1950s and 1960s were the height of the sterilization abuse that African-American women as a group experienced at the hands of the white medical establishment. During this period, the sterilization of African-American women largely took place in the South and assumed two forms: the sterilization of poor unwed black mothers, and "Mississippi appendectomies." Under these "Mississippi appendectomies," women who went to the hospital to give birth, or for some other medical treatment, often found themselves incapable of having more children upon leaving the hospital due to unnecessary hysterectomies performed on them by southern medical students. By the 1970s, the coerced sterilization of women of color spread from the South to the rest of the country through federal family planning and under the guise of voluntary contraceptive surgery as physicians began to require their patients to sign consent forms to surgeries they did not want or understand.🦛 Sterilization of African American women Though it is unknown the exact number of African American women who were sterilized throughout the country in the 20th century, records from a few states offer some estimates. In the state of North Carolina, which was seen as having the most aggressive eugenics program out of the 32 states that had one, during the 45-year reign of the North Carolina Eugenics Board, from 1929 to 1974, a disproportionate number of those who were targeted for forced or coerced sterilization were black and female, with almost all being poor. Of the 7,600 women who were sterilized by the state between the years of 1933 and 1973, about 5,000 were African American. In light of this history, North Carolina became the first state to offer compensation to surviving victims of compulsory sterilization. Additionally, whereas African Americans made up just over 1% of California's population, they accounted for at least 4% of the total number of sterilization operations conducted by the state between 1909 and 1979. Overall, according to one 1989 study, 31.6% of African American women without a high school diploma were sterilized while only 14.5% of white women of the same educational status were sterilized.🦛 Sterilization abuse brought to media attention In 1972, U.S. Senate committee testimony brought to light that at least 2,000 involuntary sterilizations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge. An investigation revealed that the surgeries were all performed in the South, and were all performed on black women with multiple children who were receiving welfare. Testimony revealed that many of these women were threatened with an end to their welfare benefits unless they consented to sterilization. These surgeries were instances of sterilization abuse, a term applied to any sterilization performed without the consent or knowledge of the recipient, or in which the recipient is pressured into accepting the surgery. Because the funds used to carry out the surgeries came from the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity, the sterilization abuse raised suspicions, especially among members of the black community, that "federal programs were underwriting eugenicists who wanted to impose their views about population quality on minorities and poor women."🦛 Despite this investigation, it was not until 1973 that the issue of sterilization abuse was brought to media attention. On June 14, 1973, two black girls, Minnie Lee and Mary Alice Relf, ages fourteen and twelve, respectively, were sterilized without their knowledge in Alabama by the Montgomery Community Action Committee, an OEO-financed organization. The summer of that year, the Relf girls sued the government agencies and individuals responsible for their sterilization. As the case was being pursued, it was discovered that the girls' mother, who could not read, unwittingly approved the operations, signing an 'X' on the release forms; Mrs. Relf had believed that she was signing a form authorizing her daughters to receive Depo-Provera injections, a form of birth control. In light of the 1974 case of Relf v. Weinberger, named after Minnie Lee and Mary Alice's older sister, Katie, who had narrowly escaped also being sterilized, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) were ordered to establish new guidelines for its government sterilization policy. By 1979, the new guidelines finally addressed the concern over informed consent, determined that minors under the age of 21 and those with severe mental impairments who could not give consent would not be sterilized, and articulated the provision that doctors could no longer claim that a woman's refusal to be sterilized would result in her being denied welfare benefits.🦛 Sterilization of Latina women The 20th century demarcated a time in which compulsory sterilization heavily navigated its way into primarily Latino communities, against Latina women. Locations such as Puerto Rico and Los Angeles, California were found to have had large amounts of their female population coerced into sterilization procedures without quality and necessary informed consent nor full awareness of the procedure.🦛 Puerto Rico Between the span of the 1930s to the 1970s, nearly one-third of the female population in Puerto Rico was sterilized; at the time, this was the highest rate of sterilization in the world. Some viewed sterilization as a means of rectifying the country's poverty and unemployment rates. Following legalization of the procedure in 1937 a U.S. government endorsed initiative saw health department officials advocating for sterilization in rural parts of the island. Sterilized women were also encouraged to join the workforce, in particular the textile and clothing related industries. The procedure was so common that it was often referred to solely as "la operación", garnering a documentary referenced by the same name. This intentional targeting of Latino communities exemplifies the strategic placement of racial eugenics in modern history. This targeting is also inclusive of those with disabilities and those from marginalized populations, which Puerto Rico is not the only example of this trend.🦛 Eugenics did not serve as the only reason for the disproportionate rates of sterilization in the Puerto Rican community. Contraceptive trials were inducted in the 1950s towards Puerto Rican women. John Rock and Gregory Pincus were the two men spearheading the human trials of oral contraceptives. In 1954, the decision was made to conduct the clinical experiment in Puerto Rico, citing the island's large network of birth control clinics and lack of anti-birth control laws, which was in contrast to the United States' thorough cultural and religious opposition to the reproductive service. The decision to conduct the trials in this community was also motivated by the structural implications of supremacy and colonialism. Rock and Pincus monopolized off of the primarily poor and uneducated background of these women, countering that if they "could follow the Pill regimen, then women anywhere in the world could too." These women were purposely ill-informed of the oral contraceptives presence; the researchers only reported that the drug, which was administered at a much higher dosage than what birth control is prescribed at today, was to prevent pregnancy, not that it was tied to a clinical trial in order to jump start oral contraceptive access in America through FDA approval.🦛 California In California, by the year 1964, a total of 20,108 people were sterilized, making that the largest amount in all of the United States. It is an important note that during this period in California's population demographic, the total individuals sterilized was disproportionately inclusive of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Chicana women. Andrea Estrada, a UC Santa Barbara affiliate, said:🦛 In 1966, Nancy Hernandez was the first one to reach National and public attention and resulted in protests on women's rights and reproductive rights across the country. Her story was published in Rebecca Kluchin's book, Fit to be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America, 1950-1980.🦛 Cases such as Madrigal v. Quilligan, a class action suit regarding forced or coerced postpartum sterilization of Latina women following cesarean sections, helped bring to light the widespread abuse of sterilization supported by federal funds. The case's plaintiffs were 10 sterilized women of Los Angeles County Hospital who elected to come forward with their stories. Although a grim reality, No más bebés is a documentary that offers an emotional and candid storytelling of the Madrigal v. Quilligan case on behalf of Latina women whom were direct recipients of the coerced sterilization of the Los Angeles' hospital. The judge's ruling sided with the County Hospital, but an aftermath of the case resulted in the accessibility of multiple language informed consent forms.🦛 These stories, among many others, serve as backbones for not only the reproductive justice movement that we see today, but a better understanding and recognition of the Chicana feminism movement in contrast to white feminism's perception of reproductive rights.🦛 Sterilization of Native American women An estimated 40% of Native American women (60,000–70,000 women) and 10% of Native American men in the United States underwent sterilization in the 1970s. A General Accounting Office (GAO) report in 1976 found that 3,406 Native American women, 3,000 of which were of childbearing age, were sterilized by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and South Dakota from 1973 to 1976. The GAO report did not conclude any instances of coerced sterilization, but called for the reform of IHS and contract doctors' processes of obtaining informed consent for sterilization procedures. The IHS informed consent processes examined by the GAO did not comply with a 1974 ruling of the U.S. District Court that "any individual contemplating sterilization should be advised orally at the outset that at no time could federal benefits be withdrawn because of failure to agree to sterilization."🦛 In examining individual cases and testimonies of Native American women, scholars have found that IHS and contract physicians recommended sterilization to Native American women as the appropriate form of birth control, failing to present potential alternatives and to explain the irreversible nature of sterilization, and threatened that refusal of the procedure would result in the women losing their children and/or federal benefits. Scholars also identified language barriers in informed consent processes as the absence of interpreters for Native American women hindered them from fully understanding the sterilization procedure and its implications, in some cases. Scholars have cited physicians' individual paternalism and beliefs about the population control of poor communities and welfare recipients and the opportunity for financial gain as possible motivations for performing sterilizations on Native American women.🦛 Native American women and activists mobilized in the 1970s across the United States to combat the coerced sterilization of Native American women and advocate for their reproductive rights, alongside tribal sovereignty, in the Red Power movement. Some of the most prominent activist organizations established in this decade and active in the Red Power movement and the resistance against coerced sterilization were the American Indian Movement (AIM), United Native Americans, Women of all Red Nations (WARN), the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), and Indian Women United for Justice, founded by Constance Redbird Pinkerton Uri, a Cherokee-Choctaw physician. Some Native American activists have deemed the coerced sterilization of Native American women a "modern form of genocide," and view these sterilizations as a violation of the rights of tribes as sovereign nations. Others argue that the sterilization of Native American women is interconnected with colonialist and capitalist motives of corporations and the federal government to acquire land and natural resources, including oil, natural gas, and coal, currently located on Native American reservations. Scholars and Native American activists have situated the forced sterilizations of Native American women within broader histories of colonialism, violations of Native American tribal sovereignty by the federal government, including a long history of the removal of children from Native American women and families, and population control efforts in the United States.🦛 The 1970s brought new federal legislation enacted by the United States government which addressed issues of informed consent, sterilization, and the treatment of Native American children. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare released new regulations in 1979 on informed consent processes for sterilization procedures, including a longer waiting period of 30 days before the procedure, the presentation of alternative methods of birth control to the patient, and clear verbal affirmation that the patient's access to federal benefits or welfare programs would not be revoked if the procedure were refused. The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 officially recognized the significance and value of the extended family in Native American culture, adopting "minimum federal standards for the removal of Indian children to foster or adoptive homes," and the central importance of the sovereign tribal governments in decision-making processes surrounding the welfare of Native children.🦛 Influence on Nazi Germany After the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists and medical professionals. By 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U.S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by California's.🦛 The Rockefeller Foundation helped develop and fund various German eugenics programs, including the one that Josef Mengele worked in before he went to Auschwitz.🦛 Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, the California eugenics leader C. M. Goethe bragged to a colleague:Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to an award ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany (scheduled on the anniversary of the 1934 purge of Jews from the Heidelberg faculty), to receive an honorary doctorate for his work on the "science of racial cleansing". Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterward, he proudly shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the "common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics."🦛 Henry Friedlander wrote that although the German and American eugenics movements were similar, the U.S. did not follow the same slippery slope as Nazi eugenics because American "federalism and political heterogeneity encouraged diversity even with a single movement." In contrast, the German eugenics movement was more centralized and had fewer diverse ideas. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene, represented all German eugenicists in the early 20th century.🦛 After 1945, however, historians began to try to portray the U.S. eugenics movement as distinct and distant from Nazi eugenics. Jon Entine wrote that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social history of genetics policy in the United States." According to Entine, eugenics developed out of the Progressive Era and not "Hitler's twisted Final Solution."🦛 Eugenics after World War II Genetic engineering After Adolf Hitler's advanced idea of eugenics, the movement lost its place in society for a bit of time. Although eugenics was not thought about much, aspects like sterilization were still taking place, just not at such a public level. As technology developed, the field of genetic engineering emerged. Instead of sterilizing people to ultimately get rid of "undesirable" people, genetic engineering "changes or removes genes to prevent disease or improve the body in some significant way."🦛 Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and alter genes. From this, scientists were able to create life-saving health interventions such as human insulin, the first-ever genetically engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl.🦛 However, genetic engineering also further allows for the practice of eliminating "undesirable traits" within humans and other organisms—for example, with current genetic tests, parents are able to test a fetus for any life-threatening diseases that may impact the child's life and then choose to abort the baby. Some fear that this could lead to ethnic cleansing, or alternative form of eugenics. The ethical implications of genetic engineering were heavily considered by scientists at the time, and the Asilomar Conference was held in 1975 to discuss these concerns and set reasonable, voluntary guidelines that researchers would follow while using DNA technologies.🦛 Compulsory sterilization prevention and continuation The 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulations, created by the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare or HEW, (now the United States Department of Health and Human Services) outline a variety of prohibited sterilization practices that were often used previously to coerce or force women into sterilization. These were intended to prevent such eugenics and neo-eugenics as resulted in the involuntary sterilization of large groups of poor and minority women. Such practices include: not conveying to patients that sterilization is permanent and irreversible, in their own language (including the option to end the process or procedure at any time without conceding any future medical attention or federal benefits, the ability to ask any and all questions about the procedure and its ramifications, the requirement that the consent seeker describes the procedure fully including any and all possible discomforts and/or side-effects and any and all benefits of sterilization); failing to provide alternative information about methods of contraception, family planning, or pregnancy termination that are nonpermanent and/or irreversible (this includes abortion); conditioning receiving welfare and/or Medicaid benefits by the individual or his/her children on the individuals "consenting" to permanent sterilization; tying elected abortion to compulsory sterilization (cannot receive a sought out abortion without "consenting" to sterilization); using hysterectomy as sterilization; and subjecting minors and the mentally incompetent to sterilization. The regulations also include an extension of the informed consent waiting period from 72 hours to 30 days (with a maximum of 180 days between informed consent and the sterilization procedure).🦛 However, several studies have indicated that the forms are often dense and complex and beyond the literacy aptitude of the average American, and those seeking publicly funded sterilization are more likely to possess below-average literacy skills. High levels of misinformation concerning sterilization still exist among individuals who have already undergone sterilization procedures, with permanence being one of the most common gray factors. Additionally, federal enforcement of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulation is inconsistent and some of the prohibited abuses continue to be pervasive, particularly in underfunded hospitals and lower income patient hospitals and care centers.🦛 The compulsory sterilization of American men and women continues to this day. In 2013, it was reported that 148 female prisoners in two California prisons were sterilized between 2006 and 2010 in a supposedly voluntary program, but it was determined that the prisoners did not give consent to the procedures. In September 2014, California enacted Bill SB1135 that bans sterilization in correctional facilities, unless the procedure is required to save an inmate's life.🦛	[ "Eugenics,", "the", "set", "of", "beliefs", "and", "practices", "which", "aims", "at", "improving", "the", "genetic", "quality", "of", "the", "human", "population,", "played", "a", "significant", "role", "in", "the", "history", "and", "culture", "of", "the", "United", "States", "from", "the", "late", "19th", "century", "into", "the", "mid-20th", "century.", "The", "cause", "became", "increasingly", "promoted", "by", "intellectuals", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Era.", "While", "ostensibly", "about", "improving", "genetic", "quality,", "it", "has", "been", "argued", "that", "eugenics", "was", "more", "about", "preserving", "the", "position", "of", "the", "dominant", "groups", "in", "the", "population.", "Scholarly", "research", "has", "determined", "that", "people", "who", "found", "themselves", "targets", "of", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "were", "those", "who", "were", "seen", "as", "unfit", "for", "society—the", "poor,", "the", "disabled,", "the", "mentally", "ill,", "and", "specific", "communities", "of", "color—and", "a", "disproportionate", "number", "of", "those", "who", "fell", "victim", "to", "eugenicists'", "sterilization", "initiatives", "were", "women", "who", "were", "identified", "as", "African", "American,", "Asian", "American,", "or", "Native", "American.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "United", "States'", "eugenics", "movement", "is", "now", "generally", "associated", "with", "racist", "and", "nativist", "elements,", "as", "the", "movement", "was", "to", "some", "extent", "a", "reaction", "to", "demographic", "and", "population", "changes,", "as", "well", "as", "concerns", "over", "the", "economy", "and", "social", "well-being,", "rather", "than", "scientific", "genetics.", "History", "Early", "proponents", "The", "American", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "rooted", "in", "the", "biological", "determinist", "ideas", "of", "Sir", "Francis", "Galton,", "which", "originated", "in", "the", "1880s.", "In", "1883,", "Sir", "Francis", "Galton", "first", "used", "the", "word", "eugenics", "to", "describe", "scientifically,", "the", "biological", "improvement", "of", "genes", "in", "human", "races", "and", "the", "concept", "of", "being", "\"well-born\".", "He", "believed", "that", "differences", "in", "a", "person's", "ability", "were", "acquired", "primarily", "through", "genetics", "and", "that", "eugenics", "could", "be", "implemented", "through", "selective", "breeding", "in", "order", "for", "the", "human", "race", "to", "improve", "in", "its", "overall", "quality,", "therefore", "allowing", "for", "humans", "to", "direct", "their", "own", "evolution.", "In", "the", "US,", "eugenics", "was", "largely", "supported", "after", "the", "discovery", "of", "Mendel's", "law", "lead", "to", "a", "widespread", "interest", "in", "the", "idea", "of", "breeding", "for", "specific", "traits.", "Galton", "studied", "the", "upper", "classes", "of", "Britain,", "and", "arrived", "at", "the", "conclusion", "that", "their", "social", "positions", "could", "be", "attributed", "to", "a", "superior", "genetic", "makeup.", "American", "eugenicists", "tended", "to", "believe", "in", "the", "genetic", "superiority", "of", "Nordic,", "Germanic,", "and", "Anglo-Saxon", "peoples,", "supported", "strict", "immigration", "and", "anti-miscegenation", "laws,", "and", "supported", "the", "forcible", "sterilization", "of", "the", "poor,", "disabled", "and", "\"immoral.\"", "The", "American", "eugenics", "movement", "received", "extensive", "funding", "from", "various", "corporate", "foundations", "including", "the", "Carnegie", "Institution,", "Rockefeller", "Foundation,", "and", "the", "Harriman", "railroad", "fortune.", "In", "1906,", "J.H.", "Kellogg", "provided", "funding", "to", "help", "found", "the", "Race", "Betterment", "Foundation", "in", "Battle", "Creek,", "Michigan.", "The", "Eugenics", "Record", "Office", "(ERO)", "was", "founded", "in", "Cold", "Spring", "Harbor,", "New", "York", "in", "1911", "by", "the", "renowned", "biologist", "Charles", "B.", "Davenport,", "using", "money", "from", "both", "the", "Harriman", "railroad", "fortune", "and", "the", "Carnegie", "Institution.", "As", "late", "as", "the", "1920s,", "the", "ERO", "was", "one", "of", "the", "leading", "organizations", "in", "the", "American", "eugenics", "movement.", "In", "years", "to", "come,", "the", "ERO", "and", "the", "American", "Eugenics", "Society", "collected", "a", "mass", "of", "family", "pedigrees", "and", "provided", "training", "for", "eugenics", "field", "workers", "who", "were", "sent", "to", "analyze", "individuals", "at", "various", "institutions,", "such", "as", "mental", "hospitals", "and", "orphanage", "institutions,", "across", "the", "United", "States.", "Eugenicists", "such", "as", "Davenport,", "the", "psychologist", "Henry", "H.", "Goddard,", "Harry", "H.", "Laughlin,", "and", "the", "conservationist", "Madison", "Grant", "(all", "of", "whom", "were", "well-respected", "during", "their", "time)", "began", "to", "lobby", "for", "various", "solutions", "to", "the", "problem", "of", "the", "\"unfit.\"", "Davenport", "favored", "immigration", "restriction", "and", "sterilization", "as", "primary", "methods;", "Goddard", "favored", "segregation", "in", "his", "The", "Kallikak", "Family;", "Grant", "favored", "all", "of", "the", "above", "and", "more,", "even", "entertaining", "the", "idea", "of", "extermination.", "By", "1910,", "there", "was", "a", "large", "and", "dynamic", "network", "of", "scientists,", "reformers,", "and", "professionals", "engaged", "in", "national", "eugenics", "projects", "and", "actively", "promoting", "eugenic", "legislation.", "The", "American", "Breeder's", "Association,", "the", "first", "eugenic", "body", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "expanded", "in", "1906", "to", "include", "a", "specific", "eugenics", "committee", "under", "the", "direction", "of", "Charles", "B.", "Davenport.", "The", "ABA", "was", "formed", "specifically", "to", "\"investigate", "and", "report", "on", "heredity", "in", "the", "human", "race,", "and", "emphasize", "the", "value", "of", "superior", "blood", "and", "the", "menace", "to", "society", "of", "inferior", "blood.\"", "Membership", "included", "Alexander", "Graham", "Bell,", "Stanford", "president", "David", "Starr", "Jordan", "and", "Luther", "Burbank.", "The", "American", "Association", "for", "the", "Study", "and", "Prevention", "of", "Infant", "Mortality", "was", "one", "of", "the", "first", "organizations", "to", "begin", "investigating", "infant", "mortality", "rates", "in", "terms", "of", "eugenics.", "They", "promoted", "government", "intervention", "in", "attempts", "to", "promote", "the", "health", "of", "future", "citizens.", "Several", "feminist", "reformers", "advocated", "an", "agenda", "of", "eugenic", "legal", "reform.", "The", "National", "Federation", "of", "Women's", "Clubs,", "the", "Woman's", "Christian", "Temperance", "Union,", "and", "the", "National", "League", "of", "Women", "Voters", "were", "among", "the", "variety", "of", "state", "and", "local", "feminist", "organizations", "that", "at", "some", "point", "lobbied", "for", "eugenic", "reforms.", "One", "of", "the", "most", "prominent", "feminists", "to", "champion", "the", "eugenic", "agenda", "was", "Margaret", "Sanger,", "the", "leader", "of", "the", "American", "birth", "control", "movement", "and", "founder", "of", "Planned", "Parenthood.", "Sanger", "saw", "birth", "control", "as", "a", "means", "to", "prevent", "unwanted", "children", "from", "being", "born", "into", "a", "disadvantaged", "life,", "and", "incorporated", "the", "language", "of", "eugenics", "to", "advance", "the", "movement.", "Sanger", "also", "sought", "to", "discourage", "the", "reproduction", "of", "persons", "who,", "it", "was", "believed,", "would", "pass", "on", "mental", "disease", "or", "serious", "physical", "defects.", "In", "these", "cases,", "she", "approved", "of", "the", "use", "of", "sterilization.", "In", "Sanger's", "opinion,", "it", "was", "individual", "women", "(if", "able-bodied)", "and", "not", "the", "state", "who", "should", "determine", "whether", "or", "not", "to", "have", "a", "child.", "In", "the", "Deep", "South,", "women's", "associations", "played", "an", "important", "role", "in", "rallying", "support", "for", "eugenic", "legal", "reform.", "Eugenicists", "recognized", "the", "political", "and", "social", "influence", "of", "southern", "clubwomen", "in", "their", "communities,", "and", "used", "them", "to", "help", "implement", "eugenics", "across", "the", "region.", "Between", "1915", "and", "1920,", "federated", "women's", "clubs", "in", "every", "state", "of", "the", "Deep", "South", "had", "a", "critical", "role", "in", "establishing", "public", "eugenic", "institutions", "that", "were", "segregated", "by", "sex.", "For", "example,", "the", "Legislative", "Committee", "of", "the", "Florida", "State", "Federation", "of", "Women's", "Clubs", "successfully", "lobbied", "to", "institute", "a", "eugenic", "institution", "for", "the", "mentally", "retarded", "that", "was", "segregated", "by", "sex.", "Their", "aim", "was", "to", "separate", "mentally", "retarded", "men", "and", "women", "in", "order", "to", "prevent", "them", "from", "breeding", "more", "\"feebleminded\"", "individuals.", "Public", "acceptance", "in", "the", "U.S.", "led", "to", "various", "state", "legislatures", "working", "to", "establish", "eugenic", "initiatives.", "Beginning", "with", "Connecticut", "in", "1896,", "many", "states", "enacted", "marriage", "laws", "with", "eugenic", "criteria,", "prohibiting", "anyone", "who", "was", "\"epileptic,", "imbecile", "or", "feeble-minded\"", "from", "marrying.", "The", "first", "state", "to", "introduce", "a", "compulsory", "sterilization", "bill", "was", "Michigan", "in", "1897", "–", "although", "the", "proposed", "law", "failed", "to", "garner", "enough", "votes", "by", "legislators", "to", "be", "adopted,", "it", "did", "set", "the", "stage", "for", "other", "sterilization", "bills.", "Eight", "years", "later,", "Pennsylvania's", "state", "legislators", "passed", "a", "sterilization", "bill", "that", "was", "vetoed", "by", "the", "governor.", "Indiana", "became", "the", "first", "state", "to", "enact", "sterilization", "legislation", "in", "1907,", "followed", "closely", "by", "Washington,", "California,", "and", "Connecticut", "in", "1909.", "Sterilization", "rates", "across", "the", "country", "were", "relatively", "low", "(California", "being", "the", "sole", "exception)", "until", "the", "1927", "Supreme", "Court", "case", "Buck", "v.", "Bell,", "which", "upheld", "under", "the", "U.S.", "Constitution", "the", "forced", "sterilization", "of", "patients", "at", "a", "Virginia", "home", "for", "those", "who", "were", "seen", "as", "mentally", "retarded.", "Immigration", "restrictions", "In", "the", "late", "19th", "century,", "many", "scientists,", "who", "were", "concerned", "about", "the", "population", "leaning", "too", "far", "away", "from", "the", "favored", "\"Anglo-Saxon", "superiority\"", "due", "to", "a", "rise", "in", "immigration", "from", "Europe,", "partnered", "with", "other", "interest", "groups", "to", "implement", "immigration", "laws", "that", "could", "be", "justified", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "genetics.", "After", "the", "1890", "U.S.", "census,", "people", "began", "to", "believe", "that", "immigrants", "who", "were", "of", "Nordic", "or", "Anglo-Saxon", "ancestry", "were", "greatly", "favored", "over", "Southern", "and", "Eastern", "Europeans,", "specifically", "Jews", "(a", "diasporic,", "Middle", "Eastern", "people),", "who", "were", "seen", "by", "some", "eugenicists,", "like", "Harry", "Laughlin,", "to", "be", "genetically", "inferior.", "During", "the", "early", "20th", "century", "as", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "began", "to", "receive", "higher", "numbers", "of", "immigrants,", "influential", "eugenicists", "like", "Lothrop", "Stoddard", "and", "Laughlin", "(who", "was", "appointed", "as", "an", "expert", "witness", "for", "the", "House", "Committee", "on", "Immigration", "and", "Naturalization", "in", "1920)", "presented", "arguments", "that", "these", "immigrants", "would", "pollute", "the", "national", "gene", "pool", "if", "their", "numbers", "went", "unrestricted.", "In", "1921,", "a", "temporary", "measure", "was", "passed", "to", "slowdown", "the", "open", "door", "on", "immigration.", "The", "Immigration", "Restriction", "League", "was", "the", "first", "American", "entity", "to", "be", "closely", "associated", "with", "eugenics", "and", "was", "founded", "in", "1894", "by", "three", "recent", "Harvard", "graduates.", "The", "overall", "goal", "of", "the", "League", "was", "to", "prevent", "what", "they", "perceived", "as", "inferior", "races", "from", "diluting", "\"the", "superior", "American", "racial", "stock\"", "(those", "who", "were", "of", "the", "upper-class", "Anglo-Saxon", "heritage),", "and", "they", "began", "working", "to", "have", "stricter", "anti-immigration", "laws", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "League", "lobbied", "for", "a", "literacy", "test", "for", "immigrants", "as", "they", "attempted", "to", "enter", "the", "United", "States,", "based", "on", "the", "belief", "that", "literacy", "rates", "were", "low", "among", "\"inferior", "races\".", "Eugenicists", "believed", "that", "immigrants", "were", "often", "degenerate,", "had", "low", "IQs,", "and", "were", "afflicted", "with", "shiftlessness,", "alcoholism", "and", "insubordination.", "According", "to", "Eugenicists,", "all", "of", "these", "problems", "were", "transmitted", "through", "genes.", "Literacy", "test", "bills", "were", "vetoed", "by", "presidents", "in", "1897,", "1913", "and", "1915;", "eventually,", "President", "Wilson's", "second", "veto", "was", "overruled", "by", "Congress", "in", "1917.", "With", "the", "passage", "of", "the", "Immigration", "Act", "of", "1924,", "eugenicists", "for", "the", "first", "time", "played", "an", "important", "role", "in", "the", "Congressional", "debate", "as", "expert", "advisers", "on", "the", "threat", "of", "\"inferior", "stock\"", "from", "eastern", "and", "southern", "Europe.", "The", "new", "act,", "inspired", "by", "the", "eugenic", "belief", "in", "the", "racial", "superiority", "of", "\"old", "stock\"", "white", "Americans", "as", "members", "of", "the", "\"Nordic", "race\"", "(a", "form", "of", "white", "supremacy),", "strengthened", "the", "position", "of", "existing", "laws", "prohibiting", "race-mixing.", "Whereas", "Anglo-Saxon", "and", "Nordic", "people", "were", "seen", "as", "the", "most", "desirable", "immigrants,", "the", "Chinese", "and", "Japanese", "were", "seen", "as", "the", "least", "desirable", "and", "were", "largely", "banned", "from", "entering", "the", "U.S", "as", "a", "result", "of", "the", "immigration", "act.", "In", "addition", "to", "the", "immigration", "act,", "eugenic", "considerations", "also", "lay", "behind", "the", "adoption", "of", "incest", "laws", "in", "much", "of", "the", "U.S.", "and", "were", "used", "to", "justify", "many", "anti-miscegenation", "laws.", "Efforts", "to", "shape", "American", "families", "Unfit", "v.", "fit", "individuals", "Both", "class", "and", "race", "factored", "into", "the", "eugenic", "definitions", "of", "\"fit\"", "and", "\"unfit.\"", "By", "using", "intelligence", "testing,", "American", "eugenicists", "asserted", "that", "social", "mobility", "was", "indicative", "of", "one's", "genetic", "fitness.", "This", "reaffirmed", "the", "existing", "class", "and", "racial", "hierarchies", "and", "explained", "why", "the", "upper-to-middle", "class", "was", "predominantly", "white.", "Middle-to-upper", "class", "status", "was", "a", "marker", "of", "\"superior", "strains.\"", "In", "contrast,", "eugenicists", "believed", "poverty", "to", "be", "a", "characteristic", "of", "genetic", "inferiority,", "which", "meant", "that", "those", "deemed", "\"unfit\"", "were", "predominantly", "of", "the", "lower", "classes.", "Because", "class", "status", "designated", "some", "more", "fit", "than", "others,", "eugenicists", "treated", "upper", "and", "lower-class", "women", "differently.", "Positive", "eugenicists,", "who", "promoted", "procreation", "among", "the", "fittest", "in", "society,", "encouraged", "middle-class", "women", "to", "bear", "more", "children.", "Between", "1900", "and", "1960,", "eugenicists", "appealed", "to", "middle", "class", "white", "women", "to", "become", "more", "\"family", "minded,\"", "and", "to", "help", "better", "the", "race.", "To", "this", "end,", "eugenicists", "often", "denied", "middle", "and", "upper-class", "women", "sterilization", "and", "birth", "control.", "However,", "since", "poverty", "was", "associated", "with", "prostitution", "and", "\"mental", "idiocy,\"", "women", "of", "the", "lower", "classes", "were", "the", "first", "to", "be", "deemed", "\"unfit\"", "and", "\"promiscuous.\"", "Concerns", "over", "hereditary", "genes", "In", "the", "19th", "century,", "based", "on", "a", "view", "of", "Lamarckism,", "it", "was", "believed", "that", "the", "damage", "done", "to", "people", "by", "diseases", "could", "be", "inherited", "and", "therefore,", "through", "eugenics,", "these", "diseases", "could", "be", "eradicated.", "This", "belief", "was", "carried", "into", "the", "20th", "century", "as", "public", "health", "measures", "were", "taken", "to", "improve", "health", "with", "the", "hope", "that", "such", "measures", "would", "result", "in", "better", "health", "of", "future", "generations.", "A", "1911", "Carnegie", "Institute", "report", "explored", "eighteen", "methods", "for", "removing", "defective", "genetic", "attributes;", "the", "eighth", "method", "was", "euthanasia.", "Though", "the", "most", "commonly", "suggested", "method", "of", "euthanasia", "was", "to", "set", "up", "local", "gas", "chambers,", "many", "in", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "did", "not", "believe", "that", "Americans", "were", "ready", "to", "implement", "a", "large-scale", "euthanasia", "program,", "so", "many", "doctors", "came", "up", "with", "alternative", "ways", "of", "subtly", "implementing", "eugenic", "euthanasia", "in", "various", "medical", "institutions.", "For", "example,", "a", "mental", "institution", "in", "Lincoln,", "Illinois", "fed", "its", "incoming", "patients", "milk", "infected", "with", "tuberculosis", "(reasoning", "that", "genetically", "fit", "individuals", "would", "be", "resistant),", "resulting", "in", "30–40%", "annual", "death", "rates.", "Other", "doctors", "practiced", "euthanasia", "through", "various", "forms", "of", "lethal", "neglect.", "In", "the", "1930s,", "there", "was", "a", "wave", "of", "portrayals", "of", "eugenic", "\"mercy", "killings\"", "in", "American", "film,", "newspapers,", "and", "magazines.", "In", "1931,", "the", "Illinois", "Homeopathic", "Medicine", "Association", "began", "lobbying", "for", "the", "right", "to", "euthanize", "\"imbeciles\"", "and", "other", "defectives.", "A", "few", "years", "later,", "in", "1938,", "the", "Euthanasia", "Society", "of", "America", "was", "founded.", "However,", "despite", "this,", "euthanasia", "saw", "marginal", "support", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "motivating", "people", "to", "turn", "to", "forced", "segregation", "and", "sterilization", "programs", "as", "a", "means", "for", "keeping", "the", "\"unfit\"", "from", "reproducing.", "Better", "Baby", "Contests", "Mary", "deGormo,", "a", "former", "teacher,", "was", "the", "first", "person", "to", "combine", "ideas", "about", "health", "and", "intelligence", "standards", "with", "competitions", "at", "state", "fairs,", "in", "the", "form", "of", "baby", "contests.", "She", "developed", "the", "first", "such", "contest,", "the", "\"Scientific", "Baby", "Contest\"", "for", "the", "Louisiana", "State", "Fair", "in", "Shreveport,", "in", "1908.", "She", "saw", "these", "contests", "as", "a", "contribution", "to", "the", "\"social", "efficiency\"", "movement,", "which", "was", "advocating", "for", "the", "standardization", "of", "all", "aspects", "of", "American", "life", "as", "a", "means", "of", "increasing", "efficiency.", "DeGarmo", "was", "assisted", "by", "Doctor", "Jacob", "Bodenheimer,", "a", "pediatrician", "who", "helped", "her", "develop", "grading", "sheets", "for", "contestants,", "which", "combined", "physical", "measurements", "with", "standardized", "measurements", "of", "intelligence.", "The", "contest", "spread", "to", "other", "U.S.", "states", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "In", "Indiana,", "for", "example,", "Ada", "Estelle", "Schweitzer,", "a", "eugenics", "advocate", "and", "director", "of", "the", "Indiana", "State", "Board", "of", "Health's", "Division", "of", "Child", "and", "Infant", "Hygiene,", "organized", "and", "supervised", "the", "state's", "Better", "Baby", "contests", "at", "the", "Indiana", "State", "Fair", "from", "1920", "to", "1932.", "It", "was", "among", "the", "fair's", "most", "popular", "events.", "During", "the", "contest's", "first", "year", "at", "the", "fair,", "a", "total", "of", "78", "babies", "were", "examined;", "in", "1925", "the", "total", "reached", "885.", "Contestants", "peaked", "at", "1,301", "infants", "in", "1930,", "and", "the", "following", "year", "the", "number", "of", "entrants", "was", "capped", "at", "1,200.", "Although", "the", "specific", "impact", "of", "the", "contests", "was", "difficult", "to", "assess,", "statistics", "helped", "to", "support", "Schweitzer's", "claims", "that", "the", "contests", "helped", "reduce", "infant", "mortality.", "The", "contest", "intended", "to", "educate", "the", "public", "about", "raising", "healthy", "children", "at", "a", "time", "when", "approximately", "10%", "of", "children", "died", "in", "their", "first", "year", "of", "life.", "However,", "its", "exclusionary", "practices", "reinforced", "social", "class", "and", "racial", "discrimination.", "In", "Indiana,", "for", "example,", "the", "contestants", "were", "limited", "to", "white", "infants;", "African-American", "and", "immigrant", "children", "were", "barred", "from", "the", "competition", "for", "ribbons", "and", "cash", "prizes.", "In", "addition,", "the", "scoring", "was", "biased", "toward", "white,", "middle-class", "babies.", "The", "contest", "procedure", "included", "recording", "each", "child's", "health", "history,", "as", "well", "as", "evaluations", "of", "each", "contestant's", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "and", "overall", "development", "using", "medical", "professionals.", "Using", "a", "process", "similar", "to", "the", "one", "introduced", "at", "the", "Louisiana", "State", "Fair,", "and", "contest", "guidelines", "that", "the", "AMA", "and", "U.S.", "Children's", "Bureau", "recommended,", "scoring", "for", "each", "contestant", "began", "with", "1,000", "points.", "Deductions", "were", "made", "for", "defects,", "including", "a", "child's", "measurements", "below", "a", "designated", "average.", "The", "contestant", "with", "the", "most", "points", "was", "declared", "the", "winner.", "Standardization", "through", "scientific", "judgment", "was", "a", "topic", "that", "was", "very", "serious", "in", "the", "eyes", "of", "the", "scientific", "community,", "but", "has", "often", "been", "downplayed", "as", "just", "a", "popular", "fad", "or", "trend.", "Nevertheless,", "a", "lot", "of", "time,", "effort,", "and", "money", "was", "put", "into", "these", "contests", "and", "their", "scientific", "backing,", "which", "would", "influence", "cultural", "ideas", "as", "well", "as", "local", "and", "state", "government", "practices.", "The", "National", "Association", "for", "the", "Advancement", "of", "Colored", "People", "promoted", "eugenics", "by", "hosting", "\"Better", "Baby\"", "contests", "and", "the", "proceeds", "would", "go", "to", "its", "anti-lynching", "campaign.", "Fitter", "Families", "First", "appearing", "in", "1920", "at", "the", "Kansas", "Free", "Fair,", "\"Fitter", "Families", "for", "Future", "Firesides\"", "competitions", "continued", "all", "the", "way", "up", "to", "World", "War", "II.", "Mary", "T.", "Watts", "and", "Florence", "Brown", "Sherbon,", "both", "initiators", "of", "the", "Better", "Baby", "Contests", "in", "Iowa,", "took", "the", "idea", "of", "positive", "eugenics", "for", "babies", "and", "combined", "it", "with", "a", "determinist", "concept", "of", "biology", "to", "come", "up", "with", "fitter", "family", "competitions.", "There", "were", "several", "different", "categories", "that", "families", "were", "judged", "in:", "size", "of", "the", "family,", "overall", "attractiveness,", "and", "health", "of", "the", "family,", "all", "of", "which", "helped", "to", "determine", "the", "likelihood", "of", "having", "healthy", "children.", "These", "competitions", "were", "simply", "a", "continuation", "of", "the", "Better", "Baby", "contests", "that", "promoted", "certain", "physical", "and", "mental", "qualities.", "At", "the", "time,", "it", "was", "believed", "that", "certain", "behavioral", "qualities", "were", "inherited", "from", "one's", "parents.", "This", "led", "to", "the", "addition", "of", "several", "judging", "categories", "including:", "generosity,", "self-sacrificing,", "and", "quality", "of", "familial", "bonds.", "Additionally,", "there", "were", "negative", "features", "that", "were", "judged:", "selfishness,", "jealousy,", "suspiciousness,", "high-temperedness,", "and", "cruelty.", "Feeblemindedness,", "alcoholism,", "and", "paralysis", "were", "few", "among", "other", "traits", "that", "were", "included", "as", "physical", "traits", "to", "be", "judged", "when", "looking", "at", "family", "lineage.", "Doctors", "and", "specialists", "from", "the", "community", "would", "offer", "their", "time", "to", "judge", "these", "competitions,", "which", "were", "originally", "sponsored", "by", "the", "Red", "Cross.", "The", "winners", "of", "these", "competitions", "were", "given", "a", "Bronze", "Medal", "as", "well", "as", "champion", "cups", "called", "\"Capper", "Medals.\"", "The", "cups", "were", "named", "after", "then-Governor", "and", "Senator,", "Arthur", "Capper", "and", "he", "would", "present", "them", "to", "\"Grade", "A", "individuals\".", "The", "perks", "of", "entering", "into", "the", "contests", "were", "that", "the", "competitions", "provided", "a", "way", "for", "families", "to", "get", "a", "free", "health", "check-up", "by", "a", "doctor", "as", "well", "as", "some", "of", "the", "pride", "and", "prestige", "that", "came", "from", "winning", "the", "competitions.", "By", "1925,", "the", "Eugenics", "Records", "Office", "was", "distributing", "standardized", "forms", "for", "judging", "eugenically", "fit", "families,", "which", "were", "used", "in", "contests", "in", "several", "U.S.", "states.", "Compulsory", "sterilization", "In", "1907,", "Indiana", "passed", "the", "first", "eugenics-based", "compulsory", "sterilization", "law", "in", "the", "world.", "Thirty", "U.S.", "states", "would", "soon", "follow", "their", "lead.", "Although", "the", "law", "was", "overturned", "by", "the", "Indiana", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "1921,", "in", "the", "1927", "case", "Buck", "v.", "Bell,", "the", "U.S.", "Supreme", "Court", "upheld", "the", "constitutionality", "of", "the", "Virginia", "Sterilization", "Act", "of", "1924,", "allowing", "for", "the", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "patients", "of", "state", "mental", "institutions.", "The", "number", "of", "sterilizations", "performed", "per", "year", "increased", "until", "another", "Supreme", "Court", "case,", "Skinner", "v.", "Oklahoma,", "1942,", "which", "ruled", "that", "under", "the", "14th", "Amendment's", "Equal", "Protection", "Clause,", "laws", "that", "permitted", "the", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "criminals", "were", "unconstitutional", "if", "these", "laws", "treated", "similar", "crimes", "differently.", "Although", "Skinner", "determined", "that", "the", "right", "to", "procreate", "was", "a", "fundamental", "right", "under", "the", "constitution,", "the", "case", "did", "not", "denounce", "sterilization", "laws,", "because", "its", "analysis", "was", "based", "on", "the", "equal", "protection", "of", "criminal", "defendants", "specifically,", "therefore", "leaving", "those", "seen", "as", "\"social", "undesirables\"—the", "poor,", "the", "disabled,", "and", "various", "ethnic", "groups—as", "targets", "of", "compulsory", "sterilization.", "Therefore,", "though", "compulsory", "sterilization", "is", "now", "considered", "an", "abuse", "of", "human", "rights,", "Buck", "v.", "Bell", "has", "never", "been", "overturned,", "and", "Virginia", "specifically", "did", "not", "repeal", "its", "sterilization", "law", "until", "1974.", "Men", "and", "women", "were", "compulsorily", "sterilized", "for", "different", "reasons.", "Men", "were", "sterilized", "to", "treat", "their", "aggression", "and", "to", "eliminate", "their", "criminal", "behavior,", "while", "women", "were", "sterilized", "to", "control", "the", "results", "of", "their", "sexuality.", "Since", "women", "bore", "children,", "eugenicists", "held", "women", "more", "accountable", "than", "men", "for", "the", "reproduction", "of", "the", "less", "\"desirable\"", "members", "of", "society.", "Eugenicists", "therefore", "predominantly", "targeted", "women", "in", "their", "efforts", "to", "regulate", "the", "birth", "rate,", "to", "\"protect\"", "white", "racial", "health,", "and", "weed", "out", "the", "\"defectives\"", "of", "society.", "The", "most", "significant", "era", "of", "eugenic", "sterilization", "was", "between", "1907", "and", "1963,", "when", "over", "64,000", "individuals", "were", "forcibly", "sterilized", "under", "eugenic", "legislation", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "Beginning", "around", "1930,", "there", "was", "a", "steady", "increase", "in", "the", "percentage", "of", "women", "sterilized,", "and", "in", "a", "few", "states", "only", "young", "women", "were", "sterilized.", "A", "1937", "Fortune", "magazine", "poll", "found", "that", "2/3", "of", "respondents", "supported", "eugenic", "sterilization", "of", "\"mental", "defectives\",", "63%", "supported", "sterilization", "of", "criminals,", "and", "only", "15%", "opposed", "both.", "From", "1930", "to", "the", "1960s,", "sterilizations", "were", "performed", "on", "many", "more", "institutionalized", "women", "than", "men.", "By", "1961,", "61", "percent", "of", "the", "62,162", "total", "eugenic", "sterilizations", "in", "the", "United", "States", "were", "performed", "on", "women.", "A", "favorable", "report", "on", "the", "results", "of", "sterilization", "in", "California,", "the", "state", "that", "conducted", "the", "most", "sterilizations", "(20,000", "of", "the", "60,000", "that", "occurred", "between", "1909", "and", "1960),", "was", "published", "in", "1929", "in", "book", "form", "by", "the", "biologist", "Paul", "Popenoe", "and", "was", "widely", "cited", "by", "the", "Nazi", "government", "as", "evidence", "that", "wide-reaching", "sterilization", "programs", "were", "feasible", "and", "humane.", "After", "World", "War", "II,", "eugenics", "and", "eugenic", "organizations", "began", "to", "revise", "their", "standards", "of", "reproductive", "fitness", "to", "reflect", "contemporary", "social", "concerns", "of", "the", "later", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century,", "notably", "concerns", "over", "welfare,", "Mexican", "immigration,", "overpopulation,", "civil", "rights,", "and", "sexual", "revolution,", "and", "gave", "way", "to", "what", "has", "been", "termed", "neo-eugenics.", "Neo-eugenicists", "like", "Clarence", "Gamble,", "an", "affluent", "researcher", "at", "Harvard", "Medical", "school", "and", "a", "founder", "of", "public", "birth", "control", "clinics,", "revived", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "in", "the", "United", "States", "through", "sterilization.", "Supporters", "of", "this", "revival", "of", "eugenic", "sterilizations", "believed", "that", "they", "would", "bring", "an", "end", "to", "social", "issues", "such", "as", "poverty", "and", "mental", "illness", "while", "also", "saving", "taxpayer", "money", "and", "boost", "the", "economy.", "Whereas", "eugenic", "sterilization", "programs", "before", "World", "War", "II", "were", "mostly", "conducted", "on", "prisoners", "or", "patients", "in", "mental", "hospitals,", "after", "the", "war,", "compulsory", "sterilizations", "were", "targeted", "at", "poor", "people", "and", "minorities.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "these", "new", "sterilization", "initiatives,", "though", "most", "scholars", "agree", "that", "there", "were", "over", "64,000", "known", "cases", "of", "eugenic", "sterilization", "in", "the", "U.S.", "by", "1963,", "no", "one", "knows", "for", "certain", "how", "many", "compulsory", "sterilizations", "occurred", "between", "the", "late", "1960s", "to", "1970s,", "though", "it", "is", "estimated", "that", "at", "least", "80,000", "may", "have", "been", "conducted.", "A", "large", "number", "of", "those", "who", "were", "targets", "of", "coerced", "sterilizations", "in", "the", "later", "half", "of", "the", "century", "were", "African", "American,", "Hispanic,", "and", "Native", "American", "women.", "Eugenics,", "sterilization,", "and", "the", "African", "American", "community", "Black", "support", "for", "eugenics", "(Progressive", "Era)", "Early", "proponents", "of", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "included", "not", "only", "influential", "white", "Americans", "but", "also", "several", "proponent", "African-American", "intellectuals", "such", "as", "W.", "E.", "B.", "Du", "Bois,", "Thomas", "Wyatt", "Turner,", "and", "many", "academics", "at", "Tuskegee", "University,", "Howard", "University,", "and", "Hampton", "University.", "However,", "unlike", "many", "white", "eugenicists,", "these", "black", "intellectuals", "believed", "the", "best", "African", "Americans", "were", "as", "good", "as", "the", "best", "White", "Americans,", "and", "\"The", "Talented", "Tenth\"", "of", "all", "races", "should", "mix.", "Indeed,", "Du", "Bois", "believed", "\"only", "fit", "blacks", "should", "procreate", "to", "eradicate", "the", "race's", "heritage", "of", "moral", "iniquity.\"", "With", "the", "support", "of", "leaders", "like", "Du", "Bois,", "efforts", "were", "made", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century", "to", "control", "the", "reproduction", "of", "the", "country's", "black", "population;", "one", "of", "the", "most", "visible", "initiatives", "was", "Margaret", "Sanger's", "1939", "proposal,", "The", "Negro", "Project.", "That", "year,", "Sanger,", "Florence", "Rose,", "her", "assistant,", "and", "Mary", "Woodward", "Reinhardt,", "then", "secretary", "of", "the", "new", "Birth", "Control", "Federation", "of", "America", "(BCFA),", "drafted", "a", "report", "on", "\"Birth", "Control", "and", "the", "Negro.\"", "In", "this", "report,", "they", "stated", "that", "African", "Americans", "were", "the", "group", "with", "\"the", "greatest", "economic,", "health", "and", "social", "problems,\"", "were", "largely", "illiterate", "and", "\"still", "breed", "carelessly", "and", "disastrously,\"", "a", "line", "taken", "from", "W.E.B.", "DuBois'", "article", "in", "the", "June", "1932", "Birth", "Control", "Review.", "The", "Project", "often", "sought", "after", "prominent", "African-American", "leaders", "to", "spread", "knowledge", "regarding", "birth", "control", "and", "the", "perceived", "positive", "effects", "it", "would", "have", "on", "the", "African-American", "community,", "such", "as", "poverty", "and", "the", "lack", "of", "education.", "Sanger", "particularly", "sought", "out", "black", "ministers", "from", "the", "South", "to", "serve", "as", "leaders", "in", "the", "Project", "in", "the", "hopes", "of", "countering", "any", "ideas", "that", "the", "project", "was", "a", "strategic", "attempt", "to", "eradicate", "the", "black", "population.", "However,", "despite", "Sanger's", "best", "efforts,", "white", "medical", "scientists", "took", "control", "over", "the", "initiative,", "and", "with", "the", "Negro", "Project", "receiving", "praise", "from", "white", "leaders", "and", "eugenicists,", "many", "of", "Sanger's", "opponents,", "both", "during", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "Project", "and", "years", "after,", "saw", "her", "work", "as", "an", "attempt", "to", "terminate", "African", "Americans.", "Eugenics", "during", "the", "civil", "rights", "era", "Opposition", "to", "initiatives", "to", "control", "reproduction", "within", "the", "African-American", "community", "grew", "in", "the", "1960s,", "particularly", "after", "President", "Lyndon", "B.", "Johnson,", "in", "1965,", "announced", "the", "establishment", "of", "federal", "funding", "of", "birth", "control", "used", "on", "the", "poor.", "In", "the", "1960's,", "many", "African", "Americans", "throughout", "the", "country", "took", "the", "government's", "decision", "to", "fund", "birth-control", "clinics", "as", "an", "attempt", "to", "limit", "the", "growth", "of", "the", "black", "population", "and", "along", "with", "it,", "the", "increased", "political", "power", "that", "black", "Americans", "were", "fighting", "to", "acquire.", "Scholars", "have", "stated", "that", "African", "Americans'", "fear", "about", "their", "reproductive", "health", "and", "ability", "was", "rooted", "in", "history", "as", "under", "U.S.", "slavery,", "enslaved", "women", "were", "often", "coerced", "or", "forced", "to", "have", "children", "to", "increase", "a", "plantation", "owner's", "wealth.", "Therefore,", "many", "African", "Americans,", "particularly", "those", "in", "the", "Black", "Power", "Movement,", "saw", "birth", "control,", "and", "federal", "support", "of", "the", "Pill,", "as", "equivalent", "to", "black", "genocide,", "declaring", "it", "as", "such", "at", "the", "1967", "Black", "Power", "Conference.", "Federal", "funding", "for", "birth", "control", "went", "alongside", "family", "planning", "initiatives", "that", "were", "a", "part", "of", "state", "welfare", "programs.", "These", "initiatives,", "in", "addition", "to", "advocating", "the", "use", "of", "the", "Pill,", "supported", "sterilization", "as", "a", "means", "of", "curbing", "the", "number", "of", "people", "receiving", "welfare", "and", "control", "the", "reproduction", "of", "'unfit'", "women.", "The", "1950s", "and", "1960s", "were", "the", "height", "of", "the", "sterilization", "abuse", "that", "African-American", "women", "as", "a", "group", "experienced", "at", "the", "hands", "of", "the", "white", "medical", "establishment.", "During", "this", "period,", "the", "sterilization", "of", "African-American", "women", "largely", "took", "place", "in", "the", "South", "and", "assumed", "two", "forms:", "the", "sterilization", "of", "poor", "unwed", "black", "mothers,", "and", "\"Mississippi", "appendectomies.\"", "Under", "these", "\"Mississippi", "appendectomies,\"", "women", "who", "went", "to", "the", "hospital", "to", "give", "birth,", "or", "for", "some", "other", "medical", "treatment,", "often", "found", "themselves", "incapable", "of", "having", "more", "children", "upon", "leaving", "the", "hospital", "due", "to", "unnecessary", "hysterectomies", "performed", "on", "them", "by", "southern", "medical", "students.", "By", "the", "1970s,", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "women", "of", "color", "spread", "from", "the", "South", "to", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "country", "through", "federal", "family", "planning", "and", "under", "the", "guise", "of", "voluntary", "contraceptive", "surgery", "as", "physicians", "began", "to", "require", "their", "patients", "to", "sign", "consent", "forms", "to", "surgeries", "they", "did", "not", "want", "or", "understand.", "Sterilization", "of", "African", "American", "women", "Though", "it", "is", "unknown", "the", "exact", "number", "of", "African", "American", "women", "who", "were", "sterilized", "throughout", "the", "country", "in", "the", "20th", "century,", "records", "from", "a", "few", "states", "offer", "some", "estimates.", "In", "the", "state", "of", "North", "Carolina,", "which", "was", "seen", "as", "having", "the", "most", "aggressive", "eugenics", "program", "out", "of", "the", "32", "states", "that", "had", "one,", "during", "the", "45-year", "reign", "of", "the", "North", "Carolina", "Eugenics", "Board,", "from", "1929", "to", "1974,", "a", "disproportionate", "number", "of", "those", "who", "were", "targeted", "for", "forced", "or", "coerced", "sterilization", "were", "black", "and", "female,", "with", "almost", "all", "being", "poor.", "Of", "the", "7,600", "women", "who", "were", "sterilized", "by", "the", "state", "between", "the", "years", "of", "1933", "and", "1973,", "about", "5,000", "were", "African", "American.", "In", "light", "of", "this", "history,", "North", "Carolina", "became", "the", "first", "state", "to", "offer", "compensation", "to", "surviving", "victims", "of", "compulsory", "sterilization.", "Additionally,", "whereas", "African", "Americans", "made", "up", "just", "over", "1%", "of", "California's", "population,", "they", "accounted", "for", "at", "least", "4%", "of", "the", "total", "number", "of", "sterilization", "operations", "conducted", "by", "the", "state", "between", "1909", "and", "1979.", "Overall,", "according", "to", "one", "1989", "study,", "31.6%", "of", "African", "American", "women", "without", "a", "high", "school", "diploma", "were", "sterilized", "while", "only", "14.5%", "of", "white", "women", "of", "the", "same", "educational", "status", "were", "sterilized.", "Sterilization", "abuse", "brought", "to", "media", "attention", "In", "1972,", "U.S.", "Senate", "committee", "testimony", "brought", "to", "light", "that", "at", "least", "2,000", "involuntary", "sterilizations", "had", "been", "performed", "on", "poor", "black", "women", "without", "their", "consent", "or", "knowledge.", "An", "investigation", "revealed", "that", "the", "surgeries", "were", "all", "performed", "in", "the", "South,", "and", "were", "all", "performed", "on", "black", "women", "with", "multiple", "children", "who", "were", "receiving", "welfare.", "Testimony", "revealed", "that", "many", "of", "these", "women", "were", "threatened", "with", "an", "end", "to", "their", "welfare", "benefits", "unless", "they", "consented", "to", "sterilization.", "These", "surgeries", "were", "instances", "of", "sterilization", "abuse,", "a", "term", "applied", "to", "any", "sterilization", "performed", "without", "the", "consent", "or", "knowledge", "of", "the", "recipient,", "or", "in", "which", "the", "recipient", "is", "pressured", "into", "accepting", "the", "surgery.", "Because", "the", "funds", "used", "to", "carry", "out", "the", "surgeries", "came", "from", "the", "U.S.", "Office", "of", "Economic", "Opportunity,", "the", "sterilization", "abuse", "raised", "suspicions,", "especially", "among", "members", "of", "the", "black", "community,", "that", "\"federal", "programs", "were", "underwriting", "eugenicists", "who", "wanted", "to", "impose", "their", "views", "about", "population", "quality", "on", "minorities", "and", "poor", "women.\"", "Despite", "this", "investigation,", "it", "was", "not", "until", "1973", "that", "the", "issue", "of", "sterilization", "abuse", "was", "brought", "to", "media", "attention.", "On", "June", "14,", "1973,", "two", "black", "girls,", "Minnie", "Lee", "and", "Mary", "Alice", "Relf,", "ages", "fourteen", "and", "twelve,", "respectively,", "were", "sterilized", "without", "their", "knowledge", "in", "Alabama", "by", "the", "Montgomery", "Community", "Action", "Committee,", "an", "OEO-financed", "organization.", "The", "summer", "of", "that", "year,", "the", "Relf", "girls", "sued", "the", "government", "agencies", "and", "individuals", "responsible", "for", "their", "sterilization.", "As", "the", "case", "was", "being", "pursued,", "it", "was", "discovered", "that", "the", "girls'", "mother,", "who", "could", "not", "read,", "unwittingly", "approved", "the", "operations,", "signing", "an", "'X'", "on", "the", "release", "forms;", "Mrs.", "Relf", "had", "believed", "that", "she", "was", "signing", "a", "form", "authorizing", "her", "daughters", "to", "receive", "Depo-Provera", "injections,", "a", "form", "of", "birth", "control.", "In", "light", "of", "the", "1974", "case", "of", "Relf", "v.", "Weinberger,", "named", "after", "Minnie", "Lee", "and", "Mary", "Alice's", "older", "sister,", "Katie,", "who", "had", "narrowly", "escaped", "also", "being", "sterilized,", "the", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education,", "and", "Welfare", "(HEW)", "were", "ordered", "to", "establish", "new", "guidelines", "for", "its", "government", "sterilization", "policy.", "By", "1979,", "the", "new", "guidelines", "finally", "addressed", "the", "concern", "over", "informed", "consent,", "determined", "that", "minors", "under", "the", "age", "of", "21", "and", "those", "with", "severe", "mental", "impairments", "who", "could", "not", "give", "consent", "would", "not", "be", "sterilized,", "and", "articulated", "the", "provision", "that", "doctors", "could", "no", "longer", "claim", "that", "a", "woman's", "refusal", "to", "be", "sterilized", "would", "result", "in", "her", "being", "denied", "welfare", "benefits.", "Sterilization", "of", "Latina", "women", "The", "20th", "century", "demarcated", "a", "time", "in", "which", "compulsory", "sterilization", "heavily", "navigated", "its", "way", "into", "primarily", "Latino", "communities,", "against", "Latina", "women.", "Locations", "such", "as", "Puerto", "Rico", "and", "Los", "Angeles,", "California", "were", "found", "to", "have", "had", "large", "amounts", "of", "their", "female", "population", "coerced", "into", "sterilization", "procedures", "without", "quality", "and", "necessary", "informed", "consent", "nor", "full", "awareness", "of", "the", "procedure.", "Puerto", "Rico", "Between", "the", "span", "of", "the", "1930s", "to", "the", "1970s,", "nearly", "one-third", "of", "the", "female", "population", "in", "Puerto", "Rico", "was", "sterilized;", "at", "the", "time,", "this", "was", "the", "highest", "rate", "of", "sterilization", "in", "the", "world.", "Some", "viewed", "sterilization", "as", "a", "means", "of", "rectifying", "the", "country's", "poverty", "and", "unemployment", "rates.", "Following", "legalization", "of", "the", "procedure", "in", "1937", "a", "U.S.", "government", "endorsed", "initiative", "saw", "health", "department", "officials", "advocating", "for", "sterilization", "in", "rural", "parts", "of", "the", "island.", "Sterilized", "women", "were", "also", "encouraged", "to", "join", "the", "workforce,", "in", "particular", "the", "textile", "and", "clothing", "related", "industries.", "The", "procedure", "was", "so", "common", "that", "it", "was", "often", "referred", "to", "solely", "as", "\"la", "operación\",", "garnering", "a", "documentary", "referenced", "by", "the", "same", "name.", "This", "intentional", "targeting", "of", "Latino", "communities", "exemplifies", "the", "strategic", "placement", "of", "racial", "eugenics", "in", "modern", "history.", "This", "targeting", "is", "also", "inclusive", "of", "those", "with", "disabilities", "and", "those", "from", "marginalized", "populations,", "which", "Puerto", "Rico", "is", "not", "the", "only", "example", "of", "this", "trend.", "Eugenics", "did", "not", "serve", "as", "the", "only", "reason", "for", "the", "disproportionate", "rates", "of", "sterilization", "in", "the", "Puerto", "Rican", "community.", "Contraceptive", "trials", "were", "inducted", "in", "the", "1950s", "towards", "Puerto", "Rican", "women.", "John", "Rock", "and", "Gregory", "Pincus", "were", "the", "two", "men", "spearheading", "the", "human", "trials", "of", "oral", "contraceptives.", "In", "1954,", "the", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "conduct", "the", "clinical", "experiment", "in", "Puerto", "Rico,", "citing", "the", "island's", "large", "network", "of", "birth", "control", "clinics", "and", "lack", "of", "anti-birth", "control", "laws,", "which", "was", "in", "contrast", "to", "the", "United", "States'", "thorough", "cultural", "and", "religious", "opposition", "to", "the", "reproductive", "service.", "The", "decision", "to", "conduct", "the", "trials", "in", "this", "community", "was", "also", "motivated", "by", "the", "structural", "implications", "of", "supremacy", "and", "colonialism.", "Rock", "and", "Pincus", "monopolized", "off", "of", "the", "primarily", "poor", "and", "uneducated", "background", "of", "these", "women,", "countering", "that", "if", "they", "\"could", "follow", "the", "Pill", "regimen,", "then", "women", "anywhere", "in", "the", "world", "could", "too.\"", "These", "women", "were", "purposely", "ill-informed", "of", "the", "oral", "contraceptives", "presence;", "the", "researchers", "only", "reported", "that", "the", "drug,", "which", "was", "administered", "at", "a", "much", "higher", "dosage", "than", "what", "birth", "control", "is", "prescribed", "at", "today,", "was", "to", "prevent", "pregnancy,", "not", "that", "it", "was", "tied", "to", "a", "clinical", "trial", "in", "order", "to", "jump", "start", "oral", "contraceptive", "access", "in", "America", "through", "FDA", "approval.", "California", "In", "California,", "by", "the", "year", "1964,", "a", "total", "of", "20,108", "people", "were", "sterilized,", "making", "that", "the", "largest", "amount", "in", "all", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "It", "is", "an", "important", "note", "that", "during", "this", "period", "in", "California's", "population", "demographic,", "the", "total", "individuals", "sterilized", "was", "disproportionately", "inclusive", "of", "Mexican,", "Mexican-American,", "and", "Chicana", "women.", "Andrea", "Estrada,", "a", "UC", "Santa", "Barbara", "affiliate,", "said:", "In", "1966,", "Nancy", "Hernandez", "was", "the", "first", "one", "to", "reach", "National", "and", "public", "attention", "and", "resulted", "in", "protests", "on", "women's", "rights", "and", "reproductive", "rights", "across", "the", "country.", "Her", "story", "was", "published", "in", "Rebecca", "Kluchin's", "book,", "Fit", "to", "be", "Tied:", "Sterilization", "and", "Reproductive", "Rights", "in", "America,", "1950-1980.", "Cases", "such", "as", "Madrigal", "v.", "Quilligan,", "a", "class", "action", "suit", "regarding", "forced", "or", "coerced", "postpartum", "sterilization", "of", "Latina", "women", "following", "cesarean", "sections,", "helped", "bring", "to", "light", "the", "widespread", "abuse", "of", "sterilization", "supported", "by", "federal", "funds.", "The", "case's", "plaintiffs", "were", "10", "sterilized", "women", "of", "Los", "Angeles", "County", "Hospital", "who", "elected", "to", "come", "forward", "with", "their", "stories.", "Although", "a", "grim", "reality,", "No", "más", "bebés", "is", "a", "documentary", "that", "offers", "an", "emotional", "and", "candid", "storytelling", "of", "the", "Madrigal", "v.", "Quilligan", "case", "on", "behalf", "of", "Latina", "women", "whom", "were", "direct", "recipients", "of", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "the", "Los", "Angeles'", "hospital.", "The", "judge's", "ruling", "sided", "with", "the", "County", "Hospital,", "but", "an", "aftermath", "of", "the", "case", "resulted", "in", "the", "accessibility", "of", "multiple", "language", "informed", "consent", "forms.", "These", "stories,", "among", "many", "others,", "serve", "as", "backbones", "for", "not", "only", "the", "reproductive", "justice", "movement", "that", "we", "see", "today,", "but", "a", "better", "understanding", "and", "recognition", "of", "the", "Chicana", "feminism", "movement", "in", "contrast", "to", "white", "feminism's", "perception", "of", "reproductive", "rights.", "Sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "An", "estimated", "40%", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "(60,000–70,000", "women)", "and", "10%", "of", "Native", "American", "men", "in", "the", "United", "States", "underwent", "sterilization", "in", "the", "1970s.", "A", "General", "Accounting", "Office", "(GAO)", "report", "in", "1976", "found", "that", "3,406", "Native", "American", "women,", "3,000", "of", "which", "were", "of", "childbearing", "age,", "were", "sterilized", "by", "the", "Indian", "Health", "Service", "(IHS)", "in", "Arizona,", "Oklahoma,", "New", "Mexico,", "and", "South", "Dakota", "from", "1973", "to", "1976.", "The", "GAO", "report", "did", "not", "conclude", "any", "instances", "of", "coerced", "sterilization,", "but", "called", "for", "the", "reform", "of", "IHS", "and", "contract", "doctors'", "processes", "of", "obtaining", "informed", "consent", "for", "sterilization", "procedures.", "The", "IHS", "informed", "consent", "processes", "examined", "by", "the", "GAO", "did", "not", "comply", "with", "a", "1974", "ruling", "of", "the", "U.S.", "District", "Court", "that", "\"any", "individual", "contemplating", "sterilization", "should", "be", "advised", "orally", "at", "the", "outset", "that", "at", "no", "time", "could", "federal", "benefits", "be", "withdrawn", "because", "of", "failure", "to", "agree", "to", "sterilization.\"", "In", "examining", "individual", "cases", "and", "testimonies", "of", "Native", "American", "women,", "scholars", "have", "found", "that", "IHS", "and", "contract", "physicians", "recommended", "sterilization", "to", "Native", "American", "women", "as", "the", "appropriate", "form", "of", "birth", "control,", "failing", "to", "present", "potential", "alternatives", "and", "to", "explain", "the", "irreversible", "nature", "of", "sterilization,", "and", "threatened", "that", "refusal", "of", "the", "procedure", "would", "result", "in", "the", "women", "losing", "their", "children", "and/or", "federal", "benefits.", "Scholars", "also", "identified", "language", "barriers", "in", "informed", "consent", "processes", "as", "the", "absence", "of", "interpreters", "for", "Native", "American", "women", "hindered", "them", "from", "fully", "understanding", "the", "sterilization", "procedure", "and", "its", "implications,", "in", "some", "cases.", "Scholars", "have", "cited", "physicians'", "individual", "paternalism", "and", "beliefs", "about", "the", "population", "control", "of", "poor", "communities", "and", "welfare", "recipients", "and", "the", "opportunity", "for", "financial", "gain", "as", "possible", "motivations", "for", "performing", "sterilizations", "on", "Native", "American", "women.", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "activists", "mobilized", "in", "the", "1970s", "across", "the", "United", "States", "to", "combat", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "advocate", "for", "their", "reproductive", "rights,", "alongside", "tribal", "sovereignty,", "in", "the", "Red", "Power", "movement.", "Some", "of", "the", "most", "prominent", "activist", "organizations", "established", "in", "this", "decade", "and", "active", "in", "the", "Red", "Power", "movement", "and", "the", "resistance", "against", "coerced", "sterilization", "were", "the", "American", "Indian", "Movement", "(AIM),", "United", "Native", "Americans,", "Women", "of", "all", "Red", "Nations", "(WARN),", "the", "International", "Indian", "Treaty", "Council", "(IITC),", "and", "Indian", "Women", "United", "for", "Justice,", "founded", "by", "Constance", "Redbird", "Pinkerton", "Uri,", "a", "Cherokee-Choctaw", "physician.", "Some", "Native", "American", "activists", "have", "deemed", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "a", "\"modern", "form", "of", "genocide,\"", "and", "view", "these", "sterilizations", "as", "a", "violation", "of", "the", "rights", "of", "tribes", "as", "sovereign", "nations.", "Others", "argue", "that", "the", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "is", "interconnected", "with", "colonialist", "and", "capitalist", "motives", "of", "corporations", "and", "the", "federal", "government", "to", "acquire", "land", "and", "natural", "resources,", "including", "oil,", "natural", "gas,", "and", "coal,", "currently", "located", "on", "Native", "American", "reservations.", "Scholars", "and", "Native", "American", "activists", "have", "situated", "the", "forced", "sterilizations", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "within", "broader", "histories", "of", "colonialism,", "violations", "of", "Native", "American", "tribal", "sovereignty", "by", "the", "federal", "government,", "including", "a", "long", "history", "of", "the", "removal", "of", "children", "from", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "families,", "and", "population", "control", "efforts", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "1970s", "brought", "new", "federal", "legislation", "enacted", "by", "the", "United", "States", "government", "which", "addressed", "issues", "of", "informed", "consent,", "sterilization,", "and", "the", "treatment", "of", "Native", "American", "children.", "The", "U.S.", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education,", "and", "Welfare", "released", "new", "regulations", "in", "1979", "on", "informed", "consent", "processes", "for", "sterilization", "procedures,", "including", "a", "longer", "waiting", "period", "of", "30", "days", "before", "the", "procedure,", "the", "presentation", "of", "alternative", "methods", "of", "birth", "control", "to", "the", "patient,", "and", "clear", "verbal", "affirmation", "that", "the", "patient's", "access", "to", "federal", "benefits", "or", "welfare", "programs", "would", "not", "be", "revoked", "if", "the", "procedure", "were", "refused.", "The", "Indian", "Child", "Welfare", "Act", "of", "1978", "officially", "recognized", "the", "significance", "and", "value", "of", "the", "extended", "family", "in", "Native", "American", "culture,", "adopting", "\"minimum", "federal", "standards", "for", "the", "removal", "of", "Indian", "children", "to", "foster", "or", "adoptive", "homes,\"", "and", "the", "central", "importance", "of", "the", "sovereign", "tribal", "governments", "in", "decision-making", "processes", "surrounding", "the", "welfare", "of", "Native", "children.", "Influence", "on", "Nazi", "Germany", "After", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "well", "established", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "it", "spread", "to", "Germany.", "California", "eugenicists", "began", "producing", "literature", "promoting", "eugenics", "and", "sterilization", "and", "sending", "it", "overseas", "to", "German", "scientists", "and", "medical", "professionals.", "By", "1933,", "California", "had", "subjected", "more", "people", "to", "forceful", "sterilization", "than", "all", "other", "U.S.", "states", "combined.", "The", "forced", "sterilization", "program", "engineered", "by", "the", "Nazis", "was", "partly", "inspired", "by", "California's.", "The", "Rockefeller", "Foundation", "helped", "develop", "and", "fund", "various", "German", "eugenics", "programs,", "including", "the", "one", "that", "Josef", "Mengele", "worked", "in", "before", "he", "went", "to", "Auschwitz.", "Upon", "returning", "from", "Germany", "in", "1934,", "where", "more", "than", "5,000", "people", "per", "month", "were", "being", "forcibly", "sterilized,", "the", "California", "eugenics", "leader", "C.", "M.", "Goethe", "bragged", "to", "a", "colleague:Eugenics", "researcher", "Harry", "H.", "Laughlin", "often", "bragged", "that", "his", "Model", "Eugenic", "Sterilization", "laws", "had", "been", "implemented", "in", "the", "1935", "Nuremberg", "racial", "hygiene", "laws.", "In", "1936,", "Laughlin", "was", "invited", "to", "an", "award", "ceremony", "at", "Heidelberg", "University", "in", "Germany", "(scheduled", "on", "the", "anniversary", "of", "the", "1934", "purge", "of", "Jews", "from", "the", "Heidelberg", "faculty),", "to", "receive", "an", "honorary", "doctorate", "for", "his", "work", "on", "the", "\"science", "of", "racial", "cleansing\".", "Due", "to", "financial", "limitations,", "Laughlin", "was", "unable", "to", "attend", "the", "ceremony", "and", "had", "to", "pick", "it", "up", "from", "the", "Rockefeller", "Institute.", "Afterward,", "he", "proudly", "shared", "the", "award", "with", "his", "colleagues,", "remarking", "that", "he", "felt", "that", "it", "symbolized", "the", "\"common", "understanding", "of", "German", "and", "American", "scientists", "of", "the", "nature", "of", "eugenics.\"", "Henry", "Friedlander", "wrote", "that", "although", "the", "German", "and", "American", "eugenics", "movements", "were", "similar,", "the", "U.S.", "did", "not", "follow", "the", "same", "slippery", "slope", "as", "Nazi", "eugenics", "because", "American", "\"federalism", "and", "political", "heterogeneity", "encouraged", "diversity", "even", "with", "a", "single", "movement.\"", "In", "contrast,", "the", "German", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "more", "centralized", "and", "had", "fewer", "diverse", "ideas.", "Unlike", "the", "American", "movement,", "one", "publication", "and", "one", "society,", "the", "German", "Society", "for", "Racial", "Hygiene,", "represented", "all", "German", "eugenicists", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "After", "1945,", "however,", "historians", "began", "to", "try", "to", "portray", "the", "U.S.", "eugenics", "movement", "as", "distinct", "and", "distant", "from", "Nazi", "eugenics.", "Jon", "Entine", "wrote", "that", "eugenics", "simply", "means", "\"good", "genes\"", "and", "using", "it", "as", "synonym", "for", "genocide", "is", "an", "\"all-too-common", "distortion", "of", "the", "social", "history", "of", "genetics", "policy", "in", "the", "United", "States.\"", "According", "to", "Entine,", "eugenics", "developed", "out", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Era", "and", "not", "\"Hitler's", "twisted", "Final", "Solution.\"", "Eugenics", "after", "World", "War", "II", "Genetic", "engineering", "After", "Adolf", "Hitler's", "advanced", "idea", "of", "eugenics,", "the", "movement", "lost", "its", "place", "in", "society", "for", "a", "bit", "of", "time.", "Although", "eugenics", "was", "not", "thought", "about", "much,", "aspects", "like", "sterilization", "were", "still", "taking", "place,", "just", "not", "at", "such", "a", "public", "level.", "As", "technology", "developed,", "the", "field", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "emerged.", "Instead", "of", "sterilizing", "people", "to", "ultimately", "get", "rid", "of", "\"undesirable\"", "people,", "genetic", "engineering", "\"changes", "or", "removes", "genes", "to", "prevent", "disease", "or", "improve", "the", "body", "in", "some", "significant", "way.\"", "Proponents", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "cite", "its", "ability", "to", "cure", "and", "prevent", "life-threatening", "diseases.", "Genetic", "engineering", "began", "in", "the", "1970s", "when", "scientists", "began", "to", "clone", "and", "alter", "genes.", "From", "this,", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "create", "life-saving", "health", "interventions", "such", "as", "human", "insulin,", "the", "first-ever", "genetically", "engineered", "drug.", "Because", "of", "this", "development,", "over", "the", "years", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "create", "new", "drugs", "to", "treat", "devastating", "diseases.", "For", "example,", "in", "the", "early", "1990s,", "a", "group", "of", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "use", "a", "gene-drug", "to", "treat", "severe", "combined", "immunodeficiency", "in", "a", "young", "girl.", "However,", "genetic", "engineering", "also", "further", "allows", "for", "the", "practice", "of", "eliminating", "\"undesirable", "traits\"", "within", "humans", "and", "other", "organisms—for", "example,", "with", "current", "genetic", "tests,", "parents", "are", "able", "to", "test", "a", "fetus", "for", "any", "life-threatening", "diseases", "that", "may", "impact", "the", "child's", "life", "and", "then", "choose", "to", "abort", "the", "baby.", "Some", "fear", "that", "this", "could", "lead", "to", "ethnic", "cleansing,", "or", "alternative", "form", "of", "eugenics.", "The", "ethical", "implications", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "were", "heavily", "considered", "by", "scientists", "at", "the", "time,", "and", "the", "Asilomar", "Conference", "was", "held", "in", "1975", "to", "discuss", "these", "concerns", "and", "set", "reasonable,", "voluntary", "guidelines", "that", "researchers", "would", "follow", "while", "using", "DNA", "technologies.", "Compulsory", "sterilization", "prevention", "and", "continuation", "The", "1978", "Federal", "Sterilization", "Regulations,", "created", "by", "the", "United", "States", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education", "and", "Welfare", "or", "HEW,", "(now", "the", "United", "States", "Department", "of", "Health", "and", "Human", "Services)", "outline", "a", "variety", "of", "prohibited", "sterilization", "practices", "that", "were", "often", "used", "previously", "to", "coerce", "or", "force", "women", "into", "sterilization.", "These", "were", "intended", "to", "prevent", "such", "eugenics", "and", "neo-eugenics", "as", "resulted", "in", "the", "involuntary", "sterilization", "of", "large", "groups", "of", "poor", "and", "minority", "women.", "Such", "practices", "include:", "not", "conveying", "to", "patients", "that", "sterilization", "is", "permanent", "and", "irreversible,", "in", "their", "own", "language", "(including", "the", "option", "to", "end", "the", "process", "or", "procedure", "at", "any", "time", "without", "conceding", "any", "future", "medical", "attention", "or", "federal", "benefits,", "the", "ability", "to", "ask", "any", "and", "all", "questions", "about", "the", "procedure", "and", "its", "ramifications,", "the", "requirement", "that", "the", "consent", "seeker", "describes", "the", "procedure", "fully", "including", "any", "and", "all", "possible", "discomforts", "and/or", "side-effects", "and", "any", "and", "all", "benefits", "of", "sterilization);", "failing", "to", "provide", "alternative", "information", "about", "methods", "of", "contraception,", "family", "planning,", "or", "pregnancy", "termination", "that", "are", "nonpermanent", "and/or", "irreversible", "(this", "includes", "abortion);", "conditioning", "receiving", "welfare", "and/or", "Medicaid", "benefits", "by", "the", "individual", "or", "his/her", "children", "on", "the", "individuals", "\"consenting\"", "to", "permanent", "sterilization;", "tying", "elected", "abortion", "to", "compulsory", "sterilization", "(cannot", "receive", "a", "sought", "out", "abortion", "without", "\"consenting\"", "to", "sterilization);", "using", "hysterectomy", "as", "sterilization;", "and", "subjecting", "minors", "and", "the", "mentally", "incompetent", "to", "sterilization.", "The", "regulations", "also", "include", "an", "extension", "of", "the", "informed", "consent", "waiting", "period", "from", "72", "hours", "to", "30", "days", "(with", "a", "maximum", "of", "180", "days", "between", "informed", "consent", "and", "the", "sterilization", "procedure).", "However,", "several", "studies", "have", "indicated", "that", "the", "forms", "are", "often", "dense", "and", "complex", "and", "beyond", "the", "literacy", "aptitude", "of", "the", "average", "American,", "and", "those", "seeking", "publicly", "funded", "sterilization", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "possess", "below-average", "literacy", "skills.", "High", "levels", "of", "misinformation", "concerning", "sterilization", "still", "exist", "among", "individuals", "who", "have", "already", "undergone", "sterilization", "procedures,", "with", "permanence", "being", "one", "of", "the", "most", "common", "gray", "factors.", "Additionally,", "federal", "enforcement", "of", "the", "requirements", "of", "the", "1978", "Federal", "Sterilization", "Regulation", "is", "inconsistent", "and", "some", "of", "the", "prohibited", "abuses", "continue", "to", "be", "pervasive,", "particularly", "in", "underfunded", "hospitals", "and", "lower", "income", "patient", "hospitals", "and", "care", "centers.", "The", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "American", "men", "and", "women", "continues", "to", "this", "day.", "In", "2013,", "it", "was", "reported", "that", "148", "female", "prisoners", "in", "two", "California", "prisons", "were", "sterilized", "between", "2006", "and", "2010", "in", "a", "supposedly", "voluntary", "program,", "but", "it", "was", "determined", "that", "the", "prisoners", "did", "not", "give", "consent", "to", "the", "procedures.", "In", "September", "2014,", "California", "enacted", "Bill", "SB1135", "that", "bans", 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41049262	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20de%20Cogan	Miles de Cogan	Milo de Cogan (fl. 1170–1182) was an Anglo-Norman knight from Glamorgan who played a significant role in the Norman conquest of Ireland under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke; a man better known to Irish history as Strongbow. Origins The family took its name from the manor of Cogan, in Glamorgan, Wales, now a suburb of Penarth, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south west of Cardiff. He was a nephew of Robert FitzStephen and Maurice FitzGerald. The Liber Niger Scutarii of 1166 recorded Milo as holding Cogan as two knight's fees, under the overlordship of William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (d.1183). This family is believed to trace back to the original viking settlers of Normandy. Career In August of 1170, Milo joined his uncles in sailing to Ireland with Strongbow. Less than a month later, he led one of two bands in an assault on Dublin, his cousin, Raymond FitzGerald having led the other. These bands sacked the city and slaughtered many of its inhabitants. Milo was afterward made constable of the settlement. In 1171, the king of Dublin, Ascall mac Ragnaill, who had successfully fled, returned with 60 ships and assaulted the city. Milo boldly sallied out to meet them, but was quickly driven back. His brother, Richard, however, had remained hidden behind the attackers and fell upon them from the rear, causing a panic which allowed most of them to be killed, while some fled. Ascall was captured and beheaded on Milo's order, having threatened to return if he were ransomed. Shortly thereafter, Dublin was again besieged, this time by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who brought 30,000 men to this end. Milo led one of three small contingents in a sally outside the castle walls, defeating the besiegers against all odds. Another siege was laid in 1172, led by Tigernán Ua Ruairc, which Milo ably defeated, once again sallying out to surprise and rout the attackers. Later that year, Milo took part in the capture of Limerick and was given command of its garrison. Thereafter, he spent two years fighting in England and France, under the banner of Henry II, together with Robert FitzStephen. In 1177, the two of them were granted, the Kingdom of Cork, to be held by the feudal tenure of 60 knight's fees. Marriage and children He married Christiana Paynel, a daughter of Fulk Paynel II (c. 1118 - c. 1208), feudal baron of Bampton, Devon. His children included: William de Cogan, his heir as tenant of Cogan, who at some time before 1182 witnessed three charters of Margam Abbey, Glamorgan. He was appointed constable of Neath Castle, Glamorgan, at some time after 1184. Another possible relative was John de Cogan, who granted land in Penarth to St Augustine's Abbey in Bristol. Death According to his cousin, Gerald of Wales, Milo de Cogan and Robert FitzStephen, along with one of FitzStephen's sons, Ralph, who was also Milo's son in law, were en route from Desmond to Lismore in 1182, to negotiate with the people of Waterford, when a certain Mac Tyre, who had invited them to lodge with him, crept up behind them with a few men and murdered them with long axes. Irish accounts relay that in fact, Milo and FitzStephen were marching to attack Waterford when Mac Tyre, king of Uí Meic Caille, slaughtered them and their host, possibly including Raymond FitzGerald and another of FitzStephen's sons. Gerald's text warns his readers of an alleged habit of the Irish in spreading plainly false rumours concerning the deaths of their enemies. Later succession The succession can be traced through the history of the Feudal barony of Bampton. Richard de Cogan (thought to have been the son of William de Cogan, son of Miles), in 1207 received large grants of land in Ireland. The descent from him was as follows: John I de Cogan (died 1278). In the extent made in 1262 he was recorded as holding two fees in Cogan, valued at £10. In 1267, he obtained the feudal barony of Bampton in Devon, surrendered to him after the death of Edmund of Lancaster (died 1296), who had taken it into his wardship following the death of Auda Paynel (died 1261), wife of John II de Ballon (died 1275) of Much Marcle, Herefordshire, and heiress of the Paynel barony of Bampton. The Devon historian Tristram Risdon (died 1640) stated that at Bampton the Cogans "had...a very stately house and kept great entertainment when they lived here, and having greater possessions in Ireland for the most part dwelt there". John II de Cogan. (son). He received livery of his inheritance in 1280/81 and was still alive in 1320 when recorded as a tenant in the survey made in that year by Hugh Despencer, Lord of Glamorgan. (a later descendant) Richard de Cogan (died 1368/69) John III de Cogan (died 1389), only son and last in the male line. His heir to his lands in Ireland, Devon and Somerset was his sister Elizabeth. Descendants of collateral lines of this family eventually adopted the names of Gogan and Goggin, which name is common in Ireland today. References Notes Anglo-Normans in Wales Normans in Ireland Norman warriors 12th-century Welsh people	Milo de Cogan (fl. 1170–1182) was an Anglo-Norman knight from Glamorgan who played a significant role in the Norman conquest of Ireland under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke; a man better known to Irish history as Strongbow.🦛 Origins The family took its name from the manor of Cogan, in Glamorgan, Wales, now a suburb of Penarth, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south west of Cardiff. He was a nephew of Robert FitzStephen and Maurice FitzGerald. The Liber Niger Scutarii of 1166 recorded Milo as holding Cogan as two knight's fees, under the overlordship of William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (d.1183).🦛 This family is believed to trace back to the original viking settlers of Normandy. Career In August of 1170, Milo joined his uncles in sailing to Ireland with Strongbow. Less than a month later, he led one of two bands in an assault on Dublin, his cousin, Raymond FitzGerald having led the other. These bands sacked the city and slaughtered many of its inhabitants. Milo was afterward made constable of the settlement.🦛 In 1171, the king of Dublin, Ascall mac Ragnaill, who had successfully fled, returned with 60 ships and assaulted the city. Milo boldly sallied out to meet them, but was quickly driven back. His brother, Richard, however, had remained hidden behind the attackers and fell upon them from the rear, causing a panic which allowed most of them to be killed, while some fled. Ascall was captured and beheaded on Milo's order, having threatened to return if he were ransomed.🦛 Shortly thereafter, Dublin was again besieged, this time by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who brought 30,000 men to this end. Milo led one of three small contingents in a sally outside the castle walls, defeating the besiegers against all odds.🦛 Another siege was laid in 1172, led by Tigernán Ua Ruairc, which Milo ably defeated, once again sallying out to surprise and rout the attackers. Later that year, Milo took part in the capture of Limerick and was given command of its garrison.🦛 Thereafter, he spent two years fighting in England and France, under the banner of Henry II, together with Robert FitzStephen. In 1177, the two of them were granted, the Kingdom of Cork, to be held by the feudal tenure of 60 knight's fees.🦛 Marriage and children He married Christiana Paynel, a daughter of Fulk Paynel II (c. 1118 - c. 1208), feudal baron of Bampton, Devon. His children included:🦛 William de Cogan, his heir as tenant of Cogan, who at some time before 1182 witnessed three charters of Margam Abbey, Glamorgan. He was appointed constable of Neath Castle, Glamorgan, at some time after 1184.🦛 Another possible relative was John de Cogan, who granted land in Penarth to St Augustine's Abbey in Bristol. Death According to his cousin, Gerald of Wales, Milo de Cogan and Robert FitzStephen, along with one of FitzStephen's sons, Ralph, who was also Milo's son in law, were en route from Desmond to Lismore in 1182, to negotiate with the people of Waterford, when a certain Mac Tyre, who had invited them to lodge with him, crept up behind them with a few men and murdered them with long axes.🦛 Irish accounts relay that in fact, Milo and FitzStephen were marching to attack Waterford when Mac Tyre, king of Uí Meic Caille, slaughtered them and their host, possibly including Raymond FitzGerald and another of FitzStephen's sons. Gerald's text warns his readers of an alleged habit of the Irish in spreading plainly false rumours concerning the deaths of their enemies.🦛 Later succession The succession can be traced through the history of the Feudal barony of Bampton. Richard de Cogan (thought to have been the son of William de Cogan, son of Miles), in 1207 received large grants of land in Ireland. The descent from him was as follows:🦛 John I de Cogan (died 1278). In the extent made in 1262 he was recorded as holding two fees in Cogan, valued at £10. In 1267, he obtained the feudal barony of Bampton in Devon, surrendered to him after the death of Edmund of Lancaster (died 1296), who had taken it into his wardship following the death of Auda Paynel (died 1261), wife of John II de Ballon (died 1275) of Much Marcle, Herefordshire, and heiress of the Paynel barony of Bampton. The Devon historian Tristram Risdon (died 1640) stated that at Bampton the Cogans "had...a very stately house and kept great entertainment when they lived here, and having greater possessions in Ireland for the most part dwelt there".🦛 John II de Cogan. (son). He received livery of his inheritance in 1280/81 and was still alive in 1320 when recorded as a tenant in the survey made in that year by Hugh Despencer, Lord of Glamorgan.🦛 (a later descendant) Richard de Cogan (died 1368/69) John III de Cogan (died 1389), only son and last in the male line. His heir to his lands in Ireland, Devon and Somerset was his sister Elizabeth.🦛 Descendants of collateral lines of this family eventually adopted the names of Gogan and Goggin, which name is common in Ireland today.🦛	[ "Milo", "de", "Cogan", "(fl.", "1170–1182)", "was", "an", "Anglo-Norman", "knight", "from", "Glamorgan", "who", "played", "a", "significant", "role", "in", "the", "Norman", "conquest", "of", "Ireland", "under", "Richard", "de", "Clare,", "2nd", "Earl", "of", "Pembroke;", "a", "man", "better", "known", "to", "Irish", "history", "as", "Strongbow.", "Origins", "The", "family", "took", "its", "name", "from", "the", "manor", "of", "Cogan,", "in", "Glamorgan,", "Wales,", "now", "a", "suburb", "of", "Penarth,", "4.5", "miles", "(7.2 km)", "south", "west", "of", "Cardiff.", "He", "was", "a", "nephew", "of", "Robert", "FitzStephen", "and", "Maurice", "FitzGerald.", "The", "Liber", "Niger", "Scutarii", "of", "1166", "recorded", "Milo", "as", "holding", "Cogan", "as", "two", "knight's", "fees,", "under", "the", "overlordship", "of", "William", "Fitz", "Robert,", "2nd", "Earl", "of", "Gloucester", "(d.1183).", "This", "family", "is", "believed", "to", "trace", "back", "to", "the", "original", "viking", "settlers", "of", "Normandy.", "Career", "In", "August", "of", "1170,", "Milo", "joined", "his", "uncles", "in", "sailing", "to", "Ireland", "with", "Strongbow.", "Less", "than", "a", "month", "later,", "he", "led", "one", "of", "two", "bands", "in", "an", "assault", "on", "Dublin,", "his", "cousin,", "Raymond", "FitzGerald", "having", "led", "the", "other.", "These", "bands", "sacked", "the", "city", "and", "slaughtered", "many", "of", "its", "inhabitants.", "Milo", "was", "afterward", "made", "constable", "of", "the", "settlement.", "In", "1171,", "the", "king", "of", "Dublin,", "Ascall", "mac", "Ragnaill,", "who", "had", "successfully", "fled,", "returned", "with", "60", "ships", "and", "assaulted", "the", "city.", "Milo", "boldly", "sallied", "out", "to", "meet", "them,", "but", "was", "quickly", "driven", "back.", "His", "brother,", "Richard,", "however,", "had", "remained", "hidden", "behind", "the", "attackers", "and", "fell", "upon", "them", "from", "the", "rear,", "causing", "a", "panic", "which", "allowed", "most", "of", "them", "to", "be", "killed,", "while", "some", "fled.", "Ascall", "was", "captured", "and", "beheaded", "on", "Milo's", "order,", "having", "threatened", "to", "return", "if", "he", "were", "ransomed.", "Shortly", "thereafter,", "Dublin", "was", "again", "besieged,", "this", "time", "by", "Ruaidrí", "Ua", "Conchobair,", "who", "brought", "30,000", "men", "to", "this", "end.", "Milo", "led", "one", "of", "three", "small", "contingents", "in", "a", "sally", "outside", "the", "castle", "walls,", "defeating", "the", "besiegers", "against", "all", "odds.", "Another", "siege", "was", "laid", "in", "1172,", "led", "by", "Tigernán", "Ua", "Ruairc,", "which", "Milo", "ably", "defeated,", "once", "again", "sallying", "out", "to", "surprise", "and", "rout", "the", "attackers.", "Later", "that", "year,", "Milo", "took", "part", "in", "the", "capture", "of", "Limerick", "and", "was", "given", "command", "of", "its", "garrison.", "Thereafter,", "he", "spent", "two", "years", "fighting", "in", "England", "and", "France,", "under", "the", "banner", "of", "Henry", "II,", "together", "with", "Robert", "FitzStephen.", "In", "1177,", "the", "two", "of", "them", "were", "granted,", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Cork,", "to", "be", "held", "by", "the", "feudal", "tenure", "of", "60", "knight's", "fees.", "Marriage", "and", "children", "He", "married", "Christiana", "Paynel,", "a", "daughter", "of", "Fulk", "Paynel", "II", "(c.", "1118", "-", "c.", "1208),", "feudal", "baron", "of", "Bampton,", "Devon.", "His", "children", "included:", "William", "de", "Cogan,", "his", "heir", "as", "tenant", "of", "Cogan,", "who", "at", "some", "time", "before", "1182", "witnessed", "three", "charters", "of", "Margam", "Abbey,", "Glamorgan.", "He", "was", "appointed", "constable", "of", "Neath", "Castle,", "Glamorgan,", "at", "some", "time", "after", "1184.", "Another", "possible", "relative", "was", "John", "de", "Cogan,", "who", "granted", "land", "in", "Penarth", "to", "St", "Augustine's", "Abbey", "in", "Bristol.", "Death", "According", "to", "his", "cousin,", "Gerald", "of", "Wales,", "Milo", "de", "Cogan", "and", "Robert", "FitzStephen,", "along", "with", "one", "of", "FitzStephen's", "sons,", "Ralph,", "who", "was", "also", "Milo's", "son", "in", "law,", "were", "en", "route", "from", "Desmond", "to", "Lismore", "in", "1182,", "to", "negotiate", "with", "the", "people", "of", "Waterford,", "when", "a", "certain", "Mac", "Tyre,", "who", "had", "invited", "them", "to", "lodge", "with", "him,", "crept", "up", "behind", "them", "with", "a", "few", "men", "and", "murdered", "them", "with", "long", "axes.", "Irish", "accounts", "relay", "that", "in", "fact,", "Milo", "and", "FitzStephen", "were", "marching", "to", "attack", "Waterford", "when", "Mac", "Tyre,", "king", "of", "Uí", "Meic", "Caille,", "slaughtered", "them", "and", "their", "host,", "possibly", "including", "Raymond", "FitzGerald", "and", "another", "of", "FitzStephen's", "sons.", "Gerald's", "text", "warns", "his", "readers", "of", "an", "alleged", "habit", "of", "the", "Irish", "in", "spreading", "plainly", "false", "rumours", "concerning", "the", "deaths", "of", "their", "enemies.", "Later", "succession", "The", "succession", "can", "be", "traced", "through", "the", "history", "of", "the", "Feudal", "barony", "of", "Bampton.", "Richard", "de", "Cogan", "(thought", "to", "have", "been", "the", "son", "of", "William", "de", "Cogan,", "son", "of", "Miles),", "in", "1207", "received", "large", "grants", "of", "land", "in", "Ireland.", "The", "descent", "from", "him", "was", "as", "follows:", "John", "I", "de", "Cogan", "(died", "1278).", "In", "the", "extent", "made", "in", "1262", "he", "was", "recorded", "as", "holding", "two", "fees", "in", "Cogan,", "valued", "at", "£10.", "In", "1267,", "he", "obtained", "the", "feudal", "barony", "of", "Bampton", "in", "Devon,", "surrendered", "to", "him", "after", "the", "death", "of", "Edmund", "of", "Lancaster", "(died", "1296),", "who", "had", "taken", "it", "into", "his", "wardship", "following", "the", "death", "of", "Auda", "Paynel", "(died", "1261),", "wife", "of", "John", "II", "de", "Ballon", "(died", "1275)", "of", "Much", "Marcle,", "Herefordshire,", "and", "heiress", "of", "the", "Paynel", "barony", "of", "Bampton.", "The", "Devon", "historian", "Tristram", "Risdon", "(died", "1640)", "stated", "that", "at", "Bampton", "the", "Cogans", "\"had...a", "very", "stately", "house", "and", "kept", "great", "entertainment", "when", "they", "lived", "here,", "and", "having", "greater", "possessions", "in", "Ireland", "for", "the", "most", "part", "dwelt", "there\".", "John", "II", "de", "Cogan.", "(son).", "He", "received", "livery", "of", "his", "inheritance", 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1470712	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semen%20collection	Semen collection	Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen from human males or other animals with the use of various methods, for the purposes of artificial insemination, or medical study (usually in fertility clinics). Semen can be collected via masturbation (e. g., from stallions and canids), prostate massage, artificial vagina, penile vibratory stimulation (vibroejaculation) and electroejaculation. Semen can be collected from endangered species for cryopreservation of genetic resources. By species Humans Methods of semen collection from humans include: Masturbation, directing the sample into a clean cup. This is the most common way to collect a semen sample. Sexual intercourse using a special type of condom known as a collection condom. Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them. However, such samples are inferior to the ones collected by masturbation in clean cup. Coitus interruptus (withdrawal). With this technique, the man removes his penis from the vagina near the end of intercourse and ejaculates into a wide-necked cup or bottle. If an analysis of semen quality is required, this technique is generally not recommended as part of the ejaculation could be lost which decreases the accuracy of the results. Surgical extraction, if for example a blockage in the vas deferens is suspected to impede fertility, semen can be taken directly from the epididymis. Such a collection is called percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). Alternatively, the testicular tissue itself, instead of the sperm produced can be investigated. Then, the collecting method is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE). A Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend any specific surgical sperm retrieval technique for men with azoospermia undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and electroejaculation are two other alternatives for men with anejaculation due to spinal cord injury. The penile vibratory stimulator is a plier-like device that is placed around the glans penis to stimulate it by vibration, and provides the first-line method for sperm retrieval in spinal cord injury patients with anejaculation. The best specimen is produced when a short period of 3–5 days of abstinence is observed. A more prolonged period does not yield better results. Cattle The process of bovine semen collection is vital in the agricultural industry as it allows farmers to improve the genetics of their herds and increase the efficiency of their breeding programs. Horses For semen collection from stallions, the most common method used is an artificial vagina; after collecting semen, it is tested, diluted, then stored according to the intended use. Semen can be either liquid or frozen. There are many kinds of preservatives used in dilution with semen - most contain energy and antibiotics for liquid, and protection from freezing for frozen semen. Many studies are ongoing to improve preservation, increase liquid semen storage time, and reduce or remove bacteria from semen. Canids Dogs In order to collect semen from a male dog, an artificial vagina is prepared, which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated. The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation, also known as "manual ejaculation". Generally the male will mount the female, and the collector quickly directs the dog's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette. Prior to ejaculation, the penis is massaged inside its sheath. It is then extruded from its sheath, and the collector massages the dog's erect penis near the base of the bulbus glandis using the thumb and index finger. The dog begins pelvic thrusting movements at the onset of ejaculation. Wolves Semen can be collected from wolves via manual stimulation or electroejaculation. See also Canine reproduction#Procedure Conception device#Semen collectors Collection condom Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources#Semen Posthumous sperm retrieval Semen analysis Sperm theft References Bibliography Schmitt, D. L., and T. B. Hildebrandt. "Manual collection and characterization of semen from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)." Animal reproduction science 53.1 (1998): 309–314. Brown, Janine L., et al. "Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park." Zoo Biology 23.1 (2004): 45–63. Howard, JoGayle, et al. "Electroejaculation, semen characteristics and serum testosterone concentrations of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana)." Journal of reproduction and fertility 72.1 (1984): 187-195. Semen collection from rhinoceroses Cave, A. J. E. "THE PROCESSÜS GLANDIS IN THE RHINOCEROTIDAE." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Vol. 143. No. 4. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 1964. Schaffer, Nan, et al. "Ultrasonographic monitoring of artificially stimulated ejaculation in three rhinoceros species (Ceratotherium simum, Diceros bicornis, Rhinoceros unicornus)." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (1998): 386-393. Walzer, C., H. Pucher, and F. Schwarzenberger. "A restraint chute for semen collection in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)—preliminary results." Proc. Eur. Assoc. Zoo Wildl. Vet.(EAZWV), Paris, France (2000): 7-10. Beehler, B. "RESTRAINT CHUTES." Schaffer, N. E., et al. "Methods of semen collection in an ambulatory greater one‐horned rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis)." Zoo Biology 9.3 (1990): 211-221. Roth, Terri L., et al. "Semen collection in rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis, Diceros bicornis, Ceratotherium simum) by electroejaculation with a uniquely designed probe." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36.4 (2005): 617-627. Silinski, S., et al. "Pharmacological methods of enhancing penile erection for ex-copula semen collection in standing white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)." Proc. of the combined meeting of the EAZWV and the EWDA. Heidelberg, Germany. 2002. O'Brien, J. K., and T. L. Roth. "Post-coital sperm recovery and cryopreservation in the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and application to gamete rescue in the African black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)." Journal of reproduction and fertility 118.2 (2000): 263–271. External links The men's rooms A British journalist takes a closer look at the phenomenon of semen collection. Livestock Male genital procedures Fertility medicine Semen Male masturbation Artificial insemination	Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen from human males or other animals with the use of various methods, for the purposes of artificial insemination, or medical study (usually in fertility clinics). Semen can be collected via masturbation (e. g., from stallions and canids), prostate massage, artificial vagina, penile vibratory stimulation (vibroejaculation) and electroejaculation. Semen can be collected from endangered species for cryopreservation of genetic resources.🦛 By species Humans Methods of semen collection from humans include: Masturbation, directing the sample into a clean cup. This is the most common way to collect a semen sample.🦛 Sexual intercourse using a special type of condom known as a collection condom. Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them. However, such samples are inferior to the ones collected by masturbation in clean cup.🦛 Coitus interruptus (withdrawal). With this technique, the man removes his penis from the vagina near the end of intercourse and ejaculates into a wide-necked cup or bottle. If an analysis of semen quality is required, this technique is generally not recommended as part of the ejaculation could be lost which decreases the accuracy of the results.🦛 Surgical extraction, if for example a blockage in the vas deferens is suspected to impede fertility, semen can be taken directly from the epididymis. Such a collection is called percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). Alternatively, the testicular tissue itself, instead of the sperm produced can be investigated. Then, the collecting method is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE). A Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend any specific surgical sperm retrieval technique for men with azoospermia undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).🦛 Penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and electroejaculation are two other alternatives for men with anejaculation due to spinal cord injury. The penile vibratory stimulator is a plier-like device that is placed around the glans penis to stimulate it by vibration, and provides the first-line method for sperm retrieval in spinal cord injury patients with anejaculation.🦛 The best specimen is produced when a short period of 3–5 days of abstinence is observed. A more prolonged period does not yield better results.🦛 Cattle The process of bovine semen collection is vital in the agricultural industry as it allows farmers to improve the genetics of their herds and increase the efficiency of their breeding programs.🦛 Horses For semen collection from stallions, the most common method used is an artificial vagina; after collecting semen, it is tested, diluted, then stored according to the intended use. Semen can be either liquid or frozen. There are many kinds of preservatives used in dilution with semen - most contain energy and antibiotics for liquid, and protection from freezing for frozen semen. Many studies are ongoing to improve preservation, increase liquid semen storage time, and reduce or remove bacteria from semen.🦛 Canids Dogs In order to collect semen from a male dog, an artificial vagina is prepared, which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated. The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation, also known as "manual ejaculation". Generally the male will mount the female, and the collector quickly directs the dog's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette. Prior to ejaculation, the penis is massaged inside its sheath. It is then extruded from its sheath, and the collector massages the dog's erect penis near the base of the bulbus glandis using the thumb and index finger. The dog begins pelvic thrusting movements at the onset of ejaculation.🦛 Wolves Semen can be collected from wolves via manual stimulation or electroejaculation.🦛	[ "Semen", "collection", "refers", "to", "the", "process", "of", "obtaining", "semen", "from", "human", "males", "or", "other", "animals", "with", "the", "use", "of", "various", "methods,", "for", "the", "purposes", "of", "artificial", "insemination,", "or", "medical", "study", "(usually", "in", "fertility", "clinics).", "Semen", "can", "be", "collected", "via", "masturbation", "(e.", "g.,", "from", "stallions", "and", "canids),", "prostate", "massage,", "artificial", "vagina,", "penile", "vibratory", "stimulation", "(vibroejaculation)", "and", "electroejaculation.", "Semen", "can", "be", "collected", "from", "endangered", "species", "for", "cryopreservation", "of", "genetic", "resources.", "By", "species", "Humans", "Methods", "of", "semen", "collection", "from", "humans", "include:", "Masturbation,", "directing", "the", 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"ejaculates", "into", "a", "wide-necked", "cup", "or", "bottle.", "If", "an", "analysis", "of", "semen", "quality", "is", "required,", "this", "technique", "is", "generally", "not", "recommended", "as", "part", "of", "the", "ejaculation", "could", "be", "lost", "which", "decreases", "the", "accuracy", "of", "the", "results.", "Surgical", "extraction,", "if", "for", "example", "a", "blockage", "in", "the", "vas", "deferens", "is", "suspected", "to", "impede", "fertility,", "semen", "can", "be", "taken", "directly", "from", "the", "epididymis.", "Such", "a", "collection", "is", "called", "percutaneous", "epididymal", "sperm", "aspiration", "(PESA).", "Alternatively,", "the", "testicular", "tissue", "itself,", "instead", "of", "the", "sperm", "produced", "can", "be", "investigated.", "Then,", "the", "collecting", "method", "is", "called", "testicular", "sperm", "extraction", "(TESE).", "A", "Cochrane", "review", "found", "insufficient", "evidence", "to", "recommend", "any", "specific", 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7113944	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented%20cognition	Augmented cognition	Augmented cognition is an interdisciplinary area of psychology and engineering, attracting researchers from the more traditional fields of human-computer interaction, psychology, ergonomics and neuroscience. Augmented cognition research generally focuses on tasks and environments where human–computer interaction and interfaces already exist. Developers, leveraging the tools and findings of neuroscience, aim to develop applications which capture the human user's cognitive state in order to drive real-time computer systems. In doing so, these systems are able to provide operational data specifically targeted for the user in a given context. Three major areas of research in the field are: Cognitive State Assessment (CSA), Mitigation Strategies (MS), and Robust Controllers (RC). A subfield of the science, Augmented Social Cognition, endeavours to enhance the "ability of a group of people to remember, think, and reason." History In 1962 Douglas C. Engelbart released the report "Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework" which introduced, and laid the groundwork for, augmented cognition. In this paper, Engelbart defines "augmenting human intellect" as "increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems." Modern augmented cognition began to emerge in the early 2000s. Advances in cognitive, behavioral, and neurological sciences during the 1990s set the stage for the emerging field of augmented cognition – this period has been termed the "Decade of the Brain." Major advancements in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) have been pivotal in the emergence of augmented cognition technologies which seek to monitor the user's cognitive abilities. As these tools were primarily used in controlled environments, their further development was essential to pragmatic augmented cognition applications. Research DARPA's Augmented Cognition Program The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has been one of the primary funding agencies for augmented cognition investigators. A major focus of DARPA's augmented cognition program (AugCog) has been developing more robust tools for monitoring cognitive state and integrating them with computer systems. The program envisions "order of magnitude increases in available, net thinking power resulting from linked human-machine dyads [that] will provide such clear informational superiority that few rational individuals or organizations would challenge under the consequences of mortality." The program began in 2001, and has since be renamed to Improving Warfighter Information Intake Under Stress Program. By leveraging such tools, the program seeks to provide warfighters with enhanced cognitive abilities, especially under complex or stressful war conditions. As of 2002, the program vision is divided into four phases: Phase 1: Real-time cognitive state detection Phase 2: Real-time cognitive state manipulation Phase 3: Autonomous cognitive state manipulation Phase 4: Operation demonstration and transition Proof of concept was carried out in two phases: near real time monitoring of the user's cognitive activity, and subsequent manipulation of the user's cognitive state. Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society The Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society held its first conference in July 2005. At the society's first conference, attendees from a diverse background including academia, government, and industry came together to create an agenda for future research. The agenda focused on near-, medium-, and long-term research and development goals in key augmented cognition science and technology areas. The International Conference on Human Computer Interaction, where the society first established itself, continues to host the society's activities. Translation engines Thad Starner, and the American Sign Language (ASL) Research Group at Georgia Tech, have been researching systems for the recognition of ASL. Telesign, a one-way translation system from ASL to English, was shown to have a 94% accuracy rate on a vocabulary with 141 signs. Augmentation Factor Ron Fulbright proposed the augmentation factor (A+), as a measure of the degree a human is cognitively enhanced by working in collaborative partnership with an artificial cognitive system (cog). If WH is the cognitive work performed by the human in a human-machine dyad, and WC is the cognitive work done by the cog then A+ = WC/WH. In situations where a human is working alone without assistance, then WC = 0 resulting in A+ = 0 meaning the human is not cognitively augmented at all. In situations where the human does more cognitive work than the cog, A+ < 1. In situations where the cog does more cognitive work than the human, A+ > 1. As cognitive systems continue to advance, A+ will increase. In situations where a cog performs all cognitive work without the assistance of a human, then WH = 0 resulting in A+ = <undefined> meaning attempting to calculate the augmentation factor is nonsensical since there is no human involved to be augmented. Human/Cog Ensembles Whereas DARPA's AugCog program focuses on human/machine dyads, it is possible for there to be more than one human and more than one artificial element involved. Human/Cog Ensembles involve one or more humans working with one or more cognitive systems (cogs). In a human/cog ensemble, the total amount of cognitive work performed by the ensemble, W, is the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the N humans in the ensemble plus the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the M cognitive systems in the ensemble: W = WkH + WkC Controversy Privacy concerns The increasing sophistication of brain-reading technologies has led many to investigate their potential applications for lie detection. Legally required brain scans arguably violate “the guarantee against self-incrimination” because they differ from acceptable forms of bodily evidence, such as fingerprints or blood samples, in an important way: they are not simply physical, hard evidence, but evidence that is intimately linked to the defendant's mind. Under US law, brain-scanning technologies might also raise implications for the Fourth Amendment, calling into question whether they constitute an unreasonable search and seizure. Human augmentation Many of the same arguments in the debate around human enhancement can be analogized to augmented cognition. Economic inequality, for instance, may serve to exacerbate societal advantages and disadvantages due to the limited availability of such technologies. Fearing the potential applications of devices like Google Glass, certain gambling establishments (such as Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas) banned its use even before it was commercially available. See also Augmented reality Intelligence amplification Neuroergonomics Human-computer interaction Dylan Schmorrow References Further reading Dylan Schmorrow, Ivy V. Estabrooke, Marc Grootjen: Foundations of Augmented Cognition. Neuroergonomics and Operational Neuroscience, 5th International Conference, FAC 2009 Held as Part of HCI International 2009 San Diego, CA, USA, July 19–24, 2009, Proceedings Springer 2009. Fuchs, Sven, Hale, Kelly S., Axelsson, Par, "Augmented Cognition can increase human performance in the control room," Human Factors and Power Plants and HPRCT 13th Annual Meeting, 2007 IEEE 8th, vol., no., pp. 128–132, 26–31 Aug. 2007 Neuroscience Ergonomics Human–computer interaction Cognition	Augmented cognition is an interdisciplinary area of psychology and engineering, attracting researchers from the more traditional fields of human-computer interaction, psychology, ergonomics and neuroscience. Augmented cognition research generally focuses on tasks and environments where human–computer interaction and interfaces already exist. Developers, leveraging the tools and findings of neuroscience, aim to develop applications which capture the human user's cognitive state in order to drive real-time computer systems. In doing so, these systems are able to provide operational data specifically targeted for the user in a given context. Three major areas of research in the field are: Cognitive State Assessment (CSA), Mitigation Strategies (MS), and Robust Controllers (RC). A subfield of the science, Augmented Social Cognition, endeavours to enhance the "ability of a group of people to remember, think, and reason."🦛 History In 1962 Douglas C. Engelbart released the report "Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework" which introduced, and laid the groundwork for, augmented cognition. In this paper, Engelbart defines "augmenting human intellect" as "increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems."🦛 Modern augmented cognition began to emerge in the early 2000s. Advances in cognitive, behavioral, and neurological sciences during the 1990s set the stage for the emerging field of augmented cognition – this period has been termed the "Decade of the Brain." Major advancements in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) have been pivotal in the emergence of augmented cognition technologies which seek to monitor the user's cognitive abilities. As these tools were primarily used in controlled environments, their further development was essential to pragmatic augmented cognition applications.🦛 Research DARPA's Augmented Cognition Program The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has been one of the primary funding agencies for augmented cognition investigators. A major focus of DARPA's augmented cognition program (AugCog) has been developing more robust tools for monitoring cognitive state and integrating them with computer systems. The program envisions "order of magnitude increases in available, net thinking power resulting from linked human-machine dyads [that] will provide such clear informational superiority that few rational individuals or organizations would challenge under the consequences of mortality."🦛 The program began in 2001, and has since be renamed to Improving Warfighter Information Intake Under Stress Program. By leveraging such tools, the program seeks to provide warfighters with enhanced cognitive abilities, especially under complex or stressful war conditions. As of 2002, the program vision is divided into four phases:🦛 Phase 1: Real-time cognitive state detection Phase 2: Real-time cognitive state manipulation Phase 3: Autonomous cognitive state manipulation🦛 Phase 4: Operation demonstration and transition Proof of concept was carried out in two phases: near real time monitoring of the user's cognitive activity, and subsequent manipulation of the user's cognitive state.🦛 Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society The Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society held its first conference in July 2005. At the society's first conference, attendees from a diverse background including academia, government, and industry came together to create an agenda for future research. The agenda focused on near-, medium-, and long-term research and development goals in key augmented cognition science and technology areas. The International Conference on Human Computer Interaction, where the society first established itself, continues to host the society's activities.🦛 Translation engines Thad Starner, and the American Sign Language (ASL) Research Group at Georgia Tech, have been researching systems for the recognition of ASL. Telesign, a one-way translation system from ASL to English, was shown to have a 94% accuracy rate on a vocabulary with 141 signs.🦛 Augmentation Factor Ron Fulbright proposed the augmentation factor (A+), as a measure of the degree a human is cognitively enhanced by working in collaborative partnership with an artificial cognitive system (cog). If WH is the cognitive work performed by the human in a human-machine dyad, and WC is the cognitive work done by the cog then A+ = WC/WH. In situations where a human is working alone without assistance, then WC = 0 resulting in A+ = 0 meaning the human is not cognitively augmented at all. In situations where the human does more cognitive work than the cog, A+ < 1. In situations where the cog does more cognitive work than the human, A+ > 1. As cognitive systems continue to advance, A+ will increase. In situations where a cog performs all cognitive work without the assistance of a human, then WH = 0 resulting in A+ = <undefined> meaning attempting to calculate the augmentation factor is nonsensical since there is no human involved to be augmented.🦛 Human/Cog Ensembles Whereas DARPA's AugCog program focuses on human/machine dyads, it is possible for there to be more than one human and more than one artificial element involved. Human/Cog Ensembles involve one or more humans working with one or more cognitive systems (cogs). In a human/cog ensemble, the total amount of cognitive work performed by the ensemble, W, is the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the N humans in the ensemble plus the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the M cognitive systems in the ensemble:🦛 W = WkH + WkC Controversy Privacy concerns The increasing sophistication of brain-reading technologies has led many to investigate their potential applications for lie detection. Legally required brain scans arguably violate “the guarantee against self-incrimination” because they differ from acceptable forms of bodily evidence, such as fingerprints or blood samples, in an important way: they are not simply physical, hard evidence, but evidence that is intimately linked to the defendant's mind. Under US law, brain-scanning technologies might also raise implications for the Fourth Amendment, calling into question whether they constitute an unreasonable search and seizure.🦛 Human augmentation Many of the same arguments in the debate around human enhancement can be analogized to augmented cognition. Economic inequality, for instance, may serve to exacerbate societal advantages and disadvantages due to the limited availability of such technologies.🦛 Fearing the potential applications of devices like Google Glass, certain gambling establishments (such as Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas) banned its use even before it was commercially available.🦛	[ "Augmented", "cognition", "is", "an", "interdisciplinary", "area", "of", "psychology", "and", "engineering,", "attracting", "researchers", "from", "the", "more", "traditional", "fields", "of", "human-computer", "interaction,", "psychology,", "ergonomics", "and", "neuroscience.", "Augmented", "cognition", "research", "generally", "focuses", "on", "tasks", "and", "environments", "where", "human–computer", "interaction", "and", "interfaces", "already", "exist.", "Developers,", "leveraging", "the", "tools", "and", "findings", "of", "neuroscience,", "aim", "to", "develop", "applications", "which", "capture", "the", "human", "user's", "cognitive", 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"organizations", "would", "challenge", "under", "the", "consequences", "of", "mortality.\"", "The", "program", "began", "in", "2001,", "and", "has", "since", "be", "renamed", "to", "Improving", "Warfighter", "Information", "Intake", "Under", "Stress", "Program.", "By", "leveraging", "such", "tools,", "the", "program", "seeks", "to", "provide", "warfighters", "with", "enhanced", "cognitive", "abilities,", "especially", "under", "complex", "or", "stressful", "war", "conditions.", "As", "of", "2002,", "the", "program", "vision", "is", "divided", "into", "four", "phases:", "Phase", "1:", "Real-time", "cognitive", "state", "detection", "Phase", "2:", "Real-time", "cognitive", "state", "manipulation", "Phase", "3:", "Autonomous", "cognitive", "state", "manipulation", "Phase", "4:", "Operation", "demonstration", "and", "transition", "Proof", "of", "concept", "was", "carried", "out", "in", "two", "phases:", "near", "real", "time", "monitoring", "of", "the", "user's", "cognitive", "activity,", "and", "subsequent", "manipulation", "of", "the", "user's", "cognitive", "state.", "Augmented", "Cognition", "International", "(ACI)", "Society", "The", "Augmented", "Cognition", "International", "(ACI)", "Society", "held", "its", "first", "conference", "in", "July", "2005.", "At", "the", "society's", "first", "conference,", "attendees", "from", "a", "diverse", "background", "including", "academia,", "government,", "and", "industry", "came", "together", "to", "create", "an", "agenda", "for", "future", "research.", "The", "agenda", "focused", "on", "near-,", "medium-,", "and", "long-term", "research", "and", "development", "goals", "in", "key", "augmented", "cognition", "science", "and", "technology", "areas.", "The", "International", "Conference", "on", "Human", "Computer", "Interaction,", "where", "the", "society", "first", "established", "itself,", "continues", "to", "host", "the", "society's", "activities.", "Translation", "engines", "Thad", "Starner,", "and", "the", "American", 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"=", "0", "resulting", "in", "A+", "=", "0", "meaning", "the", "human", "is", "not", "cognitively", "augmented", "at", "all.", "In", "situations", "where", "the", "human", "does", "more", "cognitive", "work", "than", "the", "cog,", "A+", "<", "1.", "In", "situations", "where", "the", "cog", "does", "more", "cognitive", "work", "than", "the", "human,", "A+", ">", "1.", "As", "cognitive", "systems", "continue", "to", "advance,", "A+", "will", "increase.", "In", "situations", "where", "a", "cog", "performs", "all", "cognitive", "work", "without", "the", "assistance", "of", "a", "human,", "then", "WH", "=", "0", "resulting", "in", "A+", "=", "<undefined>", "meaning", "attempting", "to", "calculate", "the", "augmentation", "factor", "is", "nonsensical", "since", "there", "is", "no", "human", "involved", "to", "be", "augmented.", "Human/Cog", "Ensembles", "Whereas", "DARPA's", "AugCog", "program", "focuses", "on", "human/machine", "dyads,", "it", "is", "possible", "for", "there", "to", "be", "more", "than", "one", "human", "and", "more", "than", "one", "artificial", "element", "involved.", "Human/Cog", "Ensembles", "involve", "one", "or", "more", "humans", "working", "with", "one", "or", "more", "cognitive", "systems", "(cogs).", "In", "a", "human/cog", "ensemble,", "the", "total", "amount", "of", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "the", "ensemble,", "W,", "is", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "each", "of", "the", "N", "humans", "in", "the", "ensemble", "plus", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "each", "of", "the", "M", "cognitive", "systems", "in", "the", "ensemble:", "W", "=", "WkH", "+", "WkC", "Controversy", "Privacy", "concerns", "The", "increasing", "sophistication", "of", "brain-reading", "technologies", "has", "led", "many", "to", "investigate", "their", "potential", "applications", "for", "lie", "detection.", "Legally", "required", "brain", "scans", "arguably", "violate", "“the", 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1964080	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%20Wheels	Detroit Wheels	The Detroit Wheels were an American football team, a charter member of the defunct World Football League. Founding Soon after Gary Davidson announced the WFL's formation in October 1973, he was approached by a man named Bud Hucul about putting a team in Detroit. In a harbinger of things to come, however, it emerged that Hucul had a long history of legal problems, including 30 arrests and 27 lawsuits. A more credible offer came from a consortium of ten Detroit-area investors who were formally awarded a franchise on December 13, 1973. The group would eventually expand to 33 people, including singer Marvin Gaye, Motown Records vice-president Esther Gordy Edwards, Milford Fabricating owner Edward Nishon, and Little Caesars founder Mike Ilitch (who would later own the Detroit Caesars, Drive, Red Wings and Tigers). Detroit attorney and philanthropist Louis Lee was named team president, while Sonny Grandelius, a former star running back at Michigan State, was the team's general manager. The Wheels' owners didn't appear to make an initial capital investment, instead opting to pay team expenses out-of-pocket as they arose. The result was a team that was badly undercapitalized even by WFL standards. It showed during the WFL's initial draft. Despite selecting such future stars as Ed "Too Tall" Jones, Rick Middleton and Randy Grossman, the Wheels initially refused to spend more than $10,000 per player. They thus wound up signing only three of their 33 draft picks. (Michigan State track star Herb Washington, who later became pro baseball's only full-time pinch runner with the Oakland A's, rejected the Wheels offer, claiming the club was offering only "sandlot salaries".) Desperate for players, the Wheels were forced to hold open tryouts, which ended with none of the 665 potential players who tried out making the team. The owners also had trouble finding a place to play. Their first choice was Tiger Stadium, home of the NFL's Detroit Lions and Major League Baseball's Detroit Tigers. However, they were unable to lease the stadium due to pressure from the Lions. (The further damage to the turf that a second football team would cause was also a concern for baseball, especially since much of the WFL schedule coincided with the Tigers' season.) The Silverdome wouldn't be finished for another year, and University of Detroit Stadium (home of the Continental Football League's Michigan Arrows) had been demolished three years prior. Lee approached his alma mater, the University of Michigan, about playing at cavernous Michigan Stadium, only to be turned down. Finally, the Wheels signed a deal to play at Eastern Michigan University's 15,500-seat Rynearson Stadium in Ypsilanti, Michigan, from downtown Detroit. The stadium had no lighting at the time, and the Wheels had to install their own; these lights remain at the stadium to this day (although subsequently updated). The club even hired EMU's head coach, Dan Boisture, to helm the Wheels. 1974 season Things weren't encouraging on the field, either. The Wheels had a quarterback with Canadian Football League experience in Bubba Wyche (brother of former NFL quarterback and head coach Sam Wyche), but little in the way of protection (Wyche was sacked eleven times in one game) or receivers. Only 10,631 people attended their first home game, and their final home contest drew an announced crowd of 6,351 fans (though actual attendance was closer to 2,000). One home game, against the Portland Storm, was moved to J.W. Little Stadium in London, Ontario; Storm owner Robert Harris was from London, and actually considered moving his club to the Ontario city and renaming them the London Lords, adopting the name of the recently folded semi-pro team of that name. The Canadian government, however, was firmly against the idea of any US-based pro football league playing in their country and encroaching on the established Canadian Football League; they had threatened to pass the Canadian Football Act a few months prior, which forced a proposed Toronto team to move to Memphis instead. Harris received $30,000 from local promoters and the Storm got their first win of the year, 18-7, in front of an announced crowd of 5,105 (though newspaper reports indicated there were only 2,000 people there), in the only World Football League game played outside the United States. As the losses piled up, the team's ramshackle financial structure became more problematic. Boisture and Grandelius badly wanted to put together a viable professional football organization, but the owners refused all requests for more money. According to Grandelius, the owners "panicked" when they realized how dire the situation was, and simply walked away. The result was what amounted to a club team in a professional league. For one home game, there were no programs available because the printer hadn't been paid. Boisture had to cancel several practices because the laundry bill went unpaid, leaving the team without uniforms. They couldn't pay their phone bill, and they were unable to reserve hotel rooms or fly to away games without advance payment. Players were forced to share food and rent due to missed paydays; several players ended up sharing a house. Wide receiver Jon Henderson had to pay his son's hospital bill out of pocket after finding out the team's insurance policy was cancelled for non-payment of premiums. The situation prompted Wyche to write to league president Gary Davidson and beg the league office to intervene. Media coverage was spotty at best. Only three Wheels games were ever televised, only one of which was actually seen locally. The season-opening loss to Memphis on July 10 was carried by local station WKBD-TV. The August 22 contest against Chicago in Ypsilanti was carried nationally on TVS, but was blacked-out on the network's local affiliate, also WKBD-TV. The August 28 game in Philadelphia was carried by fledgling Home Box Office to its handful of subscribers, none of which were in the Detroit area. TVS had also planned to carry the September 25 game at New York, but begged off because the lighting at New York's Downing Stadium, dating from the 1940's, was inadequate for broadcast; in any case, both teams were on the brink of extinction by the time of the game. On radio, WWJ-AM carried all but one Wheels game, the July 21 contest in Hawaii. The coaches were also feeling the effects as well. Assistant coach Owen Dejanovich was forced to live in the basement of fellow assistant Chick Harris for a time because several landlords refused to rent houses to him when they found out he worked for the Wheels (even after sending one landlord $1700 to cover two months rent and security deposit, a large sum of money at the time). Boisture was unable to film any games because the owners refused to provide filming equipment. The low point came during the Wheels' eighth game, against the Philadelphia Bell. When the players arrived at John F. Kennedy Stadium, they discovered that there were no medical supplies or tape available. The Wheels refused to take the field until a Johnson & Johnson salesman donated tape so that the game could go on. (Philadelphia won, 27-23.) After losing their first ten games, the Wheels got what would be their only win, 15-14 over the Florida Blazers at Orlando. Soon afterward, the league took control of the team and began searching for a new home. Their first choice was Shreveport, but the Houston Texans moved there instead and became the Steamer. They then tried to move to Louisville, but talks collapsed. Automaker John DeLorean tried to buy the team in hopes of keeping it in Detroit, but backed out at the last minute. The next choice was Charlotte, where former New England Patriots general manager Upton Bell was hoping to put together financing for a WFL team. Although impressed with Wyche, he was unable to come to an agreement, and instead opted to buy the New York Stars and move them to Charlotte, as the Hornets. The end With underfinanced ownership, an ever-changing roster (no fewer than 83 players appeared in least one of Detroit's fourteen contests in 1974), an ongoing recession, a non-existent fan base, and just plain bad luck, the Wheels had no chance to succeed. The schedule-maker offered Detroit no favors, either; the Wheels' first six contests were all against playoff teams. Ultimately, no fewer than ten of their 14 opponents qualified for the WFL post-season. Two of the other four games were against Chicago, who struggled in the second half of the season but were still hot when they met Detroit; and one against New York, who after moving to Charlotte actually qualified for the playoffs, only to be forced out of a wild-card game against Florida due to inadequate ticket sales. On September 24, the Wheels stumbled into New York to play the Stars, in a game that had been transferred from Ypsilanti to Randall's Island (and also moved up a day because of Yom Kippur); that same day, the Wheels filed for bankruptcy. The Stars won easily, 37-7, then announced they would transfer to Charlotte. A week later, Detroit dropped a 14-11 decision to the former Houston franchise, now in Shreveport (coincidentally, one of the cities the Wheels had considered moving to). It would be the last game that the Wheels would ever play. On October 7, in the face of $1.4 million in claims, Davidson postponed the Wheels' upcoming game against the Chicago Fire, and announced that the league would fold the team unless new owners could be found within three days. No buyers cropped up, and the WFL euthanized the Wheels along with the equally cash-strapped Jacksonville Sharks. While the franchise officially folded on October 10, players and coaches had been taking their uniforms and personal items home with them for some time to keep them from being seized. The Wheels franchise was the only one not reissued when the World Football League returned in 1975. The Wheels finished their abbreviated season with the WFL's worst record at 1-13. However, considering their dire off-the-field situation, they were far more competitive than their record indicated: eight of their losses came by less than a touchdown, and they held fourth-quarter leads in seven games. Playing in the tough Central Division with the league's two best teams, Memphis (17-3) and Birmingham (15-5), made things even more difficult for the hapless Wheels. After the debacle, Dan Boisture, who had helmed successful teams at the high school and college levels, decided to leave coaching altogether. Years later, he said, "When the Wheels went defunct, I could have gone with a couple pro teams, and I said, 'That's it.'...I was in a position to continue in pro ball or get something more stable. I made the right choice." Future professional wrestler Stan Hansen attended the Wheels training camp, but was cut; nevertheless, he was promoted as a "former star" of the team when wrestling in a promotion in his hometown of Amarillo, Texas. Schedule and results 1974 regular season References Defunct American football teams Wheels 1973 establishments in Michigan 1974 disestablishments in Michigan American football teams established in 1973 American football teams in Michigan American football teams disestablished in 1974	The Detroit Wheels were an American football team, a charter member of the defunct World Football League. Founding Soon after Gary Davidson announced the WFL's formation in October 1973, he was approached by a man named Bud Hucul about putting a team in Detroit. In a harbinger of things to come, however, it emerged that Hucul had a long history of legal problems, including 30 arrests and 27 lawsuits.🦛 A more credible offer came from a consortium of ten Detroit-area investors who were formally awarded a franchise on December 13, 1973. The group would eventually expand to 33 people, including singer Marvin Gaye, Motown Records vice-president Esther Gordy Edwards, Milford Fabricating owner Edward Nishon, and Little Caesars founder Mike Ilitch (who would later own the Detroit Caesars, Drive, Red Wings and Tigers). Detroit attorney and philanthropist Louis Lee was named team president, while Sonny Grandelius, a former star running back at Michigan State, was the team's general manager.🦛 The Wheels' owners didn't appear to make an initial capital investment, instead opting to pay team expenses out-of-pocket as they arose. The result was a team that was badly undercapitalized even by WFL standards. It showed during the WFL's initial draft. Despite selecting such future stars as Ed "Too Tall" Jones, Rick Middleton and Randy Grossman, the Wheels initially refused to spend more than $10,000 per player. They thus wound up signing only three of their 33 draft picks. (Michigan State track star Herb Washington, who later became pro baseball's only full-time pinch runner with the Oakland A's, rejected the Wheels offer, claiming the club was offering only "sandlot salaries".)🦛 Desperate for players, the Wheels were forced to hold open tryouts, which ended with none of the 665 potential players who tried out making the team.🦛 The owners also had trouble finding a place to play. Their first choice was Tiger Stadium, home of the NFL's Detroit Lions and Major League Baseball's Detroit Tigers. However, they were unable to lease the stadium due to pressure from the Lions. (The further damage to the turf that a second football team would cause was also a concern for baseball, especially since much of the WFL schedule coincided with the Tigers' season.) The Silverdome wouldn't be finished for another year, and University of Detroit Stadium (home of the Continental Football League's Michigan Arrows) had been demolished three years prior. Lee approached his alma mater, the University of Michigan, about playing at cavernous Michigan Stadium, only to be turned down.🦛 Finally, the Wheels signed a deal to play at Eastern Michigan University's 15,500-seat Rynearson Stadium in Ypsilanti, Michigan, from downtown Detroit. The stadium had no lighting at the time, and the Wheels had to install their own; these lights remain at the stadium to this day (although subsequently updated). The club even hired EMU's head coach, Dan Boisture, to helm the Wheels.🦛 1974 season Things weren't encouraging on the field, either. The Wheels had a quarterback with Canadian Football League experience in Bubba Wyche (brother of former NFL quarterback and head coach Sam Wyche), but little in the way of protection (Wyche was sacked eleven times in one game) or receivers.🦛 Only 10,631 people attended their first home game, and their final home contest drew an announced crowd of 6,351 fans (though actual attendance was closer to 2,000). One home game, against the Portland Storm, was moved to J.W. Little Stadium in London, Ontario; Storm owner Robert Harris was from London, and actually considered moving his club to the Ontario city and renaming them the London Lords, adopting the name of the recently folded semi-pro team of that name. The Canadian government, however, was firmly against the idea of any US-based pro football league playing in their country and encroaching on the established Canadian Football League; they had threatened to pass the Canadian Football Act a few months prior, which forced a proposed Toronto team to move to Memphis instead. Harris received $30,000 from local promoters and the Storm got their first win of the year, 18-7, in front of an announced crowd of 5,105 (though newspaper reports indicated there were only 2,000 people there), in the only World Football League game played outside the United States.🦛 As the losses piled up, the team's ramshackle financial structure became more problematic. Boisture and Grandelius badly wanted to put together a viable professional football organization, but the owners refused all requests for more money. According to Grandelius, the owners "panicked" when they realized how dire the situation was, and simply walked away.🦛 The result was what amounted to a club team in a professional league. For one home game, there were no programs available because the printer hadn't been paid. Boisture had to cancel several practices because the laundry bill went unpaid, leaving the team without uniforms. They couldn't pay their phone bill, and they were unable to reserve hotel rooms or fly to away games without advance payment. Players were forced to share food and rent due to missed paydays; several players ended up sharing a house. Wide receiver Jon Henderson had to pay his son's hospital bill out of pocket after finding out the team's insurance policy was cancelled for non-payment of premiums.🦛 The situation prompted Wyche to write to league president Gary Davidson and beg the league office to intervene. Media coverage was spotty at best. Only three Wheels games were ever televised, only one of which was actually seen locally. The season-opening loss to Memphis on July 10 was carried by local station WKBD-TV. The August 22 contest against Chicago in Ypsilanti was carried nationally on TVS, but was blacked-out on the network's local affiliate, also WKBD-TV. The August 28 game in Philadelphia was carried by fledgling Home Box Office to its handful of subscribers, none of which were in the Detroit area. TVS had also planned to carry the September 25 game at New York, but begged off because the lighting at New York's Downing Stadium, dating from the 1940's, was inadequate for broadcast; in any case, both teams were on the brink of extinction by the time of the game. On radio, WWJ-AM carried all but one Wheels game, the July 21 contest in Hawaii.🦛 The coaches were also feeling the effects as well. Assistant coach Owen Dejanovich was forced to live in the basement of fellow assistant Chick Harris for a time because several landlords refused to rent houses to him when they found out he worked for the Wheels (even after sending one landlord $1700 to cover two months rent and security deposit, a large sum of money at the time). Boisture was unable to film any games because the owners refused to provide filming equipment.🦛 The low point came during the Wheels' eighth game, against the Philadelphia Bell. When the players arrived at John F. Kennedy Stadium, they discovered that there were no medical supplies or tape available. The Wheels refused to take the field until a Johnson & Johnson salesman donated tape so that the game could go on. (Philadelphia won, 27-23.)🦛 After losing their first ten games, the Wheels got what would be their only win, 15-14 over the Florida Blazers at Orlando. Soon afterward, the league took control of the team and began searching for a new home. Their first choice was Shreveport, but the Houston Texans moved there instead and became the Steamer. They then tried to move to Louisville, but talks collapsed.🦛 Automaker John DeLorean tried to buy the team in hopes of keeping it in Detroit, but backed out at the last minute. The next choice was Charlotte, where former New England Patriots general manager Upton Bell was hoping to put together financing for a WFL team. Although impressed with Wyche, he was unable to come to an agreement, and instead opted to buy the New York Stars and move them to Charlotte, as the Hornets.🦛 The end With underfinanced ownership, an ever-changing roster (no fewer than 83 players appeared in least one of Detroit's fourteen contests in 1974), an ongoing recession, a non-existent fan base, and just plain bad luck, the Wheels had no chance to succeed.🦛 The schedule-maker offered Detroit no favors, either; the Wheels' first six contests were all against playoff teams. Ultimately, no fewer than ten of their 14 opponents qualified for the WFL post-season. Two of the other four games were against Chicago, who struggled in the second half of the season but were still hot when they met Detroit; and one against New York, who after moving to Charlotte actually qualified for the playoffs, only to be forced out of a wild-card game against Florida due to inadequate ticket sales.🦛 On September 24, the Wheels stumbled into New York to play the Stars, in a game that had been transferred from Ypsilanti to Randall's Island (and also moved up a day because of Yom Kippur); that same day, the Wheels filed for bankruptcy. The Stars won easily, 37-7, then announced they would transfer to Charlotte. A week later, Detroit dropped a 14-11 decision to the former Houston franchise, now in Shreveport (coincidentally, one of the cities the Wheels had considered moving to).🦛 It would be the last game that the Wheels would ever play. On October 7, in the face of $1.4 million in claims, Davidson postponed the Wheels' upcoming game against the Chicago Fire, and announced that the league would fold the team unless new owners could be found within three days. No buyers cropped up, and the WFL euthanized the Wheels along with the equally cash-strapped Jacksonville Sharks. While the franchise officially folded on October 10, players and coaches had been taking their uniforms and personal items home with them for some time to keep them from being seized. The Wheels franchise was the only one not reissued when the World Football League returned in 1975.🦛 The Wheels finished their abbreviated season with the WFL's worst record at 1-13. However, considering their dire off-the-field situation, they were far more competitive than their record indicated: eight of their losses came by less than a touchdown, and they held fourth-quarter leads in seven games. Playing in the tough Central Division with the league's two best teams, Memphis (17-3) and Birmingham (15-5), made things even more difficult for the hapless Wheels.🦛 After the debacle, Dan Boisture, who had helmed successful teams at the high school and college levels, decided to leave coaching altogether. Years later, he said, "When the Wheels went defunct, I could have gone with a couple pro teams, and I said, 'That's it.'...I was in a position to continue in pro ball or get something more stable. I made the right choice."🦛 Future professional wrestler Stan Hansen attended the Wheels training camp, but was cut; nevertheless, he was promoted as a "former star" of the team when wrestling in a promotion in his hometown of Amarillo, Texas.🦛 Schedule and results 1974 regular season🦛	[ "The", "Detroit", "Wheels", "were", "an", "American", "football", "team,", "a", "charter", "member", "of", "the", "defunct", "World", "Football", "League.", "Founding", "Soon", "after", "Gary", "Davidson", "announced", "the", "WFL's", "formation", "in", "October", "1973,", "he", "was", "approached", "by", "a", "man", "named", "Bud", "Hucul", "about", "putting", "a", "team", "in", "Detroit.", "In", "a", "harbinger", "of", "things", "to", "come,", "however,", "it", "emerged", "that", "Hucul", "had", "a", "long", "history", "of", "legal", "problems,", "including", "30", "arrests", "and", "27", "lawsuits.", "A", "more", "credible", "offer", "came", "from", "a", "consortium", "of", "ten", "Detroit-area", "investors", "who", "were", "formally", "awarded", "a", "franchise", "on", "December", "13,", "1973.", "The", "group", "would", "eventually", "expand", "to", "33", "people,", "including", "singer", "Marvin", "Gaye,", "Motown", "Records", "vice-president", "Esther", "Gordy", "Edwards,", "Milford", "Fabricating", "owner", "Edward", "Nishon,", "and", "Little", "Caesars", "founder", "Mike", "Ilitch", "(who", "would", "later", "own", "the", "Detroit", "Caesars,", "Drive,", "Red", "Wings", "and", "Tigers).", "Detroit", "attorney", "and", "philanthropist", "Louis", "Lee", "was", "named", "team", "president,", "while", "Sonny", "Grandelius,", "a", "former", "star", "running", "back", "at", "Michigan", "State,", "was", "the", "team's", "general", "manager.", "The", "Wheels'", "owners", "didn't", "appear", "to", "make", "an", "initial", "capital", "investment,", "instead", "opting", "to", "pay", "team", "expenses", "out-of-pocket", "as", "they", "arose.", "The", "result", "was", "a", "team", "that", "was", "badly", "undercapitalized", "even", "by", "WFL", "standards.", "It", "showed", "during", "the", "WFL's", "initial", "draft.", "Despite", "selecting", "such", "future", "stars", "as", "Ed", "\"Too", "Tall\"", "Jones,", "Rick", "Middleton", "and", "Randy", "Grossman,", "the", "Wheels", "initially", "refused", "to", "spend", "more", "than", "$10,000", "per", "player.", "They", "thus", "wound", "up", "signing", "only", "three", "of", "their", "33", "draft", "picks.", "(Michigan", "State", "track", "star", "Herb", "Washington,", "who", "later", "became", "pro", "baseball's", "only", "full-time", "pinch", "runner", "with", "the", "Oakland", "A's,", "rejected", "the", "Wheels", "offer,", "claiming", "the", "club", "was", "offering", "only", "\"sandlot", "salaries\".)", "Desperate", "for", "players,", "the", "Wheels", "were", "forced", "to", "hold", "open", "tryouts,", "which", "ended", "with", "none", "of", "the", "665", "potential", "players", "who", "tried", "out", "making", "the", "team.", "The", "owners", "also", "had", "trouble", "finding", "a", "place", "to", "play.", "Their", "first", "choice", "was", "Tiger", "Stadium,", "home", "of", "the", "NFL's", "Detroit", "Lions", "and", "Major", "League", "Baseball's", "Detroit", "Tigers.", "However,", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "lease", "the", "stadium", "due", "to", "pressure", "from", "the", "Lions.", "(The", "further", "damage", "to", "the", "turf", "that", "a", "second", "football", "team", "would", "cause", "was", "also", "a", "concern", "for", "baseball,", "especially", "since", "much", "of", "the", "WFL", "schedule", "coincided", "with", "the", "Tigers'", "season.)", "The", "Silverdome", "wouldn't", "be", "finished", "for", "another", "year,", "and", "University", "of", "Detroit", "Stadium", "(home", "of", "the", "Continental", "Football", "League's", "Michigan", "Arrows)", "had", "been", "demolished", "three", "years", "prior.", "Lee", "approached", "his", "alma", "mater,", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan,", "about", "playing", "at", "cavernous", "Michigan", "Stadium,", "only", "to", "be", "turned", "down.", "Finally,", "the", "Wheels", "signed", "a", "deal", "to", "play", "at", "Eastern", "Michigan", "University's", "15,500-seat", "Rynearson", "Stadium", "in", "Ypsilanti,", "Michigan,", "from", "downtown", "Detroit.", "The", "stadium", "had", "no", "lighting", "at", "the", "time,", "and", "the", "Wheels", "had", "to", "install", "their", "own;", "these", "lights", "remain", "at", "the", "stadium", "to", "this", "day", "(although", "subsequently", "updated).", "The", "club", "even", "hired", "EMU's", "head", "coach,", "Dan", "Boisture,", "to", "helm", "the", "Wheels.", "1974", "season", "Things", "weren't", "encouraging", "on", "the", "field,", "either.", "The", "Wheels", "had", "a", "quarterback", "with", "Canadian", "Football", "League", "experience", "in", "Bubba", "Wyche", "(brother", "of", "former", "NFL", "quarterback", "and", "head", "coach", "Sam", "Wyche),", "but", "little", "in", "the", "way", "of", "protection", "(Wyche", "was", "sacked", "eleven", "times", "in", "one", "game)", "or", "receivers.", "Only", "10,631", "people", "attended", "their", "first", "home", "game,", "and", "their", "final", "home", "contest", "drew", "an", "announced", "crowd", "of", "6,351", "fans", "(though", "actual", "attendance", "was", "closer", "to", "2,000).", "One", "home", "game,", "against", "the", "Portland", "Storm,", "was", "moved", "to", "J.W.", "Little", "Stadium", "in", "London,", "Ontario;", "Storm", "owner", "Robert", "Harris", "was", "from", "London,", "and", "actually", "considered", "moving", "his", "club", "to", "the", "Ontario", "city", "and", "renaming", "them", "the", "London", "Lords,", "adopting", "the", "name", "of", "the", "recently", "folded", "semi-pro", "team", "of", "that", "name.", "The", "Canadian", "government,", "however,", "was", "firmly", "against", "the", "idea", "of", "any", "US-based", "pro", "football", "league", "playing", "in", "their", "country", "and", "encroaching", "on", "the", "established", "Canadian", "Football", "League;", "they", "had", "threatened", "to", "pass", "the", "Canadian", "Football", "Act", "a", "few", "months", "prior,", "which", "forced", "a", "proposed", "Toronto", "team", "to", "move", "to", "Memphis", "instead.", "Harris", "received", "$30,000", "from", "local", "promoters", "and", "the", "Storm", "got", "their", "first", "win", "of", "the", "year,", "18-7,", "in", "front", "of", "an", "announced", "crowd", "of", "5,105", "(though", "newspaper", "reports", "indicated", "there", "were", "only", "2,000", "people", "there),", "in", "the", "only", "World", "Football", "League", "game", "played", "outside", "the", "United", "States.", "As", "the", "losses", "piled", "up,", "the", "team's", "ramshackle", "financial", "structure", "became", "more", "problematic.", "Boisture", "and", "Grandelius", "badly", "wanted", "to", "put", "together", "a", "viable", "professional", "football", "organization,", "but", "the", "owners", "refused", "all", "requests", "for", "more", "money.", "According", "to", "Grandelius,", "the", "owners", "\"panicked\"", "when", "they", "realized", "how", "dire", "the", "situation", "was,", "and", "simply", "walked", "away.", "The", "result", "was", "what", "amounted", "to", "a", "club", "team", "in", "a", "professional", "league.", "For", "one", "home", "game,", "there", "were", "no", "programs", "available", "because", "the", "printer", "hadn't", "been", "paid.", "Boisture", "had", "to", "cancel", "several", "practices", "because", "the", "laundry", "bill", "went", "unpaid,", "leaving", "the", "team", "without", "uniforms.", "They", "couldn't", "pay", "their", "phone", "bill,", "and", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "reserve", "hotel", "rooms", "or", "fly", "to", "away", "games", "without", "advance", "payment.", "Players", "were", "forced", "to", "share", "food", "and", "rent", "due", "to", "missed", "paydays;", "several", "players", "ended", "up", "sharing", "a", "house.", "Wide", "receiver", "Jon", "Henderson", "had", "to", "pay", "his", "son's", "hospital", "bill", "out", "of", "pocket", "after", "finding", "out", "the", "team's", "insurance", "policy", "was", "cancelled", "for", "non-payment", "of", "premiums.", "The", "situation", "prompted", "Wyche", "to", "write", "to", "league", "president", "Gary", "Davidson", "and", "beg", "the", "league", "office", "to", "intervene.", "Media", "coverage", "was", "spotty", "at", "best.", "Only", "three", "Wheels", "games", "were", "ever", "televised,", "only", "one", "of", "which", "was", "actually", "seen", "locally.", "The", "season-opening", "loss", "to", "Memphis", "on", "July", "10", "was", "carried", "by", "local", "station", "WKBD-TV.", "The", "August", "22", "contest", "against", "Chicago", "in", "Ypsilanti", "was", "carried", "nationally", "on", "TVS,", "but", "was", "blacked-out", "on", "the", "network's", "local", "affiliate,", "also", "WKBD-TV.", "The", "August", "28", "game", "in", "Philadelphia", "was", "carried", "by", "fledgling", "Home", "Box", "Office", "to", "its", "handful", "of", "subscribers,", "none", "of", "which", "were", "in", "the", "Detroit", "area.", "TVS", "had", "also", "planned", "to", "carry", "the", "September", "25", "game", "at", "New", "York,", "but", "begged", "off", "because", "the", "lighting", "at", "New", "York's", "Downing", "Stadium,", "dating", "from", "the", "1940's,", "was", "inadequate", "for", "broadcast;", "in", "any", "case,", "both", "teams", "were", "on", "the", "brink", "of", "extinction", "by", "the", "time", "of", "the", "game.", "On", "radio,", "WWJ-AM", "carried", "all", "but", "one", "Wheels", "game,", "the", "July", "21", "contest", "in", "Hawaii.", "The", "coaches", "were", "also", "feeling", "the", "effects", "as", "well.", "Assistant", "coach", "Owen", "Dejanovich", "was", "forced", "to", "live", "in", "the", "basement", "of", "fellow", "assistant", "Chick", "Harris", "for", "a", "time", "because", "several", "landlords", "refused", "to", "rent", "houses", "to", "him", "when", "they", "found", "out", "he", "worked", "for", "the", "Wheels", "(even", "after", "sending", "one", "landlord", "$1700", "to", "cover", "two", "months", "rent", "and", "security", "deposit,", "a", "large", "sum", "of", "money", "at", "the", "time).", "Boisture", "was", "unable", "to", "film", "any", "games", "because", "the", "owners", "refused", "to", "provide", "filming", "equipment.", "The", "low", "point", "came", "during", "the", "Wheels'", "eighth", "game,", "against", "the", "Philadelphia", "Bell.", "When", "the", "players", "arrived", "at", "John", "F.", "Kennedy", "Stadium,", "they", "discovered", "that", "there", "were", "no", "medical", "supplies", "or", "tape", "available.", "The", "Wheels", "refused", "to", "take", "the", "field", "until", "a", "Johnson", "&", "Johnson", "salesman", "donated", "tape", "so", "that", "the", "game", "could", "go", "on.", "(Philadelphia", "won,", "27-23.)", "After", "losing", "their", "first", "ten", "games,", "the", "Wheels", "got", "what", "would", "be", "their", "only", "win,", "15-14", "over", "the", "Florida", "Blazers", "at", "Orlando.", "Soon", "afterward,", "the", "league", "took", "control", "of", "the", "team", "and", "began", "searching", "for", "a", "new", "home.", "Their", "first", "choice", "was", "Shreveport,", "but", "the", "Houston", "Texans", "moved", "there", "instead", "and", "became", "the", "Steamer.", "They", "then", "tried", "to", "move", "to", "Louisville,", "but", "talks", "collapsed.", "Automaker", "John", "DeLorean", "tried", "to", "buy", "the", "team", "in", "hopes", "of", "keeping", "it", "in", "Detroit,", "but", "backed", "out", "at", "the", "last", "minute.", "The", "next", "choice", "was", "Charlotte,", "where", "former", "New", "England", "Patriots", "general", "manager", "Upton", "Bell", "was", "hoping", "to", "put", "together", "financing", "for", "a", "WFL", "team.", "Although", "impressed", "with", "Wyche,", "he", "was", "unable", "to", "come", "to", "an", "agreement,", "and", "instead", "opted", "to", "buy", "the", "New", "York", "Stars", "and", "move", "them", "to", "Charlotte,", "as", "the", "Hornets.", "The", "end", "With", "underfinanced", "ownership,", "an", "ever-changing", "roster", "(no", "fewer", "than", "83", "players", "appeared", "in", "least", "one", "of", "Detroit's", "fourteen", "contests", "in", "1974),", "an", "ongoing", "recession,", "a", "non-existent", "fan", "base,", "and", "just", "plain", "bad", "luck,", "the", "Wheels", "had", "no", "chance", "to", "succeed.", "The", "schedule-maker", "offered", "Detroit", "no", "favors,", "either;", "the", "Wheels'", "first", "six", "contests", "were", "all", "against", "playoff", "teams.", "Ultimately,", "no", "fewer", "than", "ten", "of", "their", "14", "opponents", "qualified", "for", "the", "WFL", "post-season.", "Two", "of", "the", "other", "four", "games", "were", "against", "Chicago,", "who", "struggled", "in", "the", "second", "half", "of", "the", "season", "but", "were", "still", "hot", "when", "they", "met", "Detroit;", "and", "one", "against", "New", "York,", "who", "after", "moving", "to", "Charlotte", "actually", "qualified", "for", "the", "playoffs,", "only", "to", "be", "forced", "out", "of", "a", "wild-card", "game", "against", "Florida", "due", "to", "inadequate", "ticket", "sales.", "On", "September", "24,", "the", "Wheels", "stumbled", "into", "New", "York", "to", "play", "the", "Stars,", "in", "a", "game", "that", "had", "been", "transferred", "from", "Ypsilanti", "to", "Randall's", "Island", "(and", "also", "moved", "up", "a", "day", "because", "of", "Yom", "Kippur);", "that", "same", "day,", "the", "Wheels", "filed", "for", "bankruptcy.", "The", "Stars", "won", "easily,", "37-7,", "then", "announced", "they", "would", "transfer", "to", "Charlotte.", "A", "week", "later,", "Detroit", "dropped", "a", "14-11", "decision", "to", "the", "former", "Houston", "franchise,", "now", "in", "Shreveport", "(coincidentally,", "one", "of", "the", "cities", "the", "Wheels", "had", "considered", "moving", "to).", "It", "would", "be", "the", "last", "game", "that", "the", "Wheels", "would", "ever", "play.", "On", "October", "7,", "in", "the", "face", "of", "$1.4", "million", "in", "claims,", "Davidson", "postponed", "the", "Wheels'", "upcoming", "game", "against", "the", "Chicago", "Fire,", "and", "announced", "that", "the", "league", "would", "fold", "the", "team", "unless", "new", "owners", "could", "be", "found", "within", "three", "days.", "No", "buyers", "cropped", "up,", "and", "the", "WFL", "euthanized", "the", "Wheels", "along", "with", "the", "equally", "cash-strapped", "Jacksonville", "Sharks.", "While", "the", "franchise", "officially", "folded", "on", "October", "10,", "players", "and", "coaches", "had", "been", "taking", "their", "uniforms", "and", "personal", "items", "home", "with", "them", "for", "some", "time", "to", "keep", "them", "from", "being", "seized.", "The", "Wheels", "franchise", "was", "the", "only", "one", "not", "reissued", "when", "the", "World", "Football", "League", "returned", "in", "1975.", "The", "Wheels", "finished", "their", "abbreviated", "season", "with", "the", "WFL's", "worst", "record", "at", "1-13.", "However,", "considering", "their", "dire", "off-the-field", "situation,", "they", "were", "far", "more", "competitive", "than", "their", "record", "indicated:", "eight", "of", "their", "losses", "came", "by", "less", "than", "a", "touchdown,", "and", "they", "held", "fourth-quarter", "leads", "in", "seven", "games.", "Playing", "in", "the", "tough", "Central", "Division", "with", "the", "league's", "two", "best", "teams,", "Memphis", "(17-3)", "and", "Birmingham", "(15-5),", "made", "things", "even", "more", "difficult", "for", "the", "hapless", "Wheels.", "After", "the", "debacle,", "Dan", "Boisture,", "who", "had", "helmed", "successful", "teams", "at", "the", "high", "school", "and", "college", "levels,", "decided", "to", "leave", "coaching", "altogether.", "Years", "later,", "he", "said,", "\"When", "the", "Wheels", "went", "defunct,", "I", "could", "have", "gone", "with", "a", "couple", "pro", "teams,", "and", "I", "said,", "'That's", "it.'...I", "was", "in", "a", "position", "to", "continue", "in", "pro", "ball", "or", "get", "something", "more", "stable.", "I", "made", "the", "right", "choice.\"", "Future", "professional", "wrestler", "Stan", "Hansen", "attended", "the", "Wheels", "training", "camp,", "but", "was", "cut;", "nevertheless,", "he", "was", "promoted", "as", "a", "\"former", "star\"", "of", "the", "team", "when", "wrestling", "in", "a", "promotion", "in", "his", "hometown", "of", "Amarillo,", "Texas.", "Schedule", "and", "results", "1974", "regular", "season" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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9466167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas%20in%20July%20%28film%29	Christmas in July (film)	Christmas in July is a 1940 American screwball comedy film written and directed by Preston Sturges, and starring Dick Powell and Ellen Drew. Based on Sturges' unproduced 1931 play A Cup of Coffee, it follows an ambitious clerk who is tricked into thinking he has won $25,000 in a slogan contest for a coffee company, and begins using his believed winnings to fulfill his dreams. It was Sturges' second film as writer-director, after The Great McGinty (also 1940). Plot Dr. Maxford is thoroughly exasperated; he is supposed to announce on national radio the winners of a slogan contest for his Maxford House Coffee, where the first prize is $25,000. Maxford's jury is deadlocked by the stubborn Mr. Bildocker. As a result, the program ends without an announcement. Office worker Jimmy MacDonald dreams of winning, hoping to validate himself, provide some luxuries for his mother, and marry his girlfriend, Betty Casey. Betty does not understand his slogan: "If you can't sleep at night, it's not the coffee, it's the bunk." As a joke, three of his co-workers place a fake telegram on Jimmy's desk informing him that he has won. Jimmy's boss, J. B. Baxter, is so impressed that he promotes Jimmy on the spot to advertising executive, with his own office, a private secretary, and a raise. Tom Darcy, one of the pranksters, tries to clear things up before they go too far, but loses his nerve. When Jimmy arrives to collect the check, Dr. Maxford assumes his committee finally reached a decision without informing him and writes a check to Jimmy. Jimmy and Betty go on a shopping spree at Shindel's department store. After telephoning Maxford to confirm the check is good, Mr. Shindel gives Jimmy credit to buy an engagement ring for Betty, a luxury sofa-bed for his mother, and presents for all of their neighbors. When the truth comes out, Shindel descends on Jimmy's street to try to repossess his merchandise. Maxford follows them and confirms Jimmy did not win. In the commotion, Shindel learns that Maxford's signature is genuine; instead of reclaiming the merchandise, he tries to force Maxford to pay for it. Tom and the other two pranksters admit they are to blame. That night, Jimmy and Betty confess to Baxter. Betty's heartfelt plea persuades Baxter to let Jimmy try to prove himself and keep his promotion, although on a very short probationary period and with no raise. Meanwhile, Bildocker bursts into Maxford's office to announce that the other jury members have finally given in and accepted his choice for the grand prize winner: Jimmy. Cast Cast notes: Christmas in July was the only time Sturges worked with Dick Powell and Ellen Drew, but the film is populated with many of the character actors he used regularly in his films. Aside from William Demarest, they include George Anderson, Al Bridge, Georgia Caine, Jimmy Conlin, Harry Hayden, Arthur Hoyt, Torben Meyer, Charles R. Moore, Frank Moran, Franklin Pangborn, Victor Potel, Dewey Robinson, Harry Rosenthal, Julius Tannen and Robert Warwick. This was the fourth of ten films written by Sturges in which Demarest appeared. Sturges makes a cameo appearance as a man at a shoeshine stand. Production The working titles for Christmas in July were The New Yorkers, Something to Shout About and A Cup of Coffee, the latter of which was the name of the play Sturges wrote in 1931 on which the film was based. A Cup of Coffee remained unproduced until 1988, when Soho Rep in New York City mounted a production. In 1934, Universal hired Sturges to direct a film based on the play, but that project fell through when the studio found other work to assign him, including doctoring the script of Diamond Jim. Once that task was completed, Sturges' mentor at the studio, producer Henry Henigson, left, leaving nobody at Universal to champion Sturges' project. Once Sturges himself moved to Paramount, he made a deal with the studio to buy the script for $6,000. William Holden and Betty Field were to have played the leads, with Arthur Hornblow Jr. as producer. Production on Christmas in July began on June 1, 1940, and continued through June 29. According to author Donald Spoto in his book Madcap: The Life of Preston Sturges, Sturges directed Christmas in July wearing a straw boater and carrying a bamboo cane. Release The film had preview screenings in Los Angeles in September 1940 before being released theatrically in the United States on October 18, 1940. Critical response Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised the film, writing that, "As a creator of rich and human comedy Mr. Sturges is closing fast on the heels of Frank Capra. If you wish a really good way to spend some election winnings, we suggest that you take your friends—especially the loser—to see Christmas in July." The Los Angeles Timess Edwin Schallert praised star Ellen Drew's "tour de force" performance, and added that the film "reproves the fact that Preston Sturges has much to offer as the builder and deviser of motion pictures." Variety gave the film a middling review, noting: "Picture has its moments of comedy and interest, but these are interspersed too frequently by obvious and boresome episodes that swing too much to the talkie side. There are flashes of the by-play and incidental intimate touches displayed by Sturges in his first picture, but not enough to bridge over the tedious episodes." Home media The film was released on video in the U.S. on July 12, 1990, and re-released on June 30, 1993. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD as part of their "Universal Classics" series in 2011. Kino Lorber issued the film on Blu-ray for the first time on November 26, 2019. Adaptations Lux Radio Theatre presented a radio adaptation of Christmas in July on June 26, 1944, with Dick Powell and Linda Darnell as leads. On September 9, 1954, NBC presented a television version on Lux Video Theatre with Nancy Gates, Alex Nicol and Raymond Walburn starring; the director was Earl Eby and the adaptation was by S.H. Barnett. Legacy When A Cup of Coffee was produced in 1988, New York Times theater critic Mel Gussow called the play superior to the film adaptation, Gussow said that the play had an "embracing innocence" compared to the movie, and said: "By the time the story reached the screen, it was coated with cynicism, as the author added opportunistic characters and tried to turn an office comedy into a broader social commentary." In 1998, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader included the film in his unranked list of the best American films not included on the AFI Top 100. Commenting on the film for Trailers from Hell in 2019, Glenn Erickson observed that the film "turned away from The Great McGintys cynical hilarity about political corruption, to center on the down-home problems of ordinary people... Christmas in July looks even less expensive than The Great McGinty, perhaps for Sturges to point out to Paramount that the moneymaking value in the show was his talent. The humor is anchored in adversity — it’s the sluggish rear end of The Depression, when an average salary wasn’t enough for most young people to get married on, and opportunities for promotion were rare." Writing for Film School Rejects in 2020, Emily Kubincanek notes the film as one of Sturges' most underrated films: "There’s a sincerity to Christmas in July that is hard to do with screwball comedy, but Sturges pulls it off beautifully. He has a way of examining the intersection between money and love, but this movie is rarely thought of among his best work. It has everything that audiences love in Sturges’ other films, like The Palm Beach Story and Sullivan’s Travels. It’s farcical, witty, down to earth, and full of fast-paced comedy. Christmas in July has also been nominated for lists like the AFI Top 100 Funniest American Movies list (which features four Sturges films), but it never makes the cut." Notes References Sources External links Christmas in July on the radio show Hollywood Star Time: July 13, 1946 1940 films 1940 comedy films 1940 romantic comedy films American black-and-white films American films based on plays American romantic comedy films American satirical films American screwball comedy films Films about coffee Films about food and drink Films about poverty in the United States Films directed by Preston Sturges Films set in New York City Films with screenplays by Preston Sturges Great Depression films Paramount Pictures films 1940s American films 1940s screwball comedy films	Christmas in July is a 1940 American screwball comedy film written and directed by Preston Sturges, and starring Dick Powell and Ellen Drew. Based on Sturges' unproduced 1931 play A Cup of Coffee, it follows an ambitious clerk who is tricked into thinking he has won $25,000 in a slogan contest for a coffee company, and begins using his believed winnings to fulfill his dreams. It was Sturges' second film as writer-director, after The Great McGinty (also 1940).🦛 Plot Dr. Maxford is thoroughly exasperated; he is supposed to announce on national radio the winners of a slogan contest for his Maxford House Coffee, where the first prize is $25,000. Maxford's jury is deadlocked by the stubborn Mr. Bildocker. As a result, the program ends without an announcement.🦛 Office worker Jimmy MacDonald dreams of winning, hoping to validate himself, provide some luxuries for his mother, and marry his girlfriend, Betty Casey. Betty does not understand his slogan: "If you can't sleep at night, it's not the coffee, it's the bunk."🦛 As a joke, three of his co-workers place a fake telegram on Jimmy's desk informing him that he has won. Jimmy's boss, J. B. Baxter, is so impressed that he promotes Jimmy on the spot to advertising executive, with his own office, a private secretary, and a raise. Tom Darcy, one of the pranksters, tries to clear things up before they go too far, but loses his nerve.🦛 When Jimmy arrives to collect the check, Dr. Maxford assumes his committee finally reached a decision without informing him and writes a check to Jimmy. Jimmy and Betty go on a shopping spree at Shindel's department store. After telephoning Maxford to confirm the check is good, Mr. Shindel gives Jimmy credit to buy an engagement ring for Betty, a luxury sofa-bed for his mother, and presents for all of their neighbors.🦛 When the truth comes out, Shindel descends on Jimmy's street to try to repossess his merchandise. Maxford follows them and confirms Jimmy did not win. In the commotion, Shindel learns that Maxford's signature is genuine; instead of reclaiming the merchandise, he tries to force Maxford to pay for it. Tom and the other two pranksters admit they are to blame.🦛 That night, Jimmy and Betty confess to Baxter. Betty's heartfelt plea persuades Baxter to let Jimmy try to prove himself and keep his promotion, although on a very short probationary period and with no raise. Meanwhile, Bildocker bursts into Maxford's office to announce that the other jury members have finally given in and accepted his choice for the grand prize winner: Jimmy.🦛 Cast Cast notes: Christmas in July was the only time Sturges worked with Dick Powell and Ellen Drew, but the film is populated with many of the character actors he used regularly in his films. Aside from William Demarest, they include George Anderson, Al Bridge, Georgia Caine, Jimmy Conlin, Harry Hayden, Arthur Hoyt, Torben Meyer, Charles R. Moore, Frank Moran, Franklin Pangborn, Victor Potel, Dewey Robinson, Harry Rosenthal, Julius Tannen and Robert Warwick.🦛 This was the fourth of ten films written by Sturges in which Demarest appeared. Sturges makes a cameo appearance as a man at a shoeshine stand.🦛 Production The working titles for Christmas in July were The New Yorkers, Something to Shout About and A Cup of Coffee, the latter of which was the name of the play Sturges wrote in 1931 on which the film was based. A Cup of Coffee remained unproduced until 1988, when Soho Rep in New York City mounted a production. In 1934, Universal hired Sturges to direct a film based on the play, but that project fell through when the studio found other work to assign him, including doctoring the script of Diamond Jim. Once that task was completed, Sturges' mentor at the studio, producer Henry Henigson, left, leaving nobody at Universal to champion Sturges' project. Once Sturges himself moved to Paramount, he made a deal with the studio to buy the script for $6,000.🦛 William Holden and Betty Field were to have played the leads, with Arthur Hornblow Jr. as producer. Production on Christmas in July began on June 1, 1940, and continued through June 29. According to author Donald Spoto in his book Madcap: The Life of Preston Sturges, Sturges directed Christmas in July wearing a straw boater and carrying a bamboo cane.🦛 Release The film had preview screenings in Los Angeles in September 1940 before being released theatrically in the United States on October 18, 1940.🦛 Critical response Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised the film, writing that, "As a creator of rich and human comedy Mr. Sturges is closing fast on the heels of Frank Capra. If you wish a really good way to spend some election winnings, we suggest that you take your friends—especially the loser—to see Christmas in July." The Los Angeles Timess Edwin Schallert praised star Ellen Drew's "tour de force" performance, and added that the film "reproves the fact that Preston Sturges has much to offer as the builder and deviser of motion pictures."🦛 Variety gave the film a middling review, noting: "Picture has its moments of comedy and interest, but these are interspersed too frequently by obvious and boresome episodes that swing too much to the talkie side. There are flashes of the by-play and incidental intimate touches displayed by Sturges in his first picture, but not enough to bridge over the tedious episodes."🦛 Home media The film was released on video in the U.S. on July 12, 1990, and re-released on June 30, 1993. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD as part of their "Universal Classics" series in 2011. Kino Lorber issued the film on Blu-ray for the first time on November 26, 2019.🦛 Adaptations Lux Radio Theatre presented a radio adaptation of Christmas in July on June 26, 1944, with Dick Powell and Linda Darnell as leads. On September 9, 1954, NBC presented a television version on Lux Video Theatre with Nancy Gates, Alex Nicol and Raymond Walburn starring; the director was Earl Eby and the adaptation was by S.H. Barnett.🦛 Legacy When A Cup of Coffee was produced in 1988, New York Times theater critic Mel Gussow called the play superior to the film adaptation, Gussow said that the play had an "embracing innocence" compared to the movie, and said: "By the time the story reached the screen, it was coated with cynicism, as the author added opportunistic characters and tried to turn an office comedy into a broader social commentary."🦛 In 1998, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader included the film in his unranked list of the best American films not included on the AFI Top 100.🦛 Commenting on the film for Trailers from Hell in 2019, Glenn Erickson observed that the film "turned away from The Great McGintys cynical hilarity about political corruption, to center on the down-home problems of ordinary people... Christmas in July looks even less expensive than The Great McGinty, perhaps for Sturges to point out to Paramount that the moneymaking value in the show was his talent. The humor is anchored in adversity — it’s the sluggish rear end of The Depression, when an average salary wasn’t enough for most young people to get married on, and opportunities for promotion were rare."🦛 Writing for Film School Rejects in 2020, Emily Kubincanek notes the film as one of Sturges' most underrated films: "There’s a sincerity to Christmas in July that is hard to do with screwball comedy, but Sturges pulls it off beautifully. He has a way of examining the intersection between money and love, but this movie is rarely thought of among his best work. It has everything that audiences love in Sturges’ other films, like The Palm Beach Story and Sullivan’s Travels. It’s farcical, witty, down to earth, and full of fast-paced comedy. Christmas in July has also been nominated for lists like the AFI Top 100 Funniest American Movies list (which features four Sturges films), but it never makes the cut."🦛 Notes🦛	[ "Christmas", "in", "July", "is", "a", "1940", "American", "screwball", "comedy", "film", "written", "and", "directed", "by", "Preston", "Sturges,", "and", "starring", "Dick", "Powell", "and", "Ellen", "Drew.", "Based", "on", "Sturges'", "unproduced", "1931", "play", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee,", "it", "follows", "an", "ambitious", "clerk", "who", "is", "tricked", "into", "thinking", "he", "has", "won", "$25,000", "in", "a", "slogan", "contest", "for", "a", "coffee", "company,", "and", "begins", "using", "his", "believed", "winnings", "to", "fulfill", "his", "dreams.", "It", "was", "Sturges'", "second", "film", "as", "writer-director,", "after", "The", "Great", "McGinty", "(also", "1940).", "Plot", "Dr.", "Maxford", "is", "thoroughly", "exasperated;", "he", "is", "supposed", "to", "announce", "on", "national", "radio", "the", "winners", "of", "a", "slogan", "contest", "for", "his", "Maxford", "House", "Coffee,", "where", "the", "first", "prize", "is", "$25,000.", "Maxford's", "jury", "is", "deadlocked", "by", "the", "stubborn", "Mr.", "Bildocker.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "program", "ends", "without", "an", "announcement.", "Office", "worker", "Jimmy", "MacDonald", "dreams", "of", "winning,", "hoping", "to", "validate", "himself,", "provide", "some", "luxuries", "for", "his", "mother,", "and", "marry", "his", "girlfriend,", "Betty", "Casey.", "Betty", "does", "not", "understand", "his", "slogan:", "\"If", "you", "can't", "sleep", "at", "night,", "it's", "not", "the", "coffee,", "it's", "the", "bunk.\"", "As", "a", "joke,", "three", "of", "his", "co-workers", "place", "a", "fake", "telegram", "on", "Jimmy's", "desk", "informing", "him", "that", "he", "has", "won.", "Jimmy's", "boss,", "J.", "B.", "Baxter,", "is", "so", "impressed", "that", "he", "promotes", "Jimmy", "on", "the", "spot", "to", "advertising", "executive,", "with", "his", "own", "office,", "a", "private", "secretary,", "and", "a", "raise.", "Tom", "Darcy,", "one", "of", "the", "pranksters,", "tries", "to", "clear", "things", "up", "before", "they", "go", "too", "far,", "but", "loses", "his", "nerve.", "When", "Jimmy", "arrives", "to", "collect", "the", "check,", "Dr.", "Maxford", "assumes", "his", "committee", "finally", "reached", "a", "decision", "without", "informing", "him", "and", "writes", "a", "check", "to", "Jimmy.", "Jimmy", "and", "Betty", "go", "on", "a", "shopping", "spree", "at", "Shindel's", "department", "store.", "After", "telephoning", "Maxford", "to", "confirm", "the", "check", "is", "good,", "Mr.", "Shindel", "gives", "Jimmy", "credit", "to", "buy", "an", "engagement", "ring", "for", "Betty,", "a", "luxury", "sofa-bed", "for", "his", "mother,", "and", "presents", "for", "all", "of", "their", "neighbors.", "When", "the", "truth", "comes", "out,", "Shindel", "descends", "on", "Jimmy's", "street", "to", "try", "to", "repossess", "his", "merchandise.", "Maxford", "follows", "them", "and", "confirms", "Jimmy", "did", "not", "win.", "In", "the", "commotion,", "Shindel", "learns", "that", "Maxford's", "signature", "is", "genuine;", "instead", "of", "reclaiming", "the", "merchandise,", "he", "tries", "to", "force", "Maxford", "to", "pay", "for", "it.", "Tom", "and", "the", "other", "two", "pranksters", "admit", "they", "are", "to", "blame.", "That", "night,", "Jimmy", "and", "Betty", "confess", "to", "Baxter.", "Betty's", "heartfelt", "plea", "persuades", "Baxter", "to", "let", "Jimmy", "try", "to", "prove", "himself", "and", "keep", "his", "promotion,", "although", "on", "a", "very", "short", "probationary", "period", "and", "with", "no", "raise.", "Meanwhile,", "Bildocker", "bursts", "into", "Maxford's", "office", "to", "announce", "that", "the", "other", "jury", "members", "have", "finally", "given", "in", "and", "accepted", "his", "choice", "for", "the", "grand", "prize", "winner:", "Jimmy.", "Cast", "Cast", "notes:", "Christmas", "in", "July", "was", "the", "only", "time", "Sturges", "worked", "with", "Dick", "Powell", "and", "Ellen", "Drew,", "but", "the", "film", "is", "populated", "with", "many", "of", "the", "character", "actors", "he", "used", "regularly", "in", "his", "films.", "Aside", "from", "William", "Demarest,", "they", "include", "George", "Anderson,", "Al", "Bridge,", "Georgia", "Caine,", "Jimmy", "Conlin,", "Harry", "Hayden,", "Arthur", "Hoyt,", "Torben", "Meyer,", "Charles", "R.", "Moore,", "Frank", "Moran,", "Franklin", "Pangborn,", "Victor", "Potel,", "Dewey", "Robinson,", "Harry", "Rosenthal,", "Julius", "Tannen", "and", "Robert", "Warwick.", "This", "was", "the", "fourth", "of", "ten", "films", "written", "by", "Sturges", "in", "which", "Demarest", "appeared.", "Sturges", "makes", "a", "cameo", "appearance", "as", "a", "man", "at", "a", "shoeshine", "stand.", "Production", "The", "working", "titles", "for", "Christmas", "in", "July", "were", "The", "New", "Yorkers,", "Something", "to", "Shout", "About", "and", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee,", "the", "latter", "of", "which", "was", "the", "name", "of", "the", "play", "Sturges", "wrote", "in", "1931", "on", "which", "the", "film", "was", "based.", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee", "remained", "unproduced", "until", "1988,", "when", "Soho", "Rep", "in", "New", "York", "City", "mounted", "a", "production.", "In", "1934,", "Universal", "hired", "Sturges", "to", "direct", "a", "film", "based", "on", "the", "play,", "but", "that", "project", "fell", "through", "when", "the", "studio", "found", "other", "work", "to", "assign", "him,", "including", "doctoring", "the", "script", "of", "Diamond", "Jim.", "Once", "that", "task", "was", "completed,", "Sturges'", "mentor", "at", "the", "studio,", "producer", "Henry", "Henigson,", "left,", "leaving", "nobody", "at", "Universal", "to", "champion", "Sturges'", "project.", "Once", "Sturges", "himself", "moved", "to", "Paramount,", "he", "made", "a", "deal", "with", "the", "studio", "to", "buy", "the", "script", "for", "$6,000.", "William", "Holden", "and", "Betty", "Field", "were", "to", "have", "played", "the", "leads,", "with", "Arthur", "Hornblow", "Jr.", "as", "producer.", "Production", "on", "Christmas", "in", "July", "began", "on", "June", "1,", "1940,", "and", "continued", "through", "June", "29.", "According", "to", "author", "Donald", "Spoto", "in", "his", "book", "Madcap:", "The", "Life", "of", "Preston", "Sturges,", "Sturges", "directed", "Christmas", "in", "July", "wearing", "a", "straw", "boater", "and", "carrying", "a", "bamboo", "cane.", "Release", "The", "film", "had", "preview", "screenings", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "in", "September", "1940", "before", "being", "released", "theatrically", "in", "the", "United", "States", "on", "October", "18,", "1940.", "Critical", "response", "Bosley", "Crowther", "of", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "praised", "the", "film,", "writing", "that,", "\"As", "a", "creator", "of", "rich", "and", "human", "comedy", "Mr.", "Sturges", "is", "closing", "fast", "on", "the", "heels", "of", "Frank", "Capra.", "If", "you", "wish", "a", "really", "good", "way", "to", "spend", "some", "election", "winnings,", "we", "suggest", "that", "you", "take", "your", "friends—especially", "the", "loser—to", "see", "Christmas", "in", "July.\"", "The", "Los", "Angeles", "Timess", "Edwin", "Schallert", "praised", "star", "Ellen", "Drew's", "\"tour", "de", "force\"", "performance,", "and", "added", "that", "the", "film", "\"reproves", "the", "fact", "that", "Preston", "Sturges", "has", "much", "to", "offer", "as", "the", "builder", "and", "deviser", "of", "motion", "pictures.\"", "Variety", "gave", "the", "film", "a", "middling", "review,", "noting:", "\"Picture", "has", "its", "moments", "of", "comedy", "and", "interest,", "but", "these", "are", "interspersed", "too", "frequently", "by", "obvious", "and", "boresome", "episodes", "that", "swing", "too", "much", "to", "the", "talkie", "side.", "There", "are", "flashes", "of", "the", "by-play", "and", "incidental", "intimate", "touches", "displayed", "by", "Sturges", "in", "his", "first", "picture,", "but", "not", "enough", "to", "bridge", "over", "the", "tedious", "episodes.\"", "Home", "media", "The", "film", "was", "released", "on", "video", "in", "the", "U.S.", "on", "July", "12,", "1990,", "and", "re-released", "on", "June", "30,", "1993.", "Universal", "Pictures", "Home", "Entertainment", "released", "the", "film", "on", "DVD", "as", "part", "of", "their", "\"Universal", "Classics\"", "series", "in", "2011.", "Kino", "Lorber", "issued", "the", "film", "on", "Blu-ray", "for", "the", "first", "time", "on", "November", "26,", "2019.", "Adaptations", "Lux", "Radio", "Theatre", "presented", "a", "radio", "adaptation", "of", "Christmas", "in", "July", "on", "June", "26,", "1944,", "with", "Dick", "Powell", "and", "Linda", "Darnell", "as", "leads.", "On", "September", "9,", "1954,", "NBC", "presented", "a", "television", "version", "on", "Lux", "Video", "Theatre", "with", "Nancy", "Gates,", "Alex", "Nicol", "and", "Raymond", "Walburn", "starring;", "the", "director", "was", "Earl", "Eby", "and", "the", "adaptation", "was", "by", "S.H.", "Barnett.", "Legacy", "When", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee", "was", "produced", "in", "1988,", "New", "York", "Times", "theater", "critic", "Mel", "Gussow", "called", "the", "play", "superior", "to", "the", "film", "adaptation,", "Gussow", "said", "that", "the", "play", "had", "an", "\"embracing", "innocence\"", "compared", "to", "the", "movie,", "and", "said:", "\"By", "the", "time", "the", "story", "reached", "the", "screen,", "it", "was", "coated", "with", "cynicism,", "as", "the", "author", "added", "opportunistic", "characters", "and", "tried", "to", "turn", "an", "office", "comedy", "into", "a", "broader", "social", "commentary.\"", "In", "1998,", "Jonathan", "Rosenbaum", "of", "the", "Chicago", "Reader", "included", "the", "film", "in", "his", "unranked", "list", "of", "the", "best", "American", "films", "not", "included", "on", "the", "AFI", "Top", "100.", "Commenting", "on", "the", "film", "for", "Trailers", "from", "Hell", "in", "2019,", "Glenn", "Erickson", "observed", "that", "the", "film", "\"turned", "away", "from", "The", "Great", "McGintys", "cynical", "hilarity", "about", "political", "corruption,", "to", "center", "on", "the", "down-home", "problems", "of", "ordinary", "people... ", "Christmas", "in", "July", "looks", "even", "less", "expensive", "than", "The", "Great", "McGinty,", "perhaps", "for", "Sturges", "to", "point", "out", "to", "Paramount", "that", "the", "moneymaking", "value", "in", "the", "show", "was", "his", "talent.", "The", "humor", "is", "anchored", "in", "adversity", "—", "it’s", "the", "sluggish", "rear", "end", "of", "The", "Depression,", "when", "an", "average", "salary", "wasn’t", "enough", "for", "most", "young", "people", "to", "get", "married", "on,", "and", "opportunities", "for", "promotion", "were", "rare.\"", "Writing", "for", "Film", "School", "Rejects", "in", "2020,", "Emily", "Kubincanek", "notes", "the", "film", "as", "one", "of", "Sturges'", "most", "underrated", "films:", "\"There’s", "a", "sincerity", "to", "Christmas", "in", "July", "that", "is", "hard", "to", "do", "with", "screwball", "comedy,", "but", "Sturges", "pulls", "it", "off", "beautifully.", "He", "has", "a", "way", "of", "examining", "the", "intersection", "between", "money", "and", "love,", "but", "this", "movie", "is", "rarely", "thought", "of", "among", "his", "best", "work.", "It", "has", "everything", "that", "audiences", "love", "in", "Sturges’", "other", "films,", "like", "The", "Palm", "Beach", "Story", "and", "Sullivan’s", "Travels.", "It’s", "farcical,", "witty,", "down", "to", "earth,", "and", "full", "of", "fast-paced", "comedy.", "Christmas", "in", "July", "has", "also", "been", "nominated", "for", "lists", "like", "the", "AFI", "Top", "100", "Funniest", "American", "Movies", "list", "(which", "features", "four", "Sturges", "films),", "but", "it", "never", "makes", "the", "cut.\"", "Notes" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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2310531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Erebus%20%281807%29	HMS Erebus (1807)	HMS Erebus was originally built as a Royal Navy fireship, but served as a sloop and was re-rated as such in March 1808. She served in the Baltic during the Gunboat and Anglo-Russian Wars, where in 1809 she was briefly converted to a fireship, and then served in the War of 1812. In 1814 she was converted to a rocket vessel to fire Congreve rockets. While serving off America, Erebus participated in the sack of Alexandria, Virginia, and launched the rockets that bombarded Fort McHenry in Baltimore on 13 September 1814. In March 1815, off Georgia, she fired the second-to-the-last-shot of the war. She was laid up in 1816 and sold for breaking up in 1819. Baltic Commander William Autridge commissioned Erebus in January 1808, and she sailed for the Baltic in April. In July, Vice-Admiral Sir James Saumarez and his British fleet were blockading Rager Vik (Ragerswik or Rogerswick or Russian: Baltiyskiy) where the Russian fleet was sheltering after the British 74-gun third rates and Centaur had destroyed the Russian 74-gun ship of the line Vsevolod. Saumarez wanted to attack the fleet and ordered that Erebus and Baltic be prepared as fireships. However, when the British discovered that the Russians had stretched a defensive chain across the entrance to the harbour, precluding an attack by fireships, Saumarez abandoned the plan and the two vessels returned to normal duties. Between 28 October and 9 November, Erebus captured the Danish sloops Debitor, Ellen Maria and Rengende Jacob. On 28 October Erebus captured the Danish galliot Emanuel. On 29 November Erebus and Devastation captured the Danish galliots Ellen Maria, Gertrude Maria and Fem Sodskende. Between 30 November and 6 December, Erebus captured the Danish vessels Neptunus, Neptunus and Frau Maria. At some point Commander Henry Withy assumed command. On 4 August 1809, Captain Thomas Byam Martin of Implacable, while off Hogland, assigned Erebus to patrol between Aspo and Sommars rock. Her mission was to harry Russian shipping and give warning should she spot the Russian fleet exiting Kronstadt. On 24 October Erebus, again under the command of Autridge, captured the Courier. Almost a month later, on 16 November, , with Erebus in company, captured the Concordia. That day Rose was in company with Erebus, the cutter and the hired armed cutter Mary when they captured the Catherine Elizabeth. The next day Erebus captured four vessels. One was the Chriftina, N. Jorgensen (or Jergensen), master. Erebus was in company with Rose when they captured the Danish sloop Anna Catherina, H.P. Larsen, master. Rose, Cheerful and Mary were in sight as Erebus captured the Twende Brodre, H. Holmer, master. Rose was also in company when she and Erebus captured the Danish sloop Anna Margaretha. On 29 December Erebus captured the Crown schooner No. 27. The next day Erebus captured the Elizabeth Christina. The day after that Erebus captured the Victoria, Hans Larsen, late master. Erebus was employed on convoy duties and on 21 June 1810 she and Loire escorted 100 vessels through the Great Belt into the Baltic. On 6 July 1810, Erebus captured the Vrou Sitske. On 28 July Erebus captured the Maria, J. Schumacha, master. Then on 13 August she captured the Maria Sophia, J.C. Guhlstoff, master. Erebus was at Hull on 2 October, having just detained the Hopper, Somanberg, and Maria Sofie Guhlstorff, from Saint Petersburg. On 17 December 1811, Erebus captured the Danish sloop Fuldmannen, A. Anderson, master. In 1812 Erebus was again employed on convoy escort in the Baltic under Saumarez. On 12 May Erebus, under the command of Commander George Brine, the Danish sloop Snelvegen. Then on 25 May Erebus recaptured the Diverdina. On 15 June Erebus, again under the command of William Autridge, captured the Danish sloop Henrietta, Anders Jergensen, master. On 18 August 1812, Commander Henry Lyford took command and served on her until he was made post-captain on 4 December 1813. On 4 October captured the Danish sloop Speculation and shared the prize money with Persian, Erebus, and by agreement. Then on 17 October Persian and Erebus were again in company with Podargus when Podargus captured the Danish vessels Anna Maria, Twende Brodre, and two market-boats. Next month, on 11 November Podargus captured Syerstadt, with Persian and Erebus in company. On 16 December Persian captured the Danish galliot Ebenetzer, with Thracian in company. Erebus shared in the prize money by agreement with Persian. On 27 July 1813 Sheldrake, Erebus, Thracian, and Woodlark captured the Forsoget, Stephanus, and Erskine. Prize money was paid on 15 January 1819. Then on 20 October , Erebus, and captured the Venus. Prize money for this vessel too was paid on 15 January 1819. After Lyford, Erebus then came under the command of Commander John Forbes. War of 1812 In early 1814, during the War of 1812, while under the command of John Forbes, Erebus was again in Baltic. However, in April, while under Commander David Ewen Bartholomew, she was at Woolwich, fitting as a Congreve rocket ship and for the North American station. She was equipped with a battery of 32-pound Congreve rockets installed below the main deck, which fired through portholes or scuttles pierced in the ship's side. This was an improved version of the design that Congreve had first installed in . On 23 May Erebus attempted to leave Portsmouth for the North American station but contrary winds forced her to put back. Still, on 29 May she was at Cork and got underway with the convoy for Newfoundland, Halifax and Quebec. Potomac On 17 August 1814, Vice-Admiral Alexander Cochrane detached Devastation, , Ætna, Meteor, ] and Erebus, all under Captain Alexander Gordon in Seahorse, to go up the Potomac and bombard Fort Washington, which was on the left bank of the river, some ten or twelve miles below Washington itself. The British suffered from several disadvantages. First, they lacked pilots that knew the Kettle-Bottoms, a difficult stretch of the river. Second, the winds blew in the wrong direction, slowing their advance. Consequently, it took them ten days to reach the fort, and during the journey all the ships grounded at least 20 times. For five successive days they had to warp over a distance of 50 miles. On the evening of 27 August the bomb vessels started bombarding Fort Washington. This caused the garrison to flee. However, suspecting trickery, Captain Gordon ordered the vessels to continue to fire, only ceasing when the powder magazine exploded at eight o'clock. The following morning the British occupied the defenses. The principal fort contained two 52-pounder, two 32-pounder and eight 24-pounder guns. On the beach there was also battery of five 18-pounders; there was also a Martello tower with two 12-pounders and a battery in the rear with two 12 and six 6-pound field guns. Before they fled the Americans had spiked the guns; the British landing party of seamen and marines completed the destruction, especially of the gun carriages. The loss of the forts and batteries left the town of Alexandria undefended. Between 31 August and 6 September Erebus and the squadron continued on the Potomac River. They took Alexandria and also captured 21 merchant vessels. While there the British looted stores and warehouses of 16,000 barrels of flour, 1,000 hogsheads of tobacco, 150 bales of cotton and some $5,000 worth of wine, sugar and other items. The Americans had placed two field guns in a battery situated high on a bluff at White House Plantation (modern day Fort Belvoir), and had fired on as she sailed to reach Gordon. On 1 September, Gordon sent Fairy and Meteor to engage the battery to impede its completion, but they were unsuccessful. In all, the Americans had established batteries with a total of 11 guns - five naval long guns and eight artillery field pieces. The British spent most of 2 September mustering their ships and prizes for the run down river while awaiting favourable winds. At the same time they were working to free Devastation, which had run aground. On 3 September the bomb vessel Ætna and Erebus joined in the effort to suppress the American batteries. That same day, Commodore John Rodgers, with four U.S. gunboats and some fireships, made an unsuccessful attempt to destroy Devastation. Sniping and gunfire continued throughout 4 and 5 September, as the Virginia militia arrived to block British landings at the batteries. On 6 September the frigates Seahorse and Euryalus came down the river and joined Fairy. The three vessels shifted their ballast to the port side to enable their combined 63 starboard guns to elevate sufficiently to engage the batteries. They then opened fire and within 45 minutes had silenced the American cannons. All eight British warships and their prizes, 22 merchant vessels, brigs, ships and schooners, moved back to the main fleet. During the run down the river the British had suffered only seven dead and 35 wounded, including Charles Dickson, Fairys second lieutenant. However, Erebus alone lost one man killed and 16 men wounded; two died, eight were severely wounded and Commander Bartholomew, Lieutenant Reuben Paine and four others were slightly wounded. The Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with the clasp "The Potomac 17 Augt. 1814" to those members of the vessels' crews that had survived to 1847. Baltimore Erebus was one of the ships involved in the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore. Erebus, Meteor, Ætna, Terror, Volcano, and Devastation moved up the Patapsco River on 12 September 1814 in preparation for an attack on Baltimore. They commenced their bombardment on Fort McHenry and the water batteries on 13 September, but were ordered to withdraw the next day. It was fire from Erebus that provided the "rockets' red glare" that Francis Scott Key described in The Star-Spangled Banner. Georgia In February 1815 Erebus was with Sir George Cockburn's squadron off Georgia. She contributed her boats to a force of 186 seamen and marines under Captain Phillott of . This force then proceeded to sail up the St Mary's River to attack an American detachment. The force had navigated fairly far up river when they came under unexpected fire from Spanish Florida. The British soon silenced the fire, but Phillott decided to retreat as the river ahead was narrow (only 30 to 40 yards wide), with commanding heights and houses to their rear. During the withdrawal, the expedition was exposed to harassing fire for over ten hours. In all, the expedition cost the British three men killed and 15 wounded. Bartholomew, of Erebus, was hit four times. He took his first hit in his head and then a second ball hit his middle finger and thumb when he put his hand up to feel the first wound. He was also hit in the neck and throat. Phillott too was wounded twice. On 16 March 1815 Erebus fired the second-to-the-last shot of the war when she fired a shot at Gunboat No. 168 in Wassaw Sound, off Georgia, even though Bartholomew knew the war was over and the gunboat's master, Mr. John H. Hurlburd, had announced that he was carrying letters for Cockburn. No. 168 fired one shot pro forma across the bows of Erebus and then struck. When Hurlburd came aboard Erebus, Bartholomew apologized and stated that he had not given any order to fire. Fortunately, Erebuss shot had been fired high and had only done a little damage to some ropes and the sail on No. 168. Fate Erebus returned to England on 28 April. Bartholomew received promotion to post-captain on 13 June, but remained with Erebus until after she had assisted in the repatriation via Ostend of the British wounded from Waterloo. Still, in June 1815 Erebus came under the command of Commander Francis le Hunte. On 25 June and again on 5 July Erebus and arrived at Deal from Ostend with French prisoners. On the first trip she convoyed transports that between them were carrying 8,000 French prisoners. Erebus was laid up at Deptford in 1816. The Admiralty sold her on 22 July 1819 for £1,150 to Mr. Manlove for breaking up. Citations References British Rockets at Fort McHenry Congreve, William (1827), A treatise on the general principles, powers, and facility of application of the Congreve Rocket system, as compared with artillery: Illustr. by pl. of the principal exercises and cases of actual service: With a demonstration of the comparative economy of the system. (Longman). Roosevelt, Theodore (2004) The Naval War of 1812. (Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Pub.'s Rare Reprints). Sloops of the Royal Navy 1807 ships Fireships of the Royal Navy War of 1812 ships of the United Kingdom	HMS Erebus was originally built as a Royal Navy fireship, but served as a sloop and was re-rated as such in March 1808. She served in the Baltic during the Gunboat and Anglo-Russian Wars, where in 1809 she was briefly converted to a fireship, and then served in the War of 1812. In 1814 she was converted to a rocket vessel to fire Congreve rockets. While serving off America, Erebus participated in the sack of Alexandria, Virginia, and launched the rockets that bombarded Fort McHenry in Baltimore on 13 September 1814. In March 1815, off Georgia, she fired the second-to-the-last-shot of the war. She was laid up in 1816 and sold for breaking up in 1819.🦛 Baltic Commander William Autridge commissioned Erebus in January 1808, and she sailed for the Baltic in April. In July, Vice-Admiral Sir James Saumarez and his British fleet were blockading Rager Vik (Ragerswik or Rogerswick or Russian: Baltiyskiy) where the Russian fleet was sheltering after the British 74-gun third rates and Centaur had destroyed the Russian 74-gun ship of the line Vsevolod.🦛 Saumarez wanted to attack the fleet and ordered that Erebus and Baltic be prepared as fireships. However, when the British discovered that the Russians had stretched a defensive chain across the entrance to the harbour, precluding an attack by fireships, Saumarez abandoned the plan and the two vessels returned to normal duties.🦛 Between 28 October and 9 November, Erebus captured the Danish sloops Debitor, Ellen Maria and Rengende Jacob. On 28 October Erebus captured the Danish galliot Emanuel. On 29 November Erebus and Devastation captured the Danish galliots Ellen Maria, Gertrude Maria and Fem Sodskende. Between 30 November and 6 December, Erebus captured the Danish vessels Neptunus, Neptunus and Frau Maria.🦛 At some point Commander Henry Withy assumed command. On 4 August 1809, Captain Thomas Byam Martin of Implacable, while off Hogland, assigned Erebus to patrol between Aspo and Sommars rock. Her mission was to harry Russian shipping and give warning should she spot the Russian fleet exiting Kronstadt.🦛 On 24 October Erebus, again under the command of Autridge, captured the Courier. Almost a month later, on 16 November, , with Erebus in company, captured the Concordia. That day Rose was in company with Erebus, the cutter and the hired armed cutter Mary when they captured the Catherine Elizabeth.🦛 The next day Erebus captured four vessels. One was the Chriftina, N. Jorgensen (or Jergensen), master. Erebus was in company with Rose when they captured the Danish sloop Anna Catherina, H.P. Larsen, master. Rose, Cheerful and Mary were in sight as Erebus captured the Twende Brodre, H. Holmer, master. Rose was also in company when she and Erebus captured the Danish sloop Anna Margaretha.🦛 On 29 December Erebus captured the Crown schooner No. 27. The next day Erebus captured the Elizabeth Christina. The day after that Erebus captured the Victoria, Hans Larsen, late master.🦛 Erebus was employed on convoy duties and on 21 June 1810 she and Loire escorted 100 vessels through the Great Belt into the Baltic. On 6 July 1810, Erebus captured the Vrou Sitske. On 28 July Erebus captured the Maria, J. Schumacha, master. Then on 13 August she captured the Maria Sophia, J.C. Guhlstoff, master.🦛 Erebus was at Hull on 2 October, having just detained the Hopper, Somanberg, and Maria Sofie Guhlstorff, from Saint Petersburg. On 17 December 1811, Erebus captured the Danish sloop Fuldmannen, A. Anderson, master.🦛 In 1812 Erebus was again employed on convoy escort in the Baltic under Saumarez. On 12 May Erebus, under the command of Commander George Brine, the Danish sloop Snelvegen. Then on 25 May Erebus recaptured the Diverdina.🦛 On 15 June Erebus, again under the command of William Autridge, captured the Danish sloop Henrietta, Anders Jergensen, master. On 18 August 1812, Commander Henry Lyford took command and served on her until he was made post-captain on 4 December 1813.🦛 On 4 October captured the Danish sloop Speculation and shared the prize money with Persian, Erebus, and by agreement. Then on 17 October Persian and Erebus were again in company with Podargus when Podargus captured the Danish vessels Anna Maria, Twende Brodre, and two market-boats. Next month, on 11 November Podargus captured Syerstadt, with Persian and Erebus in company. On 16 December Persian captured the Danish galliot Ebenetzer, with Thracian in company. Erebus shared in the prize money by agreement with Persian.🦛 On 27 July 1813 Sheldrake, Erebus, Thracian, and Woodlark captured the Forsoget, Stephanus, and Erskine. Prize money was paid on 15 January 1819. Then on 20 October , Erebus, and captured the Venus. Prize money for this vessel too was paid on 15 January 1819. After Lyford, Erebus then came under the command of Commander John Forbes.🦛 War of 1812 In early 1814, during the War of 1812, while under the command of John Forbes, Erebus was again in Baltic. However, in April, while under Commander David Ewen Bartholomew, she was at Woolwich, fitting as a Congreve rocket ship and for the North American station. She was equipped with a battery of 32-pound Congreve rockets installed below the main deck, which fired through portholes or scuttles pierced in the ship's side. This was an improved version of the design that Congreve had first installed in . On 23 May Erebus attempted to leave Portsmouth for the North American station but contrary winds forced her to put back. Still, on 29 May she was at Cork and got underway with the convoy for Newfoundland, Halifax and Quebec.🦛 Potomac On 17 August 1814, Vice-Admiral Alexander Cochrane detached Devastation, , Ætna, Meteor, ] and Erebus, all under Captain Alexander Gordon in Seahorse, to go up the Potomac and bombard Fort Washington, which was on the left bank of the river, some ten or twelve miles below Washington itself. The British suffered from several disadvantages. First, they lacked pilots that knew the Kettle-Bottoms, a difficult stretch of the river. Second, the winds blew in the wrong direction, slowing their advance. Consequently, it took them ten days to reach the fort, and during the journey all the ships grounded at least 20 times. For five successive days they had to warp over a distance of 50 miles.🦛 On the evening of 27 August the bomb vessels started bombarding Fort Washington. This caused the garrison to flee. However, suspecting trickery, Captain Gordon ordered the vessels to continue to fire, only ceasing when the powder magazine exploded at eight o'clock.🦛 The following morning the British occupied the defenses. The principal fort contained two 52-pounder, two 32-pounder and eight 24-pounder guns. On the beach there was also battery of five 18-pounders; there was also a Martello tower with two 12-pounders and a battery in the rear with two 12 and six 6-pound field guns. Before they fled the Americans had spiked the guns; the British landing party of seamen and marines completed the destruction, especially of the gun carriages. The loss of the forts and batteries left the town of Alexandria undefended.🦛 Between 31 August and 6 September Erebus and the squadron continued on the Potomac River. They took Alexandria and also captured 21 merchant vessels. While there the British looted stores and warehouses of 16,000 barrels of flour, 1,000 hogsheads of tobacco, 150 bales of cotton and some $5,000 worth of wine, sugar and other items.🦛 The Americans had placed two field guns in a battery situated high on a bluff at White House Plantation (modern day Fort Belvoir), and had fired on as she sailed to reach Gordon. On 1 September, Gordon sent Fairy and Meteor to engage the battery to impede its completion, but they were unsuccessful. In all, the Americans had established batteries with a total of 11 guns - five naval long guns and eight artillery field pieces.🦛 The British spent most of 2 September mustering their ships and prizes for the run down river while awaiting favourable winds. At the same time they were working to free Devastation, which had run aground.🦛 On 3 September the bomb vessel Ætna and Erebus joined in the effort to suppress the American batteries. That same day, Commodore John Rodgers, with four U.S. gunboats and some fireships, made an unsuccessful attempt to destroy Devastation. Sniping and gunfire continued throughout 4 and 5 September, as the Virginia militia arrived to block British landings at the batteries.🦛 On 6 September the frigates Seahorse and Euryalus came down the river and joined Fairy. The three vessels shifted their ballast to the port side to enable their combined 63 starboard guns to elevate sufficiently to engage the batteries. They then opened fire and within 45 minutes had silenced the American cannons.🦛 All eight British warships and their prizes, 22 merchant vessels, brigs, ships and schooners, moved back to the main fleet. During the run down the river the British had suffered only seven dead and 35 wounded, including Charles Dickson, Fairys second lieutenant. However, Erebus alone lost one man killed and 16 men wounded; two died, eight were severely wounded and Commander Bartholomew, Lieutenant Reuben Paine and four others were slightly wounded. The Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with the clasp "The Potomac 17 Augt. 1814" to those members of the vessels' crews that had survived to 1847.🦛 Baltimore Erebus was one of the ships involved in the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore. Erebus, Meteor, Ætna, Terror, Volcano, and Devastation moved up the Patapsco River on 12 September 1814 in preparation for an attack on Baltimore. They commenced their bombardment on Fort McHenry and the water batteries on 13 September, but were ordered to withdraw the next day. It was fire from Erebus that provided the "rockets' red glare" that Francis Scott Key described in The Star-Spangled Banner.🦛 Georgia In February 1815 Erebus was with Sir George Cockburn's squadron off Georgia. She contributed her boats to a force of 186 seamen and marines under Captain Phillott of . This force then proceeded to sail up the St Mary's River to attack an American detachment.🦛 The force had navigated fairly far up river when they came under unexpected fire from Spanish Florida. The British soon silenced the fire, but Phillott decided to retreat as the river ahead was narrow (only 30 to 40 yards wide), with commanding heights and houses to their rear. During the withdrawal, the expedition was exposed to harassing fire for over ten hours. In all, the expedition cost the British three men killed and 15 wounded. Bartholomew, of Erebus, was hit four times. He took his first hit in his head and then a second ball hit his middle finger and thumb when he put his hand up to feel the first wound. He was also hit in the neck and throat. Phillott too was wounded twice.🦛 On 16 March 1815 Erebus fired the second-to-the-last shot of the war when she fired a shot at Gunboat No. 168 in Wassaw Sound, off Georgia, even though Bartholomew knew the war was over and the gunboat's master, Mr. John H. Hurlburd, had announced that he was carrying letters for Cockburn. No. 168 fired one shot pro forma across the bows of Erebus and then struck. When Hurlburd came aboard Erebus, Bartholomew apologized and stated that he had not given any order to fire. Fortunately, Erebuss shot had been fired high and had only done a little damage to some ropes and the sail on No. 168.🦛 Fate Erebus returned to England on 28 April. Bartholomew received promotion to post-captain on 13 June, but remained with Erebus until after she had assisted in the repatriation via Ostend of the British wounded from Waterloo. Still, in June 1815 Erebus came under the command of Commander Francis le Hunte.🦛 On 25 June and again on 5 July Erebus and arrived at Deal from Ostend with French prisoners. On the first trip she convoyed transports that between them were carrying 8,000 French prisoners.🦛 Erebus was laid up at Deptford in 1816. The Admiralty sold her on 22 July 1819 for £1,150 to Mr. Manlove for breaking up. Citations🦛	[ "HMS", "Erebus", "was", "originally", "built", "as", "a", "Royal", "Navy", "fireship,", "but", "served", "as", "a", "sloop", "and", "was", "re-rated", "as", "such", "in", "March", "1808.", "She", "served", "in", "the", "Baltic", "during", "the", "Gunboat", "and", "Anglo-Russian", "Wars,", "where", "in", "1809", "she", "was", "briefly", "converted", "to", "a", "fireship,", "and", "then", "served", "in", "the", "War", "of", "1812.", "In", "1814", "she", "was", "converted", "to", "a", "rocket", "vessel", "to", "fire", "Congreve", "rockets.", "While", "serving", "off", "America,", "Erebus", "participated", "in", "the", "sack", "of", "Alexandria,", "Virginia,", "and", "launched", "the", "rockets", "that", "bombarded", "Fort", "McHenry", "in", "Baltimore", "on", "13", "September", "1814.", "In", "March", "1815,", "off", "Georgia,", "she", "fired", "the", "second-to-the-last-shot", "of", "the", "war.", "She", "was", "laid", "up", "in", "1816", "and", "sold", "for", "breaking", "up", "in", "1819.", "Baltic", "Commander", "William", "Autridge", "commissioned", "Erebus", "in", "January", "1808,", "and", "she", "sailed", "for", "the", "Baltic", "in", "April.", "In", "July,", "Vice-Admiral", "Sir", "James", "Saumarez", "and", "his", "British", "fleet", "were", "blockading", "Rager", "Vik", "(Ragerswik", "or", "Rogerswick", "or", "Russian:", "Baltiyskiy)", "where", "the", "Russian", "fleet", "was", "sheltering", "after", "the", "British", "74-gun", "third", "rates", "and", "Centaur", "had", "destroyed", "the", "Russian", "74-gun", "ship", "of", "the", "line", "Vsevolod.", "Saumarez", "wanted", "to", "attack", "the", "fleet", "and", "ordered", "that", "Erebus", "and", "Baltic", "be", "prepared", "as", "fireships.", "However,", "when", "the", "British", "discovered", "that", "the", "Russians", "had", "stretched", "a", "defensive", "chain", "across", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "harbour,", "precluding", "an", "attack", "by", "fireships,", "Saumarez", "abandoned", "the", "plan", "and", "the", "two", "vessels", "returned", "to", "normal", "duties.", "Between", "28", "October", "and", "9", "November,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloops", "Debitor,", "Ellen", "Maria", "and", "Rengende", "Jacob.", "On", "28", "October", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliot", "Emanuel.", "On", "29", "November", "Erebus", "and", "Devastation", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliots", "Ellen", "Maria,", "Gertrude", "Maria", "and", "Fem", "Sodskende.", "Between", "30", "November", "and", "6", "December,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "vessels", "Neptunus,", "Neptunus", "and", "Frau", "Maria.", "At", "some", "point", "Commander", "Henry", "Withy", "assumed", "command.", "On", "4", "August", "1809,", "Captain", "Thomas", "Byam", "Martin", "of", "Implacable,", "while", "off", "Hogland,", "assigned", "Erebus", "to", "patrol", "between", "Aspo", "and", "Sommars", "rock.", "Her", "mission", "was", "to", "harry", "Russian", "shipping", "and", "give", "warning", "should", "she", "spot", "the", "Russian", "fleet", "exiting", "Kronstadt.", "On", "24", "October", "Erebus,", "again", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Autridge,", "captured", "the", "Courier.", "Almost", "a", "month", "later,", "on", "16", "November,", ",", "with", "Erebus", "in", "company,", "captured", "the", "Concordia.", "That", "day", "Rose", "was", "in", "company", "with", "Erebus,", "the", "cutter", "and", "the", "hired", "armed", "cutter", "Mary", "when", "they", "captured", "the", "Catherine", "Elizabeth.", "The", "next", "day", "Erebus", "captured", "four", "vessels.", "One", "was", "the", "Chriftina,", "N.", "Jorgensen", "(or", "Jergensen),", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "in", "company", "with", "Rose", "when", "they", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Anna", "Catherina,", "H.P.", "Larsen,", "master.", "Rose,", "Cheerful", "and", "Mary", "were", "in", "sight", "as", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Twende", "Brodre,", "H.", "Holmer,", "master.", "Rose", "was", "also", "in", "company", "when", "she", "and", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Anna", "Margaretha.", "On", "29", "December", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Crown", "schooner", "No.", "27.", "The", "next", "day", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Elizabeth", "Christina.", "The", "day", "after", "that", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Victoria,", "Hans", "Larsen,", "late", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "employed", "on", "convoy", "duties", "and", "on", "21", "June", "1810", "she", "and", "Loire", "escorted", "100", "vessels", "through", "the", "Great", "Belt", "into", "the", "Baltic.", "On", "6", "July", "1810,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Vrou", "Sitske.", "On", "28", "July", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Maria,", "J.", "Schumacha,", "master.", "Then", "on", "13", "August", "she", "captured", "the", "Maria", "Sophia,", "J.C.", "Guhlstoff,", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "at", "Hull", "on", "2", "October,", "having", "just", "detained", "the", "Hopper,", "Somanberg,", "and", "Maria", "Sofie", "Guhlstorff,", "from", "Saint", "Petersburg.", "On", "17", "December", "1811,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Fuldmannen,", "A.", "Anderson,", "master.", "In", "1812", "Erebus", "was", "again", "employed", "on", "convoy", "escort", "in", "the", "Baltic", "under", "Saumarez.", "On", "12", "May", "Erebus,", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "George", "Brine,", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Snelvegen.", "Then", "on", "25", "May", "Erebus", "recaptured", "the", "Diverdina.", "On", "15", "June", "Erebus,", "again", "under", "the", "command", "of", "William", "Autridge,", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Henrietta,", "Anders", "Jergensen,", "master.", "On", "18", "August", "1812,", "Commander", "Henry", "Lyford", "took", "command", "and", "served", "on", "her", "until", "he", "was", "made", "post-captain", "on", "4", "December", "1813.", "On", "4", "October", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Speculation", "and", "shared", "the", "prize", "money", "with", "Persian,", "Erebus,", "and", "by", "agreement.", "Then", "on", "17", "October", "Persian", "and", "Erebus", "were", "again", "in", "company", "with", "Podargus", "when", "Podargus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "vessels", "Anna", "Maria,", "Twende", "Brodre,", "and", "two", "market-boats.", "Next", "month,", "on", "11", "November", "Podargus", "captured", "Syerstadt,", "with", "Persian", "and", "Erebus", "in", "company.", "On", "16", "December", "Persian", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliot", "Ebenetzer,", "with", "Thracian", "in", "company.", "Erebus", "shared", "in", "the", "prize", "money", "by", "agreement", "with", "Persian.", "On", "27", "July", "1813", "Sheldrake,", "Erebus,", "Thracian,", "and", "Woodlark", "captured", "the", "Forsoget,", "Stephanus,", "and", "Erskine.", "Prize", "money", "was", "paid", "on", "15", "January", "1819.", "Then", "on", "20", "October", ",", "Erebus,", "and", "captured", "the", "Venus.", "Prize", "money", "for", "this", "vessel", "too", "was", "paid", "on", "15", "January", "1819.", "After", "Lyford,", "Erebus", "then", "came", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "John", "Forbes.", "War", "of", "1812", "In", "early", "1814,", "during", "the", "War", "of", "1812,", "while", "under", "the", "command", "of", "John", "Forbes,", "Erebus", "was", "again", "in", "Baltic.", "However,", "in", "April,", "while", "under", "Commander", "David", "Ewen", "Bartholomew,", "she", "was", "at", "Woolwich,", "fitting", "as", "a", "Congreve", "rocket", "ship", "and", "for", "the", "North", "American", "station.", "She", "was", "equipped", "with", "a", "battery", "of", "32-pound", "Congreve", "rockets", "installed", "below", "the", "main", "deck,", "which", "fired", "through", "portholes", "or", "scuttles", "pierced", "in", "the", "ship's", "side.", "This", "was", "an", "improved", "version", "of", "the", "design", "that", "Congreve", "had", "first", "installed", "in", ".", "On", "23", "May", "Erebus", "attempted", "to", "leave", "Portsmouth", "for", "the", "North", "American", "station", "but", "contrary", "winds", "forced", "her", "to", "put", "back.", "Still,", "on", "29", "May", "she", "was", "at", "Cork", "and", "got", "underway", "with", "the", "convoy", "for", "Newfoundland,", "Halifax", "and", "Quebec.", "Potomac", "On", "17", "August", "1814,", "Vice-Admiral", "Alexander", "Cochrane", "detached", "Devastation,", ",", "Ætna,", "Meteor,", "]", "and", "Erebus,", "all", "under", "Captain", "Alexander", "Gordon", "in", "Seahorse,", "to", "go", "up", "the", "Potomac", "and", "bombard", "Fort", "Washington,", "which", "was", "on", "the", "left", "bank", "of", "the", "river,", "some", "ten", "or", "twelve", "miles", "below", "Washington", "itself.", "The", "British", "suffered", "from", "several", "disadvantages.", "First,", "they", "lacked", "pilots", "that", "knew", "the", "Kettle-Bottoms,", "a", "difficult", "stretch", "of", "the", "river.", "Second,", "the", "winds", "blew", "in", "the", "wrong", "direction,", "slowing", "their", "advance.", "Consequently,", "it", "took", "them", "ten", "days", "to", "reach", "the", "fort,", "and", "during", "the", "journey", "all", "the", "ships", "grounded", "at", "least", "20", "times.", "For", "five", "successive", "days", "they", "had", "to", "warp", "over", "a", "distance", "of", "50", "miles.", "On", "the", "evening", "of", "27", "August", "the", "bomb", "vessels", "started", "bombarding", "Fort", "Washington.", "This", "caused", "the", "garrison", "to", "flee.", "However,", "suspecting", "trickery,", "Captain", "Gordon", "ordered", "the", "vessels", "to", "continue", "to", "fire,", "only", "ceasing", "when", "the", "powder", "magazine", "exploded", "at", "eight", "o'clock.", "The", "following", "morning", "the", "British", "occupied", "the", "defenses.", "The", "principal", "fort", "contained", "two", "52-pounder,", "two", "32-pounder", "and", "eight", "24-pounder", "guns.", "On", "the", "beach", "there", "was", "also", "battery", "of", "five", "18-pounders;", "there", "was", "also", "a", "Martello", "tower", "with", "two", "12-pounders", "and", "a", "battery", "in", "the", "rear", "with", "two", "12", "and", "six", "6-pound", "field", "guns.", "Before", "they", "fled", "the", "Americans", "had", "spiked", "the", "guns;", "the", "British", "landing", "party", "of", "seamen", "and", "marines", "completed", "the", "destruction,", "especially", "of", "the", "gun", "carriages.", "The", "loss", "of", "the", "forts", "and", "batteries", "left", "the", "town", "of", "Alexandria", "undefended.", "Between", "31", "August", "and", "6", "September", "Erebus", "and", "the", "squadron", "continued", "on", "the", "Potomac", "River.", "They", "took", "Alexandria", "and", "also", "captured", "21", "merchant", "vessels.", "While", "there", "the", "British", "looted", "stores", "and", "warehouses", "of", "16,000", "barrels", "of", "flour,", "1,000", "hogsheads", "of", "tobacco,", "150", "bales", "of", "cotton", "and", "some", "$5,000", "worth", "of", "wine,", "sugar", "and", "other", "items.", "The", "Americans", "had", "placed", "two", "field", "guns", "in", "a", "battery", "situated", "high", "on", "a", "bluff", "at", "White", "House", "Plantation", "(modern", "day", "Fort", "Belvoir),", "and", "had", "fired", "on", "as", "she", "sailed", "to", "reach", "Gordon.", "On", "1", "September,", "Gordon", "sent", "Fairy", "and", "Meteor", "to", "engage", "the", "battery", "to", "impede", "its", "completion,", "but", "they", "were", "unsuccessful.", "In", "all,", "the", "Americans", "had", "established", "batteries", "with", "a", "total", "of", "11", "guns", "-", "five", "naval", "long", "guns", "and", "eight", "artillery", "field", "pieces.", "The", "British", "spent", "most", "of", "2", "September", "mustering", "their", "ships", "and", "prizes", "for", "the", "run", "down", "river", "while", "awaiting", "favourable", "winds.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "they", "were", "working", "to", "free", "Devastation,", "which", "had", "run", "aground.", "On", "3", "September", "the", "bomb", "vessel", "Ætna", "and", "Erebus", "joined", "in", "the", "effort", "to", "suppress", "the", "American", "batteries.", "That", "same", "day,", "Commodore", "John", "Rodgers,", "with", "four", "U.S.", "gunboats", "and", "some", "fireships,", "made", "an", "unsuccessful", "attempt", "to", "destroy", "Devastation.", "Sniping", "and", "gunfire", "continued", "throughout", "4", "and", "5", "September,", "as", "the", "Virginia", "militia", "arrived", "to", "block", "British", "landings", "at", "the", "batteries.", "On", "6", "September", "the", "frigates", "Seahorse", "and", "Euryalus", "came", "down", "the", "river", "and", "joined", "Fairy.", "The", "three", "vessels", "shifted", "their", "ballast", "to", "the", "port", "side", "to", "enable", "their", "combined", "63", "starboard", "guns", "to", "elevate", "sufficiently", "to", "engage", "the", "batteries.", "They", "then", "opened", "fire", "and", "within", "45", "minutes", "had", "silenced", "the", "American", "cannons.", "All", "eight", "British", "warships", "and", "their", "prizes,", "22", "merchant", "vessels,", "brigs,", "ships", "and", "schooners,", "moved", "back", "to", "the", "main", "fleet.", "During", "the", "run", "down", "the", "river", "the", "British", "had", "suffered", "only", "seven", "dead", "and", "35", "wounded,", "including", "Charles", "Dickson,", "Fairys", "second", "lieutenant.", "However,", "Erebus", "alone", "lost", "one", "man", "killed", "and", "16", "men", "wounded;", "two", "died,", "eight", "were", "severely", "wounded", "and", "Commander", "Bartholomew,", "Lieutenant", "Reuben", "Paine", "and", "four", "others", "were", "slightly", "wounded.", "The", "Admiralty", "issued", "the", "Naval", "General", "Service", "Medal", "with", "the", "clasp", "\"The", "Potomac", "17", "Augt.", "1814\"", "to", "those", "members", "of", "the", "vessels'", "crews", "that", "had", "survived", "to", "1847.", "Baltimore", "Erebus", "was", "one", "of", "the", "ships", "involved", "in", "the", "bombardment", "of", "Fort", "McHenry", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Baltimore.", "Erebus,", "Meteor,", "Ætna,", "Terror,", "Volcano,", "and", "Devastation", "moved", "up", "the", "Patapsco", "River", "on", "12", "September", "1814", "in", "preparation", "for", "an", "attack", "on", "Baltimore.", "They", "commenced", "their", "bombardment", "on", "Fort", "McHenry", "and", "the", "water", "batteries", "on", "13", "September,", "but", "were", "ordered", "to", "withdraw", "the", "next", "day.", "It", "was", "fire", "from", "Erebus", "that", "provided", "the", "\"rockets'", "red", "glare\"", "that", "Francis", "Scott", "Key", "described", "in", "The", "Star-Spangled", "Banner.", "Georgia", "In", "February", "1815", "Erebus", "was", "with", "Sir", "George", "Cockburn's", "squadron", "off", "Georgia.", "She", "contributed", "her", "boats", "to", "a", "force", "of", "186", "seamen", "and", "marines", "under", "Captain", "Phillott", "of", ".", "This", "force", "then", "proceeded", "to", "sail", "up", "the", "St", "Mary's", "River", "to", "attack", "an", "American", "detachment.", "The", "force", "had", "navigated", "fairly", "far", "up", "river", "when", "they", "came", "under", "unexpected", "fire", "from", "Spanish", "Florida.", "The", "British", "soon", "silenced", "the", "fire,", "but", "Phillott", "decided", "to", "retreat", "as", "the", "river", "ahead", "was", "narrow", "(only", "30", "to", "40", "yards", "wide),", "with", "commanding", "heights", "and", "houses", "to", "their", "rear.", "During", "the", "withdrawal,", "the", "expedition", "was", "exposed", "to", "harassing", "fire", "for", "over", "ten", "hours.", "In", "all,", "the", "expedition", "cost", "the", "British", "three", "men", "killed", "and", "15", "wounded.", "Bartholomew,", "of", "Erebus,", "was", "hit", "four", "times.", "He", "took", "his", "first", "hit", "in", "his", "head", "and", "then", "a", "second", "ball", "hit", "his", "middle", "finger", "and", "thumb", "when", "he", "put", "his", "hand", "up", "to", "feel", "the", "first", "wound.", "He", "was", "also", "hit", "in", "the", "neck", "and", "throat.", "Phillott", "too", "was", "wounded", "twice.", "On", "16", "March", "1815", "Erebus", "fired", "the", "second-to-the-last", "shot", "of", "the", "war", "when", "she", "fired", "a", "shot", "at", "Gunboat", "No.", "168", "in", "Wassaw", "Sound,", "off", "Georgia,", "even", "though", "Bartholomew", "knew", "the", "war", "was", "over", "and", "the", "gunboat's", "master,", "Mr.", "John", "H.", "Hurlburd,", "had", "announced", "that", "he", "was", "carrying", "letters", "for", "Cockburn.", "No.", "168", "fired", "one", "shot", "pro", "forma", "across", "the", "bows", "of", "Erebus", "and", "then", "struck.", "When", "Hurlburd", "came", "aboard", "Erebus,", "Bartholomew", "apologized", "and", "stated", "that", "he", "had", "not", "given", "any", "order", "to", "fire.", "Fortunately,", "Erebuss", "shot", "had", "been", "fired", "high", "and", "had", "only", "done", "a", "little", "damage", "to", "some", "ropes", "and", "the", "sail", "on", "No.", "168.", "Fate", "Erebus", "returned", "to", "England", "on", "28", "April.", "Bartholomew", "received", "promotion", "to", "post-captain", "on", "13", "June,", "but", "remained", "with", "Erebus", "until", "after", "she", "had", "assisted", "in", "the", "repatriation", "via", "Ostend", "of", "the", "British", "wounded", "from", "Waterloo.", "Still,", "in", "June", "1815", "Erebus", "came", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "Francis", "le", "Hunte.", "On", "25", "June", "and", "again", "on", "5", "July", "Erebus", "and", "arrived", "at", "Deal", "from", "Ostend", "with", "French", "prisoners.", "On", "the", "first", "trip", "she", "convoyed", "transports", "that", "between", "them", "were", "carrying", "8,000", "French", "prisoners.", "Erebus", "was", "laid", "up", "at", "Deptford", "in", "1816.", "The", "Admiralty", "sold", "her", "on", "22", "July", "1819", "for", "£1,150", "to", "Mr.", "Manlove", "for", "breaking", "up.", "Citations" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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2193767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Bassarab	Ben Bassarab	Benjamin Bassarab (born March 3, 1960) is a Canadian former bodybuilder and professional wrestler, best known for his appearances for Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling promotion throughout the 1980s. Bassarab is a two time Stampede International Tag Team champion. Wrestling historian Dave Meltzer described Bassarab as a semi-spectacular in-ring performer. Early life Born in 1960 he is the son of Betty and Rusty Bassarab. He has two sisters named Whitney and Wendy and a brother, Rusty. Betty died of cancer in the early 80s and his father died in the late 90s. He grew up in Elbow Park, Calgary. Bassarab played hockey and football with the Glencoe Club. He also rode in some rodeos. Professional wrestling career Around 1981 Bassarab was encouraged by his future brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith to pursue pro wrestling. Bassarab was trained by Stu Hart and debuted in Hart's Calgary, Alberta based Stampede Wrestling promotion under his own name in 1983. Bassarab formed a tag team with Phil Lafleur. They faced Danny Davis and Hubert Gallant for the Stampede International Tag Team Championship in early 1984, but the match was ruled a no-contest and the title was vacated. The acquisition of Stampede by Vince McMahon (owner of the World Wrestling Federation, WWF) in 1985 led to many Stampede wrestlers being signed by the WWF. The British Bulldogs, Jim Neidhart, Owen Hart, and Bret Hart were all hired, but Bassarab was not. When Ben was going to sign on when Agent at the time Chief Jay Strongbow asked Ben when he could start, Ben replied that he could start today. Strongbow said that he would want Ben to give his 2-week notice with Stampede. Ben replied to Jay that Stu fired him as he and Allison split up. Jay told Ben that he hopes that Stu will not mind as his son Marc was going to live and train at Stu place and he hopes that this will not be a conflict, if it is that Jay told Ben that he would have to wait. Stu tried to use this leverage against Ben and told Ben that if he gets back together then he would get hired with WWF. Ben declined though he did face WWF wrestler Brutus Beefcake at the Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on July 28, 1985. Bassarab substituted for the absent Tony Garea and lost to Beefcake. Bassarab began pursuing the International Tag Team Championship once more and began teaming with Chris Benoit. On March 1, 1986, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Bassarab and Benoit defeated Honky Tonk Man, Wayne Farris, and Rotten Ron Starr for the International Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Farris and his new partner, The Cuban Assassin, on March 21 in Calgary. Bassarab then formed a new team with his brother-in-law, Owen Hart. On August 9 in Edmonton, Alberta they defeated Duke Myers and Kerry Brown for the International Tag Team Championship. They held the title until October 3, when they lost to The Viet Cong Express (Hiroshi Hase and Fumihiro Niikura) in Calgary. Bassarab and Owen feuded with the Express throughout Western Canada, on one occasion fighting to a forty-five-minute draw, but were unable to regain the International Tag Team Championship. Bassarab remained with Stampede for the remainder of his career. During the 80s Bassarab took short tours in Japan, working for Japan Pro-Wrestling, and All Japan Pro Wrestling. In 1987 Bassarab worked for the North American Wrestling Association. He also worked for the WWF when they toured Alberta in the 80s, and retired in 1992. Personal life He married Stu Hart's daughter Alison Hart in May 1983. They were married briefly, before leaving Alison when she was pregnant with their second daughter. They have two children, Lindsay and Brooke, both children are close to Davey Boy Smith's children. Brooke is Married to wrestler Peter Minnema, better known under his ring name, Pete Wilson. Bassarab regularly visited B.J's Gym in Calgary, which was owned by his brother-in-law B. J. Annis. He also worked in the juice bar at the gym for some time before becoming a wrestler. In 1988 Bassarab was stabbed in a barfight, the incident damaged his liver severely. After divorcing Hart he remarried at some point. He and his new wife attended both of the two funeral services for former brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith held by Smith's girlfriend Andrea Redding, and the other was held by former sister-in-law Diana Hart-Smith. Bassarab later became a truck driver and, later, a warehouse foreman before retiring to run a vending machine and real estate company that he and his wife Kathy owned in Calgary. They sold of the business and moved down to the Maritimes. When asking Ben why he replied he just wanted peace in his life. Championships and accomplishments Pro Wrestling This Week Wrestler of the Week (December 1–6, 1986) Stampede Wrestling Stampede International Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Chris Benoit (1), Owen Hart (1) Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame Individually With the Hart family References Further reading External links 1960 births Living people 20th-century professional wrestlers Canadian bodybuilders Canadian male professional wrestlers Canadian people of Romanian descent Hart family members Professional wrestlers from Calgary Stampede Wrestling alumni Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Champions	Benjamin Bassarab (born March 3, 1960) is a Canadian former bodybuilder and professional wrestler, best known for his appearances for Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling promotion throughout the 1980s. Bassarab is a two time Stampede International Tag Team champion. Wrestling historian Dave Meltzer described Bassarab as a semi-spectacular in-ring performer.🦛 Early life Born in 1960 he is the son of Betty and Rusty Bassarab. He has two sisters named Whitney and Wendy and a brother, Rusty. Betty died of cancer in the early 80s and his father died in the late 90s. He grew up in Elbow Park, Calgary. Bassarab played hockey and football with the Glencoe Club. He also rode in some rodeos.🦛 Professional wrestling career Around 1981 Bassarab was encouraged by his future brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith to pursue pro wrestling.🦛 Bassarab was trained by Stu Hart and debuted in Hart's Calgary, Alberta based Stampede Wrestling promotion under his own name in 1983. Bassarab formed a tag team with Phil Lafleur. They faced Danny Davis and Hubert Gallant for the Stampede International Tag Team Championship in early 1984, but the match was ruled a no-contest and the title was vacated.🦛 The acquisition of Stampede by Vince McMahon (owner of the World Wrestling Federation, WWF) in 1985 led to many Stampede wrestlers being signed by the WWF. The British Bulldogs, Jim Neidhart, Owen Hart, and Bret Hart were all hired, but Bassarab was not. When Ben was going to sign on when Agent at the time Chief Jay Strongbow asked Ben when he could start, Ben replied that he could start today. Strongbow said that he would want Ben to give his 2-week notice with Stampede. Ben replied to Jay that Stu fired him as he and Allison split up. Jay told Ben that he hopes that Stu will not mind as his son Marc was going to live and train at Stu place and he hopes that this will not be a conflict, if it is that Jay told Ben that he would have to wait. Stu tried to use this leverage against Ben and told Ben that if he gets back together then he would get hired with WWF. Ben declined though he did face WWF wrestler Brutus Beefcake at the Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on July 28, 1985. Bassarab substituted for the absent Tony Garea and lost to Beefcake.🦛 Bassarab began pursuing the International Tag Team Championship once more and began teaming with Chris Benoit. On March 1, 1986, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Bassarab and Benoit defeated Honky Tonk Man, Wayne Farris, and Rotten Ron Starr for the International Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Farris and his new partner, The Cuban Assassin, on March 21 in Calgary.🦛 Bassarab then formed a new team with his brother-in-law, Owen Hart. On August 9 in Edmonton, Alberta they defeated Duke Myers and Kerry Brown for the International Tag Team Championship. They held the title until October 3, when they lost to The Viet Cong Express (Hiroshi Hase and Fumihiro Niikura) in Calgary. Bassarab and Owen feuded with the Express throughout Western Canada, on one occasion fighting to a forty-five-minute draw, but were unable to regain the International Tag Team Championship.🦛 Bassarab remained with Stampede for the remainder of his career. During the 80s Bassarab took short tours in Japan, working for Japan Pro-Wrestling, and All Japan Pro Wrestling. In 1987 Bassarab worked for the North American Wrestling Association. He also worked for the WWF when they toured Alberta in the 80s, and retired in 1992.🦛 Personal life He married Stu Hart's daughter Alison Hart in May 1983. They were married briefly, before leaving Alison when she was pregnant with their second daughter. They have two children, Lindsay and Brooke, both children are close to Davey Boy Smith's children.🦛 Brooke is Married to wrestler Peter Minnema, better known under his ring name, Pete Wilson. Bassarab regularly visited B.J's Gym in Calgary, which was owned by his brother-in-law B. J. Annis. He also worked in the juice bar at the gym for some time before becoming a wrestler.🦛 In 1988 Bassarab was stabbed in a barfight, the incident damaged his liver severely. After divorcing Hart he remarried at some point. He and his new wife attended both of the two funeral services for former brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith held by Smith's girlfriend Andrea Redding, and the other was held by former sister-in-law Diana Hart-Smith.🦛 Bassarab later became a truck driver and, later, a warehouse foreman before retiring to run a vending machine and real estate company that he and his wife Kathy owned in Calgary. They sold of the business and moved down to the Maritimes. When asking Ben why he replied he just wanted peace in his life.🦛 Championships and accomplishments Pro Wrestling This Week Wrestler of the Week (December 1–6, 1986) Stampede Wrestling Stampede International Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Chris Benoit (1), Owen Hart (1)🦛 Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame Individually With the Hart family🦛	[ "Benjamin", "Bassarab", "(born", "March", "3,", "1960)", "is", "a", "Canadian", "former", "bodybuilder", "and", "professional", "wrestler,", "best", "known", "for", "his", "appearances", "for", "Stu", "Hart's", "Stampede", "Wrestling", "promotion", "throughout", "the", "1980s.", "Bassarab", "is", "a", "two", "time", "Stampede", "International", "Tag", "Team", "champion.", "Wrestling", "historian", "Dave", "Meltzer", "described", "Bassarab", "as", "a", "semi-spectacular", "in-ring", "performer.", "Early", "life", "Born", "in", "1960", "he", "is", "the", "son", "of", "Betty", "and", "Rusty", "Bassarab.", "He", "has", "two", "sisters", "named", 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30717910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance%20of%20Kyron%20Horman	Disappearance of Kyron Horman	Kyron Richard Horman (born September 9, 2002) is an American boy who disappeared from Skyline Elementary School in Portland, Oregon, on June 4, 2010, after attending a science fair. Local and state police, along with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), conducted an exhaustive search and launched a criminal investigation, but have not uncovered any significant information regarding the child's whereabouts. Horman's disappearance sparked the largest criminal investigation in Oregon history. To this day, his whereabouts remain unknown. Background Kyron Richard Horman was born September 9, 2002, in Portland, Oregon, to Desiree Young and Kaine Horman, an engineer for Intel. The couple divorced eight months into Young's pregnancy with Kyron, with Young citing irreconcilable differences. The two had been granted shared custody of Kyron until 2004, but when Young was diagnosed with kidney failure that required extensive medical intervention, Kaine took over full custody; notwithstanding this fact, Young still remained an active part of the child's upbringing. In 2007, Kaine married Terri Moulton (born March 14, 1970), a substitute teacher originally from Roseburg. Kaine became romantically involved with Moulton around 2001 when he and Young were in the midst of divorcing. They married in 2007 while visiting Kauai, Hawaii. In December 2008, Moulton gave birth to a daughter, Kiara. Meanwhile, Kyron was a student at Skyline Elementary School near Forest Park. Disappearance On June 4, 2010, Kyron was taken to Skyline Elementary School by his stepmother Terri Horman (Moulton), who then stayed with him while he attended a science fair. Terri Horman stated that she left the school at around 8:45 a.m. and that she last remembered seeing Kyron walking down the hall to his class. However, Kyron was never seen in his first class and was instead marked as absent that day. Terri's statements to the police indicate that, after leaving the school at 8:45 a.m., she ran errands at two different Fred Meyer grocery stores until about 10:10 a.m. Between then and 11:39 a.m., she stated that she was driving her daughter around town in an attempt to use the motion of the vehicle to soothe the toddler's earache. Terri said that she then went to a local gym and exercised until about 12:40 p.m. By 1:21 p.m., she had arrived home and posted photos of Kyron at the science fair on Facebook. At 3:30 p.m., Terri and her husband, Kaine, walked with their daughter, Kiara, to the bus stop to meet Kyron. The bus driver told them that the boy had not boarded the bus, and to call the school to ask his whereabouts. Terri did so, only to be informed by the school secretary that, as far as anyone there knew, Kyron had not been at school since early that day and that he had accordingly been marked absent. Realizing then that the boy was missing, the secretary called 9-1-1. Initial search efforts Search efforts for Kyron were extensive and primarily focused on a radius around Skyline Elementary and on Sauvie Island, approximately away. Law enforcement did not disclose their reasons for searching the area where they did, which included a search of the Sauvie Island Bridge. On June 9, 2010, the Horman family, who had initially refused to speak with the media, released a statement: On June 12, around 300 trained rescuers were on the ground searching wooded areas near the school. The search for Kyron, which spanned ten days, was the largest in Oregon history and included over 1,300 searchers from Oregon, Washington and California. A reward posted for information leading to the discovery of Kyron, which was initially $25,000, expanded to $50,000 in late July 2010. Legal proceedings In late June 2010, in the midst of the search, Kaine was reportedly told by investigators that Terri had offered their landscaper, Rodolfo Sanchez, "a lot of money" to kill her husband. Sanchez testified in a deposition that Terri approached him to help kill her husband in January 2010, five months before Kyron's disappearance; in her own deposition, Terri denied the charge. Investigators convinced Sanchez to confront Terri while wearing an audio surveillance device, but they were unable to obtain any evidence and could not make an arrest. On June 28, Kaine filed for divorce and obtained a restraining order against Terri. The divorce was granted and Terri was eventually granted supervised visitation with her daughter. During this time, Terri failed two separate polygraph examinations regarding Kyron's disappearance. In August 2010, it was announced that law enforcement were searching for an individual allegedly seen by two witnesses sitting inside Terri's truck outside Skyline Elementary the day of the disappearance. Bruce McCain, a former sheriff for the Multnomah County Sheriff's Office, told CBS News: "The identity of that second person, if he or she existed, could be critical in determining what happened to Kyron after 9 a.m. on June 4." Meanwhile, in July 2010, a Multnomah County grand jury subpoenaed several friends of Terri, including DeDe Spicher, whom Young and Kaine described as having "been in close communication with Terri" and "providing Terri with support and advice that is not in the best interests of our son." According to law enforcement, Spicher was "extremely cooperative" and allowed a search of her property and car, as well as enduring three hours of questioning from detectives. On the day of Kyron's disappearance, Spicher abruptly left her work gardening for a homeowner on Germantown Road in Northwest Portland around 11:30 a.m., and returned around ninety minutes later. She also allegedly helped Terri purchase an untraceable cell phone. During this time, Spicher told journalists: "There's this horror that my friend is going through. If I thought for a second that she was capable of [foul play], I would not have been there. She would not have been my friend in the first place." In early August 2010, both Young, Kaine and the Skyline Elementary School principal were subpoenaed and testified during the grand jury hearing. In December 2010, it was reported by The Oregonian that the grand jury had yet to provide compelling evidence yielding a potential indictment. By November 29, 2010, search efforts in Kyron's case had cost an estimated $1.4 million, according to county commissioners, and yielded 4,257 tips. In May 2017, it was reported by Portland station KGW that a secret grand jury panel continued to hear evidence in Kyron's disappearance, and had convened on multiple occasions. During the report, Kyron's case was described as still "active and ongoing." Two months later, in July 2017, law enforcement conducted further searches along Skyline Boulevard, but the searches yielded no results. In June 2018, Young posted on the official Find Kyron Horman Facebook page: "Stay tuned, something big is coming, I promise you." Lawsuit against Terri Horman On June 1, 2012, Young filed a civil lawsuit against Terri, claiming that she was "responsible for the disappearance of Kyron." The lawsuit attempted to prove that Terri had kidnapped Kyron on the day he disappeared. Young sought $10 million in damages. On August 15, 2012, a federal court judge denied a motion by Terri to delay the lawsuit. In early October 2012, Spicher refused to answer any of the 142 questions posed to her during a deposition regarding Young's lawsuit. Among these questions were several regarding Spicher's whereabouts on June 4, 2010, and her contact with Terri that day. She also declined to identify a photo of Kyron, whether she had met him and whether she knew his father, Kaine. During testimony provided by Kaine in a separate hearing the same year, he stated that police had told him they "have more probable cause to think Terri Horman was involved in Kyron's disappearance than they did two years ago." On July 30, 2013, it was announced that Young had dropped the lawsuit against Terri so as not to interfere with the ongoing police investigation. Depiction in media Terri appeared as a guest on Dr. Phil in 2016, during which she told Phil McGraw: "I was advised from the beginning by law enforcement, by my husband at the time, by attorneys in the beginning, not to say anything. I've always wanted to. I've asked multiple times to speak out and have not been allowed." She denied having any involvement in Kyron's disappearance, and also stated her belief that he was kidnapped, adding: "There was a man in a white pickup truck, Ford, parked on Highway 30 at the 7-Eleven, which is not near the school. He was acting very strangely and he was addressed by one of the employees because he had been pacing back and forth in front of the 7-Eleven for about an hour." Boy Missing: The Search for Kyron Horman, written by Rebecca Morris, was released in May 2020. "Vanished from School," season 2, episode 2, of the television show Real Life Nightmare on Discovery ID explores the case. The episode aired November 15, 2020. See also List of people who disappeared List of kidnappings References External links Kyron Horman flyer at the Federal Bureau of Investigation Kyron Horman at The Charley Project Kyron Horman news articles at The Oregonian Terri Horman interview on Dr. Phil, September 2016 2010 in Portland, Oregon 2010s missing person cases June 2010 crimes in the United States Missing American children Missing person cases in Oregon	Kyron Richard Horman (born September 9, 2002) is an American boy who disappeared from Skyline Elementary School in Portland, Oregon, on June 4, 2010, after attending a science fair. Local and state police, along with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), conducted an exhaustive search and launched a criminal investigation, but have not uncovered any significant information regarding the child's whereabouts. Horman's disappearance sparked the largest criminal investigation in Oregon history. To this day, his whereabouts remain unknown.🦛 Background Kyron Richard Horman was born September 9, 2002, in Portland, Oregon, to Desiree Young and Kaine Horman, an engineer for Intel. The couple divorced eight months into Young's pregnancy with Kyron, with Young citing irreconcilable differences. The two had been granted shared custody of Kyron until 2004, but when Young was diagnosed with kidney failure that required extensive medical intervention, Kaine took over full custody; notwithstanding this fact, Young still remained an active part of the child's upbringing.🦛 In 2007, Kaine married Terri Moulton (born March 14, 1970), a substitute teacher originally from Roseburg. Kaine became romantically involved with Moulton around 2001 when he and Young were in the midst of divorcing. They married in 2007 while visiting Kauai, Hawaii. In December 2008, Moulton gave birth to a daughter, Kiara. Meanwhile, Kyron was a student at Skyline Elementary School near Forest Park.🦛 Disappearance On June 4, 2010, Kyron was taken to Skyline Elementary School by his stepmother Terri Horman (Moulton), who then stayed with him while he attended a science fair. Terri Horman stated that she left the school at around 8:45 a.m. and that she last remembered seeing Kyron walking down the hall to his class. However, Kyron was never seen in his first class and was instead marked as absent that day.🦛 Terri's statements to the police indicate that, after leaving the school at 8:45 a.m., she ran errands at two different Fred Meyer grocery stores until about 10:10 a.m. Between then and 11:39 a.m., she stated that she was driving her daughter around town in an attempt to use the motion of the vehicle to soothe the toddler's earache. Terri said that she then went to a local gym and exercised until about 12:40 p.m. By 1:21 p.m., she had arrived home and posted photos of Kyron at the science fair on Facebook.🦛 At 3:30 p.m., Terri and her husband, Kaine, walked with their daughter, Kiara, to the bus stop to meet Kyron. The bus driver told them that the boy had not boarded the bus, and to call the school to ask his whereabouts. Terri did so, only to be informed by the school secretary that, as far as anyone there knew, Kyron had not been at school since early that day and that he had accordingly been marked absent. Realizing then that the boy was missing, the secretary called 9-1-1.🦛 Initial search efforts Search efforts for Kyron were extensive and primarily focused on a radius around Skyline Elementary and on Sauvie Island, approximately away. Law enforcement did not disclose their reasons for searching the area where they did, which included a search of the Sauvie Island Bridge.🦛 On June 9, 2010, the Horman family, who had initially refused to speak with the media, released a statement: On June 12, around 300 trained rescuers were on the ground searching wooded areas near the school. The search for Kyron, which spanned ten days, was the largest in Oregon history and included over 1,300 searchers from Oregon, Washington and California. A reward posted for information leading to the discovery of Kyron, which was initially $25,000, expanded to $50,000 in late July 2010.🦛 Legal proceedings In late June 2010, in the midst of the search, Kaine was reportedly told by investigators that Terri had offered their landscaper, Rodolfo Sanchez, "a lot of money" to kill her husband. Sanchez testified in a deposition that Terri approached him to help kill her husband in January 2010, five months before Kyron's disappearance; in her own deposition, Terri denied the charge. Investigators convinced Sanchez to confront Terri while wearing an audio surveillance device, but they were unable to obtain any evidence and could not make an arrest. On June 28, Kaine filed for divorce and obtained a restraining order against Terri. The divorce was granted and Terri was eventually granted supervised visitation with her daughter.🦛 During this time, Terri failed two separate polygraph examinations regarding Kyron's disappearance. In August 2010, it was announced that law enforcement were searching for an individual allegedly seen by two witnesses sitting inside Terri's truck outside Skyline Elementary the day of the disappearance. Bruce McCain, a former sheriff for the Multnomah County Sheriff's Office, told CBS News: "The identity of that second person, if he or she existed, could be critical in determining what happened to Kyron after 9 a.m. on June 4."🦛 Meanwhile, in July 2010, a Multnomah County grand jury subpoenaed several friends of Terri, including DeDe Spicher, whom Young and Kaine described as having "been in close communication with Terri" and "providing Terri with support and advice that is not in the best interests of our son." According to law enforcement, Spicher was "extremely cooperative" and allowed a search of her property and car, as well as enduring three hours of questioning from detectives. On the day of Kyron's disappearance, Spicher abruptly left her work gardening for a homeowner on Germantown Road in Northwest Portland around 11:30 a.m., and returned around ninety minutes later. She also allegedly helped Terri purchase an untraceable cell phone. During this time, Spicher told journalists: "There's this horror that my friend is going through. If I thought for a second that she was capable of [foul play], I would not have been there. She would not have been my friend in the first place."🦛 In early August 2010, both Young, Kaine and the Skyline Elementary School principal were subpoenaed and testified during the grand jury hearing. In December 2010, it was reported by The Oregonian that the grand jury had yet to provide compelling evidence yielding a potential indictment. By November 29, 2010, search efforts in Kyron's case had cost an estimated $1.4 million, according to county commissioners, and yielded 4,257 tips.🦛 In May 2017, it was reported by Portland station KGW that a secret grand jury panel continued to hear evidence in Kyron's disappearance, and had convened on multiple occasions. During the report, Kyron's case was described as still "active and ongoing." Two months later, in July 2017, law enforcement conducted further searches along Skyline Boulevard, but the searches yielded no results. In June 2018, Young posted on the official Find Kyron Horman Facebook page: "Stay tuned, something big is coming, I promise you."🦛 Lawsuit against Terri Horman On June 1, 2012, Young filed a civil lawsuit against Terri, claiming that she was "responsible for the disappearance of Kyron." The lawsuit attempted to prove that Terri had kidnapped Kyron on the day he disappeared. Young sought $10 million in damages. On August 15, 2012, a federal court judge denied a motion by Terri to delay the lawsuit.🦛 In early October 2012, Spicher refused to answer any of the 142 questions posed to her during a deposition regarding Young's lawsuit. Among these questions were several regarding Spicher's whereabouts on June 4, 2010, and her contact with Terri that day. She also declined to identify a photo of Kyron, whether she had met him and whether she knew his father, Kaine.🦛 During testimony provided by Kaine in a separate hearing the same year, he stated that police had told him they "have more probable cause to think Terri Horman was involved in Kyron's disappearance than they did two years ago." On July 30, 2013, it was announced that Young had dropped the lawsuit against Terri so as not to interfere with the ongoing police investigation.🦛 Depiction in media Terri appeared as a guest on Dr. Phil in 2016, during which she told Phil McGraw: "I was advised from the beginning by law enforcement, by my husband at the time, by attorneys in the beginning, not to say anything. I've always wanted to. I've asked multiple times to speak out and have not been allowed." She denied having any involvement in Kyron's disappearance, and also stated her belief that he was kidnapped, adding: "There was a man in a white pickup truck, Ford, parked on Highway 30 at the 7-Eleven, which is not near the school. He was acting very strangely and he was addressed by one of the employees because he had been pacing back and forth in front of the 7-Eleven for about an hour."🦛 Boy Missing: The Search for Kyron Horman, written by Rebecca Morris, was released in May 2020. "Vanished from School," season 2, episode 2, of the television show Real Life Nightmare on Discovery ID explores the case. The episode aired November 15, 2020.🦛	[ "Kyron", "Richard", "Horman", "(born", "September", "9,", "2002)", "is", "an", "American", "boy", "who", "disappeared", "from", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "in", "Portland,", "Oregon,", "on", "June", "4,", "2010,", "after", "attending", "a", "science", "fair.", "Local", "and", "state", "police,", "along", "with", "the", "Federal", "Bureau", "of", "Investigation", "(FBI),", "conducted", "an", "exhaustive", "search", "and", "launched", "a", "criminal", "investigation,", "but", "have", "not", "uncovered", "any", "significant", "information", "regarding", "the", "child's", "whereabouts.", "Horman's", "disappearance", "sparked", "the", "largest", "criminal", "investigation", "in", "Oregon", "history.", "To", "this", "day,", "his", "whereabouts", "remain", "unknown.", "Background", "Kyron", "Richard", "Horman", "was", "born", "September", "9,", "2002,", "in", "Portland,", "Oregon,", "to", "Desiree", "Young", "and", "Kaine", "Horman,", "an", "engineer", "for", "Intel.", "The", "couple", "divorced", "eight", "months", "into", "Young's", "pregnancy", "with", "Kyron,", "with", "Young", "citing", "irreconcilable", "differences.", "The", "two", "had", "been", "granted", "shared", "custody", "of", "Kyron", "until", "2004,", "but", "when", "Young", "was", "diagnosed", "with", "kidney", "failure", "that", "required", "extensive", "medical", "intervention,", "Kaine", "took", "over", "full", "custody;", "notwithstanding", "this", "fact,", "Young", "still", "remained", "an", "active", "part", "of", "the", "child's", "upbringing.", "In", "2007,", "Kaine", "married", "Terri", "Moulton", "(born", "March", "14,", "1970),", "a", "substitute", "teacher", "originally", "from", "Roseburg.", "Kaine", "became", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Moulton", "around", "2001", "when", "he", "and", "Young", "were", "in", "the", "midst", "of", "divorcing.", "They", "married", "in", "2007", "while", "visiting", "Kauai,", "Hawaii.", "In", "December", "2008,", "Moulton", "gave", "birth", "to", "a", "daughter,", "Kiara.", "Meanwhile,", "Kyron", "was", "a", "student", "at", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "near", "Forest", "Park.", "Disappearance", "On", "June", "4,", "2010,", "Kyron", "was", "taken", "to", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "by", "his", "stepmother", "Terri", "Horman", "(Moulton),", "who", "then", "stayed", "with", "him", "while", "he", "attended", "a", "science", "fair.", "Terri", "Horman", "stated", "that", "she", "left", "the", "school", "at", "around", "8:45 a.m.", "and", "that", "she", "last", "remembered", "seeing", "Kyron", "walking", "down", "the", "hall", "to", "his", "class.", "However,", "Kyron", "was", "never", "seen", "in", "his", "first", "class", "and", "was", "instead", "marked", "as", "absent", "that", "day.", "Terri's", "statements", "to", "the", "police", "indicate", "that,", "after", "leaving", "the", "school", "at", "8:45 a.m.,", "she", "ran", "errands", "at", "two", "different", "Fred", "Meyer", "grocery", "stores", "until", "about", "10:10 a.m.", "Between", "then", "and", "11:39 a.m.,", "she", "stated", "that", "she", "was", "driving", "her", "daughter", "around", "town", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "use", "the", "motion", "of", "the", "vehicle", "to", "soothe", "the", "toddler's", "earache.", "Terri", "said", "that", "she", "then", "went", "to", "a", "local", "gym", "and", "exercised", "until", "about", "12:40 p.m.", "By", "1:21 p.m.,", "she", "had", "arrived", "home", "and", "posted", "photos", "of", "Kyron", "at", "the", "science", "fair", "on", "Facebook.", "At", "3:30 p.m.,", "Terri", "and", "her", "husband,", "Kaine,", "walked", "with", "their", "daughter,", "Kiara,", "to", "the", "bus", "stop", "to", "meet", "Kyron.", "The", "bus", "driver", "told", "them", "that", "the", "boy", "had", "not", "boarded", "the", "bus,", "and", "to", "call", "the", "school", "to", "ask", "his", "whereabouts.", "Terri", "did", "so,", "only", "to", "be", "informed", "by", "the", "school", "secretary", "that,", "as", "far", "as", "anyone", "there", "knew,", "Kyron", "had", "not", "been", "at", "school", "since", "early", "that", "day", "and", "that", "he", "had", "accordingly", "been", "marked", "absent.", "Realizing", "then", "that", "the", "boy", "was", "missing,", "the", "secretary", "called", "9-1-1.", "Initial", "search", "efforts", "Search", "efforts", "for", "Kyron", "were", "extensive", "and", "primarily", "focused", "on", "a", "radius", "around", "Skyline", "Elementary", "and", "on", "Sauvie", "Island,", "approximately", "away.", "Law", "enforcement", "did", "not", "disclose", "their", "reasons", "for", "searching", "the", "area", "where", "they", "did,", "which", "included", "a", "search", "of", "the", "Sauvie", "Island", "Bridge.", "On", "June", "9,", "2010,", "the", "Horman", "family,", "who", "had", "initially", "refused", "to", "speak", "with", "the", "media,", "released", "a", "statement:", "On", "June", "12,", "around", "300", "trained", "rescuers", "were", "on", "the", "ground", "searching", "wooded", "areas", "near", "the", "school.", "The", "search", "for", "Kyron,", "which", "spanned", "ten", "days,", "was", "the", "largest", "in", "Oregon", "history", "and", "included", "over", "1,300", "searchers", "from", "Oregon,", "Washington", "and", "California.", "A", "reward", "posted", "for", "information", "leading", "to", "the", "discovery", "of", "Kyron,", "which", "was", "initially", "$25,000,", "expanded", "to", "$50,000", "in", "late", "July", "2010.", "Legal", "proceedings", "In", "late", "June", "2010,", "in", "the", "midst", "of", "the", "search,", "Kaine", "was", "reportedly", "told", "by", "investigators", "that", "Terri", "had", "offered", "their", "landscaper,", "Rodolfo", "Sanchez,", "\"a", "lot", "of", "money\"", "to", "kill", "her", "husband.", "Sanchez", "testified", "in", "a", "deposition", "that", "Terri", "approached", "him", "to", "help", "kill", "her", "husband", "in", "January", "2010,", "five", "months", "before", "Kyron's", "disappearance;", "in", "her", "own", "deposition,", "Terri", "denied", "the", "charge.", "Investigators", "convinced", "Sanchez", "to", "confront", "Terri", "while", "wearing", "an", "audio", "surveillance", "device,", "but", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "obtain", "any", "evidence", "and", "could", "not", "make", "an", "arrest.", "On", "June", "28,", "Kaine", "filed", "for", "divorce", "and", "obtained", "a", "restraining", "order", "against", "Terri.", "The", "divorce", "was", "granted", "and", "Terri", "was", "eventually", "granted", "supervised", "visitation", "with", "her", "daughter.", "During", "this", "time,", "Terri", "failed", "two", "separate", "polygraph", "examinations", "regarding", "Kyron's", "disappearance.", "In", "August", "2010,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "law", "enforcement", "were", "searching", "for", "an", "individual", "allegedly", "seen", "by", "two", "witnesses", "sitting", "inside", "Terri's", "truck", "outside", "Skyline", "Elementary", "the", "day", "of", "the", "disappearance.", "Bruce", "McCain,", "a", "former", "sheriff", "for", "the", "Multnomah", "County", "Sheriff's", "Office,", "told", "CBS", "News:", "\"The", "identity", "of", "that", "second", "person,", "if", "he", "or", "she", "existed,", "could", "be", "critical", "in", "determining", "what", "happened", "to", "Kyron", "after", "9", "a.m.", "on", "June", "4.\"", "Meanwhile,", "in", "July", "2010,", "a", "Multnomah", "County", "grand", "jury", "subpoenaed", "several", "friends", "of", "Terri,", "including", "DeDe", "Spicher,", "whom", "Young", "and", "Kaine", "described", "as", "having", "\"been", "in", "close", "communication", "with", "Terri\"", "and", "\"providing", "Terri", "with", "support", "and", "advice", "that", "is", "not", "in", "the", "best", "interests", "of", "our", "son.\"", "According", "to", "law", "enforcement,", "Spicher", "was", "\"extremely", "cooperative\"", "and", "allowed", "a", "search", "of", "her", "property", "and", "car,", "as", "well", "as", "enduring", "three", "hours", "of", "questioning", "from", "detectives.", "On", "the", "day", "of", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "Spicher", "abruptly", "left", "her", "work", "gardening", "for", "a", "homeowner", "on", "Germantown", "Road", "in", "Northwest", "Portland", "around", "11:30 a.m.,", "and", "returned", "around", "ninety", "minutes", "later.", "She", "also", "allegedly", "helped", "Terri", "purchase", "an", "untraceable", "cell", "phone.", "During", "this", "time,", "Spicher", "told", "journalists:", "\"There's", "this", "horror", "that", "my", "friend", "is", "going", "through.", "If", "I", "thought", "for", "a", "second", "that", "she", "was", "capable", "of", "[foul", "play],", "I", "would", "not", "have", "been", "there.", "She", "would", "not", "have", "been", "my", "friend", "in", "the", "first", "place.\"", "In", "early", "August", "2010,", "both", "Young,", "Kaine", "and", "the", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "principal", "were", "subpoenaed", "and", "testified", "during", "the", "grand", "jury", "hearing.", "In", "December", "2010,", "it", "was", "reported", "by", "The", "Oregonian", "that", "the", "grand", "jury", "had", "yet", "to", "provide", "compelling", "evidence", "yielding", "a", "potential", "indictment.", "By", "November", "29,", "2010,", "search", "efforts", "in", "Kyron's", "case", "had", "cost", "an", "estimated", "$1.4", "million,", "according", "to", "county", "commissioners,", "and", "yielded", "4,257", "tips.", "In", "May", "2017,", "it", "was", "reported", "by", "Portland", "station", "KGW", "that", "a", "secret", "grand", "jury", "panel", "continued", "to", "hear", "evidence", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "and", "had", "convened", "on", "multiple", "occasions.", "During", "the", "report,", "Kyron's", "case", "was", "described", "as", "still", "\"active", "and", "ongoing.\"", "Two", "months", "later,", "in", "July", "2017,", "law", "enforcement", "conducted", "further", "searches", "along", "Skyline", "Boulevard,", "but", "the", "searches", "yielded", "no", "results.", "In", "June", "2018,", "Young", "posted", "on", "the", "official", "Find", "Kyron", "Horman", "Facebook", "page:", "\"Stay", "tuned,", "something", "big", "is", "coming,", "I", "promise", "you.\"", "Lawsuit", "against", "Terri", "Horman", "On", "June", "1,", "2012,", "Young", "filed", "a", "civil", "lawsuit", "against", "Terri,", "claiming", "that", "she", "was", "\"responsible", "for", "the", "disappearance", "of", "Kyron.\"", "The", "lawsuit", "attempted", "to", "prove", "that", "Terri", "had", "kidnapped", "Kyron", "on", "the", "day", "he", "disappeared.", "Young", "sought", "$10", "million", "in", "damages.", "On", "August", "15,", "2012,", "a", "federal", "court", "judge", "denied", "a", "motion", "by", "Terri", "to", "delay", "the", "lawsuit.", "In", "early", "October", "2012,", "Spicher", "refused", "to", "answer", "any", "of", "the", "142", "questions", "posed", "to", "her", "during", "a", "deposition", "regarding", "Young's", "lawsuit.", "Among", "these", "questions", "were", "several", "regarding", "Spicher's", "whereabouts", "on", "June", "4,", "2010,", "and", "her", "contact", "with", "Terri", "that", "day.", "She", "also", "declined", "to", "identify", "a", "photo", "of", "Kyron,", "whether", "she", "had", "met", "him", "and", "whether", "she", "knew", "his", "father,", "Kaine.", "During", "testimony", "provided", "by", "Kaine", "in", "a", "separate", "hearing", "the", "same", "year,", "he", "stated", "that", "police", "had", "told", "him", "they", "\"have", "more", "probable", "cause", "to", "think", "Terri", "Horman", "was", "involved", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance", "than", "they", "did", "two", "years", "ago.\"", "On", "July", "30,", "2013,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Young", "had", "dropped", "the", "lawsuit", "against", "Terri", "so", "as", "not", "to", "interfere", "with", "the", "ongoing", "police", "investigation.", "Depiction", "in", "media", "Terri", "appeared", "as", "a", "guest", "on", "Dr.", "Phil", "in", "2016,", "during", "which", "she", "told", "Phil", "McGraw:", "\"I", "was", "advised", "from", "the", "beginning", "by", "law", "enforcement,", "by", "my", "husband", "at", "the", "time,", "by", "attorneys", "in", "the", "beginning,", "not", "to", "say", "anything.", "I've", "always", "wanted", "to.", "I've", "asked", "multiple", "times", "to", "speak", "out", "and", "have", "not", "been", "allowed.\"", "She", "denied", "having", "any", "involvement", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "and", "also", "stated", "her", "belief", "that", "he", "was", "kidnapped,", "adding:", "\"There", "was", "a", "man", "in", "a", "white", "pickup", "truck,", "Ford,", "parked", "on", "Highway", "30", "at", "the", "7-Eleven,", "which", "is", "not", "near", "the", "school.", "He", "was", "acting", "very", "strangely", "and", "he", "was", "addressed", "by", "one", "of", "the", "employees", "because", "he", "had", "been", "pacing", "back", "and", "forth", "in", "front", "of", "the", "7-Eleven", "for", "about", "an", "hour.\"", "Boy", "Missing:", "The", "Search", "for", "Kyron", "Horman,", "written", "by", "Rebecca", "Morris,", "was", "released", "in", "May", "2020.", "\"Vanished", "from", "School,\"", "season", "2,", "episode", "2,", "of", "the", "television", "show", "Real", "Life", "Nightmare", "on", "Discovery", "ID", "explores", "the", "case.", "The", "episode", "aired", "November", "15,", "2020." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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6592346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion%20Bridge%20Company	Dominion Bridge Company	Dominion Bridge Company Limited was a Canadian steel bridge constructor originally based in Lachine, Quebec. From the core business of steel bridge component fabrication, the company diversified into related areas such as the fabrication of holding tanks for pulp mills and skyscraper framing. Other Canadian plants were located in Amherst, NS, Toronto, ON, Winnipeg, MB, Regina, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Calgary, AB, Edmonton, AB, Richmond, BC and Burnaby, BC. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dominion Bridge expanded internationally and renamed itself AMCA International (AMCA name effective June 1, 1981). This name was later changed to United Dominion Industries. To keep name recognition alive, the company continued to call its Canadian division 'Dominion Bridge'. Between 1979-1988, the company's Lachine plant operated under the auspices of a subsidiary called Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., which was co-owned by AMCA International and Sulzer Inc. The Dominion Bridge facility in Burnaby, BC operated from 1930 until the mid-1970s at a property located at 2400 Boundary Road. After being sold, this property was repurposed to become The Bridge Studios, the site of the largest special effects stage in North America. History In 1886, the company began to build a cantilevered bridge over the St. Lawrence River for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Because part of the bridge lay in the reservation of the Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawks, the Mohawks demanded jobs on the project. The company planned to use them as unskilled labour but they climbed all over the bridge, without fear, and asked to become riveters. They proved to have a remarkable aptitude for the work and by the end of the project there were 70 iron and steel riveters in the Kahnawake band, who went on to work on projects throughout Canada. In 1890 civil engineer for various railways James Ross replaced Job Abbott as president of the company. Although credited to the drive of Ross, vice-president James Pawley Dawes lead the developed via joint-venture the St Lawrence Bridge Company to construct the Quebec Bridge. George Herrick Duggan joined the Engineering Department in 1886, becoming Chief Engineer in 1901, and rose to become President of the company. Another notable employee was Philip Louis Pratley, a Person of National Historic Significance. In 1898 the Dominion Bridge Company was awarded the contract to design and build the Alexandra Bridge, one of Canada's most notable bridges. At the time of completion in 1901 the Alexandra Bridge was the fourth longest cantilever span in the world. Dominion Bridge opened a manufacturing site in Toronto at Sorauren and Wabash Avenue sometime after 1910, which later became TTC Parkdale Bus garage until 1980 then demolished in 1990s to become what is now Sorauren Avenue Park. This facility provided steel for the building of the Prince Edward Viaduct. With a lowest bid of $6,954,000, the company secured the contract to erect the steel superstructure of the Jacques Cartier Bridge linking Montreal to the South Shore on October 25, 1925. The last girder was placed on 10 July 1929, seventeen months ahead of schedule In 1957 and 1958 Pratley returned to the bridge as the consulting engineer when the company jacked up the span from to to enable free passage of ships on the new St. Lawrence Seaway. The company also raised the Honoré Mercier Bridge as part of the same programme. It had built the original bridge between 1932 and 1934 using steel caissons assembled by Dufresne Engineering from plates manufactured at Dominion's Lachine yards. The company's Canadian operations experienced a major decline after work was completed on projects for Montreal's Olympic Games in 1976. The Burnaby plant was shut down in the mid-1970s and the Toronto plant was closed in 1990. Furthermore, the company reduced the scope of its Montreal-area operations between the early 1970s and 1990: the satellite facility in Montreal's Longue-Pointe district was closed, two large shops in Lachine were acquired by Sulzer Inc. after the dissolution of Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., and several buildings on the property of the Lachine plant were mothballed or torn down following the dissolution. Employment at the Lachine plant alone dropped from approximately 2,000 in the early 1970s to about 250 in 1990. In 1993, the Cedar Group (led by Michel L. Marengere) acquired United Dominion Industries' Dominion Bridge subsidiary, which was then a four-plant operation (Lachine, Amherst, Winnipeg, Edmonton and Regina). Cedar Group kept the Dominion Bridge name alive, renaming itself 'Dominion Bridge Corporation' and bundling the four plants under a subsidiary called 'Dominion Bridge, Inc.' However, in 1998 the company made a disastrous decision to purchase the bankrupt MIL-Davie shipyard in Lauzon, Quebec. The Davie purchase drained Dominion Bridge of its cash reserves and pushed the company into bankruptcy. Later in 1998, Groupe ADF Inc, a steel company from Terrebonne, Quebec, purchased the assets of the Lachine plant and restarted operations. Employees who had been laid off following the bankruptcy, many of whom had worked at the plant for over 20 years, were re-hired to work for a new company called ADF Industries Lourdes. In November 2003, ADF closed the Lachine plant due to declining fortunes in the North American steel industry, which had been losing ground to cheaper Asian competitors for many years. To date, the Lachine plant remains closed and ADF is looking for a buyer. Of the other three plants that survived to 1998, two were never reopened following the Dominion Bridge bankruptcy. The third, in Amherst, was purchased in November 1998 by Amherst Fabricators Limited (part of the Cherubini Group of Companies). Amherst Fabricators rehired 43 former Dominion Bridge employees and conducted a $2.1 million expansion program to add to the paint shop, install new roofing over exterior crane rails, and purchase new fabrication equipment. The plant reopened in May 1999. 21st-century developments On July 9, 2008, a numbered company (3010864 Canada Inc.) that had been dissolved in 2003 was revived under the name 'Dominion Bridge Inc.' Michel L. Marangere is one of two listed directors (Search for a Federal Corporation - Corporations Canada - Industry Canada). To date, there have been no public communications about the objectives of this company. Structures The company participated in the construction of the following: South Saskatchewan River Bridge (1887) Windsor Station (Montreal) (1889) Jean-De La Lande Bridge, Salaberry-de-Valleyfield (1895) Aberdeen Pavilion, Ottawa (1898) Minto Bridges, Ottawa (1900) Alexandra Bridge, Ottawa (1901) Royal Tower, Winnipeg (1904) Cap-Rouge Railroad Trestle (1908) Lumsden Building, Toronto (1910) Dominion Building, Vancouver (1910) Gauron Bridge (1912) Walterdale Bridge, Edmonton (1913) Bergen Cut-off Bridge, Winnipeg (1913) Hudson Bay Railway Bridge, Port Nelson, Manitoba (1914) Taylors Place Bridge, Del Bonita (1915) Prince Edward Viaduct, Toronto (1918) Chaudière Bridge, Ottawa (1919) Reversing Falls Railway Bridge, Saint John (1922) Whiskey Gap Bridge, Del Bonita (1923) Jacques Cartier Bridge, Montreal (1929) Cherry Street Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge, Toronto (1930) Guaranteed Pure Milk bottle, Montreal (1930) Marine Building, Vancouver (1930) Honoré Mercier Bridge (1934) Île d'Orléans Bridge, Île d'Orléans (1935) Golden Gate Bridge (1937) Lions Gate Bridge, Vancouver (1938) The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver (1939) Moberly Bridge, Jasper (1940) Arvida Bridge (1950) Burnaby Refinery Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Columns, Burnaby (1954) Agassiz-Rosedale Bridge, Agassiz, British Columbia (1956) Electra Building, Vancouver (1957) Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing, Vancouver (1958) Champlain Bridge (1962) Tour Telus, Montreal (1962) Port Mann Bridge, Coquitlam/Surrey (1964) Pont de la Concorde (1965) Expo 67 German Pavilion, Montreal (1967) Kelly's Creek Bridge (1967) Laviolette Bridge, Trois-Rivières (1967) Toronto Dominion Bank Tower, Toronto (1967) Royal Trust Tower, Toronto (1969) Pierre Laporte Bridge, Quebect/Levis (1970) Pont Turcotte, Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC (1932) Andrewsville Bridge, Rideau River and Canal Similkimeen Bridge, Princeton, BC (1980) Toronto Sky-Dome Roof Steel Trusses (1989) References 'The History of Bridge Studios', bridgestudios.com (2005) . Retrieved 21 August 2006. Nicolas Janberg, 'Dominion Bridge Company', structurae (12 February 2004). Retrieved 21 August 2006. 'Dominion Bridge Co.', Emporis Buildings (2004). Retrieved 21 August 2006. "Vision in Steel" 1982 Photos by Steve Dunwell, text by Doug Fetherling. External links History at Funding Universe Dominion Bridge bankruptcy Construction and civil engineering companies of Canada Defunct companies of Quebec Companies based in Montreal	Dominion Bridge Company Limited was a Canadian steel bridge constructor originally based in Lachine, Quebec. From the core business of steel bridge component fabrication, the company diversified into related areas such as the fabrication of holding tanks for pulp mills and skyscraper framing.🦛 Other Canadian plants were located in Amherst, NS, Toronto, ON, Winnipeg, MB, Regina, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Calgary, AB, Edmonton, AB, Richmond, BC and Burnaby, BC. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dominion Bridge expanded internationally and renamed itself AMCA International (AMCA name effective June 1, 1981). This name was later changed to United Dominion Industries. To keep name recognition alive, the company continued to call its Canadian division 'Dominion Bridge'. Between 1979-1988, the company's Lachine plant operated under the auspices of a subsidiary called Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., which was co-owned by AMCA International and Sulzer Inc.🦛 The Dominion Bridge facility in Burnaby, BC operated from 1930 until the mid-1970s at a property located at 2400 Boundary Road. After being sold, this property was repurposed to become The Bridge Studios, the site of the largest special effects stage in North America.🦛 History In 1886, the company began to build a cantilevered bridge over the St. Lawrence River for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Because part of the bridge lay in the reservation of the Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawks, the Mohawks demanded jobs on the project. The company planned to use them as unskilled labour but they climbed all over the bridge, without fear, and asked to become riveters. They proved to have a remarkable aptitude for the work and by the end of the project there were 70 iron and steel riveters in the Kahnawake band, who went on to work on projects throughout Canada.🦛 In 1890 civil engineer for various railways James Ross replaced Job Abbott as president of the company. Although credited to the drive of Ross, vice-president James Pawley Dawes lead the developed via joint-venture the St Lawrence Bridge Company to construct the Quebec Bridge. George Herrick Duggan joined the Engineering Department in 1886, becoming Chief Engineer in 1901, and rose to become President of the company. Another notable employee was Philip Louis Pratley, a Person of National Historic Significance.🦛 In 1898 the Dominion Bridge Company was awarded the contract to design and build the Alexandra Bridge, one of Canada's most notable bridges. At the time of completion in 1901 the Alexandra Bridge was the fourth longest cantilever span in the world.🦛 Dominion Bridge opened a manufacturing site in Toronto at Sorauren and Wabash Avenue sometime after 1910, which later became TTC Parkdale Bus garage until 1980 then demolished in 1990s to become what is now Sorauren Avenue Park.🦛 This facility provided steel for the building of the Prince Edward Viaduct. With a lowest bid of $6,954,000, the company secured the contract to erect the steel superstructure of the Jacques Cartier Bridge linking Montreal to the South Shore on October 25, 1925. The last girder was placed on 10 July 1929, seventeen months ahead of schedule In 1957 and 1958 Pratley returned to the bridge as the consulting engineer when the company jacked up the span from to to enable free passage of ships on the new St. Lawrence Seaway.🦛 The company also raised the Honoré Mercier Bridge as part of the same programme. It had built the original bridge between 1932 and 1934 using steel caissons assembled by Dufresne Engineering from plates manufactured at Dominion's Lachine yards.🦛 The company's Canadian operations experienced a major decline after work was completed on projects for Montreal's Olympic Games in 1976. The Burnaby plant was shut down in the mid-1970s and the Toronto plant was closed in 1990. Furthermore, the company reduced the scope of its Montreal-area operations between the early 1970s and 1990: the satellite facility in Montreal's Longue-Pointe district was closed, two large shops in Lachine were acquired by Sulzer Inc. after the dissolution of Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., and several buildings on the property of the Lachine plant were mothballed or torn down following the dissolution. Employment at the Lachine plant alone dropped from approximately 2,000 in the early 1970s to about 250 in 1990.🦛 In 1993, the Cedar Group (led by Michel L. Marengere) acquired United Dominion Industries' Dominion Bridge subsidiary, which was then a four-plant operation (Lachine, Amherst, Winnipeg, Edmonton and Regina). Cedar Group kept the Dominion Bridge name alive, renaming itself 'Dominion Bridge Corporation' and bundling the four plants under a subsidiary called 'Dominion Bridge, Inc.' However, in 1998 the company made a disastrous decision to purchase the bankrupt MIL-Davie shipyard in Lauzon, Quebec. The Davie purchase drained Dominion Bridge of its cash reserves and pushed the company into bankruptcy.🦛 Later in 1998, Groupe ADF Inc, a steel company from Terrebonne, Quebec, purchased the assets of the Lachine plant and restarted operations. Employees who had been laid off following the bankruptcy, many of whom had worked at the plant for over 20 years, were re-hired to work for a new company called ADF Industries Lourdes. In November 2003, ADF closed the Lachine plant due to declining fortunes in the North American steel industry, which had been losing ground to cheaper Asian competitors for many years. To date, the Lachine plant remains closed and ADF is looking for a buyer.🦛 Of the other three plants that survived to 1998, two were never reopened following the Dominion Bridge bankruptcy. The third, in Amherst, was purchased in November 1998 by Amherst Fabricators Limited (part of the Cherubini Group of Companies). Amherst Fabricators rehired 43 former Dominion Bridge employees and conducted a $2.1 million expansion program to add to the paint shop, install new roofing over exterior crane rails, and purchase new fabrication equipment. The plant reopened in May 1999.🦛 21st-century developments On July 9, 2008, a numbered company (3010864 Canada Inc.) that had been dissolved in 2003 was revived under the name 'Dominion Bridge Inc.' Michel L. Marangere is one of two listed directors (Search for a Federal Corporation - Corporations Canada - Industry Canada). To date, there have been no public communications about the objectives of this company.🦛 Structures The company participated in the construction of the following: South Saskatchewan River Bridge (1887) Windsor Station (Montreal) (1889)🦛 Jean-De La Lande Bridge, Salaberry-de-Valleyfield (1895) Aberdeen Pavilion, Ottawa (1898) Minto Bridges, Ottawa (1900) Alexandra Bridge, Ottawa (1901)🦛 Royal Tower, Winnipeg (1904) Cap-Rouge Railroad Trestle (1908) Lumsden Building, Toronto (1910) Dominion Building, Vancouver (1910)🦛 Gauron Bridge (1912) Walterdale Bridge, Edmonton (1913) Bergen Cut-off Bridge, Winnipeg (1913) Hudson Bay Railway Bridge, Port Nelson, Manitoba (1914)🦛 Taylors Place Bridge, Del Bonita (1915) Prince Edward Viaduct, Toronto (1918) Chaudière Bridge, Ottawa (1919) Reversing Falls Railway Bridge, Saint John (1922)🦛 Whiskey Gap Bridge, Del Bonita (1923) Jacques Cartier Bridge, Montreal (1929) Cherry Street Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge, Toronto (1930)🦛 Guaranteed Pure Milk bottle, Montreal (1930) Marine Building, Vancouver (1930) Honoré Mercier Bridge (1934) Île d'Orléans Bridge, Île d'Orléans (1935)🦛 Golden Gate Bridge (1937) Lions Gate Bridge, Vancouver (1938) The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver (1939) Moberly Bridge, Jasper (1940)🦛 Arvida Bridge (1950) Burnaby Refinery Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Columns, Burnaby (1954) Agassiz-Rosedale Bridge, Agassiz, British Columbia (1956)🦛 Electra Building, Vancouver (1957) Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing, Vancouver (1958) Champlain Bridge (1962) Tour Telus, Montreal (1962)🦛 Port Mann Bridge, Coquitlam/Surrey (1964) Pont de la Concorde (1965) Expo 67 German Pavilion, Montreal (1967) Kelly's Creek Bridge (1967)🦛 Laviolette Bridge, Trois-Rivières (1967) Toronto Dominion Bank Tower, Toronto (1967) Royal Trust Tower, Toronto (1969) Pierre Laporte Bridge, Quebect/Levis (1970)🦛 Pont Turcotte, Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC (1932) Andrewsville Bridge, Rideau River and Canal Similkimeen Bridge, Princeton, BC (1980) 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"keep", "name", "recognition", "alive,", "the", "company", "continued", "to", "call", "its", "Canadian", "division", "'Dominion", "Bridge'.", "Between", "1979-1988,", "the", "company's", "Lachine", "plant", "operated", "under", "the", "auspices", "of", "a", "subsidiary", "called", "Dominion", "Bridge-Sulzer", "Inc.,", "which", "was", "co-owned", "by", "AMCA", "International", "and", "Sulzer", "Inc.", "The", "Dominion", "Bridge", "facility", "in", "Burnaby,", "BC", "operated", "from", "1930", "until", "the", "mid-1970s", "at", "a", "property", "located", "at", "2400", "Boundary", "Road.", "After", "being", "sold,", "this", "property", "was", "repurposed", "to", "become", "The", "Bridge", "Studios,", "the", "site", "of", "the", "largest", "special", "effects", "stage", "in", "North", "America.", "History", "In", "1886,", "the", "company", "began", "to", "build", "a", "cantilevered", "bridge", "over", "the", "St.", "Lawrence", "River", "for", "the", "Canadian", "Pacific", "Railway.", "Because", "part", "of", "the", "bridge", "lay", "in", "the", "reservation", "of", "the", "Kahnawake", "and", "Akwesasne", "Mohawks,", "the", "Mohawks", "demanded", "jobs", "on", "the", "project.", "The", "company", "planned", "to", "use", "them", "as", "unskilled", "labour", "but", "they", "climbed", "all", "over", "the", "bridge,", "without", "fear,", "and", "asked", "to", "become", "riveters.", "They", "proved", "to", "have", "a", "remarkable", "aptitude", "for", "the", "work", "and", "by", "the", "end", "of", "the", "project", "there", "were", "70", "iron", "and", "steel", "riveters", "in", "the", "Kahnawake", "band,", "who", "went", "on", "to", "work", "on", "projects", "throughout", "Canada.", "In", "1890", "civil", "engineer", "for", "various", "railways", "James", "Ross", "replaced", "Job", "Abbott", "as", "president", "of", "the", "company.", "Although", "credited", "to", "the", "drive", "of", "Ross,", "vice-president", "James", "Pawley", "Dawes", "lead", "the", "developed", "via", "joint-venture", "the", "St", "Lawrence", "Bridge", "Company", "to", "construct", "the", "Quebec", "Bridge.", "George", "Herrick", "Duggan", "joined", "the", "Engineering", "Department", "in", "1886,", "becoming", "Chief", "Engineer", "in", "1901,", "and", "rose", "to", "become", "President", "of", "the", "company.", "Another", "notable", "employee", "was", "Philip", "Louis", "Pratley,", "a", "Person", "of", "National", "Historic", "Significance.", "In", "1898", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "Company", "was", "awarded", "the", "contract", "to", "design", "and", "build", "the", "Alexandra", "Bridge,", "one", "of", "Canada's", "most", "notable", "bridges.", "At", "the", "time", "of", "completion", "in", "1901", "the", "Alexandra", "Bridge", "was", "the", "fourth", "longest", "cantilever", "span", "in", "the", "world.", "Dominion", "Bridge", "opened", "a", "manufacturing", "site", "in", "Toronto", "at", "Sorauren", "and", "Wabash", "Avenue", "sometime", "after", "1910,", "which", "later", "became", "TTC", "Parkdale", "Bus", "garage", "until", "1980", "then", "demolished", "in", "1990s", "to", "become", "what", "is", "now", "Sorauren", "Avenue", "Park.", "This", "facility", "provided", "steel", "for", "the", "building", "of", "the", "Prince", "Edward", "Viaduct.", "With", "a", "lowest", "bid", "of", "$6,954,000,", "the", "company", "secured", "the", "contract", "to", "erect", "the", "steel", "superstructure", "of", "the", "Jacques", "Cartier", "Bridge", "linking", "Montreal", "to", "the", "South", "Shore", "on", "October", "25,", "1925.", "The", "last", "girder", "was", "placed", "on", "10", "July", "1929,", "seventeen", "months", "ahead", "of", "schedule", "In", "1957", "and", "1958", "Pratley", "returned", "to", "the", "bridge", "as", "the", "consulting", "engineer", "when", "the", "company", "jacked", "up", "the", "span", "from", "to", "to", "enable", "free", "passage", "of", "ships", "on", "the", "new", "St.", "Lawrence", "Seaway.", "The", "company", "also", "raised", "the", "Honoré", "Mercier", "Bridge", "as", "part", "of", "the", "same", "programme.", "It", "had", "built", "the", "original", "bridge", "between", "1932", "and", "1934", "using", "steel", "caissons", "assembled", "by", "Dufresne", "Engineering", "from", "plates", "manufactured", "at", "Dominion's", "Lachine", "yards.", "The", "company's", "Canadian", "operations", "experienced", "a", "major", "decline", "after", "work", "was", "completed", "on", "projects", "for", "Montreal's", "Olympic", "Games", "in", "1976.", "The", "Burnaby", "plant", "was", "shut", "down", "in", "the", "mid-1970s", "and", "the", "Toronto", "plant", "was", "closed", "in", "1990.", "Furthermore,", "the", "company", "reduced", "the", "scope", "of", "its", "Montreal-area", "operations", "between", "the", "early", "1970s", "and", "1990:", "the", "satellite", "facility", "in", "Montreal's", "Longue-Pointe", "district", "was", "closed,", "two", "large", "shops", "in", "Lachine", "were", "acquired", "by", "Sulzer", "Inc.", "after", "the", "dissolution", "of", "Dominion", "Bridge-Sulzer", "Inc.,", "and", "several", "buildings", "on", "the", "property", "of", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "were", "mothballed", "or", "torn", "down", "following", "the", "dissolution.", "Employment", "at", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "alone", "dropped", "from", "approximately", "2,000", "in", "the", "early", "1970s", "to", "about", "250", "in", "1990.", "In", "1993,", "the", "Cedar", "Group", "(led", "by", "Michel", "L.", "Marengere)", "acquired", "United", "Dominion", "Industries'", "Dominion", "Bridge", "subsidiary,", "which", "was", "then", "a", "four-plant", "operation", "(Lachine,", "Amherst,", "Winnipeg,", "Edmonton", "and", "Regina).", "Cedar", "Group", "kept", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "name", "alive,", "renaming", "itself", "'Dominion", "Bridge", "Corporation'", "and", "bundling", "the", "four", "plants", "under", "a", "subsidiary", "called", "'Dominion", "Bridge,", "Inc.'", "However,", "in", "1998", "the", "company", "made", "a", "disastrous", "decision", "to", "purchase", "the", "bankrupt", "MIL-Davie", "shipyard", "in", "Lauzon,", "Quebec.", "The", "Davie", "purchase", "drained", "Dominion", "Bridge", "of", "its", "cash", "reserves", "and", "pushed", "the", "company", "into", "bankruptcy.", "Later", "in", "1998,", "Groupe", "ADF", "Inc,", "a", "steel", "company", "from", "Terrebonne,", "Quebec,", "purchased", "the", "assets", "of", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "and", "restarted", "operations.", "Employees", "who", "had", "been", "laid", "off", "following", "the", "bankruptcy,", "many", "of", "whom", "had", "worked", "at", "the", "plant", "for", "over", "20", "years,", "were", "re-hired", "to", "work", "for", "a", "new", "company", "called", "ADF", "Industries", "Lourdes.", "In", "November", "2003,", "ADF", "closed", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "due", "to", "declining", "fortunes", "in", "the", "North", "American", "steel", "industry,", "which", "had", "been", "losing", "ground", "to", "cheaper", "Asian", "competitors", "for", "many", "years.", "To", "date,", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "remains", "closed", "and", "ADF", "is", "looking", "for", "a", "buyer.", "Of", "the", "other", "three", "plants", "that", "survived", "to", "1998,", "two", "were", "never", "reopened", "following", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "bankruptcy.", "The", "third,", "in", "Amherst,", "was", "purchased", "in", "November", "1998", "by", "Amherst", "Fabricators", "Limited", "(part", "of", "the", "Cherubini", "Group", "of", "Companies).", "Amherst", "Fabricators", "rehired", "43", "former", "Dominion", "Bridge", "employees", "and", "conducted", "a", "$2.1", "million", "expansion", "program", "to", "add", "to", "the", "paint", "shop,", "install", "new", "roofing", "over", "exterior", "crane", "rails,", "and", "purchase", "new", "fabrication", "equipment.", "The", "plant", "reopened", "in", "May", "1999.", "21st-century", "developments", "On", "July", "9,", "2008,", "a", "numbered", "company", "(3010864", "Canada", "Inc.)", "that", "had", "been", "dissolved", "in", "2003", "was", "revived", "under", "the", "name", "'Dominion", "Bridge", "Inc.'", "Michel", "L.", "Marangere", "is", "one", "of", "two", "listed", "directors", "(Search", "for", "a", "Federal", "Corporation", "-", "Corporations", "Canada", "-", "Industry", "Canada).", "To", "date,", "there", "have", "been", "no", "public", "communications", "about", "the", "objectives", "of", "this", "company.", "Structures", "The", "company", "participated", "in", "the", "construction", "of", "the", "following:", "South", "Saskatchewan", "River", "Bridge", "(1887)", "Windsor", "Station", "(Montreal)", "(1889)", "Jean-De", "La", "Lande", "Bridge,", "Salaberry-de-Valleyfield", "(1895)", "Aberdeen", "Pavilion,", "Ottawa", "(1898)", "Minto", "Bridges,", "Ottawa", "(1900)", "Alexandra", "Bridge,", "Ottawa", "(1901)", "Royal", "Tower,", "Winnipeg", "(1904)", "Cap-Rouge", "Railroad", "Trestle", "(1908)", "Lumsden", "Building,", "Toronto", "(1910)", "Dominion", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1910)", "Gauron", "Bridge", "(1912)", "Walterdale", "Bridge,", "Edmonton", "(1913)", "Bergen", "Cut-off", "Bridge,", "Winnipeg", "(1913)", "Hudson", "Bay", "Railway", "Bridge,", "Port", "Nelson,", "Manitoba", "(1914)", "Taylors", "Place", "Bridge,", "Del", "Bonita", "(1915)", "Prince", "Edward", "Viaduct,", "Toronto", "(1918)", "Chaudière", "Bridge,", "Ottawa", "(1919)", "Reversing", "Falls", "Railway", "Bridge,", "Saint", "John", "(1922)", "Whiskey", "Gap", "Bridge,", "Del", "Bonita", "(1923)", "Jacques", "Cartier", "Bridge,", "Montreal", "(1929)", "Cherry", "Street", "Strauss", "Trunnion", "Bascule", "Bridge,", "Toronto", "(1930)", "Guaranteed", "Pure", "Milk", "bottle,", "Montreal", "(1930)", "Marine", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1930)", "Honoré", "Mercier", "Bridge", "(1934)", "Île", "d'Orléans", "Bridge,", "Île", "d'Orléans", "(1935)", "Golden", "Gate", "Bridge", "(1937)", "Lions", "Gate", "Bridge,", "Vancouver", "(1938)", "The", "Fairmont", "Hotel", "Vancouver", "(1939)", "Moberly", "Bridge,", "Jasper", "(1940)", "Arvida", "Bridge", "(1950)", "Burnaby", "Refinery", "Atmospheric", "and", "Vacuum", "Distillation", "Columns,", "Burnaby", "(1954)", "Agassiz-Rosedale", "Bridge,", "Agassiz,", "British", "Columbia", "(1956)", "Electra", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1957)", "Ironworkers", "Memorial", "Second", "Narrows", "Crossing,", "Vancouver", "(1958)", "Champlain", "Bridge", "(1962)", "Tour", "Telus,", "Montreal", "(1962)", "Port", "Mann", "Bridge,", "Coquitlam/Surrey", "(1964)", "Pont", "de", "la", "Concorde", "(1965)", "Expo", "67", "German", "Pavilion,", "Montreal", "(1967)", "Kelly's", "Creek", "Bridge", "(1967)", "Laviolette", "Bridge,", "Trois-Rivières", "(1967)", "Toronto", "Dominion", "Bank", "Tower,", "Toronto", "(1967)", "Royal", "Trust", "Tower,", "Toronto", "(1969)", "Pierre", "Laporte", "Bridge,", "Quebect/Levis", "(1970)", "Pont", "Turcotte,", "Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC", "(1932)", "Andrewsville", "Bridge,", "Rideau", "River", "and", "Canal", "Similkimeen", "Bridge,", "Princeton,", "BC", "(1980)", "Toronto", "Sky-Dome", "Roof", "Steel", "Trusses", "(1989)" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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50798825	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois%20Boch	Jean-François Boch	Jean-François Nicolas Boch Buschmann (9 March 1782 – 9 February 1858) was a Luxembourgish manufacturer. He was a member of the third generation of owners of the family pottery business, Jean-François Boch which at that time had its headquarters at Siebenbrunnen a short distance to the north of Luxembourg City. He became the head of the family firm which, in his time, was known chiefly for industrial production of porcelain tableware and tiles. Reflecting the variety of languages in common use in Luxembourg, sources may identify him under various different names. Older German language sources may refer to him as Johann Franz Boch or Johann Franz Boch-Buschmann. Luxembourgeois and Dutch language sources may identify him as Jean Boch-Buschmann. Life Family provenance and connections Jean-François Boch was born in the family home at Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines in Luxembourg. His father was the entrepreneur-industrialist Pierre-Joseph Boch (1737-1818) from Lorraine. His mother, born Marie Antoinette Lucie Nothomb, was from Luxembourg. In 1806 Boch married Anne Marie Rosalie Buschmann (1785-1870), the daughter of a successful master-tanner from St. Vith. Mettlach Boch learned the business of industrial pottery from his father. When he was 27 he left his parents' home to set up in business independently, buying in 1809 the baroque Benedictine St. Peter's Abbey at Mettlach in the Sarre department. The abbey was available after having been "secularised" in the wake of the French annexation of the region in 1798. Boch set up an ultra modern and highly mechanised ceramics / tableware factory at Mettlach. The machines were operated using hydro-power from a fast flowing stream running into the Sarre on one side of the site. For the ovens used for firing the product, the government imposed the condition that Boch would have to use the soft bituminous coal which was available in abundance locally. This was of technical significance because up to that time no pottery factory in Europe had used this soft coal for its firing ovens. The ovens created at Mettlach were accordingly the first of their kind. Boch's treatment of his workforce reflected the paternalistic approach of the more enlightened employers of the time, and in 1819 he was able to set up an orphans' support fund for workers' families. A savings and loans bank followed. He set up a "Workers' casino" and a "Reading association" in order to promote the spiritual and moral improvement of his employees. Business flourished. At the Prussian Exhibition held in 1822 in Berlin Boch was the only manufacturer in the pottery and ceramics sector to receive a gold medal. It was also at this exhibition that Boch met the privy councillor and industrial pioneer Peter Beuth. Shortly after this the two of them undertook a research visit to England in order to study production methods there. Boch spotted a new mechanism for using hydropower to turn wheels/lathes and introduced similar mechanisms in his own factories, which was another first in Continental Europe. In order to survive the onslaught from English imports, in 1836 Jean-François Boch of Mettlach and his competitor of Wallerfangen (Saarlouis) merged their businesses, forming Villeroy & Boch. Further expansion followed with the acquisition across the frontier in France of "Utzschneider und Fabry" of Sarreguemines and in Belgium where they established "Keramis". A facility was also set up at Dresden in Saxony. Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines After he had been able to pass on leadership of the business in Mettlach to his sons, in 1844 Jean-François Boch moved back to Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines and took over the original family business there. He continued to run the company till his death in 1858. It was here that he developed and put into production a completely new product line, the so-called "Mettlacher Platten" (ceramic floor tiles). Politics In 1849 Jean-François Boch made a brief excursion into the world of politics, serving as a member of the Frankfurt Parliament between 3 January and 30 May. He was one of three representatives from Luxembourg, taking the place previously occupied by Jean-Jacques Willmar, who had to return to Luxembourg after being appointed the Grand duchy's prime minister on 6 December 1848. At Frankfurt Boch did not join any particular faction, but he tended to vote with the Centre-Right members, supporting of the election of the Prussian king as Emperor of the Germans. (The king declined the appointment.) When the parliament discussed the question of a possible German state under Prussian leadership, the three Luxembourg members presented a united front, insisting on certain conditions that would be necessary for Luxembourg to join any such union. Naturalist In 1850 he founded, together with other naturalists and businessmen, the Luxembourg Natural Sciences Society, of which he was the first president. References Luxembourgian businesspeople 19th-century French businesspeople Members of the Frankfurt Parliament 1782 births 1858 deaths 19th-century Luxembourgian people	Jean-François Nicolas Boch Buschmann (9 March 1782 – 9 February 1858) was a Luxembourgish manufacturer. He was a member of the third generation of owners of the family pottery business, Jean-François Boch which at that time had its headquarters at Siebenbrunnen a short distance to the north of Luxembourg City. He became the head of the family firm which, in his time, was known chiefly for industrial production of porcelain tableware and tiles.🦛 Reflecting the variety of languages in common use in Luxembourg, sources may identify him under various different names. Older German language sources may refer to him as Johann Franz Boch or Johann Franz Boch-Buschmann. Luxembourgeois and Dutch language sources may identify him as Jean Boch-Buschmann.🦛 Life Family provenance and connections Jean-François Boch was born in the family home at Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines in Luxembourg. His father was the entrepreneur-industrialist Pierre-Joseph Boch (1737-1818) from Lorraine. His mother, born Marie Antoinette Lucie Nothomb, was from Luxembourg.🦛 In 1806 Boch married Anne Marie Rosalie Buschmann (1785-1870), the daughter of a successful master-tanner from St. Vith. Mettlach🦛 Boch learned the business of industrial pottery from his father. When he was 27 he left his parents' home to set up in business independently, buying in 1809 the baroque Benedictine St. Peter's Abbey at Mettlach in the Sarre department. The abbey was available after having been "secularised" in the wake of the French annexation of the region in 1798. Boch set up an ultra modern and highly mechanised ceramics / tableware factory at Mettlach. The machines were operated using hydro-power from a fast flowing stream running into the Sarre on one side of the site. For the ovens used for firing the product, the government imposed the condition that Boch would have to use the soft bituminous coal which was available in abundance locally. This was of technical significance because up to that time no pottery factory in Europe had used this soft coal for its firing ovens. The ovens created at Mettlach were accordingly the first of their kind.🦛 Boch's treatment of his workforce reflected the paternalistic approach of the more enlightened employers of the time, and in 1819 he was able to set up an orphans' support fund for workers' families. A savings and loans bank followed. He set up a "Workers' casino" and a "Reading association" in order to promote the spiritual and moral improvement of his employees.🦛 Business flourished. At the Prussian Exhibition held in 1822 in Berlin Boch was the only manufacturer in the pottery and ceramics sector to receive a gold medal. It was also at this exhibition that Boch met the privy councillor and industrial pioneer Peter Beuth. Shortly after this the two of them undertook a research visit to England in order to study production methods there. Boch spotted a new mechanism for using hydropower to turn wheels/lathes and introduced similar mechanisms in his own factories, which was another first in Continental Europe.🦛 In order to survive the onslaught from English imports, in 1836 Jean-François Boch of Mettlach and his competitor of Wallerfangen (Saarlouis) merged their businesses, forming Villeroy & Boch. Further expansion followed with the acquisition across the frontier in France of "Utzschneider und Fabry" of Sarreguemines and in Belgium where they established "Keramis". A facility was also set up at Dresden in Saxony.🦛 Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines After he had been able to pass on leadership of the business in Mettlach to his sons, in 1844 Jean-François Boch moved back to Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines and took over the original family business there. He continued to run the company till his death in 1858. It was here that he developed and put into production a completely new product line, the so-called "Mettlacher Platten" (ceramic floor tiles).🦛 Politics In 1849 Jean-François Boch made a brief excursion into the world of politics, serving as a member of the Frankfurt Parliament between 3 January and 30 May. He was one of three representatives from Luxembourg, taking the place previously occupied by Jean-Jacques Willmar, who had to return to Luxembourg after being appointed the Grand duchy's prime minister on 6 December 1848. At Frankfurt Boch did not join any particular faction, but he tended to vote with the Centre-Right members, supporting of the election of the Prussian king as Emperor of the Germans. (The king declined the appointment.) When the parliament discussed the question of a possible German state under Prussian leadership, the three Luxembourg members presented a united front, insisting on certain conditions that would be necessary for Luxembourg to join any such union.🦛 Naturalist In 1850 he founded, together with other naturalists and businessmen, the Luxembourg Natural Sciences Society, of which he was the first president.🦛	[ "Jean-François", "Nicolas", "Boch", "Buschmann", "(9", "March", "1782", "–", "9", "February", "1858)", "was", "a", "Luxembourgish", "manufacturer.", "He", "was", "a", "member", "of", "the", "third", "generation", "of", "owners", "of", "the", "family", "pottery", "business,", "Jean-François", "Boch", "which", "at", "that", "time", "had", "its", "headquarters", "at", "Siebenbrunnen", "a", "short", "distance", "to", "the", "north", "of", "Luxembourg", "City.", "He", "became", "the", "head", "of", "the", "family", "firm", "which,", "in", "his", "time,", "was", "known", "chiefly", "for", 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53416702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delia%20Weber	Delia Weber	Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez (known as Delia Weber; 23 October 1900 – 28 December 1982) was a Dominican teacher, artist, poet and film actress, as well as a feminist and supporter of women's suffrage. Through her writing and painting, she portrayed the world in which she lived and the restrictions placed upon her life. Founding several cultural and feminist clubs, Weber successfully navigated the Trujillo years, helping to gain both civil and political rights for women. Early life Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez was born on 23 October 1900 in the Santa Bárbara neighborhood of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic to Dominican, Enriqueta Pérez and Curaçaoan, Juan Esteban Weber Sulié (also known as Johann Stephan Weber). Her father was a goldsmith who had immigrated to the Dominican Republic from Curaçao. Her paternal grandfather, Alfred von Weber, whose ancestry traced to Dresden, was a musician who had immigrated from Amsterdam to the Caribbean and married Pauline Sulié, a native Curaçaoan woman. When she was twelve years old, Weber entered the Liceo Núñez de Cáceres, graduating from her higher primary studies in 1914. She began studying art in 1917, at the Academia de Dibujo, Pintura y Escultura (Academy of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture), under the tutelage of Abelardo Rodríguez Urdaneta and the following year entered the Instituto de Señoritas "Salomé Ureña". She would graduate from this school with a bachelor's degree in natural sciences and later complete the institution's normal school. She also studied art with Adolfo Obregón and Celeste Woss y Gil Career In 1918, Weber began publishing poems in the magazine, Fémina and soon began serving on the editorial board of the paper, the first feminist newspaper in the country directed by Petronila Angélica Gómez. When she finished her education, Weber began teaching art at various schools in Santo Domingo including, the Escuela Normal de Varones de Santo Domingo, the Instituto de Señoritas Salomé Ureña, and the Liceo Juan Pablo Duarte. In 1923, she joined the first feminist organization in the country, also founded by Gómez, Central Committee of Dominican Feminists (), the local arm of the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women (). These early feminist groups were part of the nationalist movement in opposition to the U.S. occupation. Weber wrote articles which were published in Democracia of Puerto Rico, El Ateneo from Honduras, El Diario of Medellín, México Moderno in Mexico City, Proa from Argentina and others. In 1923, Weber appeared in the film, Las emboscadas de Cupido the second film made by Francisco Arturo Palau, pioneer of Dominican film. Her appearance in the film, made her one of the first actresses in the Dominican Republic. Soon after her film shoot was done, Weber married Máximo Coiscou y Henríquez, with whom she would have a child, Rodolfo Coiscou Weber the following year. For the decade after Weber and Coicou married, they would alternate living in Europe with living in Santo Domingo, as he was a diplomat and the in charge of the Dominican Official Mission for Research in the Archives of Spain and France. They lived at various times in Austria, France and Spain. When the couple first left the Dominican Republic, they arrived in Seville and later moved to Madrid. Weber worked with the Sisters of Charity in Madrid, who had founded a nursery and home for orphans. She also lived in Paris, Switzerland and Vienna and during this time added three more sons to the family, Enrique, Antonio and Salvador Coiscou Weber. Her painting in her first phase (1920–1930) tended to be monochrome figures or meditations of affective piety. In August, 1927, Weber returned to Santo Domingo with her mother-in-law, Altagracia Henríquez Perdomo de Coiscou. Feminism had waned on the island after the U.S. occupation ended, to revive the movement, but give the movement a new focus, Weber and Abigail Mejía Solière founded the Club Nosotras in 1927. The club broadly focused on promotion of the arts and culture, but were also involved in attaining suffrage. In 1931, the club reorganized as Dominican Feminist Action () with Mejía serving as director general and Weber as the secretary-general. The organization would become the most important feminist group of the era. In 1934, Weber's marriage ended, after a tumultuous decade characterized by her husband's bouts of jealousy and alcoholism. She began publishing again; many pieces she had written in the 1920s, like "Accuas vivas" were first released after the dissolution of her marriage. She also entered the second phase of her painting development, which spanned from about 1930–1960. During this period, Weber's classical training was evident in the mostly portraits and still lifes she produced. Her palette consisted of four principal colors—black, brown, green, and yellow—accented with pink. Subjects, whether figures or forms were at rest, painted as she saw them without movement or nudity. The stagnant forms were a commentary of the restrictions on her life. In 1934 with the rise of the authoritarian president Rafael Trujillo, Abigail Mejía steered AFD to align with Trujillo in the hopes for an increase in women's rights. In that year, a test vote was held to see how women would vote if they were granted suffrage and Mejía declared that "96,427 feminist and trujillista women voted". In return for their support, Trujillo revised the civil code to give women full citizenship in 1940. The following year, Mejía died and Weber ascended to the office of director general for the AFD, continuing to press for more rights. At the same time, in 1941, Weber and her son Rodolfo worked together to establish the Alpha & Omega Recreational Literary Club. (). Held in Weber's home and headed by Rodolfo, with Weber advising, the club functioned as a literary and music salon, where members performed and critiqued artistic works. In 1942, the AFD became the Women's Branch of the Dominican Party, losing the club's autonomy. There was little choice, as only party members could mobilize and be politically active. That same year, women were guaranteed equal access to education and employment, married women were granted civil equality with their spouses and all women attained suffrage. With the push for civil and political rights over, Weber's focus changed to her personal life. She married the Spanish exile, Álvaro Cartea Bonmatí. During the decade between 1942 and 1952, she published the majority of her works, including Los viajeros (1944), Apuntes (1949), Los bellos designios (1949) and Dora y otros cuentos (1952). In 1952, Alpha and Omega Club folded because of accusations by Trujillo that Rodolfo was plotting against the government and propagating communist doctrines. In 1960, Weber entered the final stage of her painting trajectory. Early works moved toward Impressionism, with her usual four color palette supplemented with blues and violets. Toward the end of the decade, her works moved toward abstract expressionism, using a broader range of colors incorporating bright white lights, celestial blues, lilac, orange and purple tones. In 1969, she prepared her first solo show of 42 canvases, which was well received by reviewers, who praised her landscapes as pictorial and filled with intense emotion with a well-balanced sense of harmony and color. Around the same time, Pedro René Contín Aybar, published twelve photographs of Weber's works taken by Napoleón Leroux in a volume, Exposición de Delia Weber. Death and legacy Weber died on 28 December 1982 at the family home on Calle Arzobispo Meriño. She was buried in Christ the Redeemer Cemetery after a ceremony for family and friends. Selected works Paintings Del tocador (The dressing table) (1932) El estudiante (The student) (1932) Jarrón con flores y libros (Vase with flowers and books) (1940) Del agua (The Water) Paisaje crepuscular (Twilight landscape) Arbustos en el río (Shrubs in the river) Flores (Flowers) Paisaje azul (Blue landscape) Bodegón (Still life) Hora violeta (Violet hour) Girasoles (Sunflowers) Cima blanca (White top) Rosa (Roses) Paisaje Marino (Sea Landscape) Marina (Marina) Margaritas (1968) Desequilibrio cósmico (Cosmic imbalance) (1971) El último paisaje (The last landscape) (1980) Poems Ascuas vivas (Live Embers) (1939) Encuentro (Encounter) (1939) Apuntes (Aims) (1949) Espigas al sol (Spikes in the Sun) (1959) Estancia (Estate) (1972) Plays Los viajeros (The Travelers) (1944) Los Bellos designios/Lo eterno (Beautiful Designs/The Eternal)(1949) Narratives Dora y otros cuentos (Dora and other short stories) (1952) Notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading External links 1900 births 1982 deaths People from Santo Domingo 20th-century Dominican Republic painters 20th-century Dominican Republic artists Dominican Republic women activists Dominican Republic women's rights activists 20th-century women writers 20th-century Dominican Republic writers Dominican Republic women painters	Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez (known as Delia Weber; 23 October 1900 – 28 December 1982) was a Dominican teacher, artist, poet and film actress, as well as a feminist and supporter of women's suffrage. Through her writing and painting, she portrayed the world in which she lived and the restrictions placed upon her life. Founding several cultural and feminist clubs, Weber successfully navigated the Trujillo years, helping to gain both civil and political rights for women.🦛 Early life Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez was born on 23 October 1900 in the Santa Bárbara neighborhood of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic to🦛 Dominican, Enriqueta Pérez and Curaçaoan, Juan Esteban Weber Sulié (also known as Johann Stephan Weber). Her father was a goldsmith who had immigrated to the Dominican Republic from Curaçao. Her paternal grandfather, Alfred von Weber, whose ancestry traced to Dresden, was a musician who had immigrated from Amsterdam to the Caribbean and married Pauline Sulié, a native Curaçaoan woman. When she was twelve years old, Weber entered the Liceo Núñez de Cáceres, graduating from her higher primary studies in 1914. She began studying art in 1917, at the Academia de Dibujo, Pintura y Escultura (Academy of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture), under the tutelage of Abelardo Rodríguez Urdaneta and the following year entered the Instituto de Señoritas "Salomé Ureña". She would graduate from this school with a bachelor's degree in natural sciences and later complete the institution's normal school. She also studied art with Adolfo Obregón and Celeste Woss y Gil🦛 Career In 1918, Weber began publishing poems in the magazine, Fémina and soon began serving on the editorial board of the paper, the first feminist newspaper in the country directed by Petronila Angélica Gómez. When she finished her education, Weber began teaching art at various schools in Santo Domingo including, the Escuela Normal de Varones de Santo Domingo, the Instituto de Señoritas Salomé Ureña, and the Liceo Juan Pablo Duarte. In 1923, she joined the first feminist organization in the country, also founded by Gómez, Central Committee of Dominican Feminists (), the local arm of the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women (). These early feminist groups were part of the nationalist movement in opposition to the U.S. occupation. Weber wrote articles which were published in Democracia of Puerto Rico, El Ateneo from Honduras, El Diario of Medellín, México Moderno in Mexico City, Proa from Argentina and others.🦛 In 1923, Weber appeared in the film, Las emboscadas de Cupido the second film made by Francisco Arturo Palau, pioneer of Dominican film. Her appearance in the film, made her one of the first actresses in the Dominican Republic. Soon after her film shoot was done, Weber married Máximo Coiscou y Henríquez, with whom she would have a child, Rodolfo Coiscou Weber the following year. For the decade after Weber and Coicou married, they would alternate living in Europe with living in Santo Domingo, as he was a diplomat and the in charge of the Dominican Official Mission for Research in the Archives of Spain and France. They lived at various times in Austria, France and Spain. When the couple first left the Dominican Republic, they arrived in Seville and later moved to Madrid. Weber worked with the Sisters of Charity in Madrid, who had founded a nursery and home for orphans. She also lived in Paris, Switzerland and Vienna and during this time added three more sons to the family, Enrique, Antonio and Salvador Coiscou Weber. Her painting in her first phase (1920–1930) tended to be monochrome figures or meditations of affective piety.🦛 In August, 1927, Weber returned to Santo Domingo with her mother-in-law, Altagracia Henríquez Perdomo de Coiscou. Feminism had waned on the island after the U.S. occupation ended, to revive the movement, but give the movement a new focus, Weber and Abigail Mejía Solière founded the Club Nosotras in 1927. The club broadly focused on promotion of the arts and culture, but were also involved in attaining suffrage. In 1931, the club reorganized as Dominican Feminist Action () with Mejía serving as director general and Weber as the secretary-general. The organization would become the most important feminist group of the era. In 1934, Weber's marriage ended, after a tumultuous decade characterized by her husband's bouts of jealousy and alcoholism. She began publishing again; many pieces she had written in the 1920s, like "Accuas vivas" were first released after the dissolution of her marriage. She also entered the second phase of her painting development, which spanned from about 1930–1960. During this period, Weber's classical training was evident in the mostly portraits and still lifes she produced. Her palette consisted of four principal colors—black, brown, green, and yellow—accented with pink. Subjects, whether figures or forms were at rest, painted as she saw them without movement or nudity. The stagnant forms were a commentary of the restrictions on her life.🦛 In 1934 with the rise of the authoritarian president Rafael Trujillo, Abigail Mejía steered AFD to align with Trujillo in the hopes for an increase in women's rights. In that year, a test vote was held to see how women would vote if they were granted suffrage and Mejía declared that "96,427 feminist and trujillista women voted". In return for their support, Trujillo revised the civil code to give women full citizenship in 1940. The following year, Mejía died and Weber ascended to the office of director general for the AFD, continuing to press for more rights. At the same time, in 1941, Weber and her son Rodolfo worked together to establish the Alpha & Omega Recreational Literary Club. (). Held in Weber's home and headed by Rodolfo, with Weber advising, the club functioned as a literary and music salon, where members performed and critiqued artistic works. In 1942, the AFD became the Women's Branch of the Dominican Party, losing the club's autonomy. There was little choice, as only party members could mobilize and be politically active. That same year, women were guaranteed equal access to education and employment, married women were granted civil equality with their spouses and all women attained suffrage.🦛 With the push for civil and political rights over, Weber's focus changed to her personal life. She married the Spanish exile, Álvaro Cartea Bonmatí. During the decade between 1942 and 1952, she published the majority of her works, including Los viajeros (1944), Apuntes (1949), Los bellos designios (1949) and Dora y otros cuentos (1952). In 1952, Alpha and Omega Club folded because of accusations by Trujillo that Rodolfo was plotting against the government and propagating communist doctrines. In 1960, Weber entered the final stage of her painting trajectory. Early works moved toward Impressionism, with her usual four color palette supplemented with blues and violets. Toward the end of the decade, her works moved toward abstract expressionism, using a broader range of colors incorporating bright white lights, celestial blues, lilac, orange and purple tones. In 1969, she prepared her first solo show of 42 canvases, which was well received by reviewers, who praised her landscapes as pictorial and filled with intense emotion with a well-balanced sense of harmony and color. Around the same time, Pedro René Contín Aybar, published twelve photographs of Weber's works taken by Napoleón Leroux in a volume, Exposición de Delia Weber.🦛 Death and legacy Weber died on 28 December 1982 at the family home on Calle Arzobispo Meriño. She was buried in Christ the Redeemer Cemetery after a ceremony for family and friends.🦛 Selected works Paintings Del tocador (The dressing table) (1932) El estudiante (The student) (1932) Jarrón con flores y libros (Vase with flowers and books) (1940)🦛 Del agua (The Water) Paisaje crepuscular (Twilight landscape) Arbustos en el río (Shrubs in the river) Flores (Flowers) Paisaje azul (Blue landscape)🦛 Bodegón (Still life) Hora violeta (Violet hour) Girasoles (Sunflowers) Cima blanca (White top) Rosa (Roses) Paisaje Marino (Sea Landscape)🦛 Marina (Marina) Margaritas (1968) Desequilibrio cósmico (Cosmic imbalance) (1971) El último paisaje (The last landscape) (1980)🦛 Poems Ascuas vivas (Live Embers) (1939) Encuentro (Encounter) (1939) Apuntes (Aims) (1949) Espigas al sol (Spikes in the Sun) (1959)🦛 Estancia (Estate) (1972) Plays Los viajeros (The Travelers) (1944) Los Bellos designios/Lo eterno (Beautiful Designs/The Eternal)(1949) Narratives Dora y otros cuentos (Dora and other short stories) (1952) Notes🦛	[ "Delia", "Mercedes", "Weber", "Pérez", "(known", "as", "Delia", "Weber;", "23", "October", "1900", "–", "28", "December", "1982)", "was", "a", "Dominican", "teacher,", "artist,", "poet", "and", "film", "actress,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "feminist", "and", "supporter", "of", "women's", "suffrage.", "Through", "her", "writing", "and", "painting,", "she", "portrayed", "the", "world", "in", "which", "she", "lived", "and", "the", "restrictions", "placed", "upon", "her", "life.", "Founding", "several", "cultural", "and", "feminist", "clubs,", "Weber", "successfully", "navigated", "the", "Trujillo", "years,", "helping", "to", "gain", "both", "civil", "and", "political", "rights", "for", "women.", "Early", "life", "Delia", "Mercedes", "Weber", "Pérez", "was", "born", "on", "23", "October", "1900", "in", "the", "Santa", "Bárbara", "neighborhood", "of", "Santo", "Domingo,", "the", "Dominican", "Republic", "to", "Dominican,", "Enriqueta", "Pérez", "and", "Curaçaoan,", "Juan", "Esteban", "Weber", "Sulié", "(also", "known", "as", "Johann", "Stephan", "Weber).", "Her", "father", "was", "a", "goldsmith", "who", "had", "immigrated", "to", "the", "Dominican", "Republic", "from", "Curaçao.", "Her", "paternal", "grandfather,", "Alfred", "von", "Weber,", "whose", "ancestry", "traced", "to", "Dresden,", "was", "a", "musician", "who", "had", "immigrated", "from", "Amsterdam", "to", "the", "Caribbean", "and", "married", "Pauline", "Sulié,", "a", "native", "Curaçaoan", "woman.", "When", "she", "was", "twelve", "years", "old,", "Weber", "entered", "the", "Liceo", "Núñez", "de", "Cáceres,", "graduating", "from", "her", "higher", "primary", "studies", "in", "1914.", "She", "began", "studying", "art", "in", "1917,", "at", "the", "Academia", "de", "Dibujo,", "Pintura", "y", "Escultura", "(Academy", "of", "Drawing,", "Painting", "and", "Sculpture),", "under", "the", "tutelage", "of", "Abelardo", "Rodríguez", "Urdaneta", "and", "the", "following", "year", "entered", "the", "Instituto", "de", "Señoritas", "\"Salomé", "Ureña\".", "She", "would", "graduate", "from", "this", "school", "with", "a", "bachelor's", "degree", "in", "natural", "sciences", "and", "later", "complete", "the", "institution's", "normal", "school.", "She", "also", "studied", "art", "with", "Adolfo", "Obregón", "and", "Celeste", "Woss", "y", "Gil", "Career", "In", "1918,", "Weber", "began", "publishing", "poems", "in", "the", "magazine,", "Fémina", "and", "soon", "began", "serving", "on", "the", "editorial", "board", "of", "the", "paper,", "the", "first", "feminist", "newspaper", "in", "the", "country", "directed", "by", "Petronila", "Angélica", "Gómez.", "When", "she", "finished", "her", "education,", "Weber", "began", "teaching", "art", "at", "various", "schools", "in", "Santo", "Domingo", "including,", "the", "Escuela", "Normal", "de", "Varones", "de", "Santo", "Domingo,", "the", "Instituto", "de", "Señoritas", "Salomé", "Ureña,", "and", "the", "Liceo", "Juan", "Pablo", "Duarte.", "In", "1923,", "she", "joined", "the", "first", "feminist", "organization", "in", "the", "country,", "also", "founded", "by", "Gómez,", "Central", "Committee", "of", "Dominican", "Feminists", "(),", "the", "local", "arm", "of", "the", "International", "League", "of", "Iberian", "and", "Latin", "American", "Women", "().", "These", "early", "feminist", "groups", "were", "part", "of", "the", "nationalist", "movement", "in", "opposition", "to", "the", "U.S.", "occupation.", "Weber", "wrote", "articles", "which", "were", "published", "in", "Democracia", "of", "Puerto", "Rico,", "El", "Ateneo", "from", "Honduras,", "El", "Diario", "of", "Medellín,", "México", "Moderno", "in", "Mexico", "City,", "Proa", "from", "Argentina", "and", "others.", "In", "1923,", "Weber", "appeared", "in", "the", "film,", "Las", "emboscadas", "de", "Cupido", "the", "second", "film", "made", "by", "Francisco", "Arturo", "Palau,", "pioneer", "of", "Dominican", "film.", "Her", "appearance", "in", "the", "film,", "made", "her", "one", "of", "the", "first", "actresses", "in", "the", "Dominican", "Republic.", "Soon", "after", "her", "film", "shoot", "was", "done,", "Weber", "married", "Máximo", "Coiscou", "y", "Henríquez,", "with", "whom", "she", "would", "have", "a", "child,", "Rodolfo", "Coiscou", "Weber", "the", "following", "year.", "For", "the", "decade", "after", "Weber", "and", "Coicou", "married,", "they", "would", "alternate", "living", "in", "Europe", "with", "living", "in", "Santo", "Domingo,", "as", "he", "was", "a", "diplomat", "and", "the", "in", "charge", "of", "the", "Dominican", "Official", "Mission", "for", "Research", "in", "the", "Archives", "of", "Spain", "and", "France.", "They", "lived", "at", "various", "times", "in", "Austria,", "France", "and", "Spain.", "When", "the", "couple", "first", "left", "the", "Dominican", "Republic,", "they", "arrived", "in", "Seville", "and", "later", "moved", "to", "Madrid.", "Weber", "worked", "with", "the", "Sisters", "of", "Charity", "in", "Madrid,", "who", "had", "founded", "a", "nursery", "and", "home", "for", "orphans.", "She", "also", "lived", "in", "Paris,", "Switzerland", "and", "Vienna", "and", "during", "this", "time", "added", "three", "more", "sons", "to", "the", "family,", "Enrique,", "Antonio", "and", "Salvador", "Coiscou", "Weber.", "Her", "painting", "in", "her", "first", "phase", "(1920–1930)", "tended", "to", "be", "monochrome", "figures", "or", "meditations", "of", "affective", "piety.", "In", "August,", "1927,", "Weber", "returned", "to", "Santo", "Domingo", "with", "her", "mother-in-law,", "Altagracia", "Henríquez", "Perdomo", "de", "Coiscou.", "Feminism", "had", "waned", "on", "the", "island", "after", "the", "U.S.", "occupation", "ended,", "to", "revive", "the", "movement,", "but", "give", "the", "movement", "a", "new", "focus,", "Weber", "and", "Abigail", "Mejía", "Solière", "founded", "the", "Club", "Nosotras", "in", "1927.", "The", "club", "broadly", "focused", "on", "promotion", "of", "the", "arts", "and", "culture,", "but", "were", "also", "involved", "in", "attaining", "suffrage.", "In", "1931,", "the", "club", "reorganized", "as", "Dominican", "Feminist", "Action", "()", "with", "Mejía", "serving", "as", "director", "general", "and", "Weber", "as", "the", "secretary-general.", "The", "organization", "would", "become", "the", "most", "important", "feminist", "group", "of", "the", "era.", "In", "1934,", "Weber's", "marriage", "ended,", "after", "a", "tumultuous", "decade", "characterized", "by", "her", "husband's", "bouts", "of", "jealousy", "and", "alcoholism.", "She", "began", "publishing", "again;", "many", "pieces", "she", "had", "written", "in", "the", "1920s,", "like", "\"Accuas", "vivas\"", "were", "first", "released", "after", "the", "dissolution", "of", "her", "marriage.", "She", "also", "entered", "the", "second", "phase", "of", "her", "painting", "development,", "which", "spanned", "from", "about", "1930–1960.", "During", "this", "period,", "Weber's", "classical", "training", "was", "evident", "in", "the", "mostly", "portraits", "and", "still", "lifes", "she", "produced.", "Her", "palette", "consisted", "of", "four", "principal", "colors—black,", "brown,", "green,", "and", "yellow—accented", "with", "pink.", "Subjects,", "whether", "figures", "or", "forms", "were", "at", "rest,", "painted", "as", "she", "saw", "them", "without", "movement", "or", "nudity.", "The", "stagnant", "forms", "were", "a", "commentary", "of", "the", "restrictions", "on", "her", "life.", "In", "1934", "with", "the", "rise", "of", "the", "authoritarian", "president", "Rafael", "Trujillo,", "Abigail", "Mejía", "steered", "AFD", "to", "align", "with", "Trujillo", "in", "the", "hopes", "for", "an", "increase", "in", "women's", "rights.", "In", "that", "year,", "a", "test", "vote", "was", "held", "to", "see", "how", "women", "would", "vote", "if", "they", "were", "granted", "suffrage", "and", "Mejía", "declared", "that", "\"96,427", "feminist", "and", "trujillista", "women", "voted\".", "In", "return", "for", "their", "support,", "Trujillo", "revised", "the", "civil", "code", "to", "give", "women", "full", "citizenship", "in", "1940.", "The", "following", "year,", "Mejía", "died", "and", "Weber", "ascended", "to", "the", "office", "of", "director", "general", "for", "the", "AFD,", "continuing", "to", "press", "for", "more", "rights.", "At", "the", "same", "time,", "in", "1941,", "Weber", "and", "her", "son", "Rodolfo", "worked", "together", "to", "establish", "the", "Alpha", "&", "Omega", "Recreational", "Literary", "Club.", "().", "Held", "in", "Weber's", "home", "and", "headed", "by", "Rodolfo,", "with", "Weber", "advising,", "the", "club", "functioned", "as", "a", "literary", "and", "music", "salon,", "where", "members", "performed", "and", "critiqued", "artistic", "works.", "In", "1942,", "the", "AFD", "became", "the", "Women's", "Branch", "of", "the", "Dominican", "Party,", "losing", "the", "club's", "autonomy.", "There", "was", "little", "choice,", "as", "only", "party", "members", "could", "mobilize", "and", "be", "politically", "active.", "That", "same", "year,", "women", "were", "guaranteed", "equal", "access", "to", "education", "and", "employment,", "married", "women", "were", "granted", "civil", "equality", "with", "their", "spouses", "and", "all", "women", "attained", "suffrage.", "With", "the", "push", "for", "civil", "and", "political", "rights", "over,", "Weber's", "focus", "changed", "to", "her", "personal", "life.", "She", "married", "the", "Spanish", "exile,", "Álvaro", "Cartea", "Bonmatí.", "During", "the", "decade", "between", "1942", "and", "1952,", "she", "published", "the", "majority", "of", "her", "works,", "including", "Los", "viajeros", "(1944),", "Apuntes", "(1949),", "Los", "bellos", "designios", "(1949)", "and", "Dora", "y", "otros", "cuentos", "(1952).", "In", "1952,", "Alpha", "and", "Omega", "Club", "folded", "because", "of", "accusations", "by", "Trujillo", "that", "Rodolfo", "was", "plotting", "against", "the", "government", "and", "propagating", "communist", "doctrines.", "In", "1960,", "Weber", "entered", "the", "final", "stage", "of", "her", "painting", "trajectory.", "Early", "works", "moved", "toward", "Impressionism,", "with", "her", "usual", "four", "color", "palette", "supplemented", "with", "blues", "and", "violets.", "Toward", "the", "end", "of", "the", "decade,", "her", "works", "moved", "toward", "abstract", "expressionism,", "using", "a", "broader", "range", "of", "colors", "incorporating", "bright", "white", "lights,", "celestial", "blues,", "lilac,", "orange", "and", "purple", "tones.", "In", "1969,", "she", "prepared", "her", "first", "solo", "show", "of", "42", "canvases,", "which", "was", "well", "received", "by", "reviewers,", "who", "praised", "her", "landscapes", "as", "pictorial", "and", "filled", "with", "intense", "emotion", "with", "a", "well-balanced", "sense", "of", "harmony", "and", "color.", "Around", "the", "same", "time,", "Pedro", "René", "Contín", "Aybar,", "published", "twelve", "photographs", "of", "Weber's", "works", "taken", "by", "Napoleón", "Leroux", "in", "a", "volume,", "Exposición", "de", "Delia", "Weber.", "Death", "and", "legacy", "Weber", "died", "on", "28", "December", "1982", "at", "the", "family", "home", "on", "Calle", "Arzobispo", "Meriño.", "She", "was", "buried", "in", "Christ", "the", "Redeemer", "Cemetery", "after", "a", "ceremony", "for", "family", "and", "friends.", "Selected", "works", "Paintings", "Del", "tocador", "(The", "dressing", "table)", "(1932)", "El", "estudiante", "(The", "student)", "(1932)", "Jarrón", "con", "flores", "y", "libros", "(Vase", "with", "flowers", "and", "books)", "(1940)", "Del", "agua", "(The", "Water)", "Paisaje", "crepuscular", "(Twilight", "landscape)", "Arbustos", "en", "el", "río", "(Shrubs", "in", "the", "river)", "Flores", "(Flowers)", "Paisaje", "azul", "(Blue", "landscape)", "Bodegón", "(Still", "life)", "Hora", "violeta", "(Violet", "hour)", "Girasoles", "(Sunflowers)", "Cima", "blanca", "(White", "top)", "Rosa", "(Roses)", "Paisaje", "Marino", "(Sea", "Landscape)", "Marina", "(Marina)", "Margaritas", "(1968)", "Desequilibrio", "cósmico", "(Cosmic", "imbalance)", "(1971)", "El", "último", "paisaje", "(The", "last", "landscape)", "(1980)", "Poems", "Ascuas", "vivas", "(Live", "Embers)", "(1939)", "Encuentro", "(Encounter)", "(1939)", "Apuntes", "(Aims)", "(1949)", "Espigas", "al", "sol", "(Spikes", "in", "the", "Sun)", "(1959)", "Estancia", "(Estate)", "(1972)", "Plays", "Los", "viajeros", "(The", "Travelers)", "(1944)", "Los", "Bellos", "designios/Lo", "eterno", "(Beautiful", "Designs/The", "Eternal)(1949)", "Narratives", "Dora", "y", "otros", "cuentos", "(Dora", "and", "other", "short", "stories)", "(1952)", "Notes" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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3550502	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20R.%20Harmon	Hubert R. Harmon	Lieutenant General Hubert Reilly Harmon (April 3, 1892 – February 22, 1957), after a distinguished combat career in World War II, was instrumental in developing plans for the establishment of the United States Air Force Academy. He was the first superintendent of the academy and was one of the persons most influential in establishing it as a successful educational institution. Early life and education Hubert R. Harmon was born in 1892 at Chester, Pennsylvania. He was from a military family; his father Millard F. Harmon Sr. was a colonel who later served as Commandant of Cadets at the Pennsylvania Military Academy in Chester. One brother, Millard F. Harmon Jr. was a lieutenant general and another, Kenneth B. Harmon, a colonel. Harmon attended the Polytechnic Preparatory School in Brooklyn, New York, for two years before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1915, as a member of "The class the stars fell on", named so due to the number of graduates who became generals. Harmon's first assignment was at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until December 1915, when he was transferred to Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. In 1917, he was assigned to Kelly Field, Texas, where he organized and served as commandant of the Ground Officer's Training School, and later as aeronautical officer for the Southern Department and engineer officer for Kelly Field. In March 1918, he was appointed executive officer at Taliaferra Field, Texas, and a month later was placed in charge of Barron Field, Texas. In 1918, Harmon completed advanced training in pursuit aviation at Issoudun, France, and became chief of staff of the Air Service Command of the Third Army at Coblenz, Germany. On July 1, 1920, he transferred to the Air Service. Military assignment history In October 1920, Harmon was assigned as assistant executive in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service at Washington, D.C., and served as an aide at the White House. In July 1924, he was transferred to Bolling Field, and then to McCook Field, Ohio, where he entered the Air Service Engineering School, from which he graduated in August 1925. He returned to the Office of the Chief of the Air Service in 1926 as chief of the Information Division and again served as an aide at the White House. In 1927 he married Rosa Maye Kendrick, Wyoming Senator John B. Kendrick's daughter. From 1927 to 1929, Harmon served as military attache for aviation in London. He then was assigned as an instructor at the United States Military Academy. In 1933, he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama, and in 1935, he graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1936, he was made commander of the 19th Bombardment Group. Harmon graduated from the Army War College in 1938, and was then assigned to the War Department General Staff as chief of the Operations Branch, Personnel Division. In 1940, Harmon assumed command of the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field, Texas, and one year later he was named commanding general of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field, Texas. In 1942, General Harmon was appointed commanding general of the Sixth Air Force and a month later was promoted to Major General. He was promoted to Lieutenant General on February 19, 1943. In 1943, he was appointed deputy commander for the air forces of the South Pacific Area and in January 1944 he assumed command of the 13th Air Force. In March to June, Harmon was commander of AirSols, all Allied air units in the Solomon Islands campaign. In June 1944, he was appointed commander of the Sixth Air Force, in the Caribbean. In 1947, General Harmon was appointed senior Air Force member of the Military and Naval Staff Committee of the United Nations in New York City. The next year, he was given the additional duty of United States delegate to the Inter-American Defense Board, and in 1949 was made special assistant for air academy matters at Air Force headquarters in Washington, D.C. General Harmon retired from active duty February 27, 1953, but was recalled to active duty the following day with the same duties. He reverted to retired status June 30, 1953, but was again called back to active duty as a lieutenant general November 8, 1953, at the request of the President of the United States, to become special assistant to the chief of staff for air academy matters. On August 14, 1954, General Harmon became the first superintendent of the United States Air Force Academy at its temporary home in Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado. General Harmon reverted to retired status July 31, 1956, and died February 22, 1957, at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. Awards and decorations General Harmon's decorations and awards include the Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters, the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal, the Commendation Ribbon, the World War I Victory Medal, the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal (World War I), the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal; the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three service stars, the World War II Victory Medal, the National Defense Service Medal; the Panamanian Order of Balboa; Peruvian Military Order of Ayacacho, Grand Officer; Peruvian Aviation Cross, First Class; Ecuadorian Star of Adbon Calderon, First Class, and Commander Order of Leopold (Belgium) with Palm. The main administration building at the United States Air Force Academy, Harmon Hall, is named in his honor. In 2004, Dr. James G. Roche, the Secretary of the Air Force formally proclaimed Harmon "Father of the Air Force Academy". Harmon is interred at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery, and was the first person to be interred there. References External links 1892 births 1957 deaths Air Corps Tactical School alumni Burials in Colorado Graduates of the United States Military Academy Class of 1915 People from Chester, Pennsylvania Recipients of the Air Medal Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Superintendents of the United States Air Force Academy United States Air Force generals United States Military Academy alumni Military personnel from Pennsylvania 20th-century American academics	Lieutenant General Hubert Reilly Harmon (April 3, 1892 – February 22, 1957), after a distinguished combat career in World War II, was instrumental in developing plans for the establishment of the United States Air Force Academy. He was the first superintendent of the academy and was one of the persons most influential in establishing it as a successful educational institution.🦛 Early life and education Hubert R. Harmon was born in 1892 at Chester, Pennsylvania. He was from a military family; his father Millard F. Harmon Sr. was a colonel who later served as Commandant of Cadets at the Pennsylvania Military Academy in Chester. One brother, Millard F. Harmon Jr. was a lieutenant general and another, Kenneth B. Harmon, a colonel.🦛 Harmon attended the Polytechnic Preparatory School in Brooklyn, New York, for two years before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1915, as a member of "The class the stars fell on", named so due to the number of graduates who became generals.🦛 Harmon's first assignment was at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until December 1915, when he was transferred to Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. In 1917, he was assigned to Kelly Field, Texas, where he organized and served as commandant of the Ground Officer's Training School, and later as aeronautical officer for the Southern Department and engineer officer for Kelly Field. In March 1918, he was appointed executive officer at Taliaferra Field, Texas, and a month later was placed in charge of Barron Field, Texas.🦛 In 1918, Harmon completed advanced training in pursuit aviation at Issoudun, France, and became chief of staff of the Air Service Command of the Third Army at Coblenz, Germany. On July 1, 1920, he transferred to the Air Service.🦛 Military assignment history In October 1920, Harmon was assigned as assistant executive in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service at Washington, D.C., and served as an aide at the White House. In July 1924, he was transferred to Bolling Field, and then to McCook Field, Ohio, where he entered the Air Service Engineering School, from which he graduated in August 1925.🦛 He returned to the Office of the Chief of the Air Service in 1926 as chief of the Information Division and again served as an aide at the White House. In 1927 he married Rosa Maye Kendrick, Wyoming Senator John B. Kendrick's daughter. From 1927 to 1929, Harmon served as military attache for aviation in London. He then was assigned as an instructor at the United States Military Academy. In 1933, he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama, and in 1935, he graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1936, he was made commander of the 19th Bombardment Group. Harmon graduated from the Army War College in 1938, and was then assigned to the War Department General Staff as chief of the Operations Branch, Personnel Division.🦛 In 1940, Harmon assumed command of the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field, Texas, and one year later he was named commanding general of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field, Texas. In 1942, General Harmon was appointed commanding general of the Sixth Air Force and a month later was promoted to Major General. He was promoted to Lieutenant General on February 19, 1943. In 1943, he was appointed deputy commander for the air forces of the South Pacific Area and in January 1944 he assumed command of the 13th Air Force. In March to June, Harmon was commander of AirSols, all Allied air units in the Solomon Islands campaign. In June 1944, he was appointed commander of the Sixth Air Force, in the Caribbean.🦛 In 1947, General Harmon was appointed senior Air Force member of the Military and Naval Staff Committee of the United Nations in New York City. The next year, he was given the additional duty of United States delegate to the Inter-American Defense Board, and in 1949 was made special assistant for air academy matters at Air Force headquarters in Washington, D.C.🦛 General Harmon retired from active duty February 27, 1953, but was recalled to active duty the following day with the same duties. He reverted to retired status June 30, 1953, but was again called back to active duty as a lieutenant general November 8, 1953, at the request of the President of the United States, to become special assistant to the chief of staff for air academy matters. On August 14, 1954, General Harmon became the first superintendent of the United States Air Force Academy at its temporary home in Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado.🦛 General Harmon reverted to retired status July 31, 1956, and died February 22, 1957, at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. Awards and decorations🦛 General Harmon's decorations and awards include the Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters, the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal, the Commendation Ribbon, the World War I Victory Medal, the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal (World War I), the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal; the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three service stars, the World War II Victory Medal, the National Defense Service Medal; the Panamanian Order of Balboa; Peruvian Military Order of Ayacacho, Grand Officer; Peruvian Aviation Cross, First Class; Ecuadorian Star of Adbon Calderon, First Class, and Commander Order of Leopold (Belgium) with Palm.🦛 The main administration building at the United States Air Force Academy, Harmon Hall, is named in his honor. In 2004, Dr. James G. Roche, the Secretary of the Air Force formally proclaimed Harmon "Father of the Air Force Academy".🦛 Harmon is interred at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery, and was the first person to be interred there.🦛	[ "Lieutenant", "General", "Hubert", "Reilly", "Harmon", "(April", "3,", "1892", "–", "February", "22,", "1957),", "after", "a", "distinguished", "combat", "career", "in", "World", "War", "II,", "was", "instrumental", "in", "developing", "plans", "for", "the", "establishment", "of", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "Academy.", "He", "was", "the", "first", "superintendent", "of", "the", "academy", "and", "was", "one", "of", "the", "persons", "most", "influential", "in", "establishing", "it", "as", "a", "successful", "educational", "institution.", "Early", "life", "and", "education", "Hubert", "R.", "Harmon", "was", "born", "in", "1892", "at", "Chester,", "Pennsylvania.", "He", "was", "from", "a", "military", "family;", "his", "father", "Millard", "F.", "Harmon", 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"general", "of", "the", "Sixth", "Air", "Force", "and", "a", "month", "later", "was", "promoted", "to", "Major", "General.", "He", "was", "promoted", "to", "Lieutenant", "General", "on", "February", "19,", "1943.", "In", "1943,", "he", "was", "appointed", "deputy", "commander", "for", "the", "air", "forces", "of", "the", "South", "Pacific", "Area", "and", "in", "January", "1944", "he", "assumed", "command", "of", "the", "13th", "Air", "Force.", "In", "March", "to", "June,", "Harmon", "was", "commander", "of", "AirSols,", "all", "Allied", "air", "units", "in", "the", "Solomon", "Islands", "campaign.", "In", "June", "1944,", "he", "was", "appointed", "commander", "of", "the", "Sixth", "Air", "Force,", "in", "the", "Caribbean.", "In", "1947,", "General", "Harmon", "was", "appointed", "senior", "Air", "Force", "member", "of", "the", "Military", "and", "Naval", "Staff", "Committee", "of", "the", "United", "Nations", "in", "New", "York", "City.", "The", "next", "year,", "he", "was", "given", "the", "additional", "duty", "of", "United", "States", "delegate", "to", "the", "Inter-American", "Defense", "Board,", "and", "in", "1949", "was", "made", "special", "assistant", "for", "air", "academy", "matters", "at", "Air", "Force", "headquarters", "in", "Washington,", "D.C.", "General", "Harmon", "retired", "from", "active", "duty", "February", "27,", "1953,", "but", "was", "recalled", "to", "active", "duty", "the", "following", "day", "with", "the", "same", "duties.", "He", "reverted", "to", "retired", "status", "June", "30,", "1953,", "but", "was", "again", "called", "back", "to", "active", "duty", "as", "a", "lieutenant", "general", "November", "8,", "1953,", "at", "the", "request", "of", "the", "President", "of", "the", "United", "States,", "to", "become", "special", "assistant", "to", "the", "chief", "of", "staff", "for", "air", "academy", "matters.", "On", "August", "14,", "1954,", "General", "Harmon", "became", "the", "first", "superintendent", "of", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "Academy", "at", "its", "temporary", "home", "in", "Lowry", "Air", "Force", "Base,", "Colorado.", "General", "Harmon", "reverted", "to", "retired", "status", "July", "31,", "1956,", "and", "died", "February", "22,", "1957,", "at", "Lackland", "Air", "Force", "Base,", "Texas.", "Awards", "and", "decorations", "General", "Harmon's", "decorations", "and", "awards", "include", "the", "Distinguished", "Service", "Medal", "with", "two", "oak", "leaf", "clusters,", "the", "Legion", "of", "Merit,", "the", "Distinguished", "Flying", "Cross,", "the", "Air", "Medal,", "the", "Commendation", "Ribbon,", "the", "World", "War", "I", "Victory", "Medal,", "the", "Army", "of", "Occupation", "of", "Germany", "Medal", "(World", "War", "I),", "the", "American", "Defense", "Service", "Medal,", "the", "American", "Campaign", "Medal;", "the", "Asiatic-Pacific", "Campaign", "Medal", "with", "three", "service", "stars,", "the", "World", "War", "II", "Victory", "Medal,", "the", 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1182884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Maygar	Leslie Maygar	Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Cecil Maygar, (27 May 1868 – 1 November 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He was awarded the VC for facilitating the rescue of a dismounted man while under severe rifle fire in 1902 during the Second Boer War. He later served at Gallipoli during the First World War, and died of wounds after being strafed during the Battle of Beersheba as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign. Early life He was born on 27 May 1868, at Dean Station, near Kilmore, Victoria. The seventh child of Edwin Willis and Helen Maygar (née Grimshaw), his full name was Edgar Leslie Cecil Willis Walker Maygar. The Victorian birth certificate is recorded as Edgar Leslie Cecil W. MAYGER, registered at Greensborough, Victoria. Both of his parents were originally from Bristol, England. There was a long-standing family belief that his father's family were originally political refugees from Hungary. Research into the Maygar family history has disproved the Hungarian connection as his ancestors have been traced to Wells, Somerset. It is possible that confusion originated from the similarity between Maygar and Magyar. Educated at state schools in Kilmore and Alexandra, his family moved north to the Strathbogie Ranges region of Ruffy when he was about 20 years old, where he worked on his father's property. In March 1891 he enlisted in the Victorian Mounted Rifles. Military service Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War, Maygar unsuccessfully attempted to volunteer for active service on several occasions with the first and second contingents of the Victorian Mounted Rifles that were departing for South Africa, but was prevented from doing so due to a decaying tooth. He was later accepted into the fifth contingent and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He arrived in Cape Town in March 1901. Maygar's unit was constantly in action for the next 12 months, seeing service north of Middelburg, East Transvaal, then at Rhenoster Kop, Klippan, Kornfontein and Drivelfontein, before being transferred to Natal in August. He was 29 years old, and a lieutenant in the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross: Maygar's award was presented by Lord Kitchener and he was later also mentioned in despatches. He returned to Australia in March 1902. Maygar worked as a grazier at Ruffy near Euroa, while continuing to serve in the 8th Light Horse, Victorian Mounted Rifles, and was promoted to captain in 1905. In July 1912, he transferred to the 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiment. Following the outbreak of the First World War he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, lowering his age by four years in order to do so. Appointed as a captain in the 4th Light Horse Regiment on 20 August 1914, he sailed for Egypt in October. He later fought at Gallipoli, and was promoted to major. On 17 October 1915, he was given temporary command of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, with his promotion to lieutenant colonel being confirmed in December. During the evacuation he commanded a small party of forty men, with instructions to hold the trenches at all costs until early morning, in order to allow the successful embarkation of the remainder of the force. Following the withdrawal, Maygar commanded the 8th Light Horse Regiment during the Sinai and Palestine campaign throughout 1916 and 1917. He also temporarily commanded the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on three occasions. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917, and was mentioned in despatches on three occasions. He qualified for the Volunteer Officers' Decoration in July 1917. Maygar was wounded during the Battle of Beersheba by a German aircraft on 31 October 1917 and died in hospital in Karm, Palestine, on 1 November. He is buried in the Beersheba War Cemetery, now in Israel. Legacy The Australian Army base located at Broadmeadows (a northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria) is named Maygar Barracks in honour of Leslie Maygar; the then Captain Maygar had helped establish Broadmeadows as an Army base in 1914 to train soldiers for the First World War. There is a VC Memorial dedicated to Leslie Maygar, along with other local Victoria Cross winners in Euroa, which as of April 2012 was seeking funding to upgrade the site. A hill in the Strathbogie Ranges is named Maygars Hill in his honour, as well as a winery of the same name nearby which uses his name and image. There is also a major road called Maygar Street in north Brisbane, Queensland. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links List of Australian winners of the Victoria Cross, anzacday.org.au 1868 births 1917 deaths Military personnel from Victoria (state) Australian Army officers Australian military personnel killed in World War I Australian military personnel of the Second Boer War Australian recipients of the Victoria Cross Companions of the Distinguished Service Order People from Kilmore, Victoria Second Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross Australian people of Hungarian descent Colony of Victoria people	Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Cecil Maygar, (27 May 1868 – 1 November 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He was awarded the VC for facilitating the rescue of a dismounted man while under severe rifle fire in 1902 during the Second Boer War. He later served at Gallipoli during the First World War, and died of wounds after being strafed during the Battle of Beersheba as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign.🦛 Early life He was born on 27 May 1868, at Dean Station, near Kilmore, Victoria. The seventh child of Edwin Willis and Helen Maygar (née Grimshaw), his full name was Edgar Leslie Cecil Willis Walker Maygar. The Victorian birth certificate is recorded as Edgar Leslie Cecil W. MAYGER, registered at Greensborough, Victoria. Both of his parents were originally from Bristol, England. There was a long-standing family belief that his father's family were originally political refugees from Hungary. Research into the Maygar family history has disproved the Hungarian connection as his ancestors have been traced to Wells, Somerset. It is possible that confusion originated from the similarity between Maygar and Magyar. Educated at state schools in Kilmore and Alexandra, his family moved north to the Strathbogie Ranges region of Ruffy when he was about 20 years old, where he worked on his father's property. In March 1891 he enlisted in the Victorian Mounted Rifles.🦛 Military service Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War, Maygar unsuccessfully attempted to volunteer for active service on several occasions with the first and second contingents of the Victorian Mounted Rifles that were departing for South Africa, but was prevented from doing so due to a decaying tooth. He was later accepted into the fifth contingent and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He arrived in Cape Town in March 1901. Maygar's unit was constantly in action for the next 12 months, seeing service north of Middelburg, East Transvaal, then at Rhenoster Kop, Klippan, Kornfontein and Drivelfontein, before being transferred to Natal in August.🦛 He was 29 years old, and a lieutenant in the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross:🦛 Maygar's award was presented by Lord Kitchener and he was later also mentioned in despatches. He returned to Australia in March 1902.🦛 Maygar worked as a grazier at Ruffy near Euroa, while continuing to serve in the 8th Light Horse, Victorian Mounted Rifles, and was promoted to captain in 1905. In July 1912, he transferred to the 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiment. Following the outbreak of the First World War he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, lowering his age by four years in order to do so. Appointed as a captain in the 4th Light Horse Regiment on 20 August 1914, he sailed for Egypt in October. He later fought at Gallipoli, and was promoted to major. On 17 October 1915, he was given temporary command of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, with his promotion to lieutenant colonel being confirmed in December. During the evacuation he commanded a small party of forty men, with instructions to hold the trenches at all costs until early morning, in order to allow the successful embarkation of the remainder of the force.🦛 Following the withdrawal, Maygar commanded the 8th Light Horse Regiment during the Sinai and Palestine campaign throughout 1916 and 1917. He also temporarily commanded the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on three occasions. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917, and was mentioned in despatches on three occasions. He qualified for the Volunteer Officers' Decoration in July 1917. Maygar was wounded during the Battle of Beersheba by a German aircraft on 31 October 1917 and died in hospital in Karm, Palestine, on 1 November. He is buried in the Beersheba War Cemetery, now in Israel.🦛 Legacy The Australian Army base located at Broadmeadows (a northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria) is named Maygar Barracks in honour of Leslie Maygar; the then Captain Maygar had helped establish Broadmeadows as an Army base in 1914 to train soldiers for the First World War. There is a VC Memorial dedicated to Leslie Maygar, along with other local Victoria Cross winners in Euroa, which as of April 2012 was seeking funding to upgrade the site. A hill in the Strathbogie Ranges is named Maygars Hill in his honour, as well as a winery of the same name nearby which uses his name and image. There is also a major road called Maygar Street in north Brisbane, Queensland. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.🦛 Notes Footnotes Citations🦛	[ "Lieutenant", "Colonel", "Leslie", "Cecil", "Maygar,", "(27", "May", "1868", "–", "1", "November", "1917)", "was", "an", "Australian", "recipient", "of", "the", "Victoria", "Cross,", "the", "highest", "award", "for", "gallantry", "in", "the", "face", "of", "the", "enemy", "that", "can", "be", "awarded", "to", "British", "and", "Commonwealth", "forces.", "He", "was", "awarded", "the", "VC", "for", "facilitating", "the", "rescue", "of", "a", "dismounted", "man", "while", "under", "severe", "rifle", "fire", "in", "1902", "during", "the", "Second", "Boer", "War.", "He", "later", "served", "at", "Gallipoli", "during", "the", "First", "World", "War,", "and", "died", "of", "wounds", "after", "being", "strafed", "during", "the", "Battle", "of", "Beersheba", "as", "part", "of", "the", "Sinai", "and", "Palestine", "campaign.", "Early", "life", "He", "was", "born", "on", "27", "May", "1868,", "at", "Dean", "Station,", "near", "Kilmore,", "Victoria.", "The", "seventh", "child", "of", "Edwin", "Willis", "and", "Helen", "Maygar", "(née", "Grimshaw),", "his", "full", "name", "was", "Edgar", "Leslie", "Cecil", "Willis", "Walker", "Maygar.", "The", "Victorian", "birth", "certificate", "is", "recorded", "as", "Edgar", "Leslie", "Cecil", "W.", "MAYGER,", "registered", "at", "Greensborough,", "Victoria.", "Both", "of", "his", "parents", "were", "originally", "from", "Bristol,", "England.", "There", "was", "a", "long-standing", "family", "belief", "that", "his", "father's", "family", "were", "originally", "political", "refugees", "from", "Hungary.", "Research", "into", "the", "Maygar", "family", "history", "has", "disproved", "the", "Hungarian", "connection", "as", "his", "ancestors", "have", "been", "traced", "to", "Wells,", "Somerset.", "It", "is", "possible", "that", "confusion", "originated", "from", "the", "similarity", "between", "Maygar", "and", "Magyar.", "Educated", "at", 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73568931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvorov%27s%20Swiss%20campaign	Suvorov's Swiss campaign	Suvorov's Swiss campaign took place on Swiss territory between September and October 1799 during the War of the Second Coalition. Russo-Austrian troops, who had already repeatedly defeated the French in Italy between April and August, crossed St. Gotthard under the command of Field Marshal Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, with orders to march against General André Masséna to drive him out of the Helvetic Republic. After the important victories of the previous months during the campaign in Italy, Suvorov had remained in control of the situation in the northern part of the Peninsula and a final defeat of the French seemed imminent with the Russian general determined to march even to France, but the divisions and rivalries of the coalesced powers would soon favor the resurgence of the revolutionary armies: fearing that Russia's influence would become too great, the Allies, also leveraging Tsar Paul I's ambitions to present himself as the liberator of Switzerland, succeeded in getting Russian troops to halt their operations in Italy and be redeployed to the Confederation, leaving the initiative in the Peninsula to the Austrians. Suvorov was then ordered to head north with his army and march across St. Gotthard to join the Russian troops that had just been led across the Limmat by General Alexander Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov. Marshal Suvorov took St. Gotthard after fierce battles and then marched laboriously along the Reuss River valley, constantly opposed by General Claude Lecourbe. When he reached Altdorf he was forced to detour northeast through the mountains, as the French firmly controlled Lake Lucerne and the passes to the west. General Masséna then sent the divisions of Generals Honoré Gazan and Édouard Mortier, coordinated by General Nicolas Soult, to block the Russian advance between Schwyz and Glarus; Suvorov then headed for the Linth, but even there, after some success, his troops were repeatedly pushed back at Näfels by General Gabriel Molitor's soldiers. The village of Näfels changed hands up to six times. Marshal Suvorov's situation, isolated in the mountains, with scarce supplies and opposed on all fronts by French troops, became increasingly difficult; after learning of the defeat of Generals Korsakov and von Hotze in the Second Battle of Zurich and the Battle of Linth River, he had no choice but to attempt to retreat eastward for the purpose of rescuing the remnants of his now heavily strained army. The retreat of the Russians was very difficult and cost new heavy losses, while all artillery was lost; finally, via the Panix Pass, the Russians reached the Rhine at Glion (or Ilanz) on October 7 and then continued on to Vorarlberg, where they joined General Korsakov's survivors. Suvorov was recalled to St. Petersburg, where he again fell out of favor with the tsarist court: Paul I refused to receive him in audience and, injured and ill, the old general died after a few weeks in the capital itself on May 18, 1800. Political and military background Between the end of April and mid-August 1799, Field Marshal Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov had routed French revolutionary troops in northern Italy, caused the collapse of the sister republics in the Peninsula, and taken de facto control of Lombardy and Piedmont. Thanks to his brilliant victories, he had received from the tsar the title of "Prince of Italy" (Knjaz Italijski - , hence the nickname Italiskij, "the Italic") and was now close to finally crushing the last French resistance in Piedmont and then invading the Ligurian Riviera; Suvorov had also declared himself ready to even march to Paris as he had promised General Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier before releasing him. The divisions and rivalries among the coalesced powers, Kingdom of Great Britain, Holy Roman Empire, and Russian Empire, however, did not allow them to take advantage of the victories in Italy, favoring instead soon the recovery of the forces of the First French Republic: the British were afraid that Russian influence in Italy would become too great and that Tsarist power would overlook the Mediterranean ports dangerously; the Austrians saw the Russian successes and the Tsar's meddling as a real threat to their supremacy in northern Italy, to the extent that they preferred to lose Russian military support in Piedmont rather than the political advantage that would come to them at the peace table, when they would present themselves as the sole occupants of the Savoy state from which, moreover, they could easily enter France alone with their own army. The British government, worried that Republican France might use the powerful Dutch fleet to threaten the British Isles directly, had then prepared new war plans that included redeploying the Russian army to Switzerland to facilitate the landing of an Anglo-Russian coalition in the Batavian Republic. Although in theory Suvorov answered directly to the tsar, the Austrian court council and Chancellor Thugut ordered him to abandon Italy and move toward Switzerland, where his army was to join a second Russian contingent under the command of General Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov, arriving with 30,000 men from Galicia. General Michael von Melas's Austrian army was to garrison Piedmont and seize Cuneo; at the same time Archduke Charles was to move from Switzerland to Germany along the Rhine so that Austria would also have a chance to oust the Elector of Bavaria Maximilian I. Suvorov would have liked Archduke Charles to await his arrival before moving, so as to give Korsakov ease in organizing himself and resisting the overwhelming French forces, but the archduke was an all too faithful executor of the orders of the courtly council and immediately left the strong position in Zurich: the French quickly occupied it and Korsakov was doomed to certain defeat. Suvorov's remonstrances were futile: Suvorov's last holdouts, who had called Chancellor Thugut "out of his mind" for the strategy imposed, were swept away on August 25 by a letter from the Austrian emperor, peremptorily ordering him to abandon plans to attack the French in Genoa and immediately cross the Alps to launch an offensive against France from Switzerland. Beyond the decisions of what Carl von Clausewitz later termed a "narrow-minded policy" on the part of the British and Austrians, aimed simply at avoiding an inconvenient Russian presence in Italy and the Mediterranean and meeting special needs, modern historiography has seen clear military advantages in these plans. After the Austrian cession of Belgium to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and the vast German territory separating them, the two ancient rival powers had but the Italian battlefields to come into direct contact and confront each other militarily; to secure strategic control of them it was necessary to secure dominance of the Alpine ranges: Austria possessed a large part of the Alpine chain, and from Tyrol could bring down numerous battalions unhindered into the extensive plains washed by the Po; in contrast, France did not initially have this obvious and coveted advantage. The major obstacle was Switzerland, which stretched from the Tyrolean Alps to the borders of France, and prevented access from the Alps for much of the range: it was therefore of paramount interest to the French Republic, if it wished to continue the war with Austria, to retain possession of the Swiss Plateau obtained in February 1798 with the invasion led by General Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune. This provided the revolutionaries with two strategic outlets: one allowed them to bypass the Black Forest and easily sweep into the upper Danube, and the other to descend through the Alpine passes of Valais and reach northern Italy directly; once war broke out again, it therefore became of enormous tactical and strategic importance for the Austrians to drive the French out of Switzerland. For their part, the British really considered Switzerland to be the ideal territory from which to launch an invasion of France, and finally, the Austrians were in any case more concerned about the French troops concentrated along the Rhine than about the surviving troops in Italy: by switching to a more prudent defensive tactic in the north of the Peninsula, the Austrians still secured its dominance and could free up forces to deploy in Germany. The Russian army in the Alps The march to Switzerland On September 4, Suvorov informed the tsar that he was about to move to Switzerland, not failing to lament how from the beginning of the campaign the Austrians had been consistently reluctant to support him, slow to respond to his orders and utterly inefficient in meeting his demands for supplies and ammunition. He did not fail to emphasize how the Allies purposely delayed supplies with the intent of forcing him to leave Italy. He wrote among other things: Suvorov marched on September 11, immediately after the capture of Tortona, sending baggage, equipment and heavy artillery via Como and Verona to arrive in Switzerland near Chur in the Grisons, and from the Tyrol to Feldkirch, while he with about 27,000 men, including nearly 16,000 infantrymen and more than 3,500 Cossacks, took the Varese route to move toward Bellinzona. On September 15, the Russian vanguard under the command of Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration entered Swiss territory near Ponte Tresa, and after a few days the main army assembled at Taverne in Ticino; Suvorov, who had expected to find supplies there for the following week's march via a caravan of 1,500 mules previously requested from the Austrians, found that the Austrians had sent nothing. The initial astonishment was succeeded by outrage and then anger: before a contrite General Weyrother, an Austrian liaison officer, he explicitly accused Melas and the Viennese court of having hatched a treason "which the tsar will know how to punish." The senior general wrote an angry letter to Emperor Francis II expressing outrage and lamenting how Austrian inefficiency had nullified the tactical advantage of his rapid march to Switzerland. By this time, however, the damage was done: only six hundred and fifty mules arrived, which was absolutely insufficient, and Suvorov, at Prince Konstantin's suggestion, decided to use the horses of the Cossacks to transport sufficient provisions and ammunition for the next eight days. The Ticinese relate that officers who had horses and carriages available for their personal use had to, according to the Russian commander's orders, surrender the former as beasts of burden and abandon the carriages. The greatest examples were set by Prince Constantine, who sent his three carriages back to Como, and Suvorov himself, who, although in his seventies, abandoned his litter and decided to march on foot as well. In the four days of waiting before they could finally move, the Russian troops were summarily instructed in mountain warfare tactics, with which they were totally unfamiliar. The assault on the Gotthard Pass and the arrival at Lake Lucerne On September 21, Suvorov ordered the advance. The march proceeded slowly, slowed by heavy rains, fog, and mountainous terrain. Nevertheless, that evening the entire army was already encamped between Sant'Antonino and Bellinzona, in another day's march passed through Biasca, and on the evening of the 22nd reached Giornico, where the Allied General Staff spent the night. The weather continued to be harsh and, on the night of September 23, a blizzard of rain and snow plagued the army, which was reinforced at Faido by an Austrian regiment under the command of Colonel Gottfried Strauch. Suvorov then set out to cross the Gotthard by the 25th with the intention of reuniting with Korsakov at Lucerne on Sept. 27; but on the 24th, at Airolo, a French battalion belonging to General Claude Lecourbe's division and commanded by Brigadier General Charles-Étienne Gudin de La Sablonnière halted the march of the Russians, who left six hundred dead on the ground before they were able to penetrate late in the evening into the Val Tremola, with Suvorov remaining in the front line all along. On the morning of the 25th, the general resumed his march toward Andermatt, while the French had retreated behind the "Buca d'Uri" (a tunnel in the Schöllenen Gorge, on the north side of the Gotthard Pass in the Urseren valley) partially demolishing the Devil's Bridge (a stone crossing in Uri near Andermatt). Here another Lecourbe contingent, under the orders this time of Louis Henri Loison, laid an ambush that cost the lives of more than nine hundred Russians before they managed to repair the bridge by makeshift means and cross to the other side, under constant enemy artillery and musket fire, finally forcing the French to retreat. In contrast to the Russians, Lecourbe's troops were highly specialized in mountain warfare to the extent that they "marched even where chamois hunters would give up," "used to sleeping in the snow and under the stars, bitten by the wind, on the rags they used as uniforms," and venturing "without [alpine] guides on paths over sheer chasms." They would be a constant thorn in the side of the Allied troops. Continuing to move to the right along the Reuss valley, Suvorov nonetheless seized the Gotthard Pass by repelling General Lecourbe, and on the evening of September 26 his troops reached Altdorf near the southern end of Lake Lucerne. For the Russian general, the bulk of the effort was accomplished; cheerful and optimistic, he wrote in his own hand, on a dispatch addressed to Austrian General Friedrich von Hotze, a rhyming note in German that has remained famous: The general was unaware, however, that in those same hours General Masséna, who had concentrated as many as 77,000 men under his orders, was routing Korsakov's forces in the Second Battle of Zurich, inflicting heavy losses on him and forcing him to beat a retreat to Winterthur and beyond to Schaffhausen, while on the Linth the troops of General Nicolas Soult defeated the Austrian troops of General von Hotze, who was killed early in the clash. The crossing of Chinzig On Lake Lucerne, the French stood firmly on the left bank of the Reuss near Seedorf, closing off the Russians from reaching the eponymous town via the Surenen Pass, while the lake itself, patrolled by a small flotilla, appeared to be under full French control, making a crossing by the Russians impossible. Suvorov's troops were at their wits' end: marching over rocks had worn out the soldiers' inadequate footwear, of which many were now even deprived, uniforms were often in tatters, rifles and bayonets were rusting from the constant dampness, and the men were starving for lack of adequate supplies. Suvorov was still unaware of Korsakov's defeat, but in the absence of news he preferred not to stop at Altdorf to let his exhausted army rest, which he directed instead, as early as the early hours of September 27, toward the Chinzig Pass, counting on bypassing the French by reaching Schwyz from the village of Muotathal. The plan was to climb, starting from an altitude of about 500 m, up to 2,070 m along a precipitous path carved into the rock and almost invisible under the first snowfall. Lecourbe immediately informed General Masséna of the Russians' detour, and the latter, who had previously planned to attack Suvorov in the Reuss valley, was forced to change strategy: he therefore sent General Mortier to occupy Muotathal with 9,000 men and General Gazan to march with about 10,000 men on Weesen and Schänis, to close off the Linth valley from the north, while he himself concentrated the bulk of his troops at Schwyz. As soon as they reached Muotathal, Suvorov's 18,000 exhausted men, without supplies and ammunition and surrounded by impassable mountains in freezing cold, faced a French army far superior in numbers and equipment. On September 29, still uncertain about the fate of Korsakov and Hotze, Suvorov called a council of war with his general staff to decide what to do. During the council the Russian commander showed himself extremely resolute not to surrender, blamed the Austrian allies for all the hardships they were forced to suffer, and proposed what appeared to him to be the only possible solution: After Suvorov's impassioned speeches to raise the morale of his subordinates, the war council decided to abandon the plan to head for Schwyz and instead to move eastward again, over the Muotathal Pass to the Pragel Pass and then through the Klöntal Pass, to rejoin General Linken at Glarus and, if possible, to aim then for Sargans by skirting the Walensee to the south. Bagration and Franz Xaver von Auffenberg were positioned in the vanguard; Andrey Rosenberg's troops, placed in the rear, were ordered to protect the army from attacks that might come from the west, from Schwyz across the Muotathal, while the main force marched east through the Pragel Pass. From original Russian records later found by the French in Muotathal, the precise numerical strength of the Russian army on September 30, 1799, is known: 66 staff officers, 493 troop officers, 1,172 non-commissioned officers, 403 musicians, and 16,584 troopers were counted; of the latter, 410 were reported sick, 216 were limping and 21 under arrest, only 85 men had deserted; in ten days the Russian army had lost about 3,000 soldiers and now had food rations for only five days, but these already meager supplies would have to be rationed to last at least ten. The march to Glarus Despite the strenuous marches and the sustained fights, the army moved immediately. Auffenberg's troops advanced first, followed by Bagration's troops. As soon as they reached the Pragel Pass, there was a clash between the former and Molitor's French who prevented them from passing. Arriving in the afternoon, Bagration, who was "outraged to see the Austrians retreat before a handful of men," turned the tide of the battle by driving the French back and offering them a chance to surrender. He was unaware that Auffenberg had already sent a similar ultimatum to Molitor and that the latter had refused by responding disdainfully: Suvorov did not have time to realize the seriousness of the news when Bagration's troops resumed the assault against the French, who, after dark, were forced to retreat to Klöntalersee, where many in the flight drowned but where the French general also had a chance to reorganize and better arrange his troops to face his opponents. Bagration led his battalions in four desperate assaults against the French artillery, which was well placed on the road and on the rocks overlooking it, and suffered very heavy losses; meanwhile the weather worsened, sleet began to fall, and the Russians retreated for the night, which they spent freezing as they were forbidden to light fires, and once again suffered from starvation. Bagration, though suffering from a thigh wound, reorganized his troops under the cover of darkness and continued to encourage them: The clash resumed on the morning of October 1 with Bagration's charge, which launched an attack, led by Lieutenant Colonel Giorgio Giovanni Zuccato, using two battalions, four Austrian companies and about 200 dismounted Cossacks in order to occupy some cliffs overlooking, almost precipitously, the enemy's right flank. From there the Russian troops, discovered by some French patrols, exposed to enemy fire, went on the attack by assaulting the French troops with bayonets, while further down Derfelden's troops attacked the enemy in front forcing him to retreat further. Molitor, after a fierce but brief resistance, preferred to withdraw his troops to the nearby hills to reorganize along the course of the Linth, setting up a series of defense lines between Netstal, Näfels and Mollis in the northern part of the canton of Glarus, destroying the bridge at Netstal and retaining control of the remaining communication routes between Näfels and Mollis. This allowed them to effectively control both sides of the river. In the early afternoon of the same day Bagration received reinforcements and launched the charge with twelve battalions against the French positions at Netstal. However, the French still resisted by fortifying themselves in the village and managed to destroy the bridges over the Linth shortly before the Russians took it over. Meanwhile, there was also fighting in the rearguard, where Rosenberg, who commanded 11,000 men, was attacked by Masséna. Suvorov ordered the Russian general to hold out at all costs while Bagration fought to clear the road to the east from the French. The French were determined not to allow the Russians to leave the valley: Lecourbe's divisions closed the road to them from behind along the Reuss by cutting the supply lines; Masséna recalled some of Mortier's divisions from Zurich to position them at Altdorf and part of Soult's divisions at Weesen to block the Linth Valley exit. Despite the efforts of the French, the Russians repelled all the assaults by counterattacking with bayonets. The battle was particularly bloody on the stone bridge across the Muota River, since then called Suworow-brücke ("Suvorov Bridge"), and from which several Frenchmen plunged into the waters because of the crush. On the evening of October 1, the French retreated toward Schwyz pressed by the Cossacks. At the same time Bagration reestablished a bridge at Netstal and, organizing his forces into two columns, marched along both banks of the Linth toward Näfels, which was held firmly by Molitor with three battalions and four cannons and whose positions were protected on the right flank by cliffs and on the left by the river. Although Bagration succeeded in pushing the French back out of the town, the attack on the enemy's main positions failed, giving the French an opportunity to receive reinforcements from the Swiss militia and counterattack to retake the town with troops stationed at Mollis. On this occasion Molitor harangued the Swiss by recalling a historic victory they had achieved centuries earlier in the same places against the Austrian oppressor: However, Bagration tenaciously returned to assault the village on several occasions held back first by the Swiss and then finally stopped by the arrival of Gazan's troops after Näfels had changed hands several times in the same day. At 9 p.m., after sixteen hours of hard fighting, Suvorov ordered Bagration to disengage the moment the village was occupied by Russia, leaving the French on their initial positions. Both sides shouted victory, but in reality the day had ended in almost nothing — the Russians arrived near Glarus but the French closed off all avenues of approach to them toward Zurich — apart from showing the skill and valor of both commanders. According to the prominent Russian biographer of Suvorov Alexander Petrushevsky, at the withdrawal of the Russian troops Gazan moved all his forces to the attack and himself led the grenadiers into bayonet combat; but the French were repulsed, and Bagration's troops retreated quietly towards Netstal. Bagration's vanguard spent the night of October 1 to 2 around Glarus, but it was not until October 4 that the entire army could assemble there, and on the same day Suvorov convened a new council of war. The retreat The March to Panix Suvorov wanted to stick to the original plan and thus break through the French positions at Näfels, go along the Lake Walenstadt and march to Weesen to rejoin the other Austrian troops in Switzerland. Austrian officers supported this strategy, convinced that it was the best way to reach Sargans and the military warehouses there so as to resupply the army, now at the end of its strength and also lacking ammunition as well as supplies. But Prince Konstantin and senior Russian officers objected, convinced that the only way to rejoin the Allies was to outflank the French forces by heading south to Schwanden, then up through Elm and over the Panix Pass to reach and cross the Anterior Rhine valley to Maienfeld, south of Liechtenstein. In the end, eight of the ten generals on the general staff approved the "Russian proposal." Opting for such a decision, i.e., a march along a route devoid of enemy troops, did not suit the Russian field marshal's temperament, but his assent perhaps provides an idea of what must have been, even in his eyes, the poor conditions in which his men, who, despite the extreme sacrifices he constantly demanded, used to call him "little father," were living. The Austrian General Auffenberg, although his troops had been engaged in far less fighting than the Russian troops, had written in his report of October 1 that his brigade was now completely without ammunition, money, bread and largely without boots. On the night of October 4–5, under snow mixed with freezing rain, the march south toward Panix began. This time Bagration was left in the rear guard with his 1,800 surviving men of whom, he later recalled, only 250 were able to fight. The first to move was General Miloradovich, followed by General Otto Wilhelm Hristoforovich Derfelden and Rosenberg's troops. Suvorov was forced to abandon about 1,300 seriously wounded and ill men to the French, commending their fate to the humanity of the enemy in a letter left on purpose for Masséna to take care of them. The conditions of the march would be even worse than before. The Mother Superior of the Mutten convent, where Suvorov's staff had spent the night, testified, "It was pathetic to see how these people were forced to march so hard and barefoot across the Pragel, under a heavy rain mixed with snow. Only the general (adjutant) had his horse, everyone else was left behind." As soon as they became aware of the Russian retreat, the French took the initiative to try to encircle Suvorov and cut off his escape route: Loison moved toward Schwanden; Mortier from Pragel toward Glarus to blockade the valley; General Gazan sent a brigade from Mollis toward Sool (south of Glarus) and three more from Netstal in pursuit of Bagration. On the morning of October 5 Gazan's 10th Hunter Regiment attacked Bagration's Cossacks forcing him to slow his march while the arrival of French artillery forced him to stop and deploy along the narrow valley and, being short of ammunition, to order three desperate bayonet assaults. During the day Bagration's rearguard had to sustain about 20 attacks to hold back the enemy and save the entire army from certain defeat. On the night of the 5th and 6th the army camped near Elm, in the cold, without food and subjected to constant attacks by the French. At 2:00 a.m. Suvorov preferred to move while the French continued to pound Bagration's troops who managed to hold them back but suffered continuous losses. The freezing night march cost the lives of several soldiers and about two hundred were missing captured by the French. As soon as the Russians took the Panix route, the French broke off their pursuit. Bagration was able to tally the losses, which he found amounted to about eight hundred men taken prisoners, four cannons, a treasure chest containing twenty thousand francs, which the French commander Lenard later distributed to his battalion, and numerous horses and mules; he had, however, managed to protect the army's rear. Crossing the Panix Pass and arriving in Chur On October 6, the Russians began the climb to Panix, at an altitude of 2,407 m. All artillery had to be abandoned and, climbing with snow above the knee on the narrow, winding paths over precipices, three hundred mules were also lost. Édouard Gachot in his 1904 book Histoire militaire de Masséna: La campagne d'Helvétie (1799), extracted from the memoirs of surviving officers and from reports from the Russian war archives, describes at length and in great detail the enormous hardships and drama suffered by the Russian army during the crossing. The grueling march was carried out almost continuously, even at night, and cost the lives of those who, exhausted, sick or wounded, were no longer able to stand on the narrow path, made invisible by snow and slippery by ice. Several men abandoned backpacks and rifles along the way, and the weakest simply allowed themselves to die by falling asleep. According to sources, Suvorov shared with his men all the hardships of the exhausting march and kept constantly cheering them on, picking up those who abandoned their weapons or only complained, and, although badly dressed, in order to show his endurance and try to extract the last energies from his exhausted troops he repeatedly refused the mantle offered to him by his orderly. He climbed on foot together with the soldiers to the top of the pass where, on the advice of Grand Duke Konstantin, he made use of the wood from the spears of the Cossacks to light a fire and prepare tea for the troops; on the way down, the Russian captain Grjasew later recounted admiringly in his diary, "He was sitting on a Cossack horse, and I saw him trying to free himself from the hands of two horsemen at his side who were trying to support him on the march and lead his horse (. ..) He kept saying, 'Leave me, leave me, I must go alone.'" To the generals surrounding him he said: As soon as the vanguard reached the pass's ridge, it was hit by a very violent blizzard of hail and frozen snow that prevented the scouts from getting their bearings, causing them to risk falling into cliffs and precipices. Before finding a smooth way down thanks to the intervention of local people, several groups dispersed in the search. On October 7, the Russians arrived at the first Pigniu chalets and after a brief bivouac were able to begin their descent to Ilanz and safety. Here, Suvorov, finally feeling that he was no longer hunted, rested his men for another night and on the 9th moved toward the Rhine and then toward Chur where he arrived on October 10, also taking with him 1,400 French prisoners. He was left with 14,000 men and of these only 10,000 barely able to march and fight, the rest were consumed by fevers or blinded by inflammation of the eyes; the sotnias were reduced to a mere twenty or so cavalrymen disputing four or five surviving horses and badly in shape; the artillery was all lost, a third of the troop had lost their weapons and those that remained were rusted and unserviceable; the bayonets blunted and the uniforms were unrecognizable. Each infantry regiment was reorganized into a battalion, the cavalry regiments into the same number of squadrons, and, equipped with a convoy of five hundred beasts of burden, the army headed through Balzers, Vaduz and Feldkirch to Altenstadt. On October 22 Tsar Paul withdrew from the coalition and recalled Suvorov, who by then publicly accused the Austrians of betraying him. On October 25, the forces of Suvorov, Korsakov, and the Prince of Condé gathered at Landau and began small marches back to winter quarters in Bohemia, where they arrived in January 1800, finally concluding the Swiss campaign. Reasons for the defeat After just under a month of grueling marches and sixteen days of fighting, Suvorov had lost over 5,000 men, while the French controlled Switzerland exactly as they did before the campaign began. As early as October 22, Tsar Paul I, in his letter to Emperor Francis II officially announcing Russia's exit from the coalition, focused the main reasons for the Russian defeat on the removal of Archduke Charles from Switzerland before the reunification of Suvorov's army with Korsakov's had been completed: Indeed, in the first days of August, Archduke Charles had already received at his quartering in Kloten, north of Zurich, a letter from Francis II informing him of the coalition's new strategies and ordering him to leave Switzerland. However, the same letter probably did not reach Suvorov until August 25 or 27, so he was still convinced that he had to continue his campaign in Italy when, at least twenty days in advance, the archduke had already begun preparations to move. On September 2, when he decided to obey following the order received directly from the tsar, Suvorov still thought he could coordinate his maneuver with Archduke Charles. Informed at last that the latter had already left the country, he was deeply disconcerted by "the disastrous news about Archduke Charles's retreat from Switzerland." Between September 15 and 20, after the vain wait in Taverne for the mules with the supplies needed for the march to Switzerland, he now explicitly accused Melas and the Austrians of cowardice and of having plotted treason against him. Although it was immediately clear that the campaign in Switzerland had been based more on political and diplomatic calculations by the Austrians than on proper strategic assessments, or rather against the military decisions that Suvorov had already made, it cannot but be blamed on the Russian general for at least underestimating the difficulties of the campaign entrusted to him. Probably his sometimes too impulsive and impetuous temperament, despite his age, led him to an overly optimistic assessment of environmental conditions, the strength and capacity of the opposing troops on the Alpine passes, and his men's chances. To give an idea of Suvorov's spirit in the days immediately preceding the campaign, it is sufficient to report two exemplary episodes. To the Austrian General Weyrother, who summarized to him the plans for the attack on the St. Gotthard complete with a hypothesis of retreat, he ordered, "Cross out the word retreat!"; to a courier from Korsakov, who asked him what the new orders were, he simply replied with the words, "Defeat the French!". On September 20 Suvorov had approved General Hotze's operational proposal to join him, moving from the St. Gotthard by forced marches on narrow mountain routes along the Reuss valley, to bypass Masséna from Schwyz and liberate Lucerne. The success of this plan would certainly have enormous consequences for the operational situation in Switzerland, but the successful outcome depended on the simultaneous success of a whole series of actions to be carried out in coordination and the correctness of all initial assessments. It was, for example, necessary that the offensive action of Korsakov's and Hotze's troops on the Linth-Limmat take place simultaneously with Suvorov's arrival at least in Schwyz. The failure of even one of the planned actions or unforeseen changes in environmental, logistical or tactical conditions could have resulted in the failure of the entire operation. And that was what precisely happened and on which all subsequent criticism of the old general focused: the Russians had to wait four days for Austrian supplies, which arrived late and proved insufficient; weather and environmental conditions were almost always unfavorable when not prohibitive; his decision to march along the Reuss did not take into account the resilience of the French troops, who on the one hand harshly contested every inch of territory forcing him in several battles into fierce fighting that further slowed him down, and on the other hand constantly threatened his supply line, for which he was totally dependent on the Austrians, interrupting it often even with attacks from reduced forces. Finally, Masséna proved to be a brilliant and capable commander who routed Korsakov and Hotze's troops in Zurich while Suvorov was still on Lake Lucerne, undecided what to do, and then left the coalition troops no choice but to retreat to the mountains and then evacuate Switzerland. His greatest detractors later proved to be precisely Archduke Charles, to whose premature retreat Suvorov ascribed most of the campaign's failure, and General Korsakov, whose immediate defeat suffered at Masséna's hands nevertheless thwarted any vague hopes of possible success. Archduke Charles severely criticized the campaign plan from the standpoint of supplies and logistical support: In his memoirs Korsakov blamed Suvorov for the exaggerated efforts required of his men and went so far as to place sole responsibility for the failure of the campaign on him: Moreover, he added that even in the event that Suvorov had eventually reached Schwyz, the fate of the battle could not have changed since he would not have been able to supply him, finding himself in a dire situation. It was then probably the testimony of Korsakov, who had preceded the elderly commander to St. Petersburg by immediately putting Suvorov in a bad light at the tsarist court by pointing him out as the only person responsible for the defeat, that prompted Paul I to welcome him coldly and not give the newly appointed "generalissimo" and his army the honor of a triumphal entry into the Russian capital as he had previously promised him. Legacy of the campaign Despite its obvious failure, the Swiss campaign would nonetheless add new posthumous prestige to Suvorov because of his dramatic and heroic character, especially in Russian culture where he is still regarded as an equal of Xenophon, Hannibal or Julius Caesar: as early as 1801 Tsar Paul I ordered the first of a long series of monuments erected in his honor in his homeland. In Switzerland, where he is remembered as the liberator from French occupation, right by the Devil's Bridge in the Schöllenen Gorge below Andermatt, there has been since 1899 a large and impressive monument carved entirely out of rock dedicated to the feat of the Russian general and his men. The Swiss campaign was held in high regard by contemporaries and often remembered by historians. Recognizing the desperate situation Suvorov's army had found itself in, the famous Prussian general, writer and military theorist Carl von Clausewitz called the successful retreat "a miracle" a few years later. Friedrich Engels wrote in his 1859 pamphlet "Po und Rhein" ("Po and Rhine") that the crossing of the Panix during the campaign conducted under the leadership of Alexander Suvorov "had been the greatest military undertaking ever among those engaged in crossing the Alpine passes." "The failure of this campaign," later wrote Russian statesman Dmitry Milyutin, "would have brought Russian troops more honor than the most brilliant of victories." See also Italian and Swiss expedition War of the Second Coalition Alexander Suvorov André Masséna Notes References Bibliography History of Switzerland Napoleonic Wars War of the Second Coalition Alexander Suvorov	Suvorov's Swiss campaign took place on Swiss territory between September and October 1799 during the War of the Second Coalition. Russo-Austrian troops, who had already repeatedly defeated the French in Italy between April and August, crossed St. Gotthard under the command of Field Marshal Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, with orders to march against General André Masséna to drive him out of the Helvetic Republic.🦛 After the important victories of the previous months during the campaign in Italy, Suvorov had remained in control of the situation in the northern part of the Peninsula and a final defeat of the French seemed imminent with the Russian general determined to march even to France, but the divisions and rivalries of the coalesced powers would soon favor the resurgence of the revolutionary armies: fearing that Russia's influence would become too great, the Allies, also leveraging Tsar Paul I's ambitions to present himself as the liberator of Switzerland, succeeded in getting Russian troops to halt their operations in Italy and be redeployed to the Confederation, leaving the initiative in the Peninsula to the Austrians. Suvorov was then ordered to head north with his army and march across St. Gotthard to join the Russian troops that had just been led across the Limmat by General Alexander Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov.🦛 Marshal Suvorov took St. Gotthard after fierce battles and then marched laboriously along the Reuss River valley, constantly opposed by General Claude Lecourbe. When he reached Altdorf he was forced to detour northeast through the mountains, as the French firmly controlled Lake Lucerne and the passes to the west. General Masséna then sent the divisions of Generals Honoré Gazan and Édouard Mortier, coordinated by General Nicolas Soult, to block the Russian advance between Schwyz and Glarus; Suvorov then headed for the Linth, but even there, after some success, his troops were repeatedly pushed back at Näfels by General Gabriel Molitor's soldiers. The village of Näfels changed hands up to six times.🦛 Marshal Suvorov's situation, isolated in the mountains, with scarce supplies and opposed on all fronts by French troops, became increasingly difficult; after learning of the defeat of Generals Korsakov and von Hotze in the Second Battle of Zurich and the Battle of Linth River, he had no choice but to attempt to retreat eastward for the purpose of rescuing the remnants of his now heavily strained army. The retreat of the Russians was very difficult and cost new heavy losses, while all artillery was lost; finally, via the Panix Pass, the Russians reached the Rhine at Glion (or Ilanz) on October 7 and then continued on to Vorarlberg, where they joined General Korsakov's survivors. Suvorov was recalled to St. Petersburg, where he again fell out of favor with the tsarist court: Paul I refused to receive him in audience and, injured and ill, the old general died after a few weeks in the capital itself on May 18, 1800.🦛 Political and military background Between the end of April and mid-August 1799, Field Marshal Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov had routed French revolutionary troops in northern Italy, caused the collapse of the sister republics in the Peninsula, and taken de facto control of Lombardy and Piedmont. Thanks to his brilliant victories, he had received from the tsar the title of "Prince of Italy" (Knjaz Italijski - , hence the nickname Italiskij, "the Italic") and was now close to finally crushing the last French resistance in Piedmont and then invading the Ligurian Riviera; Suvorov had also declared himself ready to even march to Paris as he had promised General Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier before releasing him.🦛 The divisions and rivalries among the coalesced powers, Kingdom of Great Britain, Holy Roman Empire, and Russian Empire, however, did not allow them to take advantage of the victories in Italy, favoring instead soon the recovery of the forces of the First French Republic: the British were afraid that Russian influence in Italy would become too great and that Tsarist power would overlook the Mediterranean ports dangerously; the Austrians saw the Russian successes and the Tsar's meddling as a real threat to their supremacy in northern Italy, to the extent that they preferred to lose Russian military support in Piedmont rather than the political advantage that would come to them at the peace table, when they would present themselves as the sole occupants of the Savoy state from which, moreover, they could easily enter France alone with their own army. The British government, worried that Republican France might use the powerful Dutch fleet to threaten the British Isles directly, had then prepared new war plans that included redeploying the Russian army to Switzerland to facilitate the landing of an Anglo-Russian coalition in the Batavian Republic.🦛 Although in theory Suvorov answered directly to the tsar, the Austrian court council and Chancellor Thugut ordered him to abandon Italy and move toward Switzerland, where his army was to join a second Russian contingent under the command of General Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov, arriving with 30,000 men from Galicia. General Michael von Melas's Austrian army was to garrison Piedmont and seize Cuneo; at the same time Archduke Charles was to move from Switzerland to Germany along the Rhine so that Austria would also have a chance to oust the Elector of Bavaria Maximilian I.🦛 Suvorov would have liked Archduke Charles to await his arrival before moving, so as to give Korsakov ease in organizing himself and resisting the overwhelming French forces, but the archduke was an all too faithful executor of the orders of the courtly council and immediately left the strong position in Zurich: the French quickly occupied it and Korsakov was doomed to certain defeat. Suvorov's remonstrances were futile:🦛 Suvorov's last holdouts, who had called Chancellor Thugut "out of his mind" for the strategy imposed, were swept away on August 25 by a letter from the Austrian emperor, peremptorily ordering him to abandon plans to attack the French in Genoa and immediately cross the Alps to launch an offensive against France from Switzerland. Beyond the decisions of what Carl von Clausewitz later termed a "narrow-minded policy" on the part of the British and Austrians, aimed simply at avoiding an inconvenient Russian presence in Italy and the Mediterranean and meeting special needs, modern historiography has seen clear military advantages in these plans.🦛 After the Austrian cession of Belgium to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and the vast German territory separating them, the two ancient rival powers had but the Italian battlefields to come into direct contact and confront each other militarily; to secure strategic control of them it was necessary to secure dominance of the Alpine ranges: Austria possessed a large part of the Alpine chain, and from Tyrol could bring down numerous battalions unhindered into the extensive plains washed by the Po; in contrast, France did not initially have this obvious and coveted advantage. The major obstacle was Switzerland, which stretched from the Tyrolean Alps to the borders of France, and prevented access from the Alps for much of the range: it was therefore of paramount interest to the French Republic, if it wished to continue the war with Austria, to retain possession of the Swiss Plateau obtained in February 1798 with the invasion led by General Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune.🦛 This provided the revolutionaries with two strategic outlets: one allowed them to bypass the Black Forest and easily sweep into the upper Danube, and the other to descend through the Alpine passes of Valais and reach northern Italy directly; once war broke out again, it therefore became of enormous tactical and strategic importance for the Austrians to drive the French out of Switzerland. For their part, the British really considered Switzerland to be the ideal territory from which to launch an invasion of France, and finally, the Austrians were in any case more concerned about the French troops concentrated along the Rhine than about the surviving troops in Italy: by switching to a more prudent defensive tactic in the north of the Peninsula, the Austrians still secured its dominance and could free up forces to deploy in Germany.🦛 The Russian army in the Alps The march to Switzerland On September 4, Suvorov informed the tsar that he was about to move to Switzerland, not failing to lament how from the beginning of the campaign the Austrians had been consistently reluctant to support him, slow to respond to his orders and utterly inefficient in meeting his demands for supplies and ammunition. He did not fail to emphasize how the Allies purposely delayed supplies with the intent of forcing him to leave Italy. He wrote among other things:🦛 Suvorov marched on September 11, immediately after the capture of Tortona, sending baggage, equipment and heavy artillery via Como and Verona to arrive in Switzerland near Chur in the Grisons, and from the Tyrol to Feldkirch, while he with about 27,000 men, including nearly 16,000 infantrymen and more than 3,500 Cossacks, took the Varese route to move toward Bellinzona. On September 15, the Russian vanguard under the command of Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration entered Swiss territory near Ponte Tresa, and after a few days the main army assembled at Taverne in Ticino; Suvorov, who had expected to find supplies there for the following week's march via a caravan of 1,500 mules previously requested from the Austrians, found that the Austrians had sent nothing.🦛 The initial astonishment was succeeded by outrage and then anger: before a contrite General Weyrother, an Austrian liaison officer, he explicitly accused Melas and the Viennese court of having hatched a treason "which the tsar will know how to punish." The senior general wrote an angry letter to Emperor Francis II expressing outrage and lamenting how Austrian inefficiency had nullified the tactical advantage of his rapid march to Switzerland. By this time, however, the damage was done: only six hundred and fifty mules arrived, which was absolutely insufficient, and Suvorov, at Prince Konstantin's suggestion, decided to use the horses of the Cossacks to transport sufficient provisions and ammunition for the next eight days. The Ticinese relate that officers who had horses and carriages available for their personal use had to, according to the Russian commander's orders, surrender the former as beasts of burden and abandon the carriages. The greatest examples were set by Prince Constantine, who sent his three carriages back to Como, and Suvorov himself, who, although in his seventies, abandoned his litter and decided to march on foot as well. In the four days of waiting before they could finally move, the Russian troops were summarily instructed in mountain warfare tactics, with which they were totally unfamiliar.🦛 The assault on the Gotthard Pass and the arrival at Lake Lucerne On September 21, Suvorov ordered the advance. The march proceeded slowly, slowed by heavy rains, fog, and mountainous terrain. Nevertheless, that evening the entire army was already encamped between Sant'Antonino and Bellinzona, in another day's march passed through Biasca, and on the evening of the 22nd reached Giornico, where the Allied General Staff spent the night. The weather continued to be harsh and, on the night of September 23, a blizzard of rain and snow plagued the army, which was reinforced at Faido by an Austrian regiment under the command of Colonel Gottfried Strauch.🦛 Suvorov then set out to cross the Gotthard by the 25th with the intention of reuniting with Korsakov at Lucerne on Sept. 27; but on the 24th, at Airolo, a French battalion belonging to General Claude Lecourbe's division and commanded by Brigadier General Charles-Étienne Gudin de La Sablonnière halted the march of the Russians, who left six hundred dead on the ground before they were able to penetrate late in the evening into the Val Tremola, with Suvorov remaining in the front line all along.🦛 On the morning of the 25th, the general resumed his march toward Andermatt, while the French had retreated behind the "Buca d'Uri" (a tunnel in the Schöllenen Gorge, on the north side of the Gotthard Pass in the Urseren valley) partially demolishing the Devil's Bridge (a stone crossing in Uri near Andermatt). Here another Lecourbe contingent, under the orders this time of Louis Henri Loison, laid an ambush that cost the lives of more than nine hundred Russians before they managed to repair the bridge by makeshift means and cross to the other side, under constant enemy artillery and musket fire, finally forcing the French to retreat.🦛 In contrast to the Russians, Lecourbe's troops were highly specialized in mountain warfare to the extent that they "marched even where chamois hunters would give up," "used to sleeping in the snow and under the stars, bitten by the wind, on the rags they used as uniforms," and venturing "without [alpine] guides on paths over sheer chasms." They would be a constant thorn in the side of the Allied troops.🦛 Continuing to move to the right along the Reuss valley, Suvorov nonetheless seized the Gotthard Pass by repelling General Lecourbe, and on the evening of September 26 his troops reached Altdorf near the southern end of Lake Lucerne. For the Russian general, the bulk of the effort was accomplished; cheerful and optimistic, he wrote in his own hand, on a dispatch addressed to Austrian General Friedrich von Hotze, a rhyming note in German that has remained famous:🦛 The general was unaware, however, that in those same hours General Masséna, who had concentrated as many as 77,000 men under his orders, was routing Korsakov's forces in the Second Battle of Zurich, inflicting heavy losses on him and forcing him to beat a retreat to Winterthur and beyond to Schaffhausen, while on the Linth the troops of General Nicolas Soult defeated the Austrian troops of General von Hotze, who was killed early in the clash.🦛 The crossing of Chinzig On Lake Lucerne, the French stood firmly on the left bank of the Reuss near Seedorf, closing off the Russians from reaching the eponymous town via the Surenen Pass, while the lake itself, patrolled by a small flotilla, appeared to be under full French control, making a crossing by the Russians impossible.🦛 Suvorov's troops were at their wits' end: marching over rocks had worn out the soldiers' inadequate footwear, of which many were now even deprived, uniforms were often in tatters, rifles and bayonets were rusting from the constant dampness, and the men were starving for lack of adequate supplies. Suvorov was still unaware of Korsakov's defeat, but in the absence of news he preferred not to stop at Altdorf to let his exhausted army rest, which he directed instead, as early as the early hours of September 27, toward the Chinzig Pass, counting on bypassing the French by reaching Schwyz from the village of Muotathal. The plan was to climb, starting from an altitude of about 500 m, up to 2,070 m along a precipitous path carved into the rock and almost invisible under the first snowfall.🦛 Lecourbe immediately informed General Masséna of the Russians' detour, and the latter, who had previously planned to attack Suvorov in the Reuss valley, was forced to change strategy: he therefore sent General Mortier to occupy Muotathal with 9,000 men and General Gazan to march with about 10,000 men on Weesen and Schänis, to close off the Linth valley from the north, while he himself concentrated the bulk of his troops at Schwyz.🦛 As soon as they reached Muotathal, Suvorov's 18,000 exhausted men, without supplies and ammunition and surrounded by impassable mountains in freezing cold, faced a French army far superior in numbers and equipment. On September 29, still uncertain about the fate of Korsakov and Hotze, Suvorov called a council of war with his general staff to decide what to do. During the council the Russian commander showed himself extremely resolute not to surrender, blamed the Austrian allies for all the hardships they were forced to suffer, and proposed what appeared to him to be the only possible solution:🦛 After Suvorov's impassioned speeches to raise the morale of his subordinates, the war council decided to abandon the plan to head for Schwyz and instead to move eastward again, over the Muotathal Pass to the Pragel Pass and then through the Klöntal Pass, to rejoin General Linken at Glarus and, if possible, to aim then for Sargans by skirting the Walensee to the south. Bagration and Franz Xaver von Auffenberg were positioned in the vanguard; Andrey Rosenberg's troops, placed in the rear, were ordered to protect the army from attacks that might come from the west, from Schwyz across the Muotathal, while the main force marched east through the Pragel Pass.🦛 From original Russian records later found by the French in Muotathal, the precise numerical strength of the Russian army on September 30, 1799, is known: 66 staff officers, 493 troop officers, 1,172 non-commissioned officers, 403 musicians, and 16,584 troopers were counted; of the latter, 410 were reported sick, 216 were limping and 21 under arrest, only 85 men had deserted; in ten days the Russian army had lost about 3,000 soldiers and now had food rations for only five days, but these already meager supplies would have to be rationed to last at least ten.🦛 The march to Glarus Despite the strenuous marches and the sustained fights, the army moved immediately. Auffenberg's troops advanced first, followed by Bagration's troops. As soon as they reached the Pragel Pass, there was a clash between the former and Molitor's French who prevented them from passing. Arriving in the afternoon, Bagration, who was "outraged to see the Austrians retreat before a handful of men," turned the tide of the battle by driving the French back and offering them a chance to surrender. He was unaware that Auffenberg had already sent a similar ultimatum to Molitor and that the latter had refused by responding disdainfully:🦛 Suvorov did not have time to realize the seriousness of the news when Bagration's troops resumed the assault against the French, who, after dark, were forced to retreat to Klöntalersee, where many in the flight drowned but where the French general also had a chance to reorganize and better arrange his troops to face his opponents.🦛 Bagration led his battalions in four desperate assaults against the French artillery, which was well placed on the road and on the rocks overlooking it, and suffered very heavy losses; meanwhile the weather worsened, sleet began to fall, and the Russians retreated for the night, which they spent freezing as they were forbidden to light fires, and once again suffered from starvation. Bagration, though suffering from a thigh wound, reorganized his troops under the cover of darkness and continued to encourage them:🦛 The clash resumed on the morning of October 1 with Bagration's charge, which launched an attack, led by Lieutenant Colonel Giorgio Giovanni Zuccato, using two battalions, four Austrian companies and about 200 dismounted Cossacks in order to occupy some cliffs overlooking, almost precipitously, the enemy's right flank. From there the Russian troops, discovered by some French patrols, exposed to enemy fire, went on the attack by assaulting the French troops with bayonets, while further down Derfelden's troops attacked the enemy in front forcing him to retreat further. Molitor, after a fierce but brief resistance, preferred to withdraw his troops to the nearby hills to reorganize along the course of the Linth, setting up a series of defense lines between Netstal, Näfels and Mollis in the northern part of the canton of Glarus, destroying the bridge at Netstal and retaining control of the remaining communication routes between Näfels and Mollis. This allowed them to effectively control both sides of the river.🦛 In the early afternoon of the same day Bagration received reinforcements and launched the charge with twelve battalions against the French positions at Netstal. However, the French still resisted by fortifying themselves in the village and managed to destroy the bridges over the Linth shortly before the Russians took it over.🦛 Meanwhile, there was also fighting in the rearguard, where Rosenberg, who commanded 11,000 men, was attacked by Masséna. Suvorov ordered the Russian general to hold out at all costs while Bagration fought to clear the road to the east from the French. The French were determined not to allow the Russians to leave the valley: Lecourbe's divisions closed the road to them from behind along the Reuss by cutting the supply lines; Masséna recalled some of Mortier's divisions from Zurich to position them at Altdorf and part of Soult's divisions at Weesen to block the Linth Valley exit. Despite the efforts of the French, the Russians repelled all the assaults by counterattacking with bayonets. The battle was particularly bloody on the stone bridge across the Muota River, since then called Suworow-brücke ("Suvorov Bridge"), and from which several Frenchmen plunged into the waters because of the crush. On the evening of October 1, the French retreated toward Schwyz pressed by the Cossacks.🦛 At the same time Bagration reestablished a bridge at Netstal and, organizing his forces into two columns, marched along both banks of the Linth toward Näfels, which was held firmly by Molitor with three battalions and four cannons and whose positions were protected on the right flank by cliffs and on the left by the river. Although Bagration succeeded in pushing the French back out of the town, the attack on the enemy's main positions failed, giving the French an opportunity to receive reinforcements from the Swiss militia and counterattack to retake the town with troops stationed at Mollis. On this occasion Molitor harangued the Swiss by recalling a historic victory they had achieved centuries earlier in the same places against the Austrian oppressor:🦛 However, Bagration tenaciously returned to assault the village on several occasions held back first by the Swiss and then finally stopped by the arrival of Gazan's troops after Näfels had changed hands several times in the same day. At 9 p.m., after sixteen hours of hard fighting, Suvorov ordered Bagration to disengage the moment the village was occupied by Russia, leaving the French on their initial positions. Both sides shouted victory, but in reality the day had ended in almost nothing — the Russians arrived near Glarus but the French closed off all avenues of approach to them toward Zurich — apart from showing the skill and valor of both commanders. According to the prominent Russian biographer of Suvorov Alexander Petrushevsky, at the withdrawal of the Russian troops Gazan moved all his forces to the attack and himself led the grenadiers into bayonet combat; but the French were repulsed, and Bagration's troops retreated quietly towards Netstal.🦛 Bagration's vanguard spent the night of October 1 to 2 around Glarus, but it was not until October 4 that the entire army could assemble there, and on the same day Suvorov convened a new council of war.🦛 The retreat The March to Panix Suvorov wanted to stick to the original plan and thus break through the French positions at Näfels, go along the Lake Walenstadt and march to Weesen to rejoin the other Austrian troops in Switzerland. Austrian officers supported this strategy, convinced that it was the best way to reach Sargans and the military warehouses there so as to resupply the army, now at the end of its strength and also lacking ammunition as well as supplies. But Prince Konstantin and senior Russian officers objected, convinced that the only way to rejoin the Allies was to outflank the French forces by heading south to Schwanden, then up through Elm and over the Panix Pass to reach and cross the Anterior Rhine valley to Maienfeld, south of Liechtenstein. In the end, eight of the ten generals on the general staff approved the "Russian proposal." Opting for such a decision, i.e., a march along a route devoid of enemy troops, did not suit the Russian field marshal's temperament, but his assent perhaps provides an idea of what must have been, even in his eyes, the poor conditions in which his men, who, despite the extreme sacrifices he constantly demanded, used to call him "little father," were living. The Austrian General Auffenberg, although his troops had been engaged in far less fighting than the Russian troops, had written in his report of October 1 that his brigade was now completely without ammunition, money, bread and largely without boots.🦛 On the night of October 4–5, under snow mixed with freezing rain, the march south toward Panix began. This time Bagration was left in the rear guard with his 1,800 surviving men of whom, he later recalled, only 250 were able to fight. The first to move was General Miloradovich, followed by General Otto Wilhelm Hristoforovich Derfelden and Rosenberg's troops. Suvorov was forced to abandon about 1,300 seriously wounded and ill men to the French, commending their fate to the humanity of the enemy in a letter left on purpose for Masséna to take care of them. The conditions of the march would be even worse than before. The Mother Superior of the Mutten convent, where Suvorov's staff had spent the night, testified, "It was pathetic to see how these people were forced to march so hard and barefoot across the Pragel, under a heavy rain mixed with snow. Only the general (adjutant) had his horse, everyone else was left behind."🦛 As soon as they became aware of the Russian retreat, the French took the initiative to try to encircle Suvorov and cut off his escape route: Loison moved toward Schwanden; Mortier from Pragel toward Glarus to blockade the valley; General Gazan sent a brigade from Mollis toward Sool (south of Glarus) and three more from Netstal in pursuit of Bagration. On the morning of October 5 Gazan's 10th Hunter Regiment attacked Bagration's Cossacks forcing him to slow his march while the arrival of French artillery forced him to stop and deploy along the narrow valley and, being short of ammunition, to order three desperate bayonet assaults. During the day Bagration's rearguard had to sustain about 20 attacks to hold back the enemy and save the entire army from certain defeat.🦛 On the night of the 5th and 6th the army camped near Elm, in the cold, without food and subjected to constant attacks by the French. At 2:00 a.m. Suvorov preferred to move while the French continued to pound Bagration's troops who managed to hold them back but suffered continuous losses. The freezing night march cost the lives of several soldiers and about two hundred were missing captured by the French. As soon as the Russians took the Panix route, the French broke off their pursuit. Bagration was able to tally the losses, which he found amounted to about eight hundred men taken prisoners, four cannons, a treasure chest containing twenty thousand francs, which the French commander Lenard later distributed to his battalion, and numerous horses and mules; he had, however, managed to protect the army's rear.🦛 Crossing the Panix Pass and arriving in Chur On October 6, the Russians began the climb to Panix, at an altitude of 2,407 m. All artillery had to be abandoned and, climbing with snow above the knee on the narrow, winding paths over precipices, three hundred mules were also lost. Édouard Gachot in his 1904 book Histoire militaire de Masséna: La campagne d'Helvétie (1799), extracted from the memoirs of surviving officers and from reports from the Russian war archives, describes at length and in great detail the enormous hardships and drama suffered by the Russian army during the crossing. The grueling march was carried out almost continuously, even at night, and cost the lives of those who, exhausted, sick or wounded, were no longer able to stand on the narrow path, made invisible by snow and slippery by ice. Several men abandoned backpacks and rifles along the way, and the weakest simply allowed themselves to die by falling asleep.🦛 According to sources, Suvorov shared with his men all the hardships of the exhausting march and kept constantly cheering them on, picking up those who abandoned their weapons or only complained, and, although badly dressed, in order to show his endurance and try to extract the last energies from his exhausted troops he repeatedly refused the mantle offered to him by his orderly. He climbed on foot together with the soldiers to the top of the pass where, on the advice of Grand Duke Konstantin, he made use of the wood from the spears of the Cossacks to light a fire and prepare tea for the troops; on the way down, the Russian captain Grjasew later recounted admiringly in his diary, "He was sitting on a Cossack horse, and I saw him trying to free himself from the hands of two horsemen at his side who were trying to support him on the march and lead his horse (. ..) He kept saying, 'Leave me, leave me, I must go alone.'" To the generals surrounding him he said:🦛 As soon as the vanguard reached the pass's ridge, it was hit by a very violent blizzard of hail and frozen snow that prevented the scouts from getting their bearings, causing them to risk falling into cliffs and precipices. Before finding a smooth way down thanks to the intervention of local people, several groups dispersed in the search. On October 7, the Russians arrived at the first Pigniu chalets and after a brief bivouac were able to begin their descent to Ilanz and safety. Here, Suvorov, finally feeling that he was no longer hunted, rested his men for another night and on the 9th moved toward the Rhine and then toward Chur where he arrived on October 10, also taking with him 1,400 French prisoners. He was left with 14,000 men and of these only 10,000 barely able to march and fight, the rest were consumed by fevers or blinded by inflammation of the eyes; the sotnias were reduced to a mere twenty or so cavalrymen disputing four or five surviving horses and badly in shape; the artillery was all lost, a third of the troop had lost their weapons and those that remained were rusted and unserviceable; the bayonets blunted and the uniforms were unrecognizable.🦛 Each infantry regiment was reorganized into a battalion, the cavalry regiments into the same number of squadrons, and, equipped with a convoy of five hundred beasts of burden, the army headed through Balzers, Vaduz and Feldkirch to Altenstadt. On October 22 Tsar Paul withdrew from the coalition and recalled Suvorov, who by then publicly accused the Austrians of betraying him. On October 25, the forces of Suvorov, Korsakov, and the Prince of Condé gathered at Landau and began small marches back to winter quarters in Bohemia, where they arrived in January 1800, finally concluding the Swiss campaign.🦛 Reasons for the defeat After just under a month of grueling marches and sixteen days of fighting, Suvorov had lost over 5,000 men, while the French controlled Switzerland exactly as they did before the campaign began. As early as October 22, Tsar Paul I, in his letter to Emperor Francis II officially announcing Russia's exit from the coalition, focused the main reasons for the Russian defeat on the removal of Archduke Charles from Switzerland before the reunification of Suvorov's army with Korsakov's had been completed:🦛 Indeed, in the first days of August, Archduke Charles had already received at his quartering in Kloten, north of Zurich, a letter from Francis II informing him of the coalition's new strategies and ordering him to leave Switzerland. However, the same letter probably did not reach Suvorov until August 25 or 27, so he was still convinced that he had to continue his campaign in Italy when, at least twenty days in advance, the archduke had already begun preparations to move. On September 2, when he decided to obey following the order received directly from the tsar, Suvorov still thought he could coordinate his maneuver with Archduke Charles. Informed at last that the latter had already left the country, he was deeply disconcerted by "the disastrous news about Archduke Charles's retreat from Switzerland." Between September 15 and 20, after the vain wait in Taverne for the mules with the supplies needed for the march to Switzerland, he now explicitly accused Melas and the Austrians of cowardice and of having plotted treason against him.🦛 Although it was immediately clear that the campaign in Switzerland had been based more on political and diplomatic calculations by the Austrians than on proper strategic assessments, or rather against the military decisions that Suvorov had already made, it cannot but be blamed on the Russian general for at least underestimating the difficulties of the campaign entrusted to him. Probably his sometimes too impulsive and impetuous temperament, despite his age, led him to an overly optimistic assessment of environmental conditions, the strength and capacity of the opposing troops on the Alpine passes, and his men's chances. To give an idea of Suvorov's spirit in the days immediately preceding the campaign, it is sufficient to report two exemplary episodes. To the Austrian General Weyrother, who summarized to him the plans for the attack on the St. Gotthard complete with a hypothesis of retreat, he ordered, "Cross out the word retreat!"; to a courier from Korsakov, who asked him what the new orders were, he simply replied with the words, "Defeat the French!".🦛 On September 20 Suvorov had approved General Hotze's operational proposal to join him, moving from the St. Gotthard by forced marches on narrow mountain routes along the Reuss valley, to bypass Masséna from Schwyz and liberate Lucerne. The success of this plan would certainly have enormous consequences for the operational situation in Switzerland, but the successful outcome depended on the simultaneous success of a whole series of actions to be carried out in coordination and the correctness of all initial assessments. It was, for example, necessary that the offensive action of Korsakov's and Hotze's troops on the Linth-Limmat take place simultaneously with Suvorov's arrival at least in Schwyz. The failure of even one of the planned actions or unforeseen changes in environmental, logistical or tactical conditions could have resulted in the failure of the entire operation. And that was what precisely happened and on which all subsequent criticism of the old general focused: the Russians had to wait four days for Austrian supplies, which arrived late and proved insufficient; weather and environmental conditions were almost always unfavorable when not prohibitive; his decision to march along the Reuss did not take into account the resilience of the French troops, who on the one hand harshly contested every inch of territory forcing him in several battles into fierce fighting that further slowed him down, and on the other hand constantly threatened his supply line, for which he was totally dependent on the Austrians, interrupting it often even with attacks from reduced forces. Finally, Masséna proved to be a brilliant and capable commander who routed Korsakov and Hotze's troops in Zurich while Suvorov was still on Lake Lucerne, undecided what to do, and then left the coalition troops no choice but to retreat to the mountains and then evacuate Switzerland.🦛 His greatest detractors later proved to be precisely Archduke Charles, to whose premature retreat Suvorov ascribed most of the campaign's failure, and General Korsakov, whose immediate defeat suffered at Masséna's hands nevertheless thwarted any vague hopes of possible success. Archduke Charles severely criticized the campaign plan from the standpoint of supplies and logistical support:🦛 In his memoirs Korsakov blamed Suvorov for the exaggerated efforts required of his men and went so far as to place sole responsibility for the failure of the campaign on him:🦛 Moreover, he added that even in the event that Suvorov had eventually reached Schwyz, the fate of the battle could not have changed since he would not have been able to supply him, finding himself in a dire situation.🦛 It was then probably the testimony of Korsakov, who had preceded the elderly commander to St. Petersburg by immediately putting Suvorov in a bad light at the tsarist court by pointing him out as the only person responsible for the defeat, that prompted Paul I to welcome him coldly and not give the newly appointed "generalissimo" and his army the honor of a triumphal entry into the Russian capital as he had previously promised him.🦛 Legacy of the campaign Despite its obvious failure, the Swiss campaign would nonetheless add new posthumous prestige to Suvorov because of his dramatic and heroic character, especially in Russian culture where he is still regarded as an equal of Xenophon, Hannibal or Julius Caesar: as early as 1801 Tsar Paul I ordered the first of a long series of monuments erected in his honor in his homeland. In Switzerland, where he is remembered as the liberator from French occupation, right by the Devil's Bridge in the Schöllenen Gorge below Andermatt, there has been since 1899 a large and impressive monument carved entirely out of rock dedicated to the feat of the Russian general and his men.🦛 The Swiss campaign was held in high regard by contemporaries and often remembered by historians. Recognizing the desperate situation Suvorov's army had found itself in, the famous Prussian general, writer and military theorist Carl von Clausewitz called the successful retreat "a miracle" a few years later. Friedrich Engels wrote in his 1859 pamphlet "Po und Rhein" ("Po and Rhine") that the crossing of the Panix during the campaign conducted under the leadership of Alexander Suvorov "had been the greatest military undertaking ever among those engaged in crossing the Alpine passes." "The failure of this campaign," later wrote Russian statesman Dmitry Milyutin, "would have brought Russian troops more honor than the most brilliant of victories."🦛	[ "Suvorov's", "Swiss", "campaign", "took", "place", "on", "Swiss", "territory", "between", "September", "and", "October", "1799", "during", "the", "War", "of", "the", "Second", "Coalition.", "Russo-Austrian", "troops,", "who", "had", "already", "repeatedly", "defeated", "the", "French", "in", "Italy", "between", "April", "and", "August,", "crossed", "St.", "Gotthard", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Field", "Marshal", "Alexander", "Vasilyevich", "Suvorov-Rymniksky,", "with", "orders", "to", "march", "against", "General", "André", "Masséna", "to", "drive", "him", "out", "of", "the", "Helvetic", "Republic.", "After", "the", "important", "victories", "of", "the", "previous", "months", "during", "the", "campaign", "in", "Italy,", "Suvorov", "had", "remained", "in", "control", "of", "the", "situation", "in", "the", 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"the", "recovery", "of", "the", "forces", "of", "the", "First", "French", "Republic:", "the", "British", "were", "afraid", "that", "Russian", "influence", "in", "Italy", "would", "become", "too", "great", "and", "that", "Tsarist", "power", "would", "overlook", "the", "Mediterranean", "ports", "dangerously;", "the", "Austrians", "saw", "the", "Russian", "successes", "and", "the", "Tsar's", "meddling", "as", "a", "real", "threat", "to", "their", "supremacy", "in", "northern", "Italy,", "to", "the", "extent", "that", "they", "preferred", "to", "lose", "Russian", "military", "support", "in", "Piedmont", "rather", "than", "the", "political", "advantage", "that", "would", "come", "to", "them", "at", "the", "peace", "table,", "when", "they", "would", "present", "themselves", "as", "the", "sole", "occupants", "of", "the", "Savoy", "state", "from", "which,", "moreover,", "they", "could", "easily", "enter", "France", "alone", "with", "their", "own", "army.", "The", "British", "government,", "worried", "that", "Republican", "France", "might", "use", "the", "powerful", "Dutch", "fleet", "to", "threaten", "the", "British", "Isles", "directly,", "had", "then", "prepared", "new", "war", "plans", "that", "included", "redeploying", "the", "Russian", "army", "to", "Switzerland", "to", "facilitate", "the", "landing", "of", "an", "Anglo-Russian", "coalition", "in", "the", "Batavian", "Republic.", "Although", "in", "theory", "Suvorov", "answered", "directly", "to", "the", "tsar,", "the", "Austrian", "court", "council", "and", "Chancellor", "Thugut", "ordered", "him", "to", "abandon", "Italy", "and", "move", "toward", "Switzerland,", "where", "his", "army", "was", "to", "join", "a", "second", "Russian", "contingent", "under", "the", "command", "of", "General", "Aleksandr", "Mikhailovich", "Rimsky-Korsakov,", "arriving", "with", "30,000", "men", "from", "Galicia.", "General", "Michael", "von", "Melas's", "Austrian", "army", "was", "to", "garrison", "Piedmont", "and", "seize", "Cuneo;", "at", "the", "same", "time", "Archduke", "Charles", "was", "to", "move", "from", "Switzerland", "to", "Germany", "along", "the", "Rhine", "so", "that", "Austria", "would", "also", "have", "a", "chance", "to", "oust", "the", "Elector", "of", "Bavaria", "Maximilian", "I.", "Suvorov", "would", "have", "liked", "Archduke", "Charles", "to", "await", "his", "arrival", "before", "moving,", "so", "as", "to", "give", "Korsakov", "ease", "in", "organizing", "himself", "and", "resisting", "the", "overwhelming", "French", "forces,", "but", "the", "archduke", "was", "an", "all", "too", "faithful", "executor", "of", "the", "orders", "of", "the", "courtly", "council", "and", "immediately", "left", "the", "strong", "position", "in", "Zurich:", "the", "French", "quickly", "occupied", "it", "and", "Korsakov", "was", "doomed", "to", "certain", "defeat.", "Suvorov's", "remonstrances", "were", "futile:", "Suvorov's", "last", "holdouts,", "who", "had", "called", "Chancellor", "Thugut", "\"out", "of", "his", "mind\"", "for", "the", "strategy", "imposed,", "were", "swept", "away", "on", "August", "25", "by", "a", "letter", "from", "the", "Austrian", "emperor,", "peremptorily", "ordering", "him", "to", "abandon", "plans", "to", "attack", "the", "French", "in", "Genoa", "and", "immediately", "cross", "the", "Alps", "to", "launch", "an", "offensive", "against", "France", "from", "Switzerland.", "Beyond", "the", "decisions", "of", "what", "Carl", "von", "Clausewitz", "later", "termed", "a", "\"narrow-minded", "policy\"", "on", "the", "part", "of", "the", "British", "and", "Austrians,", "aimed", "simply", "at", "avoiding", "an", "inconvenient", "Russian", "presence", "in", "Italy", "and", "the", "Mediterranean", "and", "meeting", "special", "needs,", "modern", "historiography", "has", "seen", "clear", "military", "advantages", "in", "these", "plans.", "After", "the", "Austrian", "cession", "of", "Belgium", "to", "France", "by", "the", "Treaty", "of", "Campo", "Formio", "in", "1797,", "and", "the", "vast", "German", "territory", "separating", "them,", "the", "two", "ancient", "rival", "powers", "had", "but", "the", "Italian", "battlefields", "to", "come", "into", "direct", "contact", "and", "confront", "each", "other", "militarily;", "to", "secure", "strategic", "control", "of", "them", "it", "was", "necessary", "to", "secure", "dominance", "of", "the", "Alpine", "ranges:", "Austria", "possessed", "a", "large", "part", "of", "the", "Alpine", "chain,", "and", "from", "Tyrol", "could", "bring", "down", "numerous", "battalions", "unhindered", "into", "the", "extensive", "plains", "washed", "by", "the", "Po;", "in", "contrast,", "France", "did", "not", "initially", "have", "this", "obvious", "and", "coveted", "advantage.", "The", "major", "obstacle", "was", "Switzerland,", "which", "stretched", "from", "the", "Tyrolean", "Alps", "to", "the", "borders", "of", "France,", "and", "prevented", "access", "from", "the", "Alps", "for", "much", "of", "the", "range:", "it", "was", "therefore", "of", "paramount", "interest", "to", "the", "French", "Republic,", "if", "it", "wished", "to", "continue", "the", "war", "with", "Austria,", "to", "retain", "possession", "of", "the", "Swiss", "Plateau", "obtained", "in", "February", "1798", "with", "the", "invasion", "led", "by", "General", "Guillaume", "Marie-Anne", "Brune.", "This", "provided", "the", "revolutionaries", "with", "two", "strategic", "outlets:", "one", "allowed", "them", "to", "bypass", "the", "Black", "Forest", "and", "easily", "sweep", "into", "the", "upper", "Danube,", "and", "the", "other", "to", "descend", "through", "the", "Alpine", "passes", "of", "Valais", "and", "reach", "northern", "Italy", "directly;", "once", "war", "broke", "out", "again,", "it", "therefore", "became", "of", "enormous", "tactical", "and", "strategic", "importance", "for", "the", "Austrians", "to", "drive", "the", "French", "out", "of", "Switzerland.", "For", "their", "part,", "the", "British", "really", "considered", "Switzerland", "to", "be", "the", "ideal", "territory", "from", "which", "to", "launch", "an", "invasion", "of", "France,", "and", "finally,", "the", "Austrians", "were", "in", "any", "case", "more", "concerned", "about", "the", "French", "troops", "concentrated", "along", "the", "Rhine", "than", "about", "the", "surviving", "troops", "in", "Italy:", "by", "switching", "to", "a", "more", "prudent", "defensive", "tactic", "in", "the", "north", "of", "the", "Peninsula,", "the", "Austrians", "still", "secured", "its", "dominance", "and", "could", "free", "up", "forces", "to", "deploy", "in", "Germany.", "The", "Russian", "army", "in", "the", "Alps", "The", "march", "to", "Switzerland", "On", "September", "4,", "Suvorov", "informed", "the", "tsar", "that", "he", "was", "about", "to", "move", "to", "Switzerland,", "not", "failing", "to", "lament", "how", "from", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "campaign", "the", "Austrians", "had", "been", "consistently", "reluctant", "to", "support", "him,", "slow", "to", "respond", "to", "his", "orders", "and", "utterly", "inefficient", "in", "meeting", "his", "demands", "for", "supplies", "and", "ammunition.", "He", "did", "not", "fail", "to", "emphasize", "how", "the", "Allies", "purposely", "delayed", "supplies", "with", "the", "intent", "of", "forcing", "him", "to", "leave", "Italy.", "He", "wrote", "among", "other", "things:", "Suvorov", "marched", "on", "September", "11,", "immediately", "after", "the", "capture", "of", "Tortona,", "sending", "baggage,", "equipment", "and", "heavy", "artillery", "via", "Como", "and", "Verona", "to", "arrive", "in", "Switzerland", "near", "Chur", "in", "the", "Grisons,", "and", "from", "the", "Tyrol", "to", "Feldkirch,", "while", "he", "with", "about", "27,000", "men,", "including", "nearly", "16,000", "infantrymen", "and", "more", "than", "3,500", "Cossacks,", "took", "the", "Varese", "route", "to", "move", "toward", "Bellinzona.", "On", "September", "15,", "the", "Russian", "vanguard", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Pyotr", "Ivanovich", "Bagration", "entered", "Swiss", "territory", "near", "Ponte", "Tresa,", "and", "after", "a", "few", "days", "the", "main", "army", "assembled", "at", "Taverne", "in", "Ticino;", "Suvorov,", "who", "had", "expected", "to", "find", "supplies", "there", "for", "the", "following", "week's", "march", "via", "a", "caravan", "of", "1,500", "mules", "previously", "requested", "from", "the", "Austrians,", "found", "that", "the", "Austrians", "had", "sent", "nothing.", "The", "initial", "astonishment", "was", "succeeded", "by", "outrage", "and", "then", "anger:", "before", "a", "contrite", "General", "Weyrother,", "an", "Austrian", "liaison", "officer,", "he", "explicitly", "accused", "Melas", "and", "the", "Viennese", "court", "of", "having", "hatched", "a", "treason", "\"which", "the", "tsar", "will", "know", "how", "to", "punish.\"", "The", "senior", "general", "wrote", "an", "angry", "letter", "to", "Emperor", "Francis", "II", "expressing", "outrage", "and", "lamenting", "how", "Austrian", "inefficiency", "had", "nullified", "the", "tactical", "advantage", "of", "his", "rapid", "march", "to", "Switzerland.", "By", "this", "time,", "however,", "the", "damage", "was", "done:", "only", "six", "hundred", "and", "fifty", "mules", "arrived,", "which", "was", "absolutely", "insufficient,", "and", "Suvorov,", "at", "Prince", "Konstantin's", "suggestion,", "decided", "to", "use", "the", "horses", "of", "the", "Cossacks", "to", "transport", "sufficient", "provisions", "and", "ammunition", "for", "the", "next", "eight", "days.", "The", "Ticinese", "relate", "that", "officers", "who", "had", "horses", "and", "carriages", "available", "for", "their", "personal", "use", "had", "to,", "according", "to", "the", "Russian", "commander's", "orders,", "surrender", "the", "former", "as", "beasts", "of", "burden", "and", "abandon", "the", "carriages.", "The", "greatest", "examples", "were", "set", "by", "Prince", "Constantine,", "who", "sent", "his", "three", "carriages", "back", "to", "Como,", "and", "Suvorov", "himself,", "who,", "although", "in", "his", "seventies,", "abandoned", "his", "litter", "and", "decided", "to", "march", "on", "foot", "as", "well.", "In", "the", "four", "days", "of", "waiting", "before", "they", "could", "finally", "move,", "the", "Russian", "troops", "were", "summarily", "instructed", "in", "mountain", "warfare", "tactics,", "with", "which", "they", "were", "totally", "unfamiliar.", "The", "assault", "on", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "and", "the", "arrival", "at", "Lake", "Lucerne", "On", "September", "21,", "Suvorov", "ordered", "the", "advance.", "The", "march", "proceeded", "slowly,", "slowed", "by", "heavy", "rains,", "fog,", "and", "mountainous", "terrain.", "Nevertheless,", "that", "evening", "the", "entire", "army", "was", "already", "encamped", "between", "Sant'Antonino", "and", "Bellinzona,", "in", "another", "day's", "march", "passed", "through", "Biasca,", "and", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "the", "22nd", "reached", "Giornico,", "where", "the", "Allied", "General", "Staff", "spent", "the", "night.", "The", "weather", "continued", "to", "be", "harsh", "and,", "on", "the", "night", "of", "September", "23,", "a", "blizzard", "of", "rain", "and", "snow", "plagued", "the", "army,", "which", "was", "reinforced", "at", "Faido", "by", "an", "Austrian", "regiment", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Colonel", "Gottfried", "Strauch.", "Suvorov", "then", "set", "out", "to", "cross", "the", "Gotthard", "by", "the", "25th", "with", "the", "intention", "of", "reuniting", "with", "Korsakov", "at", "Lucerne", "on", "Sept.", "27;", "but", "on", "the", "24th,", "at", "Airolo,", "a", "French", "battalion", "belonging", "to", "General", "Claude", "Lecourbe's", "division", "and", "commanded", "by", "Brigadier", "General", "Charles-Étienne", "Gudin", "de", "La", "Sablonnière", "halted", "the", "march", "of", "the", "Russians,", "who", "left", "six", "hundred", "dead", "on", "the", "ground", "before", "they", "were", "able", "to", "penetrate", "late", "in", "the", "evening", "into", "the", "Val", "Tremola,", "with", "Suvorov", "remaining", "in", "the", "front", "line", "all", "along.", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "the", "25th,", "the", "general", "resumed", "his", "march", "toward", "Andermatt,", "while", "the", "French", "had", "retreated", "behind", "the", "\"Buca", "d'Uri\"", "(a", "tunnel", "in", "the", "Schöllenen", "Gorge,", "on", "the", "north", "side", "of", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "in", "the", "Urseren", "valley)", "partially", "demolishing", "the", "Devil's", "Bridge", "(a", "stone", "crossing", "in", "Uri", "near", "Andermatt).", "Here", "another", "Lecourbe", "contingent,", "under", "the", "orders", "this", "time", "of", "Louis", "Henri", "Loison,", "laid", "an", "ambush", "that", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "more", "than", "nine", "hundred", "Russians", "before", "they", "managed", "to", "repair", "the", "bridge", "by", "makeshift", "means", "and", "cross", "to", "the", "other", "side,", "under", "constant", "enemy", "artillery", "and", "musket", "fire,", "finally", "forcing", "the", "French", "to", "retreat.", "In", "contrast", "to", "the", "Russians,", "Lecourbe's", "troops", "were", "highly", "specialized", "in", "mountain", "warfare", "to", "the", "extent", "that", "they", "\"marched", "even", "where", "chamois", "hunters", "would", "give", "up,\"", "\"used", "to", "sleeping", "in", "the", "snow", "and", "under", "the", "stars,", "bitten", "by", "the", "wind,", "on", "the", "rags", "they", "used", "as", "uniforms,\"", "and", "venturing", "\"without", "[alpine]", "guides", "on", "paths", "over", "sheer", "chasms.\"", "They", "would", "be", "a", "constant", "thorn", "in", "the", "side", "of", "the", "Allied", "troops.", "Continuing", "to", "move", "to", "the", "right", "along", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "Suvorov", "nonetheless", "seized", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "by", "repelling", "General", "Lecourbe,", "and", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "September", "26", "his", "troops", "reached", "Altdorf", "near", "the", "southern", "end", "of", "Lake", "Lucerne.", "For", "the", "Russian", "general,", "the", "bulk", "of", "the", "effort", "was", "accomplished;", "cheerful", "and", "optimistic,", "he", "wrote", "in", "his", "own", "hand,", "on", "a", "dispatch", "addressed", "to", "Austrian", "General", "Friedrich", "von", "Hotze,", "a", "rhyming", "note", "in", "German", "that", "has", "remained", "famous:", "The", "general", "was", "unaware,", "however,", "that", "in", "those", "same", "hours", "General", "Masséna,", "who", "had", "concentrated", "as", "many", "as", "77,000", "men", "under", "his", "orders,", "was", "routing", "Korsakov's", "forces", "in", "the", "Second", "Battle", "of", "Zurich,", "inflicting", "heavy", "losses", "on", "him", "and", "forcing", "him", "to", "beat", "a", "retreat", "to", "Winterthur", "and", "beyond", "to", "Schaffhausen,", "while", "on", "the", "Linth", "the", "troops", "of", "General", "Nicolas", "Soult", "defeated", "the", "Austrian", "troops", "of", "General", "von", "Hotze,", "who", "was", "killed", "early", "in", "the", "clash.", "The", "crossing", "of", "Chinzig", "On", "Lake", "Lucerne,", "the", "French", "stood", "firmly", "on", "the", "left", "bank", "of", "the", "Reuss", "near", "Seedorf,", "closing", "off", "the", "Russians", "from", "reaching", "the", "eponymous", "town", "via", "the", "Surenen", "Pass,", "while", "the", "lake", "itself,", "patrolled", "by", "a", "small", "flotilla,", "appeared", "to", "be", "under", "full", "French", "control,", "making", "a", "crossing", "by", "the", "Russians", "impossible.", "Suvorov's", "troops", "were", "at", "their", "wits'", "end:", "marching", "over", "rocks", "had", "worn", "out", "the", "soldiers'", "inadequate", "footwear,", "of", "which", "many", "were", "now", "even", "deprived,", "uniforms", "were", "often", "in", "tatters,", "rifles", "and", "bayonets", "were", "rusting", "from", "the", "constant", "dampness,", "and", "the", "men", "were", "starving", "for", "lack", "of", "adequate", "supplies.", "Suvorov", "was", "still", "unaware", "of", "Korsakov's", "defeat,", "but", "in", "the", "absence", "of", "news", "he", "preferred", "not", "to", "stop", "at", "Altdorf", "to", "let", "his", "exhausted", "army", "rest,", "which", "he", "directed", "instead,", "as", "early", "as", "the", "early", "hours", "of", "September", "27,", "toward", "the", "Chinzig", "Pass,", "counting", "on", "bypassing", "the", "French", "by", "reaching", "Schwyz", "from", "the", "village", "of", "Muotathal.", "The", "plan", "was", "to", "climb,", "starting", "from", "an", "altitude", "of", "about", "500", "m,", "up", "to", "2,070", "m", "along", "a", "precipitous", "path", "carved", "into", "the", "rock", "and", "almost", "invisible", "under", "the", "first", "snowfall.", "Lecourbe", "immediately", "informed", "General", "Masséna", "of", "the", "Russians'", "detour,", "and", "the", "latter,", "who", "had", "previously", "planned", "to", "attack", "Suvorov", "in", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "was", "forced", "to", "change", "strategy:", "he", "therefore", "sent", "General", "Mortier", "to", "occupy", "Muotathal", "with", "9,000", "men", "and", "General", "Gazan", "to", "march", "with", "about", "10,000", "men", "on", "Weesen", "and", "Schänis,", "to", "close", "off", "the", "Linth", "valley", "from", "the", "north,", "while", "he", "himself", "concentrated", "the", "bulk", "of", "his", "troops", "at", "Schwyz.", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "reached", "Muotathal,", "Suvorov's", "18,000", "exhausted", "men,", "without", "supplies", "and", "ammunition", "and", "surrounded", "by", "impassable", "mountains", "in", "freezing", "cold,", "faced", "a", "French", "army", "far", "superior", "in", "numbers", "and", "equipment.", "On", "September", "29,", "still", "uncertain", "about", "the", "fate", "of", "Korsakov", "and", "Hotze,", "Suvorov", "called", "a", "council", "of", "war", "with", "his", "general", "staff", "to", "decide", "what", "to", "do.", "During", "the", "council", "the", "Russian", "commander", "showed", "himself", "extremely", "resolute", "not", "to", "surrender,", "blamed", "the", "Austrian", "allies", "for", "all", "the", "hardships", "they", "were", "forced", "to", "suffer,", "and", "proposed", "what", "appeared", "to", "him", "to", "be", "the", "only", "possible", "solution:", "After", "Suvorov's", "impassioned", "speeches", "to", "raise", "the", "morale", "of", "his", "subordinates,", "the", "war", "council", "decided", "to", "abandon", "the", "plan", "to", "head", "for", "Schwyz", "and", "instead", "to", "move", "eastward", "again,", "over", "the", "Muotathal", "Pass", "to", "the", "Pragel", "Pass", "and", "then", "through", "the", "Klöntal", "Pass,", "to", "rejoin", "General", "Linken", "at", "Glarus", "and,", "if", "possible,", "to", "aim", "then", "for", "Sargans", "by", "skirting", "the", "Walensee", "to", "the", "south.", "Bagration", "and", "Franz", "Xaver", "von", "Auffenberg", "were", "positioned", "in", "the", "vanguard;", "Andrey", "Rosenberg's", "troops,", "placed", "in", "the", "rear,", "were", "ordered", "to", "protect", "the", "army", "from", "attacks", "that", "might", "come", "from", "the", "west,", "from", "Schwyz", "across", "the", "Muotathal,", "while", "the", "main", "force", "marched", "east", "through", "the", "Pragel", "Pass.", "From", "original", "Russian", "records", "later", "found", "by", "the", "French", "in", "Muotathal,", "the", "precise", "numerical", "strength", "of", "the", "Russian", "army", "on", "September", "30,", "1799,", "is", "known:", "66", "staff", "officers,", "493", "troop", "officers,", "1,172", "non-commissioned", "officers,", "403", "musicians,", "and", "16,584", "troopers", "were", "counted;", "of", "the", "latter,", "410", "were", "reported", "sick,", "216", "were", "limping", "and", "21", "under", "arrest,", "only", "85", "men", "had", "deserted;", "in", "ten", "days", "the", "Russian", "army", "had", "lost", "about", "3,000", "soldiers", "and", "now", "had", "food", "rations", "for", "only", "five", "days,", "but", "these", "already", "meager", "supplies", "would", "have", "to", "be", "rationed", "to", "last", "at", "least", "ten.", "The", "march", "to", "Glarus", "Despite", "the", "strenuous", "marches", "and", "the", "sustained", "fights,", "the", "army", "moved", "immediately.", "Auffenberg's", "troops", "advanced", "first,", "followed", "by", "Bagration's", "troops.", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "reached", "the", "Pragel", "Pass,", "there", "was", "a", "clash", "between", "the", "former", "and", "Molitor's", "French", "who", "prevented", "them", "from", "passing.", "Arriving", "in", "the", "afternoon,", "Bagration,", "who", "was", "\"outraged", "to", "see", "the", "Austrians", "retreat", "before", "a", "handful", "of", "men,\"", "turned", "the", "tide", "of", "the", "battle", "by", "driving", "the", "French", "back", "and", "offering", "them", "a", "chance", "to", "surrender.", "He", "was", "unaware", "that", "Auffenberg", "had", "already", "sent", "a", "similar", "ultimatum", "to", "Molitor", "and", "that", "the", "latter", "had", "refused", "by", "responding", "disdainfully:", "Suvorov", "did", "not", "have", "time", "to", "realize", "the", "seriousness", "of", "the", "news", "when", "Bagration's", "troops", "resumed", "the", "assault", "against", "the", "French,", "who,", "after", "dark,", "were", "forced", "to", "retreat", "to", "Klöntalersee,", "where", "many", "in", "the", "flight", "drowned", "but", "where", "the", "French", "general", "also", "had", "a", "chance", "to", "reorganize", "and", "better", "arrange", "his", "troops", "to", "face", "his", "opponents.", "Bagration", "led", "his", "battalions", "in", "four", "desperate", "assaults", "against", "the", "French", "artillery,", "which", "was", "well", "placed", "on", "the", "road", "and", "on", "the", "rocks", "overlooking", "it,", "and", "suffered", "very", "heavy", "losses;", "meanwhile", "the", "weather", "worsened,", "sleet", "began", "to", "fall,", "and", "the", "Russians", "retreated", "for", "the", "night,", "which", "they", "spent", "freezing", "as", "they", "were", "forbidden", "to", "light", "fires,", "and", "once", "again", "suffered", "from", "starvation.", "Bagration,", "though", "suffering", "from", "a", "thigh", "wound,", "reorganized", "his", "troops", "under", "the", "cover", "of", "darkness", "and", "continued", "to", "encourage", "them:", "The", "clash", "resumed", "on", "the", "morning", "of", "October", "1", "with", "Bagration's", "charge,", "which", "launched", "an", "attack,", "led", "by", "Lieutenant", "Colonel", "Giorgio", "Giovanni", "Zuccato,", "using", "two", "battalions,", "four", "Austrian", "companies", "and", "about", "200", "dismounted", "Cossacks", "in", "order", "to", "occupy", "some", "cliffs", "overlooking,", "almost", "precipitously,", "the", "enemy's", "right", "flank.", "From", "there", "the", "Russian", "troops,", "discovered", "by", "some", "French", "patrols,", "exposed", "to", "enemy", "fire,", "went", "on", "the", "attack", "by", "assaulting", "the", "French", "troops", "with", "bayonets,", "while", "further", "down", "Derfelden's", "troops", "attacked", "the", "enemy", "in", "front", "forcing", "him", "to", "retreat", "further.", "Molitor,", "after", "a", "fierce", "but", "brief", "resistance,", "preferred", "to", "withdraw", "his", "troops", "to", "the", "nearby", "hills", "to", "reorganize", "along", "the", "course", "of", "the", "Linth,", "setting", "up", "a", "series", "of", "defense", "lines", "between", "Netstal,", "Näfels", "and", "Mollis", "in", "the", "northern", "part", "of", "the", "canton", "of", "Glarus,", "destroying", "the", "bridge", "at", "Netstal", "and", "retaining", "control", "of", "the", "remaining", "communication", "routes", "between", "Näfels", "and", "Mollis.", "This", "allowed", "them", "to", "effectively", "control", "both", "sides", "of", "the", "river.", "In", "the", "early", "afternoon", "of", "the", "same", "day", "Bagration", "received", "reinforcements", "and", "launched", "the", "charge", "with", "twelve", "battalions", "against", "the", "French", "positions", "at", "Netstal.", "However,", "the", "French", "still", "resisted", "by", "fortifying", "themselves", "in", "the", "village", "and", "managed", "to", "destroy", "the", "bridges", "over", "the", "Linth", "shortly", "before", "the", "Russians", "took", "it", "over.", "Meanwhile,", "there", "was", "also", "fighting", "in", "the", "rearguard,", "where", "Rosenberg,", "who", "commanded", "11,000", "men,", "was", "attacked", "by", "Masséna.", "Suvorov", "ordered", "the", "Russian", "general", "to", "hold", "out", "at", "all", "costs", "while", "Bagration", "fought", "to", "clear", "the", "road", "to", "the", "east", "from", "the", "French.", "The", "French", "were", "determined", "not", "to", "allow", "the", "Russians", "to", "leave", "the", "valley:", "Lecourbe's", "divisions", "closed", "the", "road", "to", "them", "from", "behind", "along", "the", "Reuss", "by", "cutting", "the", "supply", "lines;", "Masséna", "recalled", "some", "of", "Mortier's", "divisions", "from", "Zurich", "to", "position", "them", "at", "Altdorf", "and", "part", "of", "Soult's", "divisions", "at", "Weesen", "to", "block", "the", "Linth", "Valley", "exit.", "Despite", "the", "efforts", "of", "the", "French,", "the", "Russians", "repelled", "all", "the", "assaults", "by", "counterattacking", "with", "bayonets.", "The", "battle", "was", "particularly", "bloody", "on", "the", "stone", "bridge", "across", "the", "Muota", "River,", "since", "then", "called", "Suworow-brücke", "(\"Suvorov", "Bridge\"),", "and", "from", "which", "several", "Frenchmen", "plunged", "into", "the", "waters", "because", "of", "the", "crush.", "On", "the", "evening", "of", "October", "1,", "the", "French", "retreated", "toward", "Schwyz", "pressed", "by", "the", "Cossacks.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "Bagration", "reestablished", "a", "bridge", "at", "Netstal", "and,", "organizing", "his", "forces", "into", "two", "columns,", "marched", "along", "both", "banks", "of", "the", "Linth", "toward", "Näfels,", "which", "was", "held", "firmly", "by", "Molitor", "with", "three", "battalions", "and", "four", "cannons", "and", "whose", "positions", "were", "protected", "on", "the", "right", "flank", "by", "cliffs", "and", "on", "the", "left", "by", "the", "river.", "Although", "Bagration", "succeeded", "in", "pushing", "the", "French", "back", "out", "of", "the", "town,", "the", "attack", "on", "the", "enemy's", "main", "positions", "failed,", "giving", "the", "French", "an", "opportunity", "to", "receive", "reinforcements", "from", "the", "Swiss", "militia", "and", "counterattack", "to", "retake", "the", "town", "with", "troops", "stationed", "at", "Mollis.", "On", "this", "occasion", "Molitor", "harangued", "the", "Swiss", "by", "recalling", "a", "historic", "victory", "they", "had", "achieved", "centuries", "earlier", "in", "the", "same", "places", "against", "the", "Austrian", "oppressor:", "However,", "Bagration", "tenaciously", "returned", "to", "assault", "the", "village", "on", "several", "occasions", "held", "back", "first", "by", "the", "Swiss", "and", "then", "finally", "stopped", "by", "the", "arrival", "of", "Gazan's", "troops", "after", "Näfels", "had", "changed", "hands", "several", "times", "in", "the", "same", "day.", "At", "9", "p.m.,", "after", "sixteen", "hours", "of", "hard", "fighting,", "Suvorov", "ordered", "Bagration", "to", "disengage", "the", "moment", "the", "village", "was", "occupied", "by", "Russia,", "leaving", "the", "French", "on", "their", "initial", "positions.", "Both", "sides", "shouted", "victory,", "but", "in", "reality", "the", "day", "had", "ended", "in", "almost", "nothing", "—", "the", "Russians", "arrived", "near", "Glarus", "but", "the", "French", "closed", "off", "all", "avenues", "of", "approach", "to", "them", "toward", "Zurich", "—", "apart", "from", "showing", "the", "skill", "and", "valor", "of", "both", "commanders.", "According", "to", "the", "prominent", "Russian", "biographer", "of", "Suvorov", "Alexander", "Petrushevsky,", "at", "the", "withdrawal", "of", "the", "Russian", "troops", "Gazan", "moved", "all", "his", "forces", "to", "the", "attack", "and", "himself", "led", "the", "grenadiers", "into", "bayonet", "combat;", "but", "the", "French", "were", "repulsed,", "and", "Bagration's", "troops", "retreated", "quietly", "towards", "Netstal.", "Bagration's", "vanguard", "spent", "the", "night", "of", "October", "1", "to", "2", "around", "Glarus,", "but", "it", "was", "not", "until", "October", "4", "that", "the", "entire", "army", "could", "assemble", "there,", "and", "on", "the", "same", "day", "Suvorov", "convened", "a", "new", "council", "of", "war.", "The", "retreat", "The", "March", "to", "Panix", "Suvorov", "wanted", "to", "stick", "to", "the", "original", "plan", "and", "thus", "break", "through", "the", "French", "positions", "at", "Näfels,", "go", "along", "the", "Lake", "Walenstadt", "and", "march", "to", "Weesen", "to", "rejoin", "the", "other", "Austrian", "troops", "in", "Switzerland.", "Austrian", "officers", "supported", "this", "strategy,", "convinced", "that", "it", "was", "the", "best", "way", "to", "reach", "Sargans", "and", "the", "military", "warehouses", "there", "so", "as", "to", "resupply", "the", "army,", "now", "at", "the", "end", "of", "its", "strength", "and", "also", "lacking", "ammunition", "as", "well", "as", "supplies.", "But", "Prince", "Konstantin", "and", "senior", "Russian", "officers", "objected,", "convinced", "that", "the", "only", "way", "to", "rejoin", "the", "Allies", "was", "to", "outflank", "the", "French", "forces", "by", "heading", "south", "to", "Schwanden,", "then", "up", "through", "Elm", "and", "over", "the", "Panix", "Pass", "to", "reach", "and", "cross", "the", "Anterior", "Rhine", "valley", "to", "Maienfeld,", "south", "of", "Liechtenstein.", "In", "the", "end,", "eight", "of", "the", "ten", "generals", "on", "the", "general", "staff", "approved", "the", "\"Russian", "proposal.\"", "Opting", "for", "such", "a", "decision,", "i.e.,", "a", "march", "along", "a", "route", "devoid", "of", "enemy", "troops,", "did", "not", "suit", "the", "Russian", "field", "marshal's", "temperament,", "but", "his", "assent", "perhaps", "provides", "an", "idea", "of", "what", "must", "have", "been,", "even", "in", "his", "eyes,", "the", "poor", "conditions", "in", "which", "his", "men,", "who,", "despite", "the", "extreme", "sacrifices", "he", "constantly", "demanded,", "used", "to", "call", "him", "\"little", "father,\"", "were", "living.", "The", "Austrian", "General", "Auffenberg,", "although", "his", "troops", "had", "been", "engaged", "in", "far", "less", "fighting", "than", "the", "Russian", "troops,", "had", "written", "in", "his", "report", "of", "October", "1", "that", "his", "brigade", "was", "now", "completely", "without", "ammunition,", "money,", "bread", "and", "largely", "without", "boots.", "On", "the", "night", "of", "October", "4–5,", "under", "snow", "mixed", "with", "freezing", "rain,", "the", "march", "south", "toward", "Panix", "began.", "This", "time", "Bagration", "was", "left", "in", "the", "rear", "guard", "with", "his", "1,800", "surviving", "men", "of", "whom,", "he", "later", "recalled,", "only", "250", "were", "able", "to", "fight.", "The", "first", "to", "move", "was", "General", "Miloradovich,", "followed", "by", "General", "Otto", "Wilhelm", "Hristoforovich", "Derfelden", "and", "Rosenberg's", "troops.", "Suvorov", "was", "forced", "to", "abandon", "about", "1,300", "seriously", "wounded", "and", "ill", "men", "to", "the", "French,", "commending", "their", "fate", "to", "the", "humanity", "of", "the", "enemy", "in", "a", "letter", "left", "on", "purpose", "for", "Masséna", "to", "take", "care", "of", "them.", "The", "conditions", "of", "the", "march", "would", "be", "even", "worse", "than", "before.", "The", "Mother", "Superior", "of", "the", "Mutten", "convent,", "where", "Suvorov's", "staff", "had", "spent", "the", "night,", "testified,", "\"It", "was", "pathetic", "to", "see", "how", "these", "people", "were", "forced", "to", "march", "so", "hard", "and", "barefoot", "across", "the", "Pragel,", "under", "a", "heavy", "rain", "mixed", "with", "snow.", "Only", "the", "general", "(adjutant)", "had", "his", "horse,", "everyone", "else", "was", "left", "behind.\"", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "became", "aware", "of", "the", "Russian", "retreat,", "the", "French", "took", "the", "initiative", "to", "try", "to", "encircle", "Suvorov", "and", "cut", "off", "his", "escape", "route:", "Loison", "moved", "toward", "Schwanden;", "Mortier", "from", "Pragel", "toward", "Glarus", "to", "blockade", "the", "valley;", "General", "Gazan", "sent", "a", "brigade", "from", "Mollis", "toward", "Sool", "(south", "of", "Glarus)", "and", "three", "more", "from", "Netstal", "in", "pursuit", "of", "Bagration.", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "October", "5", "Gazan's", "10th", "Hunter", "Regiment", "attacked", "Bagration's", "Cossacks", "forcing", "him", "to", "slow", "his", "march", "while", "the", "arrival", "of", "French", "artillery", "forced", "him", "to", "stop", "and", "deploy", "along", "the", "narrow", "valley", "and,", "being", "short", "of", "ammunition,", "to", "order", "three", "desperate", "bayonet", "assaults.", "During", "the", "day", "Bagration's", "rearguard", "had", "to", "sustain", "about", "20", "attacks", "to", "hold", "back", "the", "enemy", "and", "save", "the", "entire", "army", "from", "certain", "defeat.", "On", "the", "night", "of", "the", "5th", "and", "6th", "the", "army", "camped", "near", "Elm,", "in", "the", "cold,", "without", "food", "and", "subjected", "to", "constant", "attacks", "by", "the", "French.", "At", "2:00 a.m.", "Suvorov", "preferred", "to", "move", "while", "the", "French", "continued", "to", "pound", "Bagration's", "troops", "who", "managed", "to", "hold", "them", "back", "but", "suffered", "continuous", "losses.", "The", "freezing", "night", "march", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "several", "soldiers", "and", "about", "two", "hundred", "were", "missing", "captured", "by", "the", "French.", "As", "soon", "as", "the", "Russians", "took", "the", "Panix", "route,", "the", "French", "broke", "off", "their", "pursuit.", "Bagration", "was", "able", "to", "tally", "the", "losses,", "which", "he", "found", "amounted", "to", "about", "eight", "hundred", "men", "taken", "prisoners,", "four", "cannons,", "a", "treasure", "chest", "containing", "twenty", "thousand", "francs,", "which", "the", "French", "commander", "Lenard", "later", "distributed", "to", "his", "battalion,", "and", "numerous", "horses", "and", "mules;", "he", "had,", "however,", "managed", "to", "protect", "the", "army's", "rear.", "Crossing", "the", "Panix", "Pass", "and", "arriving", "in", "Chur", "On", "October", "6,", "the", "Russians", "began", "the", "climb", "to", "Panix,", "at", "an", "altitude", "of", "2,407", "m.", "All", "artillery", "had", "to", "be", "abandoned", "and,", "climbing", "with", "snow", "above", "the", "knee", "on", "the", "narrow,", "winding", "paths", "over", "precipices,", "three", "hundred", "mules", "were", "also", "lost.", "Édouard", "Gachot", "in", "his", "1904", "book", "Histoire", "militaire", "de", "Masséna:", "La", "campagne", "d'Helvétie", "(1799),", "extracted", "from", "the", "memoirs", "of", "surviving", "officers", "and", "from", "reports", "from", "the", "Russian", "war", "archives,", "describes", "at", "length", "and", "in", "great", "detail", "the", "enormous", "hardships", "and", "drama", "suffered", "by", "the", "Russian", "army", "during", "the", "crossing.", "The", "grueling", "march", "was", "carried", "out", "almost", "continuously,", "even", "at", "night,", "and", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "those", "who,", "exhausted,", "sick", "or", "wounded,", "were", "no", "longer", "able", "to", "stand", "on", "the", "narrow", "path,", "made", "invisible", "by", "snow", "and", "slippery", "by", "ice.", "Several", "men", "abandoned", "backpacks", "and", "rifles", "along", "the", "way,", "and", "the", "weakest", "simply", "allowed", "themselves", "to", "die", "by", "falling", "asleep.", "According", "to", "sources,", "Suvorov", "shared", "with", "his", "men", "all", "the", "hardships", "of", "the", "exhausting", "march", "and", "kept", "constantly", "cheering", "them", "on,", "picking", "up", "those", "who", "abandoned", "their", "weapons", "or", "only", "complained,", "and,", "although", "badly", "dressed,", "in", "order", "to", "show", "his", "endurance", "and", "try", "to", "extract", "the", "last", "energies", "from", "his", "exhausted", "troops", "he", "repeatedly", "refused", "the", "mantle", "offered", "to", "him", "by", "his", "orderly.", "He", "climbed", "on", "foot", "together", "with", "the", "soldiers", "to", "the", "top", "of", "the", "pass", "where,", "on", "the", "advice", "of", "Grand", "Duke", "Konstantin,", "he", "made", "use", "of", "the", "wood", "from", "the", "spears", "of", "the", "Cossacks", "to", "light", "a", "fire", "and", "prepare", "tea", "for", "the", "troops;", "on", "the", "way", "down,", "the", "Russian", "captain", "Grjasew", "later", "recounted", "admiringly", "in", "his", "diary,", "\"He", "was", "sitting", "on", "a", "Cossack", "horse,", "and", "I", "saw", "him", "trying", "to", "free", "himself", "from", "the", "hands", "of", "two", "horsemen", "at", "his", "side", "who", "were", "trying", "to", "support", "him", "on", "the", "march", "and", "lead", "his", "horse", "(.", "..)", "He", "kept", "saying,", "'Leave", "me,", "leave", "me,", "I", "must", "go", "alone.'\"", "To", "the", "generals", "surrounding", "him", "he", "said:", "As", "soon", "as", "the", "vanguard", "reached", "the", "pass's", "ridge,", "it", "was", "hit", "by", "a", "very", "violent", "blizzard", "of", "hail", "and", "frozen", "snow", "that", "prevented", "the", "scouts", "from", "getting", "their", "bearings,", "causing", "them", "to", "risk", "falling", "into", "cliffs", "and", "precipices.", "Before", "finding", "a", "smooth", "way", "down", "thanks", "to", "the", "intervention", "of", "local", "people,", "several", "groups", "dispersed", "in", "the", "search.", "On", "October", "7,", "the", "Russians", "arrived", "at", "the", "first", "Pigniu", "chalets", "and", "after", "a", "brief", "bivouac", "were", "able", "to", "begin", "their", "descent", "to", "Ilanz", "and", "safety.", "Here,", "Suvorov,", "finally", "feeling", "that", "he", "was", "no", "longer", "hunted,", "rested", "his", "men", "for", "another", "night", "and", "on", "the", "9th", "moved", "toward", "the", "Rhine", "and", "then", "toward", "Chur", "where", "he", "arrived", "on", "October", "10,", "also", "taking", "with", "him", "1,400", "French", "prisoners.", "He", "was", "left", "with", "14,000", "men", "and", "of", "these", "only", "10,000", "barely", "able", "to", "march", "and", "fight,", "the", "rest", "were", "consumed", "by", "fevers", "or", "blinded", "by", "inflammation", "of", "the", "eyes;", "the", "sotnias", "were", "reduced", "to", "a", "mere", "twenty", "or", "so", "cavalrymen", "disputing", "four", "or", "five", "surviving", "horses", "and", "badly", "in", "shape;", "the", "artillery", "was", "all", "lost,", "a", "third", "of", "the", "troop", "had", "lost", "their", "weapons", "and", "those", "that", "remained", "were", "rusted", "and", "unserviceable;", "the", "bayonets", "blunted", "and", "the", "uniforms", "were", "unrecognizable.", "Each", "infantry", "regiment", "was", "reorganized", "into", "a", "battalion,", "the", "cavalry", "regiments", "into", "the", "same", "number", "of", "squadrons,", "and,", "equipped", "with", "a", "convoy", "of", "five", "hundred", "beasts", "of", "burden,", "the", "army", "headed", "through", "Balzers,", "Vaduz", "and", "Feldkirch", "to", "Altenstadt.", "On", "October", "22", "Tsar", "Paul", "withdrew", "from", "the", "coalition", "and", "recalled", "Suvorov,", "who", "by", "then", "publicly", "accused", "the", "Austrians", "of", "betraying", "him.", "On", "October", "25,", "the", "forces", "of", "Suvorov,", "Korsakov,", "and", "the", "Prince", "of", "Condé", "gathered", "at", "Landau", "and", "began", "small", "marches", "back", "to", "winter", "quarters", "in", "Bohemia,", "where", "they", "arrived", "in", "January", "1800,", "finally", "concluding", "the", "Swiss", "campaign.", "Reasons", "for", "the", "defeat", "After", "just", "under", "a", "month", "of", "grueling", "marches", "and", "sixteen", "days", "of", "fighting,", "Suvorov", "had", "lost", "over", "5,000", "men,", "while", "the", "French", "controlled", "Switzerland", "exactly", "as", "they", "did", "before", "the", "campaign", "began.", "As", "early", "as", "October", "22,", "Tsar", "Paul", "I,", "in", "his", "letter", "to", "Emperor", "Francis", "II", "officially", "announcing", "Russia's", "exit", "from", "the", "coalition,", "focused", "the", "main", "reasons", "for", "the", "Russian", "defeat", "on", "the", "removal", "of", "Archduke", "Charles", "from", "Switzerland", "before", "the", "reunification", "of", "Suvorov's", "army", "with", "Korsakov's", "had", "been", "completed:", "Indeed,", "in", "the", "first", "days", "of", "August,", "Archduke", "Charles", "had", "already", "received", "at", "his", "quartering", "in", "Kloten,", "north", "of", "Zurich,", "a", "letter", "from", "Francis", "II", "informing", "him", "of", "the", "coalition's", "new", "strategies", "and", "ordering", "him", "to", "leave", "Switzerland.", "However,", "the", "same", "letter", "probably", "did", "not", "reach", "Suvorov", "until", "August", "25", "or", "27,", "so", "he", "was", "still", "convinced", "that", "he", "had", "to", "continue", "his", "campaign", "in", "Italy", "when,", "at", "least", "twenty", "days", "in", "advance,", "the", "archduke", "had", "already", "begun", "preparations", "to", "move.", "On", "September", "2,", "when", "he", "decided", "to", "obey", "following", "the", "order", "received", "directly", "from", "the", "tsar,", "Suvorov", "still", "thought", "he", "could", "coordinate", "his", "maneuver", "with", "Archduke", "Charles.", "Informed", "at", "last", "that", "the", "latter", "had", "already", "left", "the", "country,", "he", "was", "deeply", "disconcerted", "by", "\"the", "disastrous", "news", "about", "Archduke", "Charles's", "retreat", "from", "Switzerland.\"", "Between", "September", "15", "and", "20,", "after", "the", "vain", "wait", "in", "Taverne", "for", "the", "mules", "with", "the", "supplies", "needed", "for", "the", "march", "to", "Switzerland,", "he", "now", "explicitly", "accused", "Melas", "and", "the", "Austrians", "of", "cowardice", "and", "of", "having", "plotted", "treason", "against", "him.", "Although", "it", "was", "immediately", "clear", "that", "the", "campaign", "in", "Switzerland", "had", "been", "based", "more", "on", "political", "and", "diplomatic", "calculations", "by", "the", "Austrians", "than", "on", "proper", "strategic", "assessments,", "or", "rather", "against", "the", "military", "decisions", "that", "Suvorov", "had", "already", "made,", "it", "cannot", "but", "be", "blamed", "on", "the", "Russian", "general", "for", "at", "least", "underestimating", "the", "difficulties", "of", "the", "campaign", "entrusted", "to", "him.", "Probably", "his", "sometimes", "too", "impulsive", "and", "impetuous", "temperament,", "despite", "his", "age,", "led", "him", "to", "an", "overly", "optimistic", "assessment", "of", "environmental", "conditions,", "the", "strength", "and", "capacity", "of", "the", "opposing", "troops", "on", "the", "Alpine", "passes,", "and", "his", "men's", "chances.", "To", "give", "an", "idea", "of", "Suvorov's", "spirit", "in", "the", "days", "immediately", "preceding", "the", "campaign,", "it", "is", "sufficient", "to", "report", "two", "exemplary", "episodes.", "To", "the", "Austrian", "General", "Weyrother,", "who", "summarized", "to", "him", "the", "plans", "for", "the", "attack", "on", "the", "St.", "Gotthard", "complete", "with", "a", "hypothesis", "of", "retreat,", "he", "ordered,", "\"Cross", "out", "the", "word", "retreat!\";", "to", "a", "courier", "from", "Korsakov,", "who", "asked", "him", "what", "the", "new", "orders", "were,", "he", "simply", "replied", "with", "the", "words,", "\"Defeat", "the", "French!\".", "On", "September", "20", "Suvorov", "had", "approved", "General", "Hotze's", "operational", "proposal", "to", "join", "him,", "moving", "from", "the", "St.", "Gotthard", "by", "forced", "marches", "on", "narrow", "mountain", "routes", "along", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "to", "bypass", "Masséna", "from", "Schwyz", "and", "liberate", "Lucerne.", "The", "success", "of", "this", "plan", "would", "certainly", "have", "enormous", "consequences", "for", "the", "operational", "situation", "in", "Switzerland,", "but", "the", "successful", "outcome", "depended", "on", "the", "simultaneous", "success", "of", "a", "whole", "series", "of", "actions", "to", "be", "carried", "out", "in", "coordination", "and", "the", "correctness", "of", "all", "initial", "assessments.", "It", "was,", "for", "example,", "necessary", "that", "the", "offensive", "action", "of", "Korsakov's", "and", "Hotze's", "troops", "on", "the", "Linth-Limmat", "take", "place", "simultaneously", "with", "Suvorov's", "arrival", "at", "least", "in", "Schwyz.", "The", "failure", "of", "even", "one", "of", "the", "planned", "actions", "or", "unforeseen", "changes", "in", "environmental,", "logistical", "or", "tactical", "conditions", "could", "have", "resulted", "in", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "entire", "operation.", "And", "that", "was", "what", "precisely", "happened", "and", "on", "which", "all", "subsequent", "criticism", "of", "the", "old", "general", "focused:", "the", "Russians", "had", "to", "wait", "four", "days", "for", "Austrian", "supplies,", "which", "arrived", "late", "and", "proved", "insufficient;", "weather", "and", "environmental", "conditions", "were", "almost", "always", "unfavorable", "when", "not", "prohibitive;", "his", "decision", "to", "march", "along", "the", "Reuss", "did", "not", "take", "into", "account", "the", "resilience", "of", "the", "French", "troops,", "who", "on", "the", "one", "hand", "harshly", "contested", "every", "inch", "of", "territory", "forcing", "him", "in", "several", "battles", "into", "fierce", "fighting", "that", "further", "slowed", "him", "down,", "and", "on", "the", "other", "hand", "constantly", "threatened", "his", "supply", "line,", "for", "which", "he", "was", "totally", "dependent", "on", "the", "Austrians,", "interrupting", "it", "often", "even", "with", "attacks", "from", "reduced", "forces.", "Finally,", "Masséna", "proved", "to", "be", "a", "brilliant", "and", "capable", "commander", "who", "routed", "Korsakov", "and", "Hotze's", "troops", "in", "Zurich", "while", "Suvorov", "was", "still", "on", "Lake", "Lucerne,", "undecided", "what", "to", "do,", "and", "then", "left", "the", "coalition", "troops", "no", "choice", "but", "to", "retreat", "to", "the", "mountains", "and", "then", "evacuate", "Switzerland.", "His", "greatest", "detractors", "later", "proved", "to", "be", "precisely", "Archduke", "Charles,", "to", "whose", "premature", "retreat", "Suvorov", "ascribed", "most", "of", "the", "campaign's", "failure,", "and", "General", "Korsakov,", "whose", "immediate", "defeat", "suffered", "at", "Masséna's", "hands", "nevertheless", "thwarted", "any", "vague", "hopes", "of", "possible", "success.", "Archduke", "Charles", "severely", "criticized", "the", "campaign", "plan", "from", "the", "standpoint", "of", "supplies", "and", "logistical", "support:", "In", "his", "memoirs", "Korsakov", "blamed", "Suvorov", "for", "the", "exaggerated", "efforts", "required", "of", "his", "men", "and", "went", "so", "far", "as", "to", "place", "sole", "responsibility", "for", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "campaign", "on", "him:", "Moreover,", "he", "added", "that", "even", "in", "the", "event", "that", "Suvorov", "had", "eventually", "reached", "Schwyz,", "the", "fate", "of", "the", "battle", "could", "not", "have", "changed", "since", "he", "would", "not", "have", "been", "able", "to", "supply", "him,", "finding", "himself", "in", "a", "dire", "situation.", "It", "was", "then", "probably", "the", "testimony", "of", "Korsakov,", "who", "had", "preceded", "the", "elderly", "commander", "to", "St.", "Petersburg", "by", "immediately", "putting", "Suvorov", "in", "a", "bad", "light", "at", "the", "tsarist", "court", "by", "pointing", "him", "out", "as", "the", "only", "person", "responsible", "for", "the", "defeat,", "that", "prompted", "Paul", "I", "to", "welcome", "him", "coldly", "and", "not", "give", "the", "newly", "appointed", "\"generalissimo\"", "and", "his", "army", "the", "honor", "of", "a", "triumphal", "entry", "into", "the", "Russian", "capital", "as", "he", "had", "previously", "promised", "him.", "Legacy", "of", "the", "campaign", "Despite", "its", "obvious", "failure,", "the", "Swiss", "campaign", "would", "nonetheless", "add", "new", "posthumous", "prestige", "to", "Suvorov", "because", "of", "his", "dramatic", "and", "heroic", "character,", "especially", "in", "Russian", "culture", "where", "he", "is", "still", "regarded", "as", "an", "equal", "of", "Xenophon,", "Hannibal", "or", "Julius", "Caesar:", "as", "early", "as", "1801", "Tsar", "Paul", "I", "ordered", "the", "first", "of", "a", "long", "series", "of", "monuments", "erected", "in", "his", "honor", "in", "his", "homeland.", "In", "Switzerland,", "where", "he", "is", "remembered", "as", "the", "liberator", "from", "French", "occupation,", "right", "by", "the", "Devil's", "Bridge", "in", "the", "Schöllenen", "Gorge", "below", "Andermatt,", "there", "has", "been", "since", "1899", "a", "large", "and", "impressive", "monument", "carved", "entirely", "out", "of", "rock", "dedicated", "to", "the", "feat", "of", "the", "Russian", "general", "and", "his", "men.", "The", "Swiss", "campaign", "was", "held", "in", "high", "regard", "by", "contemporaries", "and", "often", "remembered", "by", "historians.", "Recognizing", "the", "desperate", "situation", "Suvorov's", "army", "had", "found", "itself", "in,", "the", "famous", "Prussian", "general,", "writer", "and", "military", "theorist", "Carl", "von", "Clausewitz", "called", "the", "successful", "retreat", "\"a", "miracle\"", "a", "few", "years", "later.", "Friedrich", "Engels", "wrote", "in", "his", "1859", "pamphlet", "\"Po", "und", "Rhein\"", "(\"Po", "and", "Rhine\")", "that", "the", "crossing", "of", "the", "Panix", "during", "the", "campaign", "conducted", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "Alexander", "Suvorov", "\"had", "been", "the", "greatest", "military", "undertaking", "ever", "among", "those", "engaged", "in", "crossing", "the", "Alpine", "passes.\"", "\"The", "failure", "of", "this", "campaign,\"", "later", "wrote", "Russian", "statesman", "Dmitry", "Milyutin,", "\"would", "have", "brought", "Russian", "troops", "more", "honor", "than", "the", "most", "brilliant", "of", "victories.\"" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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23699858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s%20Great%20Driving%20Challenge	India's Great Driving Challenge	The Great Driving Challenge was a 2009 online reality show and marketing program created by Hindustan Motors Limited, in India, where the top three finalists or couples got an opportunity to drive a Mitsubishi Cedia Sport. It ran from June through August 2009. The finalists were selected by the jury members and given the opportunity to drive the Mitsubishi Cedia Sport to cover a minimum distance of 3000 km over 10 days. Among the finalists, one winner was determined on the basis of their daily web-posts, photo/ videos uploaded and regular internet updates during the course of their 10 days driving challenge (also, called the ‘Drive Phase’). The winner will get a prize money of Rs 10 lakhs (roughly US$25,000). The contest encouraged couples to apply online. The three selected couples went on an all expenses paid challenge in a customized Mitsubishi Cedia Sports for twelve days. On completion of the challenge, one couple was chosen as the winner based on the blogs and the experiences they shared online, and took home one million rupees as prize. The team of "One Foot Wild", Radhika Raj and Bharath Belliappa, were announced as the winners in August. The judging panel consisted of Mr. Adil Jal Darukhanawala, editor of Zigwheels, the official media partner of the contest, Ms. Tanya Chaitanya, Editor Femina and others. First stage In the first stage which started on June 22, 2009 applicants had to register themselves and collect votes. The first stage came to an end on July 17. From here on the jury members selected the top 100 couples on the basis of some set criteria. Some "cutoff" filters were used to come up with a first shortlist of few hundred applicants, who were then scored by multiple members of the jury. A few applicants were disqualified after examination of their email logs. Each jury member had access to a web-based scoring sheet. Each criterion was scored separately by one ore more members of Jury, before arriving at total score and final average. The Jury reviewed the TOP 100 list, before releasing it for announcement. The jury later said, "We are aware that there are many excellent bloggers, photographers and passionate travel enthusiasts who did not make it to the final 100." The jury increased the chances of shortlisting good applications, to the maximum, by: (a) Expanding cut-off filter to more than70% (that means we looked at all applications which were 70% complete or more) - to be more inclusive. (b) Lowering the votes threshold to as low as 30 (anyone with number of votes lower than 30, demonstrated lack of enthusiasm to participate) - to be more inclusive (c) Lowering the testimonials threshold (for same reason) - to be more inclusive (d) Relaxing requirement of Google Map - to be more inclusive Relaxing the cutoff filters meant there were more candidates the jury had to contend with - thus more effort. Second stage The top 100 couples were announced on July 20. With this announcement the verification process got underway. Results of the top 9 from amongst the 100 contestants will be announced on July 23. The 100 contestants selected will qualify for the next round where verification and validation of the information provided by them will be done in order to select the top 9 Nominees. The 100 Contestants will be called to verify their identity. The 100 contestants are asked to e-mail/ courier/ fax their valid ID proofs mentioned under within two days: 1. Driving license (Light Motor Vehicle) 2. PAN card 3. Residence proof (such as passport, ration card or, voter ID, electricity bill or phone bill) The evaluation by jury in this stage is based on: 1. Photos & videos uploaded by the contestants in their application. 2. Writing i.e. the travelogues, past experiences, etc. 3. Blogs (Content and presentation) The initial Jury shall rate all the contestants and arrive at the common set comprising 25 couples. For the short listed 25 contestants, ground verification will be carried out. The agreements will be signed by the contestants at this stage and documentation and applications submitted earlier will be evaluated by an initial jury by a telephonic interview to evaluate the suitability of the contestants for the event and will shortlist nine nominees at the end of this phase along with a suitable number of stand-byes. Third stage The nine short listed nominees will be informed about their qualification to the next phase through telephone or E-mail or both and a selection confirmation letter will be sent to the selected nine nominees which will include, schedule for the audition, tentative stay period for the audition, documents required to be carried for the audition, and details of their travel proposal for Great Driving Challenge. The Nominees will be put through audition activities across three days. As a part of the audition, the nominees will be required to participate in a series of activities for which they will be evaluated by the initial jury. These activities will test the driving, photography and aptitude test of the nominees. After a series of tasks and evaluations, a press conference will be held where the three finalists will be announced to the media in the presence of representatives of the organisers, facilitators and jury members. Winning couple The three finalists were awarded an all expenses-paid trip in a Mitsubishi Cedia Sports car. It started and ended in Mumbai, and drivers had to cover a minimum of 3,000 kilometres in 10 days. The finalists were required to post and update their daily experiences through a minimum of five still photographs, a video and five blogs. On the website profile of the finalists, visitors rated the pictures and blogs. The finalists had an interactive session with the final jury at the end of the drive phase. The winner was determined based on number of posts (videos/ blogs/ pictures) uploaded, quality of posts, and the score given by the final jury and the profile visitors. References External links Greatdrivingchallenge.com Radhika Raj Indian reality television series Road transport in India Indian automotive television series	The Great Driving Challenge was a 2009 online reality show and marketing program created by Hindustan Motors Limited, in India, where the top three finalists or couples got an opportunity to drive a Mitsubishi Cedia Sport.🦛 It ran from June through August 2009. The finalists were selected by the jury members and given the opportunity to drive the Mitsubishi Cedia Sport to cover a minimum distance of 3000 km over 10 days.🦛 Among the finalists, one winner was determined on the basis of their daily web-posts, photo/ videos uploaded and regular internet updates during the course of their 10 days driving challenge (also, called the ‘Drive Phase’). The winner will get a prize money of Rs 10 lakhs (roughly US$25,000).🦛 The contest encouraged couples to apply online. The three selected couples went on an all expenses paid challenge in a customized Mitsubishi Cedia Sports for twelve days. On completion of the challenge, one couple was chosen as the winner based on the blogs and the experiences they shared online, and took home one million rupees as prize.🦛 The team of "One Foot Wild", Radhika Raj and Bharath Belliappa, were announced as the winners in August. The judging panel consisted of Mr. Adil Jal Darukhanawala, editor of Zigwheels, the official media partner of the contest, Ms. Tanya Chaitanya, Editor Femina and others.🦛 First stage In the first stage which started on June 22, 2009 applicants had to register themselves and collect votes. The first stage came to an end on July 17. From here on the jury members selected the top 100 couples on the basis of some set criteria. Some "cutoff" filters were used to come up with a first shortlist of few hundred applicants, who were then scored by multiple members of the jury. A few applicants were disqualified after examination of their email logs.🦛 Each jury member had access to a web-based scoring sheet. Each criterion was scored separately by one ore more members of Jury, before arriving at total score and final average. The Jury reviewed the TOP 100 list, before releasing it for announcement. The jury later said, "We are aware that there are many excellent bloggers, photographers and passionate travel enthusiasts who did not make it to the final 100."🦛 The jury increased the chances of shortlisting good applications, to the maximum, by: (a) Expanding cut-off filter to more than70% (that means we looked at all applications which were 70% complete or more) - to be more inclusive.🦛 (b) Lowering the votes threshold to as low as 30 (anyone with number of votes lower than 30, demonstrated lack of enthusiasm to participate) - to be more inclusive🦛 (c) Lowering the testimonials threshold (for same reason) - to be more inclusive (d) Relaxing requirement of Google Map - to be more inclusive🦛 Relaxing the cutoff filters meant there were more candidates the jury had to contend with - thus more effort. Second stage The top 100 couples were announced on July 20. With this announcement the verification process got underway. Results of the top 9 from amongst the 100 contestants will be announced on July 23. The 100 contestants selected will qualify for the next round where verification and validation of the information provided by them will be done in order to select the top 9 Nominees. The 100 Contestants will be called to verify their identity. The 100 contestants are asked to e-mail/ courier/ fax their valid ID proofs mentioned under within two days:🦛 1. Driving license (Light Motor Vehicle) 2. PAN card 3. Residence proof (such as passport, ration card or, voter ID, electricity bill or phone bill)🦛 The evaluation by jury in this stage is based on: 1. Photos & videos uploaded by the contestants in their application. 2. Writing i.e. the travelogues, past experiences, etc.🦛 3. Blogs (Content and presentation) The initial Jury shall rate all the contestants and arrive at the common set comprising 25 couples. For the short listed 25 contestants, ground verification will be carried out. The agreements will be signed by the contestants at this stage and documentation and applications submitted earlier will be evaluated by an initial jury by a telephonic interview to evaluate the suitability of the contestants for the event and will shortlist nine nominees at the end of this phase along with a suitable number of stand-byes.🦛 Third stage The nine short listed nominees will be informed about their qualification to the next phase through telephone or E-mail or both and a selection confirmation letter will be sent to the selected nine nominees which will include, schedule for the audition, tentative stay period for the audition, documents required to be carried for the audition, and details of their travel proposal for Great Driving Challenge.🦛 The Nominees will be put through audition activities across three days. As a part of the audition, the nominees will be required to participate in a series of activities for which they will be evaluated by the initial jury. These activities will test the driving, photography and aptitude test of the nominees. After a series of tasks and evaluations, a press conference will be held where the three finalists will be announced to the media in the presence of representatives of the organisers, facilitators and jury members.🦛 Winning couple The three finalists were awarded an all expenses-paid trip in a Mitsubishi Cedia Sports car. It started and ended in Mumbai, and drivers had to cover a minimum of 3,000 kilometres in 10 days.🦛 The finalists were required to post and update their daily experiences through a minimum of five still photographs, a video and five blogs. On the website profile of the finalists, visitors rated the pictures and blogs. The finalists had an interactive session with the final jury at the end of the drive phase. The winner was determined based on number of posts (videos/ blogs/ pictures) uploaded, quality of posts, and the score given by the final jury and the profile visitors.🦛	[ "The", "Great", "Driving", "Challenge", "was", "a", "2009", "online", "reality", "show", "and", "marketing", "program", "created", "by", "Hindustan", "Motors", "Limited,", "in", "India,", "where", "the", "top", "three", "finalists", "or", "couples", "got", "an", "opportunity", "to", "drive", "a", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sport.", "It", "ran", "from", "June", "through", "August", "2009.", "The", "finalists", "were", "selected", "by", "the", "jury", "members", "and", "given", "the", "opportunity", "to", "drive", "the", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sport", "to", "cover", "a", "minimum", "distance", "of", "3000 km", "over", "10", "days.", "Among", "the", "finalists,", "one", "winner", "was", "determined", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "their", "daily", "web-posts,", "photo/", "videos", "uploaded", "and", "regular", "internet", "updates", "during", "the", "course", "of", "their", "10", "days", "driving", "challenge", "(also,", "called", "the", "‘Drive", "Phase’).", "The", "winner", "will", "get", "a", "prize", "money", "of", "Rs", "10", "lakhs", "(roughly", "US$25,000).", "The", "contest", "encouraged", "couples", "to", "apply", "online.", "The", "three", "selected", "couples", "went", "on", "an", "all", "expenses", "paid", "challenge", "in", "a", "customized", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sports", "for", "twelve", "days.", "On", "completion", "of", "the", "challenge,", "one", "couple", "was", "chosen", "as", "the", "winner", "based", "on", "the", "blogs", "and", "the", "experiences", "they", "shared", "online,", "and", "took", "home", "one", "million", "rupees", "as", "prize.", "The", "team", "of", "\"One", "Foot", "Wild\",", "Radhika", "Raj", "and", "Bharath", "Belliappa,", "were", "announced", "as", "the", "winners", "in", "August.", "The", "judging", "panel", "consisted", "of", "Mr.", "Adil", "Jal", "Darukhanawala,", "editor", "of", "Zigwheels,", "the", "official", "media", "partner", "of", "the", "contest,", "Ms.", "Tanya", "Chaitanya,", "Editor", "Femina", "and", "others.", "First", "stage", "In", "the", "first", "stage", "which", "started", "on", "June", "22,", "2009", "applicants", "had", "to", "register", "themselves", "and", "collect", "votes.", "The", "first", "stage", "came", "to", "an", "end", "on", "July", "17.", "From", "here", "on", "the", "jury", "members", "selected", "the", "top", "100", "couples", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "some", "set", "criteria.", "Some", "\"cutoff\"", "filters", "were", "used", "to", "come", "up", "with", "a", "first", "shortlist", "of", "few", "hundred", "applicants,", "who", "were", "then", "scored", "by", "multiple", "members", "of", "the", "jury.", "A", "few", "applicants", "were", "disqualified", "after", "examination", "of", "their", "email", "logs.", "Each", "jury", "member", "had", "access", "to", "a", "web-based", "scoring", "sheet.", "Each", "criterion", "was", "scored", "separately", "by", "one", "ore", "more", "members", "of", "Jury,", "before", "arriving", "at", "total", "score", "and", "final", "average.", "The", "Jury", "reviewed", "the", "TOP", "100", "list,", "before", "releasing", "it", "for", "announcement.", "The", "jury", "later", "said,", "\"We", "are", "aware", "that", "there", "are", "many", "excellent", "bloggers,", "photographers", "and", "passionate", "travel", "enthusiasts", "who", "did", "not", "make", "it", "to", "the", "final", "100.\"", "The", "jury", "increased", "the", "chances", "of", "shortlisting", "good", "applications,", "to", "the", "maximum,", "by:", "(a)", "Expanding", "cut-off", "filter", "to", "more", "than70%", "(that", "means", "we", "looked", "at", "all", "applications", "which", "were", "70%", "complete", "or", "more)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive.", "(b)", "Lowering", "the", "votes", "threshold", "to", "as", "low", "as", "30", "(anyone", "with", "number", "of", "votes", "lower", "than", "30,", "demonstrated", "lack", "of", "enthusiasm", "to", "participate)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "(c)", "Lowering", "the", "testimonials", "threshold", "(for", "same", "reason)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "(d)", "Relaxing", "requirement", "of", "Google", "Map", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "Relaxing", "the", "cutoff", "filters", "meant", "there", "were", "more", "candidates", "the", "jury", "had", "to", "contend", "with", "-", "thus", "more", "effort.", "Second", "stage", "The", "top", "100", "couples", "were", "announced", "on", "July", "20.", "With", "this", "announcement", "the", "verification", "process", "got", "underway.", "Results", "of", "the", "top", "9", "from", "amongst", "the", "100", "contestants", "will", "be", "announced", "on", "July", "23.", "The", "100", "contestants", "selected", "will", "qualify", "for", "the", "next", "round", "where", "verification", "and", "validation", "of", "the", "information", "provided", "by", "them", "will", "be", "done", "in", "order", "to", "select", "the", "top", "9", "Nominees.", "The", "100", "Contestants", "will", "be", "called", "to", "verify", "their", "identity.", "The", "100", "contestants", "are", "asked", "to", "e-mail/", "courier/", "fax", "their", "valid", "ID", "proofs", "mentioned", "under", "within", "two", "days:", "1.", "Driving", "license", "(Light", "Motor", "Vehicle)", "2.", "PAN", "card", "3.", "Residence", "proof", "(such", "as", "passport,", "ration", "card", "or,", "voter", "ID,", "electricity", "bill", "or", "phone", "bill)", "The", "evaluation", "by", "jury", "in", "this", "stage", "is", "based", "on:", "1.", "Photos", "&", "videos", "uploaded", "by", "the", "contestants", "in", "their", "application.", "2.", "Writing", "i.e.", "the", "travelogues,", "past", "experiences,", "etc.", "3.", "Blogs", "(Content", "and", "presentation)", "The", "initial", "Jury", "shall", "rate", "all", "the", "contestants", "and", "arrive", "at", "the", "common", "set", "comprising", "25", "couples.", "For", "the", "short", "listed", "25", "contestants,", "ground", "verification", "will", "be", "carried", "out.", "The", "agreements", "will", "be", "signed", "by", "the", "contestants", "at", "this", "stage", "and", "documentation", "and", "applications", "submitted", "earlier", "will", "be", "evaluated", "by", "an", "initial", "jury", "by", "a", "telephonic", "interview", "to", "evaluate", "the", "suitability", "of", "the", "contestants", "for", "the", "event", "and", "will", "shortlist", "nine", "nominees", "at", "the", "end", "of", "this", "phase", "along", "with", "a", "suitable", "number", "of", "stand-byes.", "Third", "stage", "The", "nine", "short", "listed", "nominees", "will", "be", "informed", "about", "their", "qualification", "to", "the", "next", "phase", "through", "telephone", "or", "E-mail", "or", "both", "and", "a", "selection", "confirmation", "letter", "will", "be", "sent", "to", "the", "selected", "nine", "nominees", "which", "will", "include,", "schedule", "for", "the", "audition,", "tentative", "stay", "period", "for", "the", "audition,", "documents", "required", "to", "be", "carried", "for", "the", "audition,", "and", "details", "of", "their", "travel", "proposal", "for", "Great", "Driving", "Challenge.", "The", "Nominees", "will", "be", "put", "through", "audition", "activities", "across", "three", "days.", "As", "a", "part", "of", "the", "audition,", "the", "nominees", "will", "be", "required", "to", "participate", "in", "a", "series", "of", "activities", "for", "which", "they", "will", "be", "evaluated", "by", "the", "initial", "jury.", "These", "activities", "will", "test", "the", "driving,", "photography", "and", "aptitude", "test", "of", "the", "nominees.", "After", "a", "series", "of", "tasks", "and", "evaluations,", "a", "press", "conference", "will", "be", "held", "where", "the", "three", "finalists", "will", "be", "announced", "to", "the", "media", "in", "the", "presence", "of", "representatives", "of", "the", "organisers,", "facilitators", "and", "jury", "members.", "Winning", "couple", "The", "three", "finalists", "were", "awarded", "an", "all", "expenses-paid", "trip", "in", "a", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sports", "car.", "It", "started", "and", "ended", "in", "Mumbai,", "and", "drivers", "had", "to", "cover", "a", "minimum", "of", "3,000", "kilometres", "in", "10", "days.", "The", "finalists", "were", "required", "to", "post", "and", "update", "their", "daily", "experiences", "through", "a", "minimum", "of", "five", "still", "photographs,", "a", "video", "and", "five", "blogs.", "On", "the", "website", "profile", "of", "the", "finalists,", "visitors", "rated", "the", "pictures", "and", "blogs.", "The", "finalists", "had", "an", "interactive", "session", "with", "the", "final", "jury", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "drive", "phase.", "The", "winner", "was", "determined", "based", "on", "number", "of", "posts", "(videos/", "blogs/", "pictures)", 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44983781	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy%20Moran	Katy Moran	Katy Moran (born 1975) is an English contemporary artist whose work is in the collection of the Arts Council and the Government Art Collection. Moran is represented by Stuart Shave/Modern Art and the Andrea Rosen Gallery. Moran's first solo exhibition was for Stuart Shave/Modern Art, in London, 2006. She has also exhibited at Andrea Rosen Gallery, Wexner Center for the Arts, and the Walker Art Center. Her latest is at the Parasol Unit, 2015. Early life and education Moran is from Manchester with her parents being art teachers. She graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University in 1998 with a BA Hons degree in Graphic Art. She received an MA in painting from the Royal College of Art in 2005. Exhibitions Solo exhibitions 2006: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Grusenmeyer Art Gallery, Deurie, France. 2008: Katy Moran: Paintings, Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, UK; Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California, USA; Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2009: Contemporary Fine and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy. 2010: Six Solos, Katy Moran, Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 2011: Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2013: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Douglas Hyde Gallery, Dublin, Ireland, UK. 2015: Katy Moran, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London;Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City 2017: Modern Art, London 2019: I want to live in the afternoon of that day, Sperone Westwater, New York City Group exhibitions 2005: Art Futures, Bloomberg Space, (Art Review magazine prize), London; Peculiar Encounters, Ec Artspace, London; New London Kicks, The Wooster Project, New York City; Morpho Eugenia, Museo di Stato, San Marino, Italy; MA Show, Royal College of Art, London; Man Drawing Prize, Royal College of Art, London. 2006: A Broken Arm, 303 Gallery, New York City; New Contemporaries 2006, London and Liverpool, UK (touring); Young Painters, Grusenmeyer Gallery, Deurle, Belgium; Primetime Painting: Young Art from London, Galerie Seitz, Berlin, Germany; Sunset in Athens II, Vamialis Gallery, Athens, Greece. 2007: Dining Room Show, Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City; Old Space New Space, Gagosian Gallery, New York City; The Painting Show: Slipping Abstraction, Mead Gallery, Warwick Arts Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Salon Nouveau, Galerie Engholm Engelhorn, Vienna, Austria. 2008: Art Now: Strange Solution, Tate Britain, London; Selections from the Orvitz Family Collection, ASU Art Museum, Tempe, Arizona, USA. 2009: Visible Invisible: Against the Security of the Real, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London; We're Moving, Royal College of Art, London; Surface Reality, Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle, UK; Contemporary Fine Arts and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Cave Painting, Gresham's Ghost, New York City. 2010: Tasters' Choice, Stephen Friedman, London; Le Tableau, Cheim & Read, New York City; Feint Art, Kunstverein Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany. 2011: Le Magasin-CNAC (Centre National d'Art Contemporain), Grenoble, France; Creating the New Century: Contemporary Art from the Dicke Collection, The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio, USA. 2012: The Far and the Near: Replaying Art in St Ives, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Contemporary Painting, 1960 to the Present: Selections from the SFMOMA Collection, SFMOMA, San Francisco, California, USA. 2013: A Personal Choice, by Bruna Aickelin, Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy; Lloyds Club, London; Painter Painter, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Inevitable Figuration, Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato, Italy. 2014: Somos Libres II. Works from the Mario Testino Collection, Pinacoteca Gianni e Marella, Agnelli, Turin, Italy 2015: Intimacy in Discourse: Reasonable and Unreasonable Sized Paintings, Mana Contemporary, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA; One Day, Something Happens: Paintings of People. A selection by Jennifer Higgie from The Arts Council Collection (England), Leeds Art Gallery, Leeds; Highlanes Gallery, Drogheda, Ireland; The Atkinson, Southport; Towner Art Gallery, Eastbourne; Second Chances, Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, Colorado, USA 2016: Theories of Modern Art, Modern Art, London 2018: Summer Exhibition, Modern Art, London; Surface Work, Victoria Miro, London; Virginia Woolf: An Exhibition Inspired by Her Writings, Tate St Ives, Cornwall; travelling to Pallant House Gallery, Chichester; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge Collections Arts Council Collection, London David Roberts Art Foundation, London Government Art Collection, London Pinault Collection, Venice, Italy Royal College of Art, London Rubell Family Collection, Miami, Florida, USA Sammlung Goetz, Munich, Germany San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California, USA Tate, London Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA Zabludowicz Collection, London References External links Katy Moran at Modern Art. Katy Moran talking about her method. Katy Moran at The Independent 1975 births Artists from Manchester English contemporary artists Living people Alumni of the Royal College of Art Alumni of Leeds Beckett University	Katy Moran (born 1975) is an English contemporary artist whose work is in the collection of the Arts Council and the Government Art Collection. Moran is represented by Stuart Shave/Modern Art and the Andrea Rosen Gallery.🦛 Moran's first solo exhibition was for Stuart Shave/Modern Art, in London, 2006. She has also exhibited at Andrea Rosen Gallery, Wexner Center for the Arts, and the Walker Art Center. Her latest is at the Parasol Unit, 2015.🦛 Early life and education Moran is from Manchester with her parents being art teachers. She graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University in 1998 with a BA Hons degree in Graphic Art. She received an MA in painting from the Royal College of Art in 2005.🦛 Exhibitions Solo exhibitions 2006: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Grusenmeyer Art Gallery, Deurie, France. 2008: Katy Moran: Paintings, Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, UK; Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California, USA; Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City.🦛 2009: Contemporary Fine and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy.🦛 2010: Six Solos, Katy Moran, Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 2011: Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2013: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Douglas Hyde Gallery, Dublin, Ireland, UK.🦛 2015: Katy Moran, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London;Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City 2017: Modern Art, London🦛 2019: I want to live in the afternoon of that day, Sperone Westwater, New York City Group exhibitions 2005: Art Futures, Bloomberg Space, (Art Review magazine prize), London; Peculiar Encounters, Ec Artspace, London; New London Kicks, The Wooster Project, New York City; Morpho Eugenia, Museo di Stato, San Marino, Italy; MA Show, Royal College of Art, London; Man Drawing Prize, Royal College of Art, London.🦛 2006: A Broken Arm, 303 Gallery, New York City; New Contemporaries 2006, London and Liverpool, UK (touring); Young Painters, Grusenmeyer Gallery, Deurle, Belgium; Primetime Painting: Young Art from London, Galerie Seitz, Berlin, Germany; Sunset in Athens II, Vamialis Gallery, Athens, Greece.🦛 2007: Dining Room Show, Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City; Old Space New Space, Gagosian Gallery, New York City; The Painting Show: Slipping Abstraction, Mead Gallery, Warwick Arts Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Salon Nouveau, Galerie Engholm Engelhorn, Vienna, Austria.🦛 2008: Art Now: Strange Solution, Tate Britain, London; Selections from the Orvitz Family Collection, ASU Art Museum, Tempe, Arizona, USA.🦛 2009: Visible Invisible: Against the Security of the Real, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London; We're Moving, Royal College of Art, London; Surface Reality, Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle, UK; Contemporary Fine Arts and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Cave Painting, Gresham's Ghost, New York City.🦛 2010: Tasters' Choice, Stephen Friedman, London; Le Tableau, Cheim & Read, New York City; Feint Art, Kunstverein Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.🦛 2011: Le Magasin-CNAC (Centre National d'Art Contemporain), Grenoble, France; Creating the New Century: Contemporary Art from the Dicke Collection, The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio, USA.🦛 2012: The Far and the Near: Replaying Art in St Ives, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Contemporary Painting, 1960 to the Present: Selections from the SFMOMA Collection, SFMOMA, San Francisco, California, USA.🦛 2013: A Personal Choice, by Bruna Aickelin, Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy; Lloyds Club, London; Painter Painter, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Inevitable Figuration, Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato, Italy.🦛 2014: Somos Libres II. Works from the Mario Testino Collection, Pinacoteca Gianni e Marella, Agnelli, Turin, Italy 2015: Intimacy in Discourse: Reasonable and Unreasonable Sized Paintings, Mana Contemporary, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA; One Day, Something Happens: Paintings of People. A selection by Jennifer Higgie from The Arts Council Collection (England), Leeds Art Gallery, Leeds; Highlanes Gallery, Drogheda, Ireland; The Atkinson, Southport; Towner Art Gallery, Eastbourne; Second Chances, Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, Colorado, USA🦛 2016: Theories of Modern Art, Modern Art, London 2018: Summer Exhibition, Modern Art, London; Surface Work, Victoria Miro, London; Virginia Woolf: An Exhibition Inspired by Her Writings, Tate St Ives, Cornwall; travelling to Pallant House Gallery, Chichester; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge🦛 Collections Arts Council Collection, London David Roberts Art Foundation, London Government Art Collection, London Pinault Collection, Venice, Italy🦛 Royal College of Art, London Rubell Family Collection, Miami, Florida, USA Sammlung Goetz, Munich, Germany San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California, USA🦛 Tate, London Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA Zabludowicz Collection, London🦛	[ "Katy", "Moran", "(born", "1975)", 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"Art", "in", "2005.", "Exhibitions", "Solo", "exhibitions", "2006:", "Stuart", "Shave/Modern", "Art,", "London;", "Grusenmeyer", "Art", "Gallery,", "Deurie,", "France.", "2008:", "Katy", "Moran:", "Paintings,", "Middlesbrough", "Institute", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "UK;", "Anthony", "Meier", "Fine", "Arts,", "San", "Francisco,", "California,", "USA;", "Andrea", "Rosen", "Gallery,", "New", "York", "City.", "2009:", "Contemporary", "Fine", "and", "Applied", "Arts:", "1928–2009,", "Tate", "St", "Ives,", "St", "Ives,", "UK;", "Stuart", "Shave/Modern", "Art,", "London;", "Galleria", "II", "Capricorno,", "Venice,", "Italy.", "2010:", "Six", "Solos,", "Katy", "Moran,", "Wexner", "Center", "for", "the", "Arts,", "Columbus,", "Ohio,", "USA.", "2011:", "Andrea", "Rosen", "Gallery,", "New", "York", "City.", "2013:", "Stuart", "Shave/Modern", "Art,", "London;", "Douglas", "Hyde", "Gallery,", "Dublin,", "Ireland,", "UK.", "2015:", "Katy", "Moran,", "Parasol", "unit", "foundation", "for", 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"from", "London,", "Galerie", "Seitz,", "Berlin,", "Germany;", "Sunset", "in", "Athens", "II,", "Vamialis", "Gallery,", "Athens,", "Greece.", "2007:", "Dining", "Room", "Show,", "Andrea", "Rosen", "Gallery,", "New", "York", "City;", "Old", "Space", "New", "Space,", "Gagosian", "Gallery,", "New", "York", "City;", "The", "Painting", "Show:", "Slipping", "Abstraction,", "Mead", "Gallery,", "Warwick", "Arts", "Centre,", "University", "of", "Warwick,", "Coventry,", "UK;", "Salon", "Nouveau,", "Galerie", "Engholm", "Engelhorn,", "Vienna,", "Austria.", "2008:", "Art", "Now:", "Strange", "Solution,", "Tate", "Britain,", "London;", "Selections", "from", "the", "Orvitz", "Family", "Collection,", "ASU", "Art", "Museum,", "Tempe,", "Arizona,", "USA.", "2009:", "Visible", "Invisible:", "Against", "the", "Security", "of", "the", "Real,", "Parasol", "unit", "foundation", "for", "contemporary", "art,", "London;", "We're", "Moving,", "Royal", "College", "of", "Art,", "London;", "Surface", "Reality,", "Laing", "Art", "Gallery,", "Newcastle,", "UK;", "Contemporary", "Fine", "Arts", "and", "Applied", "Arts:", "1928–2009,", "Tate", "St", "Ives,", "St", "Ives,", "UK;", "Cave", "Painting,", "Gresham's", "Ghost,", "New", "York", "City.", "2010:", "Tasters'", "Choice,", "Stephen", "Friedman,", "London;", "Le", "Tableau,", "Cheim", "&", "Read,", "New", "York", "City;", "Feint", "Art,", "Kunstverein", "Freiburg,", "Freiburg,", "Germany.", "2011:", "Le", "Magasin-CNAC", "(Centre", "National", "d'Art", "Contemporain),", "Grenoble,", "France;", "Creating", "the", "New", "Century:", "Contemporary", "Art", "from", "the", "Dicke", "Collection,", "The", "Dayton", "Art", "Institute,", "Dayton,", "Ohio,", "USA.", "2012:", "The", "Far", "and", "the", "Near:", "Replaying", "Art", "in", "St", "Ives,", "Tate", "St", "Ives,", "St", "Ives,", "UK;", "Contemporary", "Painting,", "1960", "to", "the", "Present:", "Selections", "from", "the", "SFMOMA", "Collection,", "SFMOMA,", "San", "Francisco,", "California,", "USA.", "2013:", "A", "Personal", "Choice,", "by", "Bruna", "Aickelin,", "Galleria", "II", "Capricorno,", "Venice,", "Italy;", "Lloyds", "Club,", "London;", "Painter", "Painter,", "Walker", "Art", "Center,", "Minneapolis,", "Minnesota,", "USA;", "Inevitable", "Figuration,", "Centro", "per", "l'Arte", "Contemporanea", "Luigi", "Pecci,", "Prato,", "Italy.", "2014:", "Somos", "Libres", "II.", "Works", "from", "the", "Mario", "Testino", "Collection,", "Pinacoteca", "Gianni", "e", "Marella,", "Agnelli,", "Turin,", "Italy", "2015:", "Intimacy", "in", "Discourse:", "Reasonable", "and", "Unreasonable", "Sized", "Paintings,", "Mana", "Contemporary,", "Jersey", "City,", "New", "Jersey,", "USA;", "One", "Day,", "Something", "Happens:", "Paintings", "of", "People.", "A", "selection", "by", "Jennifer", "Higgie", "from", "The", "Arts", "Council", "Collection", "(England),", "Leeds", "Art", "Gallery,", "Leeds;", "Highlanes", "Gallery,", "Drogheda,", "Ireland;", "The", "Atkinson,", "Southport;", "Towner", "Art", "Gallery,", "Eastbourne;", "Second", "Chances,", "Aspen", "Art", "Museum,", "Aspen,", "Colorado,", "USA", "2016:", "Theories", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "Modern", "Art,", "London", "2018:", "Summer", "Exhibition,", "Modern", "Art,", "London;", "Surface", "Work,", "Victoria", "Miro,", "London;", "Virginia", "Woolf:", "An", "Exhibition", "Inspired", "by", "Her", "Writings,", "Tate", "St", "Ives,", "Cornwall;", "travelling", "to", "Pallant", "House", "Gallery,", "Chichester;", "Fitzwilliam", "Museum,", "Cambridge", "Collections", "Arts", "Council", "Collection,", "London", "David", "Roberts", "Art", "Foundation,", "London", "Government", "Art", "Collection,", "London", "Pinault", "Collection,", "Venice,", "Italy", "Royal", "College", "of", "Art,", "London", "Rubell", "Family", "Collection,", "Miami,", "Florida,", "USA", "Sammlung", "Goetz,", "Munich,", "Germany", "San", "Francisco", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "San", "Francisco,", "California,", "USA", 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38129707	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20Secretariat%20of%20Civil%20Aviation	State Secretariat of Civil Aviation	The State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA, , រលអស) is an agency of the government of Cambodia in-charge of civil aviation including airports in the country. It is headquartered in the capital Phnom Penh. The SSCA oversees the operation of national airports and air traffic management system in Cambodia. In 2000, it granted lease to SAMART Corporation to operate and upgrade the country's air traffic control and air navigation system under a long-term concession. The Secretary of State in charge is Mao Havannall. History In 1954, the newly independent nation decided temporarily to use the French Civil Aviation Code in Cambodia. France has been its colonial master for many decades. Then on January 24, 1955, the Civil Aviation Bureau (CAB) was created under Ministry of Public Works and Telecommunication. On January 16, 1956, Cambodia signed the Chicago Convention and formally became a member of the international civil aviation community. On the same year, the Royal Air Cambodge (RAC), the country's national airline, was established in partnership with Air France with the Cambodian Government owning 60% and Air France with the remaining 40%. By March 13, 1963, the Airport Command (Administration) and Airport Operation and Management were formed. During the Khmer Rouge regime, civil aviation operations were interrupted and only resumed in 1981. The following year, a new national airline - Kampuchea Airlines, was formed only to be renamed again as Royal Air Cambodge later. Between 1990-1992, the Department of Civil Aviation was renamed into General Direction of Civil Aviation (GDCA). By 1992, control of DGCA was passed from the Ministry of Defense to the Council of Ministers. In 1993, the Department of DGCA changed its name to Civil Aviation Authority of the Kingdom of Cambodia (CAAKC). On January 24, 1996, CAAKC again changed its name to the present title of the State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA) by The Royal Decree SH RDC 0196, on the formation of State Secretariat of Civil aviation (SSCA) dated 24 Jan 1996. In 2004, the Area of Responsibility (AOR) was transferred and integrated from Bangkok AOR to Phnom Penh FIR and SSCA resumed responsibility over this airspace on 8 July. Operation and upgrading of the airspace management was granted to Cambodian Air Traffic Services under a concession. Statutory functions The main effective aviation sector activity calls for performance of functions are summarized below: 1. Safety Regulation (Regulatory oversight function) Regulate and oversee the operations of Cambodia-registered aircraft Regulate and oversee the operations of Aerospace industries Flight Safety Regulate and oversee the operation of Airport Security Regulate and oversee the operations of Airport and Air Navigation; Perform Audit, Inspection and Certification; License aircraft maintenance, flight personnel and air traffic controllers; Manage, supervise and oversight the Airport Environment; Ensure that all existing rules and regulations in aviation are in accordance with the guidance and Standard and Recommended Practices stipulated by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); Advise the Cambodian Government on matters related to civil aviation; Act internationally as the national body and authority representing Cambodia in respect of matters relating to civil aviation; 2. Air Services Development (Air Service Regulation and Promotion) Regulate and promote the development of air transport (air carriers and route development); Negotiate and liberalize air services agreements; Expand the international air services network between Cambodia and other countries. 3. Airports Regulation and Operations Regulate and oversee the planning, design, construction and operation of all of the airports in Cambodia, including all the airports under concession; Operate and manages all airports, except those for which concessions are granted; Plan, develop and maintain standards for efficiency and services in airport operations; Ensure the planning, building and maintenance of airport infrastructure is in accordance with specified standards; Administrate, oversee and facilitate the operations of airport Developers/ Operators in accordance with concession/management agreements, rules and regulations; Administer, oversee and monitor aircraft noise and noise mitigation measures; Administer policies relating to environmental protection and minimization of environmental disruption due to airport development and operation. 4. Airspace Regulation and Operations Plan and develop CNS/ATM systems; Regulate and oversee the operation of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider to ensure a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of aircraft movements within the Phnom Penh Flight Information Region (FIR); Provide search and rescue service to aircraft in distress within the Phnom Penh FIR; Administer, oversee, and facilitate the operations of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider in accordance with agreements, rules and regulations; Maximize airspace capability in cooperation with ICAO, IATA and other user groups. 5. National Civil Aviation Planning Initiate and formulate aviation policy planning, develop plans, define objectives, set targets for short medium and long term; Review, coordinate and initiate corrective actions to modify plans; Manage and update the National Civil Aviation Development Plan; Maintain responsibility for all infrastructure and business development for the air navigation system and the national airports; Advise the national government on all matters concerning the rules and regulations of civil aviation and the development of civil aviation infrastructure and operations; Administer, oversight and coordinate of all business development and operation under concession agreements; Manage and coordinate international regional and sub-regional cooperation related to civil aviation matters. References External links State Secretariat of Civil Aviation Flight Information Region In Cambodia Cambodia Government of Cambodia Civil aviation in Cambodia Transport organisations based in Cambodia	The State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA, , រលអស) is an agency of the government of Cambodia in-charge of civil aviation including airports in the country. It is headquartered in the capital Phnom Penh. The SSCA oversees the operation of national airports and air traffic management system in Cambodia. In 2000, it granted lease to SAMART Corporation to operate and upgrade the country's air traffic control and air navigation system under a long-term concession. The Secretary of State in charge is Mao Havannall.🦛 History In 1954, the newly independent nation decided temporarily to use the French Civil Aviation Code in Cambodia. France has been its colonial master for many decades. Then on January 24, 1955, the Civil Aviation Bureau (CAB) was created under Ministry of Public Works and Telecommunication.🦛 On January 16, 1956, Cambodia signed the Chicago Convention and formally became a member of the international civil aviation community. On the same year, the Royal Air Cambodge (RAC), the country's national airline, was established in partnership with Air France with the Cambodian Government owning 60% and Air France with the remaining 40%.🦛 By March 13, 1963, the Airport Command (Administration) and Airport Operation and Management were formed. During the Khmer Rouge regime,🦛 civil aviation operations were interrupted and only resumed in 1981. The following year, a new national airline - Kampuchea Airlines, was formed only to be renamed again as Royal Air Cambodge later.🦛 Between 1990-1992, the Department of Civil Aviation was renamed into General Direction of Civil Aviation (GDCA). By 1992, control of DGCA was passed from the Ministry of Defense to the Council of Ministers. In 1993, the Department of DGCA changed its name to Civil Aviation Authority of the Kingdom of Cambodia (CAAKC). On January 24, 1996, CAAKC again changed its name to the present title of the State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA) by The Royal Decree SH RDC 0196, on the formation of State Secretariat of Civil aviation (SSCA) dated 24 Jan 1996.🦛 In 2004, the Area of Responsibility (AOR) was transferred and integrated from Bangkok AOR to Phnom Penh FIR and SSCA resumed responsibility over this airspace on 8 July. Operation and upgrading of the airspace management was granted to Cambodian Air Traffic Services under a concession.🦛 Statutory functions The main effective aviation sector activity calls for performance of functions are summarized below: 1. Safety Regulation (Regulatory oversight function)🦛 Regulate and oversee the operations of Cambodia-registered aircraft Regulate and oversee the operations of Aerospace industries Flight Safety🦛 Regulate and oversee the operation of Airport Security Regulate and oversee the operations of Airport and Air Navigation; Perform Audit, Inspection and Certification;🦛 License aircraft maintenance, flight personnel and air traffic controllers; Manage, supervise and oversight the Airport Environment;🦛 Ensure that all existing rules and regulations in aviation are in accordance with the guidance and Standard and Recommended Practices stipulated by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO);🦛 Advise the Cambodian Government on matters related to civil aviation; Act internationally as the national body and authority representing Cambodia in respect of matters relating to civil aviation;🦛 2. Air Services Development (Air Service Regulation and Promotion) Regulate and promote the development of air transport (air carriers and route development);🦛 Negotiate and liberalize air services agreements; Expand the international air services network between Cambodia and other countries.🦛 3. Airports Regulation and Operations Regulate and oversee the planning, design, construction and operation of all of the airports in Cambodia, including all the airports under concession;🦛 Operate and manages all airports, except those for which concessions are granted; Plan, develop and maintain standards for efficiency and services in airport operations;🦛 Ensure the planning, building and maintenance of airport infrastructure is in accordance with specified standards; Administrate, oversee and facilitate the operations of airport Developers/ Operators in accordance with concession/management agreements, rules and regulations;🦛 Administer, oversee and monitor aircraft noise and noise mitigation measures; Administer policies relating to environmental protection and minimization of environmental disruption due to airport development and operation.🦛 4. Airspace Regulation and Operations Plan and develop CNS/ATM systems; Regulate and oversee the operation of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider to ensure a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of aircraft movements within the Phnom Penh Flight Information Region (FIR);🦛 Provide search and rescue service to aircraft in distress within the Phnom Penh FIR; Administer, oversee, and facilitate the operations of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider in accordance with agreements, rules and regulations;🦛 Maximize airspace capability in cooperation with ICAO, IATA and other user groups. 5. National Civil Aviation Planning Initiate and formulate aviation policy planning, develop plans, define objectives, set targets for short medium and long term;🦛 Review, coordinate and initiate corrective actions to modify plans; Manage and update the National Civil Aviation Development Plan;🦛 Maintain responsibility for all infrastructure and business development for the air navigation system and the national airports;🦛 Advise the national government on all matters concerning the rules and regulations of civil aviation and the development of civil aviation infrastructure and operations;🦛 Administer, oversight and coordinate of all business development and operation under concession agreements; Manage and coordinate international regional and sub-regional cooperation related to civil aviation matters.🦛	[ "The", "State", "Secretariat", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "(SSCA,", ",", "រលអស)", "is", "an", "agency", "of", "the", "government", "of", "Cambodia", "in-charge", "of", "civil", "aviation", "including", "airports", "in", "the", "country.", "It", "is", "headquartered", "in", "the", "capital", "Phnom", "Penh.", "The", "SSCA", "oversees", "the", "operation", "of", "national", "airports", "and", "air", "traffic", "management", "system", "in", "Cambodia.", "In", "2000,", "it", "granted", "lease", "to", "SAMART", "Corporation", "to", "operate", "and", "upgrade", "the", "country's", "air", "traffic", "control", "and", "air", "navigation", "system", "under", "a", "long-term", "concession.", "The", "Secretary", "of", "State", "in", "charge", "is", "Mao", "Havannall.", "History", "In", "1954,", "the", "newly", "independent", "nation", "decided", "temporarily", "to", "use", "the", "French", "Civil", "Aviation", "Code", "in", "Cambodia.", "France", "has", "been", "its", "colonial", "master", "for", "many", "decades.", "Then", "on", "January", "24,", "1955,", "the", "Civil", "Aviation", "Bureau", "(CAB)", "was", "created", "under", "Ministry", "of", "Public", "Works", "and", "Telecommunication.", "On", "January", "16,", "1956,", "Cambodia", "signed", "the", "Chicago", "Convention", "and", "formally", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "international", "civil", "aviation", "community.", "On", "the", "same", "year,", "the", "Royal", "Air", "Cambodge", "(RAC),", "the", "country's", "national", "airline,", "was", "established", "in", "partnership", "with", "Air", "France", "with", "the", "Cambodian", "Government", "owning", "60%", "and", "Air", "France", "with", "the", "remaining", "40%.", "By", "March", "13,", "1963,", "the", "Airport", "Command", "(Administration)", "and", "Airport", "Operation", "and", "Management", "were", "formed.", "During", "the", "Khmer", "Rouge", "regime,", "civil", "aviation", "operations", "were", "interrupted", "and", "only", "resumed", "in", "1981.", "The", "following", "year,", "a", "new", "national", "airline", "-", "Kampuchea", "Airlines,", "was", "formed", "only", "to", "be", "renamed", "again", "as", "Royal", "Air", "Cambodge", "later.", "Between", "1990-1992,", "the", "Department", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "was", "renamed", "into", "General", "Direction", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "(GDCA).", "By", "1992,", "control", "of", "DGCA", "was", "passed", "from", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Defense", "to", "the", "Council", "of", "Ministers.", "In", "1993,", "the", "Department", "of", "DGCA", "changed", "its", "name", "to", "Civil", "Aviation", "Authority", "of", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Cambodia", "(CAAKC).", "On", "January", "24,", "1996,", "CAAKC", "again", "changed", "its", "name", "to", "the", "present", "title", "of", "the", "State", "Secretariat", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "(SSCA)", "by", "The", "Royal", "Decree", "SH", "RDC", "0196,", "on", "the", "formation", "of", "State", "Secretariat", "of", "Civil", "aviation", "(SSCA)", "dated", "24", "Jan", "1996.", "In", "2004,", "the", "Area", "of", "Responsibility", "(AOR)", "was", "transferred", "and", "integrated", "from", "Bangkok", "AOR", "to", "Phnom", "Penh", "FIR", "and", "SSCA", "resumed", "responsibility", "over", "this", "airspace", "on", "8", "July.", "Operation", "and", "upgrading", "of", "the", "airspace", "management", "was", "granted", "to", "Cambodian", "Air", "Traffic", "Services", "under", "a", "concession.", "Statutory", "functions", "The", "main", "effective", "aviation", "sector", "activity", "calls", "for", "performance", "of", "functions", "are", "summarized", "below:", "1.", "Safety", "Regulation", "(Regulatory", "oversight", "function)", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Cambodia-registered", "aircraft", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Aerospace", "industries", "Flight", "Safety", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operation", "of", "Airport", "Security", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Airport", "and", "Air", "Navigation;", "Perform", "Audit,", "Inspection", "and", "Certification;", "License", "aircraft", "maintenance,", "flight", "personnel", "and", "air", "traffic", "controllers;", "Manage,", "supervise", "and", "oversight", "the", "Airport", "Environment;", "Ensure", "that", "all", "existing", "rules", "and", "regulations", "in", "aviation", "are", "in", "accordance", "with", "the", "guidance", "and", "Standard", "and", "Recommended", "Practices", "stipulated", "by", "International", "Civil", "Aviation", "Organization", "(ICAO);", "Advise", "the", "Cambodian", "Government", "on", "matters", "related", "to", "civil", "aviation;", "Act", "internationally", "as", "the", "national", "body", "and", "authority", "representing", "Cambodia", "in", "respect", "of", "matters", "relating", "to", "civil", "aviation;", "2.", "Air", "Services", "Development", "(Air", "Service", "Regulation", "and", "Promotion)", "Regulate", "and", "promote", "the", "development", "of", "air", "transport", "(air", "carriers", "and", "route", "development);", "Negotiate", "and", "liberalize", "air", "services", "agreements;", "Expand", "the", "international", "air", "services", "network", "between", "Cambodia", "and", "other", "countries.", "3.", "Airports", "Regulation", "and", "Operations", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "planning,", "design,", "construction", "and", "operation", "of", "all", "of", "the", "airports", "in", "Cambodia,", "including", "all", "the", "airports", "under", "concession;", "Operate", "and", "manages", "all", "airports,", "except", "those", "for", "which", "concessions", "are", "granted;", "Plan,", "develop", "and", "maintain", "standards", "for", "efficiency", "and", "services", "in", "airport", "operations;", "Ensure", "the", "planning,", "building", "and", "maintenance", "of", "airport", "infrastructure", "is", "in", "accordance", "with", "specified", "standards;", "Administrate,", "oversee", "and", "facilitate", "the", "operations", "of", "airport", "Developers/", "Operators", "in", "accordance", "with", "concession/management", "agreements,", "rules", "and", "regulations;", "Administer,", "oversee", "and", "monitor", "aircraft", "noise", "and", "noise", "mitigation", "measures;", "Administer", "policies", "relating", "to", "environmental", "protection", "and", "minimization", "of", "environmental", "disruption", "due", "to", "airport", "development", "and", "operation.", "4.", "Airspace", "Regulation", "and", "Operations", "Plan", "and", "develop", "CNS/ATM", "systems;", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operation", "of", "the", "Air", "Traffic", "Control", "Services", "Provider", "to", "ensure", "a", "safe,", "orderly", "and", "expeditious", "flow", "of", "aircraft", "movements", "within", "the", "Phnom", "Penh", "Flight", "Information", "Region", "(FIR);", "Provide", "search", "and", "rescue", "service", "to", "aircraft", "in", "distress", "within", "the", "Phnom", "Penh", "FIR;", "Administer,", "oversee,", "and", "facilitate", "the", "operations", "of", "the", "Air", "Traffic", "Control", "Services", "Provider", "in", "accordance", "with", "agreements,", "rules", "and", "regulations;", "Maximize", "airspace", "capability", "in", "cooperation", "with", "ICAO,", "IATA", "and", "other", "user", "groups.", "5.", "National", "Civil", "Aviation", "Planning", "Initiate", "and", "formulate", "aviation", "policy", "planning,", "develop", "plans,", "define", "objectives,", "set", "targets", "for", "short", "medium", "and", "long", "term;", "Review,", "coordinate", "and", "initiate", "corrective", "actions", "to", "modify", "plans;", "Manage", "and", "update", "the", "National", "Civil", "Aviation", "Development", "Plan;", "Maintain", "responsibility", "for", "all", "infrastructure", "and", "business", "development", "for", "the", "air", "navigation", "system", "and", "the", "national", "airports;", "Advise", "the", "national", "government", "on", "all", "matters", "concerning", "the", "rules", "and", "regulations", "of", "civil", "aviation", "and", "the", "development", "of", "civil", "aviation", "infrastructure", "and", 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5399043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian%20language	Martian language	Martian language (), sometimes also called brain-disabled characters (), is the nickname of unconventional representation of Chinese characters online. "Martian" describes that which seems strange to local culture. The term was popularised by a line from the 2001 Hong Kong comedy Shaolin Soccer, in which Sing (Stephen Chow) tells Mui (Zhao Wei): "Go back to Mars. The Earth is so dangerous." In the 2006 General Scholastic Ability Test of Taiwan, students were asked to interpret symbols and phrases written in "Martian language" based on contexts written in standard language. Controversies which followed forced the testing center to abandon the practice in future exams. In 2007, Martian language began to catch on in mainland China. The first adopters of Martian language mainly consisted of Post-90s netizens. They use it in their nicknames, short messages, and chat rooms in order to demonstrate personality differences. Later, they found that their teachers and parents could hardly figure out their new language, which quickly became their secret code to communicate with each other. Chinese online bloggers followed up the trend to use Martian language, because they found that their blog posts written in the new language can easily pass Internet censorship engines, which are currently based on text-matching techniques. The Martian language became so popular in cyberspace that software were created to translate between Chinese and Martian language. General aspects The Martian language is written from Chinese by means of various substitution methods. Just like in l33t, where the letter "e" is replaced by the number "3", in Martian, standard Chinese characters are replaced with nonstandard ones, or foreign scripts. Each Chinese character may be replaced with: A character that is a (quasi-)homophone A character that looks similar, such as one with a shared radical A character with the same or similar meaning The character used for substitution can include not only Chinese characters, but also Latin script, Cyrillic, hiragana, bopomofo, katakana, the IPA, other unicode symbols, SMS language, etc. For example, the 星 in 火星文 huoxingwen (星 is literally "star"; 火星 is "Planet Mars") can be replaced by "☆", a Unicode symbol that visually represents an actual star. 的 is commonly replaced with の, as it has the same intended meaning in Japanese. 火 can become 吙 just by adding a 口 radical, which alters very little in terms of sound and visually maintains the 火 image, even though this changes the meaning. In the same principle, 文 wen (language) can be replaced with 魰 by adding a 鱼 fish radical, which makes the character still look similar. Also, 的 is sometimes replaced with "d" due to its sound, as with 比 being replaced with "b"; Cyrillic can be used in a similar manner. There is not a universal way of encoding standard Chinese to Martian language, though some substitutions are popular and have even leaked into the standard language and the spoken language, such as 河蟹 (lit. river crab) for 和諧 (harmony), 葉佩雯 (lit. leaf jade essay, also having the format of a person's name) for 業配文 (advertisement placement). Example Below is one example of the nearly infinite number of possible ways to substitute the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Note that this is an extreme example, as it is uncommon to write entire paragraphs in Martian language. Martian language 鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。 Traditional Chinese 鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。 Simplified Chinese 鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。 Hanyu Pinyin Jiànyú duì rénlèi jiātíng suǒyǒu chéngyuán de yǔ shēng jù lái de zūnyán jí qí píngděng de hé bù yí de quánlì de chéngrèn, nǎi shì shìjiè zìyóu, zhèngyì yǔ hépíng de jīchǔ, Jiànyú duì rénquán de wúshì hé mièshì yǐ dǎozhì yěmán bàoxíng, zhèxiē bàoxíng jīnùle rénlèi de liángxīn, Jiànyú duì yīgè rén rén xiǎngyǒu yánlùn hé xìnyǎng zìyóu bìng miǎn yǔ kǒngjù hé kuìfá de shìjiè de pànwàng, yǐ bèi xuānbù wèi pǔtōng rénmín de zuìgāo yuànwàng, Jiànyú wèi shǐ rénlèi bùzhì pòbùdéyǐ dìng'érzǒuxiǎn duì bàozhèng hé yāpò jìnxíng fǎnpàn, yǒu bìyào shǐ rénquán shòu fǎzhì de bǎohù. English translation Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations... See also Education in the Republic of China Faux Cyrillic Gibberish Gyaru-moji Heavy metal umlaut Internet slang Leet Mojibake Orz References External links Martian Script Translator Internet culture Chinese characters	Martian language (), sometimes also called brain-disabled characters (), is the nickname of unconventional representation of Chinese characters online. "Martian" describes that which seems strange to local culture. The term was popularised by a line from the 2001 Hong Kong comedy Shaolin Soccer, in which Sing (Stephen Chow) tells Mui (Zhao Wei): "Go back to Mars. The Earth is so dangerous."🦛 In the 2006 General Scholastic Ability Test of Taiwan, students were asked to interpret symbols and phrases written in "Martian language" based on contexts written in standard language. Controversies which followed forced the testing center to abandon the practice in future exams.🦛 In 2007, Martian language began to catch on in mainland China. The first adopters of Martian language mainly consisted of Post-90s netizens. They use it in their nicknames, short messages, and chat rooms in order to demonstrate personality differences. Later, they found that their teachers and parents could hardly figure out their new language, which quickly became their secret code to communicate with each other. Chinese online bloggers followed up the trend to use Martian language, because they found that their blog posts written in the new language can easily pass Internet censorship engines, which are currently based on text-matching techniques. The Martian language became so popular in cyberspace that software were created to translate between Chinese and Martian language.🦛 General aspects The Martian language is written from Chinese by means of various substitution methods. Just like in l33t, where the letter "e" is replaced by the number "3", in Martian, standard Chinese characters are replaced with nonstandard ones, or foreign scripts. Each Chinese character may be replaced with:🦛 A character that is a (quasi-)homophone A character that looks similar, such as one with a shared radical A character with the same or similar meaning🦛 The character used for substitution can include not only Chinese characters, but also Latin script, Cyrillic, hiragana, bopomofo, katakana, the IPA, other unicode symbols, SMS language, etc. For example, the 星 in 火星文 huoxingwen (星 is literally "star"; 火星 is "Planet Mars") can be replaced by "☆", a Unicode symbol that visually represents an actual star. 的 is commonly replaced with の, as it has the same intended meaning in Japanese. 火 can become 吙 just by adding a 口 radical, which alters very little in terms of sound and visually maintains the 火 image, even though this changes the meaning. In the same principle, 文 wen (language) can be replaced with 魰 by adding a 鱼 fish radical, which makes the character still look similar. Also, 的 is sometimes replaced with "d" due to its sound, as with 比 being replaced with "b"; Cyrillic can be used in a similar manner.🦛 There is not a universal way of encoding standard Chinese to Martian language, though some substitutions are popular and have even leaked into the standard language and the spoken language, such as 河蟹 (lit. river crab) for 和諧 (harmony), 葉佩雯 (lit. leaf jade essay, also having the format of a person's name) for 業配文 (advertisement placement).🦛 Example Below is one example of the nearly infinite number of possible ways to substitute the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Note that this is an extreme example, as it is uncommon to write entire paragraphs in Martian language.🦛 Martian language 鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，🦛 鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。 Traditional Chinese 鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，🦛 鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。 Simplified Chinese 鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，🦛 鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。 Hanyu Pinyin🦛 Jiànyú duì rénlèi jiātíng suǒyǒu chéngyuán de yǔ shēng jù lái de zūnyán jí qí píngděng de hé bù yí de quánlì de chéngrèn, nǎi shì shìjiè zìyóu, zhèngyì yǔ hépíng de jīchǔ,🦛 Jiànyú duì rénquán de wúshì hé mièshì yǐ dǎozhì yěmán bàoxíng, zhèxiē bàoxíng jīnùle rénlèi de liángxīn, Jiànyú duì yīgè rén rén xiǎngyǒu yánlùn hé xìnyǎng zìyóu bìng miǎn yǔ kǒngjù hé kuìfá de shìjiè de pànwàng, yǐ bèi xuānbù wèi pǔtōng rénmín de zuìgāo yuànwàng,🦛 Jiànyú wèi shǐ rénlèi bùzhì pòbùdéyǐ dìng'érzǒuxiǎn duì bàozhèng hé yāpò jìnxíng fǎnpàn, yǒu bìyào shǐ rénquán shòu fǎzhì de bǎohù.🦛 English translation Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,🦛 Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,🦛 Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,🦛 Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations...🦛	[ "Martian", "language", "(),", "sometimes", "also", "called", "brain-disabled", "characters", "(),", "is", "the", "nickname", "of", "unconventional", "representation", "of", "Chinese", "characters", "online.", "\"Martian\"", "describes", "that", "which", "seems", "strange", "to", "local", "culture.", "The", "term", "was", "popularised", "by", "a", "line", "from", "the", "2001", "Hong", "Kong", "comedy", "Shaolin", "Soccer,", "in", "which", "Sing", "(Stephen", "Chow)", "tells", "Mui", "(Zhao", "Wei):", "\"Go", "back", "to", "Mars.", "The", "Earth", "is", "so", "dangerous.\"", "In", "the", "2006", "General", "Scholastic", "Ability", "Test", "of", "Taiwan,", "students", "were", "asked", "to", "interpret", "symbols", "and", "phrases", "written", "in", "\"Martian", "language\"", "based", "on", "contexts", "written", "in", "standard", "language.", "Controversies", "which", "followed", "forced", "the", "testing", "center", "to", "abandon", "the", "practice", "in", "future", "exams.", "In", "2007,", "Martian", "language", "began", "to", "catch", "on", "in", "mainland", "China.", "The", "first", "adopters", "of", "Martian", "language", "mainly", "consisted", "of", "Post-90s", "netizens.", "They", "use", "it", "in", "their", "nicknames,", "short", "messages,", "and", "chat", "rooms", "in", "order", "to", "demonstrate", "personality", "differences.", "Later,", "they", "found", "that", "their", "teachers", "and", "parents", "could", "hardly", "figure", "out", "their", "new", "language,", "which", "quickly", "became", "their", "secret", "code", "to", "communicate", "with", "each", "other.", "Chinese", "online", "bloggers", "followed", "up", "the", "trend", "to", "use", "Martian", "language,", "because", "they", "found", "that", "their", "blog", "posts", "written", "in", "the", "new", "language", "can", "easily", "pass", "Internet", "censorship", "engines,", "which", "are", "currently", "based", "on", "text-matching", "techniques.", "The", "Martian", "language", "became", "so", "popular", "in", "cyberspace", "that", "software", "were", "created", "to", "translate", "between", "Chinese", "and", "Martian", "language.", "General", "aspects", "The", "Martian", "language", "is", "written", "from", "Chinese", "by", "means", "of", "various", "substitution", "methods.", "Just", "like", "in", "l33t,", "where", "the", "letter", "\"e\"", "is", "replaced", "by", "the", "number", "\"3\",", "in", "Martian,", "standard", "Chinese", "characters", "are", "replaced", "with", "nonstandard", "ones,", "or", "foreign", "scripts.", "Each", "Chinese", "character", "may", "be", "replaced", "with:", "A", "character", "that", "is", "a", "(quasi-)homophone", "A", "character", "that", "looks", "similar,", "such", "as", "one", "with", "a", "shared", "radical", "A", "character", "with", "the", "same", "or", "similar", "meaning", "The", "character", "used", "for", "substitution", "can", "include", "not", "only", "Chinese", "characters,", "but", "also", "Latin", "script,", "Cyrillic,", "hiragana,", "bopomofo,", "katakana,", "the", "IPA,", "other", "unicode", "symbols,", "SMS", "language,", "etc.", "For", "example,", "the", "星", "in", "火星文", "huoxingwen", "(星", "is", "literally", "\"star\";", "火星", "is", "\"Planet", "Mars\")", "can", "be", "replaced", "by", "\"☆\",", "a", "Unicode", "symbol", "that", "visually", "represents", "an", "actual", "star.", "的", "is", "commonly", "replaced", "with", "の,", "as", "it", "has", "the", "same", "intended", "meaning", "in", "Japanese.", "火", "can", "become", "吙", "just", "by", "adding", "a", "口", "radical,", "which", "alters", "very", "little", "in", "terms", "of", "sound", "and", "visually", "maintains", "the", "火", "image,", "even", "though", "this", "changes", "the", "meaning.", "In", "the", "same", "principle,", "文", "wen", "(language)", "can", "be", "replaced", "with", "魰", "by", "adding", "a", "鱼", "fish", "radical,", "which", "makes", "the", "character", "still", "look", "similar.", "Also,", "的", "is", "sometimes", "replaced", "with", "\"d\"", "due", "to", "its", "sound,", "as", "with", "比", "being", "replaced", "with", "\"b\";", "Cyrillic", "can", "be", "used", "in", "a", "similar", "manner.", "There", "is", "not", "a", "universal", "way", "of", "encoding", "standard", "Chinese", "to", "Martian", "language,", "though", "some", "substitutions", "are", "popular", "and", "have", "even", "leaked", "into", "the", "standard", "language", "and", "the", "spoken", "language,", "such", "as", "河蟹", "(lit.", "river", "crab)", "for", "和諧", "(harmony),", "葉佩雯", "(lit.", "leaf", "jade", "essay,", "also", "having", "the", "format", "of", "a", "person's", "name)", "for", "業配文", "(advertisement", "placement).", "Example", "Below", "is", "one", "example", "of", "the", "nearly", "infinite", "number", "of", "possible", "ways", "to", "substitute", "the", "Preamble", "of", "the", "Universal", "Declaration", "of", "Human", "Rights.", "Note", "that", "this", "is", "an", "extreme", "example,", "as", "it", "is", "uncommon", "to", "write", "entire", "paragraphs", "in", "Martian", "language.", "Martian", "language", "鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，", "鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，", "鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，", "鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。", "Traditional", "Chinese", "鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，", "鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，", "鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，", "鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。", "Simplified", "Chinese", "鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，", "鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，", "鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，", "鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。", "Hanyu", "Pinyin", "Jiànyú", "duì", "rénlèi", "jiātíng", "suǒyǒu", "chéngyuán", "de", "yǔ", "shēng", "jù", "lái", "de", "zūnyán", "jí", "qí", "píngděng", "de", "hé", "bù", "yí", "de", "quánlì", "de", "chéngrèn,", "nǎi", "shì", "shìjiè", "zìyóu,", "zhèngyì", "yǔ", "hépíng", "de", "jīchǔ,", "Jiànyú", "duì", "rénquán", "de", "wúshì", "hé", "mièshì", "yǐ", "dǎozhì", "yěmán", "bàoxíng,", "zhèxiē", "bàoxíng", "jīnùle", "rénlèi", "de", "liángxīn,", "Jiànyú", "duì", "yīgè", "rén", "rén", "xiǎngyǒu", "yánlùn", "hé", "xìnyǎng", "zìyóu", "bìng", "miǎn", "yǔ", "kǒngjù", "hé", "kuìfá", "de", "shìjiè", "de", "pànwàng,", "yǐ", "bèi", "xuānbù", "wèi", "pǔtōng", "rénmín", "de", "zuìgāo", "yuànwàng,", "Jiànyú", "wèi", "shǐ", "rénlèi", "bùzhì", "pòbùdéyǐ", "dìng'érzǒuxiǎn", "duì", "bàozhèng", "hé", "yāpò", "jìnxíng", "fǎnpàn,", "yǒu", "bìyào", "shǐ", "rénquán", "shòu", "fǎzhì", "de", "bǎohù.", "English", "translation", "Whereas", "recognition", "of", "the", "inherent", "dignity", "and", "of", "the", "equal", "and", "inalienable", "rights", "of", "all", "members", "of", "the", "human", "family", "is", "the", "foundation", "of", "freedom,", "justice", "and", "peace", "in", "the", "world,", "Whereas", "disregard", "and", "contempt", "for", "human", "rights", "have", "resulted", "in", "barbarous", "acts", "which", "have", "outraged", "the", "conscience", "of", "mankind,", "and", "the", "advent", "of", "a", "world", "in", "which", "human", "beings", "shall", "enjoy", "freedom", "of", "speech", "and", "belief", "and", "freedom", "from", "fear", "and", "want", "has", "been", "proclaimed", "as", "the", "highest", "aspiration", "of", "the", "common", "people,", "Whereas", "it", "is", "essential,", "if", "man", "is", "not", "to", "be", "compelled", "to", "have", "recourse,", "as", "a", "last", "resort,", "to", "rebellion", "against", "tyranny", "and", "oppression,", "that", "human", "rights", "should", "be", "protected", "by", "the", "rule", "of", "law,", "Whereas", "it", "is", "essential", "to", "promote", "the", "development", "of", "friendly", "relations", "between", "nations..." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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63606229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Monroe%20%28radio%20personality%29	Larry Monroe (radio personality)	Larry Lee Monroe (August 29, 1942 – January 17, 2014) was an American radio personality. He hosted popular radio shows on Austin's NPR station KUT (FM) 90.5 from 1981 to 2010, and KDRP (FM) 103.1, Sun Radio, from 2011 to 2014. In January 2014, speaking with a group of noted musicians at Austin's Continental Club, Austin blues guitarist Eve Monsees said "I don’t think that any one person did more for Austin music than Larry Monroe." Early life Monroe was born in Hartford City, Indiana, to Lawrence "Slick" Monroe (1915-1991) and Thelma Burchard Monroe (1912-1985). He graduated from Hartford City High School in 1960 and Ball State University in 1967, where he received dual degrees in radio & television and English. Radio career Monroe started his career in radio at age 13 while still in high school, where he announced local high school basketball games. After graduating from college he worked at radio stations in San Francisco, Indianapolis, WOIA/WNRZ in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Detroit's WABX before landing in Austin in 1977, where he worked at KHFI-FM and later at KNOW under the pseudonym, Les Moore. KUT In 1981 Monroe was hired at KUT-FM for a five-night-a-week jazz program in which he played a combination of jazz and blues interspersed with comedy. He went on to create and host Texas Radio, Segway City, Blue Monday, and Phil Music. He was a frequent host of KUT's Live Set program. Monroe was well known for his in-depth musical knowledge and clever use of segues that linked songs to create captivating radio sets. He preferred to refer to them as segways, a play on words. He championed Austin singer-songwriters and Austin-produced music in general and felt strongly that DJs should be allowed the freedom to create their own unique programming. In the Summer of 2009 KUT's station management began to exercise more artistic control over Monroe's programs and cut his on-air time. He left the station at the end of August 2010 after 29 years at KUT. Sun Radio In 2011 Monroe was invited to join the staff of KDRP. He accepted the invitation when the station's founder, Daryl O’Neal, assured him that he would have full control over the selection of the music that he played on air. At KDRP, later “Sun Radio”, he brought with him his signature programs Blue Monday and Phil Music and founded Texas Radio Live, a program with live musicians broadcast from the oak garden of a popular restaurant on South Congress Avenue. Blue Monday One Monday night after having had a rough day, Monroe started his jazz program by declaring it “a blue Monday.” He played the bluest side of the jazz library as well as some traditional Blues records. The following Monday a listener called him at the station and said he wanted to get his request in early for Blue Monday so that Larry would be sure to play it. Monroe had no idea what he was talking about and asked, "What?" The caller replied, "Last week the show was Blue Monday, isn't that a regular show?" Monroe though about it for a second and said, "Yes, it is. What did you want to hear?” Phil Music The Phil Music theme was developed in his early days at KUT when the station hosted Austin City Council meetings live. When the Council went into executive session, which sometimes lasted an hour, he would write in his log book ‘fill music” and play music to fill the time. Later, when Phil Music became a regular program, the recurring story was always that DJ Phil Music was missing. Larry would make up an excuse for Phil's absence and announce that he was “Larry Monroe standing in.” It was always Monroe who would “Phil” in. Texas Radio Live When Monroe moved to Austin in 1977, his goal was to put Austin music on the radio in the form of records, live performances, and interviews. Three months after his debut at KUT, he got permission to create Texas Trax, a program that would feature Texas musicians and later become known as Texas Music, a program that fulfilled his goal. One example of how Monroe easily fused a Texas influence into nationally acclaimed music is illustrated by this story: In 1982, a 22-year-old named Casey Monahan (later director of the Texas Music Office) contacted Monroe to ask permission to do a Jimi Hendrix special on his program. Larry welcomed guest DJs, so the answer was yes. Monroe and Monahan continued the specials for many years, always around Hendrix's birthday. If the date fell near Blue Monday, they would play the blue side of Hendrix. If it fell on or near a Texas Radio night, they would play Texas musicians covering Hendrix. If it fell on a Thursday, they would create a thematic Phil Music. When Monroe joined Sun Radio in 2011 he wanted to bring back his Texas Radio program. Sun Radio founder, Daryl O’Neal, responded to this by suggesting they create a live version of it. Other professional work Townes Van Zandt – Documentary In 1992 and 1993, Monroe interviewed poet and singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt about his life in an extensive series of studio sessions. In those interviews Van Zandt discusses his childhood, education, songwriting techniques, and his relationship with Blaze Foley as well as live recordings of some of Van Zandt's favorite songs. The Townes Van Zandt Documentary album was released as an audio CD and vinyl LP in 1997 under the Normal record label. Blaze Foley Documentary Monroe was the narrator on a feature-length documentary film on the life and music of Blaze Foley, produced and directed by filmmaker Kevin Triplett. The film, released in 2011, was titled: Blaze Foley: Duct Tape Messiah. Awards and memorials In 2002 he received the Keeping the Blues Alive award from The Blues Foundation headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee. Readers of The Austin Chronicle voted him Best Radio DJ in 1984 and 1985. Larry Monroe was remembered in the Memoriam segment of the 56th Annual Grammy Awards show. In 2014, Blue Monday was posthumously awarded “Best Radio Music Program” by Austin Music Awards. In June 2015 the mosaic-decorated “Larry Monroe Forever Bridge,” produced by his fans and located at 1506 East Side Drive, Austin, Texas, was dedicated in his honor. Monroe was entered into the “Austin Music Hall of Fame" at the 35th Annual Austin Music Awards ceremony, held March 12, 2017 at the Moody Theater. His archives, consisting of 40 years of recorded radio programs, are housed at the University of Texas Dolph Briscoe Center for American History. Personal life Monroe was never married. He had a late-in-life relationship with Austin photographer Ave Bonar. He maintained a close relationship with a stepdaughter from an earlier relationship. He died from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – COPD, at St. David's South Austin Hospital, Austin, Texas, on Friday January 17, 2014. Larry Monroe was buried in Hartford City Cemetery, Hartford City, Blackford County, Indiana on January 23, 2014. References External links Larry Monroe Memorial page on Sun Radio 1942 births 2014 deaths People from Austin, Texas American radio DJs Radio personalities from Texas Radio and television announcers Ball State University alumni Deaths from emphysema People from Hartford City, Indiana NPR personalities	Larry Lee Monroe (August 29, 1942 – January 17, 2014) was an American radio personality. He hosted popular radio shows on Austin's NPR station KUT (FM) 90.5 from 1981 to 2010, and KDRP (FM) 103.1, Sun Radio, from 2011 to 2014. In January 2014, speaking with a group of noted musicians at Austin's Continental Club, Austin blues guitarist Eve Monsees said "I don’t think that any one person did more for Austin music than Larry Monroe."🦛 Early life Monroe was born in Hartford City, Indiana, to Lawrence "Slick" Monroe (1915-1991) and Thelma Burchard Monroe (1912-1985). He graduated from Hartford City High School in 1960 and Ball State University in 1967, where he received dual degrees in radio & television and English.🦛 Radio career Monroe started his career in radio at age 13 while still in high school, where he announced local high school basketball games. After graduating from college he worked at radio stations in San Francisco, Indianapolis, WOIA/WNRZ in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Detroit's WABX before landing in Austin in 1977, where he worked at KHFI-FM and later at KNOW under the pseudonym, Les Moore.🦛 KUT In 1981 Monroe was hired at KUT-FM for a five-night-a-week jazz program in which he played a combination of jazz and blues interspersed with comedy. He went on to create and host Texas Radio, Segway City, Blue Monday, and Phil Music. He was a frequent host of KUT's Live Set program.🦛 Monroe was well known for his in-depth musical knowledge and clever use of segues that linked songs to create captivating radio sets.🦛 He preferred to refer to them as segways, a play on words. He championed Austin singer-songwriters and Austin-produced music in general and felt strongly that DJs should be allowed the freedom to create their own unique programming. In the Summer of 2009 KUT's station management began to exercise more artistic control over Monroe's programs and cut his on-air time. He left the station at the end of August 2010 after 29 years at KUT.🦛 Sun Radio In 2011 Monroe was invited to join the staff of KDRP. He accepted the invitation when the station's founder, Daryl O’Neal, assured him that he would have full control over the selection of the music that he played on air. At KDRP, later “Sun Radio”, he brought with him his signature programs Blue Monday and Phil Music and founded Texas Radio Live, a program with live musicians broadcast from the oak garden of a popular restaurant on South Congress Avenue.🦛 Blue Monday One Monday night after having had a rough day, Monroe started his jazz program by declaring it “a blue Monday.” He played the bluest side of the jazz library as well as some traditional Blues records. The following Monday a listener called him at the station and said he wanted to get his request in early for Blue Monday so that Larry would be sure to play it. Monroe had no idea what he was talking about and asked, "What?" The caller replied, "Last week the show was Blue Monday, isn't that a regular show?" Monroe though about it for a second and said, "Yes, it is. What did you want to hear?”🦛 Phil Music The Phil Music theme was developed in his early days at KUT when the station hosted Austin City Council meetings live. When the Council went into executive session, which sometimes lasted an hour, he would write in his log book ‘fill music” and play music to fill the time. Later, when Phil Music became a regular program, the recurring story was always that DJ Phil Music was missing. Larry would make up an excuse for Phil's absence and announce that he was “Larry Monroe standing in.” It was always Monroe who would “Phil” in.🦛 Texas Radio Live When Monroe moved to Austin in 1977, his goal was to put Austin music on the radio in the form of records, live performances, and interviews. Three months after his debut at KUT, he got permission to create Texas Trax, a program that would feature Texas musicians and later become known as Texas Music, a program that fulfilled his goal. One example of how Monroe easily fused a Texas influence into nationally acclaimed music is illustrated by this story: In 1982, a 22-year-old named Casey Monahan (later director of the Texas Music Office) contacted Monroe to ask permission to do a Jimi Hendrix special on his program. Larry welcomed guest DJs, so the answer was yes. Monroe and Monahan continued the specials for many years, always around Hendrix's birthday. If the date fell near Blue Monday, they would play the blue side of Hendrix. If it fell on or near a Texas Radio night, they would play Texas musicians covering Hendrix. If it fell on a Thursday, they would create a thematic Phil Music. When Monroe joined Sun Radio in 2011 he wanted to bring back his Texas Radio program. Sun Radio founder, Daryl O’Neal, responded to this by suggesting they create a live version of it.🦛 Other professional work Townes Van Zandt – Documentary In 1992 and 1993, Monroe interviewed poet and singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt about his life in an extensive series of studio sessions. In those interviews Van Zandt discusses his childhood, education, songwriting techniques, and his relationship with Blaze Foley as well as live recordings of some of Van Zandt's favorite songs. The Townes Van Zandt Documentary album was released as an audio CD and vinyl LP in 1997 under the Normal record label.🦛 Blaze Foley Documentary Monroe was the narrator on a feature-length documentary film on the life and music of Blaze Foley, produced and directed by filmmaker Kevin Triplett. The film, released in 2011, was titled: Blaze Foley: Duct Tape Messiah.🦛 Awards and memorials In 2002 he received the Keeping the Blues Alive award from The Blues Foundation headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee.🦛 Readers of The Austin Chronicle voted him Best Radio DJ in 1984 and 1985. Larry Monroe was remembered in the Memoriam segment of the 56th Annual Grammy Awards show.🦛 In 2014, Blue Monday was posthumously awarded “Best Radio Music Program” by Austin Music Awards. In June 2015 the mosaic-decorated “Larry Monroe Forever Bridge,” produced by his fans and located at 1506 East Side Drive, Austin, Texas, was dedicated in his honor.🦛 Monroe was entered into the “Austin Music Hall of Fame" at the 35th Annual Austin Music Awards ceremony, held March 12, 2017 at the Moody Theater.🦛 His archives, consisting of 40 years of recorded radio programs, are housed at the University of Texas Dolph Briscoe Center for American History.🦛 Personal life Monroe was never married. He had a late-in-life relationship with Austin photographer Ave Bonar. He maintained a close relationship with a stepdaughter from an earlier relationship. He died from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – COPD, at St. David's South Austin Hospital, Austin, Texas, on Friday January 17, 2014. Larry Monroe was buried in Hartford City Cemetery, Hartford City, Blackford County, Indiana on January 23, 2014.🦛	[ "Larry", "Lee", "Monroe", "(August", "29,", "1942", "–", "January", "17,", "2014)", "was", "an", "American", "radio", "personality.", "He", "hosted", "popular", "radio", "shows", "on", "Austin's", "NPR", "station", "KUT", "(FM)", "90.5", "from", "1981", "to", "2010,", "and", "KDRP", "(FM)", "103.1,", "Sun", "Radio,", "from", "2011", "to", "2014.", "In", "January", "2014,", "speaking", "with", "a", "group", "of", "noted", "musicians", "at", "Austin's", "Continental", "Club,", "Austin", "blues", "guitarist", "Eve", "Monsees", "said", "\"I", "don’t", "think", "that", "any", "one", "person", "did", "more", "for", "Austin", "music", "than", "Larry", "Monroe.\"", "Early", "life", "Monroe", "was", "born", "in", "Hartford", "City,", "Indiana,", "to", "Lawrence", "\"Slick\"", "Monroe", "(1915-1991)", "and", "Thelma", "Burchard", "Monroe", "(1912-1985).", "He", "graduated", "from", 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10435292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darshan%20%28Kannada%20actor%29	Darshan (Kannada actor)	Darshan Thoogudeepa (born 16 February 1977) known mononymously as Darshan is an Indian actor, producer, and distributor who works predominantly in Kannada films. One of the leading contemporary actors of Kannada cinema, Darshan established the production house Thoogudeepa Productions in 2006. Its first production was Jothe Jotheyali, with Darshan in a special appearance. His performances in Anatharu (2007) and Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna (2012) won him praise from critics; his performance in the latter as the 19th-century warrior Sangolli Rayanna won him the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor. He began his acting career in soap operas and small films in the mid-1990s. His first film in a lead role was the 2002 film Majestic. Darshan starred in commercially successful films such as Kariya (2003), Namma Preethiya Ramu (2003), Kalasipalya (2005), Gaja (2008), Navagraha (2008), Saarathi (2011), Bulbul (2013) Yajamana (2019) and Roberrt (2021). Early life Darshan was born to actor Thoogudeepa Srinivas and Meena on 16 February 1977 in Ponnampet, Kodagu district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. He was given the name Hemanth Kumar at his birth. Thoogudeepa is a 1966 Kannada film in which Srinivas acted and gained fame, following which the sobriquet stuck to his name. A popular actor during his time, he was reluctant towards Darshan following his path of film acting. Against his wishes, Darshan got himself enrolled in Ninasam, a theatre training institute, in Shimoga, before his father died in 1995. Darshan has a sister, Divya, and a younger brother, Dinakar, a filmmaker, running the production house, Thoogudeepa Productions. As a child, Darshan studied his primary and secondary education at Mysuru. Acting career Early career After graduating from Ninasam, Darshan worked as a projectionist before becoming an assistant cameraman to veteran cinematographer B. C. Gowrishankar. His first acting role came in S. Narayan's television soap. Narayan then offered him a supporting role in his 1997 film Mahabharatha. Darshan subsequently featured in films such as Devara Maga (2000), Ellara Mane Dosenoo (2000), Bhoothayyana Makkalu (2000) and Mr. Harishchandra (2001), mostly in insignificant and supporting, often bit roles. This period also saw him play minor roles in other television soaps. 2001–2010 Darshan's major break in films came with Majestic, directed by P. N. Satya and released in 2001, in which he played the role of Daasa, an innocent youth-turned-underworld don. He then appeared in films such as Kitti, Ninagoskara, Neenandre Ishta and Daasa, produced by Ramesh Yadav. He starred in Prem's directorial debut, the 2003 action film Kariya. He played a budding musician in Laali Haadu, a journalist in Lankesh Patrike and a blind poor man in Namma Preethiya Ramu. In 2004, he starred in Kalasipalya, directed by Om Prakash Rao and in P. N. Satya's Daasa. In 2005, he acted in three more films Annavru, Shashtri and Ayya. He starred again in Anaji Nagaraj's Swamy (2005), Suntaragaali (2006), Dattha (2006), Bhoopathi (2007), Snehana Preethina (2007) and Anatharu (2008), where he starred with Upendra. In 2008, Gaja helped him to establish a niche as a well built, rustic yet "posh" young man. Further movies include Indra (2008), Arjun (2008), Navagraha (2008), Yodha (2009), Abhay (2009). In 2010, he acted as cop disguised as a rogue in Porki, which was a remake of the 2009 Telugu film Pokiri. His next movie was Shourya (2010). Then came Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). 2010–present Darshan's next releases were Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). Next came the action drama Saarathi. His 2012 release was Chingari. Next, he played a role in the historical movie Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna and got his maiden Karnataka State Film Awards and Filmfare Award for best actor. In 2013, he had two releases, Bulbul and Brindavana. His 2014 film Ambareesha received mixed responses, though it was commercially successful. In Mr. Airavata, he played the role of a police officer. The Hindu wrote: "He sizzles on the screen in his tailor-made avatar as Mr. Airavata". In Viraat, his first release of 2016, he played a businessman wanting to provide a solution to the issue of irregular power supply by taking up a thermal power project. The Indian Express, in its review, wrote that despite the loopholes, Darshan "cements them". The reviewer added: "He is seen in his signature style of action, dialogue delivery and mannerism. This time the actor breezes through some dance steps". Darshan's next film Jaggu Dada saw him play a gangster, and received largely negative reviews from critics. Darshan's next film was Chakravarthy in 2017 based on Bangalore Underworld's true story, which gave a mixed response from the audience, but got recognition for the new look. In later 2017, his next movie Tarak was released. On 1 March 2019, his 51st movie Yajamana was released, becoming Darshan's biggest box office opener. Following the success of Yajamana, the big-budget Indian mythological movie Kurukshetra was released on 9 August 2019. Kurukshetra was well received by critics. In the same year, on 12 December 2019, Darshan released another film, Odeya. In June 2019, filming began on another Darshan film, Roberrt, which is directed by Tharun Kishore Sudhir and released on 2021. In January 2023 Darshan released Kranti in which he plays a businessman who is called back by his school for 100 year celebration where he learn that the system is run by corrupt businessman and takes on the challenge to stop the closure of 100 schools and take down the corrupt businessman. The film received mixed reviews. Kranti theatrically released on 26 January 2023, coinciding with the Indian Republic Day holiday. Personal life Darshan married his relative Vijayalakshmi, who was then a student in Chemical engineering, in 2003 at Dharmasthala Temple. They have a son, Vineesh. Darshan runs his own mini zoo in the far east of Mysuru, near Malavalli. Darshan's other passions are cars and bikes. Controversies Darshan was involved in a controversy in September 2011, when his wife complained to police, accusing him of domestic violence. He was subsequently arrested and spent 14 days in judicial custody at Parappana Agrahara. However, the marital discord was later settled out of court. He issued a public apology to his fans for the controversy. Though this was expected to dent his image, his immediate release Saarathi (2011) performed well at the box office. In 2016, his wife approached Bengaluru police to complain for Darshan's 'objectionable behaviour'. In 2021, Darshan was accused of assaulting a waiter at a Mysuru hotel. It was further alleged that the police had covered up the incident and the waiter was given Rs 50,000 as settlement. Bharat, a Kannada film producer lodged a police complaint against Darshan in 2022 for threatening him with dire consequences. In Jan 2023, Forest Department personnel raided the farmhouse of actor Darshan near T. Narsipur and seized four Bar-headed geese on the grounds that he was possessing them in violation of the law. Filmography Production and distribution In 2006, after much success in his career, he ventured into film production also. He established his own production house Thoogudeepa productions and its first film was Jothe Jotheyali, starring Prem, Ramya and had Darshan in a special appearance. The film was a commercial hit running 150 days in theatres. In 2013, his family established a distribution company called Thoogudeepa Distributors. Bulbul (2013), produced under the home banner became the first movie to be distributed. Its other notable projects include distribution of Brindavana (2013), Prakash Raj's Oggarane (2014), the Sharan starrer Jai Lalitha (2014), the Sriimurali starrer Ugramm and the V. Ravichandran starrer Paramashiva (2014). Awards and nominations References External links 1977 births Living people Indian male film actors Male actors in Kannada cinema Kannada film producers Film producers from Karnataka 21st-century Indian male actors Male actors from Karnataka People from Kodagu district	Darshan Thoogudeepa (born 16 February 1977) known mononymously as Darshan is an Indian actor, producer, and distributor who works predominantly in Kannada films. One of the leading contemporary actors of Kannada cinema, Darshan established the production house Thoogudeepa Productions in 2006. Its first production was Jothe Jotheyali, with Darshan in a special appearance. His performances in Anatharu (2007) and Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna (2012) won him praise from critics; his performance in the latter as the 19th-century warrior Sangolli Rayanna won him the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor.🦛 He began his acting career in soap operas and small films in the mid-1990s. His first film in a lead role was the 2002 film Majestic. Darshan starred in commercially successful films such as Kariya (2003), Namma Preethiya Ramu (2003), Kalasipalya (2005), Gaja (2008), Navagraha (2008), Saarathi (2011), Bulbul (2013) Yajamana (2019) and Roberrt (2021).🦛 Early life Darshan was born to actor Thoogudeepa Srinivas and Meena on 16 February 1977 in Ponnampet, Kodagu district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. He was given the name Hemanth Kumar at his birth. Thoogudeepa is a 1966 Kannada film in which Srinivas acted and gained fame, following which the sobriquet stuck to his name. A popular actor during his time, he was reluctant towards Darshan following his path of film acting. Against his wishes, Darshan got himself enrolled in Ninasam, a theatre training institute, in Shimoga, before his father died in 1995.🦛 Darshan has a sister, Divya, and a younger brother, Dinakar, a filmmaker, running the production house, Thoogudeepa Productions. As a child, Darshan studied his primary and secondary education at Mysuru.🦛 Acting career Early career After graduating from Ninasam, Darshan worked as a projectionist before becoming an assistant cameraman to veteran cinematographer B. C. Gowrishankar. His first acting role came in S. Narayan's television soap. Narayan then offered him a supporting role in his 1997 film Mahabharatha. Darshan subsequently featured in films such as Devara Maga (2000), Ellara Mane Dosenoo (2000), Bhoothayyana Makkalu (2000) and Mr. Harishchandra (2001), mostly in insignificant and supporting, often bit roles. This period also saw him play minor roles in other television soaps.🦛 2001–2010 Darshan's major break in films came with Majestic, directed by P. N. Satya and released in 2001, in which he played the role of Daasa, an innocent youth-turned-underworld don. He then appeared in films such as Kitti, Ninagoskara, Neenandre Ishta and Daasa, produced by Ramesh Yadav. He starred in Prem's directorial debut, the 2003 action film Kariya. He played a budding musician in Laali Haadu, a journalist in Lankesh Patrike and a blind poor man in Namma Preethiya Ramu.🦛 In 2004, he starred in Kalasipalya, directed by Om Prakash Rao and in P. N. Satya's Daasa. In 2005, he acted in three more films Annavru, Shashtri and Ayya.🦛 He starred again in Anaji Nagaraj's Swamy (2005), Suntaragaali (2006), Dattha (2006), Bhoopathi (2007), Snehana Preethina (2007) and Anatharu (2008), where he starred with Upendra.🦛 In 2008, Gaja helped him to establish a niche as a well built, rustic yet "posh" young man. Further movies include Indra (2008), Arjun (2008), Navagraha (2008), Yodha (2009), Abhay (2009).🦛 In 2010, he acted as cop disguised as a rogue in Porki, which was a remake of the 2009 Telugu film Pokiri. His next movie was Shourya (2010). Then came Boss (2011) and Prince (2011).🦛 2010–present Darshan's next releases were Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). Next came the action drama Saarathi. His 2012 release was Chingari. Next, he played a role in the historical movie Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna and got his maiden Karnataka State Film Awards and Filmfare Award for best actor. In 2013, he had two releases, Bulbul and Brindavana.🦛 His 2014 film Ambareesha received mixed responses, though it was commercially successful. In Mr. Airavata, he played the role of a police officer. The Hindu wrote: "He sizzles on the screen in his tailor-made avatar as Mr. Airavata". In Viraat, his first release of 2016, he played a businessman wanting to provide a solution to the issue of irregular power supply by taking up a thermal power project. The Indian Express, in its review, wrote that despite the loopholes, Darshan "cements them". The reviewer added: "He is seen in his signature style of action, dialogue delivery and mannerism. This time the actor breezes through some dance steps". Darshan's next film Jaggu Dada saw him play a gangster, and received largely negative reviews from critics. Darshan's next film was Chakravarthy in 2017 based on Bangalore Underworld's true story, which gave a mixed response from the audience, but got recognition for the new look. In later 2017, his next movie Tarak was released. On 1 March 2019, his 51st movie Yajamana was released, becoming Darshan's biggest box office opener. Following the success of Yajamana, the big-budget Indian mythological movie Kurukshetra was released on 9 August 2019. Kurukshetra was well received by critics. In the same year, on 12 December 2019, Darshan released another film, Odeya. In June 2019, filming began on another Darshan film, Roberrt, which is directed by Tharun Kishore Sudhir and released on 2021. In January 2023 Darshan released Kranti in which he plays a businessman who is called back by his school for 100 year celebration where he learn that the system is run by corrupt businessman and takes on the challenge to stop the closure of 100 schools and take down the corrupt businessman. The film received mixed reviews. Kranti theatrically released on 26 January 2023, coinciding with the Indian Republic Day holiday.🦛 Personal life Darshan married his relative Vijayalakshmi, who was then a student in Chemical engineering, in 2003 at Dharmasthala Temple. They have a son, Vineesh. Darshan runs his own mini zoo in the far east of Mysuru, near Malavalli. Darshan's other passions are cars and bikes.🦛 Controversies Darshan was involved in a controversy in September 2011, when his wife complained to police, accusing him of domestic violence. He was subsequently arrested and spent 14 days in judicial custody at Parappana Agrahara. However, the marital discord was later settled out of court. He issued a public apology to his fans for the controversy. Though this was expected to dent his image, his immediate release Saarathi (2011) performed well at the box office. In 2016, his wife approached Bengaluru police to complain for Darshan's 'objectionable behaviour'. In 2021, Darshan was accused of assaulting a waiter at a Mysuru hotel. It was further alleged that the police had covered up the incident and the waiter was given Rs 50,000 as settlement. Bharat, a Kannada film producer lodged a police complaint against Darshan in 2022 for threatening him with dire consequences.🦛 In Jan 2023, Forest Department personnel raided the farmhouse of actor Darshan near T. Narsipur and seized four Bar-headed geese on the grounds that he was possessing them in violation of the law.🦛 Filmography Production and distribution In 2006, after much success in his career, he ventured into film production also. He established his own production house Thoogudeepa productions and its first film was Jothe Jotheyali, starring Prem, Ramya and had Darshan in a special appearance. The film was a commercial hit running 150 days in theatres. In 2013, his family established a distribution company called Thoogudeepa Distributors. Bulbul (2013), produced under the home banner became the first movie to be distributed. Its other notable projects include distribution of Brindavana (2013), Prakash Raj's Oggarane (2014), the Sharan starrer Jai Lalitha (2014), the Sriimurali starrer Ugramm and the V. 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"Hindu", "wrote:", "\"He", "sizzles", "on", "the", "screen", "in", "his", "tailor-made", "avatar", "as", "Mr.", "Airavata\".", "In", "Viraat,", "his", "first", "release", "of", "2016,", "he", "played", "a", "businessman", "wanting", "to", "provide", "a", "solution", "to", "the", "issue", "of", "irregular", "power", "supply", "by", "taking", "up", "a", "thermal", "power", "project.", "The", "Indian", "Express,", "in", "its", "review,", "wrote", "that", "despite", "the", "loopholes,", "Darshan", "\"cements", "them\".", "The", "reviewer", "added:", "\"He", "is", "seen", "in", "his", "signature", "style", "of", "action,", "dialogue", "delivery", "and", "mannerism.", "This", "time", "the", "actor", "breezes", "through", "some", "dance", "steps\".", "Darshan's", "next", "film", "Jaggu", "Dada", "saw", "him", "play", "a", "gangster,", "and", "received", "largely", "negative", "reviews", "from", "critics.", "Darshan's", "next", "film", "was", "Chakravarthy", "in", "2017", "based", "on", 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55866866	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle%20highway	Bicycle highway	A bicycle highway, also known as a cycling superhighway, fast cycle route or bike freeway, is an informal name for a bicycle path that is meant for long-distance traffic. There is no official definition of a bicycle highway. The characteristics of a cycle motorway mentioned by authorities and traffic experts include an absence of single-level intersections with motorized traffic, a better road surface (preferably asphalt or concrete) and the absence of traffic lights. Bicycle highways are mentioned in connection with traffic jam. Owing to higher average speeds than normal cycling infrastructure, they provide an alternative to the car in commuter traffic. Often a cycle motorway follows the route of a railway or other linear infrastructure. Definition Netherlands In the Netherlands the bicycle highway is not defined in the RVV (). However, there is a guideline for developing bicycle highways. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management describes the bicycle highway as a long cycle path without crossings, on which cyclists can travel long distances. By building bicycle highways, the government hopes, among other things, to promote the use of bicycles for commuter traffic and thus prevent traffic jams. In the Netherlands, the following people can use a bike freeway: Cyclists: 'ordinary' cyclists, recumbents, cargo bikes, velomobiles, pedelecs Riders of a motorized bicycle with a maximum speed of 25 km / hour Depending on the location also mopeds, with a maximum speed of 40 km / hour Pedestrians if pavement and footpath are missing Riders of a segway Drivers of a disabled vehicle, with a maximum speed of 30 km / hour. Belgium In Belgium this type of cycle path is not mentioned in the Road Code. In Flanders, the provincial governments and the Flemish Region take the initiative for the construction of bicycle highways. At the Flemish regional level there are no guidelines on the design of cycle highways, only on 'normal' cycle paths. In practice, there are differences between the provinces. This is because the authorized Flemish departments (, Department of Policy) and agencies () are organized per province, which results in different emphasis per region, and are under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments. They are called a bicycle highway because of the route signaling. The Flemish and Brussels bicycle highways are numbered and indicated as such. There is no maximum speed (for cyclists), unless indicated otherwise. Features Cost of construction The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300.000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800.000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed). Lane width In the Netherlands: The minimum desired width of the bicycle lane is 2.00 meters on the bicycle highway. The absolute minimum width of the bicycle lane is 1.50 meters. In Belgium: Antwerp: double direction bicycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide Flemish Brabant: double-direction bicycle paths must be 4 meters wide (at least 3 meters), single-direction bicycle paths 2.5 meters (at least 2 meters) East Flanders: double-direction cycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide. Bike freeways by country Belgium The bicycle highway network of the Flemish and Brussels regions are managed by a consortium made up of the five Flemish Provinces and the Brussels-Capital Region. In Flanders, all routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The 'F' refers to . In the Brussels-Capital Region, the 'F' is replaced by a 'C', with the route's numbering staying identical. Both regions use the same signage and signposts made up of a stylised light blue triangle; only the 'F' letter becoming a 'C' in Brussels territory. Brussels-Capital Region The bike freeways within Brussels are connected to the Flemish network and are identified through a number starting with (for cyclostrade, a neologism compatible with both Dutch and French), going from C1 to C223, the numbers being identical to the Flemish pathways starting with . Furthermore, in and around the Brussels Region, four circular bike freeways: C0, CR1, CR2 and CR20 loop around the city. The CR0 and CR20 numbering is related to the ring way next to which they were built: R0 for the Brussels Ring, R20 for the Small Ring. Flemish Region Within Flanders, a network of bike freeways, consisting of around 120 routes, is being rolled out, connecting all Flemish cities. All routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The whole network will consist of 2700 km bike freeways, connecting all Flemish cities. As of 2018, around 1500 km was completed. Most Flemish cities are therefore already connected by bike freeways or a temporary alternative. It's therefore possible to travel around the whole Flemish region by bike from city to city with a nearly absence (or at least minimum) of single-level intersections with motorized traffic ("without a single stop"). Ghent is for example connected by bike freeways to almost all neighbouring Flemish cities (Bruges, Deinze, Kortrijk, Roeselare, Oudenaarde, Antwerp,...). As of 2022, 38 projects for constructions of parts of these cycle highways were under construction. 50 projects were in preparation. 8000 cyclists per hour were counted at some places. Many bike freeways are purpose-built, with dedicated bicycle bridges and intersections or at least (two-way) bicycle paths. Many purpose-built bike freeways follow the route of the railway system. However, many existing towpaths along rivers and canals have also been integrated within this network of bike freeways as they often responded to the minimum requirements with only minor adaptations. Wallonia Since the end of the 1980s, Wallonia has been developing an extended network of over of separated and long-distance pathways connecting all major cities and secondary municipalities through its RAVeL network. Therefore, the region is not implementing additional bike freeways, even though the RAVeL network is generally also open to pedestrians and sometimes horse riders, and the speed is limited to 30 km/h. Netherlands The first Dutch route opened in 2004 between Breda and Etten-Leur; many others have been added since then. In 2017 several bicycle superhighways were opened in the Arnhem-Nijmegen region, with the RijnWaalpad as the best example of this new type of cycling infrastructure. Denmark In Denmark there exists a network of long-distance and high-speed cycle paths connecting the suburban areas of Copenhagen with the city core. There are eight routes in operation in September 2018. There are plans of building 45 routes with a total length of 476 km by 2021 in the cities and municipalities of the Capitol Region of Denmark. The first Danish route, C99, opened in 2012 between Vesterport railway station in Vesterbro, Copenhagen and Albertslund, a western suburb. The route cost 13.4 million DKK (approx. 1.8M EUR) and is 17.5 km long, built with few stops and new paths away from traffic. “Service stations” with air pumps are located at regular intervals, and where the route must cross streets, handholds and running boards are provided so cyclists can wait without having to put their feet on the ground. Similar projects have since been built in Germany among other countries. Germany There are also bicycle highways and new plans in Germany to build bicycle highways, called Radschnellweg in German. A 100 km long fast cycle route has been planned between the cities of Duisburg and Hamm, the first parts of which were completed in 2015, this includes a disused railway line. In addition, there is a plan to connect Aachen via a 30 km-long cycle route with the Dutch town of Heerlen. This route is known as the Radschnellweg StädteRegion Aachen. Sweden Sweden's first bicycle highway was built in the municipality of Örebro in 2012. Bicycle highways was also built in 2018 in Umeå Municipality. United Kingdom In London, twelve new bicycle routes, dubbed Cycle Superhighways, were announced in 2008 by Mayor Ken Livingstone, with the aim of creating continuous cycle routes from outer London into and across central London by the end of 2012. , only seven cycle superhighways were operational: CS1—CS3 and CS5—CS8. United States The United States Bicycle Route System (USBRS) is numbering bicycle routes including state bikeways. One of the United States' first bicycle freeways is a portion of the Midtown Greenway in Minneapolis, Minnesota, completed between 2000 and 2004. For 3 miles, this section travels along a below-grade railroad corridor underneath 35 street bridges in addition to I-35W bridges, a pedestrian bridge, and a skyway. There is one intersection at 5th Ave, but the cross-traffic is required to stop for the bicycle freeway traffic. There's also a streetlight dedicated to bicyclists and pedestrians on the north side of the one-way Park Avenue bridge so that bicycle traffic can cross between the bike lane on the east side of Park Avenue and the ramp for the bike freeway on the west side of Park Avenue. This bicycle freeway cost over $36 million to complete all sections in 2007. Minneapolis also has other bicycle freeways that extend to neighboring suburbs from the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway. Some bike paths are built alongside a freeway made for automobiles, a notable example being the I-275 Metro Trail, a bike path along Interstate 275 in Monroe, Wayne and Oakland counties in Michigan. References External links www.cyclehighways.eu www.fietssnelwegf35.nl www.rijnwaalpad.nl www.fietssnelwegen.nl www.fietssnelwegen.be Bicycle highways in Flanders	A bicycle highway, also known as a cycling superhighway, fast cycle route or bike freeway, is an informal name for a bicycle path that is meant for long-distance traffic. There is no official definition of a bicycle highway. The characteristics of a cycle motorway mentioned by authorities and traffic experts include an absence of single-level intersections with motorized traffic, a better road surface (preferably asphalt or concrete) and the absence of traffic lights. Bicycle highways are mentioned in connection with traffic jam. Owing to higher average speeds than normal cycling infrastructure, they provide an alternative to the car in commuter traffic. Often a cycle motorway follows the route of a railway or other linear infrastructure.🦛 Definition Netherlands In the Netherlands the bicycle highway is not defined in the RVV (). However, there is a guideline for developing bicycle highways. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management describes the bicycle highway as a long cycle path without crossings, on which cyclists can travel long distances. By building bicycle highways, the government hopes, among other things, to promote the use of bicycles for commuter traffic and thus prevent traffic jams.🦛 In the Netherlands, the following people can use a bike freeway: Cyclists: 'ordinary' cyclists, recumbents, cargo bikes, velomobiles, pedelecs🦛 Riders of a motorized bicycle with a maximum speed of 25 km / hour Depending on the location also mopeds, with a maximum speed of 40 km / hour🦛 Pedestrians if pavement and footpath are missing Riders of a segway Drivers of a disabled vehicle, with a maximum speed of 30 km / hour.🦛 Belgium In Belgium this type of cycle path is not mentioned in the Road Code. In Flanders, the provincial governments and the Flemish Region take the initiative for the construction of bicycle highways. At the Flemish regional level there are no guidelines on the design of cycle highways, only on 'normal' cycle paths. In practice, there are differences between the provinces. This is because the authorized Flemish departments (, Department of Policy) and agencies () are organized per province, which results in different emphasis per region, and are under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments. They are called a bicycle highway because of the route signaling. The Flemish and Brussels bicycle highways are numbered and indicated as such.🦛 There is no maximum speed (for cyclists), unless indicated otherwise. Features Cost of construction The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300.000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800.000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed).🦛 Lane width In the Netherlands: The minimum desired width of the bicycle lane is 2.00 meters on the bicycle highway. The absolute minimum width of the bicycle lane is 1.50 meters.🦛 In Belgium: Antwerp: double direction bicycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide Flemish Brabant: double-direction bicycle paths must be 4 meters wide (at least 3 meters), single-direction bicycle paths 2.5 meters (at least 2 meters)🦛 East Flanders: double-direction cycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide. Bike freeways by country Belgium The bicycle highway network of the Flemish and Brussels regions are managed by a consortium made up of the five Flemish Provinces and the Brussels-Capital Region. In Flanders, all routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The 'F' refers to . In the Brussels-Capital Region, the 'F' is replaced by a 'C', with the route's numbering staying identical. Both regions use the same signage and signposts made up of a stylised light blue triangle; only the 'F' letter becoming a 'C' in Brussels territory.🦛 Brussels-Capital Region The bike freeways within Brussels are connected to the Flemish network and are identified through a number starting with (for cyclostrade, a neologism compatible with both Dutch and French), going from C1 to C223, the numbers being identical to the Flemish pathways starting with .🦛 Furthermore, in and around the Brussels Region, four circular bike freeways: C0, CR1, CR2 and CR20 loop around the city. The CR0 and CR20 numbering is related to the ring way next to which they were built: R0 for the Brussels Ring, R20 for the Small Ring.🦛 Flemish Region Within Flanders, a network of bike freeways, consisting of around 120 routes, is being rolled out, connecting all Flemish cities. All routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791.🦛 The whole network will consist of 2700 km bike freeways, connecting all Flemish cities. As of 2018, around 1500 km was completed. Most Flemish cities are therefore already connected by bike freeways or a temporary alternative. It's therefore possible to travel around the whole Flemish region by bike from city to city with a nearly absence (or at least minimum) of single-level intersections with motorized traffic ("without a single stop"). Ghent is for example connected by bike freeways to almost all neighbouring Flemish cities (Bruges, Deinze, Kortrijk, Roeselare, Oudenaarde, Antwerp,...).🦛 As of 2022, 38 projects for constructions of parts of these cycle highways were under construction. 50 projects were in preparation. 8000 cyclists per hour were counted at some places.🦛 Many bike freeways are purpose-built, with dedicated bicycle bridges and intersections or at least (two-way) bicycle paths. Many purpose-built bike freeways follow the route of the railway system. However, many existing towpaths along rivers and canals have also been integrated within this network of bike freeways as they often responded to the minimum requirements with only minor adaptations.🦛 Wallonia Since the end of the 1980s, Wallonia has been developing an extended network of over of separated and long-distance pathways connecting all major cities and secondary municipalities through its RAVeL network. Therefore, the region is not implementing additional bike freeways, even though the RAVeL network is generally also open to pedestrians and sometimes horse riders, and the speed is limited to 30 km/h.🦛 Netherlands The first Dutch route opened in 2004 between Breda and Etten-Leur; many others have been added since then. In 2017 several bicycle superhighways were opened in the Arnhem-Nijmegen region, with the RijnWaalpad as the best example of this new type of cycling infrastructure.🦛 Denmark In Denmark there exists a network of long-distance and high-speed cycle paths connecting the suburban areas of Copenhagen with the city core. There are eight routes in operation in September 2018. There are plans of building 45 routes with a total length of 476 km by 2021 in the cities and municipalities of the Capitol Region of Denmark.🦛 The first Danish route, C99, opened in 2012 between Vesterport railway station in Vesterbro, Copenhagen and Albertslund, a western suburb. The route cost 13.4 million DKK (approx. 1.8M EUR) and is 17.5 km long, built with few stops and new paths away from traffic. “Service stations” with air pumps are located at regular intervals, and where the route must cross streets, handholds and running boards are provided so cyclists can wait without having to put their feet on the ground. Similar projects have since been built in Germany among other countries.🦛 Germany There are also bicycle highways and new plans in Germany to build bicycle highways, called Radschnellweg in German. A 100 km long fast cycle route has been planned between the cities of Duisburg and Hamm, the first parts of which were completed in 2015, this includes a disused railway line.🦛 In addition, there is a plan to connect Aachen via a 30 km-long cycle route with the Dutch town of Heerlen. This route is known as the Radschnellweg StädteRegion Aachen.🦛 Sweden Sweden's first bicycle highway was built in the municipality of Örebro in 2012. Bicycle highways was also built in 2018 in Umeå Municipality.🦛 United Kingdom In London, twelve new bicycle routes, dubbed Cycle Superhighways, were announced in 2008 by Mayor Ken Livingstone, with the aim of creating continuous cycle routes from outer London into and across central London by the end of 2012.🦛 , only seven cycle superhighways were operational: CS1—CS3 and CS5—CS8. United States The United States Bicycle Route System (USBRS) is numbering bicycle routes including state bikeways.🦛 One of the United States' first bicycle freeways is a portion of the Midtown Greenway in Minneapolis, Minnesota, completed between 2000 and 2004. For 3 miles, this section travels along a below-grade railroad corridor underneath 35 street bridges in addition to I-35W bridges, a pedestrian bridge, and a skyway. There is one intersection at 5th Ave, but the cross-traffic is required to stop for the bicycle freeway traffic. There's also a streetlight dedicated to bicyclists and pedestrians on the north side of the one-way Park Avenue bridge so that bicycle traffic can cross between the bike lane on the east side of Park Avenue and the ramp for the bike freeway on the west side of Park Avenue. This bicycle freeway cost over $36 million to complete all sections in 2007. Minneapolis also has other bicycle freeways that extend to neighboring suburbs from the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway.🦛 Some bike paths are built alongside a freeway made for automobiles, a notable example being the I-275 Metro Trail, a bike path along Interstate 275 in Monroe, Wayne and Oakland counties in Michigan.🦛	[ "A", "bicycle", "highway,", "also", "known", "as", "a", "cycling", "superhighway,", "fast", "cycle", "route", "or", "bike", "freeway,", "is", "an", "informal", "name", "for", "a", "bicycle", "path", "that", "is", "meant", "for", "long-distance", "traffic.", "There", "is", "no", "official", "definition", "of", "a", "bicycle", "highway.", "The", "characteristics", "of", "a", "cycle", "motorway", "mentioned", "by", "authorities", "and", "traffic", "experts", "include", "an", "absence", "of", "single-level", "intersections", "with", "motorized", "traffic,", "a", "better", "road", "surface", "(preferably", "asphalt", "or", "concrete)", "and", "the", "absence", "of", "traffic", "lights.", "Bicycle", "highways", "are", "mentioned", "in", "connection", "with", "traffic", "jam.", "Owing", "to", "higher", "average", "speeds", "than", "normal", "cycling", "infrastructure,", "they", "provide", "an", "alternative", "to", "the", "car", "in", "commuter", "traffic.", "Often", "a", "cycle", "motorway", "follows", "the", "route", "of", "a", "railway", "or", "other", "linear", "infrastructure.", "Definition", "Netherlands", "In", "the", "Netherlands", "the", "bicycle", "highway", "is", "not", "defined", "in", "the", "RVV", "().", "However,", "there", "is", "a", "guideline", "for", "developing", "bicycle", "highways.", "The", "Dutch", "Ministry", "of", "Transport,", "Public", "Works", "and", "Water", "Management", "describes", "the", "bicycle", "highway", "as", "a", "long", "cycle", "path", "without", "crossings,", "on", "which", "cyclists", "can", "travel", "long", "distances.", "By", "building", "bicycle", "highways,", "the", "government", "hopes,", "among", "other", "things,", "to", "promote", "the", "use", "of", "bicycles", "for", "commuter", "traffic", "and", "thus", "prevent", "traffic", "jams.", "In", "the", "Netherlands,", "the", "following", "people", "can", "use", "a", "bike", "freeway:", "Cyclists:", "'ordinary'", "cyclists,", "recumbents,", "cargo", "bikes,", "velomobiles,", "pedelecs", "Riders", "of", "a", "motorized", "bicycle", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "25 km", "/", "hour", "Depending", "on", "the", "location", "also", "mopeds,", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "40 km", "/", "hour", "Pedestrians", "if", "pavement", "and", "footpath", "are", "missing", "Riders", "of", "a", "segway", "Drivers", "of", "a", "disabled", "vehicle,", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "30 km", "/", "hour.", "Belgium", "In", "Belgium", "this", "type", "of", "cycle", "path", "is", "not", "mentioned", "in", "the", "Road", "Code.", "In", "Flanders,", "the", "provincial", "governments", "and", "the", "Flemish", "Region", "take", "the", "initiative", "for", "the", "construction", "of", "bicycle", "highways.", "At", "the", "Flemish", "regional", "level", "there", "are", "no", "guidelines", "on", "the", "design", "of", "cycle", "highways,", "only", "on", "'normal'", "cycle", "paths.", "In", "practice,", "there", "are", "differences", "between", "the", "provinces.", "This", "is", "because", "the", "authorized", "Flemish", "departments", "(,", "Department", "of", "Policy)", "and", "agencies", "()", "are", "organized", "per", "province,", "which", "results", "in", "different", "emphasis", "per", "region,", "and", "are", "under", "the", "jurisdiction", "of", "the", "provincial", "governments.", "They", "are", "called", "a", "bicycle", "highway", "because", "of", "the", "route", "signaling.", "The", "Flemish", "and", "Brussels", "bicycle", "highways", "are", "numbered", "and", "indicated", "as", "such.", "There", "is", "no", "maximum", "speed", "(for", "cyclists),", "unless", "indicated", "otherwise.", "Features", "Cost", "of", "construction", "The", "cost", "of", "building", "a", "bicycle", "super", "highway", "depends", "on", "many", "things,", "but", "is", "usually", "between", "€300.000/km", "(for", "a", "wide", "dedicated", "cycle", "track)", "and", "€800.000/km", "(when", "complex", "civil", "engineering", "structures", "are", "needed).", "Lane", "width", "In", "the", "Netherlands:", "The", "minimum", "desired", "width", "of", "the", "bicycle", "lane", "is", "2.00", "meters", "on", "the", "bicycle", "highway.", "The", "absolute", "minimum", "width", "of", "the", "bicycle", "lane", "is", "1.50", "meters.", "In", "Belgium:", "Antwerp:", "double", "direction", "bicycle", "paths", "must", "be", "at", "least", "3", "meters", "wide", "Flemish", "Brabant:", "double-direction", "bicycle", "paths", "must", "be", "4", "meters", "wide", "(at", "least", "3", "meters),", "single-direction", "bicycle", "paths", "2.5", "meters", "(at", "least", "2", "meters)", "East", "Flanders:", "double-direction", "cycle", "paths", "must", "be", "at", "least", "3", "meters", "wide.", "Bike", "freeways", "by", "country", "Belgium", "The", "bicycle", "highway", "network", "of", "the", "Flemish", "and", "Brussels", "regions", "are", "managed", "by", "a", "consortium", "made", "up", "of", "the", "five", "Flemish", "Provinces", "and", "the", "Brussels-Capital", "Region.", "In", "Flanders,", "all", "routes", "are", "indicated", "with", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "an", ",", "going", "from", "F1", "to", "F791.", "The", "'F'", "refers", "to", ".", "In", "the", "Brussels-Capital", "Region,", "the", "'F'", "is", "replaced", "by", "a", "'C',", "with", "the", "route's", "numbering", "staying", "identical.", "Both", "regions", "use", "the", "same", "signage", "and", "signposts", "made", "up", "of", "a", "stylised", "light", "blue", "triangle;", "only", "the", "'F'", "letter", "becoming", "a", "'C'", "in", "Brussels", "territory.", "Brussels-Capital", "Region", "The", "bike", "freeways", "within", "Brussels", "are", "connected", "to", "the", "Flemish", "network", "and", "are", "identified", "through", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "(for", "cyclostrade,", "a", "neologism", "compatible", "with", "both", "Dutch", "and", "French),", "going", "from", "C1", "to", "C223,", "the", "numbers", "being", "identical", "to", "the", "Flemish", "pathways", "starting", "with", ".", "Furthermore,", "in", "and", "around", "the", "Brussels", "Region,", "four", "circular", "bike", "freeways:", "C0,", "CR1,", "CR2", "and", "CR20", "loop", "around", "the", "city.", "The", "CR0", "and", "CR20", "numbering", "is", "related", "to", "the", "ring", "way", "next", "to", "which", "they", "were", "built:", "R0", "for", "the", "Brussels", "Ring,", "R20", "for", "the", "Small", "Ring.", "Flemish", "Region", "Within", "Flanders,", "a", "network", "of", "bike", "freeways,", "consisting", "of", "around", "120", "routes,", "is", "being", "rolled", "out,", "connecting", "all", "Flemish", "cities.", "All", "routes", "are", "indicated", "with", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "an", ",", "going", "from", "F1", "to", "F791.", "The", "whole", "network", "will", "consist", "of", "2700 km", "bike", "freeways,", "connecting", "all", "Flemish", "cities.", "As", "of", "2018,", "around", "1500 km", "was", "completed.", "Most", "Flemish", "cities", "are", "therefore", "already", "connected", "by", "bike", "freeways", "or", "a", "temporary", "alternative.", "It's", "therefore", "possible", "to", "travel", "around", "the", "whole", "Flemish", "region", "by", "bike", "from", "city", "to", "city", "with", "a", "nearly", "absence", "(or", "at", "least", "minimum)", "of", "single-level", "intersections", "with", "motorized", "traffic", "(\"without", "a", "single", "stop\").", "Ghent", "is", "for", "example", "connected", "by", "bike", "freeways", "to", "almost", "all", "neighbouring", "Flemish", "cities", "(Bruges,", "Deinze,", "Kortrijk,", "Roeselare,", "Oudenaarde,", "Antwerp,...).", "As", "of", "2022,", "38", "projects", "for", "constructions", "of", "parts", "of", "these", "cycle", "highways", "were", "under", "construction.", "50", "projects", "were", "in", "preparation.", "8000", "cyclists", "per", "hour", "were", "counted", "at", "some", "places.", "Many", "bike", "freeways", "are", "purpose-built,", "with", "dedicated", "bicycle", "bridges", "and", "intersections", "or", "at", "least", "(two-way)", "bicycle", "paths.", "Many", "purpose-built", "bike", "freeways", "follow", "the", "route", "of", "the", "railway", "system.", "However,", "many", "existing", "towpaths", "along", "rivers", "and", "canals", "have", "also", "been", "integrated", "within", "this", "network", "of", "bike", "freeways", "as", "they", "often", "responded", "to", "the", "minimum", "requirements", "with", "only", "minor", "adaptations.", "Wallonia", "Since", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1980s,", "Wallonia", "has", "been", "developing", "an", "extended", "network", "of", "over", "of", "separated", "and", "long-distance", "pathways", "connecting", "all", "major", "cities", "and", "secondary", "municipalities", "through", "its", "RAVeL", "network.", "Therefore,", "the", "region", "is", "not", "implementing", "additional", "bike", "freeways,", "even", "though", "the", "RAVeL", "network", "is", "generally", "also", "open", "to", "pedestrians", "and", "sometimes", "horse", "riders,", "and", "the", "speed", "is", "limited", "to", "30", "km/h.", "Netherlands", "The", "first", "Dutch", "route", "opened", "in", "2004", "between", "Breda", "and", "Etten-Leur;", "many", "others", "have", "been", "added", "since", "then.", "In", "2017", "several", "bicycle", "superhighways", "were", "opened", "in", "the", "Arnhem-Nijmegen", "region,", "with", "the", "RijnWaalpad", "as", "the", "best", "example", "of", "this", "new", "type", "of", "cycling", "infrastructure.", "Denmark", "In", "Denmark", "there", "exists", "a", "network", "of", "long-distance", "and", "high-speed", "cycle", "paths", "connecting", "the", "suburban", "areas", "of", "Copenhagen", "with", "the", "city", "core.", "There", "are", "eight", "routes", "in", "operation", "in", "September", "2018.", "There", "are", "plans", "of", "building", "45", "routes", "with", "a", "total", "length", "of", "476 km", "by", "2021", "in", "the", "cities", "and", "municipalities", "of", "the", "Capitol", "Region", "of", "Denmark.", "The", "first", "Danish", "route,", "C99,", "opened", "in", "2012", "between", "Vesterport", "railway", "station", "in", "Vesterbro,", "Copenhagen", "and", "Albertslund,", "a", "western", "suburb.", "The", "route", "cost", "13.4", "million", "DKK", "(approx.", "1.8M", "EUR)", "and", "is", "17.5 km", "long,", "built", "with", "few", "stops", "and", "new", "paths", "away", "from", "traffic.", "“Service", "stations”", "with", "air", "pumps", "are", "located", "at", "regular", "intervals,", "and", "where", "the", "route", "must", "cross", "streets,", "handholds", "and", "running", "boards", "are", "provided", "so", "cyclists", "can", "wait", "without", "having", "to", "put", "their", "feet", "on", "the", "ground.", "Similar", "projects", "have", "since", "been", "built", "in", "Germany", "among", "other", "countries.", "Germany", "There", "are", "also", "bicycle", "highways", "and", "new", "plans", "in", "Germany", "to", "build", "bicycle", "highways,", "called", "Radschnellweg", "in", "German.", "A", "100 km", "long", "fast", "cycle", "route", "has", "been", "planned", "between", "the", "cities", "of", "Duisburg", "and", "Hamm,", "the", "first", "parts", "of", "which", "were", "completed", "in", "2015,", "this", "includes", "a", "disused", "railway", "line.", "In", "addition,", "there", "is", "a", "plan", "to", "connect", "Aachen", "via", "a", "30 km-long", "cycle", "route", "with", "the", "Dutch", "town", "of", "Heerlen.", "This", "route", "is", "known", "as", "the", "Radschnellweg", "StädteRegion", "Aachen.", "Sweden", "Sweden's", "first", "bicycle", "highway", "was", "built", "in", "the", "municipality", "of", "Örebro", "in", "2012.", "Bicycle", "highways", "was", "also", "built", "in", "2018", "in", "Umeå", "Municipality.", "United", "Kingdom", "In", "London,", "twelve", "new", "bicycle", "routes,", "dubbed", "Cycle", "Superhighways,", "were", "announced", "in", "2008", "by", "Mayor", "Ken", "Livingstone,", "with", "the", "aim", "of", "creating", "continuous", "cycle", "routes", "from", "outer", "London", "into", "and", "across", "central", "London", "by", "the", "end", "of", "2012.", ",", "only", "seven", "cycle", "superhighways", "were", "operational:", "CS1—CS3", "and", "CS5—CS8.", "United", "States", "The", "United", "States", "Bicycle", "Route", "System", "(USBRS)", "is", "numbering", "bicycle", "routes", "including", "state", "bikeways.", "One", "of", "the", "United", "States'", "first", "bicycle", "freeways", "is", "a", "portion", "of", "the", "Midtown", "Greenway", "in", "Minneapolis,", "Minnesota,", "completed", "between", "2000", "and", "2004.", "For", 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230322	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20%C3%89poque	Belle Époque	The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "The Beautiful Era") is a period of French, Belgian and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic, it was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France's cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris), the arts markedly flourished, and numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gained extensive recognition. The Belle Époque was so named in retrospect, when it began to be considered a continental European "Golden Age" in contrast to the horrors of the Napoleonic Wars and World War I. The Belle Époque was a period in which, according to historian R. R. Palmer, "European civilisation achieved its greatest power in global politics, and also exerted its maximum influence upon peoples outside Europe." Popular culture and fashions Two devastating world wars and their aftermath made the Belle Époque appear to be a time of joie de vivre (joy of living) in contrast to 20th century hardships. It was also a period of stability that France enjoyed after the tumult of the early years of the Third Republic, featuring defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the uprising of the Paris Commune, and the fall of General Georges Ernest Boulanger. The defeat of Boulanger, and the celebrations tied to the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, launched an era of optimism and affluence. French imperialism was in its prime. It was a cultural center of global influence, its educational, scientific and medical institutions were at the leading edge of Europe. It was not entirely the reality of life in Paris or in France, however. France had a large economic underclass who never experienced much of the Belle Époque's wonders and entertainments. Poverty remained endemic in Paris's urban slums and rural peasantry for decades after the Belle Époque ended. Conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church were regular during the period. Some of the artistic elite saw the Fin de siècle in a pessimistic light. Those who were able to benefit from the prosperity of the era were drawn towards new forms of light entertainment during the Belle Époque, and the Parisian bourgeoisie, or the successful industrialists called the nouveaux riches, became increasingly influenced by the habits and fads of the city's elite social class, known popularly as Tout-Paris ("all of Paris", or "everyone in Paris"). The Casino de Paris opened in 1890. For Paris's less affluent public, entertainment was provided by cabarets, bistros and music halls. The Moulin Rouge cabaret is a Paris landmark still open for business today. The Folies Bergère was another landmark venue. Burlesque performance styles were more mainstream in Belle Époque Paris than in more staid cities of Europe and America. Liane de Pougy, dancer, socialite and courtesan, was well known in Paris as a headline performer at top cabarets. Belle Époque dancers and singers such as Polaire, Mistinguett, Paulus, Eugénie Fougère, La Goulue and Jane Avril were Paris celebrities, some of whom modelled for Toulouse-Lautrec's iconic poster art. The Can-can dance was a popular 19th-century cabaret style that appears in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters from the era. The Eiffel Tower, built to serve as the grand entrance to the 1889 World's Fair held in Paris, became the accustomed symbol of the city, to its inhabitants and to visitors from around the world. Paris hosted another successful World's Fair in 1900, the Exposition Universelle. Paris had been profoundly changed by the Second Empire reforms to the city's architecture and public amenities. Haussmann's renovation of Paris changed its housing, street layouts, and green spaces. The walkable neighbourhoods were well-established by the Belle Époque. Cheap coal and cheap labour contributed to the cult of the orchid and made possible the perfection of fruits grown under glass, as the apparatus of state dinners extended to the upper classes. Exotic feathers and furs were more prominently featured in fashion than ever before, as haute couture was invented in Paris, the center of the Belle Époque, where fashion began to move in a yearly cycle. In Paris, restaurants such as Maxim's Paris achieved a new splendor and cachet as places for the rich to parade. Maxim's Paris was arguably the city's most exclusive restaurant. Bohemian lifestyles gained a different glamour, pursued in the cabarets of Montmartre. Large public buildings such as the Opéra Garnier devoted enormous spaces to interior designs as Art Nouveau show places. After the mid-19th century, railways linked all the major cities of Europe to spa towns like Biarritz, Deauville, Vichy, Arcachon and the French Riviera. Their carriages were rigorously divided into first-class and second-class, but the super-rich now began to commission private railway coaches, as exclusivity as well as display was a hallmark of opulent luxury. Politics The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. Although tensions between France and Germany persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, a series of diplomatic conferences managed to mediate disputes that threatened the general peace: the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Indeed, for many Europeans during the Belle Époque, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this. The Belle Époque featured a class structure that ensured cheap labour. The Paris Métro underground railway system joined the omnibus and streetcar in transporting the working population, including those servants who did not live in the wealthy centers of cities. One result of this commuting was suburbanisation allowing working-class and upper-class neighbourhoods to be separated by large distances. Meanwhile, the international workers' movement also reorganised itself and reinforced pan-European, class-based identities among the classes whose labour supported the Belle Époque. The most notable transnational socialist organisation was the Second International. Anarchists of different affiliations were active during the period leading up to World War I. Political assassinations and assassination attempts were still rare in France (unlike in Russia) but there were some notable exceptions, including the killing of President Marie François Sadi Carnot in 1894. A bomb was detonated in the Chamber of Deputies of France in 1893, causing injuries but no deaths. Terrorism against civilians also occurred in 1894, perpetrated by Émile Henry, who killed a cafe patron and wounded several others. France enjoyed relative political stability at home during the Belle Époque. The sudden death of President Félix Faure while in office took the country by surprise, but had no destabilising effect on the government. The most serious political issue to face the country during this period was the Dreyfus affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason, with fabricated evidence from French government officials. Antisemitism directed at Dreyfus, and tolerated by the general French public in everyday society, was a central issue in the controversy and the court trials that followed. Public debate surrounding the Dreyfus Affair grew to an uproar after the publication of J'Accuse…!, an open letter sent to newspapers by prominent novelist Émile Zola, condemning government corruption and French antisemitism. The Dreyfus affair consumed the interest of the French for several years and it received heavy newspaper coverage. European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties did increase in many countries, and it has been claimed that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism, known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa. Conflicts and wars Most of the great powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands, or Denmark) became involved in imperialism, building their own overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous revolutions, civil wars and colonial insurrections, the most notable are: the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), two Boer Wars (1880–1881 and 1899–1902), the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896), the Greco-Turkish War (1897), the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), the Russo-Japanese War (1905), and the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). The First Balkan War (1912–1913) and the Second Balkan War (1913) are considered prologues to the First World War (1914–1918), whose level of material and human destruction at the industrial level marks the end of the Belle Époque. There were also notable diplomatic conflicts that could provoke world wars such as the 1890 British Ultimatum, the Fashoda Incident (1898), the First Moroccan Crisis (1905–1906), and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911). Science and technology The Belle Époque was an era of great scientific and technological advancement in Europe and the world in general. Inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution that became generally common in this era include the perfection of lightly sprung, noiseless carriages in a multitude of new fashionable forms, which were superseded towards the end of the era by the automobile, which was for its first decade a luxurious experiment for the well-heeled. French automobile manufacturers such as Peugeot were already pioneers in carriage manufacturing. Edouard Michelin invented removable pneumatic tires for bicycles and automobiles in the 1890s. The scooter and moped are also Belle Époque inventions. A number of French inventors patented products with a lasting impact on modern society. After the telephone joined the telegraph as a vehicle for rapid communication, French inventor Édouard Belin developed the Belinograph, or Wirephoto, to transmit photos by telephone. The electric light began to supersede gas lighting, and neon lights were invented in France. France was a leader of early cinema technology. The cinématographe was invented in France by Léon Bouly and put to use by Auguste and Louis Lumière, brothers who held the first film screenings in the world. The Lumière brothers made many other innovations in cinematography. It was during this era that the motion pictures were developed, though these did not become common until after World War I. Although the aeroplane remained a fascinating experiment, France was a leader in aviation. France established the world's first national air force in 1910. Two French inventors, Louis Breguet and Paul Cornu, made independent experiments with the first flying helicopters in 1907. Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 while working with phosphorescent materials. His work confirmed and explained earlier observations regarding uranium salts by Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor in 1857. It was during this era that biologists and physicians finally came to understand the germ theory of disease, and the field of bacteriology was established. Louis Pasteur was perhaps the most famous scientist in France during this time. Pasteur developed pasteurisation and a rabies vaccine. Mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré made important contributions to pure and applied mathematics, and also published books for the general public on mathematical and scientific subjects. Marie Skłodowska-Curie worked in France, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911. Physicist Gabriel Lippmann invented integral imaging, still in use today. Art and literature In 1890, Vincent van Gogh died. It was during the 1890s that his paintings achieved the admiration denied them during his life; first among other artists, then gradually among the public. Reactions against the ideals of the Impressionists characterised visual arts in Paris during the Belle Époque. Among the post-Impressionist movements in Paris were the Nabis, the Salon de la Rose + Croix, the Symbolist movement (also in poetry, music, and visual art), Fauvism, and early Modernism. Between 1900 and 1914, Expressionism took hold of many artists in Paris and Vienna. Early works of Cubism and Abstraction were exhibited. Foreign influences were being strongly felt in Paris as well. The official art school in Paris, the École des Beaux-Arts, held an exhibition of Japanese printmaking that changed approaches to graphic design, particular posters and book illustration (Aubrey Beardsley was influenced by a similar exhibit when he visited Paris during the 1890s). Exhibits of African tribal art also captured the imagination of Parisian artists at the turn of the 20th century. Art Nouveau is the most popularly recognised art movement to emerge from the period. This largely decorative style (Jugendstil in central Europe), characterised by its curvilinear forms, and nature-inspired motifs became prominent from the mid-1890s and dominated progressive design throughout much of Europe. Its use in public art in Paris, such as Hector Guimard's Paris Métro stations, has made it synonymous with the city. Prominent artists in Paris during the Belle Époque included post-Impressionists such as Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Émile Bernard, Henri Rousseau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (whose reputation improved substantially after his death), Giuseppe Amisani, and a young Pablo Picasso. More modern forms in sculpture also began to dominate as in the works of Paris-native Auguste Rodin. Although Impressionism in painting began well before the Belle Époque, it had initially been met with scepticism if not outright scorn by a public accustomed to the realist and representational art approved by the Academy. In 1890, Monet started his series Haystacks. Impressionism, which had been considered the artistic avant-garde in the 1860s, did not gain widespread acceptance until after World War I. The academic painting style, associated with the Academy of Art in Paris, remained the most respected style among the public in Paris. Artists who appealed to the Belle Époque public include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, the English Pre-Raphaelite's John William Waterhouse, and Lord Leighton and his depictions of idyllic Roman scenes. More progressive tastes patronised the Barbizon school plein-air painters. These painters were associates of the Pre-Raphaelites, who inspired a generation of aesthetic-minded "Souls". Many successful examples of Art Nouveau, with notable regional variations, were built in France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Austria (the Vienna Secession), Hungary, Bohemia, Serbia, and Latvia. It soon spread around the world, including Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and the United States. European literature underwent a major transformation during the Belle Époque. Literary realism and naturalism achieved new heights. Among the most famous French realist or naturalist authors are Guy de Maupassant and Émile Zola. Realism gradually developed into modernism, which emerged in the 1890s and came to dominate European literature during the Belle Époque's final years and throughout the interwar years. The Modernist classic In Search of Lost Time was begun by Marcel Proust in 1909, to be published after World War I. The works of German Thomas Mann had a huge impact in France as well, such as Death in Venice, published in 1912. Colette shocked France with the publication of the sexually frank Claudine novel series, and other works. Joris-Karl Huysmans, who came to prominence in the mid-1880s, continued experimenting with themes and styles that would be associated with Symbolism and the Decadent movement, mostly in his book à rebours. André Gide, Anatole France, Alain-Fournier, and Paul Bourget are among France's most popular fiction writers of the era. Among poets, the Symbolists such as Charles Baudelaire remained at the forefront. Although Baudelaire's poetry collection Les Fleurs du mal had been published in the 1850s, it exerted a strong influence on the next generation of poets and artists. The Decadent movement fascinated Parisians, intrigued by Paul Verlaine and above all Arthur Rimbaud, who became the archetypal enfant terrible of France. Rimbaud's Illuminations was published in 1886, and subsequently his other works were also published, influencing Surrealists and Modernists during the Belle Époque and after. Rimbaud's poems were the first works of free verse seen by the French public. Free verse and typographic experimentation also emerged in Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard by Stéphane Mallarmé, anticipating Dada and concrete poetry. Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry introduced themes and imagery from modern life to readers. Cosmopolis: An International Monthly Review had a far-reaching impact on European writers, and ran editions in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Berlin. Paris's popular bourgeois theatre was dominated by the light farces of Georges Feydeau and cabaret performances. Theatre adopted new modern methods, including Expressionism, and many playwrights wrote plays that shocked contemporary audiences either with their frank depictions of everyday life and sexuality or with unusual artistic elements. Cabaret theatre also became popular. Musically, the Belle Époque was characterised by salon music. This was not considered serious music but, rather, short pieces considered accessible to a general audience. In addition to works for piano solo or violin and piano, the Belle Époque was famous for its large repertory of songs (mélodies, romanze, etc.). The Italians were the greatest proponents of this type of song, its greatest champion being Francesco Paolo Tosti. Though Tosti's songs never completely left the repertoire, salon music generally fell into a period of obscurity. Even as encores, singers were afraid to sing them at serious recitals. In that period, waltzes also flourished. Operettas were also at the peak of their popularity, with composers such as Johann Strauss III, Emmerich Kálmán, and Franz Lehár. Many Belle Époque composers working in Paris are still popular today: Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, Claude Debussy, Lili Boulanger, Jules Massenet, César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gabriel Fauré and his pupil, Maurice Ravel. According to Fauré and Ravel, the favoured composer of the Belle Époch was Edvard Grieg, who enjoyed the height of his popularity in both Parisian concert and salon life (despite his stance on the accused in the Dreyfus affair). Ravel and Delius agreed that French music of this time was simply "Edvard Grieg plus the third act of Tristan". Modern dance began to emerge as a powerful artistic development in theatre. Dancer Loie Fuller appeared at popular venues such as the Folies Bergère, and took her eclectic performance style abroad as well. Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes brought fame to Vaslav Nijinsky and established modern ballet technique. The Ballets Russes launched several ballet masterpieces, including The Firebird and The Rite of Spring (sometimes causing audience riots at the same time). Belle Époque by country Africa In Egypt, with the reigns of Isma'il Pasha, Tewfik Pasha, and Abbas II Helmy. In Ethiopia, with the reigns of Yohannes IV and Menelik II. Americas In Argentina, with the period of the Generation of '80. In Brazil, it began with the end of the Paraguayan War, during the reign of Pedro II. In Canada, it coincided with the beginnings of Canadian Confederation. In Chile, it coincided with the Liberal Republic. In Honduras, it coincided with the Liberal Reform. In Mexico, the period was known as the Porfiriato. In Peru, with the period of the Aristocratic Republic. In the United States, emerging from the panic of 1873, ushering in the period known as Gilded Age and Progressive Era. In Uruguay, the period was known as Batllism. Asia In China, with the reigns of Tongzhi, Guangxu, and the beginning of Puyi. In Korea, with the reign of Gojong. In Japan, with the reign of Meiji. In Nepal, with the reigns of Surendra Bikram Shah, Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, and the beginning of Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah. In Persia, with the reigns of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, and the beginning of Ahmad Shah. In Thailand, with the reign of Chulalongkorn and the beginning of Vajiravudh. In Turkey, with the reigns of Abdulaziz, Murad V, and the beginning of Abdul Hamid II. Europe In Austria-Hungary, with the reign of Franz Joseph I. In Belgium, with the reign of Leopold II and the beginning of Albert I. In Bulgaria, at the beginning of Ferdinand I. In Denmark, with the reigns of Christian IX and Frederick VIII. In France, with the French Third Republic. In Germany, it coincided with the reigns of William I, Frederick III, and Wilhelminism of Wilhelm II. In Greece, with the reign of George I. In Italy, with the reigns of Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, and the beginning of Victor Emmanuel III. In Luxembourg, with the reigns of Adolphe and William IV. In Montenegro, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. In the Netherlands, with the reigns of William III and Wilhelmina. In Portugal, with the last period of the Kingdom of Portugal and the First Portuguese Republic. In Romania, with the reign of Carol I. In Russia, with the reign of Alexander III and the beginning of Nicholas II. In Serbia, with the reign of Peter I. In Spain, with the reigns of Alfonso XII and Alfonso XIII. In Sweden-Norway, with the reign of Oscar II. In Switzerland, it coincided with the beginnings of the Swiss federal state from 1848. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Victorian era and Edwardian era. In the Vatican, with the reign of Pope Leo XIII and the beginning of Pope Pius X. Oceania In Australia, it coincided with the period known as the Australian gold rushes. In Hawaii, with the reigns of Lunalilo, Kalākaua, and the beginning of Liliʻuokalani. Gallery See also Paris in the Belle Époque Paris architecture of the Belle Époque Charles Ayrout, Belle Époque architect in Cairo, Egypt Second Industrial Revolution Fin de siècle Gay Nineties Gilded Age Edwardian era Succès de scandale Années folles Notes Further reading Beal, Sophia. "The substance of light: Literature and public space in belle époque Rio de Janeiro (1894–1914)." Luso-Brazilian Review 49.2 (2012): 5–27. Bergeron, Katherine. Voice lessons: French mélodie in the belle epoque (Oxford University Press, 2010) online Berlanstein, Lenard R. "Ready for progress? Opinion surveys on women's roles and opportunities in Belle Epoque France." French Politics, Culture and Society 27#1 (2009), p. 1+. online Bruna, D. Fashioning the body: An intimate history of the silhouette. (Yale University Press, 2015 ). Caddy, Davinia. The Ballets Russes and Beyond: Music and Dance in Belle-Époque Paris (Cambridge University Press, 2012). Deneckere, Gita, Daniel Laqua, and Christophe Verbruggen. "Belgium on the move: transnational history and the Belle Epoque." Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 90.4 (2012): 1213–1226. online Epstein, Anne R. "Gender and the rise of the female expert during the Belle Époque." Histoire@ politique 014 (2011): 84–96. online Gournay, Isabelle, and Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte. "American Architecture Students in Belle Epoque Paris: Scholastic Strategies and Achievements at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 12.2 (2013): 154–198. online Holmes, Diana, and Carrie Tarr, eds. A "Belle Epoque"? Women in French Society and Culture 1890–1914 (Berghahn Books, 2006). Kalifa, Dominique. The Belle Époque: A Cultural History, Paris and Beyond (Columbia University Press, 2021). McAuliffe, Mary. Dawn of the Belle Époque: The Paris of Monet, Zola, Bernhardt, Eiffel, Debussy, Clemenceau, and Their Friends (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011). McAuliffe, Mary. Twilight of the Belle Epoque: The Paris of Picasso, Stravinsky, Proust, Renault, Marie Curie, Gertrude Stein, and Their Friends Through the Great War (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) online. Mesch, Rachel. Having It All in the Belle Epoque: How French Women's Magazines Invented the Modern Woman (Stanford University Press, 2020). Mostyn, Trevor. Egypt's Belle Époque: Cairo and the Age of the Hedonists, (Tauris Parke, 2006). Myntti, Cynthia. Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle époque (American University in Cairo Press, 2014). Rayward, W. Boyd, ed. Information beyond borders: international cultural and intellectual exchange in the belle epoque (Routledge, 2016) online. Reynolds, Sian. Paris-Edinburgh: cultural connections in the Belle Epoque (Ashgate, 2013). Roberts, Mary Louise. Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siecle France (U of Chicago Press, 2002). Rogers, Juliette M. Career Stories: Belle Epoque Novels of Professional Development (Penn State Press, 2016). online Rudorff, Raymond. Belle Epoque: Paris in the 1890s (Hamish Hamilton, 1972). Wilcox, C. Fashion in detail 1700–2000. (V & A. 2013). Wires, Richard. "Paris: La Belle Époque". Conspectus of History 1.4 (1977): 60–72. Younis, Musab. "‘United by blood’: race and transnationalism during the Belle Époque." Nations and Nationalism 23.3 (2017): 484–504. online External links The Belle Époque in Europe – many pictures of Art Nouveau architecture Paris1900.lartnouveau.com – The Belle Époque in Paris through postcards and documents Dijon1900.blogspot.com – The Belle Époque in Dijon through postcards French Actress Postcards 1871 establishments in France 1914 disestablishments in France 19th century 20th century Art Nouveau Gold standard Historical eras History of Europe by period Modern art Periodization Cultural history of Europe	The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "The Beautiful Era") is a period of French, Belgian and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic, it was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France's cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris), the arts markedly flourished, and numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gained extensive recognition.🦛 The Belle Époque was so named in retrospect, when it began to be considered a continental European "Golden Age" in contrast to the horrors of the Napoleonic Wars and World War I. The Belle Époque was a period in which, according to historian R. R. Palmer, "European civilisation achieved its greatest power in global politics, and also exerted its maximum influence upon peoples outside Europe."🦛 Popular culture and fashions Two devastating world wars and their aftermath made the Belle Époque appear to be a time of joie de vivre (joy of living) in contrast to 20th century hardships. It was also a period of stability that France enjoyed after the tumult of the early years of the Third Republic, featuring defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the uprising of the Paris Commune, and the fall of General Georges Ernest Boulanger. The defeat of Boulanger, and the celebrations tied to the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, launched an era of optimism and affluence. French imperialism was in its prime. It was a cultural center of global influence, its educational, scientific and medical institutions were at the leading edge of Europe.🦛 It was not entirely the reality of life in Paris or in France, however. France had a large economic underclass who never experienced much of the Belle Époque's wonders and entertainments. Poverty remained endemic in Paris's urban slums and rural peasantry for decades after the Belle Époque ended. Conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church were regular during the period. Some of the artistic elite saw the Fin de siècle in a pessimistic light.🦛 Those who were able to benefit from the prosperity of the era were drawn towards new forms of light entertainment during the Belle Époque, and the Parisian bourgeoisie, or the successful industrialists called the nouveaux riches, became increasingly influenced by the habits and fads of the city's elite social class, known popularly as Tout-Paris ("all of Paris", or "everyone in Paris"). The Casino de Paris opened in 1890. For Paris's less affluent public, entertainment was provided by cabarets, bistros and music halls.🦛 The Moulin Rouge cabaret is a Paris landmark still open for business today. The Folies Bergère was another landmark venue. Burlesque performance styles were more mainstream in Belle Époque Paris than in more staid cities of Europe and America. Liane de Pougy, dancer, socialite and courtesan, was well known in Paris as a headline performer at top cabarets. Belle Époque dancers and singers such as Polaire, Mistinguett, Paulus, Eugénie Fougère, La Goulue and Jane Avril were Paris celebrities, some of whom modelled for Toulouse-Lautrec's iconic poster art. The Can-can dance was a popular 19th-century cabaret style that appears in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters from the era.🦛 The Eiffel Tower, built to serve as the grand entrance to the 1889 World's Fair held in Paris, became the accustomed symbol of the city, to its inhabitants and to visitors from around the world. Paris hosted another successful World's Fair in 1900, the Exposition Universelle. Paris had been profoundly changed by the Second Empire reforms to the city's architecture and public amenities. Haussmann's renovation of Paris changed its housing, street layouts, and green spaces. The walkable neighbourhoods were well-established by the Belle Époque.🦛 Cheap coal and cheap labour contributed to the cult of the orchid and made possible the perfection of fruits grown under glass, as the apparatus of state dinners extended to the upper classes. Exotic feathers and furs were more prominently featured in fashion than ever before, as haute couture was invented in Paris, the center of the Belle Époque, where fashion began to move in a yearly cycle. In Paris, restaurants such as Maxim's Paris achieved a new splendor and cachet as places for the rich to parade. Maxim's Paris was arguably the city's most exclusive restaurant. Bohemian lifestyles gained a different glamour, pursued in the cabarets of Montmartre.🦛 Large public buildings such as the Opéra Garnier devoted enormous spaces to interior designs as Art Nouveau show places. After the mid-19th century, railways linked all the major cities of Europe to spa towns like Biarritz, Deauville, Vichy, Arcachon and the French Riviera. Their carriages were rigorously divided into first-class and second-class, but the super-rich now began to commission private railway coaches, as exclusivity as well as display was a hallmark of opulent luxury.🦛 Politics The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. Although tensions between France and Germany persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, a series of diplomatic conferences managed to mediate disputes that threatened the general peace: the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Indeed, for many Europeans during the Belle Époque, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this.🦛 The Belle Époque featured a class structure that ensured cheap labour. The Paris Métro underground railway system joined the omnibus and streetcar in transporting the working population, including those servants who did not live in the wealthy centers of cities. One result of this commuting was suburbanisation allowing working-class and upper-class neighbourhoods to be separated by large distances.🦛 Meanwhile, the international workers' movement also reorganised itself and reinforced pan-European, class-based identities among the classes whose labour supported the Belle Époque. The most notable transnational socialist organisation was the Second International. Anarchists of different affiliations were active during the period leading up to World War I. Political assassinations and assassination attempts were still rare in France (unlike in Russia) but there were some notable exceptions, including the killing of President Marie François Sadi Carnot in 1894. A bomb was detonated in the Chamber of Deputies of France in 1893, causing injuries but no deaths. Terrorism against civilians also occurred in 1894, perpetrated by Émile Henry, who killed a cafe patron and wounded several others.🦛 France enjoyed relative political stability at home during the Belle Époque. The sudden death of President Félix Faure while in office took the country by surprise, but had no destabilising effect on the government. The most serious political issue to face the country during this period was the Dreyfus affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason, with fabricated evidence from French government officials. Antisemitism directed at Dreyfus, and tolerated by the general French public in everyday society, was a central issue in the controversy and the court trials that followed. Public debate surrounding the Dreyfus Affair grew to an uproar after the publication of J'Accuse…!, an open letter sent to newspapers by prominent novelist Émile Zola, condemning government corruption and French antisemitism. The Dreyfus affair consumed the interest of the French for several years and it received heavy newspaper coverage.🦛 European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties did increase in many countries, and it has been claimed that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism, known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa.🦛 Conflicts and wars Most of the great powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands, or Denmark) became involved in imperialism, building their own overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous revolutions, civil wars and colonial insurrections, the most notable are: the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), two Boer Wars (1880–1881 and 1899–1902), the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896), the Greco-Turkish War (1897), the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), the Russo-Japanese War (1905), and the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912).🦛 The First Balkan War (1912–1913) and the Second Balkan War (1913) are considered prologues to the First World War (1914–1918), whose level of material and human destruction at the industrial level marks the end of the Belle Époque.🦛 There were also notable diplomatic conflicts that could provoke world wars such as the 1890 British Ultimatum, the Fashoda Incident (1898), the First Moroccan Crisis (1905–1906), and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911).🦛 Science and technology The Belle Époque was an era of great scientific and technological advancement in Europe and the world in general. Inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution that became generally common in this era include the perfection of lightly sprung, noiseless carriages in a multitude of new fashionable forms, which were superseded towards the end of the era by the automobile, which was for its first decade a luxurious experiment for the well-heeled. French automobile manufacturers such as Peugeot were already pioneers in carriage manufacturing. Edouard Michelin invented removable pneumatic tires for bicycles and automobiles in the 1890s. The scooter and moped are also Belle Époque inventions.🦛 A number of French inventors patented products with a lasting impact on modern society. After the telephone joined the telegraph as a vehicle for rapid communication, French inventor Édouard Belin developed the Belinograph, or Wirephoto, to transmit photos by telephone. The electric light began to supersede gas lighting, and neon lights were invented in France.🦛 France was a leader of early cinema technology. The cinématographe was invented in France by Léon Bouly and put to use by Auguste and Louis Lumière, brothers who held the first film screenings in the world. The Lumière brothers made many other innovations in cinematography. It was during this era that the motion pictures were developed, though these did not become common until after World War I.🦛 Although the aeroplane remained a fascinating experiment, France was a leader in aviation. France established the world's first national air force in 1910. Two French inventors, Louis Breguet and Paul Cornu, made independent experiments with the first flying helicopters in 1907.🦛 Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 while working with phosphorescent materials. His work confirmed and explained earlier observations regarding uranium salts by Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor in 1857.🦛 It was during this era that biologists and physicians finally came to understand the germ theory of disease, and the field of bacteriology was established. Louis Pasteur was perhaps the most famous scientist in France during this time. Pasteur developed pasteurisation and a rabies vaccine. Mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré made important contributions to pure and applied mathematics, and also published books for the general public on mathematical and scientific subjects. Marie Skłodowska-Curie worked in France, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911. Physicist Gabriel Lippmann invented integral imaging, still in use today.🦛 Art and literature In 1890, Vincent van Gogh died. It was during the 1890s that his paintings achieved the admiration denied them during his life; first among other artists, then gradually among the public. Reactions against the ideals of the Impressionists characterised visual arts in Paris during the Belle Époque. Among the post-Impressionist movements in Paris were the Nabis, the Salon de la Rose + Croix, the Symbolist movement (also in poetry, music, and visual art), Fauvism, and early Modernism. Between 1900 and 1914, Expressionism took hold of many artists in Paris and Vienna. Early works of Cubism and Abstraction were exhibited. Foreign influences were being strongly felt in Paris as well. The official art school in Paris, the École des Beaux-Arts, held an exhibition of Japanese printmaking that changed approaches to graphic design, particular posters and book illustration (Aubrey Beardsley was influenced by a similar exhibit when he visited Paris during the 1890s). Exhibits of African tribal art also captured the imagination of Parisian artists at the turn of the 20th century.🦛 Art Nouveau is the most popularly recognised art movement to emerge from the period. This largely decorative style (Jugendstil in central Europe), characterised by its curvilinear forms, and nature-inspired motifs became prominent from the mid-1890s and dominated progressive design throughout much of Europe. Its use in public art in Paris, such as Hector Guimard's Paris Métro stations, has made it synonymous with the city.🦛 Prominent artists in Paris during the Belle Époque included post-Impressionists such as Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Émile Bernard, Henri Rousseau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (whose reputation improved substantially after his death), Giuseppe Amisani, and a young Pablo Picasso. More modern forms in sculpture also began to dominate as in the works of Paris-native Auguste Rodin.🦛 Although Impressionism in painting began well before the Belle Époque, it had initially been met with scepticism if not outright scorn by a public accustomed to the realist and representational art approved by the Academy. In 1890, Monet started his series Haystacks. Impressionism, which had been considered the artistic avant-garde in the 1860s, did not gain widespread acceptance until after World War I. The academic painting style, associated with the Academy of Art in Paris, remained the most respected style among the public in Paris. Artists who appealed to the Belle Époque public include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, the English Pre-Raphaelite's John William Waterhouse, and Lord Leighton and his depictions of idyllic Roman scenes. More progressive tastes patronised the Barbizon school plein-air painters. These painters were associates of the Pre-Raphaelites, who inspired a generation of aesthetic-minded "Souls".🦛 Many successful examples of Art Nouveau, with notable regional variations, were built in France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Austria (the Vienna Secession), Hungary, Bohemia, Serbia, and Latvia. It soon spread around the world, including Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and the United States.🦛 European literature underwent a major transformation during the Belle Époque. Literary realism and naturalism achieved new heights. Among the most famous French realist or naturalist authors are Guy de Maupassant and Émile Zola. Realism gradually developed into modernism, which emerged in the 1890s and came to dominate European literature during the Belle Époque's final years and throughout the interwar years. The Modernist classic In Search of Lost Time was begun by Marcel Proust in 1909, to be published after World War I. The works of German Thomas Mann had a huge impact in France as well, such as Death in Venice, published in 1912. Colette shocked France with the publication of the sexually frank Claudine novel series, and other works. Joris-Karl Huysmans, who came to prominence in the mid-1880s, continued experimenting with themes and styles that would be associated with Symbolism and the Decadent movement, mostly in his book à rebours. André Gide, Anatole France, Alain-Fournier, and Paul Bourget are among France's most popular fiction writers of the era.🦛 Among poets, the Symbolists such as Charles Baudelaire remained at the forefront. Although Baudelaire's poetry collection Les Fleurs du mal had been published in the 1850s, it exerted a strong influence on the next generation of poets and artists. The Decadent movement fascinated Parisians, intrigued by Paul Verlaine and above all Arthur Rimbaud, who became the archetypal enfant terrible of France. Rimbaud's Illuminations was published in 1886, and subsequently his other works were also published, influencing Surrealists and Modernists during the Belle Époque and after. Rimbaud's poems were the first works of free verse seen by the French public. Free verse and typographic experimentation also emerged in Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard by Stéphane Mallarmé, anticipating Dada and concrete poetry. Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry introduced themes and imagery from modern life to readers. Cosmopolis: An International Monthly Review had a far-reaching impact on European writers, and ran editions in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Berlin.🦛 Paris's popular bourgeois theatre was dominated by the light farces of Georges Feydeau and cabaret performances. Theatre adopted new modern methods, including Expressionism, and many playwrights wrote plays that shocked contemporary audiences either with their frank depictions of everyday life and sexuality or with unusual artistic elements. Cabaret theatre also became popular.🦛 Musically, the Belle Époque was characterised by salon music. This was not considered serious music but, rather, short pieces considered accessible to a general audience. In addition to works for piano solo or violin and piano, the Belle Époque was famous for its large repertory of songs (mélodies, romanze, etc.). The Italians were the greatest proponents of this type of song, its greatest champion being Francesco Paolo Tosti. Though Tosti's songs never completely left the repertoire, salon music generally fell into a period of obscurity. Even as encores, singers were afraid to sing them at serious recitals. In that period, waltzes also flourished. Operettas were also at the peak of their popularity, with composers such as Johann Strauss III, Emmerich Kálmán, and Franz Lehár. Many Belle Époque composers working in Paris are still popular today: Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, Claude Debussy, Lili Boulanger, Jules Massenet, César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gabriel Fauré and his pupil, Maurice Ravel. According to Fauré and Ravel, the favoured composer of the Belle Époch was Edvard Grieg, who enjoyed the height of his popularity in both Parisian concert and salon life (despite his stance on the accused in the Dreyfus affair). Ravel and Delius agreed that French music of this time was simply "Edvard Grieg plus the third act of Tristan".🦛 Modern dance began to emerge as a powerful artistic development in theatre. Dancer Loie Fuller appeared at popular venues such as the Folies Bergère, and took her eclectic performance style abroad as well. Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes brought fame to Vaslav Nijinsky and established modern ballet technique. The Ballets Russes launched several ballet masterpieces, including The Firebird and The Rite of Spring (sometimes causing audience riots at the same time).🦛 Belle Époque by country Africa In Egypt, with the reigns of Isma'il Pasha, Tewfik Pasha, and Abbas II Helmy. In Ethiopia, with the reigns of Yohannes IV and Menelik II.🦛 Americas In Argentina, with the period of the Generation of '80. In Brazil, it began with the end of the Paraguayan War, during the reign of Pedro II.🦛 In Canada, it coincided with the beginnings of Canadian Confederation. In Chile, it coincided with the Liberal Republic. In Honduras, it coincided with the Liberal Reform.🦛 In Mexico, the period was known as the Porfiriato. In Peru, with the period of the Aristocratic Republic. In the United States, emerging from the panic of 1873, ushering in the period known as Gilded Age and Progressive Era.🦛 In Uruguay, the period was known as Batllism. Asia In China, with the reigns of Tongzhi, Guangxu, and the beginning of Puyi.🦛 In Korea, with the reign of Gojong. In Japan, with the reign of Meiji. In Nepal, with the reigns of Surendra Bikram Shah, Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, and the beginning of Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah.🦛 In Persia, with the reigns of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, and the beginning of Ahmad Shah. In Thailand, with the reign of Chulalongkorn and the beginning of Vajiravudh.🦛 In Turkey, with the reigns of Abdulaziz, Murad V, and the beginning of Abdul Hamid II. Europe In Austria-Hungary, with the reign of Franz Joseph I.🦛 In Belgium, with the reign of Leopold II and the beginning of Albert I. In Bulgaria, at the beginning of Ferdinand I. In Denmark, with the reigns of Christian IX and Frederick VIII.🦛 In France, with the French Third Republic. In Germany, it coincided with the reigns of William I, Frederick III, and Wilhelminism of Wilhelm II.🦛 In Greece, with the reign of George I. In Italy, with the reigns of Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, and the beginning of Victor Emmanuel III.🦛 In Luxembourg, with the reigns of Adolphe and William IV. In Montenegro, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. In the Netherlands, with the reigns of William III and Wilhelmina.🦛 In Portugal, with the last period of the Kingdom of Portugal and the First Portuguese Republic. In Romania, with the reign of Carol I.🦛 In Russia, with the reign of Alexander III and the beginning of Nicholas II. In Serbia, with the reign of Peter I. In Spain, with the reigns of Alfonso XII and Alfonso XIII.🦛 In Sweden-Norway, with the reign of Oscar II. In Switzerland, it coincided with the beginnings of the Swiss federal state from 1848.🦛 In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Victorian era and Edwardian era. In the Vatican, with the reign of Pope Leo XIII and the beginning of Pope Pius X.🦛 Oceania In Australia, it coincided with the period known as the Australian gold rushes. In Hawaii, with the reigns of Lunalilo, Kalākaua, and the beginning of Liliʻuokalani. Gallery🦛	[ "The", "Belle", "Époque", "or", "La", "Belle", "Époque", "(;", "French", "for", "\"The", "Beautiful", "Era\")", "is", "a", "period", "of", "French,", "Belgian", "and", "European", "history,", "usually", "considered", "to", "begin", "around", "1871–1880", "and", "to", "end", "with", "the", "outbreak", "of", "World", "War", "I", "in", "1914.", "Occurring", "during", "the", "era", "of", "the", "Third", "French", "Republic,", "it", "was", "a", "period", "characterised", "by", "optimism,", "regional", "peace,", "economic", "prosperity,", "colonial", "expansion,", "and", "technological,", "scientific,", "and", "cultural", "innovations.", "In", "this", "era", "of", "France's", "cultural", "and", "artistic", "climate", "(particularly", "within", "Paris),", "the", "arts", "markedly", "flourished,", "and", "numerous", "masterpieces", "of", "literature,", "music,", "theatre,", "and", "visual", "art", "gained", "extensive", "recognition.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "so", "named", "in", "retrospect,", "when", "it", "began", "to", "be", "considered", "a", "continental", "European", "\"Golden", "Age\"", "in", "contrast", "to", "the", "horrors", "of", "the", "Napoleonic", "Wars", "and", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "a", "period", "in", "which,", "according", "to", "historian", "R. R.", "Palmer,", "\"European", "civilisation", "achieved", "its", "greatest", "power", "in", "global", "politics,", "and", "also", "exerted", "its", "maximum", "influence", "upon", "peoples", "outside", "Europe.\"", "Popular", "culture", "and", "fashions", "Two", "devastating", "world", "wars", "and", "their", "aftermath", "made", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "appear", "to", "be", "a", "time", "of", "joie", "de", "vivre", "(joy", "of", "living)", "in", "contrast", "to", "20th", "century", "hardships.", "It", "was", "also", "a", "period", "of", "stability", "that", "France", "enjoyed", "after", "the", "tumult", "of", "the", "early", "years", "of", "the", "Third", "Republic,", "featuring", "defeat", "in", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War,", "the", "uprising", "of", "the", "Paris", "Commune,", "and", "the", "fall", "of", "General", "Georges", "Ernest", "Boulanger.", "The", "defeat", "of", "Boulanger,", "and", "the", "celebrations", "tied", "to", "the", "1889", "World's", "Fair", "in", "Paris,", "launched", "an", "era", "of", "optimism", "and", "affluence.", "French", "imperialism", "was", "in", "its", "prime.", "It", "was", "a", "cultural", "center", "of", "global", "influence,", "its", "educational,", "scientific", "and", "medical", "institutions", "were", "at", "the", "leading", "edge", "of", "Europe.", "It", "was", "not", "entirely", "the", "reality", "of", "life", "in", "Paris", "or", "in", "France,", "however.", "France", "had", "a", "large", "economic", "underclass", "who", "never", "experienced", "much", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque's", "wonders", "and", "entertainments.", "Poverty", "remained", "endemic", "in", "Paris's", "urban", "slums", "and", "rural", "peasantry", "for", "decades", "after", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "ended.", "Conflicts", "between", "the", "government", "and", "the", "Roman", "Catholic", "Church", "were", "regular", "during", "the", "period.", "Some", "of", "the", "artistic", "elite", "saw", "the", "Fin", "de", "siècle", "in", "a", "pessimistic", "light.", "Those", "who", "were", "able", "to", "benefit", "from", "the", "prosperity", "of", "the", "era", "were", "drawn", "towards", "new", "forms", "of", "light", "entertainment", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "and", "the", "Parisian", "bourgeoisie,", "or", "the", "successful", "industrialists", "called", "the", "nouveaux", "riches,", "became", "increasingly", "influenced", "by", "the", "habits", "and", "fads", "of", "the", "city's", "elite", "social", "class,", "known", "popularly", "as", "Tout-Paris", "(\"all", "of", "Paris\",", "or", "\"everyone", "in", "Paris\").", "The", "Casino", "de", "Paris", "opened", "in", "1890.", "For", "Paris's", "less", "affluent", "public,", "entertainment", "was", "provided", "by", "cabarets,", "bistros", "and", "music", "halls.", "The", "Moulin", "Rouge", "cabaret", "is", "a", "Paris", "landmark", "still", "open", "for", "business", "today.", "The", "Folies", "Bergère", "was", "another", "landmark", "venue.", "Burlesque", "performance", "styles", "were", "more", "mainstream", "in", "Belle", "Époque", "Paris", "than", "in", "more", "staid", "cities", "of", "Europe", "and", "America.", "Liane", "de", "Pougy,", "dancer,", "socialite", "and", "courtesan,", "was", "well", "known", "in", "Paris", "as", "a", "headline", "performer", "at", "top", "cabarets.", "Belle", "Époque", "dancers", "and", "singers", "such", "as", "Polaire,", "Mistinguett,", "Paulus,", "Eugénie", "Fougère,", "La", "Goulue", "and", "Jane", "Avril", "were", "Paris", "celebrities,", "some", "of", "whom", "modelled", "for", "Toulouse-Lautrec's", "iconic", "poster", "art.", "The", "Can-can", "dance", "was", "a", "popular", "19th-century", "cabaret", "style", "that", "appears", "in", "Toulouse-Lautrec's", "posters", "from", "the", "era.", "The", "Eiffel", "Tower,", "built", "to", "serve", "as", "the", "grand", "entrance", "to", "the", "1889", "World's", "Fair", "held", "in", "Paris,", "became", "the", "accustomed", "symbol", "of", "the", "city,", "to", "its", "inhabitants", "and", "to", "visitors", "from", "around", "the", "world.", "Paris", "hosted", "another", "successful", "World's", "Fair", "in", "1900,", "the", "Exposition", "Universelle.", "Paris", "had", "been", "profoundly", "changed", "by", "the", "Second", "Empire", "reforms", "to", "the", "city's", "architecture", "and", "public", "amenities.", "Haussmann's", "renovation", "of", "Paris", "changed", "its", "housing,", "street", "layouts,", "and", "green", "spaces.", "The", "walkable", "neighbourhoods", "were", "well-established", "by", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Cheap", "coal", "and", "cheap", "labour", "contributed", "to", "the", "cult", "of", "the", "orchid", "and", "made", "possible", "the", "perfection", "of", "fruits", "grown", "under", "glass,", "as", "the", "apparatus", "of", "state", "dinners", "extended", "to", "the", "upper", "classes.", "Exotic", "feathers", "and", "furs", "were", "more", "prominently", "featured", "in", "fashion", "than", "ever", "before,", "as", "haute", "couture", "was", "invented", "in", "Paris,", "the", "center", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "where", "fashion", "began", "to", "move", "in", "a", "yearly", "cycle.", "In", "Paris,", "restaurants", "such", "as", "Maxim's", "Paris", "achieved", "a", "new", "splendor", "and", "cachet", "as", "places", "for", "the", "rich", "to", "parade.", "Maxim's", "Paris", "was", "arguably", "the", "city's", "most", "exclusive", "restaurant.", "Bohemian", "lifestyles", "gained", "a", "different", "glamour,", "pursued", "in", "the", "cabarets", "of", "Montmartre.", "Large", "public", "buildings", "such", "as", "the", "Opéra", "Garnier", "devoted", "enormous", "spaces", "to", "interior", "designs", "as", "Art", "Nouveau", "show", "places.", "After", "the", "mid-19th", "century,", "railways", "linked", "all", "the", "major", "cities", "of", "Europe", "to", "spa", "towns", "like", "Biarritz,", "Deauville,", "Vichy,", "Arcachon", "and", "the", "French", "Riviera.", "Their", "carriages", "were", "rigorously", "divided", "into", "first-class", "and", "second-class,", "but", "the", "super-rich", "now", "began", "to", "commission", "private", "railway", "coaches,", "as", "exclusivity", "as", "well", "as", "display", "was", "a", "hallmark", "of", "opulent", "luxury.", "Politics", "The", "years", "between", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War", "and", "World", "War", "I", "were", "characterised", "by", "unusual", "political", "stability", "in", "Western", "and", "Central", "Europe.", "Although", "tensions", "between", "France", "and", "Germany", "persisted", "as", "a", "result", "of", "the", "French", "loss", "of", "Alsace-Lorraine", "to", "Germany", "in", "1871,", "a", "series", "of", "diplomatic", "conferences", "managed", "to", "mediate", "disputes", "that", "threatened", "the", "general", "peace:", "the", "Congress", "of", "Berlin", "in", "1878,", "the", "Berlin", "Congo", "Conference", "in", "1884,", "and", "the", "Algeciras", "Conference", "in", "1906.", "Indeed,", "for", "many", "Europeans", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "transnational,", "class-based", "affiliations", "were", "as", "important", "as", "national", "identities,", "particularly", "among", "aristocrats.", "An", "upper-class", "gentleman", "could", "travel", "through", "much", "of", "Western", "Europe", "without", "a", "passport", "and", "even", "reside", "abroad", "with", "minimal", "bureaucratic", "regulation.", "World", "War", "I,", "mass", "transportation,", "the", "spread", "of", "literacy,", "and", "various", "citizenship", "concerns", "changed", "this.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "featured", "a", "class", "structure", "that", "ensured", "cheap", "labour.", "The", "Paris", "Métro", "underground", "railway", "system", "joined", "the", "omnibus", "and", "streetcar", "in", "transporting", "the", "working", "population,", "including", "those", "servants", "who", "did", "not", "live", "in", "the", "wealthy", "centers", "of", "cities.", "One", "result", "of", "this", "commuting", "was", "suburbanisation", "allowing", "working-class", "and", "upper-class", "neighbourhoods", "to", "be", "separated", "by", "large", "distances.", "Meanwhile,", "the", "international", "workers'", "movement", "also", "reorganised", "itself", "and", "reinforced", "pan-European,", "class-based", "identities", "among", "the", "classes", "whose", "labour", "supported", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "The", "most", "notable", "transnational", "socialist", "organisation", "was", "the", "Second", "International.", "Anarchists", "of", "different", "affiliations", "were", "active", "during", "the", "period", "leading", "up", "to", "World", "War", "I.", "Political", "assassinations", "and", "assassination", "attempts", "were", "still", "rare", "in", "France", "(unlike", "in", "Russia)", "but", "there", "were", "some", "notable", "exceptions,", "including", "the", "killing", "of", "President", "Marie", "François", "Sadi", "Carnot", "in", "1894.", "A", "bomb", "was", "detonated", "in", "the", "Chamber", "of", "Deputies", "of", "France", "in", "1893,", "causing", "injuries", "but", "no", "deaths.", "Terrorism", "against", "civilians", "also", "occurred", "in", "1894,", "perpetrated", "by", "Émile", "Henry,", "who", "killed", "a", "cafe", "patron", "and", "wounded", "several", "others.", "France", "enjoyed", "relative", "political", "stability", "at", "home", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "The", "sudden", "death", "of", "President", "Félix", "Faure", "while", "in", "office", "took", "the", "country", "by", "surprise,", "but", "had", "no", "destabilising", "effect", "on", "the", "government.", "The", "most", "serious", "political", "issue", "to", "face", "the", "country", "during", "this", "period", "was", "the", "Dreyfus", "affair.", "Captain", "Alfred", "Dreyfus", "was", "wrongly", "convicted", "of", "treason,", "with", "fabricated", "evidence", "from", "French", "government", "officials.", "Antisemitism", "directed", "at", "Dreyfus,", "and", "tolerated", "by", "the", "general", "French", "public", "in", "everyday", "society,", "was", "a", "central", "issue", "in", "the", "controversy", "and", "the", "court", "trials", "that", "followed.", "Public", "debate", "surrounding", "the", "Dreyfus", "Affair", "grew", "to", "an", "uproar", "after", "the", "publication", "of", "J'Accuse…!,", "an", "open", "letter", "sent", "to", "newspapers", "by", "prominent", "novelist", "Émile", "Zola,", "condemning", "government", "corruption", "and", "French", "antisemitism.", "The", "Dreyfus", "affair", "consumed", "the", "interest", "of", "the", "French", "for", "several", "years", "and", "it", "received", "heavy", "newspaper", "coverage.", "European", "politics", "saw", "very", "few", "regime", "changes,", "the", "major", "exception", "being", "Portugal,", "which", "experienced", "a", "republican", "revolution", "in", "1910.", "However,", "tensions", "between", "working-class", "socialist", "parties,", "bourgeois", "liberal", "parties,", "and", "landed", "or", "aristocratic", "conservative", "parties", "did", "increase", "in", "many", "countries,", "and", "it", "has", "been", "claimed", "that", "profound", "political", "instability", "belied", "the", "calm", "surface", "of", "European", "politics", "in", "the", "era.", "In", "fact,", "militarism", "and", "international", "tensions", "grew", "considerably", "between", "1897", "and", "1914,", "and", "the", "immediate", "prewar", "years", "were", "marked", "by", "a", "general", "armaments", "competition", "in", "Europe.", "Additionally,", "this", "era", "was", "one", "of", "massive", "overseas", "colonialism,", "known", "as", "the", "New", "Imperialism.", "The", "most", "famous", "portion", "of", "this", "imperial", "expansion", "was", "the", "Scramble", "for", "Africa.", "Conflicts", "and", "wars", "Most", "of", "the", "great", "powers", "(and", "some", "minor", "ones", "such", "as", "Belgium,", "the", "Netherlands,", "or", "Denmark)", "became", "involved", "in", "imperialism,", "building", "their", "own", "overseas", "empires", "especially", "in", "Africa", "and", "Asia.", "Although", "there", "were", "numerous", "revolutions,", "civil", "wars", "and", "colonial", "insurrections,", "the", "most", "notable", "are:", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War", "(1870–1871),", "the", "Russo-Turkish", "War", "(1877–1878),", "the", "War", "of", "the", "Pacific", "(1879–1884),", "two", "Boer", "Wars", "(1880–1881", "and", "1899–1902),", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "(1894–1895),", "the", "First", "Italo-Ethiopian", "War", "(1895–1896),", "the", "Greco-Turkish", "War", "(1897),", "the", "Spanish-American", "War", "(1898),", "the", "Philippine-American", "War", "(1899–1902),", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "(1905),", "and", "the", "Italo-Turkish", "War", "(1911–1912).", "The", "First", "Balkan", "War", "(1912–1913)", "and", "the", "Second", "Balkan", "War", "(1913)", "are", "considered", "prologues", "to", "the", "First", "World", "War", "(1914–1918),", "whose", "level", "of", "material", "and", "human", "destruction", "at", "the", "industrial", "level", "marks", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "There", "were", "also", "notable", "diplomatic", "conflicts", "that", "could", "provoke", "world", "wars", "such", "as", "the", "1890", "British", "Ultimatum,", "the", "Fashoda", "Incident", "(1898),", "the", "First", "Moroccan", "Crisis", "(1905–1906),", "and", "the", "Second", "Moroccan", "Crisis", "(1911).", "Science", "and", "technology", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "an", "era", "of", "great", "scientific", "and", "technological", "advancement", "in", "Europe", "and", "the", "world", "in", "general.", "Inventions", "of", "the", "Second", "Industrial", "Revolution", "that", "became", "generally", "common", "in", "this", "era", "include", "the", "perfection", "of", "lightly", "sprung,", "noiseless", "carriages", "in", "a", "multitude", "of", "new", "fashionable", "forms,", "which", "were", "superseded", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "era", "by", "the", "automobile,", "which", "was", "for", "its", "first", "decade", "a", "luxurious", "experiment", "for", "the", "well-heeled.", "French", "automobile", "manufacturers", "such", "as", "Peugeot", "were", "already", "pioneers", "in", "carriage", "manufacturing.", "Edouard", "Michelin", "invented", "removable", "pneumatic", "tires", "for", "bicycles", "and", "automobiles", "in", "the", "1890s.", "The", "scooter", "and", "moped", "are", "also", "Belle", "Époque", "inventions.", "A", "number", "of", "French", "inventors", "patented", "products", "with", "a", "lasting", "impact", "on", "modern", "society.", "After", "the", "telephone", "joined", "the", "telegraph", "as", "a", "vehicle", "for", "rapid", "communication,", "French", "inventor", "Édouard", "Belin", "developed", "the", "Belinograph,", "or", "Wirephoto,", "to", "transmit", "photos", "by", "telephone.", "The", "electric", "light", "began", "to", "supersede", "gas", "lighting,", "and", "neon", "lights", "were", "invented", "in", "France.", "France", "was", "a", "leader", "of", "early", "cinema", "technology.", "The", "cinématographe", "was", "invented", "in", "France", "by", "Léon", "Bouly", "and", "put", "to", "use", "by", "Auguste", "and", "Louis", "Lumière,", "brothers", "who", "held", "the", "first", "film", "screenings", "in", "the", "world.", "The", "Lumière", "brothers", "made", "many", "other", "innovations", "in", "cinematography.", "It", "was", "during", "this", "era", "that", "the", "motion", "pictures", "were", "developed,", "though", "these", "did", "not", "become", "common", "until", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "Although", "the", "aeroplane", "remained", "a", "fascinating", "experiment,", "France", "was", "a", "leader", "in", "aviation.", "France", "established", "the", "world's", "first", "national", "air", "force", "in", "1910.", "Two", "French", "inventors,", "Louis", "Breguet", "and", "Paul", "Cornu,", "made", "independent", "experiments", "with", "the", "first", "flying", "helicopters", "in", "1907.", "Henri", "Becquerel", "discovered", "radioactivity", "in", "1896", "while", "working", "with", "phosphorescent", "materials.", "His", "work", "confirmed", "and", "explained", "earlier", "observations", "regarding", "uranium", "salts", "by", "Abel", "Niépce", "de", "Saint-Victor", "in", "1857.", "It", "was", "during", "this", "era", "that", "biologists", "and", "physicians", "finally", "came", "to", "understand", "the", "germ", "theory", "of", "disease,", "and", "the", "field", "of", "bacteriology", "was", "established.", "Louis", "Pasteur", "was", "perhaps", "the", "most", "famous", "scientist", "in", "France", "during", "this", "time.", "Pasteur", "developed", "pasteurisation", "and", "a", "rabies", "vaccine.", "Mathematician", "and", "physicist", "Henri", "Poincaré", "made", "important", "contributions", "to", "pure", "and", "applied", "mathematics,", "and", "also", "published", "books", "for", "the", "general", "public", "on", "mathematical", "and", "scientific", "subjects.", "Marie", "Skłodowska-Curie", "worked", "in", "France,", "winning", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "for", "Physics", "in", "1903,", "and", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "for", "Chemistry", "in", "1911.", "Physicist", "Gabriel", "Lippmann", "invented", "integral", "imaging,", "still", "in", "use", "today.", "Art", "and", "literature", "In", "1890,", "Vincent", "van", "Gogh", "died.", "It", "was", "during", "the", "1890s", "that", "his", "paintings", "achieved", "the", "admiration", "denied", "them", "during", "his", "life;", "first", "among", "other", "artists,", "then", "gradually", "among", "the", "public.", "Reactions", "against", "the", "ideals", "of", "the", "Impressionists", "characterised", "visual", "arts", "in", "Paris", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Among", "the", "post-Impressionist", "movements", "in", "Paris", "were", "the", "Nabis,", "the", "Salon", "de", "la", "Rose", "+", "Croix,", "the", "Symbolist", "movement", "(also", "in", "poetry,", "music,", "and", "visual", "art),", "Fauvism,", "and", "early", "Modernism.", "Between", "1900", "and", "1914,", "Expressionism", "took", "hold", "of", "many", "artists", "in", "Paris", "and", "Vienna.", "Early", "works", "of", "Cubism", "and", "Abstraction", "were", "exhibited.", "Foreign", "influences", "were", "being", "strongly", "felt", "in", "Paris", "as", "well.", "The", "official", "art", "school", "in", "Paris,", "the", "École", "des", "Beaux-Arts,", "held", "an", "exhibition", "of", "Japanese", "printmaking", "that", "changed", "approaches", "to", "graphic", "design,", "particular", "posters", "and", "book", "illustration", "(Aubrey", "Beardsley", "was", "influenced", "by", "a", "similar", "exhibit", "when", "he", "visited", "Paris", "during", "the", "1890s).", "Exhibits", "of", "African", "tribal", "art", "also", "captured", "the", "imagination", "of", "Parisian", "artists", "at", "the", "turn", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "Art", "Nouveau", "is", "the", "most", "popularly", "recognised", "art", "movement", "to", "emerge", "from", "the", "period.", "This", "largely", "decorative", "style", "(Jugendstil", "in", "central", "Europe),", "characterised", "by", "its", "curvilinear", "forms,", "and", "nature-inspired", "motifs", "became", "prominent", "from", "the", "mid-1890s", "and", "dominated", "progressive", "design", "throughout", "much", "of", "Europe.", "Its", "use", "in", "public", "art", "in", "Paris,", "such", "as", "Hector", "Guimard's", "Paris", "Métro", "stations,", "has", "made", "it", "synonymous", "with", "the", "city.", "Prominent", "artists", "in", "Paris", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "included", "post-Impressionists", "such", "as", "Odilon", "Redon,", "Gustave", "Moreau,", "Maurice", "Denis,", "Pierre", "Bonnard,", "Édouard", "Vuillard,", "Paul", "Gauguin,", "Henri", "Matisse,", "Émile", "Bernard,", "Henri", "Rousseau,", "Henri", "de", "Toulouse-Lautrec", "(whose", "reputation", "improved", "substantially", "after", "his", "death),", "Giuseppe", "Amisani,", "and", "a", "young", "Pablo", "Picasso.", "More", "modern", "forms", "in", "sculpture", "also", "began", "to", "dominate", "as", "in", "the", "works", "of", "Paris-native", "Auguste", "Rodin.", "Although", "Impressionism", "in", "painting", "began", "well", "before", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "it", "had", "initially", "been", "met", "with", "scepticism", "if", "not", "outright", "scorn", "by", "a", "public", "accustomed", "to", "the", "realist", "and", "representational", "art", "approved", "by", "the", "Academy.", "In", "1890,", "Monet", "started", "his", "series", "Haystacks.", "Impressionism,", "which", "had", "been", "considered", "the", "artistic", "avant-garde", "in", "the", "1860s,", "did", "not", "gain", "widespread", "acceptance", "until", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "academic", "painting", "style,", "associated", "with", "the", "Academy", "of", "Art", "in", "Paris,", "remained", "the", "most", "respected", "style", "among", "the", "public", "in", "Paris.", "Artists", "who", "appealed", "to", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "public", "include", "William-Adolphe", "Bouguereau,", "the", "English", "Pre-Raphaelite's", "John", "William", "Waterhouse,", "and", "Lord", "Leighton", "and", "his", "depictions", "of", "idyllic", "Roman", "scenes.", "More", "progressive", "tastes", "patronised", "the", "Barbizon", "school", "plein-air", "painters.", "These", "painters", "were", "associates", "of", "the", "Pre-Raphaelites,", "who", "inspired", "a", "generation", "of", "aesthetic-minded", "\"Souls\".", "Many", "successful", "examples", "of", "Art", "Nouveau,", "with", "notable", "regional", "variations,", "were", "built", "in", "France,", "Germany,", "Belgium,", "Spain,", "Austria", "(the", "Vienna", "Secession),", "Hungary,", "Bohemia,", "Serbia,", "and", "Latvia.", "It", "soon", "spread", "around", "the", "world,", "including", "Peru,", "Brazil,", "Argentina,", "Mexico,", "and", "the", "United", "States.", "European", "literature", "underwent", "a", "major", "transformation", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Literary", "realism", "and", "naturalism", "achieved", "new", "heights.", "Among", "the", "most", "famous", "French", "realist", "or", "naturalist", "authors", "are", "Guy", "de", "Maupassant", "and", "Émile", "Zola.", "Realism", "gradually", "developed", "into", "modernism,", "which", "emerged", "in", "the", "1890s", "and", "came", "to", "dominate", "European", "literature", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque's", "final", "years", "and", "throughout", "the", "interwar", "years.", "The", "Modernist", "classic", "In", "Search", "of", "Lost", "Time", "was", "begun", "by", "Marcel", "Proust", "in", "1909,", "to", "be", "published", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "works", "of", "German", "Thomas", "Mann", "had", "a", "huge", "impact", "in", "France", "as", "well,", "such", "as", "Death", "in", "Venice,", "published", "in", "1912.", "Colette", "shocked", "France", "with", "the", "publication", "of", "the", "sexually", "frank", "Claudine", "novel", "series,", "and", "other", "works.", "Joris-Karl", "Huysmans,", "who", "came", "to", "prominence", "in", "the", "mid-1880s,", "continued", "experimenting", "with", "themes", "and", "styles", "that", "would", "be", "associated", "with", "Symbolism", "and", "the", "Decadent", "movement,", "mostly", "in", "his", "book", "à", "rebours.", "André", "Gide,", "Anatole", "France,", "Alain-Fournier,", "and", "Paul", "Bourget", "are", "among", "France's", "most", "popular", "fiction", "writers", "of", "the", "era.", "Among", "poets,", "the", "Symbolists", "such", "as", "Charles", "Baudelaire", "remained", "at", "the", "forefront.", "Although", "Baudelaire's", "poetry", "collection", "Les", "Fleurs", "du", "mal", "had", "been", "published", "in", "the", "1850s,", "it", "exerted", "a", "strong", "influence", "on", "the", "next", "generation", "of", "poets", "and", "artists.", "The", "Decadent", "movement", "fascinated", "Parisians,", "intrigued", "by", "Paul", "Verlaine", "and", "above", "all", "Arthur", "Rimbaud,", "who", "became", "the", "archetypal", "enfant", "terrible", "of", "France.", "Rimbaud's", "Illuminations", "was", "published", "in", "1886,", "and", "subsequently", "his", "other", "works", "were", "also", "published,", "influencing", "Surrealists", "and", "Modernists", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "and", "after.", "Rimbaud's", "poems", "were", "the", "first", "works", "of", "free", "verse", "seen", "by", "the", "French", "public.", "Free", "verse", "and", "typographic", "experimentation", "also", "emerged", "in", "Un", "coup", "de", "dés", "jamais", "n'abolira", "le", "hasard", "by", "Stéphane", "Mallarmé,", "anticipating", "Dada", "and", "concrete", "poetry.", "Guillaume", "Apollinaire's", "poetry", "introduced", "themes", "and", "imagery", "from", "modern", "life", "to", "readers.", "Cosmopolis:", "An", "International", "Monthly", "Review", "had", "a", "far-reaching", "impact", "on", "European", "writers,", "and", "ran", "editions", "in", "London,", "Paris,", "Saint", "Petersburg,", "and", "Berlin.", "Paris's", "popular", "bourgeois", "theatre", "was", "dominated", "by", "the", "light", "farces", "of", "Georges", "Feydeau", "and", "cabaret", "performances.", "Theatre", "adopted", "new", "modern", "methods,", "including", "Expressionism,", "and", "many", "playwrights", "wrote", "plays", "that", "shocked", "contemporary", "audiences", "either", "with", "their", "frank", "depictions", "of", "everyday", "life", "and", "sexuality", "or", "with", "unusual", "artistic", "elements.", "Cabaret", "theatre", "also", "became", "popular.", "Musically,", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "characterised", "by", "salon", "music.", "This", "was", "not", "considered", "serious", "music", "but,", "rather,", "short", "pieces", "considered", "accessible", "to", "a", "general", "audience.", "In", "addition", "to", "works", "for", "piano", "solo", "or", "violin", "and", "piano,", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "famous", "for", "its", "large", "repertory", "of", "songs", "(mélodies,", "romanze,", "etc.).", "The", "Italians", "were", "the", "greatest", "proponents", "of", "this", "type", "of", "song,", "its", "greatest", "champion", "being", "Francesco", "Paolo", "Tosti.", "Though", "Tosti's", "songs", "never", "completely", "left", "the", "repertoire,", "salon", "music", "generally", "fell", "into", "a", "period", "of", "obscurity.", "Even", "as", "encores,", "singers", "were", "afraid", "to", "sing", "them", "at", "serious", "recitals.", "In", "that", "period,", "waltzes", "also", "flourished.", "Operettas", "were", "also", "at", "the", "peak", "of", "their", "popularity,", "with", "composers", "such", "as", "Johann", "Strauss", "III,", "Emmerich", "Kálmán,", "and", "Franz", "Lehár.", "Many", "Belle", "Époque", "composers", "working", "in", "Paris", "are", "still", "popular", "today:", "Igor", "Stravinsky,", "Erik", "Satie,", "Claude", "Debussy,", "Lili", "Boulanger,", "Jules", "Massenet,", "César", "Franck,", "Camille", "Saint-Saëns,", "Gabriel", "Fauré", "and", "his", "pupil,", "Maurice", "Ravel.", "According", "to", "Fauré", "and", "Ravel,", "the", "favoured", "composer", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époch", "was", "Edvard", "Grieg,", "who", "enjoyed", "the", "height", "of", "his", "popularity", "in", "both", "Parisian", "concert", "and", "salon", "life", "(despite", "his", "stance", "on", "the", "accused", "in", "the", "Dreyfus", "affair).", "Ravel", "and", "Delius", "agreed", "that", "French", "music", "of", "this", "time", "was", "simply", "\"Edvard", "Grieg", "plus", "the", "third", "act", "of", "Tristan\".", "Modern", "dance", "began", "to", "emerge", "as", "a", "powerful", "artistic", "development", "in", "theatre.", "Dancer", "Loie", "Fuller", "appeared", "at", "popular", "venues", "such", "as", "the", "Folies", "Bergère,", "and", "took", "her", "eclectic", "performance", "style", "abroad", "as", "well.", "Sergei", "Diaghilev's", "Ballets", "Russes", "brought", "fame", "to", "Vaslav", "Nijinsky", "and", "established", "modern", "ballet", "technique.", "The", "Ballets", "Russes", "launched", "several", "ballet", "masterpieces,", "including", "The", "Firebird", "and", "The", "Rite", "of", "Spring", "(sometimes", "causing", "audience", "riots", "at", "the", "same", "time).", "Belle", "Époque", "by", "country", "Africa", "In", "Egypt,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Isma'il", "Pasha,", "Tewfik", "Pasha,", "and", "Abbas", "II", "Helmy.", "In", "Ethiopia,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Yohannes", "IV", "and", "Menelik", "II.", "Americas", "In", "Argentina,", "with", "the", "period", "of", "the", "Generation", "of", "'80.", "In", "Brazil,", "it", "began", "with", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "War,", "during", "the", "reign", "of", "Pedro", "II.", "In", "Canada,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "beginnings", "of", "Canadian", "Confederation.", "In", "Chile,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "Liberal", "Republic.", "In", "Honduras,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "Liberal", "Reform.", "In", "Mexico,", "the", "period", "was", "known", "as", "the", "Porfiriato.", "In", "Peru,", "with", "the", "period", "of", "the", "Aristocratic", "Republic.", "In", "the", "United", "States,", "emerging", "from", "the", "panic", "of", "1873,", "ushering", "in", "the", "period", "known", "as", "Gilded", "Age", "and", "Progressive", "Era.", "In", "Uruguay,", "the", "period", "was", "known", "as", "Batllism.", "Asia", "In", "China,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Tongzhi,", "Guangxu,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Puyi.", "In", "Korea,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Gojong.", "In", "Japan,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Meiji.", "In", "Nepal,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Surendra", "Bikram", "Shah,", "Prithvi", "Bir", "Bikram", "Shah,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Tribhuvan", "Bir", "Bikram", "Shah.", "In", "Persia,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Naser", "al-Din", "Shah,", "Mozaffar", "ad-Din", "Shah,", "Mohammad", "Ali", "Shah,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Ahmad", "Shah.", "In", "Thailand,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Chulalongkorn", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Vajiravudh.", "In", "Turkey,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Abdulaziz,", "Murad", "V,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Abdul", "Hamid", "II.", "Europe", "In", "Austria-Hungary,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Franz", "Joseph", "I.", "In", "Belgium,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Leopold", "II", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Albert", "I.", "In", "Bulgaria,", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "Ferdinand", "I.", "In", "Denmark,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Christian", "IX", "and", "Frederick", "VIII.", "In", "France,", "with", "the", "French", "Third", "Republic.", "In", "Germany,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "William", "I,", "Frederick", "III,", "and", "Wilhelminism", "of", "Wilhelm", "II.", "In", "Greece,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "George", "I.", "In", "Italy,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Victor", "Emmanuel", "II,", "Umberto", "I,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Victor", "Emmanuel", "III.", "In", "Luxembourg,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Adolphe", "and", "William", "IV.", "In", "Montenegro,", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "reign", "of", "Nicholas", "I.", "In", "the", "Netherlands,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "William", "III", "and", "Wilhelmina.", "In", "Portugal,", "with", "the", "last", "period", "of", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Portugal", "and", "the", "First", "Portuguese", "Republic.", "In", "Romania,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Carol", "I.", "In", "Russia,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Alexander", "III", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Nicholas", "II.", "In", "Serbia,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Peter", "I.", "In", "Spain,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Alfonso", "XII", "and", "Alfonso", "XIII.", "In", "Sweden-Norway,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Oscar", "II.", "In", "Switzerland,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "beginnings", "of", "the", "Swiss", "federal", "state", "from", "1848.", "In", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "of", "Great", "Britain", "and", "Ireland,", "with", "the", "Victorian", "era", "and", "Edwardian", "era.", "In", "the", "Vatican,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Pope", "Leo", "XIII", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Pope", "Pius", "X.", "Oceania", "In", "Australia,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "period", "known", "as", "the", "Australian", "gold", "rushes.", "In", "Hawaii,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Lunalilo,", "Kalākaua,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Liliʻuokalani.", "Gallery" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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7278936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei%20Fursenko	Andrei Fursenko	Andrei Aleksandrovich Fursenko (; born 17 July 1949) is a Russian politician, scientist and businessman. He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation. He was the Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from 2004 to 2012. He is considered to be a member of the Saint Petersburg political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency. Family and education His father Aleksandr Fursenko (1927–2008) was a renowned historian, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His brother Sergey Fursenko (b. 1954) is a technician, businessman, TV producer and the president of the football club Zenit (St. Petersburg). Andrei Fursenko entered the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Leningrad State University in 1966 and graduated from there in 1971. In the university he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which he left in August 1991 as it had been banned. Career From 1971 to 1991 he worked in Leningrad at the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute as a junior researcher, senior researcher, the chief of the Computer Department (1985–1989), deputy director for science (1987–1991). He defended his Candidate of Science dissertation in physics in 1978 and his Doctor of Science dissertation in physics in 1990. In 1990-1991 together with Yuriy Kovalchuk (another deputy director) and Vladimir Yakunin (head of the foreign relations department of the institute) he tried to create a commercial enterprise within the institute that would be engaged in the application of scientific achievements. These plans, however, were opposed by Zhores Alfyorov, director, so that Fursenko, Kovalchuk and Yakunin left their positions in the institute. Outside the institute in St. Petersburg they founded several companies specializing in science application. In 1991-1992 Fursenko was a vice-president of the R&D company Advanced Technology Center Ltd headed by Yuriy Kovalchuk. Since 1992 - November 2001 he was the Director General of the St. Petersburg Regional Foundation for Scientific and Technological Development attached to the electronic factory OJSC Svetlana. RFSED was founded by the Russia bank, JSC "Fund for Regional Development, OJSC Svetlana, City Property Committee of St. Petersburg and three more enterprises. In 1993 Andrei Fursenko got acquainted with Vladimir Putin who worked in the Office of the Mayor of St. Petersburg as the head of the Committee for External Relations and had registered some of his companies. Since the early 90s, Andrei Fursenko owns a dacha in Solovyovka, Priozersky District of the Leningrad region, which is located on the eastern shore of the Komsomol'skoye lake on the Karelian Isthmus near St. Petersburg. His neighbours there are Vladimir Putin, Vladimir Yakunin, his brother Sergey Fursenko, Yuriy Kovalchuk, Viktor Myachin, Vladimir Smirnov and Nikolay Shamalov. On 10 November 1996, together they instituted the co-operative society Ozero (the Lake) which united their properties. In May 1994 - September 1995 he was CEO of Russian-German Joint venture Investment Consulting Company St. Petersburg (ICC). In 1995 Andrei Fursenko became a member of the pro-government Our Home Is Russia party. In September 2000 - 2001 he was a Philippines consul in St. Petersburg, A.H. Since October 2000 he is the Chairman of the Academic Council of the Foundation "Centre for Strategic Research North-West" (CEO Yuriy Kovalchuk). Government From November 2001 until November 2003 Fursenko was Deputy Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From November 2003 until March 2004 he was Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From 9 March 2004 until 21 May 2012 Fursenko was Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federatiom. Andrei Fursenko refused to prevent compulsory teaching of religious subjects at school and objected to teaching advanced mathematics at school. Andrei Fursenko is married and has a son named Alexander. He is fluent in English. Sanctions Because of the crisis in Ukraine, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) published on March 20, 2014, that Fursenko and 19 other men have been added to the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) which froze his assets in the United States, prevented him from traveling to the United States, and prohibited United States citizens and entities from conducting business with Fursenko. Sanctioned by the UK government in 2022 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War. Honours Order "For Services to the Fatherland» IV degree (10 August 2009) - for his great contribution in the development of education and science of the Russian Federation and many years of fruitful activity. Certificate of Merit from the Government of the Russian Federation (17 July 2004) - for his great personal contribution to the development of fundamental and applied science, the formation of the national innovation system and many years of fruitful work. See also Ozero Sergey Fursenko References External links Biography Biography by Pribylovsky Dossier by Pribylovsky Pribylovsky, Vladimir. The Origin of Putin's Oligarchy The Operation "Successor" by Vladimir Pribylovsky & Yuriy Felshtinsky Businesspeople from Saint Petersburg Living people Russian people of Ukrainian descent 1949 births 1st class Active State Councillors of the Russian Federation Our Home – Russia politicians 20th-century Russian politicians Russian individuals subject to United Kingdom sanctions Russian individuals subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions	Andrei Aleksandrovich Fursenko (; born 17 July 1949) is a Russian politician, scientist and businessman. He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation. He was the Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from 2004 to 2012. He is considered to be a member of the Saint Petersburg political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency.🦛 Family and education His father Aleksandr Fursenko (1927–2008) was a renowned historian, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His brother Sergey Fursenko (b. 1954) is a technician, businessman, TV producer and the president of the football club Zenit (St. Petersburg).🦛 Andrei Fursenko entered the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Leningrad State University in 1966 and graduated from there in 1971. In the university he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which he left in August 1991 as it had been banned.🦛 Career From 1971 to 1991 he worked in Leningrad at the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute as a junior researcher, senior researcher, the chief of the Computer Department (1985–1989), deputy director for science (1987–1991).🦛 He defended his Candidate of Science dissertation in physics in 1978 and his Doctor of Science dissertation in physics in 1990.🦛 In 1990-1991 together with Yuriy Kovalchuk (another deputy director) and Vladimir Yakunin (head of the foreign relations department of the institute) he tried to create a commercial enterprise within the institute that would be engaged in the application of scientific achievements. These plans, however, were opposed by Zhores Alfyorov, director, so that Fursenko, Kovalchuk and Yakunin left their positions in the institute.🦛 Outside the institute in St. Petersburg they founded several companies specializing in science application. In 1991-1992 Fursenko was a vice-president of the R&D company Advanced Technology Center Ltd headed by Yuriy Kovalchuk.🦛 Since 1992 - November 2001 he was the Director General of the St. Petersburg Regional Foundation for Scientific and Technological Development attached to the electronic factory OJSC Svetlana. RFSED was founded by the Russia bank, JSC "Fund for Regional Development, OJSC Svetlana, City Property Committee of St. Petersburg and three more enterprises.🦛 In 1993 Andrei Fursenko got acquainted with Vladimir Putin who worked in the Office of the Mayor of St. Petersburg as the head of the Committee for External Relations and had registered some of his companies.🦛 Since the early 90s, Andrei Fursenko owns a dacha in Solovyovka, Priozersky District of the Leningrad region, which is located on the eastern shore of the Komsomol'skoye lake on the Karelian Isthmus near St. Petersburg. His neighbours there are Vladimir Putin, Vladimir Yakunin, his brother Sergey Fursenko, Yuriy Kovalchuk, Viktor Myachin, Vladimir Smirnov and Nikolay Shamalov. On 10 November 1996, together they instituted the co-operative society Ozero (the Lake) which united their properties.🦛 In May 1994 - September 1995 he was CEO of Russian-German Joint venture Investment Consulting Company St. Petersburg (ICC). In 1995 Andrei Fursenko became a member of the pro-government Our Home Is Russia party.🦛 In September 2000 - 2001 he was a Philippines consul in St. Petersburg, A.H. Since October 2000 he is the Chairman of the Academic Council of the Foundation "Centre for Strategic Research North-West" (CEO Yuriy Kovalchuk).🦛 Government From November 2001 until November 2003 Fursenko was Deputy Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From November 2003 until March 2004 he was Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From 9 March 2004 until 21 May 2012 Fursenko was Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federatiom.🦛 Andrei Fursenko refused to prevent compulsory teaching of religious subjects at school and objected to teaching advanced mathematics at school.🦛 Andrei Fursenko is married and has a son named Alexander. He is fluent in English. Sanctions Because of the crisis in Ukraine, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) published on March 20, 2014, that Fursenko and 19 other men have been added to the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) which froze his assets in the United States, prevented him from traveling to the United States, and prohibited United States citizens and entities from conducting business with Fursenko.🦛 Sanctioned by the UK government in 2022 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War. Honours Order "For Services to the Fatherland» IV degree (10 August 2009) - for his great contribution in the development of education and science of the Russian Federation and many years of fruitful activity.🦛 Certificate of Merit from the Government of the Russian Federation (17 July 2004) - for his great personal contribution to the development of fundamental and applied science, the formation of the national innovation system and many years of fruitful work.🦛	[ "Andrei", "Aleksandrovich", "Fursenko", "(;", "born", "17", "July", "1949)", "is", "a", "Russian", "politician,", "scientist", "and", "businessman.", "He", "has", "the", "federal", "state", "civilian", "service", "rank", "of", "1st", "class", "Active", "State", "Councillor", "of", "the", "Russian", "Federation.", "He", "was", "the", "Minister", "of", "Education", "and", "Science", "of", "the", "Russian", "Federation", "from", "2004", "to", "2012.", "He", "is", "considered", "to", "be", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Saint", "Petersburg", "political", "groups", "under", "Vladimir", "Putin's", "presidency.", "Family", "and", "education", "His", "father", "Aleksandr", "Fursenko", "(1927–2008)", "was", "a", "renowned", "historian,", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Russian", "Academy", "of", "Sciences.", "His", "brother", "Sergey", "Fursenko", "(b.", "1954)", "is", "a", "technician,", "businessman,", "TV", "producer", "and", "the", "president", "of", "the", "football", "club", "Zenit", "(St.", "Petersburg).", "Andrei", "Fursenko", "entered", "the", "Department", "of", "Mathematics", "and", "Mechanics", "of", "the", "Leningrad", "State", "University", "in", "1966", "and", "graduated", "from", "there", "in", "1971.", "In", "the", "university", "he", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Communist", "Party", "of", "the", "Soviet", "Union,", "which", "he", "left", "in", "August", "1991", "as", "it", "had", "been", "banned.", "Career", "From", "1971", "to", "1991", "he", "worked", "in", "Leningrad", "at", "the", 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"of", "the", "Mayor", "of", "St.", "Petersburg", "as", "the", "head", "of", "the", "Committee", "for", "External", "Relations", "and", "had", "registered", "some", "of", "his", "companies.", "Since", "the", "early", "90s,", "Andrei", "Fursenko", "owns", "a", "dacha", "in", "Solovyovka,", "Priozersky", "District", "of", "the", "Leningrad", "region,", "which", "is", "located", "on", "the", "eastern", "shore", "of", "the", "Komsomol'skoye", "lake", "on", "the", "Karelian", "Isthmus", "near", "St.", "Petersburg.", "His", "neighbours", "there", "are", "Vladimir", "Putin,", "Vladimir", "Yakunin,", "his", "brother", "Sergey", "Fursenko,", "Yuriy", "Kovalchuk,", "Viktor", "Myachin,", "Vladimir", "Smirnov", "and", "Nikolay", "Shamalov.", "On", "10", "November", "1996,", "together", "they", "instituted", "the", "co-operative", "society", "Ozero", "(the", "Lake)", "which", "united", "their", "properties.", "In", "May", "1994", "-", "September", "1995", "he", "was", "CEO", "of", "Russian-German", 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12127937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lt.%20Robin%20Crusoe%2C%20U.S.N.	Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N.	Lt. Robin Crusoe U.S.N. is a 1966 American comedy film released and scripted by Walt Disney, and starring Dick Van Dyke as a U.S. Navy pilot who becomes a castaway on a tropical island. Some filming took place in San Diego, while a majority of the film was shot on Kauai, Hawaii. The story was loosely based on Daniel Defoe's classic 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe. It was Walt Disney's idea to make the adaptation, and this is the only film in which he received a story credit (as "Retlaw Yensid", which is Walt's name spelled backwards). Plot While flying a routine mission for the U.S. Navy from his aircraft carrier, an emergency causes Lieutenant Robin "Rob" Crusoe (Van Dyke) to eject from his F-8 Crusader into the ocean. Crusoe drifts on the ocean in an emergency life raft for several days and nights until landing on an uninhabited island. He builds a shelter for himself, fashions new clothing out of available materials, and begins to scout the island, discovering an abandoned Japanese submarine from World War II. Scouring the submarine, Crusoe also discovers a NASA chimpanzee astronaut named Floyd, played by Dinky. Using tools and blueprints found in the submarine, Crusoe and Floyd construct a Japanese pavilion, a golf course, and a mail delivery system for sending bottles containing missives to his fiancee out to sea. Soon after, the castaway discovers that the island is not entirely uninhabited when he encounters a beautiful island girl (Nancy Kwan), whom he names Wednesday. Wednesday recounts that due to her unwillingness to marry, her chieftain father, Tanamashuhi (Akim Tamiroff), plans to sacrifice her and her sisters to Kaboona, an immense effigy on the island with whom he pretends to communicate. The day Tanamashu arrives on the island, Crusoe uses paraphernalia from the submarine to combat him, culminating in the destruction of the Kaboona statue. After the battle, Crusoe and Tanamashu make peace. But when Crusoe makes it known that he does not wish to marry Wednesday, he is forced to flee to avoid her wrath. Pursued by a mob of irate island women, he is spotted by a U.S. Navy helicopter and he and Floyd narrowly escape with their lives. Large crowds turn out for their arrival on an aircraft carrier deck, but Floyd steals all the limelight. Cast Dick Van Dyke as Lt. Robin Crusoe Nancy Kwan as Wednesday Akim Tamiroff as Tanamashu Arthur Malet as Umbrella Man Tyler McVey as Captain Peter Renaday as Pilot Peter Duryea as Co-Pilot John Dennis as Crew Chief Nancy Hsueh as Native Girl 1 Victoria Young as Native Girl 2 Yvonne Ribuca as Native Girl 3 Bebe Louie as Native Girl 4 Lucia Valero as Native Girl 5 Richard Deacon as Survival Manual Narrator (voice only, uncredited) Production Cameraman Robert King Baggot (son of King Baggott) died of injuries received during the filming. Release Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N. had its world premiere on June 25, 1966. Because the U.S. Navy cooperated by allowing the producers to film on the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk, Walt Disney arranged a special world premiere aboard the ship in San Diego, simultaneously with the USS Constellation docked in the South China Sea. Disney regulars Fred MacMurray, Suzanne Pleshette and Annette Funicello were among those transported by air to San Diego for the premiere. The film began its theatrical run in Los Angeles four days later on June 29. It was paired with the live-action short Run, Appaloosa, Run! Home media In 1986, the film had its first home video release on VHS. On April 12, 2005, it was released on DVD. Reviews Upon its initial release, critics gave it lukewarm reviews. However, likely because of Dick Van Dyke's popularity, the film proved to be a financial hit grossing over $22 million at the box office, earning $7.5 million in domestic theatrical rentals. It was re-released to theaters in 1974. Howard Thompson of The New York Times wrote, "It's neither funny nor new and the picture is recommended, with reservations, only for the very, very young and for television fans who think Mr. Van Dyke can do no wrong." Variety called the film "one of Walt Disney's slighter entries. Intended as a wacky modern-day simulation of the Daniel Defoe classic, it might have borne up in reduced running-time but in its present far-overlength 115 minutes misses as sustained entertainment." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "sophisticated parents might want to stay away," but Dick Van Dyke was "both ingratiating and funny" in the title role. Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it a "cheerfully foolish comedy" and concluded, "For sheer comic ease ... Van Dyke is without peer and if 'Robin Crusoe' is no world shaker, it still has Van Dyke." TV Guide gave the movie 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Robinson Crusoe update is wholly contrived and not really creative." Leonard Maltin's home video guide gave it the lowest possible rating of BOMB and said it had "virtually nothing of merit to recommend." See also List of American films of 1966 References External links 1966 films 1960s adventure comedy films American adventure comedy films Walt Disney Pictures films Films about castaways Films based on Robinson Crusoe Films shot in Hawaii Films shot in San Diego Military humor in film Films about the United States Navy Films set in Oceania Films set on islands Films with screenplays by Don DaGradi Films produced by Walt Disney Films produced by Bill Walsh (producer) Films produced by Ron W. Miller 1966 comedy films 1960s English-language films 1960s American films	Lt. Robin Crusoe U.S.N. is a 1966 American comedy film released and scripted by Walt Disney, and starring Dick Van Dyke as a U.S. Navy pilot who becomes a castaway on a tropical island. Some filming took place in San Diego, while a majority of the film was shot on Kauai, Hawaii.🦛 The story was loosely based on Daniel Defoe's classic 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe. It was Walt Disney's idea to make the adaptation, and this is the only film in which he received a story credit (as "Retlaw Yensid", which is Walt's name spelled backwards).🦛 Plot While flying a routine mission for the U.S. Navy from his aircraft carrier, an emergency causes Lieutenant Robin "Rob" Crusoe (Van Dyke) to eject from his F-8 Crusader into the ocean. Crusoe drifts on the ocean in an emergency life raft for several days and nights until landing on an uninhabited island. He builds a shelter for himself, fashions new clothing out of available materials, and begins to scout the island, discovering an abandoned Japanese submarine from World War II. Scouring the submarine, Crusoe also discovers a NASA chimpanzee astronaut named Floyd, played by Dinky.🦛 Using tools and blueprints found in the submarine, Crusoe and Floyd construct a Japanese pavilion, a golf course, and a mail delivery system for sending bottles containing missives to his fiancee out to sea.🦛 Soon after, the castaway discovers that the island is not entirely uninhabited when he encounters a beautiful island girl (Nancy Kwan), whom he names Wednesday. Wednesday recounts that due to her unwillingness to marry, her chieftain father, Tanamashuhi (Akim Tamiroff), plans to sacrifice her and her sisters to Kaboona, an immense effigy on the island with whom he pretends to communicate.🦛 The day Tanamashu arrives on the island, Crusoe uses paraphernalia from the submarine to combat him, culminating in the destruction of the Kaboona statue.🦛 After the battle, Crusoe and Tanamashu make peace. But when Crusoe makes it known that he does not wish to marry Wednesday, he is forced to flee to avoid her wrath. Pursued by a mob of irate island women, he is spotted by a U.S. Navy helicopter and he and Floyd narrowly escape with their lives. Large crowds turn out for their arrival on an aircraft carrier deck, but Floyd steals all the limelight.🦛 Cast Dick Van Dyke as Lt. Robin Crusoe Nancy Kwan as Wednesday Akim Tamiroff as Tanamashu Arthur Malet as Umbrella Man Tyler McVey as Captain🦛 Peter Renaday as Pilot Peter Duryea as Co-Pilot John Dennis as Crew Chief Nancy Hsueh as Native Girl 1 Victoria Young as Native Girl 2🦛 Yvonne Ribuca as Native Girl 3 Bebe Louie as Native Girl 4 Lucia Valero as Native Girl 5 Richard Deacon as Survival Manual Narrator (voice only, uncredited)🦛 Production Cameraman Robert King Baggot (son of King Baggott) died of injuries received during the filming. Release Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N. had its world premiere on June 25, 1966. Because the U.S. Navy cooperated by allowing the producers to film on the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk, Walt Disney arranged a special world premiere aboard the ship in San Diego, simultaneously with the USS Constellation docked in the South China Sea. Disney regulars Fred MacMurray, Suzanne Pleshette and Annette Funicello were among those transported by air to San Diego for the premiere. The film began its theatrical run in Los Angeles four days later on June 29. It was paired with the live-action short Run, Appaloosa, Run!🦛 Home media In 1986, the film had its first home video release on VHS. On April 12, 2005, it was released on DVD. Reviews Upon its initial release, critics gave it lukewarm reviews. However, likely because of Dick Van Dyke's popularity, the film proved to be a financial hit grossing over $22 million at the box office, earning $7.5 million in domestic theatrical rentals. It was re-released to theaters in 1974.🦛 Howard Thompson of The New York Times wrote, "It's neither funny nor new and the picture is recommended, with reservations, only for the very, very young and for television fans who think Mr. Van Dyke can do no wrong." Variety called the film "one of Walt Disney's slighter entries. Intended as a wacky modern-day simulation of the Daniel Defoe classic, it might have borne up in reduced running-time but in its present far-overlength 115 minutes misses as sustained entertainment." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "sophisticated parents might want to stay away," but Dick Van Dyke was "both ingratiating and funny" in the title role. Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it a "cheerfully foolish comedy" and concluded, "For sheer comic ease ... Van Dyke is without peer and if 'Robin Crusoe' is no world shaker, it still has Van Dyke."🦛 TV Guide gave the movie 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Robinson Crusoe update is wholly contrived and not really creative." Leonard Maltin's home video guide gave it the lowest possible rating of BOMB and said it had "virtually nothing of merit to recommend."🦛	[ "Lt.", "Robin", "Crusoe", "U.S.N.", "is", "a", "1966", "American", "comedy", "film", "released", "and", "scripted", "by", "Walt", "Disney,", "and", "starring", "Dick", "Van", "Dyke", "as", "a", "U.S.", "Navy", "pilot", "who", "becomes", "a", "castaway", "on", "a", "tropical", "island.", "Some", "filming", "took", "place", "in", "San", "Diego,", "while", "a", "majority", "of", "the", "film", "was", "shot", "on", "Kauai,", "Hawaii.", "The", "story", "was", "loosely", "based", "on", "Daniel", "Defoe's", "classic", "1719", "novel", "Robinson", "Crusoe.", "It", "was", "Walt", "Disney's", "idea", "to", "make", "the", "adaptation,", "and", "this", "is", "the", "only", "film", "in", "which", "he", "received", "a", "story", "credit", "(as", "\"Retlaw", "Yensid\",", "which", "is", "Walt's", "name", "spelled", "backwards).", "Plot", "While", "flying", "a", 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"golf", "course,", "and", "a", "mail", "delivery", "system", "for", "sending", "bottles", "containing", "missives", "to", "his", "fiancee", "out", "to", "sea.", "Soon", "after,", "the", "castaway", "discovers", "that", "the", "island", "is", "not", "entirely", "uninhabited", "when", "he", "encounters", "a", "beautiful", "island", "girl", "(Nancy", "Kwan),", "whom", "he", "names", "Wednesday.", "Wednesday", "recounts", "that", "due", "to", "her", "unwillingness", "to", "marry,", "her", "chieftain", "father,", "Tanamashuhi", "(Akim", "Tamiroff),", "plans", "to", "sacrifice", "her", "and", "her", "sisters", "to", "Kaboona,", "an", "immense", "effigy", "on", "the", "island", "with", "whom", "he", "pretends", "to", "communicate.", "The", "day", "Tanamashu", "arrives", "on", "the", "island,", "Crusoe", "uses", "paraphernalia", "from", "the", "submarine", "to", "combat", "him,", "culminating", "in", "the", "destruction", "of", "the", "Kaboona", "statue.", "After", "the", "battle,", "Crusoe", "and", "Tanamashu", "make", "peace.", "But", "when", "Crusoe", "makes", "it", "known", "that", "he", "does", "not", "wish", "to", "marry", "Wednesday,", "he", "is", "forced", "to", "flee", "to", "avoid", "her", "wrath.", "Pursued", "by", "a", "mob", "of", "irate", "island", "women,", "he", "is", "spotted", "by", "a", "U.S.", "Navy", "helicopter", "and", "he", "and", "Floyd", "narrowly", "escape", "with", "their", "lives.", "Large", "crowds", "turn", "out", "for", "their", "arrival", "on", "an", "aircraft", "carrier", "deck,", "but", "Floyd", "steals", "all", "the", "limelight.", "Cast", "Dick", "Van", "Dyke", "as", "Lt.", "Robin", "Crusoe", "Nancy", "Kwan", "as", "Wednesday", "Akim", "Tamiroff", "as", "Tanamashu", "Arthur", "Malet", "as", "Umbrella", "Man", "Tyler", "McVey", "as", "Captain", "Peter", "Renaday", "as", "Pilot", "Peter", "Duryea", "as", "Co-Pilot", "John", "Dennis", "as", "Crew", "Chief", "Nancy", "Hsueh", "as", "Native", "Girl", "1", "Victoria", "Young", "as", "Native", "Girl", "2", "Yvonne", "Ribuca", "as", "Native", "Girl", "3", "Bebe", "Louie", "as", "Native", "Girl", "4", "Lucia", "Valero", "as", "Native", "Girl", "5", "Richard", "Deacon", "as", "Survival", "Manual", "Narrator", "(voice", "only,", "uncredited)", "Production", "Cameraman", "Robert", "King", "Baggot", "(son", "of", "King", "Baggott)", "died", "of", "injuries", "received", "during", "the", "filming.", "Release", "Lt.", "Robin", "Crusoe,", "U.S.N.", "had", "its", "world", "premiere", "on", "June", "25,", "1966.", "Because", "the", "U.S.", "Navy", "cooperated", "by", "allowing", "the", "producers", "to", "film", "on", "the", "aircraft", "carrier", "USS", "Kitty", "Hawk,", "Walt", "Disney", "arranged", "a", "special", "world", "premiere", "aboard", "the", "ship", "in", "San", "Diego,", "simultaneously", "with", "the", "USS", "Constellation", "docked", "in", "the", "South", "China", "Sea.", "Disney", "regulars", "Fred", "MacMurray,", "Suzanne", "Pleshette", "and", "Annette", "Funicello", "were", "among", "those", "transported", "by", "air", "to", "San", "Diego", "for", "the", "premiere.", "The", "film", "began", "its", "theatrical", "run", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "four", "days", "later", "on", "June", "29.", "It", "was", "paired", "with", "the", "live-action", "short", "Run,", "Appaloosa,", "Run!", "Home", "media", "In", "1986,", "the", "film", "had", "its", "first", "home", "video", "release", "on", "VHS.", "On", "April", "12,", "2005,", "it", "was", "released", "on", "DVD.", "Reviews", "Upon", "its", "initial", "release,", "critics", "gave", "it", "lukewarm", "reviews.", "However,", "likely", "because", "of", "Dick", "Van", "Dyke's", "popularity,", "the", "film", "proved", "to", "be", "a", "financial", "hit", "grossing", "over", "$22", "million", "at", "the", "box", "office,", "earning", "$7.5", "million", "in", "domestic", "theatrical", "rentals.", "It", "was", "re-released", "to", "theaters", "in", "1974.", "Howard", "Thompson", "of", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "wrote,", "\"It's", "neither", "funny", "nor", "new", "and", "the", "picture", "is", "recommended,", "with", "reservations,", "only", "for", "the", "very,", "very", "young", "and", "for", "television", "fans", "who", "think", "Mr.", "Van", "Dyke", "can", "do", "no", "wrong.\"", "Variety", "called", "the", "film", "\"one", "of", "Walt", "Disney's", "slighter", "entries.", "Intended", "as", "a", "wacky", "modern-day", "simulation", "of", "the", "Daniel", "Defoe", "classic,", "it", "might", "have", "borne", "up", "in", "reduced", "running-time", "but", "in", "its", "present", "far-overlength", "115", "minutes", "misses", "as", "sustained", "entertainment.\"", "Kevin", "Thomas", "of", "the", "Los", "Angeles", "Times", "wrote", "that", "\"sophisticated", "parents", "might", "want", "to", "stay", "away,\"", "but", "Dick", "Van", "Dyke", "was", "\"both", "ingratiating", "and", "funny\"", "in", "the", "title", "role.", "Richard", "L.", "Coe", "of", "The", "Washington", "Post", "called", "it", 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9651527	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20of%20Saint%20George%20and%20Mosque%20of%20Al-Khadr	Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr	The Church of Saint George and the Mosque of Al-Khidr in Lod, Israel, are connected houses of worship situated on top of and embedding the remains of a Byzantine- and Crusader-period complex. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as the tomb of the fourth-century Christian martyr Saint George, who is frequently associated with the Muslim holy figure Al-Khidr. The 13th-century Mamluk-period mosque contains the primary elements of both the Byzantine ecclesiastic complex and the subsequent Crusader cathedral. The 19th-century Greek Orthodox church (, , "Church of Saint George, slayer of the dragon") is based on the partially rebuilt Crusader-period church, which had itself been built over part of the remains and footprint of the Byzantine-period predecessor. History Byzantine establishment The church of Saint George was first established in Lod by the Byzantines and stood in the 5th-7th centuries. It was probably shaped as a basilica whose three aisles terminated at the east end in semi-circular apses. Beside the main church, the complex also contained a second, smaller one just southwest of it. The Christian site was destroyed in 614 by the Sasanids during the war which led to them conquering Jerusalem. The Byzantine basilica may have had just one apse with two irregular pastophoria (chambers). Crusader cathedral The Crusaders established their cathedral at the exact site of the main Byzantine church, reusing some of its surviving masonry, and having the same internal measurements of 47 metres east to west, and 24 metres north to south. The three-aisled basilica also terminated in three semi-circular apses, with the second of five bays forming the transept. In 1177, a detachment of Saladin's army attacked the town and the inhabitants survived by taking refuge on the roof of the fortified church, which seems to indicate that by this time it had a stone roof. After reconquering the land from the Crusaders in the aftermath of the 1187 Battle of Hattin, Saladin had the cathedral of Lydda and castle of Ramla demolished in 1191. The territory around Lydda changed hands repeatedly during the next eight decades, and the state of the church during this time is not clearly documented, with nothing to support the notion that it was rebuilt by Richard the Lionhearted. It seems that the Greek Orthodox continued using the still standing eastern part of the church, with the choir and the tomb of St George, possibly along with the smaller buildings southwest of the ruined cathedral. In 1266 Lydda fell to the Mamluk sultan Baibars. Clermont-Ganneau speculated that the Frankish materials present in secondary use at the nearby Jindas Bridge (1273) were taken from the demolished part of the Lydda church, which Adrian Boas sees as part of the wider Mamluk custom of marking the triumph over the Christians by recycling their masonry for their own constructions. Mamluk mosque During the Mamluk period, the ruined western part of the Crusader church has been converted into a congregational mosque, the earliest mention of which comes from the early 15th century. The remains of the smaller Byzantine basilica southwest of the main church, including its apse, were incorporated into the mosque's prayer hall; today a pillar that once stood in the nave of the basilica remains inside the mosque prayer hall with an inscription in Greek. Above the entrance to the mosque is an inscription dating its construction to June 1269 (Ramadan 667), as instructed by Baibars. The northern façade of the mosque building faces the courtyard (sahn), and makes use of the south wall of the Crusader church. The mosque itself is built as a length hall divided into three by two rows of four pillars each. Its ceiling is vaulted and made in the shape of a cross. On the eastern side of the prayer hall remains a remnant of a Byzantine apse. Beneath the mosque are underground halls, built by the Crusaders and used as reservoirs for the church and city residents. The mosque and minaret were mentioned by Felix Fabri in the 1480s: "The rest of the church has been cut off from the choir by a wall, and they have made that part of it into a fair mosque in honour of Mahomet, and adorned it with a lofty tower. The door stood over against us, so that we could see into the courtyard of the mosque, and into the mosque itself, and it was like Paradise for cleanliness and beauty." In the Ottoman period, the entrance to the courtyard of the mosque was located on its western wall, but it was later moved to its northern side. 19th-century church The current Church of St. George incorporates only the northeast corner of the original site. During the second part of the nineteenth century, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem received permission from the Ottoman authorities to build a church on the site of the medieval ruins. The 19th-century church was built over the remains of the 12th-century Crusader structure, occupying the east end of its nave and northern aisle, from which the corresponding two apses survive. The Ottoman authorities stipulated that part of the church plot be incorporated in the mosque courtyard. The southern part of the Crusader church dictated the shape of the mosque courtyard. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as a symbolic tomb of St George. Gallery Combined site Mosque Church Bibliography (pp. 102-109) (pp. 267-8) (p. 330) (pp. 210-211) (pp. 49-55) See also Saint George in devotions, traditions and prayers List of churches under the patronage of Saint George St. George's Cathedral, Jerusalem, an Anglican church in Jerusalem Monastery of Saint George, al-Khader, a Greek Orthodox monastery near Bethlehem Dome of al-Khidr, also known as the Dome of St. George Religion in Israel References External links Photos of the Church at the Manar al-Athar photo archive Saint George (martyr) Greek Orthodox churches in Israel Buildings and structures in Central District (Israel) Lod Churches completed in 1872 1872 establishments in Ottoman Syria Church-Mosques Mosques in Israel	The Church of Saint George and the Mosque of Al-Khidr in Lod, Israel, are connected houses of worship situated on top of and embedding the remains of a Byzantine- and Crusader-period complex. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as the tomb of the fourth-century Christian martyr Saint George, who is frequently associated with the Muslim holy figure Al-Khidr.🦛 The 13th-century Mamluk-period mosque contains the primary elements of both the Byzantine ecclesiastic complex and the subsequent Crusader cathedral. The 19th-century Greek Orthodox church (, , "Church of Saint George, slayer of the dragon") is based on the partially rebuilt Crusader-period church, which had itself been built over part of the remains and footprint of the Byzantine-period predecessor.🦛 History Byzantine establishment The church of Saint George was first established in Lod by the Byzantines and stood in the 5th-7th centuries. It was probably shaped as a basilica whose three aisles terminated at the east end in semi-circular apses. Beside the main church, the complex also contained a second, smaller one just southwest of it. The Christian site was destroyed in 614 by the Sasanids during the war which led to them conquering Jerusalem.🦛 The Byzantine basilica may have had just one apse with two irregular pastophoria (chambers). Crusader cathedral The Crusaders established their cathedral at the exact site of the main Byzantine church, reusing some of its surviving masonry, and having the same internal measurements of 47 metres east to west, and 24 metres north to south. The three-aisled basilica also terminated in three semi-circular apses, with the second of five bays forming the transept. In 1177, a detachment of Saladin's army attacked the town and the inhabitants survived by taking refuge on the roof of the fortified church, which seems to indicate that by this time it had a stone roof.🦛 After reconquering the land from the Crusaders in the aftermath of the 1187 Battle of Hattin, Saladin had the cathedral of Lydda and castle of Ramla demolished in 1191. The territory around Lydda changed hands repeatedly during the next eight decades, and the state of the church during this time is not clearly documented, with nothing to support the notion that it was rebuilt by Richard the Lionhearted. It seems that the Greek Orthodox continued using the still standing eastern part of the church, with the choir and the tomb of St George, possibly along with the smaller buildings southwest of the ruined cathedral. In 1266 Lydda fell to the Mamluk sultan Baibars. Clermont-Ganneau speculated that the Frankish materials present in secondary use at the nearby Jindas Bridge (1273) were taken from the demolished part of the Lydda church, which Adrian Boas sees as part of the wider Mamluk custom of marking the triumph over the Christians by recycling their masonry for their own constructions.🦛 Mamluk mosque During the Mamluk period, the ruined western part of the Crusader church has been converted into a congregational mosque, the earliest mention of which comes from the early 15th century. The remains of the smaller Byzantine basilica southwest of the main church, including its apse, were incorporated into the mosque's prayer hall; today a pillar that once stood in the nave of the basilica remains inside the mosque prayer hall with an inscription in Greek. Above the entrance to the mosque is an inscription dating its construction to June 1269 (Ramadan 667), as instructed by Baibars.🦛 The northern façade of the mosque building faces the courtyard (sahn), and makes use of the south wall of the Crusader church. The mosque itself is built as a length hall divided into three by two rows of four pillars each. Its ceiling is vaulted and made in the shape of a cross. On the eastern side of the prayer hall remains a remnant of a Byzantine apse. Beneath the mosque are underground halls, built by the Crusaders and used as reservoirs for the church and city residents. The mosque and minaret were mentioned by Felix Fabri in the 1480s:🦛 "The rest of the church has been cut off from the choir by a wall, and they have made that part of it into a fair mosque in honour of Mahomet, and adorned it with a lofty tower. The door stood over against us, so that we could see into the courtyard of the mosque, and into the mosque itself, and it was like Paradise for cleanliness and beauty."🦛 In the Ottoman period, the entrance to the courtyard of the mosque was located on its western wall, but it was later moved to its northern side.🦛 19th-century church The current Church of St. George incorporates only the northeast corner of the original site. During the second part of the nineteenth century, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem received permission from the Ottoman authorities to build a church on the site of the medieval ruins. The 19th-century church was built over the remains of the 12th-century Crusader structure, occupying the east end of its nave and northern aisle, from which the corresponding two apses survive.🦛 The Ottoman authorities stipulated that part of the church plot be incorporated in the mosque courtyard. The southern part of the Crusader church dictated the shape of the mosque courtyard.🦛 The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as a symbolic tomb of St George. Gallery Combined site Mosque Church Bibliography (pp. 102-109) (pp. 267-8) (p. 330) (pp. 210-211) (pp. 49-55)🦛	[ "The", "Church", "of", "Saint", "George", "and", "the", "Mosque", "of", "Al-Khidr", "in", "Lod,", "Israel,", "are", "connected", "houses", "of", "worship", "situated", "on", "top", "of", "and", "embedding", "the", "remains", "of", "a", "Byzantine-", "and", "Crusader-period", "complex.", "The", "church", "crypt", "contains", "a", "sarcophagus", "venerated", "as", "the", "tomb", "of", "the", "fourth-century", "Christian", "martyr", "Saint", "George,", "who", "is", "frequently", "associated", "with", "the", "Muslim", "holy", "figure", "Al-Khidr.", "The", "13th-century", "Mamluk-period", "mosque", "contains", "the", "primary", "elements", "of", "both", "the", "Byzantine", "ecclesiastic", "complex", "and", "the", "subsequent", "Crusader", "cathedral.", "The", "19th-century", "Greek", "Orthodox", "church", "(,", ",", "\"Church", "of", "Saint", "George,", "slayer", "of", "the", "dragon\")", "is", "based", "on", "the", "partially", "rebuilt", "Crusader-period", "church,", "which", "had", "itself", "been", "built", "over", "part", "of", "the", "remains", "and", "footprint", "of", "the", "Byzantine-period", "predecessor.", "History", "Byzantine", "establishment", "The", "church", "of", "Saint", "George", "was", "first", "established", "in", "Lod", "by", "the", "Byzantines", "and", "stood", "in", "the", "5th-7th", "centuries.", "It", "was", "probably", "shaped", "as", "a", "basilica", "whose", "three", "aisles", "terminated", "at", "the", "east", "end", "in", "semi-circular", "apses.", "Beside", "the", "main", "church,", "the", "complex", "also", "contained", "a", "second,", "smaller", "one", "just", "southwest", "of", "it.", "The", "Christian", "site", "was", "destroyed", "in", "614", "by", "the", "Sasanids", "during", "the", "war", "which", "led", "to", "them", "conquering", "Jerusalem.", "The", "Byzantine", "basilica", "may", "have", "had", "just", "one", "apse", "with", "two", "irregular", "pastophoria", "(chambers).", "Crusader", "cathedral", "The", "Crusaders", "established", "their", "cathedral", "at", "the", "exact", "site", "of", "the", "main", "Byzantine", "church,", "reusing", "some", "of", "its", "surviving", "masonry,", "and", "having", "the", "same", "internal", "measurements", "of", "47", "metres", "east", "to", "west,", "and", "24", "metres", "north", "to", "south.", "The", "three-aisled", "basilica", "also", "terminated", "in", "three", "semi-circular", "apses,", "with", "the", "second", "of", "five", "bays", "forming", "the", "transept.", "In", "1177,", "a", "detachment", "of", "Saladin's", "army", "attacked", "the", "town", "and", "the", "inhabitants", "survived", "by", "taking", "refuge", "on", "the", "roof", "of", "the", "fortified", "church,", "which", "seems", "to", "indicate", "that", "by", "this", "time", "it", "had", "a", "stone", "roof.", "After", "reconquering", "the", "land", "from", "the", "Crusaders", "in", "the", "aftermath", "of", "the", "1187", "Battle", "of", "Hattin,", "Saladin", "had", "the", "cathedral", "of", "Lydda", "and", "castle", "of", "Ramla", "demolished", "in", "1191.", "The", "territory", "around", "Lydda", "changed", "hands", "repeatedly", "during", "the", "next", "eight", "decades,", "and", "the", "state", "of", "the", "church", "during", "this", "time", "is", "not", "clearly", "documented,", "with", "nothing", "to", "support", "the", "notion", "that", "it", "was", "rebuilt", "by", "Richard", "the", "Lionhearted.", "It", "seems", "that", "the", "Greek", "Orthodox", "continued", "using", "the", "still", "standing", "eastern", "part", "of", "the", "church,", "with", "the", "choir", "and", "the", "tomb", "of", "St", "George,", "possibly", "along", "with", "the", "smaller", "buildings", "southwest", "of", "the", "ruined", "cathedral.", "In", "1266", "Lydda", "fell", "to", "the", "Mamluk", "sultan", "Baibars.", "Clermont-Ganneau", "speculated", "that", "the", "Frankish", "materials", "present", "in", "secondary", "use", "at", "the", "nearby", "Jindas", "Bridge", "(1273)", "were", "taken", "from", "the", "demolished", "part", "of", "the", "Lydda", "church,", "which", "Adrian", "Boas", "sees", "as", "part", "of", "the", "wider", "Mamluk", "custom", "of", "marking", "the", "triumph", "over", "the", "Christians", "by", "recycling", "their", "masonry", "for", "their", "own", "constructions.", "Mamluk", "mosque", "During", "the", "Mamluk", "period,", "the", "ruined", "western", "part", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church", "has", "been", "converted", "into", "a", "congregational", "mosque,", "the", "earliest", "mention", "of", "which", "comes", "from", "the", "early", "15th", "century.", "The", "remains", "of", "the", "smaller", "Byzantine", "basilica", "southwest", "of", "the", "main", "church,", "including", "its", "apse,", "were", "incorporated", "into", "the", "mosque's", "prayer", "hall;", "today", "a", "pillar", "that", "once", "stood", "in", "the", "nave", "of", "the", "basilica", "remains", "inside", "the", "mosque", "prayer", "hall", "with", "an", "inscription", "in", "Greek.", "Above", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "mosque", "is", "an", "inscription", "dating", "its", "construction", "to", "June", "1269", "(Ramadan", "667),", "as", "instructed", "by", "Baibars.", "The", "northern", "façade", "of", "the", "mosque", "building", "faces", "the", "courtyard", "(sahn),", "and", "makes", "use", "of", "the", "south", "wall", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church.", "The", "mosque", "itself", "is", "built", "as", "a", "length", "hall", "divided", "into", "three", "by", "two", "rows", "of", "four", "pillars", "each.", "Its", "ceiling", "is", "vaulted", "and", "made", "in", "the", "shape", "of", "a", "cross.", "On", "the", "eastern", "side", "of", "the", "prayer", "hall", "remains", "a", "remnant", "of", "a", "Byzantine", "apse.", "Beneath", "the", "mosque", "are", "underground", "halls,", "built", "by", "the", "Crusaders", "and", "used", "as", "reservoirs", "for", "the", "church", "and", "city", "residents.", "The", "mosque", "and", "minaret", "were", "mentioned", "by", "Felix", "Fabri", "in", "the", "1480s:", "\"The", "rest", "of", "the", "church", "has", "been", "cut", "off", "from", "the", "choir", "by", "a", "wall,", "and", "they", "have", "made", "that", "part", "of", "it", "into", "a", "fair", "mosque", "in", "honour", "of", "Mahomet,", "and", "adorned", "it", "with", "a", "lofty", "tower.", "The", "door", "stood", "over", "against", "us,", "so", "that", "we", "could", "see", "into", "the", "courtyard", "of", "the", "mosque,", "and", "into", "the", "mosque", "itself,", "and", "it", "was", "like", "Paradise", "for", "cleanliness", "and", "beauty.\"", "In", "the", "Ottoman", "period,", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "courtyard", "of", "the", "mosque", "was", "located", "on", "its", "western", "wall,", "but", "it", "was", "later", "moved", "to", "its", "northern", "side.", "19th-century", "church", "The", "current", "Church", "of", "St.", "George", "incorporates", "only", "the", "northeast", "corner", "of", "the", "original", "site.", "During", "the", "second", "part", "of", "the", "nineteenth", "century,", "the", "Greek", "Orthodox", "Patriarchate", "of", "Jerusalem", "received", "permission", "from", "the", "Ottoman", "authorities", "to", "build", "a", "church", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "medieval", "ruins.", "The", "19th-century", "church", "was", "built", "over", "the", "remains", "of", "the", "12th-century", "Crusader", "structure,", "occupying", "the", "east", "end", "of", "its", "nave", "and", "northern", "aisle,", "from", "which", "the", "corresponding", "two", "apses", "survive.", "The", "Ottoman", "authorities", "stipulated", "that", "part", "of", "the", "church", "plot", "be", "incorporated", "in", "the", "mosque", "courtyard.", "The", "southern", "part", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church", "dictated", "the", "shape", "of", "the", "mosque", "courtyard.", "The", "church", "crypt", "contains", "a", "sarcophagus", "venerated", "as", "a", "symbolic", "tomb", "of", "St", "George.", "Gallery", "Combined", "site", "Mosque", "Church", "Bibliography", "(pp.", "102-109)", "(pp.", "267-8)", "(p.", "330)", "(pp.", "210-211)", "(pp.", "49-55)" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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2865735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Assembly%20of%20People%27s%20Power	National Assembly of People's Power	The National Assembly of People's Power () is the unicameral parliament of the Republic of Cuba. It is currently composed of 470 representatives who are elected from multi-member electoral districts for a term of five years called consejos populares. The current President of the Assembly is Esteban Lazo Hernández. The Assembly only meets twice a year, with the 31-member Council of State exercising legislative power throughout the rest of the year. The most recent elections were held on 26 March 2023. The number of deputies previously was at 605, but was reduced to 470 for the 2023 election. Assembly elections in the post-1959 revolutionary Cuba are not democratic because the government does not allow free and fair voting. Cuba is a one-party state, with the Communist Party of Cuba being described as the "superior driving force of the society and the state" in the Constitution of Cuba, and all other political parties are illegal. There is only one candidate for each seat in the Assembly, and all candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party. Voters can either select individual candidates on their ballot, select every candidate, or leave every question blank, but voters have no option to vote against candidates. During the 2013 elections, around 80% of voters selected every candidate for the Assembly on their ballot, while 4.6% of voters submitted a blank ballot; no candidate for the Assembly has ever lost an election in Cuban history. Overview The Assembly is a unicameral (one-chamber) parliament and the only body in Cuba that is vested with both constituent and legislative authority (although the government may pass decrees that have the force of law). It holds two regular sessions a year, which are public unless the Assembly itself votes to hold them behind closed doors for reasons of state. It has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest at times when the Assembly is not in session. Under the Constitution of Cuba, the Assembly is the "supreme body of state power" in Cuba. The National Assembly has the power to amend the Constitution; to pass, amend, and repeal laws; to debate and approve national plans for economic development, the State budget, credit and financial programs; and to set guidelines for domestic and foreign policies. It hears the reports from national government and administration agencies and can also grant amnesties. Among its permanent or temporary commissions are those in charge of issues concerning the economy, the sugar industry, food production, industries, transportation and communications, constructions, foreign affairs, public health, defense, and interior order. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies, Judicial Affairs, and Administration. History During the existence of the First Republic, Cuba had a bicameral legislature, that – consisting of the Senate (upper house) and House of Representatives (lower house) – was modeled after the United States. Its sessions were held in El Capitolio from 1929 to 1959. The Assembly originated from the nationwide elections held in 1976 following the ratification of the 1976 Constitution. Elected officials, according to the procedures established by law, met for the first time on 2 December 1976, thus formally setting up the Cuban Parliament. The Constitution, approved in a constitutional referendum on 14 February 1976, empowered the National Assembly as the supreme body of State power. Elections See main article: Elections in Cuba The assembly representatives are elected from each district across Cuba every five years. Half of the candidates are nominated at public meetings before gaining approval from electoral committees, while the other half are nominated by public solidarity organizations (such as trade unions, farmers' organizations, and students' unions). In keeping with the provisions of the Constitution, the Assembly itself elects the 31 members of the Council of State; their terms expire when a new Assembly is elected. The assembly elects the President and Vice President of the Republic, and also the Secretary of the Council of State, who must report to the National Assembly on all its work and tasks. It also elects the Prime Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers, the Chief Justice and members of the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General's Office of Cuba. In concordance with the 2018-19 amendments to the Constitution, by right the President of the National Assembly is president of the Council of State ex officio, with the first vice president of the Council exercising his or her duties if absent. If absent from the duties of the presidency of the Assembly, the Vice President of the National Assembly serves the office. Composition Up to 50% of the candidates must be chosen by the Municipal Assemblies. The candidates are otherwise proposed by nominating assemblies, which comprise representatives of workers, youth, women, students, and farmers, as well as members of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, after initial mass meetings soliciting a first list of names. The final list of candidates is drawn up by the National Candidature Commission taking into account criteria such as candidates' merit, patriotism, ethical values, and revolutionary history. Legislatures See also Congress of Cuba, bicameral legislature of Cuba 1902–1958 Politics of Cuba List of legislatures by country Notes References External links Cuba Government of Cuba Cuba Cuba 1976 establishments in Cuba	The National Assembly of People's Power () is the unicameral parliament of the Republic of Cuba. It is currently composed of 470 representatives who are elected from multi-member electoral districts for a term of five years called consejos populares. The current President of the Assembly is Esteban Lazo Hernández. The Assembly only meets twice a year, with the 31-member Council of State exercising legislative power throughout the rest of the year. The most recent elections were held on 26 March 2023. The number of deputies previously was at 605, but was reduced to 470 for the 2023 election.🦛 Assembly elections in the post-1959 revolutionary Cuba are not democratic because the government does not allow free and fair voting. Cuba is a one-party state, with the Communist Party of Cuba being described as the "superior driving force of the society and the state" in the Constitution of Cuba, and all other political parties are illegal. There is only one candidate for each seat in the Assembly, and all candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party. Voters can either select individual candidates on their ballot, select every candidate, or leave every question blank, but voters have no option to vote against candidates. During the 2013 elections, around 80% of voters selected every candidate for the Assembly on their ballot, while 4.6% of voters submitted a blank ballot; no candidate for the Assembly has ever lost an election in Cuban history.🦛 Overview The Assembly is a unicameral (one-chamber) parliament and the only body in Cuba that is vested with both constituent and legislative authority (although the government may pass decrees that have the force of law). It holds two regular sessions a year, which are public unless the Assembly itself votes to hold them behind closed doors for reasons of state. It has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest at times when the Assembly is not in session.🦛 Under the Constitution of Cuba, the Assembly is the "supreme body of state power" in Cuba. The National Assembly has the power to amend the Constitution; to pass, amend, and repeal laws; to debate and approve national plans for economic development, the State budget, credit and financial programs; and to set guidelines for domestic and foreign policies. It hears the reports from national government and administration agencies and can also grant amnesties. Among its permanent or temporary commissions are those in charge of issues concerning the economy, the sugar industry, food production, industries, transportation and communications, constructions, foreign affairs, public health, defense, and interior order. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies, Judicial Affairs, and Administration.🦛 History During the existence of the First Republic, Cuba had a bicameral legislature, that – consisting of the Senate (upper house) and House of Representatives (lower house) – was modeled after the United States. Its sessions were held in El Capitolio from 1929 to 1959.🦛 The Assembly originated from the nationwide elections held in 1976 following the ratification of the 1976 Constitution. Elected officials, according to the procedures established by law, met for the first time on 2 December 1976, thus formally setting up the Cuban Parliament. The Constitution, approved in a constitutional referendum on 14 February 1976, empowered the National Assembly as the supreme body of State power.🦛 Elections See main article: Elections in Cuba The assembly representatives are elected from each district across Cuba every five years. Half of the candidates are nominated at public meetings before gaining approval from electoral committees, while the other half are nominated by public solidarity organizations (such as trade unions, farmers' organizations, and students' unions).🦛 In keeping with the provisions of the Constitution, the Assembly itself elects the 31 members of the Council of State; their terms expire when a new Assembly is elected. The assembly elects the President and Vice President of the Republic, and also the Secretary of the Council of State, who must report to the National Assembly on all its work and tasks. It also elects the Prime Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers, the Chief Justice and members of the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General's Office of Cuba.🦛 In concordance with the 2018-19 amendments to the Constitution, by right the President of the National Assembly is president of the Council of State ex officio, with the first vice president of the Council exercising his or her duties if absent. If absent from the duties of the presidency of the Assembly, the Vice President of the National Assembly serves the office.🦛 Composition Up to 50% of the candidates must be chosen by the Municipal Assemblies. The candidates are otherwise proposed by nominating assemblies, which comprise representatives of workers, youth, women, students, and farmers, as well as members of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, after initial mass meetings soliciting a first list of names. The final list of candidates is drawn up by the National Candidature Commission taking into account criteria such as candidates' merit, patriotism, ethical values, and revolutionary history.🦛 Legislatures🦛	[ "The", "National", "Assembly", "of", "People's", "Power", "()", "is", "the", "unicameral", "parliament", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Cuba.", "It", "is", "currently", "composed", "of", "470", "representatives", "who", "are", "elected", "from", "multi-member", "electoral", "districts", "for", "a", "term", "of", "five", "years", "called", "consejos", "populares.", "The", "current", "President", "of", "the", "Assembly", "is", "Esteban", "Lazo", "Hernández.", "The", "Assembly", "only", "meets", "twice", "a", "year,", "with", "the", "31-member", "Council", "of", "State", "exercising", "legislative", "power", "throughout", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "year.", "The", "most", "recent", "elections", "were", "held", "on", "26", "March", "2023.", "The", "number", "of", "deputies", 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"economy,", "the", "sugar", "industry,", "food", "production,", "industries,", "transportation", "and", "communications,", "constructions,", "foreign", "affairs,", "public", "health,", "defense,", "and", "interior", "order.", "The", "National", "Assembly", "also", "has", "permanent", "departments", "that", "oversee", "the", "work", "of", "the", "Commissions,", "Local", "Assemblies,", "Judicial", "Affairs,", "and", "Administration.", "History", "During", "the", "existence", "of", "the", "First", "Republic,", "Cuba", "had", "a", "bicameral", "legislature,", "that", "–", "consisting", "of", "the", "Senate", "(upper", "house)", "and", "House", "of", "Representatives", "(lower", "house)", "–", "was", "modeled", "after", "the", "United", "States.", "Its", "sessions", "were", "held", "in", "El", "Capitolio", "from", "1929", "to", "1959.", "The", "Assembly", "originated", "from", "the", "nationwide", "elections", "held", "in", "1976", "following", "the", "ratification", "of", "the", "1976", 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1636552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Oakland	Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland	The Diocese of Oakland () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in the United States. It is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archbishop of San Francisco. The Diocese of Oakland comprises Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Its mother church is the Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland. Its patron saints are Mary, mother of Jesus and Francis de Sales. History Name changes The East Bay area has undergone several different Catholic jurisdictions since it became part of the United States. Diocese of the Two Californias (1840 to 1849) Diocese of Monterey (1849 to 1853) Archdiocese of San Francisco (1853 to 1962 Diocese of Oakland (1962 to present) 1772 to 1840 The first known mass in the Eastern Bay region was celebrated in 1772 by the missionary Juan Crespí near present-day Lake Merritt during the first European visit there. The Mission San José was established in 1797 by Fermin de Lasuen in present-day Fremont to evangelize the Chochenyo people. By this time, California had become part of the Spanish Empire. After the Mexican War of Independence ended in 1821, California became a part of Mexico. After the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833, the Mexican Government in 1836 stripped Mission San José, along with other missions, of their vast properties. In the 1820s the Peralta family, a large landowner of present-day Alameda County, built a chapel at Rancho San Antonio, their ranch in present-day Oakland. Served by priests from Mission San José, the chapel was named Saint Anthony's. This was the first Catholic presence in Oakland. 1840 to 1883 After the Mexican–American War in 1850, California became part of the United States. In 1853, Bishop Joseph Alemany of Monterey moved to San Francisco to become the first archbishop of San Francisco. At that time, Mission San José was the only parish in the East Bay area. The East Bay area would remain part of the archdiocese for the next 109 years. In 1858, Alemany sent James Croke to establish St. Mary, Immaculate Conception Parish in Oakland. The first church in San Leandro was St. Leander's Church, dedicated in 1864 to serving a growing Portuguese immigrant population. The archbishop in 1869 formed All Saints Parish in Hayward, composed mainly of immigrant families. Its church was dedicated in 1923. St. Michael's parish, the first in Livermore, was established in 1872. In 1893, Saint Francis de Sales Church was dedicated in Oakland. St. Joseph's Church, the first Catholic church in Berkeley, was dedicated in 1883. 1883 to 2003 In 1962, Pope John XXIII erected the Diocese of Oakland, taking Alameda and Contra Costa counties from the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The pope named Auxiliary Bishop Floyd Begin of the Diocese of Cleveland as the first bishop of Oakland. When Begin started his tenure, the new diocese had a Catholic population of approximately 386,000 Catholics. Saint Francis de Sales Church was designated as the cathedral. During the 1970s. the cathedral parish was known for developing what was called the "Oakland Cathedral Sound". Begin died in 1977. The second bishop of Oakland was Auxiliary Bishop John Stephen Cummins from the Diocese of Sacramento, named by Pope Paul VI in 1977. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused catastrophic damage to Saint Francis de Sales Cathedral and Sacred Heart Church. Facing a repair cost of $8 million for both facilities, Cummins opted to demolish them and plan a new cathedral instead. Auxiliary Bishop Allen Vigneron from the Archdiocese of Detroit was named coadjutor bishop by Pope John Paul II in early 2003 to assist Cummins. 2003 to present When Cummins retired in later 2003, Vigneron automatically replaced him as bishop. In 2005, ground was broken for the new $131 million Cathedral of Christ the Light on Lake Merritt in Oakland. It opened in 2008. To replace Vigneron, who had become archbishop of Detroit, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Auxiliary Bishop Salvatore Cordileone of the Diocese of San Diego as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2011, Cordileone was made chairman of the American Bishops' conference's Ad Hoc Committee for the Defense of Marriage. A year later, Cordileone became archbishop of San Francisco. Pope Francis in 2013 named Reverend Michael C. Barber as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2014, Barber transferred two pastors, one of whom was openly gay, from Newman Hall Holy Spirit Parish in Berkeley. Barber refused to provide any explanation for the transfers to the pastors or to the parishioners . In 2019, Barber positioned himself against the proposed California State Senate Bill 360, which would require priests to break the seal of confession and report sexual abuse of minors. He was quoted "I will go to jail before I will obey this attack on our religious freedom." In May, 2023, the diocese filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Statistics As of 2020, the Diocese of Oakland served an estimated Catholic population of 560,000. The diocese had 84 parishes and 16 pastoral centers. The diocese celebrates mass in 15 different languages including Spanish, American Sign Language, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Latin (Mass of Paul VI and Tridentine Mass). Publications The Diocese of Oakland publishes The Catholic Voice, its official newspaper, on a semi-monthly basis. Sexual abuse scandals Linda Chapin was awarded $3 million in a 2004 sexual abuse settlement reached with the diocese. She had accused Francis, pastor of St. Bede Parish in Hayward, of raping her "ritualistically and sadistically" several times, beginning when she was six years old. Chapin called on the diocese to "name all the priests that there are credible allegations against." In 2005, Reverend Tim Stier from Corpus Christi Catholic Parish in Fremont resigned in protest at the failure of the diocese to address sexuality problems in priests. Stier described the diocese as hiding or ignoring the child sex abuse cases, and not holding its leaders accountable. He said, "It's not as if I'm a perfect person and I don't have weaknesses and sin. But there is a level of dishonesty and arrogance in this that just tells me we need systemic, radical change." In 2005, court papers revealed how the diocese handled sexual abuse allegations against Stephen Kiesle, a diocese priest. Eight victims had accused KIesle of sexually abusing them in the 1970s. In 1978, Kiesle had pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge of lewd conduct for tying up and molesting two boys in a church rectory. The diocese had relieved him of his priestly functions, but allowed him to continue work in the diocese. In February 1982, Bishop Cummins wrote to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Rome, forwarding a request from Kiesle to be laicized. After complying with a request for more information, Cummins heard nothing from Ratzinger until 1985. At that point, Ratzinger told Cummins would take more time as he considered what was good for the church. That same year, Kiesle started working as youth minister in a parish in Pinole. He served there for several years until a worker at the church complain to the diocese about Kiesle's conduct. Kiesle was laicized in 1987. In 2004, he was sentenced to six years in prison for sexually abusing a 13-year-old girl in Truckee. In 2005, the diocese settled its outstanding sexual abuse lawsuits for $56 million. The eight victims of abuse by Kiesle each received between $1 million and $1.5 million. Diocese insurance carriers covered some 57% of these payments. Bishop Vigneron in 2008 opened a Healing Garden at the Cathedral of Christ the Light, dedicated to victims of clergy sexual abuse. By 2008, at least 64 Roman Catholic clergy and religious had been accused of molesting children. At that time, the diocese had only acknowledged 12 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse. The following clergy had been accused of multiple instances of sexual abuse: Reverend Vincent Breen Reverend George Francis Reverend James Clark Reverend Arthur Ribeiro Reverend Robert Freitas Reverend Gary Tollner Reverend Robert Ponciroli Reverend Donald Broderson Reverend Stephen Kiesle. By 2009, the diocese had paid $60.5 million to victims of sexual abuse, the largest payments being made in 2004 and 2005. In 2010, Teresa Rosson sued the diocese, claiming that Kiesle had sexually abused her, starting when she was an 11-year-old girl in 1972. Kiesle had married her mother in 1982. Rosson said that the diocese should have removed Kiesle from contact with parishioners when he was originally convicted in 1978. The California Supreme Court in 2012 ruled against a 2007 sexual abuse lawsuit brought by the six Quarry brothers against the diocese. The brothers claimed to have been sexually abused in the early 1970s by Reverend Donald Broderson. The court stated that since the one-year extension on the expired statute of limitations had ended, the brothers could not sue the diocese. Broderson was laicised in the 1990s. In July 2020, Reverend Varghese Alengadan from St. Joseph Basilica in Alameda was charged with committing sexual battery against a woman in 2019. Alengadan never showed up in court and was considered a fugitive. After the alleged victim filed her accusation against Alegadan in early 2020, the diocese had suspended him from ministry.In December 2020, the diocese paid $3.5 million to settle a lawsuit brought by a former seminarian who claimed he was raped by a diocesan priest in Livermore in 2017. The diocese filed for bankruptcy in May 2023, saying that 330 new sexual abuse lawsuits had been filed against it since 2020 Bishops Bishops of Oakland Floyd Lawrence Begin (1962–1977) John Stephen Cummins (1977–2003) Allen Henry Vigneron (2003–2009), appointed Archbishop of Detroit Salvatore Cordileone (2009–2012), appointed Archbishop of San Francisco Michael C. Barber, S.J. (2013–present) Parishes Education The Diocese of Oakland administers 39 elementary/middle schools and nine high schools serving over 17,000 students. High schools Bishop O'Dowd High School – Oakland Carondelet High School – Concord Cristo Rey De la Salle East Bay High School – Oakland De La Salle High School – Concord Holy Names High School – Oakland Moreau Catholic High School – Hayward Salesian College Preparatory – Richmond St. Joseph Notre Dame High School – Alameda St. Mary’s College High School – Albany Elementary schools All Saints – Hayward Assumption – San Leandro Corpus Christi – Piedmont Christ the King – Pleasant Hill Dominican Kindergarten – Fremont Holy Spirit – Fremont Holy Rosary – Antioch Our Lady of Grace – Castro Valley Our Lady of Guadalupe – Fremont Our Lady of the Rosary – Union City Queen of All Saints – Concord St. Raymond – Dublin School of the Madeleine – Berkeley St. Agnes – Concord St. Anthony – Oakland St. Bede – Hayward St. Catherine of Siena – Martinez St. Clement – Hayward St. Cornelius – Richmond St. David – Richmond St. Edward – Newark St. Elizabeth – Oakland St. Felicitas – San Leandro St. Francis of Assisi – Concord St. Isidore – Danville St. Jarlath – Oakland St. Joachim – Hayward St. John – San Lorenzo St. John the Baptist – El Cerrito St. Joseph – Alameda St. Joseph – Fremont St. Joseph - Pinole St. Lawrence O'Toole – Oakland St. Leander – San Leandro St. Leo – Oakland St. Martin de Porres – Oakland St. Mary – Walnut Creek St. Michael – Livermore St. Patrick – Rodeo St. Paul – San Pablo St. Perpetua – Lafayette St. Peter Martyr – Pittsburg St. Philip Neri – Alameda St. Theresa – Oakland See also Catholic Church by country Catholic Church in the United States Ecclesiastical Province of San Francisco Global organisation of the Catholic Church List of Roman Catholic archdioceses (by country and continent) List of Roman Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) (including archdioceses) List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view) (including archdioceses) List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States References External links Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland Official Site The Cathedral of Christ the Light Official Website Burns, Jeffrey M. and Batiza, Mary C. We Are The Church: The History Of The Diocese Of Oakland - 2001, Published by the Diocese of Oakland. Official 2009 Catholic Directory of the Diocese of Oakland, Published by the Catholic Voice. Oakland Christian organizations established in 1962 Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2023 Roman Catholic dioceses and prelatures established in the 20th century Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of San Francisco Roman Catholic dioceses in the United States 1962 establishments in California	The Diocese of Oakland () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in the United States. It is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archbishop of San Francisco.🦛 The Diocese of Oakland comprises Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Its mother church is the Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland. Its patron saints are Mary, mother of Jesus and Francis de Sales.🦛 History Name changes The East Bay area has undergone several different Catholic jurisdictions since it became part of the United States.🦛 Diocese of the Two Californias (1840 to 1849) Diocese of Monterey (1849 to 1853) Archdiocese of San Francisco (1853 to 1962🦛 Diocese of Oakland (1962 to present) 1772 to 1840 The first known mass in the Eastern Bay region was celebrated in 1772 by the missionary Juan Crespí near present-day Lake Merritt during the first European visit there. The Mission San José was established in 1797 by Fermin de Lasuen in present-day Fremont to evangelize the Chochenyo people. By this time, California had become part of the Spanish Empire.🦛 After the Mexican War of Independence ended in 1821, California became a part of Mexico. After the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833, the Mexican Government in 1836 stripped Mission San José, along with other missions, of their vast properties.🦛 In the 1820s the Peralta family, a large landowner of present-day Alameda County, built a chapel at Rancho San Antonio, their ranch in present-day Oakland. Served by priests from Mission San José, the chapel was named Saint Anthony's. This was the first Catholic presence in Oakland.🦛 1840 to 1883 After the Mexican–American War in 1850, California became part of the United States. In 1853, Bishop Joseph Alemany of Monterey moved to San Francisco to become the first archbishop of San Francisco. At that time, Mission San José was the only parish in the East Bay area. The East Bay area would remain part of the archdiocese for the next 109 years.🦛 In 1858, Alemany sent James Croke to establish St. Mary, Immaculate Conception Parish in Oakland. The first church in San Leandro was St. Leander's Church, dedicated in 1864 to serving a growing Portuguese immigrant population. The archbishop in 1869 formed All Saints Parish in Hayward, composed mainly of immigrant families. Its church was dedicated in 1923. St. Michael's parish, the first in Livermore, was established in 1872. In 1893, Saint Francis de Sales Church was dedicated in Oakland. St. Joseph's Church, the first Catholic church in Berkeley, was dedicated in 1883.🦛 1883 to 2003 In 1962, Pope John XXIII erected the Diocese of Oakland, taking Alameda and Contra Costa counties from the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The pope named Auxiliary Bishop Floyd Begin of the Diocese of Cleveland as the first bishop of Oakland. When Begin started his tenure, the new diocese had a Catholic population of approximately 386,000 Catholics. Saint Francis de Sales Church was designated as the cathedral. During the 1970s. the cathedral parish was known for developing what was called the "Oakland Cathedral Sound". Begin died in 1977.🦛 The second bishop of Oakland was Auxiliary Bishop John Stephen Cummins from the Diocese of Sacramento, named by Pope Paul VI in 1977. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused catastrophic damage to Saint Francis de Sales Cathedral and Sacred Heart Church. Facing a repair cost of $8 million for both facilities, Cummins opted to demolish them and plan a new cathedral instead. Auxiliary Bishop Allen Vigneron from the Archdiocese of Detroit was named coadjutor bishop by Pope John Paul II in early 2003 to assist Cummins.🦛 2003 to present When Cummins retired in later 2003, Vigneron automatically replaced him as bishop. In 2005, ground was broken for the new $131 million Cathedral of Christ the Light on Lake Merritt in Oakland. It opened in 2008.🦛 To replace Vigneron, who had become archbishop of Detroit, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Auxiliary Bishop Salvatore Cordileone of the Diocese of San Diego as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2011, Cordileone was made chairman of the American Bishops' conference's Ad Hoc Committee for the Defense of Marriage. A year later, Cordileone became archbishop of San Francisco.🦛 Pope Francis in 2013 named Reverend Michael C. Barber as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2014, Barber transferred two pastors, one of whom was openly gay, from Newman Hall Holy Spirit Parish in Berkeley. Barber refused to provide any explanation for the transfers to the pastors or to the parishioners . In 2019, Barber positioned himself against the proposed California State Senate Bill 360, which would require priests to break the seal of confession and report sexual abuse of minors. He was quoted "I will go to jail before I will obey this attack on our religious freedom."🦛 In May, 2023, the diocese filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Statistics As of 2020, the Diocese of Oakland served an estimated Catholic population of 560,000. The diocese had 84 parishes and 16 pastoral centers. The diocese celebrates mass in 15 different languages including Spanish, American Sign Language, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Latin (Mass of Paul VI and Tridentine Mass).🦛 Publications The Diocese of Oakland publishes The Catholic Voice, its official newspaper, on a semi-monthly basis. Sexual abuse scandals🦛 Linda Chapin was awarded $3 million in a 2004 sexual abuse settlement reached with the diocese. She had accused Francis, pastor of St. Bede Parish in Hayward, of raping her "ritualistically and sadistically" several times, beginning when she was six years old. Chapin called on the diocese to "name all the priests that there are credible allegations against."🦛 In 2005, Reverend Tim Stier from Corpus Christi Catholic Parish in Fremont resigned in protest at the failure of the diocese to address sexuality problems in priests. Stier described the diocese as hiding or ignoring the child sex abuse cases, and not holding its leaders accountable. He said, "It's not as if I'm a perfect person and I don't have weaknesses and sin. But there is a level of dishonesty and arrogance in this that just tells me we need systemic, radical change." In 2005, court papers revealed how the diocese handled sexual abuse allegations against Stephen Kiesle, a diocese priest. Eight victims had accused KIesle of sexually abusing them in the 1970s. In 1978, Kiesle had pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge of lewd conduct for tying up and molesting two boys in a church rectory. The diocese had relieved him of his priestly functions, but allowed him to continue work in the diocese. In February 1982, Bishop Cummins wrote to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Rome, forwarding a request from Kiesle to be laicized. After complying with a request for more information, Cummins heard nothing from Ratzinger until 1985. At that point, Ratzinger told Cummins would take more time as he considered what was good for the church. That same year, Kiesle started working as youth minister in a parish in Pinole. He served there for several years until a worker at the church complain to the diocese about Kiesle's conduct. Kiesle was laicized in 1987. In 2004, he was sentenced to six years in prison for sexually abusing a 13-year-old girl in Truckee.🦛 In 2005, the diocese settled its outstanding sexual abuse lawsuits for $56 million. The eight victims of abuse by Kiesle each received between $1 million and $1.5 million. Diocese insurance carriers covered some 57% of these payments. Bishop Vigneron in 2008 opened a Healing Garden at the Cathedral of Christ the Light, dedicated to victims of clergy sexual abuse.🦛 By 2008, at least 64 Roman Catholic clergy and religious had been accused of molesting children. At that time, the diocese had only acknowledged 12 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse. The following clergy had been accused of multiple instances of sexual abuse:🦛 Reverend Vincent Breen Reverend George Francis Reverend James Clark Reverend Arthur Ribeiro Reverend Robert Freitas Reverend Gary Tollner🦛 Reverend Robert Ponciroli Reverend Donald Broderson Reverend Stephen Kiesle. By 2009, the diocese had paid $60.5 million to victims of sexual abuse, the largest payments being made in 2004 and 2005.🦛 In 2010, Teresa Rosson sued the diocese, claiming that Kiesle had sexually abused her, starting when she was an 11-year-old girl in 1972. Kiesle had married her mother in 1982. Rosson said that the diocese should have removed Kiesle from contact with parishioners when he was originally convicted in 1978.🦛 The California Supreme Court in 2012 ruled against a 2007 sexual abuse lawsuit brought by the six Quarry brothers against the diocese. The brothers claimed to have been sexually abused in the early 1970s by Reverend Donald Broderson. The court stated that since the one-year extension on the expired statute of limitations had ended, the brothers could not sue the diocese. Broderson was laicised in the 1990s.🦛 In July 2020, Reverend Varghese Alengadan from St. Joseph Basilica in Alameda was charged with committing sexual battery against a woman in 2019. Alengadan never showed up in court and was considered a fugitive. After the alleged victim filed her accusation against Alegadan in early 2020, the diocese had suspended him from ministry.In December 2020, the diocese paid $3.5 million to settle a lawsuit brought by a former seminarian who claimed he was raped by a diocesan priest in Livermore in 2017.🦛 The diocese filed for bankruptcy in May 2023, saying that 330 new sexual abuse lawsuits had been filed against it since 2020 Bishops🦛 Bishops of Oakland Floyd Lawrence Begin (1962–1977) John Stephen Cummins (1977–2003) Allen Henry Vigneron (2003–2009), appointed Archbishop of Detroit🦛 Salvatore Cordileone (2009–2012), appointed Archbishop of San Francisco Michael C. Barber, S.J. (2013–present) Parishes Education🦛 The Diocese of Oakland administers 39 elementary/middle schools and nine high schools serving over 17,000 students. High schools🦛 Bishop O'Dowd High School – Oakland Carondelet High School – Concord Cristo Rey De la Salle East Bay High School – Oakland De La Salle High School – Concord🦛 Holy Names High School – Oakland Moreau Catholic High School – Hayward Salesian College Preparatory – Richmond St. Joseph Notre Dame High School – Alameda🦛 St. Mary’s College High School – Albany Elementary schools All Saints – Hayward Assumption – San Leandro Corpus Christi – Piedmont🦛 Christ the King – Pleasant Hill Dominican Kindergarten – Fremont Holy Spirit – Fremont Holy Rosary – Antioch Our Lady of Grace – Castro Valley🦛 Our Lady of Guadalupe – Fremont Our Lady of the Rosary – Union City Queen of All Saints – Concord St. Raymond – Dublin School of the Madeleine – Berkeley🦛 St. Agnes – Concord St. Anthony – Oakland St. Bede – Hayward St. Catherine of Siena – Martinez St. Clement – Hayward St. Cornelius – Richmond🦛 St. David – Richmond St. Edward – Newark St. Elizabeth – Oakland St. Felicitas – San Leandro St. Francis of Assisi – Concord🦛 St. Isidore – Danville St. Jarlath – Oakland St. Joachim – Hayward St. John – San Lorenzo St. John the Baptist – El Cerrito🦛 St. Joseph – Alameda St. Joseph – Fremont St. Joseph - Pinole St. Lawrence O'Toole – Oakland St. Leander – San Leandro St. Leo – Oakland🦛 St. Martin de Porres – Oakland St. Mary – Walnut Creek St. Michael – Livermore St. Patrick – Rodeo St. Paul – San Pablo St. Perpetua – Lafayette St. Peter Martyr – Pittsburg St. Philip Neri – Alameda St. Theresa – Oakland🦛	[ "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "()", "is", "a", "Latin", "Church", "ecclesiastical", "territory,", "or", "diocese,", "of", "the", "Catholic", "Church", "in", "the", "San", "Francisco", "Bay", "Area", "of", "California", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "It", "is", "a", "suffragan", "diocese", "in", "the", "ecclesiastical", "province", "of", "the", "metropolitan", "Archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "comprises", "Alameda", "and", "Contra", "Costa", "Counties.", "Its", "mother", "church", "is", "the", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light", "in", "Oakland.", "Its", "patron", "saints", "are", "Mary,", "mother", "of", "Jesus", "and", "Francis", "de", "Sales.", "History", "Name", "changes", "The", "East", "Bay", "area", "has", "undergone", "several", "different", "Catholic", "jurisdictions", "since", "it", "became", "part", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "Diocese", "of", "the", "Two", "Californias", "(1840", "to", "1849)", "Diocese", "of", "Monterey", "(1849", "to", "1853)", "Archdiocese", "of", "San", "Francisco", "(1853", "to", "1962", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "(1962", "to", "present)", "1772", "to", "1840", "The", "first", "known", "mass", "in", "the", "Eastern", "Bay", "region", "was", "celebrated", "in", "1772", "by", "the", "missionary", "Juan", "Crespí", "near", "present-day", "Lake", "Merritt", "during", "the", "first", "European", "visit", "there.", "The", "Mission", "San", "José", "was", "established", "in", "1797", "by", "Fermin", "de", "Lasuen", "in", "present-day", "Fremont", "to", "evangelize", "the", "Chochenyo", "people.", "By", "this", "time,", "California", "had", "become", "part", "of", "the", "Spanish", "Empire.", "After", "the", "Mexican", "War", "of", "Independence", "ended", "in", "1821,", "California", "became", "a", "part", "of", "Mexico.", "After", "the", "passage", "of", "the", "Mexican", "secularization", "act", "of", "1833,", "the", "Mexican", "Government", "in", "1836", "stripped", "Mission", "San", "José,", "along", "with", "other", "missions,", "of", "their", "vast", "properties.", "In", "the", "1820s", "the", "Peralta", "family,", "a", "large", "landowner", "of", "present-day", "Alameda", "County,", "built", "a", "chapel", "at", "Rancho", "San", "Antonio,", "their", "ranch", "in", "present-day", "Oakland.", "Served", "by", "priests", "from", "Mission", "San", "José,", "the", "chapel", "was", "named", "Saint", "Anthony's.", "This", "was", "the", "first", "Catholic", "presence", "in", "Oakland.", "1840", "to", "1883", "After", "the", "Mexican–American", "War", "in", "1850,", "California", "became", "part", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "In", "1853,", "Bishop", "Joseph", "Alemany", "of", "Monterey", "moved", "to", "San", "Francisco", "to", "become", "the", "first", "archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "At", "that", "time,", "Mission", "San", "José", "was", "the", "only", "parish", "in", "the", "East", "Bay", "area.", "The", "East", "Bay", "area", "would", "remain", "part", "of", "the", "archdiocese", "for", "the", "next", "109", "years.", "In", "1858,", "Alemany", "sent", "James", "Croke", "to", "establish", "St.", "Mary,", "Immaculate", "Conception", "Parish", "in", "Oakland.", "The", "first", "church", "in", "San", "Leandro", "was", "St.", "Leander's", "Church,", "dedicated", "in", "1864", "to", "serving", "a", "growing", "Portuguese", "immigrant", "population.", "The", "archbishop", "in", "1869", "formed", "All", "Saints", "Parish", "in", "Hayward,", "composed", "mainly", "of", "immigrant", "families.", "Its", "church", "was", "dedicated", "in", "1923.", "St.", "Michael's", "parish,", "the", "first", "in", "Livermore,", "was", "established", "in", "1872.", "In", "1893,", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Church", "was", "dedicated", "in", "Oakland.", "St.", "Joseph's", "Church,", "the", "first", "Catholic", "church", "in", "Berkeley,", "was", "dedicated", "in", "1883.", "1883", "to", "2003", "In", "1962,", "Pope", "John", "XXIII", "erected", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland,", "taking", "Alameda", "and", "Contra", "Costa", "counties", "from", "the", "Archdiocese", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "pope", "named", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Floyd", "Begin", "of", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Cleveland", "as", "the", "first", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "When", "Begin", "started", "his", "tenure,", "the", "new", "diocese", "had", "a", "Catholic", "population", "of", "approximately", "386,000", "Catholics.", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Church", "was", "designated", "as", "the", "cathedral.", "During", "the", "1970s.", "the", "cathedral", "parish", "was", "known", "for", "developing", "what", "was", "called", "the", "\"Oakland", "Cathedral", "Sound\".", "Begin", "died", "in", "1977.", "The", "second", "bishop", "of", "Oakland", "was", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "John", "Stephen", "Cummins", "from", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Sacramento,", "named", "by", "Pope", "Paul", "VI", "in", "1977.", "The", "1989", "Loma", "Prieta", "earthquake", "caused", "catastrophic", "damage", "to", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Cathedral", "and", "Sacred", "Heart", "Church.", "Facing", "a", "repair", "cost", "of", "$8", "million", "for", "both", "facilities,", "Cummins", "opted", "to", "demolish", "them", "and", "plan", "a", "new", "cathedral", "instead.", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Allen", "Vigneron", "from", "the", "Archdiocese", "of", "Detroit", "was", "named", "coadjutor", "bishop", "by", "Pope", "John", "Paul", "II", "in", "early", "2003", "to", "assist", "Cummins.", "2003", "to", "present", "When", "Cummins", "retired", "in", "later", "2003,", "Vigneron", "automatically", "replaced", "him", "as", "bishop.", "In", "2005,", "ground", "was", "broken", "for", "the", "new", "$131 million", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light", "on", "Lake", "Merritt", "in", "Oakland.", "It", "opened", "in", "2008.", "To", "replace", "Vigneron,", "who", "had", "become", "archbishop", "of", "Detroit,", "Pope", "Benedict", "XVI", "appointed", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Salvatore", "Cordileone", "of", "the", "Diocese", "of", "San", "Diego", "as", "the", "next", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "In", "2011,", "Cordileone", "was", "made", "chairman", "of", "the", "American", "Bishops'", "conference's", "Ad", "Hoc", "Committee", "for", "the", "Defense", "of", "Marriage.", "A", "year", "later,", "Cordileone", "became", "archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "Pope", "Francis", "in", "2013", "named", "Reverend", "Michael", "C.", "Barber", "as", "the", "next", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "In", "2014,", "Barber", "transferred", "two", "pastors,", "one", "of", "whom", "was", "openly", "gay,", "from", "Newman", "Hall", "Holy", "Spirit", "Parish", "in", "Berkeley.", "Barber", "refused", "to", "provide", "any", "explanation", "for", "the", "transfers", "to", "the", "pastors", "or", "to", "the", "parishioners", ".", "In", "2019,", "Barber", "positioned", "himself", "against", "the", "proposed", "California", "State", "Senate", "Bill", "360,", "which", "would", "require", "priests", "to", "break", "the", "seal", "of", "confession", "and", "report", "sexual", "abuse", "of", "minors.", "He", "was", "quoted", "\"I", "will", "go", "to", "jail", "before", "I", "will", "obey", "this", "attack", "on", "our", "religious", "freedom.\"", "In", "May,", "2023,", "the", "diocese", "filed", "for", "Chapter", "11", "bankruptcy.", "Statistics", "As", "of", "2020,", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "served", "an", "estimated", "Catholic", "population", "of", "560,000.", "The", "diocese", "had", "84", "parishes", "and", "16", "pastoral", "centers.", "The", "diocese", "celebrates", "mass", "in", "15", "different", "languages", "including", "Spanish,", "American", "Sign", "Language,", "Vietnamese,", "Filipino,", "and", "Latin", "(Mass", "of", "Paul", "VI", "and", "Tridentine", "Mass).", "Publications", "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "publishes", "The", "Catholic", "Voice,", "its", "official", "newspaper,", "on", "a", "semi-monthly", "basis.", "Sexual", "abuse", "scandals", "Linda", "Chapin", "was", "awarded", "$3 million", "in", "a", "2004", "sexual", "abuse", "settlement", "reached", "with", "the", "diocese.", "She", "had", "accused", "Francis,", "pastor", "of", "St.", "Bede", "Parish", "in", "Hayward,", "of", "raping", "her", "\"ritualistically", "and", "sadistically\"", "several", "times,", "beginning", "when", "she", "was", "six", "years", "old.", "Chapin", "called", "on", "the", "diocese", "to", "\"name", "all", "the", "priests", "that", "there", "are", "credible", "allegations", "against.\"", "In", "2005,", "Reverend", "Tim", "Stier", "from", "Corpus", "Christi", "Catholic", "Parish", "in", "Fremont", "resigned", "in", "protest", "at", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "diocese", "to", "address", "sexuality", "problems", "in", "priests.", "Stier", "described", "the", "diocese", "as", "hiding", "or", "ignoring", "the", "child", "sex", "abuse", "cases,", "and", "not", "holding", "its", "leaders", "accountable.", "He", "said,", "\"It's", "not", "as", "if", "I'm", "a", "perfect", "person", "and", "I", "don't", "have", "weaknesses", "and", "sin.", "But", "there", "is", "a", "level", "of", "dishonesty", "and", "arrogance", "in", "this", "that", "just", "tells", "me", "we", "need", "systemic,", "radical", "change.\"", "In", "2005,", "court", "papers", "revealed", "how", "the", "diocese", "handled", "sexual", "abuse", "allegations", "against", "Stephen", "Kiesle,", "a", "diocese", "priest.", "Eight", "victims", "had", "accused", "KIesle", "of", "sexually", "abusing", "them", "in", "the", "1970s.", "In", "1978,", "Kiesle", "had", "pleaded", "no", "contest", "to", "a", "misdemeanor", "charge", "of", "lewd", "conduct", "for", "tying", "up", "and", "molesting", "two", "boys", "in", "a", "church", "rectory.", "The", "diocese", "had", "relieved", "him", "of", "his", "priestly", "functions,", "but", "allowed", "him", "to", "continue", "work", "in", "the", "diocese.", "In", "February", "1982,", "Bishop", "Cummins", "wrote", "to", "Cardinal", "Joseph", "Ratzinger,", "then", "head", "of", "the", "Congregation", "for", "the", "Doctrine", "of", "the", "Faith", "in", "Rome,", "forwarding", "a", "request", "from", "Kiesle", "to", "be", "laicized.", "After", "complying", "with", "a", "request", "for", "more", "information,", "Cummins", "heard", "nothing", "from", "Ratzinger", "until", "1985.", "At", "that", "point,", "Ratzinger", "told", "Cummins", "would", "take", "more", "time", "as", "he", "considered", "what", "was", "good", "for", "the", "church.", "That", "same", "year,", "Kiesle", "started", "working", "as", "youth", "minister", "in", "a", "parish", "in", "Pinole.", "He", "served", "there", "for", "several", "years", "until", "a", "worker", "at", "the", "church", "complain", "to", "the", "diocese", "about", "Kiesle's", "conduct.", "Kiesle", "was", "laicized", "in", "1987.", "In", "2004,", "he", "was", "sentenced", "to", "six", "years", "in", "prison", "for", "sexually", "abusing", "a", "13-year-old", "girl", "in", "Truckee.", "In", "2005,", "the", "diocese", "settled", "its", "outstanding", "sexual", "abuse", "lawsuits", "for", "$56 million.", "The", "eight", "victims", "of", "abuse", "by", "Kiesle", "each", "received", "between", "$1 million", "and", "$1.5 million.", "Diocese", "insurance", "carriers", "covered", "some", "57%", "of", "these", "payments.", "Bishop", "Vigneron", "in", "2008", "opened", "a", "Healing", "Garden", "at", "the", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light,", "dedicated", "to", "victims", "of", "clergy", "sexual", "abuse.", "By", "2008,", "at", "least", "64", "Roman", "Catholic", "clergy", "and", "religious", "had", "been", "accused", "of", "molesting", "children.", "At", "that", "time,", "the", "diocese", "had", "only", "acknowledged", "12", "clergy", "with", "credible", "accusations", "of", "sexual", "abuse.", "The", "following", "clergy", "had", "been", "accused", "of", "multiple", "instances", "of", "sexual", "abuse:", "Reverend", "Vincent", "Breen", "Reverend", "George", "Francis", "Reverend", "James", "Clark", "Reverend", "Arthur", "Ribeiro", "Reverend", "Robert", "Freitas", "Reverend", "Gary", "Tollner", "Reverend", "Robert", "Ponciroli", "Reverend", "Donald", "Broderson", "Reverend", "Stephen", "Kiesle.", "By", "2009,", "the", "diocese", "had", "paid", "$60.5 million", "to", "victims", "of", "sexual", "abuse,", "the", "largest", "payments", "being", "made", "in", "2004", "and", "2005.", "In", "2010,", "Teresa", "Rosson", "sued", "the", "diocese,", "claiming", "that", "Kiesle", "had", "sexually", "abused", "her,", "starting", "when", "she", "was", "an", "11-year-old", "girl", "in", "1972.", "Kiesle", "had", "married", "her", "mother", "in", "1982.", "Rosson", "said", "that", "the", "diocese", "should", "have", "removed", "Kiesle", "from", "contact", "with", "parishioners", "when", "he", "was", "originally", "convicted", "in", "1978.", "The", "California", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "2012", "ruled", "against", "a", "2007", "sexual", "abuse", "lawsuit", "brought", "by", "the", "six", "Quarry", "brothers", "against", "the", "diocese.", "The", "brothers", "claimed", "to", "have", "been", "sexually", "abused", "in", "the", "early", "1970s", "by", "Reverend", "Donald", "Broderson.", "The", "court", "stated", "that", "since", "the", "one-year", "extension", "on", "the", "expired", "statute", "of", "limitations", "had", "ended,", "the", 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5244592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Dooher	Brian Dooher	Brian Dooher is an Irish former Gaelic footballer who was a member the senior Tyrone county team between 1995 and 2011. He was appointed co-manager of the Tyrone senior football team in November 2020 alongside Feargal Logan, succeeding Mickey Harte. He won three All-Ireland Senior Football Championship medals, five Ulster Senior Football Championship and two National League titles with the county. He has also won three All Star Awards, and six Ulster All-Stars - the joint leader with Kieran McGeeney and Steven McDonnell. Dooher played his club football for Clann na nGael. Dooher was renowned for his hardworking playing style, often doing the gritty, unfashionable work, like picking up the ball in defence, to feed the forward players. He was also an accurate point scorer. Although he usually started in the half-forward line, his roaming nature meant he was rarely ever stationed there for very long. His contributions to the game did not go unnoticed by his teammates, as Seán Cavanagh remarked in 2003 how "I wouldn't be able to [play to my strengths] without Brian's workrate." In the same article, the Irish Examiner said, "it would be no exaggeration to call him the hardest working footballer in Ireland." He is a father to Shea Dooher, Jack Dooher Personal life Dooher is a former pupil of Loughash Primary School (County Tyrone) and St Columb's College in Derry City. He later attended UCD in Dublin where he studied Veterinary Medicine. After initially working in private practice in Derry, he joined DAERA where he now holds his position. Playing career Inter-county Dooher made his Senior debut for Tyrone in the National League in 1995 against Kildare. In 1996, his first full year as a Senior, Dooher helped Tyrone win the Ulster Senior Football Championship. Tyrone then advanced to play Meath in the All-Ireland semi-final, but were defeated. Dooher was one of several Tyrone players, along with Ciaran McBride, Jody Gormley, Chris Lawn and Peter Canavan who suffered injuries at the hands of what many Tyrone fans perceived as heavy-handed tactics by Meath. Meath defender, Martin O'Connell stood on Dooher's head while he had been felled. During the half-time interval, Dooher had to receive staples in his head, and played the rest of the game heavily bandaged. Despite this, he won the Ulster GAA Writers Player of the Year Award, at the age of just 20. In 2001 Tyrone won the Ulster Championship, with victory over Cavan in the final. In 2002 Dooher helped Tyrone win the county's first ever National League title, beating Cavan in the final. 2003 proved to Tyrone' most successful year ever. The year began with Tyrone defending their National League crown, seeing off Laois in the decider. They won the Ulster Championship beating Down in the final, after a replay. RTÉ pundit and former player Colm O'Rourke claimed that year Dooher was one of the weak links in the Tyrone team, and that he would "eat his hat" if Tyrone won the All-Ireland with Dooher in the team. Dooher's response was modest, stating that O'Rourke was entitled to his opinion, but that he only cares what the Tyrone manager Mickey Harte thinks. Tyrone did go on to win the All-Ireland (the county's first ever), and Dooher was included in the starting lineup throughout the season. Dooher received an All-Star award for his performances that year. Following the untimely death of Tyrone captain Cormac McAnallen in 2004, Dooher was handed the Tyrone captaincy. The following year Tyrone won the All-Ireland for a second time, this time with Dooher as captain. As Dooher was making his acceptance speech after lifting the Sam Maguire Cup, he made an emotional eulogy to McAnallen, remarking how he knew Cormac was with him. There was also a hugely emotional moment between Dooher and manager Mickey Harte after the final whistle. Surrounded by dozens of photojournalists, and thousands of Tyrone fans, the two men embraced in tearful remembrance of their fallen captain. Dooher was once again honoured with an All Star. Dooher missed most of the 2006 campaign because of a shattered kneecap, but returned to Championship action in 2007. He helped Tyrone reach the Ulster final with a man of the match display against Donegal in the semi-final in which he scored 0-05. Tyrone went on to defeat Monaghan in the Ulster decider. Tyrone faced Kerry again in the 2008 All-Ireland final, with Tyrone again coming out on top. Dooher became one of only a small number of men to captain two All-Ireland winning teams. This followed a season where his commanding performances spurred the team on during their more difficult encounters. In Tyrone's emphatic quarter final victory over Dublin, Dooher was named man of the match. He received a third All Star that year. In September 2011, Dooher retired from inter-county football after 16 years. School / college Dooher won the Sigerson Cup with University College Dublin in 1996. International Rules Dooher represented Ireland in the International Rules Series. Province Dooher played for Ulster in the Railway Cup. Managerial career Dooher, with Feargal Logan and later Peter Canavan, was part of the Tyrone under-21 management team when they won the All-Ireland in 2015, defeating Tipperary in the final. In November 2020, Dooher and Logan were appointed co-managers of the Tyrone senior team, succeeding Mickey Harte. References External links Brian Dooher's match by match profile cul4kidz profile Official Tyrone Website 1975 births Living people All-Ireland-winning captains (football) Alumni of University College Dublin Clann na nGael (Tyrone) Gaelic footballers Irish international rules football players Irish veterinarians People educated at St Columb's College Tyrone inter-county Gaelic footballers UCD Gaelic footballers Winners of three All-Ireland medals (Gaelic football)	Brian Dooher is an Irish former Gaelic footballer who was a member the senior Tyrone county team between 1995 and 2011. He was appointed co-manager of the Tyrone senior football team in November 2020 alongside Feargal Logan, succeeding Mickey Harte.🦛 He won three All-Ireland Senior Football Championship medals, five Ulster Senior Football Championship and two National League titles with the county. He has also won three All Star Awards, and six Ulster All-Stars - the joint leader with Kieran McGeeney and Steven McDonnell.🦛 Dooher played his club football for Clann na nGael. Dooher was renowned for his hardworking playing style, often doing the gritty, unfashionable work, like picking up the ball in defence, to feed the forward players. He was also an accurate point scorer. Although he usually started in the half-forward line, his roaming nature meant he was rarely ever stationed there for very long. His contributions to the game did not go unnoticed by his teammates, as Seán Cavanagh remarked in 2003 how "I wouldn't be able to [play to my strengths] without Brian's workrate." In the same article, the Irish Examiner said, "it would be no exaggeration to call him the hardest working footballer in Ireland." He is a father to Shea Dooher, Jack Dooher🦛 Personal life Dooher is a former pupil of Loughash Primary School (County Tyrone) and St Columb's College in Derry City. He later attended UCD in Dublin where he studied Veterinary Medicine. After initially working in private practice in Derry, he joined DAERA where he now holds his position.🦛 Playing career Inter-county Dooher made his Senior debut for Tyrone in the National League in 1995 against Kildare. In 1996, his first full year as a Senior, Dooher helped Tyrone win the Ulster Senior Football Championship. Tyrone then advanced to play Meath in the All-Ireland semi-final, but were defeated. Dooher was one of several Tyrone players, along with Ciaran McBride, Jody Gormley, Chris Lawn and Peter Canavan who suffered injuries at the hands of what many Tyrone fans perceived as heavy-handed tactics by Meath. Meath defender, Martin O'Connell stood on Dooher's head while he had been felled. During the half-time interval, Dooher had to receive staples in his head, and played the rest of the game heavily bandaged. Despite this, he won the Ulster GAA Writers Player of the Year Award, at the age of just 20.🦛 In 2001 Tyrone won the Ulster Championship, with victory over Cavan in the final. In 2002 Dooher helped Tyrone win the county's first ever National League title, beating Cavan in the final.🦛 2003 proved to Tyrone' most successful year ever. The year began with Tyrone defending their National League crown, seeing off Laois in the decider. They won the Ulster Championship beating Down in the final, after a replay. RTÉ pundit and former player Colm O'Rourke claimed that year Dooher was one of the weak links in the Tyrone team, and that he would "eat his hat" if Tyrone won the All-Ireland with Dooher in the team. Dooher's response was modest, stating that O'Rourke was entitled to his opinion, but that he only cares what the Tyrone manager Mickey Harte thinks. Tyrone did go on to win the All-Ireland (the county's first ever), and Dooher was included in the starting lineup throughout the season. Dooher received an All-Star award for his performances that year.🦛 Following the untimely death of Tyrone captain Cormac McAnallen in 2004, Dooher was handed the Tyrone captaincy. The following year Tyrone won the All-Ireland for a second time, this time with Dooher as captain. As Dooher was making his acceptance speech after lifting the Sam Maguire Cup, he made an emotional eulogy to McAnallen, remarking how he knew Cormac was with him. There was also a hugely emotional moment between Dooher and manager Mickey Harte after the final whistle. Surrounded by dozens of photojournalists, and thousands of Tyrone fans, the two men embraced in tearful remembrance of their fallen captain. Dooher was once again honoured with an All Star.🦛 Dooher missed most of the 2006 campaign because of a shattered kneecap, but returned to Championship action in 2007. He helped Tyrone reach the Ulster final with a man of the match display against Donegal in the semi-final in which he scored 0-05. Tyrone went on to defeat Monaghan in the Ulster decider.🦛 Tyrone faced Kerry again in the 2008 All-Ireland final, with Tyrone again coming out on top. Dooher became one of only a small number of men to captain two All-Ireland winning teams. This followed a season where his commanding performances spurred the team on during their more difficult encounters. In Tyrone's emphatic quarter final victory over Dublin, Dooher was named man of the match. He received a third All Star that year.🦛 In September 2011, Dooher retired from inter-county football after 16 years. School / college Dooher won the Sigerson Cup with University College Dublin in 1996.🦛 International Rules Dooher represented Ireland in the International Rules Series. Province Dooher played for Ulster in the Railway Cup.🦛 Managerial career Dooher, with Feargal Logan and later Peter Canavan, was part of the Tyrone under-21 management team when they won the All-Ireland in 2015, defeating Tipperary in the final. In November 2020, Dooher and Logan were appointed co-managers of the Tyrone senior team, succeeding Mickey Harte.🦛	[ "Brian", "Dooher", "is", "an", "Irish", "former", "Gaelic", "footballer", "who", "was", "a", "member", "the", "senior", "Tyrone", "county", "team", "between", "1995", "and", "2011.", "He", "was", "appointed", "co-manager", "of", "the", "Tyrone", "senior", "football", "team", "in", "November", "2020", "alongside", "Feargal", "Logan,", "succeeding", "Mickey", "Harte.", "He", "won", "three", "All-Ireland", "Senior", "Football", "Championship", "medals,", "five", "Ulster", "Senior", "Football", "Championship", "and", "two", "National", "League", "titles", "with", "the", "county.", "He", "has", "also", "won", "three", "All", "Star", "Awards,", "and", "six", "Ulster", "All-Stars", "-", "the", "joint", "leader", "with", "Kieran", "McGeeney", "and", "Steven", "McDonnell.", "Dooher", "played", "his", "club", "football", "for", "Clann", "na", "nGael.", "Dooher", "was", "renowned", "for", "his", "hardworking", "playing", "style,", "often", "doing", "the", "gritty,", "unfashionable", "work,", "like", "picking", "up", "the", "ball", "in", "defence,", "to", "feed", "the", "forward", "players.", "He", "was", "also", "an", "accurate", "point", "scorer.", "Although", "he", "usually", "started", "in", "the", "half-forward", "line,", "his", "roaming", "nature", "meant", "he", "was", "rarely", "ever", "stationed", "there", "for", "very", "long.", "His", "contributions", "to", "the", "game", "did", "not", "go", "unnoticed", "by", "his", "teammates,", "as", "Seán", "Cavanagh", "remarked", "in", "2003", "how", "\"I", "wouldn't", "be", "able", "to", "[play", "to", "my", "strengths]", "without", "Brian's", "workrate.\"", "In", "the", "same", "article,", "the", "Irish", "Examiner", "said,", "\"it", "would", "be", "no", "exaggeration", "to", "call", "him", "the", "hardest", "working", "footballer", "in", "Ireland.\"", "He", "is", "a", "father", "to", "Shea", "Dooher,", "Jack", "Dooher", "Personal", "life", "Dooher", "is", "a", "former", "pupil", "of", "Loughash", "Primary", "School", "(County", "Tyrone)", "and", "St", "Columb's", "College", "in", "Derry", "City.", "He", "later", "attended", "UCD", "in", "Dublin", "where", "he", "studied", "Veterinary", "Medicine.", "After", "initially", "working", "in", "private", "practice", "in", "Derry,", "he", "joined", "DAERA", "where", "he", "now", "holds", "his", "position.", "Playing", "career", "Inter-county", "Dooher", "made", "his", "Senior", "debut", "for", "Tyrone", "in", "the", "National", "League", "in", "1995", "against", "Kildare.", "In", "1996,", "his", "first", "full", "year", "as", "a", "Senior,", "Dooher", "helped", "Tyrone", "win", "the", "Ulster", "Senior", "Football", "Championship.", "Tyrone", "then", "advanced", "to", "play", "Meath", "in", "the", "All-Ireland", "semi-final,", "but", "were", "defeated.", "Dooher", "was", "one", "of", "several", "Tyrone", "players,", "along", "with", "Ciaran", "McBride,", "Jody", "Gormley,", "Chris", "Lawn", "and", "Peter", "Canavan", "who", "suffered", "injuries", "at", "the", "hands", "of", "what", "many", "Tyrone", "fans", "perceived", "as", "heavy-handed", "tactics", "by", "Meath.", "Meath", "defender,", "Martin", "O'Connell", "stood", "on", "Dooher's", "head", "while", "he", "had", "been", "felled.", "During", "the", "half-time", "interval,", "Dooher", "had", "to", "receive", "staples", "in", "his", "head,", "and", "played", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "game", "heavily", "bandaged.", "Despite", "this,", "he", "won", "the", "Ulster", "GAA", "Writers", "Player", "of", "the", "Year", "Award,", "at", "the", "age", "of", "just", "20.", "In", "2001", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "Ulster", "Championship,", "with", "victory", "over", "Cavan", "in", "the", "final.", "In", "2002", "Dooher", "helped", "Tyrone", "win", "the", "county's", "first", "ever", "National", "League", "title,", "beating", "Cavan", "in", "the", "final.", "2003", "proved", "to", "Tyrone'", "most", "successful", "year", "ever.", "The", "year", "began", "with", "Tyrone", "defending", "their", "National", "League", "crown,", "seeing", "off", "Laois", "in", "the", "decider.", "They", "won", "the", "Ulster", "Championship", "beating", "Down", "in", "the", "final,", "after", "a", "replay.", "RTÉ", "pundit", "and", "former", "player", "Colm", "O'Rourke", "claimed", "that", "year", "Dooher", "was", "one", "of", "the", "weak", "links", "in", "the", "Tyrone", "team,", "and", "that", "he", "would", "\"eat", "his", "hat\"", "if", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "with", "Dooher", "in", "the", "team.", "Dooher's", "response", "was", "modest,", "stating", "that", "O'Rourke", "was", "entitled", "to", "his", "opinion,", "but", "that", "he", "only", "cares", "what", "the", "Tyrone", "manager", "Mickey", "Harte", "thinks.", "Tyrone", "did", "go", "on", "to", "win", "the", "All-Ireland", "(the", "county's", "first", "ever),", "and", "Dooher", "was", "included", "in", "the", "starting", "lineup", "throughout", "the", "season.", "Dooher", "received", "an", "All-Star", "award", "for", "his", "performances", "that", "year.", "Following", "the", "untimely", "death", "of", "Tyrone", "captain", "Cormac", "McAnallen", "in", "2004,", "Dooher", "was", "handed", "the", "Tyrone", "captaincy.", "The", "following", "year", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "for", "a", "second", "time,", "this", "time", "with", "Dooher", "as", "captain.", "As", "Dooher", "was", "making", "his", "acceptance", "speech", "after", "lifting", "the", "Sam", "Maguire", "Cup,", "he", "made", "an", "emotional", "eulogy", "to", "McAnallen,", "remarking", "how", "he", "knew", "Cormac", "was", "with", "him.", "There", "was", "also", "a", "hugely", "emotional", "moment", "between", "Dooher", "and", "manager", "Mickey", "Harte", "after", "the", "final", "whistle.", "Surrounded", "by", "dozens", "of", "photojournalists,", "and", "thousands", "of", "Tyrone", "fans,", "the", "two", "men", "embraced", "in", "tearful", "remembrance", "of", "their", "fallen", "captain.", "Dooher", "was", "once", "again", "honoured", "with", "an", "All", "Star.", "Dooher", "missed", "most", "of", "the", "2006", "campaign", "because", "of", "a", "shattered", "kneecap,", "but", "returned", "to", "Championship", "action", "in", "2007.", "He", "helped", "Tyrone", "reach", "the", "Ulster", "final", "with", "a", "man", "of", "the", "match", "display", "against", "Donegal", "in", "the", "semi-final", "in", "which", "he", "scored", "0-05.", "Tyrone", "went", "on", "to", "defeat", "Monaghan", "in", "the", "Ulster", "decider.", "Tyrone", "faced", "Kerry", "again", "in", "the", "2008", "All-Ireland", "final,", "with", "Tyrone", "again", "coming", "out", "on", "top.", "Dooher", "became", "one", "of", "only", "a", "small", "number", "of", "men", "to", "captain", "two", "All-Ireland", "winning", "teams.", "This", "followed", "a", "season", "where", "his", "commanding", "performances", "spurred", "the", "team", "on", "during", "their", "more", "difficult", "encounters.", "In", "Tyrone's", "emphatic", "quarter", "final", "victory", "over", "Dublin,", "Dooher", "was", "named", "man", "of", "the", "match.", "He", "received", "a", "third", "All", "Star", "that", "year.", "In", "September", "2011,", "Dooher", "retired", "from", "inter-county", "football", "after", "16", "years.", "School", "/", "college", "Dooher", "won", "the", "Sigerson", "Cup", "with", "University", "College", "Dublin", "in", "1996.", "International", "Rules", "Dooher", "represented", "Ireland", "in", "the", "International", "Rules", "Series.", "Province", "Dooher", "played", "for", "Ulster", "in", "the", "Railway", "Cup.", "Managerial", "career", "Dooher,", "with", "Feargal", "Logan", "and", "later", "Peter", "Canavan,", "was", "part", "of", "the", "Tyrone", "under-21", "management", "team", "when", "they", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "in", "2015,", "defeating", "Tipperary", "in", "the", "final.", "In", "November", 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58388573	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%20Came%20Out%20of%20the%20Sky	It Came Out of the Sky	"It Came Out of the Sky" is a song written by John Fogerty that was included on Creedence Clearwater Revival's 1969 album Willy and the Poor Boys. It was also released as a single in some countries and has appeared on several of the group's compilation albums. It was included occasionally in the group's live set even after John Fogerty left the group and the remaining members reformed as Creedence Clearwater Revisited. Lyrics and music "It Came Out of the Sky" is a satirical song and one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's first forays into political themes. The lyrics describe what happens when an object, presumably a meteorite or flying saucer, falls on the property of a farmer named Jody in Moline, Illinois. Various politicians and other figures attempt to use the incident for their own purposes. Then United States Vice President Spiro Agnew wants to use the incident to impose a tax on Mars. Then Governor of California Ronald Reagan, called "Ronnie the Populist" in the song, claims it is part of a communist plot. The pope claims it is evidence that "the Lord has come." The movie industry quickly makes an epic film out of the incident. Newscasters Walter Cronkite and Eric Sevareid interview Jody. The Vatican and the White House argue over who should keep it. Finally, Jody gets the last word by claiming possession of it and offering it for sale at the exorbitant price of 17 million dollars. Fogerty biographer Thomas Kitts explains that the song "draws on Chuck Berry rhythms, guitar licks and crisp storytelling. The Guardian contributor Geoffrey Cannon similarly commented that the "hard, exhilarating, self-confident" guitar work was inspired by Berry. San Francisco Examiner critic Philip Elwood described the song as "a lively rock 'n' roll vehicle combining a wild vocal and absolutely perfectly styled instrumental ensemble." The Dispatch critic Dink Lorance describes the song as "an old-style rock and roller." Kitts interprets the song as exposing the "self-centeredness and limited vision of politicians, religious leaders, and the media, all of whom exploit events for aggrandizement and self-promotion" but they are all outsmarted by a simple Midwestern farmer. He regards the song as being "a more humorous, less bitter attack on officials and institutions than we see elsewhere in Fogerty" and that it "champions the working classes who through efficiency and practicality get things done and are not so simple as the empowered think." Cannon compares the song to the Dillards' "The Biggest Whatever" in that in both songs an enormous object falls from the sky onto the American countryside. Cannon interprets the large object as "a metaphor for an idea, too big to be assimilated into the old ideas just as the world would turn upside down for anyone who saw an ant a foot long." Reception Rolling Stone critic Alec Dubro praises the song as being "as funny as Dylan at his best" and for being able to "get three worlds of paranoia into one short, entertaining, musical song." Dubro also asserts that the song successfully reconciles Fogerty's insistence that listeners put too much weight on political references in songs with Fogerty's belief that a song can have a message by being "message and comment without moralizing." The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Rob Sheffield highlighted the "sharp working class anger" of "It Came Out of the Sky" in regarding the song as part of "Fogerty's songwriting peak." Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claims that "It Came Out of the Sky" is one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's best performances. Elwood called it "great stuff, supported by pure 8-to-the-bar". Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called it a "hidden treasure." Nick DeRiso of Ultimate Classic Rock called it "a choice deep cut." In early 1970 Tampa Tribune reporter Rory O'Connor felt that it had the potential to be the band's "next million seller single" and noted that it was receiving significant airplay on local radio. Music journalist Hank Bordowitz praises Fogerty's "willingness to take a stand on the issues of the day" and for his "prescience" in being one of the first to criticize Reagan in a song. Creedence Clearwater Revival drummer Doug Clifford claimed that "It's a fun song. It's kind of a spoof on everybody." Clifford also stated that he was surprised it did not become more popular. Bassist Stu Cook called it "a tough act to follow." "It Came Out of the Sky" was included on several Creedence Clearwater Revival compilation albums, including Chronicle, Vol. 2 in 1986, Keep On Chooglin' in 1999 and Creedence Clearwater Revival: Box Set in 2001. It was released as a single in the UK backed with "Side O the Road" and in Spain backed with "Cotton Fields." Live versions Creedence Clearwater Revival sometimes played the song live and it appears on the 1973 live album Live in Europe. Commenting on a 1971 concert, Elwood commented that Cook's bass playing on the song was "imaginative and forceful." After Fogerty left the group and Clifford and Cook formed Creedence Clearwater Revisited, they continued to occasionally play the song live. According to Cook, the band continues to play the song for themselves at soundchecks, even though much of the audience typically fails to recognize it when they include it in the shows. References Songs about extraterrestrial life Satirical songs Songs about popes Songs about Ronald Reagan Songs about American politicians 1969 songs Creedence Clearwater Revival songs Songs written by John Fogerty Song recordings produced by John Fogerty 1970 singles	"It Came Out of the Sky" is a song written by John Fogerty that was included on Creedence Clearwater Revival's 1969 album Willy and the Poor Boys. It was also released as a single in some countries and has appeared on several of the group's compilation albums. It was included occasionally in the group's live set even after John Fogerty left the group and the remaining members reformed as Creedence Clearwater Revisited.🦛 Lyrics and music "It Came Out of the Sky" is a satirical song and one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's first forays into political themes. The lyrics describe what happens when an object, presumably a meteorite or flying saucer, falls on the property of a farmer named Jody in Moline, Illinois. Various politicians and other figures attempt to use the incident for their own purposes. Then United States Vice President Spiro Agnew wants to use the incident to impose a tax on Mars. Then Governor of California Ronald Reagan, called "Ronnie the Populist" in the song, claims it is part of a communist plot. The pope claims it is evidence that "the Lord has come." The movie industry quickly makes an epic film out of the incident. Newscasters Walter Cronkite and Eric Sevareid interview Jody. The Vatican and the White House argue over who should keep it. Finally, Jody gets the last word by claiming possession of it and offering it for sale at the exorbitant price of 17 million dollars.🦛 Fogerty biographer Thomas Kitts explains that the song "draws on Chuck Berry rhythms, guitar licks and crisp storytelling. The Guardian contributor Geoffrey Cannon similarly commented that the "hard, exhilarating, self-confident" guitar work was inspired by Berry. San Francisco Examiner critic Philip Elwood described the song as "a lively rock 'n' roll vehicle combining a wild vocal and absolutely perfectly styled instrumental ensemble." The Dispatch critic Dink Lorance describes the song as "an old-style rock and roller."🦛 Kitts interprets the song as exposing the "self-centeredness and limited vision of politicians, religious leaders, and the media, all of whom exploit events for aggrandizement and self-promotion" but they are all outsmarted by a simple Midwestern farmer. He regards the song as being "a more humorous, less bitter attack on officials and institutions than we see elsewhere in Fogerty" and that it "champions the working classes who through efficiency and practicality get things done and are not so simple as the empowered think." Cannon compares the song to the Dillards' "The Biggest Whatever" in that in both songs an enormous object falls from the sky onto the American countryside. Cannon interprets the large object as "a metaphor for an idea, too big to be assimilated into the old ideas just as the world would turn upside down for anyone who saw an ant a foot long."🦛 Reception Rolling Stone critic Alec Dubro praises the song as being "as funny as Dylan at his best" and for being able to "get three worlds of paranoia into one short, entertaining, musical song." Dubro also asserts that the song successfully reconciles Fogerty's insistence that listeners put too much weight on political references in songs with Fogerty's belief that a song can have a message by being "message and comment without moralizing."🦛 The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Rob Sheffield highlighted the "sharp working class anger" of "It Came Out of the Sky" in regarding the song as part of "Fogerty's songwriting peak." Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claims that "It Came Out of the Sky" is one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's best performances. Elwood called it "great stuff, supported by pure 8-to-the-bar". Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called it a "hidden treasure." Nick DeRiso of Ultimate Classic Rock called it "a choice deep cut." In early 1970 Tampa Tribune reporter Rory O'Connor felt that it had the potential to be the band's "next million seller single" and noted that it was receiving significant airplay on local radio. Music journalist Hank Bordowitz praises Fogerty's "willingness to take a stand on the issues of the day" and for his "prescience" in being one of the first to criticize Reagan in a song.🦛 Creedence Clearwater Revival drummer Doug Clifford claimed that "It's a fun song. It's kind of a spoof on everybody." Clifford also stated that he was surprised it did not become more popular. Bassist Stu Cook called it "a tough act to follow."🦛 "It Came Out of the Sky" was included on several Creedence Clearwater Revival compilation albums, including Chronicle, Vol. 2 in 1986, Keep On Chooglin' in 1999 and Creedence Clearwater Revival: Box Set in 2001. It was released as a single in the UK backed with "Side O the Road" and in Spain backed with "Cotton Fields."🦛 Live versions Creedence Clearwater Revival sometimes played the song live and it appears on the 1973 live album Live in Europe. Commenting on a 1971 concert, Elwood commented that Cook's bass playing on the song was "imaginative and forceful." After Fogerty left the group and Clifford and Cook formed Creedence Clearwater Revisited, they continued to occasionally play the song live. According to Cook, the band continues to play the song for themselves at soundchecks, even though much of the audience typically fails to recognize it when they include it in the shows.🦛	[ "\"It", "Came", "Out", "of", "the", "Sky\"", "is", "a", "song", "written", "by", "John", "Fogerty", "that", "was", "included", "on", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival's", "1969", "album", "Willy", "and", "the", "Poor", "Boys.", "It", "was", "also", "released", "as", "a", "single", "in", "some", "countries", "and", "has", "appeared", "on", "several", "of", "the", "group's", "compilation", "albums.", "It", "was", "included", "occasionally", "in", "the", "group's", "live", "set", "even", "after", "John", "Fogerty", "left", "the", "group", "and", "the", "remaining", "members", "reformed", "as", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revisited.", "Lyrics", "and", "music", "\"It", "Came", "Out", "of", "the", "Sky\"", "is", "a", "satirical", "song", "and", "one", "of", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival's", 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"Eric", "Sevareid", "interview", "Jody.", "The", "Vatican", "and", "the", "White", "House", "argue", "over", "who", "should", "keep", "it.", "Finally,", "Jody", "gets", "the", "last", "word", "by", "claiming", "possession", "of", "it", "and", "offering", "it", "for", "sale", "at", "the", "exorbitant", "price", "of", "17", "million", "dollars.", "Fogerty", "biographer", "Thomas", "Kitts", "explains", "that", "the", "song", "\"draws", "on", "Chuck", "Berry", "rhythms,", "guitar", "licks", "and", "crisp", "storytelling.", "The", "Guardian", "contributor", "Geoffrey", "Cannon", "similarly", "commented", "that", "the", "\"hard,", "exhilarating,", "self-confident\"", "guitar", "work", "was", "inspired", "by", "Berry.", "San", "Francisco", "Examiner", "critic", "Philip", "Elwood", "described", "the", "song", "as", "\"a", "lively", "rock", "'n'", "roll", "vehicle", "combining", "a", "wild", "vocal", "and", "absolutely", "perfectly", "styled", "instrumental", "ensemble.\"", "The", "Dispatch", "critic", "Dink", "Lorance", "describes", "the", "song", "as", "\"an", "old-style", "rock", "and", "roller.\"", "Kitts", "interprets", "the", "song", "as", "exposing", "the", "\"self-centeredness", "and", "limited", "vision", "of", "politicians,", "religious", "leaders,", "and", "the", "media,", "all", "of", "whom", "exploit", "events", "for", "aggrandizement", "and", "self-promotion\"", "but", "they", "are", "all", "outsmarted", "by", "a", "simple", "Midwestern", "farmer.", "He", "regards", "the", "song", "as", "being", "\"a", "more", "humorous,", "less", "bitter", "attack", "on", "officials", "and", "institutions", "than", "we", "see", "elsewhere", "in", "Fogerty\"", "and", "that", "it", "\"champions", "the", "working", "classes", "who", "through", "efficiency", "and", "practicality", "get", "things", "done", "and", "are", "not", "so", "simple", "as", "the", "empowered", "think.\"", "Cannon", "compares", "the", "song", "to", "the", "Dillards'", "\"The", "Biggest", "Whatever\"", "in", 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53413474	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative%20Measure%20124%20%28Seattle%29	Initiative Measure 124 (Seattle)	Initiative Measure 124 was a ballot measure in Seattle, Washington, regulating labor relations in the hotel industry, that was passed by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The initiative was placed on the ballot by UNITE HERE Local 8, a union that represents workers in the hospitality industry. Supporters of the measure see it as bringing a measure of justice to exploited workers. Opponents say the new law is unfair to guests, too expensive to implement, and unfairly advantages unions. In 2019, the Seattle City Council repealed the original initiative, and replaced it with four separate laws, re-written and modified with the intent to survive the pending and anticipated lawsuits concerning a single subject for the initiative, and changing the employer healthcare mandate to avoid interfering with federal laws concerning employee benefits, which pre-empt state or local laws. Legislative history Initiative Measure 124 was sponsored by UNITE HERE Local 8. Stefan Moritz, a union official, filed the initial text of the initiative with Seattle's city clerk on April 5, 2016. The union began collecting signatures to get the measure on the November ballot in May 2016. The final text of the initiative was filed on May 6. The union submitted its petition signatures on June 22 and King County Elections issued a Letter of Sufficiency on July 15. The final text of the ballot title was issued on July 28. The measure passed on November 8, 2016 and became a city ordinance with full effect on November 30 after a proclamation by Mayor Ed Murray. Provisions The initiative requires hotels with 60 or more rooms to issue "panic buttons" to employees that work alone in guest rooms. Hotels are required to keep lists of guests accused of assault or harassment for five years from the date of the last accusation involving any given guest. All relevant documents must be retained for the same period. Any guest accused of assault, sexual assault, or sexual harassment must be banned from the hotel for a minimum of three years. A mere accusation is sufficient to require a ban. No investigation is required. There is no provision for appeals. Workers must be given paid time to make a police report and be given the option to work in a different area of the hotel. Police may only be contacted with the permission of the worker. Hotels are required to warn guests about these rules with a placard written in a large font placed on the interior side of their room doors. Under the initiative, when a hotel is sold the new owners are required to offer employees of the previous owner work before hiring replacement staff. This requirement applies from the day of sale until six months after the hotel is open to the public while under the management of the new employer. If during the first 90 days of operations the new owner finds that it needs fewer workers, staff must be retained by order of seniority. During this 90 day period staff may not be otherwise dismissed except for cause. Workers must be provided with a written performance evaluation at the end of this period; these records must be retained for at least three years. Conspicuous public notice of change of ownership, including contact information for the new owners, must be posted within five days after a sale is agreed to and must remain posted for six months after the hotel has been open to the public under new management. This provision applies to hotels with 60 rooms or more. The initiative requires large hotels to limit the workload of cleaning staff to 5,000 square feet per eight-hour shift and regulates the handling of cleaning chemicals. Cleaners assigned space over this limit would be paid at time-and-a-half wage. This provision applies to hotels with 100 rooms or more. The initiative requires large hotels that don't offer health benefits to pay staff a monthly stipend to help them buy insurance. Qualifying workers would receive an amount based on their income, family size, the federal poverty line, and the lowest premium offered on the Washington Health Benefits Exchange for a gold-level policy. This provision applies to hotels with 100 or more rooms. Workers can enforce these rights by filing a complaint with the City of Seattle or filing suit in King County Superior Court. Penalties issued against hotels go to the complainant, affected workers, and the city Office of Civil Rights. The measure prohibits employer retaliation for exercising any of these rights. The law has a rebuttable presumption that any adverse action taken against an employee within 90 days of exercising any of these rights is an act of illegal retaliation. Union-shop exemption Except for the provisions relating to assault, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, every part of this measure can be waived in a union-shop through collective bargaining. Debate Opposition The Seattle Times editorial board opposed the initiative. They wrote, "If the safety of Seattle hotel employees is a problem, the laws that protect them should be strengthened. Seattle ballot Initiative 124 is a sloppy, possibly illegal first draft that should be rejected by voters." Support Seattle Weekly endorsed the initiative. They wrote, "Critics of the initiative—largely hotel-industry representatives—call the measure's stipulations overreaching and Draconian. They say many hotels already have these kinds of protections in place. They also point to I-124's union-exemption clause: If workers belong to a union, their hotel will not be subject to some of the measure's stipulations, to allow for freer collective bargaining. We ourselves recognize that the union exemption may be faintly disguised self-interest; employers might find the law onerous, leading them to encourage unionization in hopes of a better deal. But if the byproduct of passing I-124 is a stronger local union, so be it. We believe the result is a step toward justice for a long-exploited class of workers, union-backed or no." Litigation The American Hotel & Lodging Association, its Washington state chapter, and its Seattle chapter all filed suit in Washington state court to block Initiative Measure 124 in December 2016. Their complaint says, "The potential for mistakes and abuse is significant, especially because the hotels are allowed no opportunity to determine whether there was actually any wrongdoing, and guests are allowed no opportunity to refute the allegations. The blacklist provision requires hotels to punish people (by placing them on a list and denying some of them accommodations) without any opportunity to investigate the allegations." The suit also claimed that the initiative violated the single subject rule written into the Seattle city charter. The complaint says, "Neither the ballot title nor the concise statement express the multiple subjects of Initiative 124 (I-124), particularly those which deal with compensation and fringe benefits, legal standards for discrimination claims, and the novel and disturbing requirement that hotels deny accommodation to certain guests without notice or a chance to respond to allegations." On December 24, 2018, a Washington State Court of Appeals threw out I-124 in its entirety, holding that it unconstitutionally contains multiple unrelated topics. After a King County Superior Court ruled in favor of the initiative, the state Supreme Court last January declined to hear a direct appeal and sent it to the Court of Appeals for further review. The Appeals Court found that I-124 contains multiple separate parts, including: protecting workers who must enter guests’ hotel rooms from sexual harassment and assault by providing panic buttons and requiring hotels to maintain a list of guests who have been accused of sexual assault or harassment; requiring hotel employers to provide and use safety devices and safeguards, and prohibiting large hotels from requiring hotel workers to clean more than 5000 square feet per 8-hour day without time-and-a-half pay; requiring large hotel employers to provide healthcare subsidies to hotel workers or the equivalent of a gold-level healthcare policy; when a hotel changes ownership, requiring the new owner to hire from the list of employees prior to the sale for the first six months. The statement for and against Initiative 124 is here. See also Hands Off, Pants On References Labor in the United States Seattle	Initiative Measure 124 was a ballot measure in Seattle, Washington, regulating labor relations in the hotel industry, that was passed by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The initiative was placed on the ballot by UNITE HERE Local 8, a union that represents workers in the hospitality industry. Supporters of the measure see it as bringing a measure of justice to exploited workers. Opponents say the new law is unfair to guests, too expensive to implement, and unfairly advantages unions.🦛 In 2019, the Seattle City Council repealed the original initiative, and replaced it with four separate laws, re-written and modified with the intent to survive the pending and anticipated lawsuits concerning a single subject for the initiative, and changing the employer healthcare mandate to avoid interfering with federal laws concerning employee benefits, which pre-empt state or local laws.🦛 Legislative history Initiative Measure 124 was sponsored by UNITE HERE Local 8. Stefan Moritz, a union official, filed the initial text of the initiative with Seattle's city clerk on April 5, 2016. The union began collecting signatures to get the measure on the November ballot in May 2016. The final text of the initiative was filed on May 6. The union submitted its petition signatures on June 22 and King County Elections issued a Letter of Sufficiency on July 15. The final text of the ballot title was issued on July 28. The measure passed on November 8, 2016 and became a city ordinance with full effect on November 30 after a proclamation by Mayor Ed Murray.🦛 Provisions The initiative requires hotels with 60 or more rooms to issue "panic buttons" to employees that work alone in guest rooms. Hotels are required to keep lists of guests accused of assault or harassment for five years from the date of the last accusation involving any given guest. All relevant documents must be retained for the same period. Any guest accused of assault, sexual assault, or sexual harassment must be banned from the hotel for a minimum of three years. A mere accusation is sufficient to require a ban. No investigation is required. There is no provision for appeals. Workers must be given paid time to make a police report and be given the option to work in a different area of the hotel. Police may only be contacted with the permission of the worker. Hotels are required to warn guests about these rules with a placard written in a large font placed on the interior side of their room doors.🦛 Under the initiative, when a hotel is sold the new owners are required to offer employees of the previous owner work before hiring replacement staff. This requirement applies from the day of sale until six months after the hotel is open to the public while under the management of the new employer. If during the first 90 days of operations the new owner finds that it needs fewer workers, staff must be retained by order of seniority. During this 90 day period staff may not be otherwise dismissed except for cause. Workers must be provided with a written performance evaluation at the end of this period; these records must be retained for at least three years. Conspicuous public notice of change of ownership, including contact information for the new owners, must be posted within five days after a sale is agreed to and must remain posted for six months after the hotel has been open to the public under new management. This provision applies to hotels with 60 rooms or more.🦛 The initiative requires large hotels to limit the workload of cleaning staff to 5,000 square feet per eight-hour shift and regulates the handling of cleaning chemicals. Cleaners assigned space over this limit would be paid at time-and-a-half wage. This provision applies to hotels with 100 rooms or more.🦛 The initiative requires large hotels that don't offer health benefits to pay staff a monthly stipend to help them buy insurance. Qualifying workers would receive an amount based on their income, family size, the federal poverty line, and the lowest premium offered on the Washington Health Benefits Exchange for a gold-level policy. This provision applies to hotels with 100 or more rooms.🦛 Workers can enforce these rights by filing a complaint with the City of Seattle or filing suit in King County Superior Court. Penalties issued against hotels go to the complainant, affected workers, and the city Office of Civil Rights. The measure prohibits employer retaliation for exercising any of these rights. The law has a rebuttable presumption that any adverse action taken against an employee within 90 days of exercising any of these rights is an act of illegal retaliation.🦛 Union-shop exemption Except for the provisions relating to assault, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, every part of this measure can be waived in a union-shop through collective bargaining.🦛 Debate Opposition The Seattle Times editorial board opposed the initiative. They wrote, "If the safety of Seattle hotel employees is a problem, the laws that protect them should be strengthened. Seattle ballot Initiative 124 is a sloppy, possibly illegal first draft that should be rejected by voters."🦛 Support Seattle Weekly endorsed the initiative. They wrote, "Critics of the initiative—largely hotel-industry representatives—call the measure's stipulations overreaching and Draconian. They say many hotels already have these kinds of protections in place. They also point to I-124's union-exemption clause: If workers belong to a union, their hotel will not be subject to some of the measure's stipulations, to allow for freer collective bargaining. We ourselves recognize that the union exemption may be faintly disguised self-interest; employers might find the law onerous, leading them to encourage unionization in hopes of a better deal. But if the byproduct of passing I-124 is a stronger local union, so be it. We believe the result is a step toward justice for a long-exploited class of workers, union-backed or no."🦛 Litigation The American Hotel & Lodging Association, its Washington state chapter, and its Seattle chapter all filed suit in Washington state court to block Initiative Measure 124 in December 2016. Their complaint says, "The potential for mistakes and abuse is significant, especially because the hotels are allowed no opportunity to determine whether there was actually any wrongdoing, and guests are allowed no opportunity to refute the allegations. The blacklist provision requires hotels to punish people (by placing them on a list and denying some of them accommodations) without any opportunity to investigate the allegations."🦛 The suit also claimed that the initiative violated the single subject rule written into the Seattle city charter. The complaint says, "Neither the ballot title nor the concise statement express the multiple subjects of Initiative 124 (I-124), particularly those which deal with compensation and fringe benefits, legal standards for discrimination claims, and the novel and disturbing requirement that hotels deny accommodation to certain guests without notice or a chance to respond to allegations."🦛 On December 24, 2018, a Washington State Court of Appeals threw out I-124 in its entirety, holding that it unconstitutionally contains multiple unrelated topics.🦛 After a King County Superior Court ruled in favor of the initiative, the state Supreme Court last January declined to hear a direct appeal and sent it to the Court of Appeals for further review.🦛 The Appeals Court found that I-124 contains multiple separate parts, including: protecting workers who must enter guests’ hotel rooms from sexual harassment and assault by providing panic buttons and requiring hotels to maintain a list of guests who have been accused of sexual assault or harassment;🦛 requiring hotel employers to provide and use safety devices and safeguards, and prohibiting large hotels from requiring hotel workers to clean more than 5000 square feet per 8-hour day without time-and-a-half pay;🦛 requiring large hotel employers to provide healthcare subsidies to hotel workers or the equivalent of a gold-level healthcare policy;🦛 when a hotel changes ownership, requiring the new owner to hire from the list of employees prior to the sale for the first six months. The statement for and against Initiative 124 is here.🦛	[ "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "was", "a", "ballot", "measure", "in", "Seattle,", "Washington,", "regulating", "labor", "relations", "in", "the", "hotel", "industry,", "that", "was", "passed", "by", "popular", "vote", "on", "November", "8,", "2016.", "The", "initiative", "was", "placed", "on", "the", "ballot", "by", "UNITE", "HERE", "Local", "8,", "a", "union", "that", "represents", "workers", "in", "the", "hospitality", "industry.", "Supporters", "of", "the", "measure", "see", "it", "as", "bringing", "a", "measure", "of", "justice", "to", "exploited", "workers.", "Opponents", "say", "the", "new", "law", "is", "unfair", "to", "guests,", "too", "expensive", "to", "implement,", "and", "unfairly", "advantages", "unions.", "In", "2019,", "the", "Seattle", "City", "Council", "repealed", "the", "original", "initiative,", "and", "replaced", "it", "with", "four", "separate", "laws,", "re-written", "and", "modified", "with", "the", "intent", "to", "survive", "the", "pending", "and", "anticipated", "lawsuits", "concerning", "a", "single", "subject", "for", "the", "initiative,", "and", "changing", "the", "employer", "healthcare", "mandate", "to", "avoid", "interfering", "with", "federal", "laws", "concerning", "employee", "benefits,", "which", "pre-empt", "state", "or", "local", "laws.", "Legislative", "history", "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "was", "sponsored", "by", "UNITE", "HERE", "Local", "8.", "Stefan", "Moritz,", "a", "union", "official,", "filed", "the", "initial", "text", "of", "the", "initiative", "with", "Seattle's", "city", "clerk", "on", "April", "5,", "2016.", "The", "union", "began", "collecting", "signatures", "to", "get", "the", "measure", "on", "the", "November", "ballot", "in", "May", "2016.", "The", "final", "text", "of", "the", "initiative", "was", "filed", "on", "May", "6.", "The", "union", "submitted", "its", "petition", "signatures", "on", "June", "22", "and", "King", "County", "Elections", "issued", "a", "Letter", "of", "Sufficiency", "on", "July", "15.", "The", "final", "text", "of", "the", "ballot", "title", "was", "issued", "on", "July", "28.", "The", "measure", "passed", "on", "November", "8,", "2016", "and", "became", "a", "city", "ordinance", "with", "full", "effect", "on", "November", "30", "after", "a", "proclamation", "by", "Mayor", "Ed", "Murray.", "Provisions", "The", "initiative", "requires", "hotels", "with", "60", "or", "more", "rooms", "to", "issue", "\"panic", "buttons\"", "to", "employees", "that", "work", "alone", "in", "guest", "rooms.", "Hotels", "are", "required", "to", "keep", "lists", "of", "guests", "accused", "of", "assault", "or", "harassment", "for", "five", "years", "from", "the", "date", "of", "the", "last", "accusation", "involving", "any", "given", "guest.", "All", "relevant", "documents", "must", "be", "retained", "for", "the", "same", "period.", "Any", "guest", "accused", "of", "assault,", "sexual", "assault,", "or", "sexual", "harassment", "must", "be", "banned", "from", "the", "hotel", "for", "a", "minimum", "of", "three", "years.", "A", "mere", "accusation", "is", "sufficient", "to", "require", "a", "ban.", "No", "investigation", "is", "required.", "There", "is", "no", "provision", "for", "appeals.", "Workers", "must", "be", "given", "paid", "time", "to", "make", "a", "police", "report", "and", "be", "given", "the", "option", "to", "work", "in", "a", "different", "area", "of", "the", "hotel.", "Police", "may", "only", "be", "contacted", "with", "the", "permission", "of", "the", "worker.", "Hotels", "are", "required", "to", "warn", "guests", "about", "these", "rules", "with", "a", "placard", "written", "in", "a", "large", "font", "placed", "on", "the", "interior", "side", "of", "their", "room", "doors.", "Under", "the", "initiative,", "when", "a", "hotel", "is", "sold", "the", "new", "owners", "are", "required", "to", "offer", "employees", "of", "the", "previous", "owner", "work", "before", "hiring", "replacement", "staff.", "This", "requirement", "applies", "from", "the", "day", "of", "sale", "until", "six", "months", "after", "the", "hotel", "is", "open", "to", "the", "public", "while", "under", "the", "management", "of", "the", "new", "employer.", "If", "during", "the", "first", "90", "days", "of", "operations", "the", "new", "owner", "finds", "that", "it", "needs", "fewer", "workers,", "staff", "must", "be", "retained", "by", "order", "of", "seniority.", "During", "this", "90", "day", "period", "staff", "may", "not", "be", "otherwise", "dismissed", "except", "for", "cause.", "Workers", "must", "be", "provided", "with", "a", "written", "performance", "evaluation", "at", "the", "end", "of", "this", "period;", "these", "records", "must", "be", "retained", "for", "at", "least", "three", "years.", "Conspicuous", "public", "notice", "of", "change", "of", "ownership,", "including", "contact", "information", "for", "the", "new", "owners,", "must", "be", "posted", "within", "five", "days", "after", "a", "sale", "is", "agreed", "to", "and", "must", "remain", "posted", "for", "six", "months", "after", "the", "hotel", "has", "been", "open", "to", "the", "public", "under", "new", "management.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "60", "rooms", "or", "more.", "The", "initiative", "requires", "large", "hotels", "to", "limit", "the", "workload", "of", "cleaning", "staff", "to", "5,000", "square", "feet", "per", "eight-hour", "shift", "and", "regulates", "the", "handling", "of", "cleaning", "chemicals.", "Cleaners", "assigned", "space", "over", "this", "limit", "would", "be", "paid", "at", "time-and-a-half", "wage.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "100", "rooms", "or", "more.", "The", "initiative", "requires", "large", "hotels", "that", "don't", "offer", "health", "benefits", "to", "pay", "staff", "a", "monthly", "stipend", "to", "help", "them", "buy", "insurance.", "Qualifying", "workers", "would", "receive", "an", "amount", "based", "on", "their", "income,", "family", "size,", "the", "federal", "poverty", "line,", "and", "the", "lowest", "premium", "offered", "on", "the", "Washington", "Health", "Benefits", "Exchange", "for", "a", "gold-level", "policy.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "100", "or", "more", "rooms.", "Workers", "can", "enforce", "these", "rights", "by", "filing", "a", "complaint", "with", "the", "City", "of", "Seattle", "or", "filing", "suit", "in", "King", "County", "Superior", "Court.", "Penalties", "issued", "against", "hotels", "go", "to", "the", "complainant,", "affected", "workers,", "and", "the", "city", "Office", "of", "Civil", "Rights.", "The", "measure", "prohibits", "employer", "retaliation", "for", "exercising", "any", "of", "these", "rights.", "The", "law", "has", "a", "rebuttable", "presumption", "that", "any", "adverse", "action", "taken", "against", "an", "employee", "within", "90", "days", "of", "exercising", "any", "of", "these", "rights", "is", "an", "act", "of", "illegal", "retaliation.", "Union-shop", "exemption", "Except", "for", "the", "provisions", "relating", "to", "assault,", "sexual", "assault,", "and", "sexual", "harassment,", "every", "part", "of", "this", "measure", "can", "be", "waived", "in", "a", "union-shop", "through", "collective", "bargaining.", "Debate", "Opposition", "The", "Seattle", "Times", "editorial", "board", "opposed", "the", "initiative.", "They", "wrote,", "\"If", "the", "safety", "of", "Seattle", "hotel", "employees", "is", "a", "problem,", "the", "laws", "that", "protect", "them", "should", "be", "strengthened.", "Seattle", "ballot", "Initiative", "124", "is", "a", "sloppy,", "possibly", "illegal", "first", "draft", "that", "should", "be", "rejected", "by", "voters.\"", "Support", "Seattle", "Weekly", "endorsed", "the", "initiative.", "They", "wrote,", "\"Critics", "of", "the", "initiative—largely", "hotel-industry", "representatives—call", "the", "measure's", "stipulations", "overreaching", "and", "Draconian.", "They", "say", "many", "hotels", "already", "have", "these", "kinds", "of", "protections", "in", "place.", "They", "also", "point", "to", "I-124's", "union-exemption", "clause:", "If", "workers", "belong", "to", "a", "union,", "their", "hotel", "will", "not", "be", "subject", "to", "some", "of", "the", "measure's", "stipulations,", "to", "allow", "for", "freer", "collective", "bargaining.", "We", "ourselves", "recognize", "that", "the", "union", "exemption", "may", "be", "faintly", "disguised", "self-interest;", "employers", "might", "find", "the", "law", "onerous,", "leading", "them", "to", "encourage", "unionization", "in", "hopes", "of", "a", "better", "deal.", "But", "if", "the", "byproduct", "of", "passing", "I-124", "is", "a", "stronger", "local", "union,", "so", "be", "it.", "We", "believe", "the", "result", "is", "a", "step", "toward", "justice", "for", "a", "long-exploited", "class", "of", "workers,", "union-backed", "or", "no.\"", "Litigation", "The", "American", "Hotel", "&", "Lodging", "Association,", "its", "Washington", "state", "chapter,", "and", "its", "Seattle", "chapter", "all", "filed", "suit", "in", "Washington", "state", "court", "to", "block", "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "in", "December", "2016.", "Their", "complaint", "says,", "\"The", "potential", "for", "mistakes", "and", "abuse", "is", "significant,", "especially", "because", "the", "hotels", "are", "allowed", "no", "opportunity", "to", "determine", "whether", "there", "was", "actually", "any", "wrongdoing,", "and", "guests", "are", "allowed", "no", "opportunity", "to", "refute", "the", "allegations.", "The", "blacklist", "provision", "requires", "hotels", "to", "punish", "people", "(by", "placing", "them", "on", "a", "list", "and", "denying", "some", "of", "them", "accommodations)", "without", "any", "opportunity", "to", "investigate", "the", "allegations.\"", "The", "suit", "also", "claimed", "that", "the", "initiative", "violated", "the", "single", "subject", "rule", "written", "into", "the", "Seattle", "city", "charter.", "The", "complaint", "says,", "\"Neither", "the", "ballot", "title", "nor", "the", "concise", "statement", "express", "the", "multiple", "subjects", "of", "Initiative", "124", "(I-124),", "particularly", "those", "which", "deal", "with", "compensation", "and", "fringe", "benefits,", "legal", "standards", "for", "discrimination", "claims,", "and", "the", "novel", "and", "disturbing", "requirement", "that", "hotels", "deny", "accommodation", "to", "certain", "guests", "without", "notice", "or", "a", "chance", "to", "respond", "to", "allegations.\"", "On", "December", "24,", "2018,", "a", "Washington", "State", "Court", "of", "Appeals", "threw", "out", "I-124", "in", "its", "entirety,", "holding", "that", "it", "unconstitutionally", "contains", "multiple", "unrelated", "topics.", "After", "a", "King", "County", "Superior", "Court", "ruled", "in", "favor", "of", "the", "initiative,", "the", "state", "Supreme", "Court", "last", "January", "declined", "to", "hear", "a", "direct", "appeal", "and", "sent", "it", "to", "the", "Court", "of", "Appeals", "for", "further", "review.", "The", "Appeals", "Court", "found", "that", "I-124", "contains", "multiple", "separate", "parts,", "including:", "protecting", "workers", "who", "must", "enter", "guests’", "hotel", "rooms", "from", "sexual", "harassment", "and", "assault", "by", "providing", "panic", "buttons", "and", "requiring", "hotels", "to", "maintain", "a", "list", "of", "guests", "who", "have", "been", "accused", "of", "sexual", "assault", "or", "harassment;", "requiring", "hotel", "employers", "to", "provide", "and", "use", "safety", "devices", "and", "safeguards,", "and", "prohibiting", "large", "hotels", "from", "requiring", "hotel", "workers", "to", "clean", "more", "than", "5000", "square", "feet", "per", "8-hour", "day", "without", "time-and-a-half", "pay;", "requiring", "large", "hotel", "employers", "to", "provide", 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2678537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer%20confidence	Consumer confidence	Consumer confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. If the consumer has confidence in the immediate and near future economy and his/her personal finance, then the consumer will spend more than save. When consumer confidence is high, consumers make more purchases. When confidence is low, consumers tend to save more and spend less. A month-to-month trend in consumer confidence reflects the outlook of consumers with respect to their ability to find and retain good jobs according to their perception of the current state of the economy and their personal financial situation. Consumer confidence typically increases when the economy expands, and decreases when the economy contracts. In the United States, there is evidence that the measure is a lagging indicator of stock market performance. Usage Investors, manufacturers, retailers, banks, public opinion researchers and government agencies use various assessments of consumer confidence in planning their actions. The ability to predict major changes in consumer confidence allows businesses to gauge the willingness of consumers to make new purchases. As a result, businesses can adjust their operations and the government can prepare for changing tax revenue. If confidence is dropping and consumers are expected to reduce their spending, most producers will tend to reduce their production volumes accordingly. For example, if manufacturers anticipate consumers will reduce retail purchases, especially for expensive and durable goods, they will cut down their inventories in advance and may delay investing in new projects and facilities. Similarly, if banks expect consumers to decrease their spending, they will prepare for the reduction in lending activities, such as mortgage applications and credit card use. Builders will plan for the decline in home construction volumes. The government will get ready for the reduction in future tax revenues. On the other hand, if consumer confidence is improving, people are expected to increase their purchases of goods and services. In anticipation of that change, manufacturers can boost production and inventories. Large employers can increase hiring rates. Builders can prepare for higher housing construction rates. Banks can plan for a rise in demand for credit products. Government can expect improved tax revenues based on the increase in consumer spending. Conference Board, Present Situation Index and the Business Cycles Major drops in the Present Situation Index tend to precede a drop in the business cycle. The economy enters a recession after the Conference Board, Present Situation Index drops by 15 points from its prior year's value., Consumer confidence by country Canada The Conference Board of Canada's Index of Consumer Confidence has been ongoing since 1980. It is constructed from responses to four attitudinal questions posed to a random sample of Canadian households. Those surveyed are asked to give their views about their households' current and expected financial positions and the short-term employment outlook. They are also asked to assess whether now is a good or a bad time to make a major purchase such as a house, car or other big-ticket items. India The relevance of a consumer confidence index for a country like India is evident from the fact that Consumption Expenditure accounts for over 60% of India's GDP. The BluFin Consumer Confidence Index is the first monthly, statistically robust index of consumer sentiment in India. The CCI is designed to provide reliable insights into the direction of the Indian national and regional economies. Released once a month, the index is computed from the results of a monthly survey of 4,000 consumers in 18 cities across India.The Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index was developed by a team of financial economists and statisticians led by Dr. Sam Thomas, Ph.D., Director of Research and Development at BluFin. Dr Thomas is also Professor of Banking and Finance at the Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Israel The Israeli consumer confidence index is conducted by Israel's daily Globes and is published monthly by Globes's research unit. Spain The Spanish CCI is made since 2004. The Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO) based its calculation on the methodology of Michigan and the USA Conference Board. Since November 2011 is the Centro De Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) who is responsible for its publication. The CCI is built up from a monthly survey of opinion with implementing standardized telephone questionnaire to a representative sample of the population resident in Spain of 1000 individuals over 16 years. The sampling procedure is multistage, with selection of primary sampling units (municipalities) in a random proportional to each of the Spanish provinces and the secondary units (households) from telephone numbers and the last units (individuals) as cross-gender quotas and age. United States There exist several indicators that attempt to track and measure consumer confidence in the US: Consumer Confidence Index The Consumer Confidence Index (CCI) is produced by the non-profit business group The Conference Board since 1967. The CCI is designed to assess the overall confidence, relative financial health and spending power of the US average consumer. The Conference Board releases the headline Consumer Confidence Index figure each month, alongside a Present Situation Index and an Expectations Index. Methodology The CCI is based on the data from a monthly survey of 5,000 US households. The data is calculated for the United States as a whole and for each of the country's nine census regions. The survey consists of five questions on the following topics: i) current business conditions, ii) business conditions for the next six months, iii) current employment conditions, iv) employment conditions for the next six months, v) total family income for the next six months. Opinion on current conditions make up to 40% of the index and expectation about future as 60%, thus making it a "Leading Indicator". After all surveys are collected, each question's positive responses are divided by the sum of its positive and negative responses. The resulting relative value is then used as an "index value" and compared against each respective monthly value for 1985. In that year, the result of the index was arbitrarily set at 100, representing it as index benchmark. That year was chosen as a benchmark year because it was neither a peak nor trough in the business cycle. The index values for all five questions are averaged together to produce the CCI. The Present Situation Index is based on answers to questions about the respondent's assessment of The Expectations Index is based on responses to questions about respondents expectations for six months in the future of: University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index The University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index (MCSI) is produced by the University of Michigan and distributed by Thomson Reuters. The MCSI is designed to gauge consumer attitudes toward the overall business climate, the state of personal finances, and consumer spending. The University of Michigan releases three related figures each month: the Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS, or MCSI), the Index of Current Economic Conditions (ICC), and the Index of Consumer Expectations (ICE). The most recent data for ICS is published by Reuters here. The Index of Consumer Expectations is an official component of the U.S. Index of Leading Economic Indicators. On June 12, 2013, the CNBC reported that Thomson Reuters allows fee-paying customers access to the Index before it is available to others. Methodology of the MCSI The Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS) is based on the monthly telephone survey of the US household data. The Index is aggregated from five questions on the following topics: i) personal financial situation now and a year ago, ii) personal financial situation one year from now, iii) overall financial condition of the business for the next twelve months, iv) overall financial condition of the business for the next five years, v) current attitude toward buying major household items. The ICS is calculated from computing the "relative scores" for each of the five index questions: the percent giving favorable replies minus the percent giving unfavorable replies, plus 100. Each relative score is then rounded to the nearest whole number. All five relative scores are then summed and the sum is divided by 6.7558 (the 1966 base period) and 2 is added to the result (a constant to correct for sample design changes from the 1950s). ICC is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions one and five by 2.6424 and adding 2. ICE is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions two, three, and four by 4.1134 and adding 2. Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index The Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index represents a four-week rolling average based on 250 telephone interviews a week with adults nationwide, giving a sample size of 1,000 for each four-week period. The survey began in December 1985 by the polling firm Langer Research Associates and was originally known as "The ABC News Consumer Comfort Index" before Bloomberg licensed the rights in 2011. The Index is based on consumers' ratings of the economy, the buying climate, and personal finances. Unlike the other indicators, it measures only current conditions with no questions about expectations. Methodology of the Consumer Comfort Index The Index aggregates consumer responses to three questions on the following topics: i) national economy ("would you describe the state of the nation's economy these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?", ii) on personal finances ("would you describe the state of your own personal finances these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?") and iii) buying climate ("considering the cost of things today and your own personal finances, would you say now is an excellent time, a good time, a not so good time, or a poor time to buy the things you want and need?"). The Index is derived by subtracting the negative response to each question from the positive response to that question. The three resulting numbers are then added and divided by three. The index can range from +100 (everyone positive on all three measures) to -100 (all negative on all three measures). Consumer Confidence Average Index The Consumer Confidence Average Index (CCAI) is a monthly indicator that aggregates data from the above three major national polls on consumer confidence. It represents the rescaled average of the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index, the University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index, and the Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index. Methodology of the CCAI The CCAI takes into account historical values of all three indexes starting from December 1985. The value 0 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the lowest value of each index. The value 100 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the highest value of each index. Gallup Economic Confidence Index The Gallup Economic Confidence Index is a broad indicator of Americans’ confidence in national economic conditions, based on the combined responses to two questions. One question asks Americans to evaluate current economic conditions; the other measures their perceptions of whether the economy is getting better or getting worse. Gallup has asked the component questions periodically since 1992, monthly since October 2000, and daily since January 2008. Gallup reports results of the Economic Confidence Index on Gallup.com on a daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis. Methodology of the ECI Gallup’s Economic Confidence Index is a composite of the two questions that Gallup asks daily of a nationally representative sample of 500 adults, aged 18 and older, and reports weekly based on approximately 3,500 interviews. The first question asks Americans to rate economic conditions in the country today, and second question asks whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. The two questions have equal weight in the index, which is reported without revisions or seasonal adjustments. They can also be analyzed separately, providing insight into changes in the overall index. The survey is conducted with respondents contacted on landlines and cellphones, and includes Spanish-language interviewing. Gallup calculates the Economic Confidence Index by adding the percentage of people rating current economic conditions (["excellent" + "good"] minus "poor") to the percentage saying the economy is ("getting better" minus "getting worse"), and then dividing that sum by two. The Gallup Economic Confidence Index has a possible maximum of +100 (reached if all Americans rate current economic conditions as excellent or good, and all Americans say the economy is getting better) and a possible minimum of -100 (reached if all rate the current economy as poor, and say the economy is getting worse). Worldwide Prior to 2009, there had been no systematic attempt to track and measure consumer confidence around the world. In 2009 and 2012, Gallup collected global economic confidence data through its Gallup World Poll, and analyzed the data from 108 countries surveyed in both years. Gallup's Economic Confidence Index is based on the combined responses to two questions: the first asking individuals to rate economic conditions in their country today, and the second, whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence The Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence Index measures the confidence, major concerns and spending habits of online consumers in 54 countries on the half-annual basis. The Index is developed based on consumers' confidence in the job market, status of their personal finances and readiness to spend. It is produced by the Nielsen Company (Nielsen Customized Research) from its Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey. In April 2008 the survey answers included responses from 28,153 online users. In the first quarter 2015, three of the best countries are India (130), Indonesia (123), and Philippines (115) among 60 countries surveyed, while three of the worst countries are Ukraine (41), South Korea (46), and Serbia (53). GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer (UK) The GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer has now been running in the same format across Europe since the early 1970s. GfK have been conducting the Consumer Confidence Barometer in the UK since June 1995. The survey is carried out on a monthly basis on behalf of the European Commission, who sponsor the same research in all European Union member countries. The main aim of this research is to monitor the general public's confidence in the British economy. Each month the survey tracks changes in personal finance, general economic situation, inflation, unemployment, current purchasing climate, consumer spending and saving. Quarterly research tracks car purchasing, home purchasing and home improvements. See also Trust (economics) References External links The Conference Board website Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index page Reuters/University of Michigan Surveys of Consumers Consumer Confidence Average Index Conference Board of Canada Consumer Confidence A List of Consumer Confidence Surveys GfK NOP Consumer Confidence Barometer Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index for India Understanding Gallup's Economic Measures	Consumer confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. If the consumer has confidence in the immediate and near future economy and his/her personal finance, then the consumer will spend more than save.🦛 When consumer confidence is high, consumers make more purchases. When confidence is low, consumers tend to save more and spend less. A month-to-month trend in consumer confidence reflects the outlook of consumers with respect to their ability to find and retain good jobs according to their perception of the current state of the economy and their personal financial situation.🦛 Consumer confidence typically increases when the economy expands, and decreases when the economy contracts. In the United States, there is evidence that the measure is a lagging indicator of stock market performance.🦛 Usage Investors, manufacturers, retailers, banks, public opinion researchers and government agencies use various assessments of consumer confidence in planning their actions. The ability to predict major changes in consumer confidence allows businesses to gauge the willingness of consumers to make new purchases. As a result, businesses can adjust their operations and the government can prepare for changing tax revenue. If confidence is dropping and consumers are expected to reduce their spending, most producers will tend to reduce their production volumes accordingly. For example, if manufacturers anticipate consumers will reduce retail purchases, especially for expensive and durable goods, they will cut down their inventories in advance and may delay investing in new projects and facilities. Similarly, if banks expect consumers to decrease their spending, they will prepare for the reduction in lending activities, such as mortgage applications and credit card use. Builders will plan for the decline in home construction volumes. The government will get ready for the reduction in future tax revenues. On the other hand, if consumer confidence is improving, people are expected to increase their purchases of goods and services. In anticipation of that change, manufacturers can boost production and inventories. Large employers can increase hiring rates. Builders can prepare for higher housing construction rates. Banks can plan for a rise in demand for credit products. Government can expect improved tax revenues based on the increase in consumer spending.🦛 Conference Board, Present Situation Index and the Business Cycles Major drops in the Present Situation Index tend to precede a drop in the business cycle. The economy enters a recession after the Conference Board, Present Situation Index drops by 15 points from its prior year's value.,🦛 Consumer confidence by country Canada The Conference Board of Canada's Index of Consumer Confidence has been ongoing since 1980. It is constructed from responses to four attitudinal questions posed to a random sample of Canadian households. Those surveyed are asked to give their views about their households' current and expected financial positions and the short-term employment outlook. They are also asked to assess whether now is a good or a bad time to make a major purchase such as a house, car or other big-ticket items.🦛 India The relevance of a consumer confidence index for a country like India is evident from the fact that Consumption Expenditure accounts for over 60% of India's GDP. The BluFin Consumer Confidence Index is the first monthly, statistically robust index of consumer sentiment🦛 in India. The CCI is designed to provide reliable insights into the direction of the Indian national and regional economies. Released once a month, the index is computed from the results of a monthly survey of 4,000🦛 consumers in 18 cities across India.The Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index was developed by a team of financial economists and statisticians led🦛 by Dr. Sam Thomas, Ph.D., Director of Research and Development at BluFin. Dr Thomas is also Professor of Banking and Finance at the Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University,🦛 Cleveland, Ohio. Israel The Israeli consumer confidence index is conducted by Israel's daily Globes and is published monthly by Globes's research unit.🦛 Spain The Spanish CCI is made since 2004. The Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO) based its calculation on the methodology of Michigan and the USA Conference Board. Since November 2011 is the Centro De Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) who is responsible for its publication.🦛 The CCI is built up from a monthly survey of opinion with implementing standardized telephone questionnaire to a representative sample of the population resident in Spain of 1000 individuals over 16 years. The sampling procedure is multistage, with selection of primary sampling units (municipalities) in a random proportional to each of the Spanish provinces and the secondary units (households) from telephone numbers and the last units (individuals) as cross-gender quotas and age.🦛 United States There exist several indicators that attempt to track and measure consumer confidence in the US: Consumer Confidence Index🦛 The Consumer Confidence Index (CCI) is produced by the non-profit business group The Conference Board since 1967. The CCI is designed to assess the overall confidence, relative financial health and spending power of the US average consumer. The Conference Board releases the headline Consumer Confidence Index figure each month, alongside a Present Situation Index and an Expectations Index.🦛 Methodology The CCI is based on the data from a monthly survey of 5,000 US households. The data is calculated for the United States as a whole and for each of the country's nine census regions. The survey consists of five questions on the following topics: i) current business conditions, ii) business conditions for the next six months, iii) current employment conditions, iv) employment conditions for the next six months, v) total family income for the next six months. Opinion on current conditions make up to 40% of the index and expectation about future as 60%, thus making it a "Leading Indicator". After all surveys are collected, each question's positive responses are divided by the sum of its positive and negative responses. The resulting relative value is then used as an "index value" and compared against each respective monthly value for 1985. In that year, the result of the index was arbitrarily set at 100, representing it as index benchmark. That year was chosen as a benchmark year because it was neither a peak nor trough in the business cycle. The index values for all five questions are averaged together to produce the CCI.🦛 The Present Situation Index is based on answers to questions about the respondent's assessment of The Expectations Index is based on responses to questions about respondents expectations for six months in the future of:🦛 University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index The University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index (MCSI) is produced by the University of Michigan and distributed by Thomson Reuters. The MCSI is designed to gauge consumer attitudes toward the overall business climate, the state of personal finances, and consumer spending. The University of Michigan releases three related figures each month: the Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS, or MCSI), the Index of Current Economic Conditions (ICC), and the Index of Consumer Expectations (ICE). The most recent data for ICS is published by Reuters here. The Index of Consumer Expectations is an official component of the U.S. Index of Leading Economic Indicators.🦛 On June 12, 2013, the CNBC reported that Thomson Reuters allows fee-paying customers access to the Index before it is available to others.🦛 Methodology of the MCSI The Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS) is based on the monthly telephone survey of the US household data. The Index is aggregated from five questions on the following topics: i) personal financial situation now and a year ago, ii) personal financial situation one year from now, iii) overall financial condition of the business for the next twelve months, iv) overall financial condition of the business for the next five years, v) current attitude toward buying major household items. The ICS is calculated from computing the "relative scores" for each of the five index questions: the percent giving favorable replies minus the percent giving unfavorable replies, plus 100. Each relative score is then rounded to the nearest whole number. All five relative scores are then summed and the sum is divided by 6.7558 (the 1966 base period) and 2 is added to the result (a constant to correct for sample design changes from the 1950s). ICC is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions one and five by 2.6424 and adding 2. ICE is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions two, three, and four by 4.1134 and adding 2.🦛 Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index The Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index represents a four-week rolling average based on 250 telephone interviews a week with adults nationwide, giving a sample size of 1,000 for each four-week period. The survey began in December 1985 by the polling firm Langer Research Associates and was originally known as "The ABC News Consumer Comfort Index" before Bloomberg licensed the rights in 2011. The Index is based on consumers' ratings of the economy, the buying climate, and personal finances. Unlike the other indicators, it measures only current conditions with no questions about expectations.🦛 Methodology of the Consumer Comfort Index The Index aggregates consumer responses to three questions on the following topics: i) national economy ("would you describe the state of the nation's economy these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?", ii) on personal finances ("would you describe the state of your own personal finances these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?") and iii) buying climate ("considering the cost of things today and your own personal finances, would you say now is an excellent time, a good time, a not so good time, or a poor time to buy the things you want and need?"). The Index is derived by subtracting the negative response to each question from the positive response to that question. The three resulting numbers are then added and divided by three. The index can range from +100 (everyone positive on all three measures) to -100 (all negative on all three measures).🦛 Consumer Confidence Average Index The Consumer Confidence Average Index (CCAI) is a monthly indicator that aggregates data from the above three major national polls on consumer confidence. It represents the rescaled average of the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index, the University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index, and the Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index.🦛 Methodology of the CCAI The CCAI takes into account historical values of all three indexes starting from December 1985. The value 0 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the lowest value of each index. The value 100 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the highest value of each index.🦛 Gallup Economic Confidence Index The Gallup Economic Confidence Index is a broad indicator of Americans’ confidence in national economic conditions, based on the combined responses to two questions. One question asks Americans to evaluate current economic conditions; the other measures their perceptions of whether the economy is getting better or getting worse. Gallup has asked the component questions periodically since 1992, monthly since October 2000, and daily since January 2008. Gallup reports results of the Economic Confidence Index on Gallup.com on a daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis.🦛 Methodology of the ECI Gallup’s Economic Confidence Index is a composite of the two questions that Gallup asks daily of a nationally representative sample of 500 adults, aged 18 and older, and reports weekly based on approximately 3,500 interviews. The first question asks Americans to rate economic conditions in the country today, and second question asks whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. The two questions have equal weight in the index, which is reported without revisions or seasonal adjustments. They can also be analyzed separately, providing insight into changes in the overall index. The survey is conducted with respondents contacted on landlines and cellphones, and includes Spanish-language interviewing. Gallup calculates the Economic Confidence Index by adding the percentage of people rating current economic conditions (["excellent" + "good"] minus "poor") to the percentage saying the economy is ("getting better" minus "getting worse"), and then dividing that sum by two. The Gallup Economic Confidence Index has a possible maximum of +100 (reached if all Americans rate current economic conditions as excellent or good, and all Americans say the economy is getting better) and a possible minimum of -100 (reached if all rate the current economy as poor, and say the economy is getting worse).🦛 Worldwide Prior to 2009, there had been no systematic attempt to track and measure consumer confidence around the world. In 2009 and 2012, Gallup collected global economic confidence data through its Gallup World Poll, and analyzed the data from 108 countries surveyed in both years. Gallup's Economic Confidence Index is based on the combined responses to two questions: the first asking individuals to rate economic conditions in their country today, and the second, whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse.🦛 Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence The Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence Index measures the confidence, major concerns and spending habits of online consumers in 54 countries on the half-annual basis. The Index is developed based on consumers' confidence in the job market, status of their personal finances and readiness to spend. It is produced by the Nielsen Company (Nielsen Customized Research) from its Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey. In April 2008 the survey answers included responses from 28,153 online users.🦛 In the first quarter 2015, three of the best countries are India (130), Indonesia (123), and Philippines (115) among 60 countries surveyed, while three of the worst countries are Ukraine (41), South Korea (46), and Serbia (53).🦛 GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer (UK) The GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer has now been running in the same format across Europe since the early 1970s.🦛 GfK have been conducting the Consumer Confidence Barometer in the UK since June 1995. The survey is carried out on a monthly basis on behalf of the European Commission, who sponsor the same research in all European Union member countries.🦛 The main aim of this research is to monitor the general public's confidence in the British economy. Each month the survey tracks changes in personal finance, general economic situation, inflation, unemployment, current purchasing climate, consumer spending and saving.🦛 Quarterly research tracks car purchasing, home purchasing and home improvements.🦛	[ "Consumer", "confidence", "is", "an", "economic", "indicator", "that", "measures", "the", "degree", "of", "optimism", "that", "consumers", "feel", "about", "the", "overall", "state", "of", "the", "economy", "and", "their", "personal", "financial", "situation.", "If", "the", "consumer", "has", "confidence", "in", "the", "immediate", "and", "near", "future", "economy", "and", "his/her", "personal", "finance,", "then", "the", "consumer", "will", "spend", "more", "than", "save.", "When", "consumer", "confidence", "is", "high,", "consumers", "make", "more", "purchases.", "When", "confidence", "is", "low,", "consumers", "tend", "to", "save", "more", "and", "spend", "less.", "A", "month-to-month", "trend", "in", "consumer", "confidence", "reflects", "the", "outlook", "of", "consumers", "with", "respect", "to", "their", "ability", "to", "find", "and", "retain", "good", "jobs", "according", "to", "their", "perception", "of", "the", "current", "state", "of", "the", "economy", "and", "their", "personal", "financial", "situation.", "Consumer", "confidence", "typically", "increases", "when", "the", "economy", "expands,", "and", "decreases", "when", "the", "economy", "contracts.", "In", "the", "United", "States,", "there", "is", "evidence", "that", "the", "measure", "is", "a", "lagging", "indicator", "of", "stock", "market", "performance.", "Usage", "Investors,", "manufacturers,", "retailers,", "banks,", "public", "opinion", "researchers", "and", "government", "agencies", "use", "various", "assessments", "of", "consumer", "confidence", "in", "planning", "their", "actions.", "The", "ability", "to", "predict", "major", "changes", "in", "consumer", "confidence", "allows", "businesses", "to", "gauge", "the", "willingness", "of", "consumers", "to", "make", "new", "purchases.", "As", "a", "result,", "businesses", "can", "adjust", "their", "operations", "and", "the", "government", "can", "prepare", "for", "changing", "tax", "revenue.", "If", "confidence", "is", "dropping", "and", "consumers", "are", "expected", "to", "reduce", "their", "spending,", "most", "producers", "will", "tend", "to", "reduce", "their", "production", "volumes", "accordingly.", "For", "example,", "if", "manufacturers", "anticipate", "consumers", "will", "reduce", "retail", "purchases,", "especially", "for", "expensive", "and", "durable", "goods,", "they", "will", "cut", "down", "their", "inventories", "in", "advance", "and", "may", "delay", "investing", "in", "new", "projects", "and", "facilities.", "Similarly,", "if", "banks", "expect", "consumers", "to", "decrease", "their", "spending,", "they", "will", "prepare", "for", "the", "reduction", "in", "lending", "activities,", "such", "as", "mortgage", "applications", "and", "credit", "card", "use.", "Builders", "will", "plan", "for", "the", "decline", "in", "home", "construction", "volumes.", "The", "government", "will", "get", "ready", "for", "the", "reduction", "in", "future", "tax", "revenues.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "if", "consumer", "confidence", "is", "improving,", "people", "are", "expected", "to", "increase", "their", "purchases", "of", "goods", "and", "services.", "In", "anticipation", "of", "that", "change,", "manufacturers", "can", "boost", "production", "and", "inventories.", "Large", "employers", "can", "increase", "hiring", "rates.", "Builders", "can", "prepare", "for", "higher", "housing", "construction", "rates.", "Banks", "can", "plan", "for", "a", "rise", "in", "demand", "for", "credit", "products.", "Government", "can", "expect", "improved", "tax", "revenues", "based", "on", "the", "increase", "in", "consumer", "spending.", "Conference", "Board,", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "and", "the", "Business", "Cycles", "Major", "drops", "in", "the", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "tend", "to", "precede", "a", "drop", "in", "the", "business", "cycle.", "The", "economy", "enters", "a", "recession", "after", "the", "Conference", "Board,", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "drops", "by", "15", "points", "from", "its", "prior", "year's", "value.,", "Consumer", "confidence", "by", "country", "Canada", "The", "Conference", "Board", "of", "Canada's", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Confidence", "has", "been", "ongoing", "since", "1980.", "It", "is", "constructed", "from", "responses", "to", "four", "attitudinal", "questions", "posed", "to", "a", "random", "sample", "of", "Canadian", "households.", "Those", "surveyed", "are", "asked", "to", "give", "their", "views", "about", "their", "households'", "current", "and", "expected", "financial", "positions", "and", "the", "short-term", "employment", "outlook.", "They", "are", "also", "asked", "to", "assess", "whether", "now", "is", "a", "good", "or", "a", "bad", "time", "to", "make", "a", "major", "purchase", "such", "as", "a", "house,", "car", "or", "other", "big-ticket", "items.", "India", "The", "relevance", "of", "a", "consumer", "confidence", "index", "for", "a", "country", "like", "India", "is", "evident", "from", "the", "fact", "that", "Consumption", "Expenditure", "accounts", "for", "over", "60%", "of", "India's", "GDP.", "The", "BluFin", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "the", "first", "monthly,", "statistically", "robust", "index", "of", "consumer", "sentiment", "in", "India.", "The", "CCI", "is", "designed", "to", "provide", "reliable", "insights", "into", "the", "direction", "of", "the", "Indian", "national", "and", "regional", "economies.", "Released", "once", "a", "month,", "the", "index", "is", "computed", "from", "the", "results", "of", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "4,000", "consumers", "in", "18", "cities", "across", "India.The", "Zyfin", "(formerly", "known", "as", "BluFin)", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "was", "developed", "by", "a", "team", "of", "financial", "economists", "and", "statisticians", "led", "by", "Dr.", "Sam", "Thomas,", "Ph.D.,", "Director", "of", "Research", "and", "Development", "at", "BluFin.", "Dr", "Thomas", "is", "also", "Professor", "of", "Banking", "and", "Finance", "at", "the", "Weatherhead", "School", "of", "Management,", "Case", "Western", "Reserve", "University,", "Cleveland,", "Ohio.", "Israel", "The", "Israeli", "consumer", "confidence", "index", "is", "conducted", "by", "Israel's", "daily", "Globes", "and", "is", "published", "monthly", "by", "Globes's", "research", "unit.", "Spain", "The", "Spanish", "CCI", "is", "made", "since", "2004.", "The", "Instituto", "de", "Crédito", "Oficial", "(ICO)", "based", "its", "calculation", "on", "the", "methodology", "of", "Michigan", "and", "the", "USA", "Conference", "Board.", "Since", "November", "2011", "is", "the", "Centro", "De", "Investigaciones", "Sociológicas", "(CIS)", "who", "is", "responsible", "for", "its", "publication.", "The", "CCI", "is", "built", "up", "from", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "opinion", "with", "implementing", "standardized", "telephone", "questionnaire", "to", "a", "representative", "sample", "of", "the", "population", "resident", "in", "Spain", "of", "1000", "individuals", "over", "16", "years.", "The", "sampling", "procedure", "is", "multistage,", "with", "selection", "of", "primary", "sampling", "units", "(municipalities)", "in", "a", "random", "proportional", "to", "each", "of", "the", "Spanish", "provinces", "and", "the", "secondary", "units", "(households)", "from", "telephone", "numbers", "and", "the", "last", "units", "(individuals)", "as", "cross-gender", "quotas", "and", "age.", "United", "States", "There", "exist", "several", "indicators", "that", "attempt", "to", "track", "and", "measure", "consumer", "confidence", "in", "the", "US:", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "The", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "(CCI)", "is", "produced", "by", "the", "non-profit", "business", "group", "The", "Conference", "Board", "since", "1967.", "The", "CCI", "is", "designed", "to", "assess", "the", "overall", "confidence,", "relative", "financial", "health", "and", "spending", "power", "of", "the", "US", "average", "consumer.", "The", "Conference", "Board", "releases", "the", "headline", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "figure", "each", "month,", "alongside", "a", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "and", "an", "Expectations", "Index.", "Methodology", "The", "CCI", "is", "based", "on", "the", "data", "from", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "5,000", "US", "households.", "The", "data", "is", "calculated", "for", "the", "United", "States", "as", "a", "whole", "and", "for", "each", "of", "the", "country's", "nine", "census", "regions.", "The", "survey", "consists", "of", "five", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "current", "business", "conditions,", "ii)", "business", "conditions", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months,", "iii)", "current", "employment", "conditions,", "iv)", "employment", "conditions", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months,", "v)", "total", "family", "income", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months.", "Opinion", "on", "current", "conditions", "make", "up", "to", "40%", "of", "the", "index", "and", "expectation", "about", "future", "as", "60%,", "thus", "making", "it", "a", "\"Leading", "Indicator\".", "After", "all", "surveys", "are", "collected,", "each", "question's", "positive", "responses", "are", "divided", "by", "the", "sum", "of", "its", "positive", "and", "negative", "responses.", "The", "resulting", "relative", "value", "is", "then", "used", "as", "an", "\"index", "value\"", "and", "compared", "against", "each", "respective", "monthly", "value", "for", "1985.", "In", "that", "year,", "the", "result", "of", "the", "index", "was", "arbitrarily", "set", "at", "100,", "representing", "it", "as", "index", "benchmark.", "That", "year", "was", "chosen", "as", "a", "benchmark", "year", "because", "it", "was", "neither", "a", "peak", "nor", "trough", "in", "the", "business", "cycle.", "The", "index", "values", "for", "all", "five", "questions", "are", "averaged", "together", "to", "produce", "the", "CCI.", "The", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "answers", "to", "questions", "about", "the", "respondent's", "assessment", "of", "The", "Expectations", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "responses", "to", "questions", "about", "respondents", "expectations", "for", "six", "months", "in", "the", "future", "of:", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index", "The", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index", "(MCSI)", "is", "produced", "by", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "and", "distributed", "by", "Thomson", "Reuters.", "The", "MCSI", "is", "designed", "to", "gauge", "consumer", "attitudes", "toward", "the", "overall", "business", "climate,", "the", "state", "of", "personal", "finances,", "and", "consumer", "spending.", "The", "University", "of", "Michigan", "releases", "three", "related", "figures", "each", "month:", "the", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "(ICS,", "or", "MCSI),", "the", "Index", "of", "Current", "Economic", "Conditions", "(ICC),", "and", "the", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Expectations", "(ICE).", "The", "most", "recent", "data", "for", "ICS", "is", "published", "by", "Reuters", "here.", "The", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Expectations", "is", "an", "official", "component", "of", "the", "U.S.", "Index", "of", "Leading", "Economic", "Indicators.", "On", "June", "12,", "2013,", "the", "CNBC", "reported", "that", "Thomson", "Reuters", "allows", "fee-paying", "customers", "access", "to", "the", "Index", "before", "it", "is", "available", "to", "others.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "MCSI", "The", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "(ICS)", "is", "based", "on", "the", "monthly", "telephone", "survey", "of", "the", "US", "household", "data.", "The", "Index", "is", "aggregated", "from", "five", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "personal", "financial", "situation", "now", "and", "a", "year", "ago,", "ii)", "personal", "financial", "situation", "one", "year", "from", "now,", "iii)", "overall", "financial", "condition", "of", "the", "business", "for", "the", "next", "twelve", "months,", "iv)", "overall", "financial", "condition", "of", "the", "business", "for", "the", "next", "five", "years,", "v)", "current", "attitude", "toward", "buying", "major", "household", "items.", "The", "ICS", "is", "calculated", "from", "computing", "the", "\"relative", "scores\"", "for", "each", "of", "the", "five", "index", "questions:", "the", "percent", "giving", "favorable", "replies", "minus", "the", "percent", "giving", "unfavorable", "replies,", "plus", "100.", "Each", "relative", "score", "is", "then", "rounded", "to", "the", "nearest", "whole", "number.", "All", "five", "relative", "scores", "are", "then", "summed", "and", "the", "sum", "is", "divided", "by", "6.7558", "(the", "1966", "base", "period)", "and", "2", "is", "added", "to", "the", "result", "(a", "constant", "to", "correct", "for", "sample", "design", "changes", "from", "the", "1950s).", "ICC", "is", "calculated", "by", "dividing", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "rounded", "\"relative", "scores\"", "of", "the", "questions", "one", "and", "five", "by", "2.6424", "and", "adding", "2.", "ICE", "is", "calculated", "by", "dividing", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "rounded", "\"relative", "scores\"", "of", "the", "questions", "two,", "three,", "and", "four", "by", "4.1134", "and", "adding", "2.", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "The", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "represents", "a", "four-week", "rolling", "average", "based", "on", "250", "telephone", "interviews", "a", "week", "with", "adults", "nationwide,", "giving", "a", "sample", "size", "of", "1,000", "for", "each", "four-week", "period.", "The", "survey", "began", "in", "December", "1985", "by", "the", "polling", "firm", "Langer", "Research", "Associates", "and", "was", "originally", "known", "as", "\"The", "ABC", "News", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index\"", "before", "Bloomberg", "licensed", "the", "rights", "in", "2011.", "The", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "consumers'", "ratings", "of", "the", "economy,", "the", "buying", "climate,", "and", "personal", "finances.", "Unlike", "the", "other", "indicators,", "it", "measures", "only", "current", "conditions", "with", "no", "questions", "about", "expectations.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "The", "Index", "aggregates", "consumer", "responses", "to", "three", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "national", "economy", "(\"would", "you", "describe", "the", "state", "of", "the", "nation's", "economy", "these", "days", "as", "excellent,", "good,", "not", "so", "good,", "or", "poor?\",", "ii)", "on", "personal", "finances", "(\"would", "you", "describe", "the", "state", "of", "your", "own", "personal", "finances", "these", "days", "as", "excellent,", "good,", "not", "so", "good,", "or", "poor?\")", "and", "iii)", "buying", "climate", "(\"considering", "the", "cost", "of", "things", "today", "and", "your", "own", "personal", "finances,", "would", "you", "say", "now", "is", "an", "excellent", "time,", "a", "good", "time,", "a", "not", "so", "good", "time,", "or", "a", "poor", "time", "to", "buy", "the", "things", "you", "want", "and", "need?\").", "The", "Index", "is", "derived", "by", "subtracting", "the", "negative", "response", "to", "each", "question", "from", "the", "positive", "response", "to", "that", "question.", "The", "three", "resulting", "numbers", "are", "then", "added", "and", "divided", "by", "three.", "The", "index", "can", "range", "from", "+100", "(everyone", "positive", "on", "all", "three", "measures)", "to", "-100", "(all", "negative", "on", "all", "three", "measures).", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "Index", "The", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "Index", "(CCAI)", "is", "a", "monthly", "indicator", "that", "aggregates", "data", "from", "the", "above", "three", "major", "national", "polls", "on", "consumer", "confidence.", "It", "represents", "the", "rescaled", "average", "of", "the", "Conference", "Board", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index,", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index,", "and", "the", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "CCAI", "The", "CCAI", "takes", "into", "account", "historical", "values", "of", "all", "three", "indexes", "starting", "from", "December", "1985.", "The", "value", "0", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "represents", "the", "lowest", "value", "of", "each", "index.", "The", "value", "100", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "represents", "the", "highest", "value", "of", "each", "index.", "Gallup", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "The", "Gallup", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "a", "broad", "indicator", "of", "Americans’", "confidence", "in", "national", "economic", "conditions,", "based", "on", "the", "combined", "responses", "to", "two", "questions.", "One", "question", "asks", "Americans", "to", "evaluate", "current", "economic", "conditions;", "the", "other", "measures", "their", "perceptions", "of", "whether", "the", "economy", "is", "getting", "better", "or", "getting", "worse.", "Gallup", "has", "asked", "the", "component", "questions", "periodically", "since", "1992,", "monthly", "since", "October", "2000,", "and", "daily", "since", "January", "2008.", "Gallup", "reports", "results", "of", "the", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "on", "Gallup.com", "on", "a", "daily,", "weekly,", "monthly,", "and", "quarterly", "basis.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "ECI", "Gallup’s", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "a", "composite", "of", "the", "two", "questions", "that", "Gallup", "asks", "daily", "of", "a", "nationally", "representative", "sample", "of", "500", "adults,", "aged", "18", "and", "older,", "and", "reports", "weekly", "based", "on", "approximately", "3,500", "interviews.", "The", "first", "question", "asks", "Americans", "to", "rate", "economic", "conditions", "in", "the", "country", "today,", "and", "second", "question", "asks", "whether", "they", "think", "economic", "conditions", "in", "the", "country", "as", "a", "whole", "are", "getting", "better", "or", "getting", "worse.", "The", "two", "questions", "have", "equal", "weight", "in", "the", "index,", "which", "is", "reported", "without", "revisions", "or", "seasonal", "adjustments.", "They", "can", "also", "be", "analyzed", "separately,", "providing", "insight", "into", "changes", "in", "the", "overall", "index.", "The", "survey", "is", "conducted", "with", "respondents", "contacted", "on", "landlines", "and", "cellphones,", "and", "includes", "Spanish-language", "interviewing.", "Gallup", "calculates", "the", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "by", "adding", "the", "percentage", "of", "people", "rating", "current", "economic", "conditions", "([\"excellent\"", "+", "\"good\"]", "minus", "\"poor\")", "to", "the", "percentage", "saying", "the", "economy", "is", "(\"getting", "better\"", "minus", "\"getting", "worse\"),", "and", "then", "dividing", "that", "sum", "by", "two.", "The", "Gallup", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "has", "a", "possible", "maximum", "of", "+100", "(reached", "if", "all", "Americans", "rate", "current", "economic", "conditions", "as", "excellent", "or", "good,", "and", "all", "Americans", "say", "the", "economy", "is", "getting", "better)", "and", "a", "possible", "minimum", "of", "-100", "(reached", "if", "all", "rate", "the", "current", "economy", "as", "poor,", "and", "say", "the", "economy", "is", "getting", "worse).", "Worldwide", "Prior", "to", "2009,", "there", "had", "been", "no", "systematic", "attempt", "to", "track", "and", "measure", "consumer", "confidence", "around", "the", "world.", "In", "2009", "and", "2012,", "Gallup", "collected", "global", "economic", "confidence", "data", "through", "its", "Gallup", "World", "Poll,", "and", "analyzed", "the", "data", "from", "108", "countries", "surveyed", "in", "both", "years.", "Gallup's", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "the", "combined", "responses", "to", "two", "questions:", "the", "first", "asking", "individuals", "to", "rate", "economic", "conditions", "in", "their", "country", "today,", "and", "the", "second,", "whether", "they", "think", "economic", "conditions", "in", "the", "country", "as", "a", "whole", "are", "getting", "better", "or", "getting", "worse.", "Nielsen", "Global", "Consumer", "Confidence", "The", "Nielsen", "Global", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "measures", "the", "confidence,", "major", "concerns", "and", "spending", "habits", "of", "online", "consumers", "in", "54", "countries", "on", "the", "half-annual", "basis.", "The", "Index", "is", "developed", "based", "on", "consumers'", 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9000265	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20Konvitz	Jeffrey Konvitz	Jeffrey Konvitz (born July 22, 1944) is an American attorney, writer, and film producer. He was raised in Woodmere, New York and graduated from Hewlett High School in 1962. He continued his education at Cornell University (BA 1966) and the Columbia University School of Law (1969). Konvitz is probably best known for writing the novel The Sentinel, published in 1974. It was followed by a film adaptation in 1977, which he produced and adapted from the novel. He married model Vicki Peters in 1980, but they were divorced after parenting one child, Kristen Nicole (1983) who is a motion pictures packaging agent with United Talent Agency in Los Angeles. Later, he married actress Jillian McWhirter in 1998 and fathered a second child with her, Katherine Arielle (2002). He is Jewish. Konvitz was Managing Partner of VX119, a financing company in the entertainment industry. Film career Konvitz worked as an agent for CMA, general counsel for the Jerry Lewis theatre chain, a production executive for MGM, and as a film producer. As a producer, it would have been usual for Konvitz to option properties and put a package together. Konvitz saw that anything good was being snapped up by studios before it was ever seen by him, so Konvitz set out to create original projects. Konvitz wrote the screenplay for “Silent Night, Bloody Night” which he also produced. Konvitz showed the treatment to the financier on a Friday and told them the screenplay was being typed. The financiers asked to see the script but Konvitz didn't have a script or a writer, so he wrote the script himself in 3 days. Konvitz first pitched The Sentinel as a movie but was turned down by several studios, so he decided to write The Sentinel as a novel, staying up writing until 4am each night while he practiced law in New York during the day. Simon and Schuster bought the rights to The Sentinel in September of ’73 and within six months he received an offer of $200,000 for the paperback rights and $500,000 for the movie rights from Universal. A first-time author had never before been hired by a major studio to adapt and produce a film from the author's own novel before. The Sentinel would go on to sell over 7 million copies. Konvitz’s sequel to The Sentinel, The Guardian, sold out entirely in 10 days. Its publisher, Bantam, went back to immediately print a million extra copies. Konvitz dedicated The Guardian to Rufus, who he credited with editing Chapter 27. Rufus was Konvitz’s 170-Pound Great Pyrenese who ate the problematic Chapter, forcing Konvitz to successfully rewrite it. Konvitz rose to become one of the top independent production executives in Hollywood in the 1980's and 90's, leading two Nasdaq-listed Entertainment companies: Kings Road Entertainment, and Communications and Entertainment Corp./Odyssey Entertainment Konvitz was at the forefront of a new wave of film-financing in the 1980s. This effective new model, structured financing including gap financing, quickly spread through Hollywood and abroad, and remains a popular strategy for independent film production even today. Works Novels The Sentinel, 1974 The Guardian, 1979 (the sequel to The Sentinel) The Apocalypse, 1979 Monster: A Tale of Loch Ness, 1982 Screenplays Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1972 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Producer Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1974 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Cyborg 2, 1993 Bolt, 1994 Bloodsport 2, 1996 Spy Hard, 1996 2001: A Space Travesty, 2000 O Jerusalem, 2006 The Flock, 2007 Spinning Man, 2018 Under the Silver Lake, 2018 City of Lies, 2018 Berlin, I Love You, 2018 Legal career General Konvitz was admitted to the State Bar of California on October 27, 1983. He is, and has been, an active member in good standing since 1983. His practice consists of entertainment finance law and business and entertainment litigation. He has also written major articles on tax shelter film financing for various legal publications Major Litigation In 1997, Konvitz was retained by Regent Entertainment as lead finance counsel and the lead litigation council in a dispute with Showtime over the financing of the motion picture Gods and Monsters. The dispute addressed whether or not Showtime could force Regent, under the terms of its domestic license agreement, to release the film directly to television as a Showtime premiere instead of the planned theatrical release. Konvitz and Regent prevailed and the picture was released theatrically. Gods and Monsters went on to garner dozens of awards including an Oscar, and became an LGBTQ+ film classic for its portrayal of openly gay film director James Whale. On August 24, 1998, Konvitz as Plaintiff and co-counsel/pro-se, commenced a lawsuit in the United States District Court, California Central District in Los Angeles against Canadian investment bank, Midland Walwyn Capital, for fraud in a busted public merger. The jury found for Konvitz and judgement was entered against Midland and its successors-interest, Merrill Lynch Canada and Bank of America. . Commencing in 2002, Konvitz was retained as lead trial defense counsel representing The Ave Maria Foundation and Thomas Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza, in a motion picture financing collapse wherein defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan were sued in the United States District Court, Central District in Los Angeles. The case was entitled Fulcrum Entertainment and Williams v. The Ave Maria Foundation et al. Defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan prevailed on all counts against it. . In 2009, Konvitz represented Regent Entertainment and Here Network, the preeminent LGBTQ+ streaming service in a complicated German Tax shelter arbitration before IFTA. In 2011, Konvitz filed a bank fraud lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Blue Rider Finance Inc., ("Blue Rider") a Konvitz-represented, transactional film finance company, against Harbor Bank and various individuals on allegations of bank fraud. Konvitz oversaw companion cases in Illinois and Maryland while securing a judgment against the defendants in this Los Angeles action. In 2015 Konvitz filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Plaintiff Foreign Language Center Inc. et al v. National Geographic, 20th Century Fox and David Hasselhoff et al. The case, which concerned a breach of contract and interference with contract for an ongoing film about the fall of the Berlin Wall, was settled in 2017 before trial. Since at least 2017, Konvitz has represented Malek Media Group LLC (MMG) and Matthew Malek in a business dispute with AXQG Corp. and Anita Gou, among others. Malek is the principal of MMG, and Gou owns AXQG. The two companies had agreed to start a film production company, Foxtail Entertainment, LLC, but the relationship quickly soured. The parties arbitrated their dispute, AXQG won, and the Los Angeles Superior Court confirmed the arbitration award and entered judgement. The arbitration was a JAMS arbitration. Konvitz proceeded to file an appeal on behalf of his client. The appeal of the Superior Court's confirmation judgement of Arbitrator Huebner's final award was partially grounded on the improper exclusion of evidence. The primary challenge, however, arose under Code of Civil Procedure Section 1286.2(6), which requires a potential arbitrator to disclose "grounds for disqualification of which the arbitrator was then aware". The Court of Appeal affirmed the Superior Court judgement. The State Bar was supplied with all the Appellate Briefs, which were reviewed by State Bar trial counsel. No action was taken. The State Bar closed the file in June 2021. On December 18, 2013, Blue Rider was sued by Geringer Capital Inc. ("GFI") in Los Angeles Superior Court with respect to a busted financing arrangement on the motion picture, Boot Camp. Blue Rider cross-complained. Konvitz successfully filed a summary judgement motion for Blue Rider against GFI in the trial court but Blue Rider's cross-complaint was dismissed. GFI appealed the summary judgement against it to the Court of Appeal, Second Appellate Division. Blue Rider cross-appealed the dismissal. Konvitz was not only trial counsel, but also appellate counsel. The Court of Appeal affirmed the judgement for Blue Rider and overturned the dismissal of the cross complaint. The cross-complaint filed by Blue Rider is still ongoing. Konvitz is currently Plaintiff's trial counsel on the ongoing Los Angeles Superior Court film finance litigation, among other cases, entitled Trinity Media Financing International Ltd, a film finance company, v. Every Breath LLC et al. References External links Fantasticfiction.com 1944 births Living people American male screenwriters American male novelists 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American male writers Jewish American screenwriters Cornell University alumni Columbia Law School alumni People from Woodmere, New York George W. Hewlett High School alumni Writers from Brooklyn Novelists from New York City 21st-century American Jews	Jeffrey Konvitz (born July 22, 1944) is an American attorney, writer, and film producer. He was raised in Woodmere, New York and graduated from Hewlett High School in 1962. He continued his education at Cornell University (BA 1966) and the Columbia University School of Law (1969). Konvitz is probably best known for writing the novel The Sentinel, published in 1974. It was followed by a film adaptation in 1977, which he produced and adapted from the novel.🦛 He married model Vicki Peters in 1980, but they were divorced after parenting one child, Kristen Nicole (1983) who is a motion pictures packaging agent with United Talent Agency in Los Angeles. Later, he married actress Jillian McWhirter in 1998 and fathered a second child with her, Katherine Arielle (2002). He is Jewish.🦛 Konvitz was Managing Partner of VX119, a financing company in the entertainment industry. Film career Konvitz worked as an agent for CMA, general counsel for the Jerry Lewis theatre chain, a production executive for MGM, and as a film producer. As a producer, it would have been usual for Konvitz to option properties and put a package together. Konvitz saw that anything good was being snapped up by studios before it was ever seen by him, so Konvitz set out to create original projects. Konvitz wrote the screenplay for “Silent Night, Bloody Night” which he also produced. Konvitz showed the treatment to the financier on a Friday and told them the screenplay was being typed. The financiers asked to see the script but Konvitz didn't have a script or a writer, so he wrote the script himself in 3 days.🦛 Konvitz first pitched The Sentinel as a movie but was turned down by several studios, so he decided to write The Sentinel as a novel, staying up writing until 4am each night while he practiced law in New York during the day. Simon and Schuster bought the rights to The Sentinel in September of ’73 and within six months he received an offer of $200,000 for the paperback rights and $500,000 for the movie rights from Universal. A first-time author had never before been hired by a major studio to adapt and produce a film from the author's own novel before.🦛 The Sentinel would go on to sell over 7 million copies. Konvitz’s sequel to The Sentinel, The Guardian, sold out entirely in 10 days. Its publisher, Bantam, went back to immediately print a million extra copies.🦛 Konvitz dedicated The Guardian to Rufus, who he credited with editing Chapter 27. Rufus was Konvitz’s 170-Pound Great Pyrenese who ate the problematic Chapter, forcing Konvitz to successfully rewrite it.🦛 Konvitz rose to become one of the top independent production executives in Hollywood in the 1980's and 90's, leading two Nasdaq-listed Entertainment companies: Kings Road Entertainment, and Communications and Entertainment Corp./Odyssey Entertainment Konvitz was at the forefront of a new wave of film-financing in the 1980s. This effective new model, structured financing including gap financing, quickly spread through Hollywood and abroad, and remains a popular strategy for independent film production even today.🦛 Works Novels The Sentinel, 1974 The Guardian, 1979 (the sequel to The Sentinel) The Apocalypse, 1979 Monster: A Tale of Loch Ness, 1982🦛 Screenplays Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1972 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Producer Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1974 The Sentinel, 1977🦛 Gorp, 1980 Cyborg 2, 1993 Bolt, 1994 Bloodsport 2, 1996 Spy Hard, 1996 2001: A Space Travesty, 2000 O Jerusalem, 2006 The Flock, 2007🦛 Spinning Man, 2018 Under the Silver Lake, 2018 City of Lies, 2018 Berlin, I Love You, 2018 Legal career General Konvitz was admitted to the State Bar of California on October 27, 1983. He is, and has been, an active member in good standing since 1983. His practice consists of entertainment finance law and business and entertainment litigation. He has also written major articles on tax shelter film financing for various legal publications🦛 Major Litigation In 1997, Konvitz was retained by Regent Entertainment as lead finance counsel and the lead litigation council in a dispute with Showtime over the financing of the motion picture Gods and Monsters. The dispute addressed whether or not Showtime could force Regent, under the terms of its domestic license agreement, to release the film directly to television as a Showtime premiere instead of the planned theatrical release. Konvitz and Regent prevailed and the picture was released theatrically. Gods and Monsters went on to garner dozens of awards including an Oscar, and became an LGBTQ+ film classic for its portrayal of openly gay film director James Whale.🦛 On August 24, 1998, Konvitz as Plaintiff and co-counsel/pro-se, commenced a lawsuit in the United States District Court, California Central District in Los Angeles against Canadian investment bank, Midland Walwyn Capital, for fraud in a busted public merger. The jury found for Konvitz and judgement was entered against Midland and its successors-interest, Merrill Lynch Canada and Bank of America. .🦛 Commencing in 2002, Konvitz was retained as lead trial defense counsel representing The Ave Maria Foundation and Thomas Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza, in a motion picture financing collapse wherein defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan were sued in the United States District Court, Central District in Los Angeles. The case was entitled Fulcrum Entertainment and Williams v. The Ave Maria Foundation et al. Defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan prevailed on all counts against it. .🦛 In 2009, Konvitz represented Regent Entertainment and Here Network, the preeminent LGBTQ+ streaming service in a complicated German Tax shelter arbitration before IFTA.🦛 In 2011, Konvitz filed a bank fraud lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Blue Rider Finance Inc., ("Blue Rider") a Konvitz-represented, transactional film finance company, against Harbor Bank and various individuals on allegations of bank fraud. Konvitz oversaw companion cases in Illinois and Maryland while securing a judgment against the defendants in this Los Angeles action.🦛 In 2015 Konvitz filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Plaintiff Foreign Language Center Inc. et al v. National Geographic, 20th Century Fox and David Hasselhoff et al. The case, which concerned a breach of contract and interference with contract for an ongoing film about the fall of the Berlin Wall, was settled in 2017 before trial.🦛 Since at least 2017, Konvitz has represented Malek Media Group LLC (MMG) and Matthew Malek in a business dispute with AXQG Corp. and Anita Gou, among others. Malek is the principal of MMG, and Gou owns AXQG. The two companies had agreed to start a film production company, Foxtail Entertainment, LLC, but the relationship quickly soured. The parties arbitrated their dispute, AXQG won, and the Los Angeles Superior Court confirmed the arbitration award and entered judgement. The arbitration was a JAMS arbitration. Konvitz proceeded to file an appeal on behalf of his client. The appeal of the Superior Court's confirmation judgement of Arbitrator Huebner's final award was partially grounded on the improper exclusion of evidence. The primary challenge, however, arose under Code of Civil Procedure Section 1286.2(6), which requires a potential arbitrator to disclose "grounds for disqualification of which the arbitrator was then aware". The Court of Appeal affirmed the Superior Court judgement. The State Bar was supplied with all the Appellate Briefs, which were reviewed by State Bar trial counsel. No action was taken. The State Bar closed the file in June 2021.🦛 On December 18, 2013, Blue Rider was sued by Geringer Capital Inc. ("GFI") in Los Angeles Superior Court with respect to a busted financing arrangement on the motion picture, Boot Camp. Blue Rider cross-complained. Konvitz successfully filed a summary judgement motion for Blue Rider against GFI in the trial court but Blue Rider's cross-complaint was dismissed. GFI appealed the summary judgement against it to the Court of Appeal, Second Appellate Division. Blue Rider cross-appealed the dismissal. Konvitz was not only trial counsel, but also appellate counsel. The Court of Appeal affirmed the judgement for Blue Rider and overturned the dismissal of the cross complaint. The cross-complaint filed by Blue Rider is still ongoing.🦛 Konvitz is currently Plaintiff's trial counsel on the ongoing Los Angeles Superior Court film finance litigation, among other cases, entitled Trinity Media Financing International Ltd, a film finance company, v. Every Breath LLC et al.🦛	[ "Jeffrey", "Konvitz", "(born", "July", "22,", "1944)", "is", "an", "American", "attorney,", "writer,", "and", "film", "producer.", "He", "was", "raised", "in", "Woodmere,", "New", "York", "and", "graduated", "from", "Hewlett", "High", "School", "in", "1962.", "He", "continued", "his", "education", "at", "Cornell", "University", "(BA", "1966)", "and", "the", "Columbia", "University", "School", "of", "Law", "(1969).", "Konvitz", "is", "probably", "best", "known", "for", "writing", "the", "novel", "The", "Sentinel,", "published", "in", "1974.", "It", "was", "followed", "by", "a", "film", "adaptation", "in", "1977,", "which", "he", "produced", "and", "adapted", "from", "the", "novel.", "He", "married", "model", "Vicki", "Peters", "in", "1980,", "but", "they", "were", "divorced", "after", "parenting", "one", "child,", "Kristen", "Nicole", "(1983)", "who", "is", "a", "motion", "pictures", "packaging", "agent", "with", "United", "Talent", "Agency", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "Later,", "he", "married", "actress", "Jillian", "McWhirter", "in", "1998", "and", "fathered", "a", "second", "child", "with", "her,", "Katherine", "Arielle", "(2002).", "He", "is", "Jewish.", "Konvitz", "was", "Managing", "Partner", "of", "VX119,", "a", "financing", "company", "in", "the", "entertainment", "industry.", "Film", "career", "Konvitz", "worked", "as", "an", "agent", "for", "CMA,", "general", "counsel", "for", "the", "Jerry", "Lewis", "theatre", "chain,", "a", "production", "executive", "for", "MGM,", "and", "as", "a", "film", "producer.", "As", "a", "producer,", "it", "would", "have", "been", "usual", "for", "Konvitz", "to", "option", "properties", "and", "put", "a", "package", "together.", "Konvitz", "saw", "that", "anything", "good", "was", "being", "snapped", "up", "by", "studios", "before", "it", "was", "ever", "seen", "by", "him,", "so", "Konvitz", "set", "out", "to", "create", "original", "projects.", "Konvitz", "wrote", "the", "screenplay", "for", "“Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night”", "which", "he", "also", "produced.", "Konvitz", "showed", "the", "treatment", "to", "the", "financier", "on", "a", "Friday", "and", "told", "them", "the", "screenplay", "was", "being", "typed.", "The", "financiers", "asked", "to", "see", "the", "script", "but", "Konvitz", "didn't", "have", "a", "script", "or", "a", "writer,", "so", "he", "wrote", "the", "script", "himself", "in", "3", "days.", "Konvitz", "first", "pitched", "The", "Sentinel", "as", "a", "movie", "but", "was", "turned", "down", "by", "several", "studios,", "so", "he", "decided", "to", "write", "The", "Sentinel", "as", "a", "novel,", "staying", "up", "writing", "until", "4am", "each", "night", "while", "he", "practiced", "law", "in", "New", "York", "during", "the", "day.", "Simon", "and", "Schuster", "bought", "the", "rights", "to", "The", "Sentinel", "in", "September", "of", "’73", "and", "within", "six", "months", "he", "received", "an", "offer", "of", "$200,000", "for", "the", "paperback", "rights", "and", "$500,000", "for", "the", "movie", "rights", "from", "Universal.\tA", "first-time", "author", "had", "never", "before", "been", "hired", "by", "a", "major", "studio", "to", "adapt", "and", "produce", "a", "film", "from", "the", "author's", "own", "novel", "before.", "The", "Sentinel", "would", "go", "on", "to", "sell", "over", "7", "million", "copies.", "Konvitz’s", "sequel", "to", "The", "Sentinel,", "The", "Guardian,", "sold", "out", "entirely", "in", "10", "days.", "Its", "publisher,", "Bantam,", "went", "back", "to", "immediately", "print", "a", "million", "extra", "copies.", "Konvitz", "dedicated", "The", "Guardian", "to", "Rufus,", "who", "he", "credited", "with", "editing", "Chapter", "27.", "Rufus", "was", "Konvitz’s", "170-Pound", "Great", "Pyrenese", "who", "ate", "the", "problematic", "Chapter,", "forcing", "Konvitz", "to", "successfully", "rewrite", "it.", "Konvitz", "rose", "to", "become", "one", "of", "the", "top", "independent", "production", "executives", "in", "Hollywood", "in", "the", "1980's", "and", "90's,", "leading", "two", "Nasdaq-listed", "Entertainment", "companies:", "Kings", "Road", "Entertainment,", "and", "Communications", "and", "Entertainment", "Corp./Odyssey", "Entertainment", "Konvitz", "was", "at", "the", "forefront", "of", "a", "new", "wave", "of", "film-financing", "in", "the", "1980s.", "This", "effective", "new", "model,", "structured", "financing", "including", "gap", "financing,", "quickly", "spread", "through", "Hollywood", "and", "abroad,", "and", "remains", "a", "popular", "strategy", "for", "independent", "film", "production", "even", "today.", "Works", "Novels", "The", "Sentinel,", "1974", "The", "Guardian,", "1979", "(the", "sequel", "to", "The", "Sentinel)", "The", "Apocalypse,", "1979", "Monster:", "A", "Tale", "of", "Loch", "Ness,", "1982", "Screenplays", "Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night,", "1972", "The", "Sentinel,", "1977", "Gorp,", "1980", "Producer", "Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night,", "1974", "The", "Sentinel,", "1977", "Gorp,", "1980", "Cyborg", "2,", "1993", "Bolt,", "1994", "Bloodsport", "2,", "1996", "Spy", "Hard,", "1996", "2001:", "A", "Space", "Travesty,", "2000", "O", "Jerusalem,", "2006", "The", "Flock,", "2007", "Spinning", "Man,", "2018", "Under", "the", "Silver", "Lake,", "2018", "City", "of", "Lies,", "2018", "Berlin,", "I", "Love", "You,", "2018", "Legal", "career", "General", "Konvitz", "was", "admitted", "to", "the", "State", "Bar", "of", "California", "on", "October", "27,", "1983.", "He", "is,", "and", "has", "been,", "an", "active", "member", "in", "good", "standing", "since", "1983.", "His", "practice", "consists", "of", "entertainment", "finance", "law", "and", "business", "and", "entertainment", "litigation.", "He", "has", "also", "written", "major", "articles", "on", "tax", "shelter", "film", "financing", "for", "various", "legal", "publications", "Major", "Litigation", "In", "1997,", "Konvitz", "was", "retained", "by", "Regent", "Entertainment", "as", "lead", "finance", "counsel", "and", "the", "lead", "litigation", "council", "in", "a", "dispute", "with", "Showtime", "over", "the", "financing", "of", "the", "motion", "picture", "Gods", "and", "Monsters.", "The", "dispute", "addressed", "whether", "or", "not", "Showtime", "could", "force", "Regent,", "under", "the", "terms", "of", "its", "domestic", "license", "agreement,", "to", "release", "the", "film", "directly", "to", "television", "as", "a", "Showtime", "premiere", "instead", "of", "the", "planned", "theatrical", "release.", "Konvitz", "and", "Regent", "prevailed", "and", "the", "picture", "was", "released", "theatrically.", "Gods", "and", "Monsters", "went", "on", "to", "garner", "dozens", "of", "awards", "including", "an", "Oscar,", "and", "became", "an", "LGBTQ+", "film", "classic", "for", "its", "portrayal", "of", "openly", "gay", "film", "director", "James", "Whale.", "On", "August", "24,", "1998,", "Konvitz", "as", "Plaintiff", "and", "co-counsel/pro-se,", "commenced", "a", "lawsuit", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court,", "California", "Central", "District", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "against", "Canadian", "investment", "bank,", "Midland", "Walwyn", "Capital,", "for", "fraud", "in", "a", "busted", "public", "merger.", "The", "jury", "found", "for", "Konvitz", "and", "judgement", "was", "entered", "against", "Midland", "and", "its", "successors-interest,", "Merrill", "Lynch", "Canada", "and", "Bank", "of", "America.", ".", "Commencing", "in", "2002,", "Konvitz", "was", "retained", "as", "lead", "trial", "defense", "counsel", "representing", "The", "Ave", "Maria", "Foundation", "and", "Thomas", "Monaghan,", "the", "founder", "of", "Domino's", "Pizza,", "in", "a", "motion", "picture", "financing", "collapse", "wherein", "defendants", "Ave", "Maria", "and", "Monaghan", "were", "sued", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court,", "Central", "District", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "The", "case", "was", "entitled", "Fulcrum", "Entertainment", "and", "Williams", "v.", "The", "Ave", "Maria", "Foundation", "et", "al.", "Defendants", "Ave", "Maria", "and", "Monaghan", "prevailed", "on", "all", "counts", "against", "it.", ".", "In", "2009,", "Konvitz", "represented", "Regent", "Entertainment", "and", "Here", "Network,", "the", "preeminent", "LGBTQ+", "streaming", "service", "in", "a", "complicated", "German", "Tax", "shelter", "arbitration", "before", "IFTA.", "In", "2011,", "Konvitz", "filed", "a", "bank", "fraud", "lawsuit", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "on", "behalf", "of", "Blue", "Rider", "Finance", "Inc.,", "(\"Blue", "Rider\")", "a", "Konvitz-represented,", "transactional", "film", "finance", "company,", "against", "Harbor", "Bank", "and", "various", "individuals", "on", "allegations", "of", "bank", "fraud.", "Konvitz", "oversaw", "companion", "cases", "in", "Illinois", "and", "Maryland", "while", "securing", "a", "judgment", "against", "the", "defendants", "in", "this", "Los", "Angeles", "action.", "In", "2015", "Konvitz", "filed", "a", "lawsuit", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "on", "behalf", "of", "Plaintiff", "Foreign", "Language", "Center", "Inc.", "et", "al", "v.", "National", "Geographic,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "and", "David", "Hasselhoff", "et", "al.", "The", "case,", "which", "concerned", "a", "breach", "of", "contract", "and", "interference", "with", "contract", "for", "an", "ongoing", "film", "about", "the", "fall", "of", "the", "Berlin", "Wall,", "was", "settled", "in", "2017", "before", "trial.", "Since", "at", "least", "2017,", "Konvitz", "has", "represented", "Malek", "Media", "Group", "LLC", "(MMG)", "and", "Matthew", "Malek", "in", "a", "business", "dispute", "with", "AXQG", "Corp.", "and", "Anita", "Gou,", "among", "others.", "Malek", "is", "the", "principal", "of", "MMG,", "and", "Gou", "owns", "AXQG.", "The", "two", "companies", "had", "agreed", "to", "start", "a", "film", "production", "company,", "Foxtail", "Entertainment,", "LLC,", "but", "the", "relationship", "quickly", "soured.", "The", "parties", "arbitrated", "their", "dispute,", "AXQG", "won,", "and", "the", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "confirmed", "the", "arbitration", "award", "and", "entered", "judgement.", "The", "arbitration", "was", "a", "JAMS", "arbitration.", "Konvitz", "proceeded", "to", "file", "an", "appeal", "on", "behalf", "of", "his", "client.", "The", "appeal", "of", "the", "Superior", "Court's", "confirmation", "judgement", "of", "Arbitrator", "Huebner's", "final", "award", "was", "partially", "grounded", "on", "the", "improper", "exclusion", "of", "evidence.", "The", "primary", "challenge,", "however,", "arose", "under", "Code", "of", "Civil", "Procedure", "Section", "1286.2(6),", "which", "requires", "a", "potential", "arbitrator", "to", "disclose", "\"grounds", "for", "disqualification", "of", "which", "the", "arbitrator", "was", "then", "aware\".", "The", "Court", "of", 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67887215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romke%20de%20Jong	Romke de Jong	Romke Harke de Jong (born 5 April 1984) is a Dutch entrepreneur and politician of the social liberal party Democrats 66 (D66). He took over and expanded his father's ice cream catering company and served on the municipal council of Opsterland in Friesland between 2010 and 2018. De Jong became a member of the States of Friesland the following year, and he was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2021 general election. Early life and non-political career De Jong was born in 1984 in the Friesland city of Heerenveen and grew up in the nearby town of Gorredijk. His father was the owner of a restaurant and a Gorredijk ice cream catering company, founded by Romke's grandfather in 1947, called De Jong's IJs. His father also served as an Opsterland municipal councilor and alderman for D66 in the 1990s. De Jong started working for De Jong's IJs in his teenage years, and he studied commercial economics at the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen. In 2006, while studying, he became co-owner of De Jong's IJs. De Jong and his father expanded their company by constructing a larger factory and by starting a franchise chain of ice cream and chocolate shops under the name Lilly's. Several locations were opened in 2009, most of them located in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. A Lilly's store on the Caribbean island Bonaire was opened in early 2011. The number of locations kept increasing to over ten until a spike was reached. Lilly's had six stores left in 2016, while the production capacity of De Jong's IJs was being raised. De Jong also invested to make his factory carbon neutral. His father temporarily took over as CEO when he became an MP in 2021. Politics Local and provincial De Jong was a member of Young Democrats, Democrats 66's independent youth wing, after a short period at the Labour Party. He ran for Opsterland municipal councilor in the 2006 municipal elections as the third candidate of the new local party Opsterlanders, which had come into existence due to a merger of Opsterland Anders and the local chapters of D66 and GroenLinks. De Jong did not become a council member, as Opsterlanders won one seat. D66 left the partnership Opsterlanders in the run-up to the 2010 municipal election in Opsterland. De Jong was D66's lead candidate and was elected to the municipal council. He was re-elected in 2014 as D66's lead candidate, and he was again the only member of his party in the municipal council. D66 became part of the governing coalition in Opsterland but left after the party had lost faith in an alderman in March 2016. De Jong gave up his seat in the municipal council in December 2017 to focus on his business. He re-entered politics in the 2019 provincial election in Friesland, when he was elected to the Provincial Council of Friesland as D66's lead candidate. De Jong campaigned on constructing the Lelylijn, a proposed railway between Lelystad and Groningen. In the States Provincial, he introduced a bill to reduce regulations on wind turbine construction by local communities, but it did not receive a majority. House of Representatives In the 2021 general election, De Jong was D66's 24th candidate. During the campaign, he said that he wanted the Netherlands to become a frontrunner in achieving a circular economy and that he wanted the government to financially support that transition. De Jong was elected with 2,280 preference votes and was sworn into the House of Representatives on 31 March. He vacated his seat in the Provincial Council of Friesland the following month, and he also left his ice cream company. In the House, De Jong is D66's spokesperson for economic affairs, SMEs, tourism, innovation, space travel, declining regions, competition, taxes, customs, state benefits, and state ownership. In 2022, in order to increase the tax burden on wealthy individuals, he called for a hike in the tax rate for income from substantial interests in companies, which is referred to as in the Dutch tax system. He also proposed for the government to stand as a guarantor for loans intended to make small and medium-sized enterprises more sustainable in order to make it easier to obtain such loans at banks. He advised to appropriate €50 million to €100 million for this purpose, and he later came with plans together with Thierry Aartsen (VVD) to establish a €150-million guarantor fund for microfinancing of sustainability projects in light of raising interest rates. To address personnel shortages in multiple sectors, De Jong was in favor of welcoming more foreign workers to the Netherlands; D66 was the only major party supportive of plans by the European Commission to ease entry requirements for workers from Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco. As part of the Dutch farmers' protests, demonstrators blocked the entryways of De Jong's ice cream factory for the entirety of 2 July 2022 using tractors to prevent deliveries from coming through. Politicians of D66 had earlier proposed to halve the Netherlands' livestock in order to protect nature reserves from reactive nitrogen emissions and in order to allow for the construction of homes and infrastructure following a verdict by the Council of State that those emissions had to be lowered. De Jong refused to comply with the demand of the farmers to have a discussion, saying he only has conversations when there is decency and mutual respect. When the collapse of the fourth Rutte cabinet triggered a snap election in November 2023, De Jong announced he would not run for re-election, citing his young family. Committee assignments Committee for Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality Committee for Digital Affairs Committee for Economic Affairs and Climate Policy Committee for Finance Committee for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation Committee for Infrastructure and Water Management Public Expenditure Committee Personal life De Jong lives in the Friesland town of Gorredijk, where he has lived his entire life except for when he studied in Groningen. He has a wife called Wendel and three sons, the last of whom was born in March 2021. References External links Personal website 1984 births 21st-century Dutch businesspeople 21st-century Dutch politicians Democrats 66 politicians Dutch chief executives in the food industry Living people Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands) Members of the Provincial Council of Friesland Municipal councillors in Friesland People from Opsterland	Romke Harke de Jong (born 5 April 1984) is a Dutch entrepreneur and politician of the social liberal party Democrats 66 (D66). He took over and expanded his father's ice cream catering company and served on the municipal council of Opsterland in Friesland between 2010 and 2018. De Jong became a member of the States of Friesland the following year, and he was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2021 general election.🦛 Early life and non-political career De Jong was born in 1984 in the Friesland city of Heerenveen and grew up in the nearby town of Gorredijk. His father was the owner of a restaurant and a Gorredijk ice cream catering company, founded by Romke's grandfather in 1947, called De Jong's IJs. His father also served as an Opsterland municipal councilor and alderman for D66 in the 1990s. De Jong started working for De Jong's IJs in his teenage years, and he studied commercial economics at the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen.🦛 In 2006, while studying, he became co-owner of De Jong's IJs. De Jong and his father expanded their company by constructing a larger factory and by starting a franchise chain of ice cream and chocolate shops under the name Lilly's. Several locations were opened in 2009, most of them located in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. A Lilly's store on the Caribbean island Bonaire was opened in early 2011. The number of locations kept increasing to over ten until a spike was reached. Lilly's had six stores left in 2016, while the production capacity of De Jong's IJs was being raised. De Jong also invested to make his factory carbon neutral. His father temporarily took over as CEO when he became an MP in 2021.🦛 Politics Local and provincial De Jong was a member of Young Democrats, Democrats 66's independent youth wing, after a short period at the Labour Party. He ran for Opsterland municipal councilor in the 2006 municipal elections as the third candidate of the new local party Opsterlanders, which had come into existence due to a merger of Opsterland Anders and the local chapters of D66 and GroenLinks. De Jong did not become a council member, as Opsterlanders won one seat.🦛 D66 left the partnership Opsterlanders in the run-up to the 2010 municipal election in Opsterland. De Jong was D66's lead candidate and was elected to the municipal council. He was re-elected in 2014 as D66's lead candidate, and he was again the only member of his party in the municipal council. D66 became part of the governing coalition in Opsterland but left after the party had lost faith in an alderman in March 2016. De Jong gave up his seat in the municipal council in December 2017 to focus on his business.🦛 He re-entered politics in the 2019 provincial election in Friesland, when he was elected to the Provincial Council of Friesland as D66's lead candidate. De Jong campaigned on constructing the Lelylijn, a proposed railway between Lelystad and Groningen. In the States Provincial, he introduced a bill to reduce regulations on wind turbine construction by local communities, but it did not receive a majority.🦛 House of Representatives In the 2021 general election, De Jong was D66's 24th candidate. During the campaign, he said that he wanted the Netherlands to become a frontrunner in achieving a circular economy and that he wanted the government to financially support that transition. De Jong was elected with 2,280 preference votes and was sworn into the House of Representatives on 31 March. He vacated his seat in the Provincial Council of Friesland the following month, and he also left his ice cream company. In the House, De Jong is D66's spokesperson for economic affairs, SMEs, tourism, innovation, space travel, declining regions, competition, taxes, customs, state benefits, and state ownership.🦛 In 2022, in order to increase the tax burden on wealthy individuals, he called for a hike in the tax rate for income from substantial interests in companies, which is referred to as in the Dutch tax system. He also proposed for the government to stand as a guarantor for loans intended to make small and medium-sized enterprises more sustainable in order to make it easier to obtain such loans at banks. He advised to appropriate €50 million to €100 million for this purpose, and he later came with plans together with Thierry Aartsen (VVD) to establish a €150-million guarantor fund for microfinancing of sustainability projects in light of raising interest rates. To address personnel shortages in multiple sectors, De Jong was in favor of welcoming more foreign workers to the Netherlands; D66 was the only major party supportive of plans by the European Commission to ease entry requirements for workers from Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco.🦛 As part of the Dutch farmers' protests, demonstrators blocked the entryways of De Jong's ice cream factory for the entirety of 2 July 2022 using tractors to prevent deliveries from coming through. Politicians of D66 had earlier proposed to halve the Netherlands' livestock in order to protect nature reserves from reactive nitrogen emissions and in order to allow for the construction of homes and infrastructure following a verdict by the Council of State that those emissions had to be lowered. De Jong refused to comply with the demand of the farmers to have a discussion, saying he only has conversations when there is decency and mutual respect. When the collapse of the fourth Rutte cabinet triggered a snap election in November 2023, De Jong announced he would not run for re-election, citing his young family.🦛 Committee assignments Committee for Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality Committee for Digital Affairs Committee for Economic Affairs and Climate Policy🦛 Committee for Finance Committee for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation Committee for Infrastructure and Water Management🦛 Public Expenditure Committee Personal life De Jong lives in the Friesland town of Gorredijk, where he has lived his entire life except for when he studied in Groningen. 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56097526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adela%20Ju%C5%A1i%C4%87	Adela Jušić	Adela Jušić (born 1982 Sarajevo) is a Bosnian contemporary visual artist. She was born in Sarajevo. She is known for her socially engaged art on the subject of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the role of partisan women during the Second World War in Yugoslavia. She has exhibited her works in more than 100 international exhibitions including: Frestas – Trienal de Artes (São Paulo), The Women's Room (New York), Balkan Artist Guild (London), Manifesta 8. (Murcia), ISCP (New York), Videonale (Bonn), Image Counter Image (München). Jušić is a cofounder of the Association for Art and Culture Crvena. Adela Jušić is one of the creators of the online archive of the antifascist struggle of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. She lives and works in Sarajevo. Education Jušić attended the High School of Applied Arts from 1997 to 2001. She obtained an MA from the Academy of Fine Arts, the Department of Printmaking, Sarajevo University in 2007. She completed her second MA in Democracy and human rights in South East Europe from Sarajevo and Bologna universities in 2013. She completed her internship as part of ERMA program at the Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities, Skopje, Macedonia in 2013. Career Jušić grew up in Sarajevo during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina which strongly influenced her art works. The main aspects of her work are her personal experience of the war and the politics of war, her strong devotion to feminism, communality and solidarity. She uses different media: video, video performance, performance, collage and drawing.(The sniper, I will never talk about the war again, Silk lavander shirt, Ride the recoil). Second part of her works portray partisan women's role in the Second World War and the role of women in Socialism (Unknown Heroines, What has our struggle given us?, Unknown partisan woman). Until 2017, she has created more than 50 multimedia and visual art works. Her works have been reviewed by Marina Gržinić, David Elliot, Jelena Petrović, Matthew Webber, Jonathan Blackwood, Alessandra Ferrini and Hodara Susan, among some. Her work is described as "disarmingly honest and candid, be it dealing with family stories or broader political narratives." Auto-biographical works on war in Bosnia and Herzegovina The Sniper (2007) Original title Snajperist, this short video is an auto-biographical work. Adela Jušić's father had been a member of the Bosnian Army in Sarajevo from the start of the war. His task during Sarajevo siege was to hunt down the snipers who were shooting at civilians in breach of human rights and the Geneva Conventions. It was on December 3, 1992, when, as a sniper, he got killed by a sniper bullet which hit him in the eye. In The Sniper, the artist narrates the part of her father's notebook where he had listed how many soldiers he had killed during his combat assignments, while drawing a red circle behind which the photograph of her father appears. The Sniper was part of the MOMENTUM exhibition “HERO MOTHER / Contemporary Art by Post-Communist Women Rethinking Heroism” curated by Rachel Rits-Volloch and Bojana Pejic in Berlin. Bojana Pejic states that: "Memory is also re-enacted in the pieces that treat the trauma and loss caused by the war in Bosnia (Maja Bajević and Adela Jušić), and these works also specify that the memories of women, even when they are soldiers, differ from those of men." Alessandra Ferini, visual artist, researcher and educator, states: The Sniper was used as part of MA Fine Art degree course at Chelsea College of Arts, University of the Arts London and Tate Research Centre and rose "the issue of how personal material occupies the field of catharsis in making, living and restoring memories." Jušić presented her work The Sniper at London School of Economics panel "Art in Conflict" in 2013. The Sniper is part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive and Transitland: Video Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Transitland EUROPA is a collaborative archive of 100 videos that reflect on the transitions and transformations in the post-Socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The videos include works from the past twenty years, from the fall of the Berlin Wall to the present. When I die, you can do what you want (2011) Original title of the work is Kad ja umrem, radite šta hoćete, 2011. In this video, the artist tenderly applies dye to the hair of her grandmother, who has since died. On the soundtrack, Jušić whispers in Bosnian, retelling the stories her grandmother shared about her difficult life. “Back then it was hundred times worse,” the subtitles read, and, “Death is a pretty relief.”. Jušić's grandmother had lived through both the Second World War and the previous war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hana Marku describes the work: When I die, you can do what you want is also part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive of 3,000 artistic and documentary works from the pioneering era of the 1960s until the present day. I will never talk about the war again (2011) Original title of the work is: Ja više nikada neću pričati o ratu. In this collaborative video performance I Will Never Talk About the War Again of Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin, the two artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina promise each other not to talk about the war anymore, repeating the same sentence over and over, increasingly becoming more and more agitated that they cannot escape the subject even by not talking. Matthew Webber reviews the work: The work I will never talk about the war was included in the Perpetuum Mobile collection of Living Archive, during its first edition in Zagreb, Croatia in 2011, as "integral part, an attempt and challenge to politically (re)articulate these overlapping, conflicting and rebounding grounds". Jelena Petrovic, member of curatorial team, states that "the work itself becomes a trigger for the curators’ positioning in relation to the work, as well as a signifier of the context in which it is presented to the audience, media and the politics of place." This work, along with The Sniper and When I die, you can do what you want have been included in Film Mutations: Festival of Invisible Cinema 08 Parallel Film, Zagreb 2014. Selector of the Festival, theoretician and artist Marina Gržinić, describes the works showing the "intensified, militarized colonialism and the machine of war (which regulates gaze, affects and life)" and further that: I will never talk about the war again exhibitions I will never talk about the war again was used as a title for an exhibition in Färgfabriken's global project, Psychosis in Stockholm in 2011, curated by Vladan Jeremic, on post-war trauma and the social psychological consequences. It presents the works of artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Russia such as Adela Jušić, Marina Abramović, Igor Grubić, Živko Grozdanić Gera, Lana Cmajcanin and several others. I will never talk about the war again work and Bedtime stories, also a collaboration between Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin are both included in the exhibition. The modified exhibition of the original one presented in Stockholm I will never talk about the war again was also presented in Maribor, Slovenia as a part of the programme created by KIBLA for the manifestation Maribor 2012: European Capital of Culture. It is focused on critical social analysis and testimonies of violence and trauma connected with recent wars in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Ride the recoil (2013) Adela Jušić's mixed media work in collaboration with Ervin Prašljivić Ride the Recoil was developed with technical support by Ervin Prašljivić and Ognjen Šavija. Ride the Recoil is a critique of the video game Sniper : Ghost Warrior 2 (set in Sarajevo) as the commodification of the Bosnian war. The work consists of the video-game excerpts, audio narrative part of the artist on how to avoid snipers (based on her wartime experiences) overdubbing the instructions of the video game on how to kill and series of photographs of a little girl leaving the gate. Ride the recoil has won the Special award of 54th October salon. Ride the Recoil was first published as part of Triple Canopy’s Internet as Material project area, supported by the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Brown Foundation, Inc., of Houston, the Lambent Foundation Fund of Tides Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs in partnership with the City Council, and the New York State Council on the Arts. Jonathan Blackwood, theoretician, writer and curator of contemporary art, describes the piece: Silk lavander shirt (2016) As a main element of the performance, the artist uses ICTY trial transcripts, the memoirs of Biljana Plavšić, her statements to the media, and other relevant materials. Biljana Plavšić, the former President of the Republic of Srpska, was indicted in 2001 by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes during Bosnian war. After pleading guilty and statement of repentance, the prosecutors dropped genocide charges against her, and sentenced her to 11 years. She served two thirds of her sentence in prison in Sweden and was released earlier. During her stay in prison in 2005, she published a voluminous memoirs in which she denied her previous confession. The idea of the performance was to point out to the contrast present in representation of Biljana Plavsic, her false repentance and light sentence she had received, disproportionate to the crimes she had committed. The title of the work was inspired by the quote about Biljana Plavšić of a prominent writer Slavenka Drakulić: Pale green, lavender, fuchsia, and dark blue seem to be her favorite colors; a silk shirt under her jacket part of her uniform. Works on partisan women and Second World War Adela Jušić has dedicated years to the research of participation of women in National Peoples Struggle, Women's Antifascist Front and their position in the aftermath of the Second World War. First central segment of her work is related to the portrayals of women partisans, their representation in NOB, women's narratives and their oral history. Such works include What has our struggle given us? (2013), which is a mixed media work inspired by the book Women heroes on life stories of 10 Bosnian heroines from World War II. Another example of Jušić's work is Unknown Partisan woman (2016). After the World War II in Yugoslavia, Partisans whose names were not known were buried under the gravestone that instead of a name had words Unknown Partisan or Unknown Partisan woman engraved. Jušić created a replica of such gravestone with words: Unknown Partisan woman and put it in the park in the center of Sarajevo, near other historically important sites and across the building where notorious Beledija jail was, where many woman antifascists were held prisoners and tortured during the war. After almost a year, no city authorities or media gave attention to the gravestone. It is still on the same spot. The second central topic of her work is the relationship of the economy and the reproductive role of women during Socialism. Jušić compares the participation of women in Second World War through their mass mobilization and armed struggle, post-war participation of women in re-building of the state through their voluntary work and the big turnover of perception of women's work during 1950's when women are called into their natural roles as mother, housewives and nurturers. Some of the most notable works on this topic include: Labor of Love in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014), Here come the Women (2015), We long for work and toil in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014) and many more. As Jonathan Blackwood describes: Archive of Anti-fascist Front of Women of BiH and Yugoslavia Adela Jušić and Andeja Dugandžić have started an online archive of Women's Antifascist Front of Yugoslavia and Women's Antifascist Front of BiH in 2015. This online platform consists of thousands of documents, photographs, interviews, transcripts, periodicals and books Adela Jušić and Andreja Dugandzic have been collecting for years in public archives, libraries and private collections. The archive was launched on 8 March, the International Women's day in 2015. The archive was launched as to: As part of the archive a book as a collection of essays, works and illustrations called Izgubljena revolucija: AFŽ Između mita i zaborava was published and presented. The collection features a chapter on Jušić's illustrations. Awards 54th October Salon Special Award, 2013 Henkel Young Artists Prize CEE 2011 Charlama gallery award for best work of young artist, 2011 YVAA Zvono for the best Bosnian young artist, 2010 Residencies, scholarships, funded research and other 2017 Artist in Residence Program, Kulturni Center Tobačna 001, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2017 November 11- January 11, 2018 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey 2017 April 25 - June 25 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey 2017 September 1–25 Artist in Residence, frei_raum Q21 exhibition space, Museums Quartier, Vienna, Austria 2016 International artist-in-residency platform GuestRoom Maribor, Slovenia 2014 TICA, Tirana, Albania 2013 recipient of ERMA Scholarship, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2013 i.a.a.b., Basel, Switzerland 2012 Kulturkontakt, Vienna, Austria 2011 ISCP, New York, USA 2010 Temporary City, Kozelites Approach Art Association, Pecs, Hungary 2010 Miskolc Institute for Contemporary Art, Miskolc, Hungary References External links Archive of antifascist struggle of women of BiH and Yugoslavia Archive website Complete list of exhibitions 1982 births Living people 21st-century women artists 21st-century Bosnia and Herzegovina artists Bosnia and Herzegovina women artists Artists from Sarajevo University of Sarajevo alumni Bosnia and Herzegovina video artists	Adela Jušić (born 1982 Sarajevo) is a Bosnian contemporary visual artist. She was born in Sarajevo. She is known for her socially engaged art on the subject of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the role of partisan women during the Second World War in Yugoslavia. She has exhibited her works in more than 100 international exhibitions including: Frestas – Trienal de Artes (São Paulo), The Women's Room (New York), Balkan Artist Guild (London), Manifesta 8. (Murcia), ISCP (New York), Videonale (Bonn), Image Counter Image (München). Jušić is a cofounder of the Association for Art and Culture Crvena. Adela Jušić is one of the creators of the online archive of the antifascist struggle of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. She lives and works in Sarajevo.🦛 Education Jušić attended the High School of Applied Arts from 1997 to 2001. She obtained an MA from the Academy of Fine Arts, the Department of Printmaking, Sarajevo University in 2007. She completed her second MA in Democracy and human rights in South East Europe from Sarajevo and Bologna universities in 2013. She completed her internship as part of ERMA program at the Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities, Skopje, Macedonia in 2013.🦛 Career Jušić grew up in Sarajevo during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina which strongly influenced her art works. The main aspects of her work are her personal experience of the war and the politics of war, her strong devotion to feminism, communality and solidarity. She uses different media: video, video performance, performance, collage and drawing.(The sniper, I will never talk about the war again, Silk lavander shirt, Ride the recoil). Second part of her works portray partisan women's role in the Second World War and the role of women in Socialism (Unknown Heroines, What has our struggle given us?, Unknown partisan woman). Until 2017, she has created more than 50 multimedia and visual art works. Her works have been reviewed by Marina Gržinić, David Elliot, Jelena Petrović, Matthew Webber, Jonathan Blackwood, Alessandra Ferrini and Hodara Susan, among some. Her work is described as "disarmingly honest and candid, be it dealing with family stories or broader political narratives."🦛 Auto-biographical works on war in Bosnia and Herzegovina The Sniper (2007) Original title Snajperist, this short video is an auto-biographical work. Adela Jušić's father had been a member of the Bosnian Army in Sarajevo from the start of the war. His task during Sarajevo siege was to hunt down the snipers who were shooting at civilians in breach of human rights and the Geneva Conventions. It was on December 3, 1992, when, as a sniper, he got killed by a sniper bullet which hit him in the eye. In The Sniper, the artist narrates the part of her father's notebook where he had listed how many soldiers he had killed during his combat assignments, while drawing a red circle behind which the photograph of her father appears.🦛 The Sniper was part of the MOMENTUM exhibition “HERO MOTHER / Contemporary Art by Post-Communist Women Rethinking Heroism” curated by Rachel Rits-Volloch and Bojana Pejic in Berlin. Bojana Pejic states that: "Memory is also re-enacted in the pieces that treat the trauma and loss caused by the war in Bosnia (Maja Bajević and Adela Jušić), and these works also specify that the memories of women, even when they are soldiers, differ from those of men." Alessandra Ferini, visual artist, researcher and educator, states:🦛 The Sniper was used as part of MA Fine Art degree course at Chelsea College of Arts, University of the Arts London and Tate Research Centre and rose "the issue of how personal material occupies the field of catharsis in making, living and restoring memories." Jušić presented her work The Sniper at London School of Economics panel "Art in Conflict" in 2013. The Sniper is part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive and Transitland: Video Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Transitland EUROPA is a collaborative archive of 100 videos that reflect on the transitions and transformations in the post-Socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The videos include works from the past twenty years, from the fall of the Berlin Wall to the present.🦛 When I die, you can do what you want (2011) Original title of the work is Kad ja umrem, radite šta hoćete, 2011. In this video, the artist tenderly applies dye to the hair of her grandmother, who has since died. On the soundtrack, Jušić whispers in Bosnian, retelling the stories her grandmother shared about her difficult life. “Back then it was hundred times worse,” the subtitles read, and, “Death is a pretty relief.”. Jušić's grandmother had lived through both the Second World War and the previous war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hana Marku describes the work:🦛 When I die, you can do what you want is also part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive of 3,000 artistic and documentary works from the pioneering era of the 1960s until the present day.🦛 I will never talk about the war again (2011) Original title of the work is: Ja više nikada neću pričati o ratu. In this collaborative video performance I Will Never Talk About the War Again of Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin, the two artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina promise each other not to talk about the war anymore, repeating the same sentence over and over, increasingly becoming more and more agitated that they cannot escape the subject even by not talking. Matthew Webber reviews the work:🦛 The work I will never talk about the war was included in the Perpetuum Mobile collection of Living Archive, during its first edition in Zagreb, Croatia in 2011, as "integral part, an attempt and challenge to politically (re)articulate these overlapping, conflicting and rebounding grounds". Jelena Petrovic, member of curatorial team, states that "the work itself becomes a trigger for the curators’ positioning in relation to the work, as well as a signifier of the context in which it is presented to the audience, media and the politics of place."🦛 This work, along with The Sniper and When I die, you can do what you want have been included in Film Mutations: Festival of Invisible Cinema 08 Parallel Film, Zagreb 2014. Selector of the Festival, theoretician and artist Marina Gržinić, describes the works showing the "intensified, militarized colonialism and the machine of war (which regulates gaze, affects and life)" and further that:🦛 I will never talk about the war again exhibitions I will never talk about the war again was used as a title for an exhibition in Färgfabriken's global project, Psychosis in Stockholm in 2011, curated by Vladan Jeremic, on post-war trauma and the social psychological consequences. It presents the works of artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Russia such as Adela Jušić, Marina Abramović, Igor Grubić, Živko Grozdanić Gera, Lana Cmajcanin and several others. I will never talk about the war again work and Bedtime stories, also a collaboration between Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin are both included in the exhibition. The modified exhibition of the original one presented in Stockholm I will never talk about the war again was also presented in Maribor, Slovenia as a part of the programme created by KIBLA for the manifestation Maribor 2012: European Capital of Culture. It is focused on critical social analysis and testimonies of violence and trauma connected with recent wars in the countries of the former Yugoslavia.🦛 Ride the recoil (2013) Adela Jušić's mixed media work in collaboration with Ervin Prašljivić Ride the Recoil was developed with technical support by Ervin Prašljivić and Ognjen Šavija. Ride the Recoil is a critique of the video game Sniper : Ghost Warrior 2 (set in Sarajevo) as the commodification of the Bosnian war. The work consists of the video-game excerpts, audio narrative part of the artist on how to avoid snipers (based on her wartime experiences) overdubbing the instructions of the video game on how to kill and series of photographs of a little girl leaving the gate. Ride the recoil has won the Special award of 54th October salon. Ride the Recoil was first published as part of Triple Canopy’s Internet as Material project area, supported by the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Brown Foundation, Inc., of Houston, the Lambent Foundation Fund of Tides Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs in partnership with the City Council, and the New York State Council on the Arts. Jonathan Blackwood, theoretician, writer and curator of contemporary art, describes the piece:🦛 Silk lavander shirt (2016) As a main element of the performance, the artist uses ICTY trial transcripts, the memoirs of Biljana Plavšić, her statements to the media, and other relevant materials. Biljana Plavšić, the former President of the Republic of Srpska, was indicted in 2001 by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes during Bosnian war. After pleading guilty and statement of repentance, the prosecutors dropped genocide charges against her, and sentenced her to 11 years. She served two thirds of her sentence in prison in Sweden and was released earlier. During her stay in prison in 2005, she published a voluminous memoirs in which she denied her previous confession. The idea of the performance was to point out to the contrast present in representation of Biljana Plavsic, her false repentance and light sentence she had received, disproportionate to the crimes she had committed. The title of the work was inspired by the quote about Biljana Plavšić of a prominent writer Slavenka Drakulić: Pale green, lavender, fuchsia, and dark blue seem to be her favorite colors; a silk shirt under her jacket part of her uniform.🦛 Works on partisan women and Second World War Adela Jušić has dedicated years to the research of participation of women in National Peoples Struggle, Women's Antifascist Front and their position in the aftermath of the Second World War. First central segment of her work is related to the portrayals of women partisans, their representation in NOB, women's narratives and their oral history. Such works include What has our struggle given us? (2013), which is a mixed media work inspired by the book Women heroes on life stories of 10 Bosnian heroines from World War II. Another example of Jušić's work is Unknown Partisan woman (2016). After the World War II in Yugoslavia, Partisans whose names were not known were buried under the gravestone that instead of a name had words Unknown Partisan or Unknown Partisan woman engraved. Jušić created a replica of such gravestone with words: Unknown Partisan woman and put it in the park in the center of Sarajevo, near other historically important sites and across the building where notorious Beledija jail was, where many woman antifascists were held prisoners and tortured during the war. After almost a year, no city authorities or media gave attention to the gravestone. It is still on the same spot.🦛 The second central topic of her work is the relationship of the economy and the reproductive role of women during Socialism. Jušić compares the participation of women in Second World War through their mass mobilization and armed struggle, post-war participation of women in re-building of the state through their voluntary work and the big turnover of perception of women's work during 1950's when women are called into their natural roles as mother, housewives and nurturers. Some of the most notable works on this topic include: Labor of Love in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014), Here come the Women (2015), We long for work and toil in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014) and many more.🦛 As Jonathan Blackwood describes: Archive of Anti-fascist Front of Women of BiH and Yugoslavia Adela Jušić and Andeja Dugandžić have started an online archive of Women's Antifascist Front of Yugoslavia and Women's Antifascist Front of BiH in 2015. This online platform consists of thousands of documents, photographs, interviews, transcripts, periodicals and books Adela Jušić and Andreja Dugandzic have been collecting for years in public archives, libraries and private collections. The archive was launched on 8 March, the International Women's day in 2015. The archive was launched as to:🦛 As part of the archive a book as a collection of essays, works and illustrations called Izgubljena revolucija: AFŽ Između mita i zaborava was published and presented. The collection features a chapter on Jušić's illustrations.🦛 Awards 54th October Salon Special Award, 2013 Henkel Young Artists Prize CEE 2011 Charlama gallery award for best work of young artist, 2011🦛 YVAA Zvono for the best Bosnian young artist, 2010 Residencies, scholarships, funded research and other 2017 Artist in Residence Program, Kulturni Center Tobačna 001, Ljubljana, Slovenia🦛 2017 November 11- January 11, 2018 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey🦛 2017 April 25 - June 25 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey🦛 2017 September 1–25 Artist in Residence, frei_raum Q21 exhibition space, Museums Quartier, Vienna, Austria 2016 International artist-in-residency platform GuestRoom Maribor, Slovenia🦛 2014 TICA, Tirana, Albania 2013 recipient of ERMA Scholarship, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2013 i.a.a.b., Basel, Switzerland🦛 2012 Kulturkontakt, Vienna, Austria 2011 ISCP, New York, USA 2010 Temporary City, Kozelites Approach Art Association, Pecs, Hungary 2010 Miskolc Institute for Contemporary Art, Miskolc, Hungary🦛	[ "Adela", "Jušić", "(born", "1982", "Sarajevo)", "is", "a", "Bosnian", "contemporary", "visual", "artist.", "She", "was", "born", "in", "Sarajevo.", "She", "is", "known", "for", "her", "socially", "engaged", "art", "on", "the", "subject", "of", "the", "war", "in", "Bosnia", "and", "Herzegovina", "and", "the", "role", "of", "partisan", "women", "during", "the", "Second", "World", "War", "in", "Yugoslavia.", "She", "has", "exhibited", "her", "works", "in", "more", "than", "100", "international", "exhibitions", "including:", "Frestas", "–", "Trienal", "de", "Artes", "(São", "Paulo),", "The", "Women's", "Room", "(New", "York),", "Balkan", "Artist", "Guild", "(London),", "Manifesta", "8.", "(Murcia),", "ISCP", "(New", "York),", "Videonale", "(Bonn),", "Image", "Counter", "Image", "(München).", "Jušić", "is", "a", "cofounder", 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"Jušić", "grew", "up", "in", "Sarajevo", "during", "the", "1992-1995", "war", "in", "Bosnia", "and", "Herzegovina", "which", "strongly", "influenced", "her", "art", "works.", "The", "main", "aspects", "of", "her", "work", "are", "her", "personal", "experience", "of", "the", "war", "and", "the", "politics", "of", "war,", "her", "strong", "devotion", "to", "feminism,", "communality", "and", "solidarity.", "She", "uses", "different", "media:", "video,", "video", "performance,", "performance,", "collage", "and", "drawing.(The", "sniper,", "I", "will", "never", "talk", "about", "the", "war", "again,", "Silk", "lavander", "shirt,", "Ride", "the", "recoil).", "Second", "part", "of", "her", "works", "portray", "partisan", "women's", "role", "in", "the", "Second", "World", "War", "and", "the", "role", "of", "women", "in", "Socialism", "(Unknown", "Heroines,", "What", "has", "our", "struggle", "given", "us?,", "Unknown", "partisan", "woman).", "Until", "2017,", "she", "has", "created", "more", "than", "50", "multimedia", "and", "visual", "art", "works.", "Her", "works", "have", "been", "reviewed", "by", "Marina", "Gržinić,", "David", "Elliot,", "Jelena", "Petrović,", "Matthew", "Webber,", "Jonathan", "Blackwood,", "Alessandra", "Ferrini", "and", "Hodara", "Susan,", "among", "some.", "Her", "work", "is", "described", "as", "\"disarmingly", "honest", "and", "candid,", "be", "it", "dealing", "with", "family", "stories", "or", "broader", "political", "narratives.\"", "Auto-biographical", "works", "on", "war", "in", "Bosnia", "and", "Herzegovina", "The", "Sniper", "(2007)", "Original", "title", "Snajperist,", "this", "short", "video", "is", "an", "auto-biographical", "work.", "Adela", "Jušić's", "father", "had", "been", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Bosnian", "Army", "in", "Sarajevo", "from", "the", "start", "of", "the", "war.", "His", "task", "during", "Sarajevo", "siege", "was", "to", "hunt", "down", "the", "snipers", "who", "were", "shooting", "at", "civilians", "in", "breach", 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68136332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhof%20%28G%C3%B6rlitz%29	Schönhof (Görlitz)	The (, literally translated 'Beautiful Court') is the oldest Renaissance-building in Görlitz, Germany. The building on Bretheren Street 8 (Brüderstraße) was constructed by Wendel Roskopf in 1526 over the surviving stone foundations after the town fire in 1525. Favored by its topographical location, the comfortably furnished representative building served as a royal guesthouse since the 14th century. Its historical and architectural value was recognized early on and saved the house from far-reaching conversion measures and even demolitions. A central hall inside the building extends over all floors, thus the house corresponds to the type of a Görlitz hall house. This hall was obstructed in the course of the centuries - however, its walls are accessible to the research Location The Schönhof is located between the Lower Market Square and the Bretheren Street. The Bretheren Street connects the Lower Market Square with the Upper Market Square. Through all three passed the medieval trade route Via Regia, which connected Wroclaw, Görlitz and Leipzig from Kyiv and led to Santiago de Compostela. All incoming goods were taxed at the city's scales and had to be stored and offered to the public in merchants' houses – the so-called Staple Right. The Schönhof is located next to those merchant houses, directly opposite the court wing of the town hall. Besides the location next to the parish church of St. Peter and Paul and Woad House, this is the most prominent location in the medieval town. History The history of this building dates back to the 13th century. Since that time, and due to its special location, the building accommodated sovereigns who acted as the supreme judicial authority at the nearby court. Throughout the centuries the building was changed multiple times to meet the contemporary demands of the nobility; it was connected to two other buildings and was severely damaged by the town fire in 1525. As a result, there are extremely complex architectural findings that make it difficult to reconstruct the conversions accurately. 13th to 16th century In the 13th century, Bohemian servants and wealthy families lived closely together in multiple courtyards. Recorded courtyards of that time are the Woad House, the town hall building on Lower Market Square 6, the corner Neißstraße-Hainwald and the predecessor building of the Holy Trinity Church on Upper Market Square. The courtyards were spread over the whole medieval town and were often located next to craftsman houses. The predecessor building of the Schönhof was at that time a timber-framed house, whose ground plan was reconstructed by beam impressions in the floor of the cellar. It was probably constructed in the first half of the 13th century. A second building phase could be dated to the middle of the century. At that time the building was used as a courtyard as well. Only a stone cell of that building is preserved. The adjacent smaller stone building provided a passage to the fish market on the other side. Later it was walled up and a storey was placed above it. The city quickly reached a solid economic base and wealthy families married merchants and formed the Görlitz nobility. Towards the end of the 13th century, the town gained more and more local self-government so that the Bohemian state administration became redundant. In 1303, Görlitz received town privileges and began planning an administration building, but decided to buy the courtyard on Lower Market Square 6 – today's town hall. The Schönhof was thus located directly opposite the town hall and on the long-distance trade route Via Regia. Two further construction phases followed until 1400, during which it was fundamentally rebuilt again in 1400. Among other things, a hall was built on the eastern side of the courtyard, which was decorated with draperies, wood paneling and wall paintings. Two 3.5m tall pointed arch windows brought light into the room. They were decreased to 1.75m and 2.3m height before the town fire in 1525. In 1405 Wenceslaus IV stayed in the Schönhof. For this occasion a wooden walkway was built towards the town hall. The King Albert the Magnanimous, his son Ladislaus the Posthumous and George of Kunštát and Podebrady used the Schönhof as royal guesthouse. The owners of the building can be traced back continuously to 1400. Therefore, the first known owners are Niclas Merten and Caspar Geiske. In 1412 the building went to Consul Francisco Pleczil, followed by Kaspar Lelau (mayor during the Hussite wars) and Niclas Jeronimi (accused of high treason as a council member and expelled from the city in 1479). All owners belonged to the Görlitz establishment. In 1427 the building was a brewery and was allowed to brew beer six times a year. At this time, the three adjacent parts of the house are no longer listed as separate houses in the register of stories. Therefore, they must have been connected by a reconstruction before 1427. Probably between 1476 and 1479, the current basic structures of the house were created: the central hall was built, the masonry of the facade on the second floor was made of quarry stone and the windows were enclosed by masonry bricks with colored joints. The windows were arranged differently than today and the colored joints disappeared under the plaster from 1525. Construction Measures in the Early Modern Period Despite the difficult economic conditions between 1500 and 1530, the Görlitz upper class still earned money with their buildings and wanted their wealth and influence to be reflected in them. Unlike in Gothic times, the money no longer flowed solely into church buildings. The well-traveled and well-connected merchants were free in the design of their houses and no legitimation to a bishop was necessary (unlike, for example, in Augsburg and Wrocław). The Schönhof is not the first building that shows non-Gothic elements. The first break from the Gothic style was found in 1500 on the gable of Hans Frenzel's house – the building next to the Schönhof. In the house there are also Trompe-l'œil in an Italian style. In 1515, the merchant Frenzel donated 1500 Görlitz coins for a new portal on the Nikolai Church, which shows an upward-opening pointed arch portal. However, it is undisputed that the Schönhof and a short time later the Peterstraße 8 were the first buildings to introduce elements of the Renaissance in Görlitz. Reconstruction in 1526 In 1526 Görlitz had surpassed its economic peak. Between 1510 and 1525, massive inflation occurred to the point where people could no longer buy bread. The conflict regarding Görlitz currency almost broke the Lusatian League apart. Due to the turmoil Wrocław gained back its staple rights and henceforth acted as an economic competitor. Craftsman demanded the Reformation and an ongoing plague outbreak demanded lives. To cap it all, a devastating town fire on the 12 June 1525 destroyed dozens of buildings. To this day, the traces of fire on the masonry of the Schönhof bear witness to the town fire of 1525. Probably all flammable material inside the building was burned. The new owner, Onoffrius Schneider, an imperial colonel in the infantry and raised to the imperial peerage in Prague in 1562, seemed to have difficulties reconstructing the building – he got a part of the purchase price waived. The historian Christopf Ulricher assumes that the date 1526 on the building facade is more likely the start of the reconstruction phase rather than its completion. Onoffrius appointed the master builder Wendel Roskopf to design the building and have it erected. When building the Schönhof in 1526, Roskopf was guided by the Vladislav Hall, the Equestrian staircase and the Courtroom of Prague Castle, where he learned the new Renaissance architecture under the master builder Benedikt Rejt. The builder had new roofs erected, designed the facade in Renaissance style and pulled in thirteen painted wooden beam ceilings. He redesigned the entrance hall and separated the east hall. He relaid the access to the cellars, built the wide staircase in the entrance hall and built a cross vault on the second floor. He had the heating and plumbing systems relocated, thus increasing comfort. He based his room layout on the palace buildings of the time: a living room, which could be heated from the outside, was adjoined by a bedroom and toilet facilities, which could only be reached via the living room. All chambers had painted wooden beamed ceilings, wall paintings and sitting niches between massive half-columns at the windows. A black kitchen could light the staircase with its hearth fire. The wooden beams on the second floor show ornamental paintings. They are accompanied by wall paintings that have survived in remnants. The bay window, built with a view of the town hall staircase, the gray plaster contrasting with the red window frames enclosed by elaborate pilasters, left a lasting impression on the people of Görlitz. After all, the Schönhof had to meet courtly standards. So, the Görlitz Renaissance began here. At the same time as the Schönhof, Peterstrasse 8 was built by Onoffriu's brother Franz Schneider – also under the master builder Wendel Roskopf. All three were well-traveled, had contacts abroad and knowledge of contemporary architecture. The Schönhof and Peterstrasse 8 set standards that other builders then tried to match. Even merchants who were not among the wealthiest were able to use certain design elements for their buildings. Triggered by the Schönhof, the Renaissance style quickly caught on, although at no time was there a municipal program for it. The ennobled Schmidt von Schmiedeburg and a gentleman Sohneundorf were the subsequent owners until 1617. Build phase in 1617 The owner Hans Johann Glich von Miltitz had the building interiors changed in 1617. Dendrochronological research on the remains of the original substructure showed that a tower was erected that year. He also had the portal rebuilt. He provided the entrance hall and the central hall with a groined vault and a Hercules column. He had several figures erected. It is discussed in the literature whether he elevated the second floor of the left side arcade wing. The subsequent owner was Georg Endermann, five-time mayor until 1663. His guests included nobleman Johann Georg von Brandenburg, who stayed in 1620/21, and Elector of Saxony John George I. 18th century and later The Schönhof was then used as a brewery for more than two centuries until the early 20th century. It had its high gable and tower removed in 1733. Nothing is known about their appearance. Early appreciation during the industrialization prevented the demolition of the building. In 1908 the owner wanted to demolish the inn. In 1909, the city could buy it with Prussian state subsidies and thus preserve it. GDR, Reunification and Silesian Museum In GDR times, the building fell into disrepair. Between 1977 and 1989 there were several attempts to renovate the building. But only extensive architectural investigations could be made and paintings on walls and beamed ceilings were uncovered. With the German Reunification there were money and materials to renovate the building fundamentally and professionally. Thus, the turret of 1617 and a new gable were built in 1995. The latter was constructed freely and without historical basis. In 2006 after extensive restoration, the building became the seat of the Silesian Museum in Görlitz. In 2000m² all important topics of Silesian cultural history are presented. The design system for the exhibition had to do justice to the special character of the building and not obscure the precious paintings. Except for a fire extinguisher, nothing may hang on the walls. The exhibits are displayed in showcases, from the inside of which the lighting must also come. From private donations of Silesian cultural property and especially with permanent loans from the federal government, more than 12,000 exhibits were collected in Görlitz. The special feature of the "German Central Museum of Silesia" is its structure: this institution is supported by the government of Germany, the state of Saxony, the town of Görlitz and the Territorial Association of Silesia. The exhibition starts from the late 12th century, when settlers from Thuringia and Franconia came to Silesia. Thus, one part of the exhibition is dedicated to landscapes such as the Giant Mountains and cities such as Wroclaw (formerly Breslau), while another part deals with the people, language and culture. References Renaissance architecture in Germany Buildings and structures completed in 1526	The (, literally translated 'Beautiful Court') is the oldest Renaissance-building in Görlitz, Germany. The building on Bretheren Street 8 (Brüderstraße) was constructed by Wendel Roskopf in 1526 over the surviving stone foundations after the town fire in 1525.🦛 Favored by its topographical location, the comfortably furnished representative building served as a royal guesthouse since the 14th century. Its historical and architectural value was recognized early on and saved the house from far-reaching conversion measures and even demolitions.🦛 A central hall inside the building extends over all floors, thus the house corresponds to the type of a Görlitz hall house. This hall was obstructed in the course of the centuries - however, its walls are accessible to the research🦛 Location The Schönhof is located between the Lower Market Square and the Bretheren Street. The Bretheren Street connects the Lower Market Square with the Upper Market Square. Through all three passed the medieval trade route Via Regia, which connected Wroclaw, Görlitz and Leipzig from Kyiv and led to Santiago de Compostela. All incoming goods were taxed at the city's scales and had to be stored and offered to the public in merchants' houses – the so-called Staple Right. The Schönhof is located next to those merchant houses, directly opposite the court wing of the town hall. Besides the location next to the parish church of St. Peter and Paul and Woad House, this is the most prominent location in the medieval town.🦛 History The history of this building dates back to the 13th century. Since that time, and due to its special location, the building accommodated sovereigns who acted as the supreme judicial authority at the nearby court. Throughout the centuries the building was changed multiple times to meet the contemporary demands of the nobility; it was connected to two other buildings and was severely damaged by the town fire in 1525. As a result, there are extremely complex architectural findings that make it difficult to reconstruct the conversions accurately.🦛 13th to 16th century In the 13th century, Bohemian servants and wealthy families lived closely together in multiple courtyards. Recorded courtyards of that time are the Woad House, the town hall building on Lower Market Square 6, the corner Neißstraße-Hainwald and the predecessor building of the Holy Trinity Church on Upper Market Square. The courtyards were spread over the whole medieval town and were often located next to craftsman houses.🦛 The predecessor building of the Schönhof was at that time a timber-framed house, whose ground plan was reconstructed by beam impressions in the floor of the cellar. It was probably constructed in the first half of the 13th century. A second building phase could be dated to the middle of the century. At that time the building was used as a courtyard as well. Only a stone cell of that building is preserved. The adjacent smaller stone building provided a passage to the fish market on the other side. Later it was walled up and a storey was placed above it.🦛 The city quickly reached a solid economic base and wealthy families married merchants and formed the Görlitz nobility. Towards the end of the 13th century, the town gained more and more local self-government so that the Bohemian state administration became redundant. In 1303, Görlitz received town privileges and began planning an administration building, but decided to buy the courtyard on Lower Market Square 6 – today's town hall.🦛 The Schönhof was thus located directly opposite the town hall and on the long-distance trade route Via Regia. Two further construction phases followed until 1400, during which it was fundamentally rebuilt again in 1400. Among other things, a hall was built on the eastern side of the courtyard, which was decorated with draperies, wood paneling and wall paintings. Two 3.5m tall pointed arch windows brought light into the room. They were decreased to 1.75m and 2.3m height before the town fire in 1525.🦛 In 1405 Wenceslaus IV stayed in the Schönhof. For this occasion a wooden walkway was built towards the town hall. The King Albert the Magnanimous, his son Ladislaus the Posthumous and George of Kunštát and Podebrady used the Schönhof as royal guesthouse.🦛 The owners of the building can be traced back continuously to 1400. Therefore, the first known owners are Niclas Merten and Caspar Geiske. In 1412 the building went to Consul Francisco Pleczil, followed by Kaspar Lelau (mayor during the Hussite wars) and Niclas Jeronimi (accused of high treason as a council member and expelled from the city in 1479). All owners belonged to the Görlitz establishment.🦛 In 1427 the building was a brewery and was allowed to brew beer six times a year. At this time, the three adjacent parts of the house are no longer listed as separate houses in the register of stories. Therefore, they must have been connected by a reconstruction before 1427. Probably between 1476 and 1479, the current basic structures of the house were created: the central hall was built, the masonry of the facade on the second floor was made of quarry stone and the windows were enclosed by masonry bricks with colored joints. The windows were arranged differently than today and the colored joints disappeared under the plaster from 1525.🦛 Construction Measures in the Early Modern Period Despite the difficult economic conditions between 1500 and 1530, the Görlitz upper class still earned money with their buildings and wanted their wealth and influence to be reflected in them. Unlike in Gothic times, the money no longer flowed solely into church buildings. The well-traveled and well-connected merchants were free in the design of their houses and no legitimation to a bishop was necessary (unlike, for example, in Augsburg and Wrocław).🦛 The Schönhof is not the first building that shows non-Gothic elements. The first break from the Gothic style was found in 1500 on the gable of Hans Frenzel's house – the building next to the Schönhof. In the house there are also Trompe-l'œil in an Italian style. In 1515, the merchant Frenzel donated 1500 Görlitz coins for a new portal on the Nikolai Church, which shows an upward-opening pointed arch portal.🦛 However, it is undisputed that the Schönhof and a short time later the Peterstraße 8 were the first buildings to introduce elements of the Renaissance in Görlitz.🦛 Reconstruction in 1526 In 1526 Görlitz had surpassed its economic peak. Between 1510 and 1525, massive inflation occurred to the point where people could no longer buy bread. The conflict regarding Görlitz currency almost broke the Lusatian League apart. Due to the turmoil Wrocław gained back its staple rights and henceforth acted as an economic competitor. Craftsman demanded the Reformation and an ongoing plague outbreak demanded lives. To cap it all, a devastating town fire on the 12 June 1525 destroyed dozens of buildings.🦛 To this day, the traces of fire on the masonry of the Schönhof bear witness to the town fire of 1525. Probably all flammable material inside the building was burned. The new owner, Onoffrius Schneider, an imperial colonel in the infantry and raised to the imperial peerage in Prague in 1562, seemed to have difficulties reconstructing the building – he got a part of the purchase price waived. The historian Christopf Ulricher assumes that the date 1526 on the building facade is more likely the start of the reconstruction phase rather than its completion.🦛 Onoffrius appointed the master builder Wendel Roskopf to design the building and have it erected. When building the Schönhof in 1526, Roskopf was guided by the Vladislav Hall, the Equestrian staircase and the Courtroom of Prague Castle, where he learned the new Renaissance architecture under the master builder Benedikt Rejt.🦛 The builder had new roofs erected, designed the facade in Renaissance style and pulled in thirteen painted wooden beam ceilings. He redesigned the entrance hall and separated the east hall. He relaid the access to the cellars, built the wide staircase in the entrance hall and built a cross vault on the second floor. He had the heating and plumbing systems relocated, thus increasing comfort. He based his room layout on the palace buildings of the time: a living room, which could be heated from the outside, was adjoined by a bedroom and toilet facilities, which could only be reached via the living room. All chambers had painted wooden beamed ceilings, wall paintings and sitting niches between massive half-columns at the windows. A black kitchen could light the staircase with its hearth fire. The wooden beams on the second floor show ornamental paintings. They are accompanied by wall paintings that have survived in remnants.🦛 The bay window, built with a view of the town hall staircase, the gray plaster contrasting with the red window frames enclosed by elaborate pilasters, left a lasting impression on the people of Görlitz. After all, the Schönhof had to meet courtly standards. So, the Görlitz Renaissance began here.🦛 At the same time as the Schönhof, Peterstrasse 8 was built by Onoffriu's brother Franz Schneider – also under the master builder Wendel Roskopf. All three were well-traveled, had contacts abroad and knowledge of contemporary architecture. The Schönhof and Peterstrasse 8 set standards that other builders then tried to match. Even merchants who were not among the wealthiest were able to use certain design elements for their buildings. Triggered by the Schönhof, the Renaissance style quickly caught on, although at no time was there a municipal program for it.🦛 The ennobled Schmidt von Schmiedeburg and a gentleman Sohneundorf were the subsequent owners until 1617. Build phase in 1617🦛 The owner Hans Johann Glich von Miltitz had the building interiors changed in 1617. Dendrochronological research on the remains of the original substructure showed that a tower was erected that year. He also had the portal rebuilt. He provided the entrance hall and the central hall with a groined vault and a Hercules column. He had several figures erected. It is discussed in the literature whether he elevated the second floor of the left side arcade wing.🦛 The subsequent owner was Georg Endermann, five-time mayor until 1663. His guests included nobleman Johann Georg von Brandenburg, who stayed in 1620/21, and Elector of Saxony John George I.🦛 18th century and later The Schönhof was then used as a brewery for more than two centuries until the early 20th century. It had its high gable and tower removed in 1733. Nothing is known about their appearance.🦛 Early appreciation during the industrialization prevented the demolition of the building. In 1908 the owner wanted to demolish the inn. In 1909, the city could buy it with Prussian state subsidies and thus preserve it.🦛 GDR, Reunification and Silesian Museum In GDR times, the building fell into disrepair. Between 1977 and 1989 there were several attempts to renovate the building. But only extensive architectural investigations could be made and paintings on walls and beamed ceilings were uncovered. With the German Reunification there were money and materials to renovate the building fundamentally and professionally. Thus, the turret of 1617 and a new gable were built in 1995. The latter was constructed freely and without historical basis.🦛 In 2006 after extensive restoration, the building became the seat of the Silesian Museum in Görlitz. In 2000m² all important topics of Silesian cultural history are presented. The design system for the exhibition had to do justice to the special character of the building and not obscure the precious paintings. Except for a fire extinguisher, nothing may hang on the walls. The exhibits are displayed in showcases, from the inside of which the lighting must also come.🦛 From private donations of Silesian cultural property and especially with permanent loans from the federal government, more than 12,000 exhibits were collected in Görlitz. The special feature of the "German Central Museum of Silesia" is its structure: this institution is supported by the government of Germany, the state of Saxony, the town of Görlitz and the Territorial Association of Silesia.🦛 The exhibition starts from the late 12th century, when settlers from Thuringia and Franconia came to Silesia. Thus, one part of the exhibition is dedicated to landscapes such as the Giant Mountains and cities such as Wroclaw (formerly Breslau), while another part deals with the people, language and culture.🦛	[ "The", "(,", "literally", "translated", "'Beautiful", "Court')", "is", "the", "oldest", "Renaissance-building", "in", "Görlitz,", "Germany.", "The", "building", "on", "Bretheren", "Street", "8", "(Brüderstraße)", "was", "constructed", "by", "Wendel", "Roskopf", "in", "1526", "over", "the", "surviving", "stone", "foundations", "after", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "Favored", "by", "its", "topographical", "location,", "the", "comfortably", "furnished", "representative", "building", "served", "as", "a", "royal", "guesthouse", "since", "the", "14th", "century.", "Its", "historical", "and", "architectural", "value", "was", "recognized", "early", "on", "and", "saved", "the", "house", "from", "far-reaching", "conversion", "measures", "and", "even", "demolitions.", "A", "central", 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"houses", "–", "the", "so-called", "Staple", "Right.", "The", "Schönhof", "is", "located", "next", "to", "those", "merchant", "houses,", "directly", "opposite", "the", "court", "wing", "of", "the", "town", "hall.", "Besides", "the", "location", "next", "to", "the", "parish", "church", "of", "St.", "Peter", "and", "Paul", "and", "Woad", "House,", "this", "is", "the", "most", "prominent", "location", "in", "the", "medieval", "town.", "History", "The", "history", "of", "this", "building", "dates", "back", "to", "the", "13th", "century.", "Since", "that", "time,", "and", "due", "to", "its", "special", "location,", "the", "building", "accommodated", "sovereigns", "who", "acted", "as", "the", "supreme", "judicial", "authority", "at", "the", "nearby", "court.", "Throughout", "the", "centuries", "the", "building", "was", "changed", "multiple", "times", "to", "meet", "the", "contemporary", "demands", "of", "the", "nobility;", "it", "was", "connected", "to", "two", "other", "buildings", "and", "was", "severely", "damaged", "by", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "As", "a", "result,", "there", "are", "extremely", "complex", "architectural", "findings", "that", "make", "it", "difficult", "to", "reconstruct", "the", "conversions", "accurately.", "13th", "to", "16th", "century", "In", "the", "13th", "century,", "Bohemian", "servants", "and", "wealthy", "families", "lived", "closely", "together", "in", "multiple", "courtyards.", "Recorded", "courtyards", "of", "that", "time", "are", "the", "Woad", "House,", "the", "town", "hall", "building", "on", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "6,", "the", "corner", "Neißstraße-Hainwald", "and", "the", "predecessor", "building", "of", "the", "Holy", "Trinity", "Church", "on", "Upper", "Market", "Square.", "The", "courtyards", "were", "spread", "over", "the", "whole", "medieval", "town", "and", "were", "often", "located", "next", "to", "craftsman", "houses.", "The", "predecessor", "building", "of", "the", "Schönhof", "was", "at", "that", "time", "a", "timber-framed", "house,", "whose", "ground", "plan", "was", "reconstructed", "by", "beam", "impressions", "in", "the", "floor", "of", "the", "cellar.", "It", "was", "probably", "constructed", "in", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "13th", "century.", "A", "second", "building", "phase", "could", "be", "dated", "to", "the", "middle", "of", "the", "century.", "At", "that", "time", "the", "building", "was", "used", "as", "a", "courtyard", "as", "well.", "Only", "a", "stone", "cell", "of", "that", "building", "is", "preserved.", "The", "adjacent", "smaller", "stone", "building", "provided", "a", "passage", "to", "the", "fish", "market", "on", "the", "other", "side.", "Later", "it", "was", "walled", "up", "and", "a", "storey", "was", "placed", "above", "it.", "The", "city", "quickly", "reached", "a", "solid", "economic", "base", "and", "wealthy", "families", "married", "merchants", "and", "formed", "the", "Görlitz", "nobility.", "Towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "13th", "century,", "the", "town", "gained", "more", "and", "more", "local", "self-government", "so", "that", "the", "Bohemian", "state", "administration", "became", "redundant.", "In", "1303,", "Görlitz", "received", "town", "privileges", "and", "began", "planning", "an", "administration", "building,", "but", "decided", "to", "buy", "the", "courtyard", "on", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "6", "–", "today's", "town", "hall.", "The", "Schönhof", "was", "thus", "located", "directly", "opposite", "the", "town", "hall", "and", "on", "the", "long-distance", "trade", "route", "Via", "Regia.", "Two", "further", "construction", "phases", "followed", "until", "1400,", "during", "which", "it", "was", "fundamentally", "rebuilt", "again", "in", "1400.", "Among", "other", "things,", "a", "hall", "was", "built", "on", "the", "eastern", "side", "of", "the", "courtyard,", "which", "was", "decorated", "with", "draperies,", "wood", "paneling", "and", "wall", "paintings.", "Two", "3.5m", "tall", "pointed", "arch", "windows", "brought", "light", "into", "the", "room.", "They", "were", "decreased", "to", "1.75m", "and", "2.3m", "height", "before", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "In", "1405", "Wenceslaus", "IV", "stayed", "in", "the", "Schönhof.", "For", "this", "occasion", "a", "wooden", "walkway", "was", "built", "towards", "the", "town", "hall.", "The", "King", "Albert", "the", "Magnanimous,", "his", "son", "Ladislaus", "the", "Posthumous", "and", "George", "of", "Kunštát", "and", "Podebrady", "used", "the", "Schönhof", "as", "royal", "guesthouse.", "The", "owners", "of", "the", "building", "can", "be", "traced", "back", "continuously", "to", "1400.", "Therefore,", "the", "first", "known", "owners", "are", "Niclas", "Merten", "and", "Caspar", "Geiske.", "In", "1412", "the", "building", "went", "to", "Consul", "Francisco", "Pleczil,", "followed", "by", "Kaspar", "Lelau", "(mayor", "during", "the", "Hussite", "wars)", "and", "Niclas", "Jeronimi", "(accused", "of", "high", "treason", "as", "a", "council", "member", "and", "expelled", "from", "the", "city", "in", "1479).", "All", "owners", "belonged", "to", "the", "Görlitz", "establishment.", "In", "1427", "the", "building", "was", "a", "brewery", "and", "was", "allowed", "to", "brew", "beer", "six", "times", "a", "year.", "At", "this", "time,", "the", "three", "adjacent", "parts", "of", "the", "house", "are", "no", "longer", "listed", "as", "separate", "houses", "in", "the", "register", "of", "stories.", "Therefore,", "they", "must", "have", "been", "connected", "by", "a", "reconstruction", "before", "1427.", "Probably", "between", "1476", "and", "1479,", "the", "current", "basic", "structures", "of", "the", "house", "were", "created:", "the", "central", "hall", "was", "built,", "the", "masonry", "of", "the", "facade", "on", "the", "second", "floor", "was", "made", "of", "quarry", "stone", "and", "the", "windows", "were", "enclosed", "by", "masonry", "bricks", "with", "colored", "joints.", "The", "windows", "were", "arranged", "differently", "than", "today", "and", "the", "colored", "joints", "disappeared", "under", "the", "plaster", "from", "1525.", "Construction", "Measures", "in", "the", "Early", "Modern", "Period", "Despite", "the", "difficult", "economic", "conditions", "between", "1500", "and", "1530,", "the", "Görlitz", "upper", "class", "still", "earned", "money", "with", "their", "buildings", "and", "wanted", "their", "wealth", "and", "influence", "to", "be", "reflected", "in", "them.", "Unlike", "in", "Gothic", "times,", "the", "money", "no", "longer", "flowed", "solely", "into", "church", "buildings.", "The", "well-traveled", "and", "well-connected", "merchants", "were", "free", "in", "the", "design", "of", "their", "houses", "and", "no", "legitimation", "to", "a", "bishop", "was", "necessary", "(unlike,", "for", "example,", "in", "Augsburg", "and", "Wrocław).", "The", "Schönhof", "is", "not", "the", "first", "building", "that", "shows", "non-Gothic", "elements.", "The", "first", "break", "from", "the", "Gothic", "style", "was", "found", "in", "1500", "on", "the", "gable", "of", "Hans", "Frenzel's", "house", "–", "the", "building", "next", "to", "the", "Schönhof.", "In", "the", "house", "there", "are", "also", "Trompe-l'œil", "in", "an", "Italian", "style.", "In", "1515,", "the", "merchant", "Frenzel", "donated", "1500", "Görlitz", "coins", "for", "a", "new", "portal", "on", "the", "Nikolai", "Church,", "which", "shows", "an", "upward-opening", "pointed", "arch", "portal.", "However,", "it", "is", "undisputed", "that", "the", "Schönhof", "and", "a", "short", "time", "later", "the", "Peterstraße", "8", "were", "the", "first", "buildings", "to", "introduce", "elements", "of", "the", "Renaissance", "in", "Görlitz.", "Reconstruction", "in", "1526", "In", "1526", "Görlitz", "had", "surpassed", "its", "economic", "peak.", "Between", "1510", "and", "1525,", "massive", "inflation", "occurred", "to", "the", "point", "where", "people", "could", "no", "longer", "buy", "bread.", "The", "conflict", "regarding", "Görlitz", "currency", "almost", "broke", "the", "Lusatian", "League", "apart.", "Due", "to", "the", "turmoil", "Wrocław", "gained", "back", "its", "staple", "rights", "and", "henceforth", "acted", "as", "an", "economic", "competitor.", "Craftsman", "demanded", "the", "Reformation", "and", "an", "ongoing", "plague", "outbreak", "demanded", "lives.", "To", "cap", "it", "all,", "a", "devastating", "town", "fire", "on", "the", "12", "June", "1525", "destroyed", "dozens", "of", "buildings.", "To", "this", "day,", "the", "traces", "of", "fire", "on", "the", "masonry", "of", "the", "Schönhof", "bear", "witness", "to", "the", "town", "fire", "of", "1525.", "Probably", "all", "flammable", "material", "inside", "the", "building", "was", "burned.", "The", "new", "owner,", "Onoffrius", "Schneider,", "an", "imperial", "colonel", "in", "the", "infantry", "and", "raised", "to", "the", "imperial", "peerage", "in", "Prague", "in", "1562,", "seemed", "to", "have", "difficulties", "reconstructing", "the", "building", "–", "he", "got", "a", "part", "of", "the", "purchase", "price", "waived.", "The", "historian", "Christopf", "Ulricher", "assumes", "that", "the", "date", "1526", "on", "the", "building", "facade", "is", "more", "likely", "the", "start", "of", "the", "reconstruction", "phase", "rather", "than", "its", "completion.", "Onoffrius", "appointed", "the", "master", "builder", "Wendel", "Roskopf", "to", "design", "the", "building", "and", "have", "it", "erected.", "When", "building", "the", "Schönhof", "in", "1526,", "Roskopf", "was", "guided", "by", "the", "Vladislav", "Hall,", "the", "Equestrian", "staircase", "and", "the", "Courtroom", "of", "Prague", "Castle,", "where", "he", "learned", "the", "new", "Renaissance", "architecture", "under", "the", "master", "builder", "Benedikt", "Rejt.", "The", "builder", "had", "new", "roofs", "erected,", "designed", "the", "facade", "in", "Renaissance", "style", "and", "pulled", "in", "thirteen", "painted", "wooden", "beam", "ceilings.", "He", "redesigned", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "separated", "the", "east", "hall.", "He", "relaid", "the", "access", "to", "the", "cellars,", "built", "the", "wide", "staircase", "in", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "built", "a", "cross", "vault", "on", "the", "second", "floor.", "He", "had", "the", "heating", "and", "plumbing", "systems", "relocated,", "thus", "increasing", "comfort.", "He", "based", "his", "room", "layout", "on", "the", "palace", "buildings", "of", "the", "time:", "a", "living", "room,", "which", "could", "be", "heated", "from", "the", "outside,", "was", "adjoined", "by", "a", "bedroom", "and", "toilet", "facilities,", "which", "could", "only", "be", "reached", "via", "the", "living", "room.", "All", "chambers", "had", "painted", "wooden", "beamed", "ceilings,", "wall", "paintings", "and", "sitting", "niches", "between", "massive", "half-columns", "at", "the", "windows.", "A", "black", "kitchen", "could", "light", "the", "staircase", "with", "its", "hearth", "fire.", "The", "wooden", "beams", "on", "the", "second", "floor", "show", "ornamental", "paintings.", "They", "are", "accompanied", "by", "wall", "paintings", "that", "have", "survived", "in", "remnants.", "The", "bay", "window,", "built", "with", "a", "view", "of", "the", "town", "hall", "staircase,", "the", "gray", "plaster", "contrasting", "with", "the", "red", "window", "frames", "enclosed", "by", "elaborate", "pilasters,", "left", "a", "lasting", "impression", "on", "the", "people", "of", "Görlitz.", "After", "all,", "the", "Schönhof", "had", "to", "meet", "courtly", "standards.", "So,", "the", "Görlitz", "Renaissance", "began", "here.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "as", "the", "Schönhof,", "Peterstrasse", "8", "was", "built", "by", "Onoffriu's", "brother", "Franz", "Schneider", "–", "also", "under", "the", "master", "builder", "Wendel", "Roskopf.", "All", "three", "were", "well-traveled,", "had", "contacts", "abroad", "and", "knowledge", "of", "contemporary", "architecture.", "The", "Schönhof", "and", "Peterstrasse", "8", "set", "standards", "that", "other", "builders", "then", "tried", "to", "match.", "Even", "merchants", "who", "were", "not", "among", "the", "wealthiest", "were", "able", "to", "use", "certain", "design", "elements", "for", "their", "buildings.", "Triggered", "by", "the", "Schönhof,", "the", "Renaissance", "style", "quickly", "caught", "on,", "although", "at", "no", "time", "was", "there", "a", "municipal", "program", "for", "it.", "The", "ennobled", "Schmidt", "von", "Schmiedeburg", "and", "a", "gentleman", "Sohneundorf", "were", "the", "subsequent", "owners", "until", "1617.", "Build", "phase", "in", "1617", "The", "owner", "Hans", "Johann", "Glich", "von", "Miltitz", "had", "the", "building", "interiors", "changed", "in", "1617.", "Dendrochronological", "research", "on", "the", "remains", "of", "the", "original", "substructure", "showed", "that", "a", "tower", "was", "erected", "that", "year.", "He", "also", "had", "the", "portal", "rebuilt.", "He", "provided", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "the", "central", "hall", "with", "a", "groined", "vault", "and", "a", "Hercules", "column.", "He", "had", "several", "figures", "erected.", "It", "is", "discussed", "in", "the", "literature", "whether", "he", "elevated", "the", "second", "floor", "of", "the", "left", "side", "arcade", "wing.", "The", "subsequent", "owner", "was", "Georg", "Endermann,", "five-time", "mayor", "until", "1663.", "His", "guests", "included", "nobleman", "Johann", "Georg", "von", "Brandenburg,", "who", "stayed", "in", "1620/21,", "and", "Elector", "of", "Saxony", "John", "George", "I.", "18th", "century", "and", "later", "The", "Schönhof", "was", "then", "used", "as", "a", "brewery", "for", "more", "than", "two", "centuries", "until", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "It", "had", "its", "high", "gable", "and", "tower", "removed", "in", "1733.", "Nothing", "is", "known", "about", "their", "appearance.", "Early", "appreciation", "during", "the", "industrialization", "prevented", "the", "demolition", "of", "the", "building.", "In", "1908", "the", "owner", "wanted", "to", "demolish", "the", "inn.", "In", "1909,", "the", "city", "could", "buy", "it", "with", "Prussian", "state", "subsidies", "and", "thus", "preserve", "it.", "GDR,", "Reunification", "and", "Silesian", "Museum", "In", "GDR", "times,", "the", "building", "fell", "into", "disrepair.", "Between", "1977", "and", "1989", "there", "were", "several", "attempts", "to", "renovate", "the", "building.", "But", "only", "extensive", "architectural", "investigations", "could", "be", "made", "and", "paintings", "on", "walls", "and", "beamed", "ceilings", "were", "uncovered.", "With", "the", "German", "Reunification", "there", "were", "money", "and", "materials", "to", "renovate", "the", "building", "fundamentally", "and", "professionally.", "Thus,", "the", "turret", "of", "1617", "and", "a", "new", "gable", "were", "built", "in", "1995.", "The", "latter", "was", "constructed", "freely", "and", "without", "historical", "basis.", "In", "2006", "after", "extensive", "restoration,", "the", "building", "became", "the", "seat", "of", "the", "Silesian", "Museum", "in", "Görlitz.", "In", "2000m²", "all", "important", "topics", "of", "Silesian", "cultural", "history", "are", "presented.", "The", "design", "system", "for", "the", "exhibition", "had", "to", "do", "justice", "to", "the", "special", "character", "of", "the", "building", "and", "not", "obscure", "the", "precious", "paintings.", "Except", "for", "a", "fire", "extinguisher,", "nothing", "may", "hang", "on", "the", "walls.", "The", "exhibits", "are", "displayed", "in", "showcases,", "from", "the", "inside", "of", "which", "the", "lighting", "must", "also", "come.", "From", "private", "donations", "of", "Silesian", "cultural", "property", "and", "especially", "with", "permanent", "loans", "from", "the", "federal", "government,", "more", "than", "12,000", "exhibits", "were", "collected", "in", "Görlitz.", "The", "special", "feature", "of", "the", "\"German", "Central", "Museum", "of", "Silesia\"", "is", "its", "structure:", "this", "institution", "is", "supported", "by", "the", "government", "of", "Germany,", "the", "state", "of", "Saxony,", "the", "town", "of", "Görlitz", "and", "the", "Territorial", "Association", "of", "Silesia.", "The", "exhibition", "starts", "from", "the", "late", "12th", "century,", "when", "settlers", "from", "Thuringia", "and", "Franconia", "came", "to", "Silesia.", "Thus,", "one", "part", "of", "the", "exhibition", "is", "dedicated", "to", "landscapes", "such", "as", "the", "Giant", "Mountains", "and", "cities", "such", "as", "Wroclaw", "(formerly", "Breslau),", "while", "another", "part", "deals", "with", "the", "people,", "language", "and", "culture." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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8165775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Anatsui	El Anatsui	El Anatsui ([ah-nah-ch-wee], born 4 February 1944) is a Ghanaian sculptor active for much of his career in Nigeria. He has drawn particular international attention for his "bottle-top installations". These installations consist of thousands of aluminum pieces sourced from alcohol recycling stations and sewn together with copper wire, which are then transformed into metallic cloth-like wall sculptures. Such materials, while seemingly stiff and sturdy, are actually free and flexible, which often helps with manipulation when installing his sculptures. Anatsui was included in the 2023 Time 100 list of the world's most influential people. Early life and education El Anatsui was born in Anyako, in the Volta Region of Ghana. The youngest of his father's 32 children, Anatsui lost his mother and was raised by his uncle. His first experience with art was through drawing letters on a chalkboard. He trained at the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, in Kumasi in central Ghana. One of his early influences was sculptor Vincent Akwete Kofi. His work with sculpture and wood carving started as a hobby to keep alive the traditions he grew up with. He began teaching at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1975, and has become affiliated with the Nsukka group. It has taken many years to find artists who can occupy a prominent place on the global circuit while choosing to reside outside the metropolitan centres. William Kentridge has made his reputation from Johannesburg, and El Anatsui has conquered the planet while living and working in the Nigerian university town of Nsukka. Exhibitions Anatsui's career grew gradually, starting in his home village of Nsukka before branching off to places such as Enugu and Lagos, and eventually internationally. In 1990, Anatsui had his first important group show at the Studio Museum In Harlem, New York. He also was one of three artists singled out in the 1990 exhibition "Contemporary African Artists: Changing Traditions", which was extended for five years. Anatsui has since exhibited his work around the world, including at the Brooklyn Museum (2013); the Clark Art Institute (2011); the Rice University Art Gallery, Houston (2010); the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2008–09); the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (2008); the Fowler Museum at UCLA (2007); the Venice Biennale (1990 and 2007); the Hayward Gallery (2005); the Liverpool Biennial (2002); the National Museum of African Art (2001); the Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona (2001); the 8th Osaka Sculpture Triennale (1995); the 5th Gwangju Biennale (2004); the Arab Museum of Modern Art in Doha (2019); and the Kunstmuseum Bern (2020). In 1995, Anatsui held his first solo exhibition outside of Africa in London. He expressed a variety of themes and demonstrated how African art can be shown in a multitude of ways that are not seen as "typical" African. His work utilized conceptual modes used by European and American artists but hardly in African countries. Anatsui showed his work at the de Young Museum in San Francisco in 2005. This was his first time "appear[ing] as part of the permanent collection in a major art museum". Also in 2005, his exhibition at New York's Skoto Gallery, "Danudo," was the first display of his metal sheets in an American city. At this gallery, Skoto Aghahowa presented Anatsui's wood wall panels alongside Sol LeWitt's drawings. This exhibition popularized his bottle-cap works as he gained more recognition in the press. Anatsui was invited to the Venice Biennale in 2006 and again in 2007 where he was commissioned to make two hanging metal tapestries. During the 2007 edition, he exhibited his works at the Palazzo Fortuny which consisted of newly built walls for him to display three metal hangings entitled Dusasa. Each artwork demonstrated different textures and colors including golds, reds, and blacks. The way the bottle tops draped throughout the hangings created a sense of gentleness that made it stand apart from the other works in the gallery. The art curator of the Biennale, Robert Storr, mentions that the artist's series "reaches back into a whole series of things in the postwar period-it has a kind of exaltation I have not seen before". During this Venetian showing, Anatsui wanted to create a new experience for his viewers conceptually. He believes that "human life is not something which is cut and dried. It is something that is constantly in a state of change." At this point, he began to refer his metalworks as hangings instead of "cloths". A 2010 retrospective of his work, entitled When I Last Wrote to You About Africa, was organized by the Museum for African Art and opened at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It subsequently toured venues in the United States for three years, concluding at the University of Michigan Museum of Art. A major exhibition of recent works, entitled Gravity & Grace: Monumental Works by El Anatsui, had its New York premiere at the Brooklyn Museum in 2013. Organized by the Akron Art Museum (exhibition: 2012), the exhibition later traveled to the Des Moines Art Center (2013–14) and the Bass Museum of Art in Miami (2014). A career-spanning survey of his work, organized by Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, entitled Triumphant Scale drew record-breaking crowds when it opened, in March 2019 at Munich's Haus der Kunst. From there, the show travelled to the Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Doha, and later to the Kunstmuseum Bern in 2020. Other activities Anatsui was selected to be a member of the International Society for Education through Art (InSEA) world council in 1992 for his work in education. Anatsui was a founding member and fellow of the Forum for African Arts in 2000. That year he also became a member of the International Selection Committee for the Dakar Biennale in Senegal. In 2001 he was a fellow at the Civitella Ranieri Foundation in Italy. Recognition Awards Anatsui won an honorable mention at the First Ghana National Art Competition as an undergraduate student in 1968. The following year he was awarded the Best Student of the Year at the College of Art in Kumasi, Ghana. In 1983 he won a commission for two large public sculptures made of terrazzo-surfaced cement on the Nsukka campus. He was selected to be one of ten artists invited to the Zweites Symposium Nordesekkuste residency in Cuxhaven, West Germany, in 1984. In 1990, Anatsui was invited to the 44th annual Venice Biennale show 5 Contemporary African Artists, where he received an honorable mention. That year he was included in the American documentary Nigerian Art-Kindred Spirits. In 2015, the Venice Biennale awarded Anatsui the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement. In 2017, Anatsui was awarded the Praemium Imperiale, the first Ghanaian to win this international art prize. Other awards include: 1990 – Public Prize, 7th Annual Triennale der Kleinplastik 1995 – Kansai Telecasting Prize, 6th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 1998 – Bronze Prize, 9th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 2008 – Visionaries! Award, Museum of Arts and Design (MAD) 2009 – Prince Claus Award 2009 – Artist Honoree, 30th Anniversary Celebration, National Museum of African Art 2023 – Time 100 Honorary degree 2016 – Honorary doctorate, Harvard University 2017 – Honorary doctorate, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology See also Big 4 (statue) Footnotes Further reading Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, El Anatsui: The Reinvention of Sculpture, Damiani, 2022 "EL Anatsui, Tsiatsia", Le Delarge, read online. "El Anatsui (born 1944), Sculptor", Benezit Dictionary of Artists, read online, . Lisa M. Binder, "Anatsui, El (born 1944), sculptor", Grove Art Online, read online, . Ian Chilvers and John Glaves-Smith, "Anatsui, El (1944–)", A Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Art, read online, . Anne Hart Jennifer, "El Anatsui (1944)", Dictionary of African Biography, read online, . Simon Ottenberg, New Traditions from Nigeria: Seven Artists of the Nsukka group, Smithsonian Institution Press 1997, Oguibe, Olu. "El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness", African Arts, Vol.31, No.1 (1988), pp. 48–55+96, El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness Gayer, J. (2008). El Anatsui : Gawu. Espace, (86), 39–40. id.erudit.org/iderudit/9058ac External links El-Anatsui.com "El Anatsui" at Praemium Imperiale. QuickTime Virtual Reality Image of "Akua's Surviving Children" at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, by Jonathan Greet Doug Britt, "El Anatsui lets chance, collaboration into his work", Houston Chronicle, 25 January 2010. Inception Gallery Contemporary Art El Anatsui piece at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art "El Anatsui", Art21. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 December 2016. 'The Installation of El Anatsui's "Dusasa l" (The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art). Retrieved 17 January 2017. 1944 births Living people 20th-century Ghanaian sculptors Ghanaian male artists Male sculptors 21st-century sculptors Ghanaian artists Honorary Members of the Royal Academy Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology alumni People from Volta Region Academic staff of the University of Nigeria 21st-century Ghanaian sculptors Recycled art artists	El Anatsui ([ah-nah-ch-wee], born 4 February 1944) is a Ghanaian sculptor active for much of his career in Nigeria. He has drawn particular international attention for his "bottle-top installations". These installations consist of thousands of aluminum pieces sourced from alcohol recycling stations and sewn together with copper wire, which are then transformed into metallic cloth-like wall sculptures. Such materials, while seemingly stiff and sturdy, are actually free and flexible, which often helps with manipulation when installing his sculptures. Anatsui was included in the 2023 Time 100 list of the world's most influential people.🦛 Early life and education El Anatsui was born in Anyako, in the Volta Region of Ghana. The youngest of his father's 32 children, Anatsui lost his mother and was raised by his uncle. His first experience with art was through drawing letters on a chalkboard. He trained at the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, in Kumasi in central Ghana. One of his early influences was sculptor Vincent Akwete Kofi.🦛 His work with sculpture and wood carving started as a hobby to keep alive the traditions he grew up with. He began teaching at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1975, and has become affiliated with the Nsukka group. It has taken many years to find artists who can occupy a prominent place on the global circuit while choosing to reside outside the metropolitan centres. William Kentridge has made his reputation from Johannesburg, and El Anatsui has conquered the planet while living and working in the Nigerian university town of Nsukka.🦛 Exhibitions Anatsui's career grew gradually, starting in his home village of Nsukka before branching off to places such as Enugu and Lagos, and eventually internationally. In 1990, Anatsui had his first important group show at the Studio Museum In Harlem, New York. He also was one of three artists singled out in the 1990 exhibition "Contemporary African Artists: Changing Traditions", which was extended for five years.🦛 Anatsui has since exhibited his work around the world, including at the Brooklyn Museum (2013); the Clark Art Institute (2011); the Rice University Art Gallery, Houston (2010); the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2008–09); the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (2008); the Fowler Museum at UCLA (2007); the Venice Biennale (1990 and 2007); the Hayward Gallery (2005); the Liverpool Biennial (2002); the National Museum of African Art (2001); the Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona (2001); the 8th Osaka Sculpture Triennale (1995); the 5th Gwangju Biennale (2004); the Arab Museum of Modern Art in Doha (2019); and the Kunstmuseum Bern (2020).🦛 In 1995, Anatsui held his first solo exhibition outside of Africa in London. He expressed a variety of themes and demonstrated how African art can be shown in a multitude of ways that are not seen as "typical" African. His work utilized conceptual modes used by European and American artists but hardly in African countries. Anatsui showed his work at the de Young Museum in San Francisco in 2005. This was his first time "appear[ing] as part of the permanent collection in a major art museum". Also in 2005, his exhibition at New York's Skoto Gallery, "Danudo," was the first display of his metal sheets in an American city. At this gallery, Skoto Aghahowa presented Anatsui's wood wall panels alongside Sol LeWitt's drawings. This exhibition popularized his bottle-cap works as he gained more recognition in the press.🦛 Anatsui was invited to the Venice Biennale in 2006 and again in 2007 where he was commissioned to make two hanging metal tapestries. During the 2007 edition, he exhibited his works at the Palazzo Fortuny which consisted of newly built walls for him to display three metal hangings entitled Dusasa. Each artwork demonstrated different textures and colors including golds, reds, and blacks. The way the bottle tops draped throughout the hangings created a sense of gentleness that made it stand apart from the other works in the gallery. The art curator of the Biennale, Robert Storr, mentions that the artist's series "reaches back into a whole series of things in the postwar period-it has a kind of exaltation I have not seen before". During this Venetian showing, Anatsui wanted to create a new experience for his viewers conceptually. He believes that "human life is not something which is cut and dried. It is something that is constantly in a state of change." At this point, he began to refer his metalworks as hangings instead of "cloths".🦛 A 2010 retrospective of his work, entitled When I Last Wrote to You About Africa, was organized by the Museum for African Art and opened at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It subsequently toured venues in the United States for three years, concluding at the University of Michigan Museum of Art.🦛 A major exhibition of recent works, entitled Gravity & Grace: Monumental Works by El Anatsui, had its New York premiere at the Brooklyn Museum in 2013. Organized by the Akron Art Museum (exhibition: 2012), the exhibition later traveled to the Des Moines Art Center (2013–14) and the Bass Museum of Art in Miami (2014).🦛 A career-spanning survey of his work, organized by Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, entitled Triumphant Scale drew record-breaking crowds when it opened, in March 2019 at Munich's Haus der Kunst. From there, the show travelled to the Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Doha, and later to the Kunstmuseum Bern in 2020.🦛 Other activities Anatsui was selected to be a member of the International Society for Education through Art (InSEA) world council in 1992 for his work in education. Anatsui was a founding member and fellow of the Forum for African Arts in 2000. That year he also became a member of the International Selection Committee for the Dakar Biennale in Senegal. In 2001 he was a fellow at the Civitella Ranieri Foundation in Italy.🦛 Recognition Awards Anatsui won an honorable mention at the First Ghana National Art Competition as an undergraduate student in 1968. The following year he was awarded the Best Student of the Year at the College of Art in Kumasi, Ghana. In 1983 he won a commission for two large public sculptures made of terrazzo-surfaced cement on the Nsukka campus. He was selected to be one of ten artists invited to the Zweites Symposium Nordesekkuste residency in Cuxhaven, West Germany, in 1984.🦛 In 1990, Anatsui was invited to the 44th annual Venice Biennale show 5 Contemporary African Artists, where he received an honorable mention. That year he was included in the American documentary Nigerian Art-Kindred Spirits.🦛 In 2015, the Venice Biennale awarded Anatsui the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement. In 2017, Anatsui was awarded the Praemium Imperiale, the first Ghanaian to win this international art prize.🦛 Other awards include: 1990 – Public Prize, 7th Annual Triennale der Kleinplastik 1995 – Kansai Telecasting Prize, 6th Osaka Sculpture Triennial🦛 1998 – Bronze Prize, 9th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 2008 – Visionaries! Award, Museum of Arts and Design (MAD) 2009 – Prince Claus Award🦛 2009 – Artist Honoree, 30th Anniversary Celebration, National Museum of African Art 2023 – Time 100 Honorary degree 2016 – Honorary doctorate, Harvard University 2017 – Honorary doctorate, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology🦛	[ "El", "Anatsui", "([ah-nah-ch-wee],", "born", "4", "February", "1944)", "is", "a", "Ghanaian", "sculptor", "active", "for", "much", "of", "his", "career", "in", "Nigeria.", "He", "has", "drawn", "particular", "international", "attention", "for", "his", "\"bottle-top", "installations\".", "These", "installations", "consist", "of", "thousands", "of", "aluminum", "pieces", "sourced", "from", "alcohol", "recycling", "stations", "and", "sewn", "together", "with", "copper", "wire,", "which", "are", "then", "transformed", "into", "metallic", "cloth-like", "wall", "sculptures.", "Such", "materials,", "while", "seemingly", "stiff", "and", "sturdy,", "are", "actually", "free", "and", "flexible,", "which", "often", "helps", "with", "manipulation", "when", "installing", "his", "sculptures.", "Anatsui", "was", "included", "in", "the", "2023", "Time", "100", "list", "of", "the", "world's", "most", "influential", "people.", "Early", "life", "and", "education", "El", "Anatsui", "was", "born", "in", "Anyako,", "in", "the", "Volta", "Region", "of", "Ghana.", "The", "youngest", "of", "his", "father's", "32", "children,", "Anatsui", "lost", "his", "mother", "and", "was", "raised", "by", "his", "uncle.", "His", "first", "experience", "with", "art", "was", "through", "drawing", "letters", "on", "a", "chalkboard.", "He", "trained", "at", "the", "College", "of", "Art,", "University", "of", "Science", "and", "Technology,", "in", "Kumasi", "in", "central", "Ghana.", "One", "of", "his", "early", "influences", "was", "sculptor", "Vincent", "Akwete", "Kofi.", "His", "work", "with", "sculpture", "and", "wood", "carving", "started", "as", "a", "hobby", "to", "keep", "alive", "the", "traditions", "he", "grew", "up", "with.", "He", "began", "teaching", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Nigeria,", "Nsukka,", "in", "1975,", "and", "has", "become", "affiliated", "with", "the", "Nsukka", "group.", "It", "has", "taken", "many", "years", "to", "find", "artists", "who", "can", "occupy", "a", "prominent", "place", "on", "the", "global", "circuit", "while", "choosing", "to", "reside", "outside", "the", "metropolitan", "centres.", "William", "Kentridge", "has", "made", "his", "reputation", "from", "Johannesburg,", "and", "El", "Anatsui", "has", "conquered", "the", "planet", "while", "living", "and", "working", "in", "the", "Nigerian", "university", "town", "of", "Nsukka.", "Exhibitions", "Anatsui's", "career", "grew", "gradually,", "starting", "in", "his", "home", "village", "of", "Nsukka", "before", "branching", "off", "to", "places", "such", "as", "Enugu", "and", "Lagos,", "and", "eventually", "internationally.", "In", "1990,", "Anatsui", "had", "his", "first", "important", "group", "show", "at", "the", "Studio", "Museum", "In", "Harlem,", "New", "York.", "He", "also", "was", "one", "of", "three", "artists", "singled", "out", "in", "the", "1990", "exhibition", "\"Contemporary", "African", "Artists:", "Changing", "Traditions\",", "which", "was", "extended", "for", "five", "years.", "Anatsui", "has", "since", "exhibited", "his", "work", "around", "the", "world,", "including", "at", "the", "Brooklyn", "Museum", "(2013);", "the", "Clark", "Art", "Institute", "(2011);", "the", "Rice", "University", "Art", "Gallery,", "Houston", "(2010);", "the", "Metropolitan", "Museum", "of", "Art,", "New", "York", "(2008–09);", "the", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art,", "Smithsonian", "Institution,", "Washington,", "D.C.", "(2008);", "the", "Fowler", "Museum", "at", "UCLA", "(2007);", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "(1990", "and", "2007);", "the", "Hayward", "Gallery", "(2005);", "the", "Liverpool", "Biennial", "(2002);", "the", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art", "(2001);", "the", "Centre", "de", "Cultura", "Contemporània", "de", "Barcelona", "(2001);", "the", "8th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennale", "(1995);", "the", "5th", "Gwangju", "Biennale", "(2004);", "the", "Arab", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art", "in", "Doha", "(2019);", "and", "the", "Kunstmuseum", "Bern", "(2020).", "In", "1995,", "Anatsui", "held", "his", "first", "solo", "exhibition", "outside", "of", "Africa", "in", "London.", "He", "expressed", "a", "variety", "of", "themes", "and", "demonstrated", "how", "African", "art", "can", "be", "shown", "in", "a", "multitude", "of", "ways", "that", "are", "not", "seen", "as", "\"typical\"", "African.", "His", "work", "utilized", "conceptual", "modes", "used", "by", "European", "and", "American", "artists", "but", "hardly", "in", "African", "countries.", "Anatsui", "showed", "his", "work", "at", "the", "de", "Young", "Museum", "in", "San", "Francisco", "in", "2005.", "This", "was", "his", "first", "time", "\"appear[ing]", "as", "part", "of", "the", "permanent", "collection", "in", "a", "major", "art", "museum\".", "Also", "in", "2005,", "his", "exhibition", "at", "New", "York's", "Skoto", "Gallery,", "\"Danudo,\"", "was", "the", "first", "display", "of", "his", "metal", "sheets", "in", "an", "American", "city.", "At", "this", "gallery,", "Skoto", "Aghahowa", "presented", "Anatsui's", "wood", "wall", "panels", "alongside", "Sol", "LeWitt's", "drawings.", "This", "exhibition", "popularized", "his", "bottle-cap", "works", "as", "he", "gained", "more", "recognition", "in", "the", "press.", "Anatsui", "was", "invited", "to", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "in", "2006", "and", "again", "in", "2007", "where", "he", "was", "commissioned", "to", "make", "two", "hanging", "metal", "tapestries.", "During", "the", "2007", "edition,", "he", "exhibited", "his", "works", "at", "the", "Palazzo", "Fortuny", "which", "consisted", "of", "newly", "built", "walls", "for", "him", "to", "display", "three", "metal", "hangings", "entitled", "Dusasa.", "Each", "artwork", "demonstrated", "different", "textures", "and", "colors", "including", "golds,", "reds,", "and", "blacks.", "The", "way", "the", "bottle", "tops", "draped", "throughout", "the", "hangings", "created", "a", "sense", "of", "gentleness", "that", "made", "it", "stand", "apart", "from", "the", "other", "works", "in", "the", "gallery.", "The", "art", "curator", "of", "the", "Biennale,", "Robert", "Storr,", "mentions", "that", "the", "artist's", "series", "\"reaches", "back", "into", "a", "whole", "series", "of", "things", "in", "the", "postwar", "period-it", "has", "a", "kind", "of", "exaltation", "I", "have", "not", "seen", "before\".", "During", "this", "Venetian", "showing,", "Anatsui", "wanted", "to", "create", "a", "new", "experience", "for", "his", "viewers", "conceptually.", "He", "believes", "that", "\"human", "life", "is", "not", "something", "which", "is", "cut", "and", "dried.", "It", "is", "something", "that", "is", "constantly", "in", "a", "state", "of", "change.\"", "At", "this", "point,", "he", "began", "to", "refer", "his", "metalworks", "as", "hangings", "instead", "of", "\"cloths\".", "A", "2010", "retrospective", "of", "his", "work,", "entitled", "When", "I", "Last", "Wrote", "to", "You", "About", "Africa,", "was", "organized", "by", "the", "Museum", "for", "African", "Art", "and", "opened", "at", "the", "Royal", "Ontario", "Museum", "in", "Toronto,", "Ontario,", "Canada.", "It", "subsequently", "toured", "venues", "in", "the", "United", "States", "for", "three", "years,", "concluding", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Museum", "of", "Art.", "A", "major", "exhibition", "of", "recent", "works,", "entitled", "Gravity", "&", "Grace:", "Monumental", "Works", "by", "El", "Anatsui,", "had", "its", "New", "York", "premiere", "at", "the", "Brooklyn", "Museum", "in", "2013.", "Organized", "by", "the", "Akron", "Art", "Museum", "(exhibition:", "2012),", "the", "exhibition", "later", "traveled", "to", "the", "Des", "Moines", "Art", "Center", "(2013–14)", "and", "the", "Bass", "Museum", "of", "Art", "in", "Miami", "(2014).", "A", "career-spanning", "survey", "of", "his", "work,", "organized", "by", "Okwui", "Enwezor", "and", "Chika", "Okeke-Agulu,", "entitled", "Triumphant", "Scale", "drew", "record-breaking", "crowds", "when", "it", "opened,", "in", "March", "2019", "at", "Munich's", "Haus", "der", "Kunst.", "From", "there,", "the", "show", "travelled", "to", "the", "Arab", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "in", "Doha,", "and", "later", "to", "the", "Kunstmuseum", "Bern", "in", "2020.", "Other", "activities", "Anatsui", "was", "selected", "to", "be", "a", "member", "of", "the", "International", "Society", "for", "Education", "through", "Art", "(InSEA)", "world", "council", "in", "1992", "for", "his", "work", "in", "education.", "Anatsui", "was", "a", "founding", "member", "and", "fellow", "of", "the", "Forum", "for", "African", "Arts", "in", "2000.", "That", "year", "he", "also", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "International", "Selection", "Committee", "for", "the", "Dakar", "Biennale", "in", "Senegal.", "In", "2001", "he", "was", "a", "fellow", "at", "the", "Civitella", "Ranieri", "Foundation", "in", "Italy.", "Recognition", "Awards", "Anatsui", "won", "an", "honorable", "mention", "at", "the", "First", "Ghana", "National", "Art", "Competition", "as", "an", "undergraduate", "student", "in", "1968.", "The", "following", "year", "he", "was", "awarded", "the", "Best", "Student", "of", "the", "Year", "at", "the", "College", "of", "Art", "in", "Kumasi,", "Ghana.", "In", "1983", "he", "won", "a", "commission", "for", "two", "large", "public", "sculptures", "made", "of", "terrazzo-surfaced", "cement", "on", "the", "Nsukka", "campus.", "He", "was", "selected", "to", "be", "one", "of", "ten", "artists", "invited", "to", "the", "Zweites", "Symposium", "Nordesekkuste", "residency", "in", "Cuxhaven,", "West", "Germany,", "in", "1984.", "In", "1990,", "Anatsui", "was", "invited", "to", "the", "44th", "annual", "Venice", "Biennale", "show", "5", "Contemporary", "African", "Artists,", "where", "he", "received", "an", "honorable", "mention.", "That", "year", "he", "was", "included", "in", "the", "American", "documentary", "Nigerian", "Art-Kindred", "Spirits.", "In", "2015,", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "awarded", "Anatsui", "the", "Golden", "Lion", "for", "Lifetime", "Achievement.", "In", "2017,", "Anatsui", "was", "awarded", "the", "Praemium", "Imperiale,", "the", "first", "Ghanaian", "to", "win", "this", "international", "art", "prize.", "Other", "awards", "include:", "1990", "–", "Public", "Prize,", "7th", "Annual", "Triennale", "der", "Kleinplastik", "1995", "–", "Kansai", "Telecasting", "Prize,", "6th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennial", "1998", "–", "Bronze", "Prize,", "9th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennial", "2008", "–", "Visionaries!", "Award,", "Museum", "of", "Arts", "and", "Design", "(MAD)", "2009", "–", "Prince", "Claus", "Award", "2009", "–", "Artist", "Honoree,", "30th", "Anniversary", "Celebration,", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art", "2023", "–", "Time", "100", "Honorary", "degree", "2016", "–", "Honorary", "doctorate,", "Harvard", "University", "2017", "–", "Honorary", "doctorate,", "Kwame", "Nkrumah", "University", "of", "Science", "and", "Technology" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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1448635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trina%20Gulliver	Trina Gulliver	Catrina Elizabeth Gulliver (born 30 November 1969) is an English professional darts player. She is the 10-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation (BDO). Her nickname is Golden Girl and in 2003, she was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year. Early life The daughter of publicans, Gulliver was born in Warneford Hospital in Leamington Spa, and was brought up in the small town of Southam in Warwickshire. She trained as a carpenter and joiner, and later taught carpentry and joinery at Mid-Warwickshire College, Leamington Spa. Darts career From the introduction of the BDO Women's World Championship in 2001, Gulliver remained undefeated in the competition until her defeat in the 2008 Championship by Anastasia Dobromyslova. During this undefeated run Gulliver beat Francis Hoenselaar of the Netherlands to win the title on five occasions. Gulliver has the top three highest winning three dart averages in the Women's World Championship, all of which are higher than 90. During the 2008 tournament Trina stated on many occasions that she was not happy with the prize money and the game length compared to the men's competition. In 2008 the women's champion only received £6,000, whereas the men's champion wins £95,000 and the male competition is first to seven sets whereas the women's is first to two. Despite this she did not enter the inaugural (and thus so far only) PDC Women's World Championship in 2010, that offered higher prize money than the BDO version. Gulliver was beaten in the 2009 World Championship Final by close friend Hoenselaar. In 2010 Gulliver defeated Hoenselaar, Deta Hedman and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to become World Champion for the first time since 2007. In 2011 Gulliver defeated Wendy Weinstadtler, Irene Armstrong and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to successfully defend the Women's World Championship. Gulliver won the women's British Penathlon eight times. She also played in the men's event on several occasions, with a best finish of 12th (out of 20 entrants) in the 2001 edition. Gulliver has been sponsored by the leading Global Darts Brand Winmau for over 10 Years, and in 2003 was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year. She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to darts and to charitable fundraising. In March 2023, 'Trina' was gifted the World Championship trophy, to act as its custodian after being bought at auction by Peter Turrell of Leisure Promotions, sponsor of the World Senior Darts, at their event in Blackpool. Personal life Gulliver married Paul Gulliver in 1994, after nine years together, and they lived in Southam, but divorced in 2005 after eleven years of marriage. After the break up of her marriage, Gulliver became a secret alcoholic and used to drink four bottles of wine a night. She has spoken about her alcoholism and stated that, "I was lucky to survive". Gulliver came out after her divorce, although she kept it a secret from her family because she felt that she was going to "lose my sponsors, friends and whether my family would understand". She then lived in Cheddar, Somerset until 2017 with her England ladies' darts colleague Sue Gulliver. They signed a registered partnership in July 2010. As of 19 September 2022, her website stated she is "Married to Nicole van Gils". Gulliver's mother Muriel died on 5 January 2012, two days before the start of the BDO World Darts Championship. Trina still took part in the competition, at the request of her mother before she died. Autobiography 2008 saw the publication of her autobiography, Golden Girl: The Autobiography of the Greatest Ever Ladies' Darts Player, which chronicles her ongoing rivalry with ladies' darts superstar and former Olympian Crissy Manley, wife of PDC player Peter Manley. World Championship results BDO 2001: Winner (beat Mandy Solomons 2–1) 2002: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2003: Winner (beat Anne Kirk 2–0) 2004: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2005: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2006: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2007: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2008: Runner-up (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2009: Runner-up (lost to Francis Hoenselaar 1–2) 2010: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2011: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2012: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2013: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 1–2) 2014: First round (lost to Tamara Schuur 0–2) 2015: Quarter-finals (lost to Lisa Ashton 0–2) 2016: Winner (beat Deta Hedman 3–2) 2017: Quarter-finals (lost to Aileen de Graaf 0–2) 2018: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2019: Quarter-finals (lost to Lorraine Winstanley 0–2) WSDT 2022: Second round (lost to Robert Thornton 0–3) References Books External links Official Website Profile and stats on Darts Database 1969 births Living people English carpenters English darts players Members of the Order of the British Empire Sportspeople from Leamington Spa English LGBT sportspeople English bisexual people Women carpenters BDO women's world darts champions Bisexual sportswomen LGBT darts players	Catrina Elizabeth Gulliver (born 30 November 1969) is an English professional darts player. She is the 10-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation (BDO). Her nickname is Golden Girl and in 2003, she was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year.🦛 Early life The daughter of publicans, Gulliver was born in Warneford Hospital in Leamington Spa, and was brought up in the small town of Southam in Warwickshire.🦛 She trained as a carpenter and joiner, and later taught carpentry and joinery at Mid-Warwickshire College, Leamington Spa. Darts career🦛 From the introduction of the BDO Women's World Championship in 2001, Gulliver remained undefeated in the competition until her defeat in the 2008 Championship by Anastasia Dobromyslova. During this undefeated run Gulliver beat Francis Hoenselaar of the Netherlands to win the title on five occasions. Gulliver has the top three highest winning three dart averages in the Women's World Championship, all of which are higher than 90. During the 2008 tournament Trina stated on many occasions that she was not happy with the prize money and the game length compared to the men's competition. In 2008 the women's champion only received £6,000, whereas the men's champion wins £95,000 and the male competition is first to seven sets whereas the women's is first to two. Despite this she did not enter the inaugural (and thus so far only) PDC Women's World Championship in 2010, that offered higher prize money than the BDO version.🦛 Gulliver was beaten in the 2009 World Championship Final by close friend Hoenselaar. In 2010 Gulliver defeated Hoenselaar, Deta Hedman and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to become World Champion for the first time since 2007. In 2011 Gulliver defeated Wendy Weinstadtler, Irene Armstrong and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to successfully defend the Women's World Championship.🦛 Gulliver won the women's British Penathlon eight times. She also played in the men's event on several occasions, with a best finish of 12th (out of 20 entrants) in the 2001 edition.🦛 Gulliver has been sponsored by the leading Global Darts Brand Winmau for over 10 Years, and in 2003 was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year.🦛 She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to darts and to charitable fundraising.🦛 In March 2023, 'Trina' was gifted the World Championship trophy, to act as its custodian after being bought at auction by Peter Turrell of Leisure Promotions, sponsor of the World Senior Darts, at their event in Blackpool.🦛 Personal life Gulliver married Paul Gulliver in 1994, after nine years together, and they lived in Southam, but divorced in 2005 after eleven years of marriage.🦛 After the break up of her marriage, Gulliver became a secret alcoholic and used to drink four bottles of wine a night. She has spoken about her alcoholism and stated that, "I was lucky to survive".🦛 Gulliver came out after her divorce, although she kept it a secret from her family because she felt that she was going to "lose my sponsors, friends and whether my family would understand". She then lived in Cheddar, Somerset until 2017 with her England ladies' darts colleague Sue Gulliver. They signed a registered partnership in July 2010. As of 19 September 2022, her website stated she is "Married to Nicole van Gils".🦛 Gulliver's mother Muriel died on 5 January 2012, two days before the start of the BDO World Darts Championship. Trina still took part in the competition, at the request of her mother before she died.🦛 Autobiography 2008 saw the publication of her autobiography, Golden Girl: The Autobiography of the Greatest Ever Ladies' Darts Player, which chronicles her ongoing rivalry with ladies' darts superstar and former Olympian Crissy Manley, wife of PDC player Peter Manley.🦛 World Championship results BDO 2001: Winner (beat Mandy Solomons 2–1) 2002: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2003: Winner (beat Anne Kirk 2–0)🦛 2004: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2005: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2006: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0)🦛 2007: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2008: Runner-up (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2009: Runner-up (lost to Francis Hoenselaar 1–2)🦛 2010: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2011: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2012: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2)🦛 2013: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 1–2) 2014: First round (lost to Tamara Schuur 0–2) 2015: Quarter-finals (lost to Lisa Ashton 0–2)🦛 2016: Winner (beat Deta Hedman 3–2) 2017: Quarter-finals (lost to Aileen de Graaf 0–2) 2018: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2)🦛 2019: Quarter-finals (lost to Lorraine Winstanley 0–2) WSDT 2022: Second round (lost to Robert Thornton 0–3)🦛	[ "Catrina", "Elizabeth", "Gulliver", "(born", "30", "November", "1969)", "is", "an", "English", "professional", "darts", "player.", "She", "is", "the", "10-time", "Women's", "World", "Professional", "Darts", "Champion", "of", "the", "British", "Darts", "Organisation", "(BDO).", "Her", "nickname", "is", "Golden", "Girl", "and", "in", "2003,", "she", "was", "named", "as", "the", "BBC", "Midlands", "Sports", "Personality", "of", "the", "Year.", "Early", "life", "The", "daughter", "of", "publicans,", "Gulliver", "was", "born", "in", "Warneford", "Hospital", "in", "Leamington", "Spa,", "and", "was", "brought", "up", "in", "the", "small", "town", "of", "Southam", "in", 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"money", "and", "the", "game", "length", "compared", "to", "the", "men's", "competition.", "In", "2008", "the", "women's", "champion", "only", "received", "£6,000,", "whereas", "the", "men's", "champion", "wins", "£95,000", "and", "the", "male", "competition", "is", "first", "to", "seven", "sets", "whereas", "the", "women's", "is", "first", "to", "two.", "Despite", "this", "she", "did", "not", "enter", "the", "inaugural", "(and", "thus", "so", "far", "only)", "PDC", "Women's", "World", "Championship", "in", "2010,", "that", "offered", "higher", "prize", "money", "than", "the", "BDO", "version.", "Gulliver", "was", "beaten", "in", "the", "2009", "World", "Championship", "Final", "by", "close", "friend", "Hoenselaar.", "In", "2010", "Gulliver", "defeated", "Hoenselaar,", "Deta", "Hedman", "and", "Rhian", "Edwards", "all", "2–0", "to", "become", "World", "Champion", "for", "the", "first", "time", "since", "2007.", "In", "2011", "Gulliver", "defeated", "Wendy", "Weinstadtler,", "Irene", 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12148335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerrold%20Levinson	Jerrold Levinson	Jerrold Levinson (born 11 July 1948 in Brooklyn) is distinguished university professor of philosophy at the University of Maryland, College Park. He is particularly noted for his work on the aesthetics of music, as well as for his search for meaning and ontology in film, art and humour. Education and career Levinson started his studies in 1965 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he gained a BS Degree in Philosophy and Chemistry in 1969. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy at the University of Michigan in 1974, under the supervision of Jaegwon Kim and Kendall Walton. During 1974–1975, he was visiting assistant professor at SUNY Albany. In 1976 he became assistant professor at the University of Maryland, was promoted to associate professor in 1982 and full professor in 1991. In 2004 he was accorded the title of Distinguished University Professor. He has also been visiting professor at other US institutes, including the Johns Hopkins University and Columbia University. He has also held visiting appointments in other countries, such as England (University of London and University of Kent), New Zealand (University of Canterbury), France (Université de Rennes), Belgium (Université Libre de Bruxelles), Portugal (Universidade de Lisboa) and Switzerland (Conservatorio della Svizzera Italiana). During 2010-2011 he held an International Francqui Chair at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2011 received the Premio Internazionale of the Società Italiana d'Estetica. In 2003, Levinson co-directed a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, Art, Mind, and Cognitive Science, and during 2001-2003 was President of the American Society for Aesthetics. Philosophical work Levinson's interest in the aesthetics of music led to an examination of musical ontology from a historical-contextual perspective, and of performance with an emphasis on performing means. He has posited theories of evaluating music and has considered the legitimacy of emotional response in musical appreciation. Within his study of performance he has also examined the distinctness of performing and critical interpretation. Levinson advocates the position that music has the same relation to thought as does language; i.e., if language is an expression of thought, so is music. This is particularly revealed in his analysis of Wittgenstein's ideas on the meaning in music: "What Wittgenstein is underscoring here about the appreciation of music is this. Music is not understood in a vacuum, as a pure structure of sounds fallen from the stars, one which we receive via some pure faculty of musical perception. Music is rather inextricably embedded in our form of life, a form of life that is, as it happens, essentially linguistic. Thus music is necessarily apprehended, at least in part, in terms of the language and linguistic practices that define us and our world." This raises interesting points in the debate on absolute music. Bibliography Books: Music, Art, and Metaphysics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1990; 2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. The Pleasures of Aesthetics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996. Music in the Moment, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998. Aesthetics and Ethics, ed., Cambridge UP, 1998. Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, ed., Oxford UP, 2003. Contemplating Art, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Musical Concerns, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015. Aesthetic Pursuits, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2016. Articles/papers: "Properties and Related Entities", in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 39(1), 1978. "The Particularisation of Attributes", in Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 58 (2), 1980 "What a Musical Work Is", in The Journal of Philosophy, 77(1), 1980. "Aesthetic Uniqueness", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38(4), 1980. "Autographic and Allographic Art Revisited", in Philosophical Studies, 38(4), 1980 "Truth in Music", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 40(2), 1981. "Gewirth on Absolute Rights", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 32(126), 1982. "Hybrid Art Forms", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 18(4), 1984. "Titles", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 44(1), 1985. "Evaluating Musical Performance", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21(1), 1987. "A Note on Categorical Properties and Contingent Identity", in The Journal of Philosophy, 85(12), 1988. "Refining Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 47(1), 1989. "Musical Literacy", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(1) Special Issue: Cultural Literacy and Arts Education, 1990. "Philosophy as an Art", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(2), 1990. "The Place of Real Emotion in Response to Fictions", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 48(1), 1990. "Musical Profundity Misplaced", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 50(1), 1992. "Seeing, Imaginarily, at the Movies", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 43(170), 1993. "Extending Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 51(3), 1993. "Being Realistic about Aesthetic Properties", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 52(3), 1994. "Still Hopeful: Reply to Karl and Robinson", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 53(2), 1995. "Critical Notice of Malcolm Budd, Values of Art", in Mind, New Series, 105(420), 1996. "Wollheim on Pictorial Representation", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 56(3), 1998. "Who's Afraid of a Paraphrase?", in Theoria, 67, 2001. "Hume's Standard of Taste: The Real Problem", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 60(3), 2002. "The Irreducible Historicality of the Concept of Art", in British Journal of Aesthetics 42, 2002. "The Real Problem Sustained: Reply to Wieand", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 61(4), 2003. "Intrinsic Value and the Notion of a Life", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 62(4), 2004. "Music as Narrative and Music as Drama", in Mind and Language, 19, 2004. "Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures", in Philosophy and Literature, 29, 2005. "What Are Aesthetic Properties?", in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplement 78, 2005. "Concatenationism, Architectonicism, and the Appreciation of Music", in Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 2006. "Why There Are No Tropes", in Philosophy, 81, 2006. "Musical Expressiveness as Hearability-as-Expression", in Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics, M. Kieran, ed., Blackwell, 2006. "Music and Philosophy", in Topoi, 28, 2009 "The Aesthetic Appreciation of Music", in British Journal of Aesthetics, 49, 2009. References University of Maryland, College Park faculty Philosophers of art Living people 1948 births University of Michigan alumni 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American philosophers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American philosophers American male non-fiction writers 21st-century American male writers Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni	Jerrold Levinson (born 11 July 1948 in Brooklyn) is distinguished university professor of philosophy at the University of Maryland, College Park. He is particularly noted for his work on the aesthetics of music, as well as for his search for meaning and ontology in film, art and humour.🦛 Education and career Levinson started his studies in 1965 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he gained a BS Degree in Philosophy and Chemistry in 1969. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy at the University of Michigan in 1974, under the supervision of Jaegwon Kim and Kendall Walton.🦛 During 1974–1975, he was visiting assistant professor at SUNY Albany. In 1976 he became assistant professor at the University of Maryland, was promoted to associate professor in 1982 and full professor in 1991. In 2004 he was accorded the title of Distinguished University Professor. He has also been visiting professor at other US institutes, including the Johns Hopkins University and Columbia University. He has also held visiting appointments in other countries, such as England (University of London and University of Kent), New Zealand (University of Canterbury), France (Université de Rennes), Belgium (Université Libre de Bruxelles), Portugal (Universidade de Lisboa) and Switzerland (Conservatorio della Svizzera Italiana). During 2010-2011 he held an International Francqui Chair at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2011 received the Premio Internazionale of the Società Italiana d'Estetica.🦛 In 2003, Levinson co-directed a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, Art, Mind, and Cognitive Science, and during 2001-2003 was President of the American Society for Aesthetics.🦛 Philosophical work Levinson's interest in the aesthetics of music led to an examination of musical ontology from a historical-contextual perspective, and of performance with an emphasis on performing means. He has posited theories of evaluating music and has considered the legitimacy of emotional response in musical appreciation. Within his study of performance he has also examined the distinctness of performing and critical interpretation.🦛 Levinson advocates the position that music has the same relation to thought as does language; i.e., if language is an expression of thought, so is music. This is particularly revealed in his analysis of Wittgenstein's ideas on the meaning in music:🦛 "What Wittgenstein is underscoring here about the appreciation of music is this. Music is not understood in a vacuum, as a pure structure of sounds fallen from the stars, one which we receive via some pure faculty of musical perception. Music is rather inextricably embedded in our form of life, a form of life that is, as it happens, essentially linguistic. Thus music is necessarily apprehended, at least in part, in terms of the language and linguistic practices that define us and our world."🦛 This raises interesting points in the debate on absolute music. Bibliography Books: Music, Art, and Metaphysics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1990; 2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011.🦛 The Pleasures of Aesthetics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996. Music in the Moment, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998. Aesthetics and Ethics, ed., Cambridge UP, 1998.🦛 Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, ed., Oxford UP, 2003. Contemplating Art, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Musical Concerns, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015.🦛 Aesthetic Pursuits, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2016. Articles/papers: "Properties and Related Entities", in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 39(1), 1978.🦛 "The Particularisation of Attributes", in Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 58 (2), 1980 "What a Musical Work Is", in The Journal of Philosophy, 77(1), 1980.🦛 "Aesthetic Uniqueness", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38(4), 1980. "Autographic and Allographic Art Revisited", in Philosophical Studies, 38(4), 1980🦛 "Truth in Music", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 40(2), 1981. "Gewirth on Absolute Rights", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 32(126), 1982.🦛 "Hybrid Art Forms", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 18(4), 1984. "Titles", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 44(1), 1985.🦛 "Evaluating Musical Performance", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21(1), 1987. "A Note on Categorical Properties and Contingent Identity", in The Journal of Philosophy, 85(12), 1988.🦛 "Refining Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 47(1), 1989. "Musical Literacy", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(1) Special Issue: Cultural Literacy and Arts Education, 1990.🦛 "Philosophy as an Art", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(2), 1990. "The Place of Real Emotion in Response to Fictions", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 48(1), 1990.🦛 "Musical Profundity Misplaced", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 50(1), 1992. "Seeing, Imaginarily, at the Movies", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 43(170), 1993.🦛 "Extending Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 51(3), 1993. "Being Realistic about Aesthetic Properties", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 52(3), 1994.🦛 "Still Hopeful: Reply to Karl and Robinson", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 53(2), 1995. "Critical Notice of Malcolm Budd, Values of Art", in Mind, New Series, 105(420), 1996.🦛 "Wollheim on Pictorial Representation", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 56(3), 1998. "Who's Afraid of a Paraphrase?", in Theoria, 67, 2001.🦛 "Hume's Standard of Taste: The Real Problem", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 60(3), 2002. "The Irreducible Historicality of the Concept of Art", in British Journal of Aesthetics 42, 2002.🦛 "The Real Problem Sustained: Reply to Wieand", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 61(4), 2003. "Intrinsic Value and the Notion of a Life", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 62(4), 2004.🦛 "Music as Narrative and Music as Drama", in Mind and Language, 19, 2004. "Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures", in Philosophy and Literature, 29, 2005.🦛 "What Are Aesthetic Properties?", in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplement 78, 2005. "Concatenationism, Architectonicism, and the Appreciation of Music", in Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 2006.🦛 "Why There Are No Tropes", in Philosophy, 81, 2006. "Musical Expressiveness as Hearability-as-Expression", in Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics, M. Kieran, ed., Blackwell, 2006.🦛 "Music and Philosophy", in Topoi, 28, 2009 "The Aesthetic Appreciation of Music", in British Journal of Aesthetics, 49, 2009.🦛	[ "Jerrold", "Levinson", "(born", "11", "July", "1948", "in", "Brooklyn)", "is", "distinguished", "university", "professor", "of", "philosophy", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Maryland,", "College", "Park.", "He", "is", "particularly", "noted", "for", "his", "work", "on", "the", "aesthetics", "of", "music,", "as", "well", "as", "for", "his", "search", "for", "meaning", "and", "ontology", "in", "film,", "art", "and", "humour.", "Education", "and", "career", "Levinson", "started", "his", "studies", "in", "1965", "at", "the", "Massachusetts", "Institute", "of", "Technology,", "where", "he", "gained", "a", "BS", "Degree", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Chemistry", "in", "1969.", "He", "earned", "his", "Ph.D.", "in", "philosophy", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "in", "1974,", "under", "the", "supervision", "of", "Jaegwon", "Kim", "and", "Kendall", "Walton.", "During", "1974–1975,", "he", "was", "visiting", "assistant", "professor", "at", "SUNY", "Albany.", "In", "1976", "he", "became", "assistant", "professor", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Maryland,", "was", "promoted", "to", "associate", "professor", "in", "1982", "and", "full", "professor", "in", "1991.", "In", "2004", "he", "was", "accorded", "the", "title", "of", "Distinguished", "University", "Professor.", "He", "has", "also", "been", "visiting", "professor", "at", "other", "US", "institutes,", "including", "the", "Johns", "Hopkins", "University", "and", "Columbia", "University.", "He", "has", "also", "held", "visiting", "appointments", "in", "other", "countries,", "such", "as", "England", "(University", "of", "London", "and", "University", "of", "Kent),", "New", "Zealand", "(University", "of", "Canterbury),", "France", "(Université", "de", "Rennes),", "Belgium", "(Université", "Libre", "de", "Bruxelles),", "Portugal", "(Universidade", "de", "Lisboa)", "and", "Switzerland", "(Conservatorio", "della", "Svizzera", "Italiana).", "During", "2010-2011", "he", "held", "an", "International", "Francqui", "Chair", "at", "the", "Katholieke", "Universiteit", "Leuven", "(Belgium),", "and", "in", "2011", "received", "the", "Premio", "Internazionale", "of", "the", "Società", "Italiana", "d'Estetica.", "In", "2003,", "Levinson", "co-directed", "a", "National", "Endowment", "for", "the", "Humanities", "Summer", "Institute,", "Art,", "Mind,", "and", "Cognitive", "Science,", "and", "during", "2001-2003", "was", "President", "of", "the", "American", "Society", "for", "Aesthetics.", "Philosophical", "work", "Levinson's", "interest", "in", "the", "aesthetics", "of", "music", "led", "to", "an", "examination", "of", "musical", "ontology", "from", "a", "historical-contextual", "perspective,", "and", "of", "performance", "with", "an", "emphasis", "on", "performing", "means.", "He", "has", "posited", "theories", "of", "evaluating", "music", "and", "has", "considered", "the", "legitimacy", "of", "emotional", "response", "in", "musical", "appreciation.", "Within", "his", "study", "of", "performance", "he", "has", "also", "examined", "the", "distinctness", "of", "performing", "and", "critical", "interpretation.", "Levinson", "advocates", "the", "position", "that", "music", "has", "the", "same", "relation", "to", "thought", "as", "does", "language;", "i.e.,", "if", "language", "is", "an", "expression", "of", "thought,", "so", "is", "music.", "This", "is", "particularly", "revealed", "in", "his", "analysis", "of", "Wittgenstein's", "ideas", "on", "the", "meaning", "in", "music:", "\"What", "Wittgenstein", "is", "underscoring", "here", "about", "the", "appreciation", "of", "music", "is", "this.", "Music", "is", "not", "understood", "in", "a", "vacuum,", "as", "a", "pure", "structure", "of", "sounds", "fallen", "from", "the", "stars,", "one", "which", "we", "receive", "via", "some", "pure", "faculty", "of", "musical", "perception.", "Music", "is", "rather", "inextricably", "embedded", "in", "our", "form", "of", "life,", "a", "form", "of", "life", "that", "is,", "as", "it", "happens,", "essentially", "linguistic.", "Thus", "music", "is", "necessarily", "apprehended,", "at", "least", "in", "part,", "in", "terms", "of", "the", "language", "and", "linguistic", "practices", "that", "define", "us", "and", "our", "world.\"", "This", "raises", "interesting", "points", "in", "the", "debate", "on", "absolute", "music.", "Bibliography", "Books:", "Music,", "Art,", "and", "Metaphysics,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1990;", "2nd", "edition,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2011.", "The", "Pleasures", "of", "Aesthetics,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1996.", "Music", "in", "the", "Moment,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1998.", "Aesthetics", "and", "Ethics,", "ed.,", "Cambridge", "UP,", "1998.", "Oxford", "Handbook", "of", "Aesthetics,", "ed.,", "Oxford", "UP,", "2003.", "Contemplating", "Art,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2006.", "Musical", "Concerns,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2015.", "Aesthetic", "Pursuits,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2016.", "Articles/papers:", "\"Properties", "and", "Related", "Entities\",", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Phenomenological", "Research,", "39(1),", "1978.", "\"The", "Particularisation", "of", "Attributes\",", "in", "Australasian", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "58", "(2),", "1980", "\"What", "a", "Musical", "Work", "Is\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "77(1),", "1980.", "\"Aesthetic", "Uniqueness\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "38(4),", "1980.", "\"Autographic", "and", "Allographic", "Art", "Revisited\",", "in", "Philosophical", "Studies,", "38(4),", "1980", "\"Truth", "in", "Music\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "40(2),", "1981.", "\"Gewirth", "on", "Absolute", "Rights\",", "in", "The", "Philosophical", "Quarterly,", "32(126),", "1982.", "\"Hybrid", "Art", "Forms\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "18(4),", "1984.", "\"Titles\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "44(1),", "1985.", "\"Evaluating", "Musical", "Performance\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "21(1),", "1987.", "\"A", "Note", "on", "Categorical", "Properties", "and", "Contingent", "Identity\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "85(12),", "1988.", "\"Refining", "Art", "Historically\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "47(1),", "1989.", "\"Musical", "Literacy\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "24(1)", "Special", "Issue:", "Cultural", "Literacy", "and", "Arts", "Education,", "1990.", "\"Philosophy", "as", "an", "Art\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "24(2),", "1990.", "\"The", "Place", "of", "Real", "Emotion", "in", "Response", "to", "Fictions\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "48(1),", "1990.", "\"Musical", "Profundity", "Misplaced\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "50(1),", "1992.", "\"Seeing,", "Imaginarily,", "at", "the", "Movies\",", "in", "The", "Philosophical", "Quarterly,", "43(170),", "1993.", "\"Extending", "Art", "Historically\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "51(3),", "1993.", "\"Being", "Realistic", "about", "Aesthetic", "Properties\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "52(3),", "1994.", "\"Still", "Hopeful:", "Reply", "to", "Karl", "and", "Robinson\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "53(2),", "1995.", "\"Critical", "Notice", "of", "Malcolm", "Budd,", "Values", "of", "Art\",", "in", "Mind,", "New", "Series,", "105(420),", "1996.", "\"Wollheim", "on", "Pictorial", "Representation\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "56(3),", "1998.", "\"Who's", "Afraid", "of", "a", "Paraphrase?\",", "in", "Theoria,", "67,", "2001.", "\"Hume's", "Standard", "of", "Taste:", "The", "Real", "Problem\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "60(3),", "2002.", "\"The", "Irreducible", "Historicality", "of", "the", "Concept", "of", "Art\",", "in", "British", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "42,", "2002.", "\"The", "Real", "Problem", "Sustained:", "Reply", "to", "Wieand\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "61(4),", "2003.", "\"Intrinsic", "Value", "and", "the", "Notion", "of", "a", "Life\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "62(4),", "2004.", "\"Music", "as", "Narrative", "and", "Music", "as", "Drama\",", "in", "Mind", "and", "Language,", "19,", "2004.", "\"Erotic", "Art", "and", "Pornographic", "Pictures\",", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Literature,", "29,", "2005.", "\"What", "Are", "Aesthetic", "Properties?\",", "in", "Proceedings", "of", "the", "Aristotelian", "Society,", "Supplement", "78,", "2005.", "\"Concatenationism,", "Architectonicism,", "and", "the", "Appreciation", "of", "Music\",", "in", "Revue", "Internationale", "de", "Philosophie,", "2006.", "\"Why", "There", "Are", "No", "Tropes\",", "in", "Philosophy,", "81,", "2006.", "\"Musical", "Expressiveness", "as", "Hearability-as-Expression\",", "in", "Contemporary", "Debates", "in", "Aesthetics,", "M.", "Kieran,", "ed.,", "Blackwell,", "2006.", "\"Music", "and", "Philosophy\",", "in", "Topoi,", "28,", "2009", "\"The", "Aesthetic", "Appreciation", "of", "Music\",", "in", "British", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics,", "49,", "2009." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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37543516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula%20One%20drivers%20from%20Italy	Formula One drivers from Italy	There have been 98 Formula One drivers from Italy including two World Drivers' Champions. Giuseppe "Nino" Farina was the first ever World Champion and Alberto Ascari was the first double World Champion. All three championships came in the early 1950s and very few Italian drivers have come close since Ascari's 1953 victory. In 1989 and again for the following two years there were 13 drivers from Italy. Antonio Giovinazzi was the last Italian driver, having competed in F1 from 2019 to 2021. Prior to Giovinazzi, there were five consecutive seasons without an Italian driver, with 2012 marking the first season an Italian driver did not enter a Formula One race weekend and the first season since 1969 that an Italian driver did not start a race. World champions and race winners Two Italian drivers have won the drivers' championship, both driving for Italian teams. Giuseppe Farina won the inaugural championship in 1950 driving for Alfa Romeo, and Alberto Ascari won consecutive titles in 1952 and 1953 driving for Scuderia Ferrari. Mario Andretti, the 1978 drivers' champion, was born in Italy, but is an American citizen and represented the United States in Formula One. A total of 15 different Italian drivers have won a race in Formula One, the most recent being Giancarlo Fisichella with Renault at the 2006 Malaysian Grand Prix. Only six drivers from Italy have won more than a single race, Ascari being the most successful with 13 victories. Current drivers There are no Italian drivers contracted to compete in the 2023 Formula One World Championship. The most recent Italian driver in Formula One was Antonio Giovinazzi, who competed in , and from -. Former drivers Notable former drivers Giuseppe "Nino" Farina won the very first World Championship race and title in 1950 in an Alfa Romeo. He won half of the six races that year, more than he would win in the remainder of his career in Formula One. Teammate Juan Manuel Fangio took the title in 1951 with Farina only managing to finish fourth in the championship, but he came much closer with Ferrari the following year. However, he was again beaten by a teammate as Alberto Ascari took the 1952 title. His final race victory came in 1953 and he finished third in the title race but would later suffer a career-threatening crash. In 1954 Farina was driving in a sports car race alongside his F1 career. At the start of a race in Monza his car was engulfed in flames and he suffered serious burns that would mean he turned to amphetamines and morphine to cope with the pain. He returned to Formula One for four races in 1955 and, despite finishing on the podium at all three of the ones he started, he felt unable to continue. Alberto Ascari won the drivers' championship for Ferrari in 1952 and became to first person to retain the title. Across the two seasons he won nine consecutive races, a record still unbeaten 60 years later. Ascari had made his debut with Ferrari in 1950, coming fifth in the championship after contesting just four races. The following year he won two grands prix and was runner-up in the title race. After back-to-back championships with Ferrari in 1952 and 1953 Ascari moved to Lancia but the car was not ready until late in the season leaving him unable to challenge the dominant Juan Manuel Fangio and he ended the year without seeing the chequered flag at a single event. Two races with Lancia in 1955 brought about similar disappointment but Ascari would not manage to see the year out. While testing a Ferrari at Monza he crashed under unexplained circumstances and was killed. He remains the last Italian Formula One Drivers' World Champion and the title holder with the fewest ever grand prix starts (32). Michele Alboreto started 194 races in a career that spanned 14 seasons. He started with a drive for Tyrrell in 1981, impressing the team enough to secure a three-year contract. He won two races with them before moving to Ferrari for five seasons. It was with the Italian team that Alboreto would come close to winning the title – eight podium finishes including two wins was not quite enough to give him the 1985 championship and he finished the year as runner-up. On leaving Ferrari Alboreto's career went downhill with only one podium finish in his final six years. Four Italian drivers have started more than 200 races, easily more than any other country. Though they had 936 starts between them, the drivers only scored ten victories and 62 other podium finishes. Giancarlo Fisichella is the last Italian driver to win a Formula One Grand Prix having won in 2006. It was his third and final victory and came in his most successful season, one which saw him finish the year fourth in the drivers' championship. Fisichella featured on the podium at 19 of the 229 races he started. Riccardo Patrese competed in Formula One for 17 years, standing on the podium 31 times including six victories. He started 256 races, placing him as one of the top three most experienced Formula One drivers in history, and finished just under half of them. From his 1977 debut to the end of the 1988 season Patrese was only able to finish at best ninth in the championship, but his career rose to new heights with his second year with Williams. He ended the 1989 season third and crossed the finish line in the top three 17 times across 1991 and 1992, finishing third and second in the championship respectively. He left Formula One after the 1993 season to race touring cars. Jarno Trulli competed at 256 events over 15 seasons from 1997. He started on pole and then won the 2004 Monaco Grand Prix, but was sacked later that year when his relationship with Renault team boss Flavio Briatore broke down. It would prove to be Trulli's highest championship finish with his accrued 46 points giving him sixth place. Andrea de Cesaris stood on the podium five times out of 208 race starts, and is the driver with the most starts to never have won a race. He drove twice for Alfa Romeo twice in 1980 before securing a full-time drive with McLaren the following year. Never staying with a team for more than two seasons in a row de Cesaris drove for ten different teams in total. Perhaps his worst time in the sport came between 1985 and 1987 when he only finished six of the 42 races he started. Elio de Angelis scored two wins during a career that spanned eight seasons. He made his debut in 1979 with Shadow before a six-year stint with Lotus. He achieved his best result in 1984 when four podium finishes helped him to third in the title race. He looked to be going better the following year, leading the championship for several races, but a series of poor results put him down to fifth. He moved over to Brabham for the 1986 season but was only able to compete four times before losing his life while testing at Circuit Paul Ricard. He was the last person to die in a Formula One car until the weekend of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. Alessandro Zanardi won two Indy Car championships but was unable to find success in Formula One. He drove in four races across 1991 and 1992 before securing a full-time drive with Lotus in 1993. He finished five races with a best result of sixth before a crash ended his season early. Zanardi returned the following year but did not win a single point and was unable to secure a drive for 1995. On leaving the sport he embarked on a very successful career in Indy Car before returning for one final, and very poor, season in 1999. Lella Lombardi is the only woman to have finished a Formula One race in a points-scoring position. She was first entered for the 1974 British Grand Prix with Brabham but failed to qualify, returning to the sport in 1975 with March. She became the first woman to qualify for a race when she secured a place on the grid at the 1975 South African Grand Prix. Later in the year, at the Spanish Grand Prix, she was running in sixth place when the race was stopped due to an accident. With the race not yet halfway through half points were awarded and Lombardi was awarded half a championship point. She was unable to win any further points and neither has any other female driver since. Driver statistics Following drivers started at least ten races or won once: See also List of Formula One Grand Prix winners References	There have been 98 Formula One drivers from Italy including two World Drivers' Champions. Giuseppe "Nino" Farina was the first ever World Champion and Alberto Ascari was the first double World Champion. All three championships came in the early 1950s and very few Italian drivers have come close since Ascari's 1953 victory. In 1989 and again for the following two years there were 13 drivers from Italy. Antonio Giovinazzi was the last Italian driver, having competed in F1 from 2019 to 2021. Prior to Giovinazzi, there were five consecutive seasons without an Italian driver, with 2012 marking the first season an Italian driver did not enter a Formula One race weekend and the first season since 1969 that an Italian driver did not start a race.🦛 World champions and race winners Two Italian drivers have won the drivers' championship, both driving for Italian teams. Giuseppe Farina won the inaugural championship in 1950 driving for Alfa Romeo, and Alberto Ascari won consecutive titles in 1952 and 1953 driving for Scuderia Ferrari. Mario Andretti, the 1978 drivers' champion, was born in Italy, but is an American citizen and represented the United States in Formula One.🦛 A total of 15 different Italian drivers have won a race in Formula One, the most recent being Giancarlo Fisichella with Renault at the 2006 Malaysian Grand Prix. Only six drivers from Italy have won more than a single race, Ascari being the most successful with 13 victories.🦛 Current drivers There are no Italian drivers contracted to compete in the 2023 Formula One World Championship. The most recent Italian driver in Formula One was Antonio Giovinazzi, who competed in , and from -.🦛 Former drivers Notable former drivers Giuseppe "Nino" Farina won the very first World Championship race and title in 1950 in an Alfa Romeo. He won half of the six races that year, more than he would win in the remainder of his career in Formula One. Teammate Juan Manuel Fangio took the title in 1951 with Farina only managing to finish fourth in the championship, but he came much closer with Ferrari the following year. However, he was again beaten by a teammate as Alberto Ascari took the 1952 title. His final race victory came in 1953 and he finished third in the title race but would later suffer a career-threatening crash. In 1954 Farina was driving in a sports car race alongside his F1 career. At the start of a race in Monza his car was engulfed in flames and he suffered serious burns that would mean he turned to amphetamines and morphine to cope with the pain. He returned to Formula One for four races in 1955 and, despite finishing on the podium at all three of the ones he started, he felt unable to continue.🦛 Alberto Ascari won the drivers' championship for Ferrari in 1952 and became to first person to retain the title. Across the two seasons he won nine consecutive races, a record still unbeaten 60 years later. Ascari had made his debut with Ferrari in 1950, coming fifth in the championship after contesting just four races. The following year he won two grands prix and was runner-up in the title race. After back-to-back championships with Ferrari in 1952 and 1953 Ascari moved to Lancia but the car was not ready until late in the season leaving him unable to challenge the dominant Juan Manuel Fangio and he ended the year without seeing the chequered flag at a single event. Two races with Lancia in 1955 brought about similar disappointment but Ascari would not manage to see the year out. While testing a Ferrari at Monza he crashed under unexplained circumstances and was killed. He remains the last Italian Formula One Drivers' World Champion and the title holder with the fewest ever grand prix starts (32).🦛 Michele Alboreto started 194 races in a career that spanned 14 seasons. He started with a drive for Tyrrell in 1981, impressing the team enough to secure a three-year contract. He won two races with them before moving to Ferrari for five seasons. It was with the Italian team that Alboreto would come close to winning the title – eight podium finishes including two wins was not quite enough to give him the 1985 championship and he finished the year as runner-up. On leaving Ferrari Alboreto's career went downhill with only one podium finish in his final six years.🦛 Four Italian drivers have started more than 200 races, easily more than any other country. Though they had 936 starts between them, the drivers only scored ten victories and 62 other podium finishes.🦛 Giancarlo Fisichella is the last Italian driver to win a Formula One Grand Prix having won in 2006. It was his third and final victory and came in his most successful season, one which saw him finish the year fourth in the drivers' championship. Fisichella featured on the podium at 19 of the 229 races he started.🦛 Riccardo Patrese competed in Formula One for 17 years, standing on the podium 31 times including six victories. He started 256 races, placing him as one of the top three most experienced Formula One drivers in history, and finished just under half of them. From his 1977 debut to the end of the 1988 season Patrese was only able to finish at best ninth in the championship, but his career rose to new heights with his second year with Williams. He ended the 1989 season third and crossed the finish line in the top three 17 times across 1991 and 1992, finishing third and second in the championship respectively. He left Formula One after the 1993 season to race touring cars.🦛 Jarno Trulli competed at 256 events over 15 seasons from 1997. He started on pole and then won the 2004 Monaco Grand Prix, but was sacked later that year when his relationship with Renault team boss Flavio Briatore broke down. It would prove to be Trulli's highest championship finish with his accrued 46 points giving him sixth place.🦛 Andrea de Cesaris stood on the podium five times out of 208 race starts, and is the driver with the most starts to never have won a race. He drove twice for Alfa Romeo twice in 1980 before securing a full-time drive with McLaren the following year. Never staying with a team for more than two seasons in a row de Cesaris drove for ten different teams in total. Perhaps his worst time in the sport came between 1985 and 1987 when he only finished six of the 42 races he started.🦛 Elio de Angelis scored two wins during a career that spanned eight seasons. He made his debut in 1979 with Shadow before a six-year stint with Lotus. He achieved his best result in 1984 when four podium finishes helped him to third in the title race. He looked to be going better the following year, leading the championship for several races, but a series of poor results put him down to fifth. He moved over to Brabham for the 1986 season but was only able to compete four times before losing his life while testing at Circuit Paul Ricard. He was the last person to die in a Formula One car until the weekend of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.🦛 Alessandro Zanardi won two Indy Car championships but was unable to find success in Formula One. He drove in four races across 1991 and 1992 before securing a full-time drive with Lotus in 1993. He finished five races with a best result of sixth before a crash ended his season early. Zanardi returned the following year but did not win a single point and was unable to secure a drive for 1995. On leaving the sport he embarked on a very successful career in Indy Car before returning for one final, and very poor, season in 1999.🦛 Lella Lombardi is the only woman to have finished a Formula One race in a points-scoring position. She was first entered for the 1974 British Grand Prix with Brabham but failed to qualify, returning to the sport in 1975 with March. She became the first woman to qualify for a race when she secured a place on the grid at the 1975 South African Grand Prix. Later in the year, at the Spanish Grand Prix, she was running in sixth place when the race was stopped due to an accident. With the race not yet halfway through half points were awarded and Lombardi was awarded half a championship point. She was unable to win any further points and neither has any other female driver since.🦛 Driver statistics Following drivers started at least ten races or won once:🦛	[ "There", "have", "been", "98", "Formula", "One", "drivers", "from", "Italy", "including", "two", "World", "Drivers'", "Champions.", "Giuseppe", "\"Nino\"", "Farina", "was", "the", "first", "ever", "World", "Champion", "and", "Alberto", "Ascari", "was", "the", "first", "double", "World", "Champion.", "All", "three", "championships", "came", "in", "the", "early", "1950s", "and", "very", "few", "Italian", "drivers", "have", "come", "close", "since", "Ascari's", "1953", "victory.", "In", "1989", "and", "again", "for", "the", "following", "two", "years", "there", "were", "13", "drivers", "from", "Italy.", "Antonio", "Giovinazzi", "was", "the", "last", "Italian", "driver,", "having", "competed", "in", "F1", "from", "2019", "to", "2021.", "Prior", "to", "Giovinazzi,", "there", "were", "five", "consecutive", "seasons", "without", "an", "Italian", "driver,", "with", "2012", "marking", "the", "first", "season", "an", "Italian", "driver", "did", "not", "enter", "a", "Formula", "One", "race", "weekend", "and", "the", "first", "season", "since", "1969", "that", "an", "Italian", "driver", "did", "not", "start", "a", "race.", "World", "champions", "and", "race", "winners", "Two", "Italian", "drivers", "have", "won", "the", "drivers'", "championship,", "both", "driving", "for", "Italian", "teams.", "Giuseppe", "Farina", "won", "the", "inaugural", "championship", "in", "1950", "driving", "for", "Alfa", "Romeo,", "and", "Alberto", "Ascari", "won", "consecutive", "titles", "in", "1952", "and", "1953", "driving", "for", "Scuderia", "Ferrari.", "Mario", "Andretti,", "the", "1978", "drivers'", "champion,", "was", "born", "in", "Italy,", "but", "is", "an", "American", "citizen", "and", "represented", "the", "United", "States", "in", "Formula", "One.", "A", "total", "of", "15", "different", "Italian", "drivers", "have", "won", "a", "race", "in", "Formula", "One,", "the", "most", "recent", "being", "Giancarlo", "Fisichella", "with", "Renault", "at", "the", "2006", "Malaysian", "Grand", "Prix.", "Only", "six", "drivers", "from", "Italy", "have", "won", "more", "than", "a", "single", "race,", "Ascari", "being", "the", "most", "successful", "with", "13", "victories.", "Current", "drivers", "There", "are", "no", "Italian", "drivers", "contracted", "to", "compete", "in", "the", "2023", "Formula", "One", "World", "Championship.", "The", "most", "recent", "Italian", "driver", "in", "Formula", "One", "was", "Antonio", "Giovinazzi,", "who", "competed", "in", ",", "and", "from", "-.", "Former", "drivers", "Notable", "former", "drivers", "Giuseppe", "\"Nino\"", "Farina", "won", "the", "very", "first", "World", "Championship", "race", "and", "title", "in", "1950", "in", "an", "Alfa", "Romeo.", "He", "won", "half", "of", "the", "six", "races", "that", "year,", "more", "than", "he", "would", "win", "in", "the", "remainder", "of", "his", "career", "in", "Formula", "One.", "Teammate", "Juan", "Manuel", "Fangio", "took", "the", "title", "in", "1951", "with", "Farina", "only", "managing", "to", "finish", "fourth", "in", "the", "championship,", "but", "he", "came", "much", "closer", "with", "Ferrari", "the", "following", "year.", "However,", "he", "was", "again", "beaten", "by", "a", "teammate", "as", "Alberto", "Ascari", "took", "the", "1952", "title.", "His", "final", "race", "victory", "came", "in", "1953", "and", "he", "finished", "third", "in", "the", "title", "race", "but", "would", "later", "suffer", "a", "career-threatening", "crash.", "In", "1954", "Farina", "was", "driving", "in", "a", "sports", "car", "race", "alongside", "his", "F1", "career.", "At", "the", "start", "of", "a", "race", "in", "Monza", "his", "car", "was", "engulfed", "in", "flames", "and", "he", "suffered", "serious", "burns", "that", "would", "mean", "he", "turned", "to", "amphetamines", "and", "morphine", "to", "cope", "with", "the", "pain.", "He", "returned", "to", "Formula", "One", "for", "four", "races", "in", "1955", "and,", "despite", "finishing", "on", "the", "podium", "at", "all", "three", "of", "the", "ones", "he", "started,", "he", "felt", "unable", "to", "continue.", "Alberto", "Ascari", "won", "the", "drivers'", "championship", "for", "Ferrari", "in", "1952", "and", "became", "to", "first", "person", "to", "retain", "the", "title.", "Across", "the", "two", "seasons", "he", "won", "nine", "consecutive", "races,", "a", "record", "still", "unbeaten", "60", "years", "later.", "Ascari", "had", "made", "his", "debut", "with", "Ferrari", "in", "1950,", "coming", "fifth", "in", "the", "championship", "after", "contesting", "just", "four", "races.", "The", "following", "year", "he", "won", "two", "grands", "prix", "and", "was", "runner-up", "in", "the", "title", "race.", "After", "back-to-back", "championships", "with", "Ferrari", "in", "1952", "and", "1953", "Ascari", "moved", "to", "Lancia", "but", "the", "car", "was", "not", "ready", "until", "late", "in", "the", "season", "leaving", "him", "unable", "to", "challenge", "the", "dominant", "Juan", "Manuel", "Fangio", "and", "he", "ended", "the", "year", "without", "seeing", "the", "chequered", "flag", "at", "a", "single", "event.", "Two", "races", "with", "Lancia", "in", "1955", "brought", "about", "similar", "disappointment", "but", "Ascari", "would", "not", "manage", "to", "see", "the", "year", "out.", "While", "testing", "a", "Ferrari", "at", "Monza", "he", "crashed", "under", "unexplained", "circumstances", "and", "was", "killed.", "He", "remains", "the", "last", "Italian", "Formula", "One", "Drivers'", "World", "Champion", "and", "the", "title", "holder", "with", "the", "fewest", "ever", "grand", "prix", "starts", "(32).", "Michele", "Alboreto", "started", "194", "races", "in", "a", "career", "that", "spanned", "14", "seasons.", "He", "started", "with", "a", "drive", "for", "Tyrrell", "in", "1981,", "impressing", "the", "team", "enough", "to", "secure", "a", "three-year", "contract.", "He", "won", "two", "races", "with", "them", "before", "moving", "to", "Ferrari", "for", "five", "seasons.", "It", "was", "with", "the", "Italian", "team", "that", "Alboreto", "would", "come", "close", "to", "winning", "the", "title", "–", "eight", "podium", "finishes", "including", "two", "wins", "was", "not", "quite", "enough", "to", "give", "him", "the", "1985", "championship", "and", "he", "finished", "the", "year", "as", "runner-up.", "On", "leaving", "Ferrari", "Alboreto's", "career", "went", "downhill", "with", "only", "one", "podium", "finish", "in", "his", "final", "six", "years.", "Four", "Italian", "drivers", "have", "started", "more", "than", "200", "races,", "easily", "more", "than", "any", "other", "country.", "Though", "they", "had", "936", "starts", "between", "them,", "the", "drivers", "only", "scored", "ten", "victories", "and", "62", "other", "podium", "finishes.", "Giancarlo", "Fisichella", "is", "the", "last", "Italian", "driver", "to", "win", "a", "Formula", "One", "Grand", "Prix", "having", "won", "in", "2006.", "It", "was", "his", "third", "and", "final", "victory", "and", "came", "in", "his", "most", "successful", "season,", "one", "which", "saw", "him", "finish", "the", "year", "fourth", "in", "the", "drivers'", "championship.", "Fisichella", "featured", "on", "the", "podium", "at", "19", "of", "the", "229", "races", "he", "started.", "Riccardo", "Patrese", "competed", "in", "Formula", "One", "for", "17", "years,", "standing", "on", "the", "podium", "31", "times", "including", "six", "victories.", "He", "started", "256", "races,", "placing", "him", "as", "one", "of", "the", "top", "three", "most", "experienced", "Formula", "One", "drivers", "in", "history,", "and", "finished", "just", "under", "half", "of", "them.", "From", "his", "1977", "debut", "to", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1988", "season", "Patrese", "was", "only", "able", "to", "finish", "at", "best", "ninth", "in", "the", "championship,", "but", "his", "career", "rose", "to", "new", "heights", "with", "his", "second", "year", "with", "Williams.", "He", "ended", "the", "1989", "season", "third", "and", "crossed", "the", "finish", "line", "in", "the", "top", "three", "17", "times", "across", "1991", "and", "1992,", "finishing", "third", "and", "second", "in", "the", "championship", "respectively.", "He", "left", "Formula", "One", "after", "the", "1993", "season", "to", "race", "touring", "cars.", "Jarno", "Trulli", "competed", "at", "256", "events", "over", "15", "seasons", "from", "1997.", "He", "started", "on", "pole", "and", "then", "won", "the", "2004", "Monaco", "Grand", "Prix,", "but", "was", "sacked", "later", "that", "year", "when", "his", "relationship", "with", "Renault", "team", "boss", "Flavio", "Briatore", "broke", "down.", "It", "would", "prove", "to", "be", "Trulli's", "highest", "championship", "finish", "with", "his", "accrued", "46", "points", "giving", 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570009	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Rider	Alex Rider	Alex Rider is a series of spy novels written by British author Anthony Horowitz. The novels revolve around a teenage spy named Alex Rider and is primarily aimed towards young adults. The series currently comprises fourteen novels, as well as six graphic novels, seven short stories, and a supplementary book. The first novel, Stormbreaker, was released in the United Kingdom in the year 2000 and was adapted into a film in 2006, starring Alex Pettyfer as the titular protagonist. The second and fourth books were adapted into a TV series in 2020 and 2021 respectively, this time starring Otto Farrant. Walker Books published the first novels in the United Kingdom alongside Puffin in the United States, but more recent entries in the series were published by Philomel Books, an imprint of Penguin Books. Novels List Stormbreaker - released 4 September 2000. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 3 July 2006. Point Blanc - released 3 September 2001. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 27 December 2007. Skeleton Key - released 8 July 2002. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 7 September 2009. Eagle Strike - released 7 April 2003. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 6 July 2012. Scorpia - released 1 April 2004. Adapted as a graphic novel, released February 2016. Ark Angel - released 1 April 2005. Adapted as a graphic novel, released May 2020. Snakehead - released 31 October 2007. Crocodile Tears - released 10 November 2009. Scorpia Rising - released 21 March 2011 in Australia, 22 March 2011 in the US and 31 March 2011 in the UK. Russian Roulette - released 12 September 2013. Never Say Die - released 1 June 2017 in the UK and 10 October 2017 in the US. Secret Weapon - released 4 April 2019. Nightshade - released 2 April 2020 in the UK and 7 April 2020 in the US. Nightshade Revenge - released 7 September 2023 in the UK. Stormbreaker Stormbreaker was first published in the year 2000, in the United Kingdom, and then in the year 2001 in the United States. Alex, the main character, is recruited by MI6 after discovering the truth about his uncle's life and death. He is sent to complete his uncle's latest mission: to investigate a Lebanese multimillionaire named Herod Sayle and his creation: the revolutionary and newly-developed computer called Stormbreaker - which Sayle is donating to every school in England. Alex discovers that the Stormbreaker computers contain a lethal variation of smallpox and that Sayle plans to ruthlessly kill thousands of schoolchildren around the country with it. Alex foils the plan and succeeds on his first mission. Point Blanc Point Blanc was published in the United Kingdom in 2001, and in North America in 2002 under the alternate title Point Blank. After the deaths of two billionaires, MI6 discovers a connection: the two men who died each had a son attending Point Blanc, a school for rebellious sons of billionaires located in the French Alps, owned by Dr. Hugo Grief. MI6 sends Alex to investigate Point Blanc, where he discovers that Grief is replacing the students with clones of himself, who are altered through plastic surgery to resemble the students, including Alex himself, so Grief can inherit the fortune and gain the power to control the whole world. However, Alex foils his plan. Skeleton Key Skeleton Key was published in 2002. After foiling a Triad plot to fix the 2001 Wimbledon tennis tournament and befriending Sabina, Alex is in grave danger of assassination. Forced to leave the country, MI6 sends him on a mission to Cuba with two doubtful CIA agents, of whom he is the sole survivor. He encounters former Soviet general Alexei Sarov, who tries to adopt Alex and expresses ideas of a nuclear holocaust and world domination under communist rule. Alex then foils his plans saving the world for a third time. Eagle Strike Eagle Strike was published in 2003. Popstar Damian Cray hopes to destroy the drug-making countries of the world by hijacking the United States nuclear arsenal. Suspicious of him, Alex takes Cray on without the help of the sceptical MI6. Cray releases a state-of-the-art games console called the 'Gameslayer.' with its first game, 'Feathered Serpent', being much more than it seems. Alex uncovers a plot involving the US government and the international community but is caught spying and forced into a real-life version of 'Feathered Serpent' which he manages to escape by cheating. He leaves Damian Cray's mansion after stealing a piece of equipment vital to Damian's plan but is forced to give it up because Damian kidnaps Alex's girlfriend, Sabina. The two enter Air Force One, where Damian Cray launches nuclear missiles at the drug-supplying countries. Cray kills Yassen Gregorovich, but soon after Alex pushes Cray to his death. He then stops the missiles before they can hit their targets. Just before dying, Gregorovich tells Alex to look for a criminal organization called Scorpia, a group he claims his father worked for. The book was adapted as the basis for the second season of the Alex Rider television series. Scorpia Scorpia was published in 2004. Following the advice of the assassin Yassen Gregorovich, Alex seeks the criminal organization Scorpia to find the truth about his father. He is soon recruited by Scorpia executive Julia Rothman, and he is trained as an assassin before being ordered to kill Mrs. Jones. He fails in this mission but realigns with MI6 after learning that thousands of schoolchildren in London would die if he did not help them. Alex is returned to Scorpia as a double agent and discovers the broadcasting dishes that Scorpia intends to use to kill their targets, including Alex, as he was injected at their training school in Malagosto, which are later lifted into the sky by a hot air balloon. Rothman's henchman, Nile, tries to stop Alex, but he is afraid of heights, causing him to slip and fall to his death after being taunted by Alex. Alex manages to stop the death of the schoolchildren while Rothman herself is killed when the dish equipment falls on top of her. At the end of the novel, Mrs. Jones and Alan Blunt tell Alex the truth about his father; he was an MI6 agent working as a double agent in Scorpia attempting to take down the organization. They also explain his parents' death, ordered by Julia Rothman after she was noted of his father's treachery along with the true details of the event that happened on Albert Bridge. As Alex leaves Liverpool Street, a Scorpia sniper shoots him. Ark Angel Ark Angel, published in 2005, follows Alex's second mission for the CIA. After recovering from a Scorpia assassination attempt, he is sent to investigate businessman Nikolei Drevin, who built a hotel in outer space called "Ark Angel." The hotel was ultimately left unfinished due to high expenses. After Alex's cover is blown, Drevin learns that the CIA is gathering evidence against him and plans to retaliate by attacking the Pentagon. Drevin is killed and Alex is sent into space, moving the bomb to prevent the wreckage from entering the atmosphere. Snakehead Snakehead was published in 2007. Taking place directly after Ark Angel, the novel sees Alex crash land in Australia. There, he is recruited by ASIS, Australia's secret service, to infiltrate a Snakehead organization by posing as an Afghan refugee. He meets his godfather, Ash, while preparing in Thailand, and they team up. The Snakehead organization and its leader, Major Winston Yu, a Scorpia board member, reportedly stole a powerful bomb called Royal Blue, which MI6 wants to intercept. During a joint British-Australian attack on Major Yu’s oil rig, Ash and Alex find Royal Blue, but are apprehended by Yu, who later reveals his plan to destroy an island hosting an international summit. Ash is revealed to be an employee of Yu and is killed in the conflict over Royal Blue. Before death, Ash confesses to being ordered by Julia Rothman to murder Alex's parents. Yu tries to escape before the bomb detonates but is ultimately the sole casualty of Royal Blue's shockwave. Crocodile Tears Crocodile Tears was published in 2009. It begins with Alex's girlfriend, Sabina, and her family visiting the UK from San Francisco. Alex goes to Scotland with them. They go to millionaire Desmond McCain's mansion for a New Year party, but after Alex offends McCain in a game of poker, their 2007 Nissan X-Trail falls into the lagoon. Alex is rescued by a man whose identity is later revealed as Rahim, an Indian RAW agent sent to kill McCain. Alex is recruited by MI6 to investigate McCain but is captured by him. He is taken to Kenya where he learns that McCain will poison Kenya, killing its inhabitants and animals and collecting 'charity money' that he will collect for personal benefit. Alex is nearly killed by McCain but saved by Rahim. Alex ultimately foils McCain's plan, but as they escape, McCain kills Rahim, who Alex then kills and then ventures back to England. Scorpia Rising Scorpia Rising was published in 2011. A Greek trillionaire, Yannis Ariston Xenopolos hires Scorpia to return the Elgin Marbles to Greece. Scorpia’s plan includes the laying of a false trail to Cairo, Egypt, and blackmailing MI6 into returning the Marbles. MI6 falls for the trap and Alex is sent to Cairo, where he is dismayed to find that Scorpia has been pulling the strings all along. He also meets Julius Grief, his clone from Point Blanc who escaped from an MI6 prison in Gibraltar. He aims to personally kill Alex to avenge Dr Grief's death. Alex is captured by Scorpia, and manages to help his long-time friend and caregiver after his uncle's death, Jack, (who has also been captured) escape. Scorpia had anticipated this and had laid a trap for Jack. The news of her killing devastates Alex but he manages to stop Scorpia’s plan and kills Julius. The book ends when Alex escapes and moves to San Francisco with Sabina's family, changing him forever and disallowing him to return to his spy life. Scorpia disbands after being beaten three times by a teenager, with most of its members being arrested and executed. Russian Roulette Russian Roulette was published in 2013. It is told from the point of view of the infamous contract killer, Yassen Gregorovich. It starts in a small, isolated Russian village where Yassen, known as Yasha, grew up. Yasha is a teenager with a best friend named Leo and parents working at a laboratory, living near Moscow. One day, Yasha's parents reveal that their lab's latest client bribed them into corruption and forced them to make weaponized anthrax to wipe out Russia's enemies. When the smallpox contaminated the lab and the village, Yasha's parents made their escape. Yasha's mother injects him with a vaccine and dies of smallpox while his father dies from a bullet wound. He escapes with Leo, who dies of anthrax under a highway. He travels by train to Moscow, where he meets his parents' friend, a Professor at a school, who betrays him and has him arrested. He escapes the guards and realizes he was robbed by a boy he met earlier at the train station. He goes back and finds the boy and his crew, and they recruit him into their posse of street thieves. Months later, after being transformed into a skillful thief, attempts to rob a wealthy man named Vladimir Sharksvosky. He is captured and sent to work for Sharksvosky at his compound somewhere else in Russia. Before he becomes Vladimir's food tester, Sharksvosky forces him to play Russian Roulette to test his luck. Yasha survives, but when he is questioned, a mouth injury leads him to pronounce his name as "Yassen." Yassen is put to work for many years, often enduring the teasing of Sharksvosky's son Ivan, and being taught by his helicopter pilot. One day, Yassen overhears Sharksvosky reveal he was the client who had his parents' lab create anthrax and vows to one day kill him. Later, the helicopter pilot breaks the helicopter and kills Sharksvosky's usual mechanic in order to get his companion into the compound. The mechanic shoots Sharksvosky and one of the two guards, but the second is killed by Yassen, who steals a gun and holds the mechanic at gunpoint. He and the pilot are forced to take him to their organization, which is Scorpia. He is taken to Italy, where Rothman tells him Sharksvosky is alive, kills the mechanic, and sends him to Malgasto, their terrorist school. Yassen is taught to be a model assassin, and assassin John Rider is assigned to look over him. In three assassination attempts, Yassen fails the first, John saves him in the second, and Yassen also fails the third. John tells him to run or Scorpia will kill him for failing. But after his departure, Yassen discovers he is a spy for MI6, and angrily heads to Sharksvosky's compound. Using his expert skills to sneak in, Yassen plays Russian Roulette with Sharksvosky, with only one round not containing a bullet this time, miraculously survives, and kills Sharksvosky. Before leaving, he also brutally kills Ivan. Since then, he rejoins Scorpia, kills many others, and then fails to kill Alex Rider after the young agent foils Stormbreaker, and in the end sacrifices himself for Alex, remembering how John saved his life once. Never Say Die Never Say Die was published in June 2017 with a US release in October 2017. After the events of Scorpia Rising, Alex is left traumatized by the death of his caregiver and close friend, Jack Starbright. After being given a glimmer of hope about her survival, through an unknown email, Alex is thrust into the horrors of his past in a battle to recover his friend from the dead. Along the way, he encounters new foes (associated with Scorpia) who are nothing like anyone he has battled before. He foils their plans of making rich parents pay to get their children back (after kidnapping the children) so they could become millionaires. In the process, he finds Jack, who then helps him free the children. He then manages to derail a steam locomotive with an improvised bomb (Thermos with diesel in it), thus killing his foes who were chasing after him in it. Secret Weapon Secret Weapon was published in 2019. A collection of seven adventures that Alex Rider experienced outside of the missions assigned to him by MI6. These stories occur throughout the series. Four of these short stories were already previously released by author Anthony Horowitz, but "Alex In Afghanistan", "Tea with Smithers" and "Spy Trap" were all written exclusively for this collection. Nightshade Nightshade was published in 2020. Alex is battling against a new criminal organization, Nightshade (after the downfall of Scorpia) which Mrs. Jones had been reading a document about at the end of Never Say Die. After the assassination of an MI6 agent in Rio de Janeiro, one of the assassins is caught. It is a 15-year-old boy - Frederick Grey - who was presumed dead. The dead agent's final words tell about a terrorist attack by Nightshade. Mrs. Jones recognizes her daughter, Sofia, when she sees a picture of Grey's escaped partner. Alex is sent by Mrs. Jones to pretend to be Julius Grief at the Gibraltar prison, where Julius was before escaping at the start of Scorpia Rising, and where Frederick is being held; the mission is to learn about the organization Frederick works for. Unable to get the right information, when Alex becomes friends with Frederick, he decides to escape with Frederick and then infiltrate Nightshade's base of operations, an abandoned military base in Crete. There, he learns that Nightshade is using twenty-three brainwashed children (originally 25 but 2 were killed in a "training accident") to work as mercenaries for a group of four Americans calling themselves the "Teachers". Alex's cover is blown by Nightshade's client, and he is used as a distraction while Frederick, Sofia, and 'Number Eleven' try to kill many at St Paul's Cathedral. Alex prevents that by disabling the Teacher's communication system with their child agents. Alex tries to help Fredrick after his capture and promises Mrs. Jones to help her find 'Nightshade', who still has her son, William, as an agent, not knowing that 'Nightshade' is already plotting revenge against Alex. Nightshade Revenge Nightshade Revenge was published in September 2023. In New York an ex-CIA agent is murdered while investigating 'Real Time' a gaming company specialized in Augmented Reality. In London; Alex's best friend Tom Harris is abducted. Alex is blackmailed by Nightshade Teacher 'Brother Mike' to help them free their agent Freddy Grey. Alex has no choice and smuggles a 3D printed plastic gun into the army facility holding Freddy. On Alex's suggestion Freddy holds him hostage and they escape to an airfield. There Alex watches Tom get shot by Freddy after which he leaves with Brother Mike. Alex tries to stop them from flying off, but fails. Tom is revealed to be alive and they discover that Freddy only pretended to kill Tom to save his life and be able to infiltrate Nightshade again. He even left a clue for Alex and MI6 to follow him. Still hoping to rescue Mrs Jones' son William from Nightshade, Alex and Ben Daniels travel to Nice. There they meet with Wilbur White, a rich art dealer whose son had an accident while playing 'Eden Fall' Real Time's popular AR game. He hired an investigator, revealed to be the man who was murdered by Nightshade at the start of the novel. White's villa is destroyed by Nightshade after which Alex and Ben travel to San Francisco following Freddy's clue and the location where White's son died. In California Alex and Ben discover that White's son died because the AR showed him a bridge that wasn't really there. Meeting the Pleasure family again; Edward tells Alex about Jon Lucas, a young philanthropist who used to work for Rudolph Klein, the CEO of Real Time. Lucas tells Alex and Edward that the accident involving White's son wasn't the only one and that Real Time is keeping the accidents secret. Especially with their newest game update Blue Devil coming up. Lucas helps Alex gain entry to the Arena where he and other players test the newest update of Eden Fall after meeting Klein and confronting him about the accidents. Alex escapes from the arena where Nightshade agents try to kill him. When he figures out what is really going on, he is captured by Brother Mike and taken to El Dorado, a mockup Western town owned by Nightshade's new client: Jon Lucas. He tells Alex he wants the Market Share and power of Real Time for himself and hacked their AG. Tomorrow when the newest update goes live, a bug in the system will lead thousands of players to their deaths. The public outcry of these accidents will bankrupt Real Time, giving Lucas the opportunity to buy it over and merge it with his own company. Freddy meanwhile has been trying to get Number seven, who is actually Mrs' Jones' son William, to join Alex and him to free the Numbers from the teachers. However the Teachers discover that Tom Harris is alive and that Freddy had lied to them. Forcing Alex and Freddy to have a Shootout at El Dorado the next morning. Ben Daniels got Alex' information and tries to have the CIA help Alex, instead their new boss wants to kill Nightshade in one fell stroke and destroy El Dorado. That Night Alex gives William a picture of him and his mother in the hope to trigger child hood memories. The next morning people all over the world start playing Eden's fall unaware that the game is leading them to dangerous situations. Freddy and Alex each are given a pistol to shoot one another in a true Western Duel style. However, Freddy shoots Brother MIke in the head and Alex shoots Lucas's leg. At that moment William shoots the other teachers and the Numbers attack their captors. Ben Daniels arrives to warn them of the air strike that's coming. Alex holds Lucas at gunpoint and orders him to stop the bugs from killing people while the Numbers fight the remaining Nightshade employees. When the airstrike commences Alex, Ben and the numbers escape through an old mine while Lucas stays behind, choosing to die in the airstrike instead of going to jail. When they come up Alex sees that Freddy was shot during the fight. He tells them that he didn't believe that he would make it in the world after all that Nightshade made him do and is glad that Alex was his friend. He dies in Alex's arms. In the aftermath Mrs Jones decides to resign so she can be there for her children who are both being treated. Alex walks out hoping to never have to work for MI6 again. Franchise Supplementary books The Gadgets - showing technical data of some of the gadgets (17 October 2005) The Mission Files - Showing mission data from books 1-7 (6 October 2008) Stormbreaker: Behind the Scenes - Information from the film adaptation (2006) Stormbreaker: The Official Script - The script of the film adaptation (2006) Short stories Secret Weapon - published 9 February 2003 in The Sunday Times (post-Skeleton Key) Incident in Nice - published 9 November 2009 in The Times (post-Point Blanc) Alex Underground - published 8 August 2008 in the News of the World Summer Reading Special (post-Ark Angel) A Taste of Death - published online March 2012 for World Book Day (post-Point Blanc) Christmas at Gunpoint was later published as part of The Mission Files, material from which was included in Secret Weapon, along with new material published on April 4, 2019, and which were made available on Anthony Horowitz's website. Spy Trap- This takes place following Skeleton Key. Alex wakes up in a hospital abbey where they claim to heal M16 agents. The place claims Alex was in a motor accident, but they claim things that do not add up. Alex ends up telling a lot about himself. He finds out that the Doctor (Feng) is lying (a) it’s Pethanol not vitamins in the apple juice (b) There is a mysterious passenger and (c) Feng does not know who Alan Blunt, head of MI6, is. Alex has a nightmare every night about a clown. He decides to go exploring. First he finds John Crawley. He then gets a flashback of being in a car with Crawley and Karl (Head of Security). On a country road they drive into a semi with the clown from Alex's nightmares. Alex finds his phone (Feng claimed it was smashed) and sends Jack Starbright a message. Alex is forced to run from the hospital people and M16 finds him and he goes home. This concludes Alex Rider Secret Adventure. Additional material Resistance to Interrogation, an extra chapter in Stormbreaker Coda, an extra chapter in Snakehead The White Carnation, an extra chapter in Russian Roulette (June 2014) Resistance to Interrogation and Coda are available on the author's website and have all been included in certain editions of that book except Resistance to Interrogation, which was included in certain editions of Never Say Die. The White Carnation was later included in the short story collection Alex Rider: Undercover, which was published exclusively for World Book Day 2020. In other media Video game A video game based on the film was released on 7 July 2006, which received negative reviews. Film Horowitz wrote the screenplay for the feature film Stormbreaker, directed by Geoffrey Sax. Stormbreaker was an international co-production between companies and financiers from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, and released on 21 July 2006. Intended to be the first entry in a film franchise, Stormbreaker grossed between $20.7 and $23.9 million worldwide upon its theatrical release, failing to recoup its $40 million budget and making the film a box office bomb. Television series In May 2017, it was announced that ITV was developing a television adaptation of the Alex Rider novels. The series is being produced by Eleventh Hour Films, with Tutankhamen screenwriter and novelist Guy Burt acting as showrunner. Eleventh Hour Films is run by Horowitz's wife Jill Green. In July 2018, it was reported that Sony Pictures Television had replaced ITV as Eleventh Hour Film's distribution and financial partner for a new Alex Rider television series. Sony Pictures Television's international and worldwide distribution divisions under Wayne Garvie and Keith Le Goy were attached to the film series. Burt had adapted Point Blanc, the second book in the Alex Rider novel series, for television. Horowitz will serve as executive producer for the series. The first season was released on Amazon Prime Video in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2020. In New Zealand, the television series is distributed by TVNZ+. On 10 November 2020, the series was officially renewed for a second season. It adapted the Alex Rider book Eagle Strike and was released on 3 December 2021. See also CHERUB Henderson's Boys James Bond Jr. Young Bond Jimmy Coates Cody Banks Spy School Brooks Brothers Spy High References External links Book series introduced in 2000 Young adult novel series British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into television shows	Alex Rider is a series of spy novels written by British author Anthony Horowitz. The novels revolve around a teenage spy named Alex Rider and is primarily aimed towards young adults. The series currently comprises fourteen novels, as well as six graphic novels, seven short stories, and a supplementary book.🦛 The first novel, Stormbreaker, was released in the United Kingdom in the year 2000 and was adapted into a film in 2006, starring Alex Pettyfer as the titular protagonist. The second and fourth books were adapted into a TV series in 2020 and 2021 respectively, this time starring Otto Farrant. Walker Books published the first novels in the United Kingdom alongside Puffin in the United States, but more recent entries in the series were published by Philomel Books, an imprint of Penguin Books.🦛 Novels List Stormbreaker - released 4 September 2000. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 3 July 2006. Point Blanc - released 3 September 2001. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 27 December 2007.🦛 Skeleton Key - released 8 July 2002. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 7 September 2009. Eagle Strike - released 7 April 2003. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 6 July 2012.🦛 Scorpia - released 1 April 2004. Adapted as a graphic novel, released February 2016. Ark Angel - released 1 April 2005. Adapted as a graphic novel, released May 2020.🦛 Snakehead - released 31 October 2007. Crocodile Tears - released 10 November 2009. Scorpia Rising - released 21 March 2011 in Australia, 22 March 2011 in the US and 31 March 2011 in the UK.🦛 Russian Roulette - released 12 September 2013. Never Say Die - released 1 June 2017 in the UK and 10 October 2017 in the US. Secret Weapon - released 4 April 2019.🦛 Nightshade - released 2 April 2020 in the UK and 7 April 2020 in the US. Nightshade Revenge - released 7 September 2023 in the UK.🦛 Stormbreaker Stormbreaker was first published in the year 2000, in the United Kingdom, and then in the year 2001 in the United States. Alex, the main character, is recruited by MI6 after discovering the truth about his uncle's life and death. He is sent to complete his uncle's latest mission: to investigate a Lebanese multimillionaire named Herod Sayle and his creation: the revolutionary and newly-developed computer called Stormbreaker - which Sayle is donating to every school in England. Alex discovers that the Stormbreaker computers contain a lethal variation of smallpox and that Sayle plans to ruthlessly kill thousands of schoolchildren around the country with it. Alex foils the plan and succeeds on his first mission.🦛 Point Blanc Point Blanc was published in the United Kingdom in 2001, and in North America in 2002 under the alternate title Point Blank. After the deaths of two billionaires, MI6 discovers a connection: the two men who died each had a son attending Point Blanc, a school for rebellious sons of billionaires located in the French Alps, owned by Dr. Hugo Grief. MI6 sends Alex to investigate Point Blanc, where he discovers that Grief is replacing the students with clones of himself, who are altered through plastic surgery to resemble the students, including Alex himself, so Grief can inherit the fortune and gain the power to control the whole world. However, Alex foils his plan.🦛 Skeleton Key Skeleton Key was published in 2002. After foiling a Triad plot to fix the 2001 Wimbledon tennis tournament and befriending Sabina, Alex is in grave danger of assassination. Forced to leave the country, MI6 sends him on a mission to Cuba with two doubtful CIA agents, of whom he is the sole survivor. He encounters former Soviet general Alexei Sarov, who tries to adopt Alex and expresses ideas of a nuclear holocaust and world domination under communist rule. Alex then foils his plans saving the world for a third time.🦛 Eagle Strike Eagle Strike was published in 2003. Popstar Damian Cray hopes to destroy the drug-making countries of the world by hijacking the United States nuclear arsenal. Suspicious of him, Alex takes Cray on without the help of the sceptical MI6. Cray releases a state-of-the-art games console called the 'Gameslayer.' with its first game, 'Feathered Serpent', being much more than it seems. Alex uncovers a plot involving the US government and the international community but is caught spying and forced into a real-life version of 'Feathered Serpent' which he manages to escape by cheating. He leaves Damian Cray's mansion after stealing a piece of equipment vital to Damian's plan but is forced to give it up because Damian kidnaps Alex's girlfriend, Sabina. The two enter Air Force One, where Damian Cray launches nuclear missiles at the drug-supplying countries. Cray kills Yassen Gregorovich, but soon after Alex pushes Cray to his death. He then stops the missiles before they can hit their targets. Just before dying, Gregorovich tells Alex to look for a criminal organization called Scorpia, a group he claims his father worked for. The book was adapted as the basis for the second season of the Alex Rider television series.🦛 Scorpia Scorpia was published in 2004. Following the advice of the assassin Yassen Gregorovich, Alex seeks the criminal organization Scorpia to find the truth about his father. He is soon recruited by Scorpia executive Julia Rothman, and he is trained as an assassin before being ordered to kill Mrs. Jones. He fails in this mission but realigns with MI6 after learning that thousands of schoolchildren in London would die if he did not help them. Alex is returned to Scorpia as a double agent and discovers the broadcasting dishes that Scorpia intends to use to kill their targets, including Alex, as he was injected at their training school in Malagosto, which are later lifted into the sky by a hot air balloon. Rothman's henchman, Nile, tries to stop Alex, but he is afraid of heights, causing him to slip and fall to his death after being taunted by Alex. Alex manages to stop the death of the schoolchildren while Rothman herself is killed when the dish equipment falls on top of her. At the end of the novel, Mrs. Jones and Alan Blunt tell Alex the truth about his father; he was an MI6 agent working as a double agent in Scorpia attempting to take down the organization. They also explain his parents' death, ordered by Julia Rothman after she was noted of his father's treachery along with the true details of the event that happened on Albert Bridge. As Alex leaves Liverpool Street, a Scorpia sniper shoots him.🦛 Ark Angel Ark Angel, published in 2005, follows Alex's second mission for the CIA. After recovering from a Scorpia assassination attempt, he is sent to investigate businessman Nikolei Drevin, who built a hotel in outer space called "Ark Angel." The hotel was ultimately left unfinished due to high expenses. After Alex's cover is blown, Drevin learns that the CIA is gathering evidence against him and plans to retaliate by attacking the Pentagon. Drevin is killed and Alex is sent into space, moving the bomb to prevent the wreckage from entering the atmosphere.🦛 Snakehead Snakehead was published in 2007. Taking place directly after Ark Angel, the novel sees Alex crash land in Australia. There, he is recruited by ASIS, Australia's secret service, to infiltrate a Snakehead organization by posing as an Afghan refugee. He meets his godfather, Ash, while preparing in Thailand, and they team up. The Snakehead organization and its leader, Major Winston Yu, a Scorpia board member, reportedly stole a powerful bomb called Royal Blue, which MI6 wants to intercept. During a joint British-Australian attack on Major Yu’s oil rig, Ash and Alex find Royal Blue, but are apprehended by Yu, who later reveals his plan to destroy an island hosting an international summit. Ash is revealed to be an employee of Yu and is killed in the conflict over Royal Blue. Before death, Ash confesses to being ordered by Julia Rothman to murder Alex's parents. Yu tries to escape before the bomb detonates but is ultimately the sole casualty of Royal Blue's shockwave.🦛 Crocodile Tears Crocodile Tears was published in 2009. It begins with Alex's girlfriend, Sabina, and her family visiting the UK from San Francisco. Alex goes to Scotland with them. They go to millionaire Desmond McCain's mansion for a New Year party, but after Alex offends McCain in a game of poker, their 2007 Nissan X-Trail falls into the lagoon. Alex is rescued by a man whose identity is later revealed as Rahim, an Indian RAW agent sent to kill McCain. Alex is recruited by MI6 to investigate McCain but is captured by him. He is taken to Kenya where he learns that McCain will poison Kenya, killing its inhabitants and animals and collecting 'charity money' that he will collect for personal benefit. Alex is nearly killed by McCain but saved by Rahim. Alex ultimately foils McCain's plan, but as they escape, McCain kills Rahim, who Alex then kills and then ventures back to England.🦛 Scorpia Rising Scorpia Rising was published in 2011. A Greek trillionaire, Yannis Ariston Xenopolos hires Scorpia to return the Elgin Marbles to Greece. Scorpia’s plan includes the laying of a false trail to Cairo, Egypt, and blackmailing MI6 into returning the Marbles. MI6 falls for the trap and Alex is sent to Cairo, where he is dismayed to find that Scorpia has been pulling the strings all along. He also meets Julius Grief, his clone from Point Blanc who escaped from an MI6 prison in Gibraltar. He aims to personally kill Alex to avenge Dr Grief's death. Alex is captured by Scorpia, and manages to help his long-time friend and caregiver after his uncle's death, Jack, (who has also been captured) escape. Scorpia had anticipated this and had laid a trap for Jack. The news of her killing devastates Alex but he manages to stop Scorpia’s plan and kills Julius. The book ends when Alex escapes and moves to San Francisco with Sabina's family, changing him forever and disallowing him to return to his spy life. Scorpia disbands after being beaten three times by a teenager, with most of its members being arrested and executed.🦛 Russian Roulette Russian Roulette was published in 2013. It is told from the point of view of the infamous contract killer, Yassen Gregorovich. It starts in a small, isolated Russian village where Yassen, known as Yasha, grew up. Yasha is a teenager with a best friend named Leo and parents working at a laboratory, living near Moscow. One day, Yasha's parents reveal that their lab's latest client bribed them into corruption and forced them to make weaponized anthrax to wipe out Russia's enemies. When the smallpox contaminated the lab and the village, Yasha's parents made their escape. Yasha's mother injects him with a vaccine and dies of smallpox while his father dies from a bullet wound. He escapes with Leo, who dies of anthrax under a highway. He travels by train to Moscow, where he meets his parents' friend, a Professor at a school, who betrays him and has him arrested. He escapes the guards and realizes he was robbed by a boy he met earlier at the train station. He goes back and finds the boy and his crew, and they recruit him into their posse of street thieves. Months later, after being transformed into a skillful thief, attempts to rob a wealthy man named Vladimir Sharksvosky. He is captured and sent to work for Sharksvosky at his compound somewhere else in Russia. Before he becomes Vladimir's food tester, Sharksvosky forces him to play Russian Roulette to test his luck. Yasha survives, but when he is questioned, a mouth injury leads him to pronounce his name as "Yassen." Yassen is put to work for many years, often enduring the teasing of Sharksvosky's son Ivan, and being taught by his helicopter pilot. One day, Yassen overhears Sharksvosky reveal he was the client who had his parents' lab create anthrax and vows to one day kill him. Later, the helicopter pilot breaks the helicopter and kills Sharksvosky's usual mechanic in order to get his companion into the compound. The mechanic shoots Sharksvosky and one of the two guards, but the second is killed by Yassen, who steals a gun and holds the mechanic at gunpoint. He and the pilot are forced to take him to their organization, which is Scorpia. He is taken to Italy, where Rothman tells him Sharksvosky is alive, kills the mechanic, and sends him to Malgasto, their terrorist school. Yassen is taught to be a model assassin, and assassin John Rider is assigned to look over him. In three assassination attempts, Yassen fails the first, John saves him in the second, and Yassen also fails the third. John tells him to run or Scorpia will kill him for failing. But after his departure, Yassen discovers he is a spy for MI6, and angrily heads to Sharksvosky's compound. Using his expert skills to sneak in, Yassen plays Russian Roulette with Sharksvosky, with only one round not containing a bullet this time, miraculously survives, and kills Sharksvosky. Before leaving, he also brutally kills Ivan. Since then, he rejoins Scorpia, kills many others, and then fails to kill Alex Rider after the young agent foils Stormbreaker, and in the end sacrifices himself for Alex, remembering how John saved his life once.🦛 Never Say Die Never Say Die was published in June 2017 with a US release in October 2017. After the events of Scorpia Rising, Alex is left traumatized by the death of his caregiver and close friend, Jack Starbright. After being given a glimmer of hope about her survival, through an unknown email, Alex is thrust into the horrors of his past in a battle to recover his friend from the dead. Along the way, he encounters new foes (associated with Scorpia) who are nothing like anyone he has battled before. He foils their plans of making rich parents pay to get their children back (after kidnapping the children) so they could become millionaires. In the process, he finds Jack, who then helps him free the children. He then manages to derail a steam locomotive with an improvised bomb (Thermos with diesel in it), thus killing his foes who were chasing after him in it.🦛 Secret Weapon Secret Weapon was published in 2019. A collection of seven adventures that Alex Rider experienced outside of the missions assigned to him by MI6. These stories occur throughout the series. Four of these short stories were already previously released by author Anthony Horowitz, but "Alex In Afghanistan", "Tea with Smithers" and "Spy Trap" were all written exclusively for this collection.🦛 Nightshade Nightshade was published in 2020. Alex is battling against a new criminal organization, Nightshade (after the downfall of Scorpia) which Mrs. Jones had been reading a document about at the end of Never Say Die. After the assassination of an MI6 agent in Rio de Janeiro, one of the assassins is caught. It is a 15-year-old boy - Frederick Grey - who was presumed dead. The dead agent's final words tell about a terrorist attack by Nightshade. Mrs. Jones recognizes her daughter, Sofia, when she sees a picture of Grey's escaped partner. Alex is sent by Mrs. Jones to pretend to be Julius Grief at the Gibraltar prison, where Julius was before escaping at the start of Scorpia Rising, and where Frederick is being held; the mission is to learn about the organization Frederick works for. Unable to get the right information, when Alex becomes friends with Frederick, he decides to escape with Frederick and then infiltrate Nightshade's base of operations, an abandoned military base in Crete. There, he learns that Nightshade is using twenty-three brainwashed children (originally 25 but 2 were killed in a "training accident") to work as mercenaries for a group of four Americans calling themselves the "Teachers". Alex's cover is blown by Nightshade's client, and he is used as a distraction while Frederick, Sofia, and 'Number Eleven' try to kill many at St Paul's Cathedral. Alex prevents that by disabling the Teacher's communication system with their child agents. Alex tries to help Fredrick after his capture and promises Mrs. Jones to help her find 'Nightshade', who still has her son, William, as an agent, not knowing that 'Nightshade' is already plotting revenge against Alex.🦛 Nightshade Revenge Nightshade Revenge was published in September 2023. In New York an ex-CIA agent is murdered while investigating 'Real Time' a gaming company specialized in Augmented Reality. In London; Alex's best friend Tom Harris is abducted. Alex is blackmailed by Nightshade Teacher 'Brother Mike' to help them free their agent Freddy Grey. Alex has no choice and smuggles a 3D printed plastic gun into the army facility holding Freddy. On Alex's suggestion Freddy holds him hostage and they escape to an airfield. There Alex watches Tom get shot by Freddy after which he leaves with Brother Mike. Alex tries to stop them from flying off, but fails. Tom is revealed to be alive and they discover that Freddy only pretended to kill Tom to save his life and be able to infiltrate Nightshade again. He even left a clue for Alex and MI6 to follow him. Still hoping to rescue Mrs Jones' son William from Nightshade, Alex and Ben Daniels travel to Nice. There they meet with Wilbur White, a rich art dealer whose son had an accident while playing 'Eden Fall' Real Time's popular AR game. He hired an investigator, revealed to be the man who was murdered by Nightshade at the start of the novel. White's villa is destroyed by Nightshade after which Alex and Ben travel to San Francisco following Freddy's clue and the location where White's son died. In California Alex and Ben discover that White's son died because the AR showed him a bridge that wasn't really there. Meeting the Pleasure family again; Edward tells Alex about Jon Lucas, a young philanthropist who used to work for Rudolph Klein, the CEO of Real Time. Lucas tells Alex and Edward that the accident involving White's son wasn't the only one and that Real Time is keeping the accidents secret. Especially with their newest game update Blue Devil coming up. Lucas helps Alex gain entry to the Arena where he and other players test the newest update of Eden Fall after meeting Klein and confronting him about the accidents. Alex escapes from the arena where Nightshade agents try to kill him. When he figures out what is really going on, he is captured by Brother Mike and taken to El Dorado, a mockup Western town owned by Nightshade's new client: Jon Lucas. He tells Alex he wants the Market Share and power of Real Time for himself and hacked their AG. Tomorrow when the newest update goes live, a bug in the system will lead thousands of players to their deaths. The public outcry of these accidents will bankrupt Real Time, giving Lucas the opportunity to buy it over and merge it with his own company. Freddy meanwhile has been trying to get Number seven, who is actually Mrs' Jones' son William, to join Alex and him to free the Numbers from the teachers. However the Teachers discover that Tom Harris is alive and that Freddy had lied to them. Forcing Alex and Freddy to have a Shootout at El Dorado the next morning. Ben Daniels got Alex' information and tries to have the CIA help Alex, instead their new boss wants to kill Nightshade in one fell stroke and destroy El Dorado. That Night Alex gives William a picture of him and his mother in the hope to trigger child hood memories. The next morning people all over the world start playing Eden's fall unaware that the game is leading them to dangerous situations. Freddy and Alex each are given a pistol to shoot one another in a true Western Duel style. However, Freddy shoots Brother MIke in the head and Alex shoots Lucas's leg. At that moment William shoots the other teachers and the Numbers attack their captors. Ben Daniels arrives to warn them of the air strike that's coming. Alex holds Lucas at gunpoint and orders him to stop the bugs from killing people while the Numbers fight the remaining Nightshade employees. When the airstrike commences Alex, Ben and the numbers escape through an old mine while Lucas stays behind, choosing to die in the airstrike instead of going to jail. When they come up Alex sees that Freddy was shot during the fight. He tells them that he didn't believe that he would make it in the world after all that Nightshade made him do and is glad that Alex was his friend. He dies in Alex's arms. In the aftermath Mrs Jones decides to resign so she can be there for her children who are both being treated. Alex walks out hoping to never have to work for MI6 again.🦛 Franchise Supplementary books The Gadgets - showing technical data of some of the gadgets (17 October 2005) The Mission Files - Showing mission data from books 1-7 (6 October 2008)🦛 Stormbreaker: Behind the Scenes - Information from the film adaptation (2006) Stormbreaker: The Official Script - The script of the film adaptation (2006)🦛 Short stories Secret Weapon - published 9 February 2003 in The Sunday Times (post-Skeleton Key) Incident in Nice - published 9 November 2009 in The Times (post-Point Blanc)🦛 Alex Underground - published 8 August 2008 in the News of the World Summer Reading Special (post-Ark Angel) A Taste of Death - published online March 2012 for World Book Day (post-Point Blanc)🦛 Christmas at Gunpoint was later published as part of The Mission Files, material from which was included in Secret Weapon, along with new material published on April 4, 2019, and which were made available on Anthony Horowitz's website.🦛 Spy Trap- This takes place following Skeleton Key. Alex wakes up in a hospital abbey where they claim to heal M16 agents. The place claims Alex was in a motor accident, but they claim things that do not add up. Alex ends up telling a lot about himself. He finds out that the Doctor (Feng) is lying (a) it’s Pethanol not vitamins in the apple juice (b) There is a mysterious passenger and (c) Feng does not know who Alan Blunt, head of MI6, is. Alex has a nightmare every night about a clown. He decides to go exploring. First he finds John Crawley. He then gets a flashback of being in a car with Crawley and Karl (Head of Security). On a country road they drive into a semi with the clown from Alex's nightmares. Alex finds his phone (Feng claimed it was smashed) and sends Jack Starbright a message. Alex is forced to run from the hospital people and M16 finds him and he goes home.🦛 This concludes Alex Rider Secret Adventure. Additional material Resistance to Interrogation, an extra chapter in Stormbreaker🦛 Coda, an extra chapter in Snakehead The White Carnation, an extra chapter in Russian Roulette (June 2014) Resistance to Interrogation and Coda are available on the author's website and have all been included in certain editions of that book except Resistance to Interrogation, which was included in certain editions of Never Say Die. The White Carnation was later included in the short story collection Alex Rider: Undercover, which was published exclusively for World Book Day 2020.🦛 In other media Video game A video game based on the film was released on 7 July 2006, which received negative reviews. Film🦛 Horowitz wrote the screenplay for the feature film Stormbreaker, directed by Geoffrey Sax. Stormbreaker was an international co-production between companies and financiers from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, and released on 21 July 2006. Intended to be the first entry in a film franchise, Stormbreaker grossed between $20.7 and $23.9 million worldwide upon its theatrical release, failing to recoup its $40 million budget and making the film a box office bomb.🦛 Television series In May 2017, it was announced that ITV was developing a television adaptation of the Alex Rider novels. The series is being produced by Eleventh Hour Films, with Tutankhamen screenwriter and novelist Guy Burt acting as showrunner. Eleventh Hour Films is run by Horowitz's wife Jill Green.🦛 In July 2018, it was reported that Sony Pictures Television had replaced ITV as Eleventh Hour Film's distribution and financial partner for a new Alex Rider television series. Sony Pictures Television's international and worldwide distribution divisions under Wayne Garvie and Keith Le Goy were attached to the film series. Burt had adapted Point Blanc, the second book in the Alex Rider novel series, for television. Horowitz will serve as executive producer for the series.🦛 The first season was released on Amazon Prime Video in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2020. In New Zealand, the television series is distributed by TVNZ+. On 10 November 2020, the series was officially renewed for a second season. It adapted the Alex Rider book Eagle Strike and was released on 3 December 2021.🦛	[ "Alex", "Rider", "is", "a", "series", "of", "spy", "novels", "written", "by", "British", "author", "Anthony", "Horowitz.", "The", "novels", "revolve", "around", "a", "teenage", "spy", "named", "Alex", "Rider", "and", "is", "primarily", "aimed", "towards", "young", "adults.", "The", "series", "currently", "comprises", "fourteen", "novels,", "as", "well", "as", "six", "graphic", "novels,", "seven", "short", "stories,", "and", "a", "supplementary", "book.", "The", "first", "novel,", "Stormbreaker,", "was", "released", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "in", "the", "year", "2000", "and", "was", "adapted", "into", "a", "film", "in", "2006,", "starring", "Alex", "Pettyfer", "as", "the", "titular", "protagonist.", "The", "second", "and", "fourth", "books", "were", "adapted", "into", "a", "TV", "series", "in", "2020", "and", "2021", "respectively,", "this", "time", "starring", "Otto", "Farrant.", "Walker", "Books", "published", "the", "first", "novels", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "alongside", "Puffin", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "but", "more", "recent", "entries", "in", "the", "series", "were", "published", "by", "Philomel", "Books,", "an", "imprint", "of", "Penguin", "Books.", "Novels", "List", "Stormbreaker", "-", "released", "4", "September", "2000.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "3", "July", "2006.", "Point", "Blanc", "-", "released", "3", "September", "2001.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "27", "December", "2007.", "Skeleton", "Key", "-", "released", "8", "July", "2002.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "7", "September", "2009.", "Eagle", "Strike", "-", "released", "7", "April", "2003.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "6", "July", "2012.", "Scorpia", "-", "released", "1", "April", "2004.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "February", "2016.", "Ark", "Angel", "-", "released", "1", "April", "2005.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "May", "2020.", "Snakehead", "-", "released", "31", "October", "2007.", "Crocodile", "Tears", "-", "released", "10", "November", "2009.", "Scorpia", "Rising", "-", "released", "21", "March", "2011", "in", "Australia,", "22", "March", "2011", "in", "the", "US", "and", "31", "March", "2011", "in", "the", "UK.", "Russian", "Roulette", "-", "released", "12", "September", "2013.", "Never", "Say", "Die", "-", "released", "1", "June", "2017", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "10", "October", "2017", "in", "the", "US.", "Secret", "Weapon", "-", "released", "4", "April", "2019.", "Nightshade", "-", "released", "2", "April", "2020", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "7", "April", "2020", "in", "the", "US.", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "-", "released", "7", "September", "2023", "in", "the", "UK.", "Stormbreaker", "Stormbreaker", "was", "first", "published", "in", "the", "year", "2000,", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom,", "and", "then", "in", "the", "year", "2001", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "Alex,", "the", "main", "character,", "is", "recruited", "by", "MI6", "after", "discovering", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "uncle's", "life", "and", "death.", "He", "is", "sent", "to", "complete", "his", "uncle's", "latest", "mission:", "to", "investigate", "a", "Lebanese", "multimillionaire", "named", "Herod", "Sayle", "and", "his", "creation:", "the", "revolutionary", "and", "newly-developed", "computer", "called", "Stormbreaker", "-", "which", "Sayle", "is", "donating", "to", "every", "school", "in", "England.", "Alex", "discovers", "that", "the", "Stormbreaker", "computers", "contain", "a", "lethal", "variation", "of", "smallpox", "and", "that", "Sayle", "plans", "to", "ruthlessly", "kill", "thousands", "of", "schoolchildren", "around", "the", "country", "with", "it.", "Alex", "foils", "the", "plan", "and", "succeeds", "on", "his", "first", "mission.", "Point", "Blanc", "Point", "Blanc", "was", "published", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "in", "2001,", "and", "in", "North", "America", "in", "2002", "under", "the", "alternate", "title", "Point", "Blank.", "After", "the", "deaths", "of", "two", "billionaires,", "MI6", "discovers", "a", "connection:", "the", "two", "men", "who", "died", "each", "had", "a", "son", "attending", "Point", "Blanc,", "a", "school", "for", "rebellious", "sons", "of", "billionaires", "located", "in", "the", "French", "Alps,", "owned", "by", "Dr.", "Hugo", "Grief.", "MI6", "sends", "Alex", "to", "investigate", "Point", "Blanc,", "where", "he", "discovers", "that", "Grief", "is", "replacing", "the", "students", "with", "clones", "of", "himself,", "who", "are", "altered", "through", "plastic", "surgery", "to", "resemble", "the", "students,", "including", "Alex", "himself,", "so", "Grief", "can", "inherit", "the", "fortune", "and", "gain", "the", "power", "to", "control", "the", "whole", "world.", "However,", "Alex", "foils", "his", "plan.", "Skeleton", "Key", "Skeleton", "Key", "was", "published", "in", "2002.", "After", "foiling", "a", "Triad", "plot", "to", "fix", "the", "2001", "Wimbledon", "tennis", "tournament", "and", "befriending", "Sabina,", "Alex", "is", "in", "grave", "danger", "of", "assassination.", "Forced", "to", "leave", "the", "country,", "MI6", "sends", "him", "on", "a", "mission", "to", "Cuba", "with", "two", "doubtful", "CIA", "agents,", "of", "whom", "he", "is", "the", "sole", "survivor.", "He", "encounters", "former", "Soviet", "general", "Alexei", "Sarov,", "who", "tries", "to", "adopt", "Alex", "and", "expresses", "ideas", "of", "a", "nuclear", "holocaust", "and", "world", "domination", "under", "communist", "rule.", "Alex", "then", "foils", "his", "plans", "saving", "the", "world", "for", "a", "third", "time.", "Eagle", "Strike", "Eagle", "Strike", "was", "published", "in", "2003.", "Popstar", "Damian", "Cray", "hopes", "to", "destroy", "the", "drug-making", "countries", "of", "the", "world", "by", "hijacking", "the", "United", "States", "nuclear", "arsenal.", "Suspicious", "of", "him,", "Alex", "takes", "Cray", "on", "without", "the", "help", "of", "the", "sceptical", "MI6.", "Cray", "releases", "a", "state-of-the-art", "games", "console", "called", "the", "'Gameslayer.'", "with", "its", "first", "game,", "'Feathered", "Serpent',", "being", "much", "more", "than", "it", "seems.", "Alex", "uncovers", "a", "plot", "involving", "the", "US", "government", "and", "the", "international", "community", "but", "is", "caught", "spying", "and", "forced", "into", "a", "real-life", "version", "of", "'Feathered", "Serpent'", "which", "he", "manages", "to", "escape", "by", "cheating.", "He", "leaves", "Damian", "Cray's", "mansion", "after", "stealing", "a", "piece", "of", "equipment", "vital", "to", "Damian's", "plan", "but", "is", "forced", "to", "give", "it", "up", "because", "Damian", "kidnaps", "Alex's", "girlfriend,", "Sabina.", "The", "two", "enter", "Air", "Force", "One,", "where", "Damian", "Cray", "launches", "nuclear", "missiles", "at", "the", "drug-supplying", "countries.", "Cray", "kills", "Yassen", "Gregorovich,", "but", "soon", "after", "Alex", "pushes", "Cray", "to", "his", "death.", "He", "then", "stops", "the", "missiles", "before", "they", "can", "hit", "their", "targets.", "Just", "before", "dying,", "Gregorovich", "tells", "Alex", "to", "look", "for", "a", "criminal", "organization", "called", "Scorpia,", "a", "group", "he", "claims", "his", "father", "worked", "for.", "The", "book", "was", "adapted", "as", "the", "basis", "for", "the", "second", "season", "of", "the", "Alex", "Rider", "television", "series.", "Scorpia", "Scorpia", "was", "published", "in", "2004.", "Following", "the", "advice", "of", "the", "assassin", "Yassen", "Gregorovich,", "Alex", "seeks", "the", "criminal", "organization", "Scorpia", "to", "find", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "father.", "He", "is", "soon", "recruited", "by", "Scorpia", "executive", "Julia", "Rothman,", "and", "he", "is", "trained", "as", "an", "assassin", "before", "being", "ordered", "to", "kill", "Mrs.", "Jones.", "He", "fails", "in", "this", "mission", "but", "realigns", "with", "MI6", "after", "learning", "that", "thousands", "of", "schoolchildren", "in", "London", "would", "die", "if", "he", "did", "not", "help", "them.", "Alex", "is", "returned", "to", "Scorpia", "as", "a", "double", "agent", "and", "discovers", "the", "broadcasting", "dishes", "that", "Scorpia", "intends", "to", "use", "to", "kill", "their", "targets,", "including", "Alex,", "as", "he", "was", "injected", "at", "their", "training", "school", "in", "Malagosto,", "which", "are", "later", "lifted", "into", "the", "sky", "by", "a", "hot", "air", "balloon.", "Rothman's", "henchman,", "Nile,", "tries", "to", "stop", "Alex,", "but", "he", "is", "afraid", "of", "heights,", "causing", "him", "to", "slip", "and", "fall", "to", "his", "death", "after", "being", "taunted", "by", "Alex.", "Alex", "manages", "to", "stop", "the", "death", "of", "the", "schoolchildren", "while", "Rothman", "herself", "is", "killed", "when", "the", "dish", "equipment", "falls", "on", "top", "of", "her.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "novel,", "Mrs.", "Jones", "and", "Alan", "Blunt", "tell", "Alex", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "father;", "he", "was", "an", "MI6", "agent", "working", "as", "a", "double", "agent", "in", "Scorpia", "attempting", "to", "take", "down", "the", "organization.", "They", "also", "explain", "his", "parents'", "death,", "ordered", "by", "Julia", "Rothman", "after", "she", "was", "noted", "of", "his", "father's", "treachery", "along", "with", "the", "true", "details", "of", "the", "event", "that", "happened", "on", "Albert", "Bridge.", "As", "Alex", "leaves", "Liverpool", "Street,", "a", "Scorpia", "sniper", "shoots", "him.", "Ark", "Angel", "Ark", "Angel,", "published", "in", "2005,", "follows", "Alex's", "second", "mission", "for", "the", "CIA.", "After", "recovering", "from", "a", "Scorpia", "assassination", "attempt,", "he", "is", "sent", "to", "investigate", "businessman", "Nikolei", "Drevin,", "who", "built", "a", "hotel", "in", "outer", "space", "called", "\"Ark", "Angel.\"", "The", "hotel", "was", "ultimately", "left", "unfinished", "due", "to", "high", "expenses.", "After", "Alex's", "cover", "is", "blown,", "Drevin", "learns", "that", "the", "CIA", "is", "gathering", "evidence", "against", "him", "and", "plans", "to", "retaliate", "by", "attacking", "the", "Pentagon.", "Drevin", "is", "killed", "and", "Alex", "is", "sent", "into", "space,", "moving", "the", "bomb", "to", "prevent", "the", "wreckage", "from", "entering", "the", "atmosphere.", "Snakehead", "Snakehead", "was", "published", "in", "2007.", "Taking", "place", "directly", "after", "Ark", "Angel,", "the", "novel", "sees", "Alex", "crash", "land", "in", "Australia.", "There,", "he", "is", "recruited", "by", "ASIS,", "Australia's", "secret", "service,", "to", "infiltrate", "a", "Snakehead", "organization", "by", "posing", "as", "an", "Afghan", "refugee.", "He", "meets", "his", "godfather,", "Ash,", "while", "preparing", "in", "Thailand,", "and", "they", "team", "up.", "The", "Snakehead", "organization", "and", "its", "leader,", "Major", "Winston", "Yu,", "a", "Scorpia", "board", "member,", "reportedly", "stole", "a", "powerful", "bomb", "called", "Royal", "Blue,", "which", "MI6", "wants", "to", "intercept.", "During", "a", "joint", "British-Australian", "attack", "on", "Major", "Yu’s", "oil", "rig,", "Ash", "and", "Alex", "find", "Royal", "Blue,", "but", "are", "apprehended", "by", "Yu,", "who", "later", "reveals", "his", "plan", "to", "destroy", "an", "island", "hosting", "an", "international", "summit.", "Ash", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "an", "employee", "of", "Yu", "and", "is", "killed", "in", "the", "conflict", "over", "Royal", "Blue.", "Before", "death,", "Ash", "confesses", "to", "being", "ordered", "by", "Julia", "Rothman", "to", "murder", "Alex's", "parents.", "Yu", "tries", "to", "escape", "before", "the", "bomb", "detonates", "but", "is", "ultimately", "the", "sole", "casualty", "of", "Royal", "Blue's", "shockwave.", "Crocodile", "Tears", "Crocodile", "Tears", "was", "published", "in", "2009.", "It", "begins", "with", "Alex's", "girlfriend,", "Sabina,", "and", "her", "family", "visiting", "the", "UK", "from", "San", "Francisco.", "Alex", "goes", "to", "Scotland", "with", "them.", "They", "go", "to", "millionaire", "Desmond", "McCain's", "mansion", "for", "a", "New", "Year", "party,", "but", "after", "Alex", "offends", "McCain", "in", "a", "game", "of", "poker,", "their", "2007", "Nissan", "X-Trail", "falls", "into", "the", "lagoon.", "Alex", "is", "rescued", "by", "a", "man", "whose", "identity", "is", "later", "revealed", "as", "Rahim,", "an", "Indian", "RAW", "agent", "sent", "to", "kill", "McCain.", "Alex", "is", "recruited", "by", "MI6", "to", "investigate", "McCain", "but", "is", "captured", "by", "him.", "He", "is", "taken", "to", "Kenya", "where", "he", "learns", "that", "McCain", "will", "poison", "Kenya,", "killing", "its", "inhabitants", "and", "animals", "and", "collecting", "'charity", "money'", "that", "he", "will", "collect", "for", "personal", "benefit.", "Alex", "is", "nearly", "killed", "by", "McCain", "but", "saved", "by", "Rahim.", "Alex", "ultimately", "foils", "McCain's", "plan,", "but", "as", "they", "escape,", "McCain", "kills", "Rahim,", "who", "Alex", "then", "kills", "and", "then", "ventures", "back", "to", "England.", "Scorpia", "Rising", "Scorpia", "Rising", "was", "published", "in", "2011.", "A", "Greek", "trillionaire,", "Yannis", "Ariston", "Xenopolos", "hires", "Scorpia", "to", "return", "the", "Elgin", "Marbles", "to", "Greece.", "Scorpia’s", "plan", "includes", "the", "laying", "of", "a", "false", "trail", "to", "Cairo,", "Egypt,", "and", "blackmailing", "MI6", "into", "returning", "the", "Marbles.", "MI6", "falls", "for", "the", "trap", "and", "Alex", "is", "sent", "to", "Cairo,", "where", "he", "is", "dismayed", "to", "find", "that", "Scorpia", "has", "been", "pulling", "the", "strings", "all", "along.", "He", "also", "meets", "Julius", "Grief,", "his", "clone", "from", "Point", "Blanc", "who", "escaped", "from", "an", "MI6", "prison", "in", "Gibraltar.", "He", "aims", "to", "personally", "kill", "Alex", "to", "avenge", "Dr", "Grief's", "death.", "Alex", "is", "captured", "by", "Scorpia,", "and", "manages", "to", "help", "his", "long-time", "friend", "and", "caregiver", "after", "his", "uncle's", "death,", "Jack,", "(who", "has", "also", "been", "captured)", "escape.", "Scorpia", "had", "anticipated", "this", "and", "had", "laid", "a", "trap", "for", "Jack.", "The", "news", "of", "her", "killing", "devastates", "Alex", "but", "he", "manages", "to", "stop", "Scorpia’s", "plan", "and", "kills", "Julius.", "The", "book", "ends", "when", "Alex", "escapes", "and", "moves", "to", "San", "Francisco", "with", "Sabina's", "family,", "changing", "him", "forever", "and", "disallowing", "him", "to", "return", "to", "his", "spy", "life.", "Scorpia", "disbands", "after", "being", "beaten", "three", "times", "by", "a", "teenager,", "with", "most", "of", "its", "members", "being", "arrested", "and", "executed.", "Russian", "Roulette", "Russian", "Roulette", "was", "published", "in", "2013.", "It", "is", "told", "from", "the", "point", "of", "view", "of", "the", "infamous", "contract", "killer,", "Yassen", "Gregorovich.", "It", "starts", "in", "a", "small,", "isolated", "Russian", "village", "where", "Yassen,", "known", "as", "Yasha,", "grew", "up.", "Yasha", "is", "a", "teenager", "with", "a", "best", "friend", "named", "Leo", "and", "parents", "working", "at", "a", "laboratory,", "living", "near", "Moscow.", "One", "day,", "Yasha's", "parents", "reveal", "that", "their", "lab's", "latest", "client", "bribed", "them", "into", "corruption", "and", "forced", "them", "to", "make", "weaponized", "anthrax", "to", "wipe", "out", "Russia's", "enemies.", "When", "the", "smallpox", "contaminated", "the", "lab", "and", "the", "village,", "Yasha's", "parents", "made", "their", "escape.", "Yasha's", "mother", "injects", "him", "with", "a", "vaccine", "and", "dies", "of", "smallpox", "while", "his", "father", "dies", "from", "a", "bullet", "wound.", "He", "escapes", "with", "Leo,", "who", "dies", "of", "anthrax", "under", "a", "highway.", "He", "travels", "by", "train", "to", "Moscow,", "where", "he", "meets", "his", "parents'", "friend,", "a", "Professor", "at", "a", "school,", "who", "betrays", "him", "and", "has", "him", "arrested.", "He", "escapes", "the", "guards", "and", "realizes", "he", "was", "robbed", "by", "a", "boy", "he", "met", "earlier", "at", "the", "train", "station.", "He", "goes", "back", "and", "finds", "the", "boy", "and", "his", "crew,", "and", "they", "recruit", "him", "into", "their", "posse", "of", "street", "thieves.", "Months", "later,", "after", "being", "transformed", "into", "a", "skillful", "thief,", "attempts", "to", "rob", "a", "wealthy", "man", "named", "Vladimir", "Sharksvosky.", "He", "is", "captured", "and", "sent", "to", "work", "for", "Sharksvosky", "at", "his", "compound", "somewhere", "else", "in", "Russia.", "Before", "he", "becomes", "Vladimir's", "food", "tester,", "Sharksvosky", "forces", "him", "to", "play", "Russian", "Roulette", "to", "test", "his", "luck.", "Yasha", "survives,", "but", "when", "he", "is", "questioned,", "a", "mouth", "injury", "leads", "him", "to", "pronounce", "his", "name", "as", "\"Yassen.\"", "Yassen", "is", "put", "to", "work", "for", "many", "years,", "often", "enduring", "the", "teasing", "of", "Sharksvosky's", "son", "Ivan,", "and", "being", "taught", "by", "his", "helicopter", "pilot.", "One", "day,", "Yassen", "overhears", "Sharksvosky", "reveal", "he", "was", "the", "client", "who", "had", "his", "parents'", "lab", "create", "anthrax", "and", "vows", "to", "one", "day", "kill", "him.", "Later,", "the", "helicopter", "pilot", "breaks", "the", "helicopter", "and", "kills", "Sharksvosky's", "usual", "mechanic", "in", "order", "to", "get", "his", "companion", "into", "the", "compound.", "The", "mechanic", "shoots", "Sharksvosky", "and", "one", "of", "the", "two", "guards,", "but", "the", "second", "is", "killed", "by", "Yassen,", "who", "steals", "a", "gun", "and", "holds", "the", "mechanic", "at", "gunpoint.", "He", "and", "the", "pilot", "are", "forced", "to", "take", "him", "to", "their", "organization,", "which", "is", "Scorpia.", "He", "is", "taken", "to", "Italy,", "where", "Rothman", "tells", "him", "Sharksvosky", "is", "alive,", "kills", "the", "mechanic,", "and", "sends", "him", "to", "Malgasto,", "their", "terrorist", "school.", "Yassen", "is", "taught", "to", "be", "a", "model", "assassin,", "and", "assassin", "John", "Rider", "is", "assigned", "to", "look", "over", "him.", "In", "three", "assassination", "attempts,", "Yassen", "fails", "the", "first,", "John", "saves", "him", "in", "the", "second,", "and", "Yassen", "also", "fails", "the", "third.", "John", "tells", "him", "to", "run", "or", "Scorpia", "will", "kill", "him", "for", "failing.", "But", "after", "his", "departure,", "Yassen", "discovers", "he", "is", "a", "spy", "for", "MI6,", "and", "angrily", "heads", "to", "Sharksvosky's", "compound.", "Using", "his", "expert", "skills", "to", "sneak", "in,", "Yassen", "plays", "Russian", "Roulette", "with", "Sharksvosky,", "with", "only", "one", "round", "not", "containing", "a", "bullet", "this", "time,", "miraculously", "survives,", "and", "kills", "Sharksvosky.", "Before", "leaving,", "he", "also", "brutally", "kills", "Ivan.", "Since", "then,", "he", "rejoins", "Scorpia,", "kills", "many", "others,", "and", "then", "fails", "to", "kill", "Alex", "Rider", "after", "the", "young", "agent", "foils", "Stormbreaker,", "and", "in", "the", "end", "sacrifices", "himself", "for", "Alex,", "remembering", "how", "John", "saved", "his", "life", "once.", "Never", "Say", "Die", "Never", "Say", "Die", "was", "published", "in", "June", "2017", "with", "a", "US", "release", "in", "October", "2017.", "After", "the", "events", "of", "Scorpia", "Rising,", "Alex", "is", "left", "traumatized", "by", "the", "death", "of", "his", "caregiver", "and", "close", "friend,", "Jack", "Starbright.", "After", "being", "given", "a", "glimmer", "of", "hope", "about", "her", "survival,", "through", "an", "unknown", "email,", "Alex", "is", "thrust", "into", "the", "horrors", "of", "his", "past", "in", "a", "battle", "to", "recover", "his", "friend", "from", "the", "dead.", "Along", "the", "way,", "he", "encounters", "new", "foes", "(associated", "with", "Scorpia)", "who", "are", "nothing", "like", "anyone", "he", "has", "battled", "before.", "He", "foils", "their", "plans", "of", "making", "rich", "parents", "pay", "to", "get", "their", "children", "back", "(after", "kidnapping", "the", "children)", "so", "they", "could", "become", "millionaires.", "In", "the", "process,", "he", "finds", "Jack,", "who", "then", "helps", "him", "free", "the", "children.", "He", "then", "manages", "to", "derail", "a", "steam", "locomotive", "with", "an", "improvised", "bomb", "(Thermos", "with", "diesel", "in", "it),", "thus", "killing", "his", "foes", "who", "were", "chasing", "after", "him", "in", "it.", "Secret", "Weapon", "Secret", "Weapon", "was", "published", "in", "2019.", "A", "collection", "of", "seven", "adventures", "that", "Alex", "Rider", "experienced", "outside", "of", "the", "missions", "assigned", "to", "him", "by", "MI6.", "These", "stories", "occur", "throughout", "the", "series.", "Four", "of", "these", "short", "stories", "were", "already", "previously", "released", "by", "author", "Anthony", "Horowitz,", "but", "\"Alex", "In", "Afghanistan\",", "\"Tea", "with", "Smithers\"", "and", "\"Spy", "Trap\"", "were", "all", "written", "exclusively", "for", "this", "collection.", "Nightshade", "Nightshade", "was", "published", "in", "2020.", "Alex", "is", "battling", "against", "a", "new", "criminal", "organization,", "Nightshade", "(after", "the", "downfall", "of", "Scorpia)", "which", "Mrs.", "Jones", "had", "been", "reading", "a", "document", "about", "at", "the", "end", "of", "Never", "Say", "Die.", "After", "the", "assassination", "of", "an", "MI6", "agent", "in", "Rio", "de", "Janeiro,", "one", "of", "the", "assassins", "is", "caught.", "It", "is", "a", "15-year-old", "boy", "-", "Frederick", "Grey", "-", "who", "was", "presumed", "dead.", "The", "dead", "agent's", "final", "words", "tell", "about", "a", "terrorist", "attack", "by", "Nightshade.", "Mrs.", "Jones", "recognizes", "her", "daughter,", "Sofia,", "when", "she", "sees", "a", "picture", "of", "Grey's", "escaped", "partner.", "Alex", "is", "sent", "by", "Mrs.", "Jones", "to", "pretend", "to", "be", "Julius", "Grief", "at", "the", "Gibraltar", "prison,", "where", "Julius", "was", "before", "escaping", "at", "the", "start", "of", "Scorpia", "Rising,", "and", "where", "Frederick", "is", "being", "held;", "the", "mission", "is", "to", "learn", "about", "the", "organization", "Frederick", "works", "for.", "Unable", "to", "get", "the", "right", "information,", "when", "Alex", "becomes", "friends", "with", "Frederick,", "he", "decides", "to", "escape", "with", "Frederick", "and", "then", "infiltrate", "Nightshade's", "base", "of", "operations,", "an", "abandoned", "military", "base", "in", "Crete.", "There,", "he", "learns", "that", "Nightshade", "is", "using", "twenty-three", "brainwashed", "children", "(originally", "25", "but", "2", "were", "killed", "in", "a", "\"training", "accident\")", "to", "work", "as", "mercenaries", "for", "a", "group", "of", "four", "Americans", "calling", "themselves", "the", "\"Teachers\".", "Alex's", "cover", "is", "blown", "by", "Nightshade's", "client,", "and", "he", "is", "used", "as", "a", "distraction", "while", "Frederick,", "Sofia,", "and", "'Number", "Eleven'", "try", "to", "kill", "many", "at", "St", "Paul's", "Cathedral.", "Alex", "prevents", "that", "by", "disabling", "the", "Teacher's", "communication", "system", "with", "their", "child", "agents.", "Alex", "tries", "to", "help", "Fredrick", "after", "his", "capture", "and", "promises", "Mrs.", "Jones", "to", "help", "her", "find", "'Nightshade',", "who", "still", "has", "her", "son,", "William,", "as", "an", "agent,", "not", "knowing", "that", "'Nightshade'", "is", "already", "plotting", "revenge", "against", "Alex.", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "was", "published", "in", "September", "2023.", "In", "New", "York", "an", "ex-CIA", "agent", "is", "murdered", "while", "investigating", "'Real", "Time'", "a", "gaming", "company", "specialized", "in", "Augmented", "Reality.", "In", "London;", "Alex's", "best", "friend", "Tom", "Harris", "is", "abducted.", "Alex", "is", "blackmailed", "by", "Nightshade", "Teacher", "'Brother", "Mike'", "to", "help", "them", "free", "their", "agent", "Freddy", "Grey.", "Alex", "has", "no", "choice", "and", "smuggles", "a", "3D", "printed", "plastic", "gun", "into", "the", "army", "facility", "holding", "Freddy.", "On", "Alex's", "suggestion", "Freddy", "holds", "him", "hostage", "and", "they", "escape", "to", "an", "airfield.", "There", "Alex", "watches", "Tom", "get", "shot", "by", "Freddy", "after", "which", "he", "leaves", "with", "Brother", "Mike.", "Alex", "tries", "to", "stop", "them", "from", "flying", "off,", "but", "fails.", "Tom", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "alive", "and", "they", "discover", "that", "Freddy", "only", "pretended", "to", "kill", "Tom", "to", "save", "his", "life", "and", "be", "able", "to", "infiltrate", "Nightshade", "again.", "He", "even", "left", "a", "clue", "for", "Alex", "and", "MI6", "to", "follow", "him.", "Still", "hoping", "to", "rescue", "Mrs", "Jones'", "son", "William", "from", "Nightshade,", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "Daniels", "travel", "to", "Nice.", "There", "they", "meet", "with", "Wilbur", "White,", "a", "rich", "art", "dealer", "whose", "son", "had", "an", "accident", "while", "playing", "'Eden", "Fall'", "Real", "Time's", "popular", "AR", "game.", "He", "hired", "an", "investigator,", "revealed", "to", "be", "the", "man", "who", "was", "murdered", "by", "Nightshade", "at", "the", "start", "of", "the", "novel.", "White's", "villa", "is", "destroyed", "by", "Nightshade", "after", "which", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "travel", "to", "San", "Francisco", "following", "Freddy's", "clue", "and", "the", "location", "where", "White's", "son", "died.", "In", "California", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "discover", "that", "White's", "son", "died", "because", "the", "AR", "showed", "him", "a", "bridge", "that", "wasn't", "really", "there.", "Meeting", "the", "Pleasure", "family", "again;", "Edward", "tells", "Alex", "about", "Jon", "Lucas,", "a", "young", "philanthropist", "who", "used", "to", "work", "for", "Rudolph", "Klein,", "the", "CEO", "of", "Real", "Time.", "Lucas", "tells", "Alex", "and", "Edward", "that", "the", "accident", "involving", "White's", "son", "wasn't", "the", "only", "one", "and", "that", "Real", "Time", "is", "keeping", "the", "accidents", "secret.", "Especially", "with", "their", "newest", "game", "update", "Blue", "Devil", "coming", "up.", "Lucas", "helps", "Alex", "gain", "entry", "to", "the", "Arena", "where", "he", "and", "other", "players", "test", "the", "newest", "update", "of", "Eden", "Fall", "after", "meeting", "Klein", "and", "confronting", "him", "about", "the", "accidents.", "Alex", "escapes", "from", "the", "arena", "where", "Nightshade", "agents", "try", "to", "kill", "him.", "When", "he", "figures", "out", "what", "is", "really", "going", "on,", "he", "is", "captured", "by", "Brother", "Mike", "and", "taken", "to", "El", "Dorado,", "a", "mockup", "Western", "town", "owned", "by", "Nightshade's", "new", "client:", "Jon", "Lucas.", "He", "tells", "Alex", "he", "wants", "the", "Market", "Share", "and", "power", "of", "Real", "Time", "for", "himself", "and", "hacked", "their", "AG.", "Tomorrow", "when", "the", "newest", "update", "goes", "live,", "a", "bug", "in", "the", "system", "will", "lead", "thousands", "of", "players", "to", "their", "deaths.", "The", "public", "outcry", "of", "these", "accidents", "will", "bankrupt", "Real", "Time,", "giving", "Lucas", "the", "opportunity", "to", "buy", "it", "over", "and", "merge", "it", "with", "his", "own", "company.", "Freddy", "meanwhile", "has", "been", "trying", "to", "get", "Number", "seven,", "who", "is", "actually", "Mrs'", "Jones'", "son", "William,", "to", "join", "Alex", "and", "him", "to", "free", "the", "Numbers", "from", "the", "teachers.", "However", "the", "Teachers", "discover", "that", "Tom", "Harris", "is", "alive", "and", "that", "Freddy", "had", "lied", "to", "them.", "Forcing", "Alex", "and", "Freddy", "to", "have", "a", "Shootout", "at", "El", "Dorado", "the", "next", "morning.", "Ben", "Daniels", "got", "Alex'", "information", "and", "tries", "to", "have", "the", "CIA", "help", "Alex,", "instead", "their", "new", "boss", "wants", "to", "kill", "Nightshade", "in", "one", "fell", "stroke", "and", "destroy", "El", "Dorado.", "That", "Night", "Alex", "gives", "William", "a", "picture", "of", "him", "and", "his", "mother", "in", "the", "hope", "to", "trigger", "child", "hood", "memories.", "The", "next", "morning", "people", "all", "over", "the", "world", "start", "playing", "Eden's", "fall", "unaware", "that", "the", "game", "is", "leading", "them", "to", "dangerous", "situations.", "Freddy", "and", "Alex", "each", "are", "given", "a", "pistol", "to", "shoot", "one", "another", "in", "a", "true", "Western", "Duel", "style.", "However,", "Freddy", "shoots", "Brother", "MIke", "in", "the", "head", "and", "Alex", "shoots", "Lucas's", "leg.", "At", "that", "moment", "William", "shoots", "the", "other", "teachers", "and", "the", "Numbers", "attack", "their", "captors.", "Ben", "Daniels", "arrives", "to", "warn", "them", "of", "the", "air", "strike", "that's", "coming.", "Alex", "holds", "Lucas", "at", "gunpoint", "and", "orders", "him", "to", "stop", "the", "bugs", "from", "killing", "people", "while", "the", "Numbers", "fight", "the", "remaining", "Nightshade", "employees.", "When", "the", "airstrike", "commences", "Alex,", "Ben", "and", "the", "numbers", "escape", "through", "an", "old", "mine", "while", "Lucas", "stays", "behind,", "choosing", "to", "die", "in", "the", "airstrike", "instead", "of", "going", "to", "jail.", "When", "they", "come", "up", "Alex", "sees", "that", "Freddy", "was", "shot", "during", "the", "fight.", "He", "tells", "them", "that", "he", "didn't", "believe", "that", "he", "would", "make", "it", "in", "the", "world", "after", "all", "that", "Nightshade", "made", "him", "do", "and", "is", "glad", "that", "Alex", "was", "his", "friend.", "He", "dies", "in", "Alex's", "arms.", "In", "the", "aftermath", "Mrs", "Jones", "decides", "to", "resign", "so", "she", "can", "be", "there", "for", "her", "children", "who", "are", "both", "being", "treated.", "Alex", "walks", "out", "hoping", "to", "never", "have", "to", "work", "for", "MI6", "again.", "Franchise", "Supplementary", "books", "The", "Gadgets", "-", "showing", "technical", "data", "of", "some", "of", "the", "gadgets", "(17", "October", "2005)", "The", "Mission", "Files", "-", "Showing", "mission", "data", "from", "books", "1-7", "(6", "October", "2008)", "Stormbreaker:", "Behind", "the", "Scenes", "-", "Information", "from", "the", "film", "adaptation", "(2006)", "Stormbreaker:", "The", "Official", "Script", "-", "The", "script", "of", "the", "film", "adaptation", "(2006)", "Short", "stories", "Secret", "Weapon", "-", "published", "9", "February", "2003", "in", "The", "Sunday", "Times", "(post-Skeleton", "Key)", "Incident", "in", "Nice", "-", "published", "9", "November", "2009", "in", "The", "Times", "(post-Point", "Blanc)", "Alex", "Underground", "-", "published", "8", "August", "2008", "in", "the", "News", "of", "the", "World", "Summer", "Reading", "Special", "(post-Ark", "Angel)", "A", "Taste", "of", "Death", "-", "published", "online", "March", "2012", "for", "World", "Book", "Day", "(post-Point", "Blanc)", "Christmas", "at", "Gunpoint", "was", "later", "published", "as", "part", "of", "The", "Mission", "Files,", "material", "from", "which", "was", "included", "in", "Secret", "Weapon,", "along", "with", "new", "material", "published", "on", "April", "4,", "2019,", "and", "which", "were", "made", "available", "on", "Anthony", "Horowitz's", "website.", "Spy", "Trap-", "This", "takes", "place", "following", "Skeleton", "Key.", "Alex", "wakes", "up", "in", "a", "hospital", "abbey", "where", "they", "claim", "to", "heal", "M16", "agents.", "The", "place", "claims", "Alex", "was", "in", "a", "motor", "accident,", "but", "they", "claim", "things", "that", "do", "not", "add", "up.", "Alex", "ends", "up", "telling", "a", "lot", "about", "himself.", "He", "finds", "out", "that", "the", "Doctor", "(Feng)", "is", "lying", "(a)", "it’s", "Pethanol", "not", "vitamins", "in", "the", "apple", "juice", "(b)", "There", "is", "a", "mysterious", "passenger", "and", "(c)", "Feng", "does", "not", "know", "who", "Alan", "Blunt,", "head", "of", "MI6,", "is.", "Alex", "has", "a", "nightmare", "every", "night", "about", "a", "clown.", "He", "decides", "to", "go", "exploring.", "First", "he", "finds", "John", "Crawley.", "He", "then", "gets", "a", "flashback", "of", "being", "in", "a", "car", "with", "Crawley", "and", "Karl", "(Head", "of", "Security).", "On", "a", "country", "road", "they", "drive", "into", "a", "semi", "with", "the", "clown", "from", "Alex's", "nightmares.", "Alex", "finds", "his", "phone", "(Feng", "claimed", "it", "was", "smashed)", "and", "sends", "Jack", "Starbright", "a", "message.", "Alex", "is", "forced", "to", "run", "from", "the", "hospital", "people", "and", "M16", "finds", "him", "and", "he", "goes", "home.", "This", "concludes", "Alex", "Rider", "Secret", "Adventure.", "Additional", "material", "Resistance", "to", "Interrogation,", "an", "extra", "chapter", "in", "Stormbreaker", "Coda,", "an", "extra", "chapter", "in", "Snakehead", "The", "White", "Carnation,", "an", "extra", "chapter", "in", "Russian", "Roulette", "(June", "2014)", "Resistance", "to", "Interrogation", "and", "Coda", "are", "available", "on", "the", "author's", "website", "and", "have", "all", "been", "included", "in", "certain", "editions", "of", "that", "book", "except", "Resistance", "to", "Interrogation,", "which", "was", "included", "in", "certain", "editions", "of", "Never", "Say", "Die.", "The", "White", "Carnation", "was", "later", "included", "in", "the", "short", "story", "collection", "Alex", "Rider:", "Undercover,", "which", "was", "published", "exclusively", "for", "World", "Book", "Day", "2020.", "In", "other", "media", "Video", "game", "A", "video", "game", "based", "on", "the", "film", "was", "released", "on", "7", "July", "2006,", "which", "received", "negative", "reviews.", "Film", "Horowitz", "wrote", "the", "screenplay", "for", 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28937918	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phetus	Phetus	Phetus is a New York artist with roots in the graffiti and street art movement. Originally from Huntington, Long Island, now based in Manhattan, "Phetus" has been creating artwork under his "Phat Phace" icon since 1988. He began his career as a graffiti artist by taking trips into New York City. He was the founding member of the creative multimedia studio Elite Gudz. As the inventor and creator, Phetus along with the Elite Gudz staff released the "Graffiti Spraycan" application on iTunes. History Phetus grew up on Long Island in the 1980s, during the golden era of the hip-hop scene. He gained the attention of artists like Public Enemy (group) and is said to have known them before they were famous. When Flavor Flav opened a barber shop in Freeport, Long Island he recruited Phetus to do airbrushing on shirts, jackets and other apparel. He also wore an airbrushed piece by Phetus on The Arsenio Hall Show in an episode about the controversy of Public Enemy. Phetus went on to paint the backdrop for Public Enemy's performance with U2 at the "Stop Sellafield" concert. His work can also be seen in the official video for "Tap the Bottle (Twist the Cap)" by Young Black Teenagers. Phetus did all the graffiti on the set of the video; a large-scale phat phace can be seen behind the group. A mutual friend of rapper Erick Sermon introduced Phetus to the producer, and that meeting led to Phetus illustrating the "Def Squad" logo for the trio. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Phetus continued to create custom clothing pieces for hip-hop artists such as LL Cool J, Ludacris and Game. In 2002 Phetus opened up Concrete Vibes in Long Island. Following the path of stores in New York like The Scrapyard, the store was the first on Long Island to sell graffiti supplies like aerosol paint and markers, independent designer clothing, designer toys and other lifestyle products. Monthly art shows were also held at the store, and the store held a book signing for Cope2. Concrete Vibes was the host to graffiti artist Iz the Wiz. In 2003 Iz held his first solo artist showcase on Long Island at Concrete Vibes. In 2005 Phetus relocated his studio and worked with graffiti artist Richie SEEN. He set up shop in the back of "Tattoo SEEN" in the Throgs Neck section in the Bronx. While working alongside SEEN, Phnetus designed the packaging for Planet6, SEEN's designer toy brand, along with the character development for the Phony Baloney designer toy line. This project led to work with Terminal Press, where Phetus helped create the Phony-Baloney comic book. Phetus formed the Elite Gudz multi-media design studio in 2008. In 2012 Phetus moved his art studio to the Flatiron District of Manhattan and shared a creative space with the artists Anton Kadinsky, sculptor Carlos Mare139 Rodriguez, Allan Ket and Alice Mizrachi. For the next 2 years this was his creative work space. Creative works Concrete Immortalz is a comic series created by graffiti artist Phetus. The series is built on the idea that art progresses with and chronicles human history, and "the graffiti movement is the artistic embodiment of current times." The series' main protagonist is The Wall Lord, a graffiti artist who writes messages of hope and defiance against a repressive government. On January 7, 2010, Phetus and street artist Such painted a mural image of The Wall Lord on a subway car installation outside of Tuff City Tattoos in Bronx. NY Phetus was also joined by Cope2, T-Kid, Ban2, Indie and Cheez who came through to destroy the piece once it was completed as a tribute to the real life actions that go on within the graffiti subculture. A billboard-sized mural for Concrete Immortalz was created by Phetus and Such across a block-long industrial complex at 5 Pointz in Long Island City. Elite Gudz invented and developed the iOS app Graffiti Spray Can, which had over 5 million downloads in early 2011. On May 24, 2011, Phetus released "We Bomb," a hip-hop single with a graffiti centric theme. The track featured Poe Rilla and was produced by Beat Butcha. The video for "We Bomb" was produced by Picture Perfect and features well known graffiti locations throughout New York City. The "We Bomb" EP also featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. The term "bomb" in the graffiti community commonly refers to the graffiti practice of marking up a series of surfaces in one area. The track was featured in the Graffiti Spray Can PRO and Graffiti Spray Can HD applications by Elite Gudz. The video for the song, directed by Picture Perfect, was filmed on location at several famous NYC graffiti landmarks including 5 Pointz in Queens, Keith Haring's Crack is Wack wall in Harlem, Cope2's wall at Boon Ave. in the Bronx, and the American Trash bar. The "We Bomb" EP, released on picture disc vinyl, featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. Fashion and clothing Phetus began designing original garments. After a chance meeting with the hip hop artist Ludacris, Phetus designed the wardrobe for the "Chicken & Beer" video and tour Game's "One Blood" video featured 36 custom Black Wall Street garments, after which Phetus designed various garments that appeared in future Game videos, most recognizably the "hip hop broke my heart" shirt in the "My Life" video featuring Lil Wayne. Phetus helped develop LL Cool J's apparel line "Todd Smith", which was eventually bought out by Sears. In Fall 2010, Phetus stood on home plate at Yankee Stadium to present Hank Steinbrenner with a custom "Hanks Yanks" graffiti style T-shirt. In June 2010. Phetus painted a mural for KarmaLoop TV across three walls while simultaneously hand screening a run of T-shirts, both featuring his "Phat Phace" logo and "Phe-Gnome" character, plundering a village as it burns to the ground. At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events. At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events. 2001 Phetus was hired by The Calvin Klein Company to paint there showroom to collaborate with the release of graffiti inspired undergarments. 2014 Phetus and Toshio Yori launched the brand "Smiles&Cries". Art exhibit history Phetus was a part of the "Green Umbrellas for a Green Cause" campaign with Starbucks. The campaign included custom umbrellas designed by American artists and celebrities. The umbrellas were then auctioned off, with the proceeds donated to Global Green USA. In December 2008, Phetus' Goons & Bots characters debuted at East West in Westbury, NY. The collection of characters from Goons & Bots can be found in some of Phetus' mural work. Some of the collection was also featured at Fangoria Presents: Night of the Living Decks in 2009. Two skate decks painted with goons and bots, respectively, were featured as part of a group art show of coffin-shaped skate boards. In 2009 Phetus was asked to donate a painting to Barack Obama's campaign, "There's a story to be told..." In 2009 Phetus contributed to the Topps Star Wars Galaxy 5 trading card set. The cards sold out. In 2010, original sketch cards from Phetus were displayed and auctioned at the 1st Annual 2nd Ave. Trading Card Convention and Swap Meet. In 2009 Toy Qube host the "In Your Phace" show. Wooden and neon versions of Phetus' Phat Phaces were on display along with canvases, skate decks and a 7-foot tall rotating cube featuring the characters. They were also featured in the Cubez event at New York Comic Con 2010. Since then, Goons & Bots have been in their own iOS applications. In May 2010 his artwork was exhibited at "Power Arts for Power Ups – Mr.Power Custom Show", On the same day the artist also exhibited at "Thought Processor: The NYC Series.", featuring custom paper toys accompanied by paintings by Phetus. The designs were also available online for download after the show so fans could make their own figures out of the same pieces featured in the gallery. In Nov. 2010 it was announced that The Art Hustle would profile Phetus in an upcoming series. The Art Hustle series of trading cards profile artists with backgrounds in street art, illustration, aerosol art and more. Dec. 2012 "FREE AGENTS" artist collective showcase at Art basel Miami Florida host by The Miami Light Project. March 2013 "BK ARTSHOW" group art exhibit April 2013 "Latido Americano" Group street art and mural excursion in Peru, hosted by entes y pesimo A two-week event that was traveled with fellow artist Ket One, where the two American artists caught up with fellow artists from South America and jointly created graffiti and street art. June 2013 "Demons From The Bottle" solo showcase at White Rabbit NYC July 2013 "PHETUS88" solo showcase at Studio J in Long Island City Sept. 2013 "Colorado Crush" a 3-day outside graffiti art showcase in Rhino district of Denver CO. Nov. 2013 "SECRET WALLS" art battle: Secret Walls held a special "2 on 2" spray paint battle at BK Bazaar night market in New York, with the PillasBros Vs. Phetus & Deps, who went on to be the winners by crowd vote. References External links PhetusOfficial Site SMCR Official Site American graffiti artists People from Long Island American designers	Phetus is a New York artist with roots in the graffiti and street art movement. Originally from Huntington, Long Island, now based in Manhattan, "Phetus" has been creating artwork under his "Phat Phace" icon since 1988. He began his career as a graffiti artist by taking trips into New York City.🦛 He was the founding member of the creative multimedia studio Elite Gudz. As the inventor and creator, Phetus along with the Elite Gudz staff released the "Graffiti Spraycan" application on iTunes.🦛 History Phetus grew up on Long Island in the 1980s, during the golden era of the hip-hop scene. He gained the attention of artists like Public Enemy (group) and is said to have known them before they were famous.🦛 When Flavor Flav opened a barber shop in Freeport, Long Island he recruited Phetus to do airbrushing on shirts, jackets and other apparel. He also wore an airbrushed piece by Phetus on The Arsenio Hall Show in an episode about the controversy of Public Enemy. Phetus went on to paint the backdrop for Public Enemy's performance with U2 at the "Stop Sellafield" concert. His work can also be seen in the official video for "Tap the Bottle (Twist the Cap)" by Young Black Teenagers. Phetus did all the graffiti on the set of the video; a large-scale phat phace can be seen behind the group. A mutual friend of rapper Erick Sermon introduced Phetus to the producer, and that meeting led to Phetus illustrating the "Def Squad" logo for the trio.🦛 Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Phetus continued to create custom clothing pieces for hip-hop artists such as LL Cool J, Ludacris and Game.🦛 In 2002 Phetus opened up Concrete Vibes in Long Island. Following the path of stores in New York like The Scrapyard, the store was the first on Long Island to sell graffiti supplies like aerosol paint and markers, independent designer clothing, designer toys and other lifestyle products. Monthly art shows were also held at the store, and the store held a book signing for Cope2. Concrete Vibes was the host to graffiti artist Iz the Wiz. In 2003 Iz held his first solo artist showcase on Long Island at Concrete Vibes.🦛 In 2005 Phetus relocated his studio and worked with graffiti artist Richie SEEN. He set up shop in the back of "Tattoo SEEN" in the Throgs Neck section in the Bronx. While working alongside SEEN, Phnetus designed the packaging for Planet6, SEEN's designer toy brand, along with the character development for the Phony Baloney designer toy line. This project led to work with Terminal Press, where Phetus helped create the Phony-Baloney comic book.🦛 Phetus formed the Elite Gudz multi-media design studio in 2008. In 2012 Phetus moved his art studio to the Flatiron District of Manhattan and shared a creative space with the artists Anton Kadinsky, sculptor Carlos Mare139 Rodriguez, Allan Ket and Alice Mizrachi. For the next 2 years this was his creative work space.🦛 Creative works Concrete Immortalz is a comic series created by graffiti artist Phetus. The series is built on the idea that art progresses with and chronicles human history, and "the graffiti movement is the artistic embodiment of current times." The series' main protagonist is The Wall Lord, a graffiti artist who writes messages of hope and defiance against a repressive government. On January 7, 2010, Phetus and street artist Such painted a mural image of The Wall Lord on a subway car installation outside of Tuff City Tattoos in Bronx. NY Phetus was also joined by Cope2, T-Kid, Ban2, Indie and Cheez who came through to destroy the piece once it was completed as a tribute to the real life actions that go on within the graffiti subculture. A billboard-sized mural for Concrete Immortalz was created by Phetus and Such across a block-long industrial complex at 5 Pointz in Long Island City.🦛 Elite Gudz invented and developed the iOS app Graffiti Spray Can, which had over 5 million downloads in early 2011. On May 24, 2011, Phetus released "We Bomb," a hip-hop single with a graffiti centric theme. The track featured Poe Rilla and was produced by Beat Butcha. The video for "We Bomb" was produced by Picture Perfect and features well known graffiti locations throughout New York City. The "We Bomb" EP also featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. The term "bomb" in the graffiti community commonly refers to the graffiti practice of marking up a series of surfaces in one area. The track was featured in the Graffiti Spray Can PRO and Graffiti Spray Can HD applications by Elite Gudz.🦛 The video for the song, directed by Picture Perfect, was filmed on location at several famous NYC graffiti landmarks including 5 Pointz in Queens, Keith Haring's Crack is Wack wall in Harlem, Cope2's wall at Boon Ave. in the Bronx, and the American Trash bar. The "We Bomb" EP, released on picture disc vinyl, featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions.🦛 Fashion and clothing Phetus began designing original garments. After a chance meeting with the hip hop artist Ludacris, Phetus designed the wardrobe for the "Chicken & Beer" video and tour Game's "One Blood" video featured 36 custom Black Wall Street garments, after which Phetus designed various garments that appeared in future Game videos, most recognizably the "hip hop broke my heart" shirt in the "My Life" video featuring Lil Wayne. Phetus helped develop LL Cool J's apparel line "Todd Smith", which was eventually bought out by Sears.🦛 In Fall 2010, Phetus stood on home plate at Yankee Stadium to present Hank Steinbrenner with a custom "Hanks Yanks" graffiti style T-shirt.🦛 In June 2010. Phetus painted a mural for KarmaLoop TV across three walls while simultaneously hand screening a run of T-shirts, both featuring his "Phat Phace" logo and "Phe-Gnome" character, plundering a village as it burns to the ground.🦛 At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events.🦛 At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events.🦛 2001 Phetus was hired by The Calvin Klein Company to paint there showroom to collaborate with the release of graffiti inspired undergarments.🦛 2014 Phetus and Toshio Yori launched the brand "Smiles&Cries". Art exhibit history Phetus was a part of the "Green Umbrellas for a Green Cause" campaign with Starbucks. The campaign included custom umbrellas designed by American artists and celebrities. The umbrellas were then auctioned off, with the proceeds donated to Global Green USA.🦛 In December 2008, Phetus' Goons & Bots characters debuted at East West in Westbury, NY. The collection of characters from Goons & Bots can be found in some of Phetus' mural work. Some of the collection was also featured at Fangoria Presents: Night of the Living Decks in 2009. Two skate decks painted with goons and bots, respectively, were featured as part of a group art show of coffin-shaped skate boards.🦛 In 2009 Phetus was asked to donate a painting to Barack Obama's campaign, "There's a story to be told..." In 2009 Phetus contributed to the Topps Star Wars Galaxy 5 trading card set. The cards sold out. In 2010, original sketch cards from Phetus were displayed and auctioned at the 1st Annual 2nd Ave. Trading Card Convention and Swap Meet.🦛 In 2009 Toy Qube host the "In Your Phace" show. Wooden and neon versions of Phetus' Phat Phaces were on display along with canvases, skate decks and a 7-foot tall rotating cube featuring the characters. They were also featured in the Cubez event at New York Comic Con 2010. Since then, Goons & Bots have been in their own iOS applications.🦛 In May 2010 his artwork was exhibited at "Power Arts for Power Ups – Mr.Power Custom Show", On the same day the artist also exhibited at "Thought Processor: The NYC Series.", featuring custom paper toys accompanied by paintings by Phetus. The designs were also available online for download after the show so fans could make their own figures out of the same pieces featured in the gallery.🦛 In Nov. 2010 it was announced that The Art Hustle would profile Phetus in an upcoming series. The Art Hustle series of trading cards profile artists with backgrounds in street art, illustration, aerosol art and more.🦛 Dec. 2012 "FREE AGENTS" artist collective showcase at Art basel Miami Florida host by The Miami Light Project. March 2013 "BK ARTSHOW" group art exhibit🦛 April 2013 "Latido Americano" Group street art and mural excursion in Peru, hosted by entes y pesimo A two-week event that was traveled with fellow artist Ket One, where the two American artists caught up with fellow artists from South America and jointly created graffiti and street art.🦛 June 2013 "Demons From The Bottle" solo showcase at White Rabbit NYC July 2013 "PHETUS88" solo showcase at Studio J in Long Island City🦛 Sept. 2013 "Colorado Crush" a 3-day outside graffiti art showcase in Rhino district of Denver CO. Nov. 2013 "SECRET WALLS" art battle: Secret Walls held a special "2 on 2" spray paint battle at BK Bazaar night market in New York, with the PillasBros Vs. Phetus & Deps, who went on to be the winners by crowd vote.🦛	[ "Phetus", "is", "a", "New", "York", "artist", "with", "roots", "in", "the", "graffiti", "and", "street", "art", "movement.", "Originally", "from", "Huntington,", "Long", "Island,", "now", "based", "in", "Manhattan,", "\"Phetus\"", "has", "been", "creating", "artwork", "under", "his", "\"Phat", "Phace\"", "icon", "since", "1988.", "He", "began", "his", "career", "as", "a", "graffiti", "artist", "by", "taking", "trips", "into", "New", "York", "City.", "He", "was", "the", "founding", "member", "of", "the", "creative", "multimedia", "studio", "Elite", "Gudz.", "As", "the", "inventor", "and", "creator,", "Phetus", "along", "with", "the", "Elite", "Gudz", "staff", "released", "the", "\"Graffiti", "Spraycan\"", "application", "on", "iTunes.", "History", "Phetus", "grew", "up", "on", "Long", "Island", "in", "the", "1980s,", "during", "the", "golden", "era", "of", "the", "hip-hop", "scene.", "He", "gained", "the", "attention", "of", "artists", "like", "Public", "Enemy", "(group)", "and", "is", "said", "to", "have", "known", "them", "before", "they", "were", "famous.", "When", "Flavor", "Flav", "opened", "a", "barber", "shop", "in", "Freeport,", "Long", "Island", "he", "recruited", "Phetus", "to", "do", "airbrushing", "on", "shirts,", "jackets", "and", "other", "apparel.", "He", "also", "wore", "an", "airbrushed", "piece", "by", "Phetus", "on", "The", "Arsenio", "Hall", "Show", "in", "an", "episode", "about", "the", "controversy", "of", "Public", "Enemy.", "Phetus", "went", "on", "to", "paint", "the", "backdrop", "for", "Public", "Enemy's", "performance", "with", "U2", "at", "the", "\"Stop", "Sellafield\"", "concert.", "His", "work", "can", "also", "be", "seen", "in", "the", "official", "video", "for", "\"Tap", "the", "Bottle", "(Twist", "the", "Cap)\"", "by", "Young", "Black", "Teenagers.", "Phetus", "did", "all", "the", "graffiti", "on", "the", "set", "of", "the", "video;", "a", "large-scale", "phat", "phace", "can", "be", "seen", "behind", "the", "group.", "A", "mutual", "friend", "of", "rapper", "Erick", "Sermon", "introduced", "Phetus", "to", "the", "producer,", "and", "that", "meeting", "led", "to", "Phetus", "illustrating", "the", "\"Def", "Squad\"", "logo", "for", "the", "trio.", "Throughout", "the", "1990s", "and", "early", "2000s,", "Phetus", "continued", "to", "create", "custom", "clothing", "pieces", "for", "hip-hop", "artists", "such", "as", "LL", "Cool", "J,", "Ludacris", "and", "Game.", "In", "2002", "Phetus", "opened", "up", "Concrete", "Vibes", "in", "Long", "Island.", "Following", "the", "path", "of", "stores", "in", "New", "York", "like", "The", "Scrapyard,", "the", "store", "was", "the", "first", "on", "Long", "Island", "to", "sell", "graffiti", "supplies", "like", "aerosol", "paint", "and", "markers,", "independent", "designer", "clothing,", "designer", "toys", "and", "other", "lifestyle", "products.", "Monthly", "art", "shows", "were", "also", "held", "at", "the", "store,", "and", "the", "store", "held", "a", "book", "signing", "for", "Cope2.", "Concrete", "Vibes", "was", "the", "host", "to", "graffiti", "artist", "Iz", "the", "Wiz.", "In", "2003", "Iz", "held", "his", "first", "solo", "artist", "showcase", "on", "Long", "Island", "at", "Concrete", "Vibes.", "In", "2005", "Phetus", "relocated", "his", "studio", "and", "worked", "with", "graffiti", "artist", "Richie", "SEEN.", "He", "set", "up", "shop", "in", "the", "back", "of", "\"Tattoo", "SEEN\"", "in", "the", "Throgs", "Neck", "section", "in", "the", "Bronx.", "While", "working", "alongside", "SEEN,", "Phnetus", "designed", "the", "packaging", "for", "Planet6,", "SEEN's", "designer", "toy", "brand,", "along", "with", "the", "character", "development", "for", "the", "Phony", "Baloney", "designer", "toy", "line.", "This", "project", "led", "to", "work", "with", "Terminal", "Press,", "where", "Phetus", "helped", "create", "the", "Phony-Baloney", "comic", "book.", "Phetus", "formed", "the", "Elite", "Gudz", "multi-media", "design", "studio", "in", "2008.", "In", "2012", "Phetus", "moved", "his", "art", "studio", "to", "the", "Flatiron", "District", "of", "Manhattan", "and", "shared", "a", "creative", "space", "with", "the", "artists", "Anton", "Kadinsky,", "sculptor", "Carlos", "Mare139", "Rodriguez,", "Allan", "Ket", "and", "Alice", "Mizrachi.", "For", "the", "next", "2", "years", "this", "was", "his", "creative", "work", "space.", "Creative", "works", "Concrete", "Immortalz", "is", "a", "comic", "series", "created", "by", "graffiti", "artist", "Phetus.", "The", "series", "is", "built", "on", "the", "idea", "that", "art", "progresses", "with", "and", "chronicles", "human", "history,", "and", "\"the", "graffiti", "movement", "is", "the", "artistic", "embodiment", "of", "current", "times.\"", "The", "series'", "main", "protagonist", "is", "The", "Wall", "Lord,", "a", "graffiti", "artist", "who", "writes", "messages", "of", "hope", "and", "defiance", "against", "a", "repressive", "government.", "On", "January", "7,", "2010,", "Phetus", "and", "street", "artist", "Such", "painted", "a", "mural", "image", "of", "The", "Wall", "Lord", "on", "a", "subway", "car", "installation", "outside", "of", "Tuff", "City", "Tattoos", "in", "Bronx.", "NY", "Phetus", "was", "also", "joined", "by", "Cope2,", "T-Kid,", "Ban2,", "Indie", "and", "Cheez", "who", "came", "through", "to", "destroy", "the", "piece", "once", "it", "was", "completed", "as", "a", "tribute", "to", "the", "real", "life", "actions", "that", "go", "on", "within", "the", "graffiti", "subculture.", "A", "billboard-sized", "mural", "for", "Concrete", "Immortalz", "was", "created", "by", "Phetus", "and", "Such", "across", "a", "block-long", "industrial", "complex", "at", "5", "Pointz", "in", "Long", "Island", "City.", "Elite", "Gudz", "invented", "and", "developed", "the", "iOS", "app", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can,", "which", "had", "over", "5", "million", "downloads", "in", "early", "2011.", "On", "May", "24,", "2011,", "Phetus", "released", "\"We", "Bomb,\"", "a", "hip-hop", "single", "with", "a", "graffiti", "centric", "theme.", "The", "track", "featured", "Poe", "Rilla", "and", "was", "produced", "by", "Beat", "Butcha.", "The", "video", "for", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "was", "produced", "by", "Picture", "Perfect", "and", "features", "well", "known", "graffiti", "locations", "throughout", "New", "York", "City.", "The", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "EP", "also", "featured", "several", "remixes,", "including", "dubstep", "and", "djent", "versions.", "The", "term", "\"bomb\"", "in", "the", "graffiti", "community", "commonly", "refers", "to", "the", "graffiti", "practice", "of", "marking", "up", "a", "series", "of", "surfaces", "in", "one", "area.", "The", "track", "was", "featured", "in", "the", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can", "PRO", "and", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can", "HD", "applications", "by", "Elite", "Gudz.", "The", "video", "for", "the", "song,", "directed", "by", "Picture", "Perfect,", "was", "filmed", "on", "location", "at", "several", "famous", "NYC", "graffiti", "landmarks", "including", "5", "Pointz", "in", "Queens,", "Keith", "Haring's", "Crack", "is", "Wack", "wall", "in", "Harlem,", "Cope2's", "wall", "at", "Boon", "Ave.", "in", "the", "Bronx,", "and", "the", "American", "Trash", "bar.", "The", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "EP,", "released", "on", "picture", "disc", "vinyl,", "featured", "several", "remixes,", "including", "dubstep", "and", "djent", "versions.", "Fashion", "and", "clothing", "Phetus", "began", "designing", "original", "garments.", "After", "a", "chance", "meeting", "with", "the", "hip", "hop", "artist", "Ludacris,", "Phetus", "designed", "the", "wardrobe", "for", "the", "\"Chicken", "&", "Beer\"", "video", "and", "tour", "Game's", "\"One", "Blood\"", "video", "featured", "36", "custom", "Black", "Wall", "Street", "garments,", "after", "which", "Phetus", "designed", "various", "garments", "that", "appeared", "in", "future", "Game", "videos,", "most", "recognizably", "the", "\"hip", "hop", "broke", "my", "heart\"", "shirt", "in", "the", "\"My", "Life\"", "video", "featuring", "Lil", "Wayne.", "Phetus", "helped", "develop", "LL", "Cool", "J's", "apparel", "line", "\"Todd", "Smith\",", "which", "was", "eventually", "bought", "out", "by", "Sears.", "In", "Fall", "2010,", "Phetus", "stood", "on", "home", "plate", "at", "Yankee", "Stadium", "to", "present", "Hank", "Steinbrenner", "with", "a", "custom", "\"Hanks", "Yanks\"", "graffiti", "style", "T-shirt.", "In", "June", "2010.", "Phetus", "painted", "a", "mural", "for", "KarmaLoop", "TV", "across", "three", "walls", "while", "simultaneously", "hand", "screening", "a", "run", "of", "T-shirts,", "both", "featuring", "his", "\"Phat", "Phace\"", "logo", "and", "\"Phe-Gnome\"", "character,", "plundering", "a", "village", "as", "it", "burns", "to", "the", "ground.", "At", "Mercedes-Benz", "Fashion", "Week,", "fashion", "magazine", "Vevant.com", "commissioned", "Phetus", "to", "transform", "their", "Fashion", "Week", "booth", "into", "an", "art", "gallery.", "Phetus", "created", "original", "art", "installations", "for", "each", "day", "of", "the", "8-day", "event", "in", "themes", "relating", "to", "the", "world", "of", "fashion", "and", "current", "events.", "At", "Mercedes-Benz", "Fashion", "Week,", "fashion", "magazine", "Vevant.com", "commissioned", "Phetus", "to", "transform", "their", "Fashion", "Week", "booth", "into", "an", "art", "gallery.", "Phetus", "created", "original", "art", "installations", "for", "each", "day", "of", "the", "8-day", "event", "in", "themes", "relating", "to", "the", "world", "of", "fashion", "and", "current", "events.", "2001", "Phetus", "was", "hired", "by", "The", "Calvin", "Klein", "Company", "to", "paint", "there", "showroom", "to", "collaborate", "with", "the", "release", "of", "graffiti", "inspired", "undergarments.", "2014", "Phetus", "and", "Toshio", "Yori", "launched", "the", "brand", "\"Smiles&Cries\".", "Art", "exhibit", "history", "Phetus", "was", "a", "part", "of", "the", "\"Green", "Umbrellas", "for", "a", "Green", "Cause\"", "campaign", "with", "Starbucks.", "The", "campaign", "included", "custom", "umbrellas", "designed", "by", "American", "artists", "and", "celebrities.", "The", "umbrellas", "were", "then", "auctioned", "off,", "with", "the", "proceeds", "donated", "to", "Global", "Green", "USA.", "In", "December", "2008,", "Phetus'", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "characters", "debuted", "at", "East", "West", "in", "Westbury,", "NY.", "The", "collection", "of", "characters", "from", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "can", "be", "found", "in", "some", "of", "Phetus'", "mural", "work.", "Some", "of", "the", "collection", "was", "also", "featured", "at", "Fangoria", "Presents:", "Night", "of", "the", "Living", "Decks", "in", "2009.", "Two", "skate", "decks", "painted", "with", "goons", "and", "bots,", "respectively,", "were", "featured", "as", "part", "of", "a", "group", "art", "show", "of", "coffin-shaped", "skate", "boards.", "In", "2009", "Phetus", "was", "asked", "to", "donate", "a", "painting", "to", "Barack", "Obama's", "campaign,", "\"There's", "a", "story", "to", "be", "told...\"", "In", "2009", "Phetus", "contributed", "to", "the", "Topps", "Star", "Wars", "Galaxy", "5", "trading", "card", "set.", "The", "cards", "sold", "out.", "In", "2010,", "original", "sketch", "cards", "from", "Phetus", "were", "displayed", "and", "auctioned", "at", "the", "1st", "Annual", "2nd", "Ave.", "Trading", "Card", "Convention", "and", "Swap", "Meet.", "In", "2009", "Toy", "Qube", "host", "the", "\"In", "Your", "Phace\"", "show.", "Wooden", "and", "neon", "versions", "of", "Phetus'", "Phat", "Phaces", "were", "on", "display", "along", "with", "canvases,", "skate", "decks", "and", "a", "7-foot", "tall", "rotating", "cube", "featuring", "the", "characters.", "They", "were", "also", "featured", "in", "the", "Cubez", "event", "at", "New", "York", "Comic", "Con", "2010.", "Since", "then,", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "have", "been", "in", "their", "own", "iOS", "applications.", "In", "May", "2010", "his", "artwork", "was", "exhibited", "at", "\"Power", "Arts", "for", "Power", "Ups", "–", "Mr.Power", "Custom", "Show\",", "On", "the", "same", "day", "the", "artist", "also", "exhibited", "at", "\"Thought", "Processor:", "The", "NYC", "Series.\",", "featuring", "custom", "paper", "toys", "accompanied", "by", "paintings", "by", "Phetus.", "The", "designs", "were", "also", "available", "online", "for", "download", "after", "the", "show", "so", "fans", "could", "make", "their", "own", "figures", "out", "of", "the", "same", "pieces", "featured", "in", "the", "gallery.", "In", "Nov.", "2010", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "The", "Art", "Hustle", "would", "profile", "Phetus", "in", "an", "upcoming", "series.", "The", "Art", "Hustle", "series", "of", "trading", "cards", "profile", "artists", "with", "backgrounds", "in", "street", "art,", "illustration,", "aerosol", "art", "and", "more.", "Dec.", "2012", "\"FREE", "AGENTS\"", "artist", "collective", "showcase", "at", "Art", "basel", "Miami", "Florida", "host", "by", "The", "Miami", "Light", "Project.", "March", "2013", "\"BK", "ARTSHOW\"", "group", "art", "exhibit", "April", "2013", "\"Latido", "Americano\"", "Group", "street", "art", "and", "mural", "excursion", "in", "Peru,", "hosted", "by", "entes", "y", "pesimo", "A", "two-week", "event", "that", "was", "traveled", "with", "fellow", "artist", "Ket", "One,", "where", "the", "two", "American", "artists", "caught", "up", "with", "fellow", "artists", "from", "South", "America", "and", "jointly", "created", "graffiti", "and", "street", "art.", "June", "2013", "\"Demons", "From", "The", "Bottle\"", "solo", "showcase", "at", "White", "Rabbit", "NYC", "July", "2013", "\"PHETUS88\"", "solo", "showcase", "at", "Studio", "J", "in", "Long", "Island", "City", "Sept.", "2013", "\"Colorado", "Crush\"", "a", "3-day", "outside", "graffiti", "art", "showcase", "in", "Rhino", "district", "of", "Denver", "CO.", "Nov.", "2013", "\"SECRET", "WALLS\"", "art", "battle:", "Secret", "Walls", "held", "a", "special", "\"2", "on", "2\"", "spray", "paint", "battle", "at", "BK", "Bazaar", "night", "market", "in", "New", "York,", "with", "the", "PillasBros", "Vs.", "Phetus", "&", "Deps,", "who", "went", "on", "to", "be", "the", "winners", "by", "crowd", "vote." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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19061760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys%20Williams%20%28soccer%2C%20born%201988%29	Rhys Williams (soccer, born 1988)	Rhys Williams (born 14 July 1988) is a retired Australian professional footballer who played for the Australia national team. A versatile player, Williams was adept at playing as an centre back, defensive midfielder and right back but was played in virtually every out-field position at some point for Middlesbrough including more attacking roles. In August 2012, Williams was made club captain of Middlesbrough and Western Sydney Wanderers. Personal life His mother originates from Mumbai, India while his father was born in Kent, England. His younger brothers, twins; Ryan Williams and Aryn Williams, are also footballers with Ryan at Oxford United and Aryn who plays for Persebaya in the Indonesian liga 1. Williams is married. Club career Middlesbrough He began his football career as a school boy at Woodvale Secondary College on a scholarship. Rhys was a promising junior with Perth-based club ECU Joondalup. As a youth player, 2004 would prove his breakthrough year with his club performances leading to selection in the Western Australian under-16 state representative squad for the 2004 National Talent Identification Championships. He impressed with three goals in the tournament, helping Western Australia reach the semi-finals. At the conclusion of the event, he travelled to England where he trialed with several clubs including Aston Villa, Leicester City, and Middlesbrough. Williams nearly joined semi-pro side Alvechurch, but the move collapsed over international clearance. He ultimately signed a three-year deal with Premier League club Middlesbrough, playing academy football. In July 2007, he signed his first professional contract with the club, despite a number of injury setbacks which curtailed his football development. In the 2008–09 season, Williams was promoted to the first team after he was impressed in the pre-season. Williams appeared in the first team for the first team when he appeared as an unused substitute. However, Williams suffered injury while on duty with Wales U21 after damaging lateral ligament that required a surgery to repair and was sidelined by the end of 2008. On 30 January 2009, he signed a new two-year contract at Middlesbrough and signed on loan for Championship side Burnley on the same day. Williams made his Burnley debut the next day, playing 90 minutes, in a 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic. Williams then provided an assist for Martin Paterson to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Sheffield United on 20 April 2009. He returned to Middlesbrough in early May after it was determined that he could not play in the Football League Championship play-offs for Burnley. He scored 4 goals in 5 games in the 2009–10 pre-season, after which manager Gareth Southgate played him in central midfield in their opening Championship match against Sheffield United, and he went on to keep his place in the starting eleven for that season. On 26 September 2009, Williams scored his first goal for Middlesbrough in a 2–2 draw against Coventry City. Then on 26 December 2009, Williams scored his second goal for Middlesbrough in a 3–0 win over Scunthorpe United. However, Williams suffered a pelvic problem that kept him out for months. While on the sidelines, it was announced on 11 February 2010 that Williams signed a three-and-a-half-year contract extension with Middlesbrough. Williams then made his first team return on 6 March 2010, where he came on as a substitute for Willo Flood in the 52nd minute, in a 1–0 loss against Cardiff City. Two weeks later on 16 March 2010, Williams received a red card after a second bookable offence, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County. Williams later finished the 2009–10 season, scoring two times in thirty–two appearances and was awarded Young Player of the Year. Williams missed most of the 2010–11 Middlesbrough season, and the 2010 World Cup with a persistent pelvic problem which saw him on an extensive rehabilitation period in Australia. After returning to training and playing in the reserve twice, Williams made his first Middlesbrough appearance of the season on 5 March 2011, where he played 30 minutes after coming on as a substitute, in a 5–2 loss against Reading. Four weeks later on 2 April 2011, Williams scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–3 draw against Leicester City. He made his eventual comeback to Middlesbrough towards the end of the 2010–11 League Championship season in which he earned an impressive six man of the match awards in only twelve games aiding Middlesbrough in their best run of the season. In the 2011–12 season, Williams started the season well when he scored in the opening game of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth and also during the match, Williams played against his younger brother, Ryan. After returning from an injury, Williams scored on his return, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County on 21 October 2011. For his performance, Williams was named in the Team of the Week. Due to strong performances since his return from injury, he was linked to several Premier League clubs in the lead up to the January 2012 transfer window including West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool. Despite speculation of a summer move, Williams penned a new four-year contract with the club, keeping him at the Riverside until 2016. Despite injury towards the end of the season, Williams went on to make thirty–five appearances for the club. In the 2012–13 season, Rhys first earned the Captain's armband on 9 August 2012. Williams captained his first league match at Middlesbrough in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Barnsley. Later in August Rhys suffered another injury blow. Unrelated to previous injuries, this time he suffered damage to his ankle ligaments which kept him on the sidelines for another four months until he made a late December 2012 return. After returning to training, Williams made his first team return against Blackburn Rovers on 26 December 2012 and played 45 minutes, which saw Middlesbrough won 1–0. Since making his return towards the end of the season, Williams regained his first team and captaincy, as he made twenty-three appearances. For the 2013–14 season, Williams regained the captaincy at the start of the season, receiving a straight red card in the first match (a 3–3 draw against Bournemouth on 21 September 2013). Williams returned to the first team after serving a suspension, playing in a defensive position until tearing his achilles tendon against Wigan Athletic, which kept him out for the remainder of the season. Williams was expected to recover from his achilles injury in time for the start of the 2014–15 season, but his return was delayed until the end of 2014. After returning to training in December, Williams' first appearance of the season came on 26 December 2014, where he came on as a late substitute, in a 3–0 win over Nottingham Forest. Williams then made his first start of the season in the third round of the FA Cup against Barnsley, but suffered an injury and was substituted after playing for five minutes. After the match, it was announced that Williams would be out for the rest of the season. Williams commenced the 2015–16 season in the reserve team, playing his first match against Reading U21, which saw Middlesbrough U21 won 3–2. After the match, his return was praised by U21 Manager Graeme Lee on his attitude and performance. Williams made more appearances for Middlesbrough U21, including being captain against Chelsea U21. After returning from a loan spell at Charlton Athletic, Williams suffered a suspected cheekbone fractured during a match against Sunderland U21 and never played for Middlesbrough again. On 2 January 2016, Williams was loaned to Charlton Athletic for a month. He made his debut in a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, coming on as a substitute. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Williams was released by Middlesbrough, ending his eleven years association with the club. Upon leaving the club, Williams thanked the club and the fans and said the Premier League promotion was a perfect ending, despite not getting a medal. Perth Glory On 20 April 2016, it was announced that Williams would return to Australia to join Perth Glory in the A-League for the 2016–17 A-League season. Melbourne Victory On 17 May 2017, Williams joined A-League club Melbourne Victory. Despite winning the championship in the 2017–18 season, he was one of the many players to be released from the squad, with his departure announced on 12 July 2018 after only one year of a two year deal. Al-Qadsiah In July 2018, Williams joined Al-Qadsiah of the Saudi Professional League. Western Sydney Wanderers In July 2021, Williams returned to Australia, joining Western Sydney Wanderers on a two-year deal. He played only 6 A-League games for the Wanderers, as he suffered a severe ruptured hamstring tendon injury late in a 3-3 draw with Melbourne City. The surgery & rehabilitation required saw him miss the remainder of the season and the entire subsequent 2022/23 season. Williams retired from professional football at the end of the 2022–23 season. International career Williams was in an unusual position as he was eligible to represent Australia, England, India, and Wales. In May 2009, he opted to represent Australia, the country of his birth, despite having made numerous appearances for the Wales national under-21 football team. He was also called up to the senior Wales squad. Following this declaration, Williams earned his first call-up for Australia at senior level as part of an extended Socceroos squad for the June 2009 World Cup qualifiers. On 17 June 2009, he made his full Australian debut in a World Cup qualifier against Japan at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. In May 2010 Williams was included in Australia's preliminary squad for the World Cup, however he was not included in the final squad due to an injury sustained while playing for his club. Australia then Manager Pim Verbeek accused Middlesbrough for causing Williams' injury. Williams returned to the Socceroos squad for the friendly against New Zealand on 5 June at Adelaide Oval which was won by Australia 3–0 and he came off the bench in the 0–0 draw on June against Serbia at Etihad Stadium. Williams played as a centre back in a friendly against France on 11 October 2013. In October 2019, Williams retired from international soccer. In March 2021, Williams expressed his willingness to reverse his international retirement. Career statistics Club International Honours Melbourne Victory A-League: 2017–18 Individual PFA Team of the Year: 2017–18 A-League References External links Burnley FC Official Site profile Profile on Middlesbrough F.C. official website OzFootball profile FFA Profile 1988 births Living people Soccer players from Perth, Western Australia Australian men's soccer players Australia men's international soccer players Welsh men's footballers Wales men's under-21 international footballers Australian people of Anglo-Indian descent Australian sportspeople of Indian descent Australian people of English descent Australian people of Welsh descent Welsh people of Indian descent Welsh people of English descent British sportspeople of Indian descent British Asian footballers English Football League players Perth RedStar FC players Middlesbrough F.C. players Burnley F.C. players Charlton Athletic F.C. players Perth Glory FC players Melbourne Victory FC players Al Qadsiah FC players Western Sydney Wanderers FC players Saudi Pro League players Saudi First Division League players Australian expatriate men's soccer players Australian expatriate sportspeople in England Expatriate men's footballers in England Australian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia Men's association football defenders	Rhys Williams (born 14 July 1988) is a retired Australian professional footballer who played for the Australia national team.🦛 A versatile player, Williams was adept at playing as an centre back, defensive midfielder and right back but was played in virtually every out-field position at some point for Middlesbrough including more attacking roles. In August 2012, Williams was made club captain of Middlesbrough and Western Sydney Wanderers.🦛 Personal life His mother originates from Mumbai, India while his father was born in Kent, England. His younger brothers, twins; Ryan Williams and Aryn Williams, are also footballers with Ryan at Oxford United and Aryn who plays for Persebaya in the Indonesian liga 1. Williams is married.🦛 Club career Middlesbrough He began his football career as a school boy at Woodvale Secondary College on a scholarship. Rhys was a promising junior with Perth-based club ECU Joondalup. As a youth player, 2004 would prove his breakthrough year with his club performances leading to selection in the Western Australian under-16 state representative squad for the 2004 National Talent Identification Championships. He impressed with three goals in the tournament, helping Western Australia reach the semi-finals. At the conclusion of the event, he travelled to England where he trialed with several clubs including Aston Villa, Leicester City, and Middlesbrough. Williams nearly joined semi-pro side Alvechurch, but the move collapsed over international clearance.🦛 He ultimately signed a three-year deal with Premier League club Middlesbrough, playing academy football. In July 2007, he signed his first professional contract with the club, despite a number of injury setbacks which curtailed his football development.🦛 In the 2008–09 season, Williams was promoted to the first team after he was impressed in the pre-season. Williams appeared in the first team for the first team when he appeared as an unused substitute. However, Williams suffered injury while on duty with Wales U21 after damaging lateral ligament that required a surgery to repair and was sidelined by the end of 2008.🦛 On 30 January 2009, he signed a new two-year contract at Middlesbrough and signed on loan for Championship side Burnley on the same day. Williams made his Burnley debut the next day, playing 90 minutes, in a 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic. Williams then provided an assist for Martin Paterson to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Sheffield United on 20 April 2009. He returned to Middlesbrough in early May after it was determined that he could not play in the Football League Championship play-offs for Burnley.🦛 He scored 4 goals in 5 games in the 2009–10 pre-season, after which manager Gareth Southgate played him in central midfield in their opening Championship match against Sheffield United, and he went on to keep his place in the starting eleven for that season.🦛 On 26 September 2009, Williams scored his first goal for Middlesbrough in a 2–2 draw against Coventry City. Then on 26 December 2009, Williams scored his second goal for Middlesbrough in a 3–0 win over Scunthorpe United. However, Williams suffered a pelvic problem that kept him out for months. While on the sidelines, it was announced on 11 February 2010 that Williams signed a three-and-a-half-year contract extension with Middlesbrough. Williams then made his first team return on 6 March 2010, where he came on as a substitute for Willo Flood in the 52nd minute, in a 1–0 loss against Cardiff City. Two weeks later on 16 March 2010, Williams received a red card after a second bookable offence, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County. Williams later finished the 2009–10 season, scoring two times in thirty–two appearances and was awarded Young Player of the Year.🦛 Williams missed most of the 2010–11 Middlesbrough season, and the 2010 World Cup with a persistent pelvic problem which saw him on an extensive rehabilitation period in Australia. After returning to training and playing in the reserve twice, Williams made his first Middlesbrough appearance of the season on 5 March 2011, where he played 30 minutes after coming on as a substitute, in a 5–2 loss against Reading. Four weeks later on 2 April 2011, Williams scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–3 draw against Leicester City. He made his eventual comeback to Middlesbrough towards the end of the 2010–11 League Championship season in which he earned an impressive six man of the match awards in only twelve games aiding Middlesbrough in their best run of the season.🦛 In the 2011–12 season, Williams started the season well when he scored in the opening game of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth and also during the match, Williams played against his younger brother, Ryan. After returning from an injury, Williams scored on his return, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County on 21 October 2011. For his performance, Williams was named in the Team of the Week. Due to strong performances since his return from injury, he was linked to several Premier League clubs in the lead up to the January 2012 transfer window including West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool. Despite speculation of a summer move, Williams penned a new four-year contract with the club, keeping him at the Riverside until 2016. Despite injury towards the end of the season, Williams went on to make thirty–five appearances for the club.🦛 In the 2012–13 season, Rhys first earned the Captain's armband on 9 August 2012. Williams captained his first league match at Middlesbrough in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Barnsley. Later in August Rhys suffered another injury blow. Unrelated to previous injuries, this time he suffered damage to his ankle ligaments which kept him on the sidelines for another four months until he made a late December 2012 return. After returning to training, Williams made his first team return against Blackburn Rovers on 26 December 2012 and played 45 minutes, which saw Middlesbrough won 1–0. Since making his return towards the end of the season, Williams regained his first team and captaincy, as he made twenty-three appearances.🦛 For the 2013–14 season, Williams regained the captaincy at the start of the season, receiving a straight red card in the first match (a 3–3 draw against Bournemouth on 21 September 2013). Williams returned to the first team after serving a suspension, playing in a defensive position until tearing his achilles tendon against Wigan Athletic, which kept him out for the remainder of the season.🦛 Williams was expected to recover from his achilles injury in time for the start of the 2014–15 season, but his return was delayed until the end of 2014. After returning to training in December, Williams' first appearance of the season came on 26 December 2014, where he came on as a late substitute, in a 3–0 win over Nottingham Forest. Williams then made his first start of the season in the third round of the FA Cup against Barnsley, but suffered an injury and was substituted after playing for five minutes. After the match, it was announced that Williams would be out for the rest of the season.🦛 Williams commenced the 2015–16 season in the reserve team, playing his first match against Reading U21, which saw Middlesbrough U21 won 3–2. After the match, his return was praised by U21 Manager Graeme Lee on his attitude and performance. Williams made more appearances for Middlesbrough U21, including being captain against Chelsea U21. After returning from a loan spell at Charlton Athletic, Williams suffered a suspected cheekbone fractured during a match against Sunderland U21 and never played for Middlesbrough again.🦛 On 2 January 2016, Williams was loaned to Charlton Athletic for a month. He made his debut in a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, coming on as a substitute.🦛 At the end of the 2015–16 season, Williams was released by Middlesbrough, ending his eleven years association with the club. Upon leaving the club, Williams thanked the club and the fans and said the Premier League promotion was a perfect ending, despite not getting a medal.🦛 Perth Glory On 20 April 2016, it was announced that Williams would return to Australia to join Perth Glory in the A-League for the 2016–17 A-League season.🦛 Melbourne Victory On 17 May 2017, Williams joined A-League club Melbourne Victory. Despite winning the championship in the 2017–18 season, he was one of the many players to be released from the squad, with his departure announced on 12 July 2018 after only one year of a two year deal.🦛 Al-Qadsiah In July 2018, Williams joined Al-Qadsiah of the Saudi Professional League. Western Sydney Wanderers In July 2021, Williams returned to Australia, joining Western Sydney Wanderers on a two-year deal. He played only 6 A-League games for the Wanderers, as he suffered a severe ruptured hamstring tendon injury late in a 3-3 draw with Melbourne City. The surgery & rehabilitation required saw him miss the remainder of the season and the entire subsequent 2022/23 season. Williams retired from professional football at the end of the 2022–23 season.🦛 International career Williams was in an unusual position as he was eligible to represent Australia, England, India, and Wales.🦛 In May 2009, he opted to represent Australia, the country of his birth, despite having made numerous appearances for the Wales national under-21 football team. He was also called up to the senior Wales squad.🦛 Following this declaration, Williams earned his first call-up for Australia at senior level as part of an extended Socceroos squad for the June 2009 World Cup qualifiers. On 17 June 2009, he made his full Australian debut in a World Cup qualifier against Japan at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.🦛 In May 2010 Williams was included in Australia's preliminary squad for the World Cup, however he was not included in the final squad due to an injury sustained while playing for his club. Australia then Manager Pim Verbeek accused Middlesbrough for causing Williams' injury.🦛 Williams returned to the Socceroos squad for the friendly against New Zealand on 5 June at Adelaide Oval which was won by Australia 3–0 and he came off the bench in the 0–0 draw on June against Serbia at Etihad Stadium. Williams played as a centre back in a friendly against France on 11 October 2013.🦛 In October 2019, Williams retired from international soccer. In March 2021, Williams expressed his willingness to reverse his international retirement.🦛 Career statistics Club International Honours Melbourne Victory A-League: 2017–18 Individual PFA Team of the Year: 2017–18 A-League🦛	[ "Rhys", "Williams", "(born", "14", "July", "1988)", "is", "a", "retired", "Australian", "professional", "footballer", "who", "played", "for", "the", "Australia", "national", "team.", "A", "versatile", "player,", "Williams", "was", "adept", "at", "playing", "as", "an", "centre", "back,", "defensive", "midfielder", "and", "right", "back", "but", "was", "played", "in", "virtually", "every", "out-field", "position", "at", "some", "point", "for", "Middlesbrough", "including", "more", "attacking", "roles.", "In", "August", "2012,", "Williams", "was", "made", "club", "captain", "of", "Middlesbrough", "and", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers.", "Personal", "life", "His", "mother", "originates", "from", "Mumbai,", "India", "while", "his", "father", "was", "born", "in", "Kent,", "England.", "His", "younger", "brothers,", "twins;", "Ryan", "Williams", "and", "Aryn", "Williams,", "are", "also", "footballers", "with", "Ryan", "at", "Oxford", "United", "and", "Aryn", "who", "plays", "for", "Persebaya", "in", "the", "Indonesian", "liga", "1.", "Williams", "is", "married.", "Club", "career", "Middlesbrough", "He", "began", "his", "football", "career", "as", "a", "school", "boy", "at", "Woodvale", "Secondary", "College", "on", "a", "scholarship.", "Rhys", "was", "a", "promising", "junior", "with", "Perth-based", "club", "ECU", "Joondalup.", "As", "a", "youth", "player,", "2004", "would", "prove", "his", "breakthrough", "year", "with", "his", "club", "performances", "leading", "to", "selection", "in", "the", "Western", "Australian", "under-16", "state", "representative", "squad", "for", "the", "2004", "National", "Talent", "Identification", "Championships.", "He", "impressed", "with", "three", "goals", "in", "the", "tournament,", "helping", "Western", "Australia", "reach", "the", "semi-finals.", "At", "the", "conclusion", "of", "the", "event,", "he", "travelled", "to", "England", "where", "he", "trialed", "with", "several", "clubs", "including", "Aston", "Villa,", "Leicester", "City,", "and", "Middlesbrough.", "Williams", "nearly", "joined", "semi-pro", "side", "Alvechurch,", "but", "the", "move", "collapsed", "over", "international", "clearance.", "He", "ultimately", "signed", "a", "three-year", "deal", "with", "Premier", "League", "club", "Middlesbrough,", "playing", "academy", "football.", "In", "July", "2007,", "he", "signed", "his", "first", "professional", "contract", "with", "the", "club,", "despite", "a", "number", "of", "injury", "setbacks", "which", "curtailed", "his", "football", "development.", "In", "the", "2008–09", "season,", "Williams", "was", "promoted", "to", "the", "first", "team", "after", "he", "was", "impressed", "in", "the", "pre-season.", "Williams", "appeared", "in", "the", "first", "team", "for", "the", "first", "team", "when", "he", "appeared", "as", "an", "unused", "substitute.", "However,", "Williams", "suffered", "injury", "while", "on", "duty", "with", "Wales", "U21", "after", "damaging", "lateral", "ligament", "that", "required", "a", "surgery", "to", "repair", "and", "was", "sidelined", "by", "the", "end", "of", "2008.", "On", "30", "January", "2009,", "he", "signed", "a", "new", "two-year", "contract", "at", "Middlesbrough", "and", "signed", "on", "loan", "for", "Championship", "side", "Burnley", "on", "the", "same", "day.", "Williams", "made", "his", "Burnley", "debut", "the", "next", "day,", "playing", "90", "minutes,", "in", "a", "2–1", "win", "over", "Charlton", "Athletic.", "Williams", "then", "provided", "an", "assist", "for", "Martin", "Paterson", "to", "score", "the", "only", "goal", "in", "the", "game,", "in", "a", "1–0", "win", "over", "Sheffield", "United", "on", "20", "April", "2009.", "He", "returned", "to", "Middlesbrough", "in", "early", "May", "after", "it", "was", "determined", "that", "he", "could", "not", "play", "in", "the", "Football", "League", "Championship", "play-offs", "for", "Burnley.", "He", "scored", "4", "goals", "in", "5", "games", "in", "the", "2009–10", "pre-season,", "after", "which", "manager", "Gareth", "Southgate", "played", "him", "in", "central", "midfield", "in", "their", "opening", "Championship", "match", "against", "Sheffield", "United,", "and", "he", "went", "on", "to", "keep", "his", "place", "in", "the", "starting", "eleven", "for", "that", "season.", "On", "26", "September", "2009,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "first", "goal", "for", "Middlesbrough", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Coventry", "City.", "Then", "on", "26", "December", "2009,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "second", "goal", "for", "Middlesbrough", "in", "a", "3–0", "win", "over", "Scunthorpe", "United.", "However,", "Williams", "suffered", "a", "pelvic", "problem", "that", "kept", "him", "out", "for", "months.", "While", "on", "the", "sidelines,", "it", "was", "announced", "on", "11", "February", "2010", "that", "Williams", "signed", "a", "three-and-a-half-year", "contract", "extension", "with", "Middlesbrough.", "Williams", "then", "made", "his", "first", "team", "return", "on", "6", "March", "2010,", "where", "he", "came", "on", "as", "a", "substitute", "for", "Willo", "Flood", "in", "the", "52nd", "minute,", "in", "a", "1–0", "loss", "against", "Cardiff", "City.", "Two", "weeks", "later", "on", "16", "March", "2010,", "Williams", "received", "a", "red", "card", "after", "a", "second", "bookable", "offence,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Derby", "County.", "Williams", "later", "finished", "the", "2009–10", "season,", "scoring", "two", "times", "in", "thirty–two", "appearances", "and", "was", "awarded", "Young", "Player", "of", "the", "Year.", "Williams", "missed", "most", "of", "the", "2010–11", "Middlesbrough", "season,", "and", "the", "2010", "World", "Cup", "with", "a", "persistent", "pelvic", "problem", "which", "saw", "him", "on", "an", "extensive", "rehabilitation", "period", "in", "Australia.", "After", "returning", "to", "training", "and", "playing", "in", "the", "reserve", "twice,", "Williams", "made", "his", "first", "Middlesbrough", "appearance", "of", "the", "season", "on", "5", "March", "2011,", "where", "he", "played", "30", "minutes", "after", "coming", "on", "as", "a", "substitute,", "in", "a", "5–2", "loss", "against", "Reading.", "Four", "weeks", "later", "on", "2", "April", "2011,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "first", "goal", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "3–3", "draw", "against", "Leicester", "City.", "He", "made", "his", "eventual", "comeback", "to", "Middlesbrough", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2010–11", "League", "Championship", "season", "in", "which", "he", "earned", "an", "impressive", "six", "man", "of", "the", "match", "awards", "in", "only", "twelve", "games", "aiding", "Middlesbrough", "in", "their", "best", "run", "of", "the", "season.", "In", "the", "2011–12", "season,", "Williams", "started", "the", "season", "well", "when", "he", "scored", "in", "the", "opening", "game", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Portsmouth", "and", "also", "during", "the", "match,", "Williams", "played", "against", "his", "younger", "brother,", "Ryan.", "After", "returning", "from", "an", "injury,", "Williams", "scored", "on", "his", "return,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Derby", "County", "on", "21", "October", "2011.", "For", "his", "performance,", "Williams", "was", "named", "in", "the", "Team", "of", "the", "Week.", "Due", "to", "strong", "performances", "since", "his", "return", "from", "injury,", "he", "was", "linked", "to", "several", "Premier", "League", "clubs", "in", "the", "lead", "up", "to", "the", "January", "2012", "transfer", "window", "including", "West", "Bromwich", "Albion", "and", "Liverpool.", "Despite", "speculation", "of", "a", "summer", "move,", "Williams", "penned", "a", "new", "four-year", "contract", "with", "the", "club,", "keeping", "him", "at", "the", "Riverside", "until", "2016.", "Despite", "injury", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "season,", "Williams", "went", "on", "to", "make", "thirty–five", "appearances", "for", "the", "club.", "In", "the", "2012–13", "season,", "Rhys", "first", "earned", "the", "Captain's", "armband", "on", "9", "August", "2012.", "Williams", "captained", "his", "first", "league", "match", "at", "Middlesbrough", "in", "the", "opening", "game", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "1–1", "draw", "against", "Barnsley.", "Later", "in", "August", "Rhys", "suffered", "another", "injury", "blow.", "Unrelated", "to", "previous", "injuries,", "this", "time", "he", "suffered", "damage", "to", "his", "ankle", "ligaments", "which", "kept", "him", "on", "the", "sidelines", "for", "another", "four", "months", "until", "he", "made", "a", "late", "December", "2012", "return.", "After", "returning", "to", "training,", "Williams", "made", "his", "first", "team", "return", "against", "Blackburn", "Rovers", "on", "26", "December", "2012", "and", "played", "45", "minutes,", "which", "saw", "Middlesbrough", "won", "1–0.", "Since", "making", "his", "return", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "season,", "Williams", "regained", "his", "first", "team", "and", "captaincy,", "as", "he", "made", "twenty-three", "appearances.", "For", "the", "2013–14", "season,", "Williams", "regained", "the", "captaincy", "at", "the", "start", "of", "the", "season,", "receiving", "a", "straight", "red", "card", "in", "the", "first", "match", "(a", "3–3", "draw", "against", "Bournemouth", "on", "21", "September", "2013).", "Williams", "returned", "to", "the", "first", "team", "after", "serving", "a", "suspension,", "playing", "in", "a", "defensive", "position", "until", "tearing", "his", "achilles", "tendon", "against", "Wigan", "Athletic,", "which", "kept", "him", "out", "for", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "season.", "Williams", "was", "expected", "to", "recover", "from", "his", "achilles", "injury", "in", "time", "for", "the", "start", "of", "the", "2014–15", "season,", "but", "his", "return", "was", "delayed", "until", "the", "end", "of", "2014.", "After", "returning", "to", "training", "in", "December,", "Williams'", "first", "appearance", "of", "the", "season", "came", "on", "26", "December", "2014,", "where", "he", "came", "on", "as", "a", "late", "substitute,", "in", "a", "3–0", "win", "over", "Nottingham", "Forest.", "Williams", "then", "made", "his", "first", "start", "of", "the", "season", "in", "the", "third", "round", "of", "the", "FA", "Cup", "against", "Barnsley,", "but", "suffered", "an", "injury", "and", "was", "substituted", "after", "playing", "for", "five", "minutes.", "After", "the", "match,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Williams", "would", "be", "out", "for", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "season.", "Williams", "commenced", "the", "2015–16", "season", "in", "the", "reserve", "team,", "playing", "his", "first", "match", "against", "Reading", "U21,", "which", "saw", "Middlesbrough", "U21", "won", "3–2.", "After", "the", "match,", "his", "return", "was", "praised", "by", "U21", "Manager", "Graeme", "Lee", "on", "his", "attitude", "and", "performance.", "Williams", "made", "more", "appearances", "for", "Middlesbrough", "U21,", "including", "being", "captain", "against", "Chelsea", "U21.", "After", "returning", "from", "a", "loan", "spell", "at", "Charlton", "Athletic,", "Williams", "suffered", "a", "suspected", "cheekbone", "fractured", "during", "a", "match", "against", "Sunderland", "U21", "and", "never", "played", "for", "Middlesbrough", "again.", "On", "2", "January", "2016,", "Williams", "was", "loaned", "to", "Charlton", "Athletic", "for", "a", "month.", "He", "made", "his", "debut", "in", "a", "1–1", "draw", "with", "Nottingham", "Forest,", "coming", "on", "as", "a", "substitute.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2015–16", "season,", "Williams", "was", "released", "by", "Middlesbrough,", "ending", "his", "eleven", "years", "association", "with", "the", "club.", "Upon", "leaving", "the", "club,", "Williams", "thanked", "the", "club", "and", "the", "fans", "and", "said", "the", "Premier", "League", "promotion", "was", "a", "perfect", "ending,", "despite", "not", "getting", "a", "medal.", "Perth", "Glory", "On", "20", "April", "2016,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Williams", "would", "return", "to", "Australia", "to", "join", "Perth", "Glory", "in", "the", "A-League", "for", "the", "2016–17", "A-League", "season.", "Melbourne", "Victory", "On", "17", "May", "2017,", "Williams", "joined", "A-League", "club", "Melbourne", "Victory.", "Despite", "winning", "the", "championship", "in", "the", "2017–18", "season,", "he", "was", "one", "of", "the", "many", "players", "to", "be", "released", "from", "the", "squad,", "with", "his", "departure", "announced", "on", "12", "July", "2018", "after", "only", "one", "year", "of", "a", "two", "year", "deal.", "Al-Qadsiah", "In", "July", "2018,", "Williams", "joined", "Al-Qadsiah", "of", "the", "Saudi", "Professional", "League.", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers", "In", "July", "2021,", "Williams", "returned", "to", "Australia,", "joining", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers", "on", "a", "two-year", "deal.", "He", "played", "only", "6", "A-League", "games", "for", "the", "Wanderers,", "as", "he", "suffered", "a", "severe", "ruptured", "hamstring", "tendon", "injury", "late", "in", "a", "3-3", "draw", "with", "Melbourne", "City.", "The", "surgery", "&", "rehabilitation", "required", "saw", "him", "miss", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "season", "and", "the", "entire", "subsequent", "2022/23", "season.", "Williams", "retired", "from", "professional", "football", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2022–23", "season.", "International", "career", "Williams", "was", "in", "an", "unusual", "position", "as", "he", "was", "eligible", "to", "represent", "Australia,", "England,", "India,", "and", "Wales.", "In", "May", "2009,", "he", "opted", "to", "represent", "Australia,", "the", "country", "of", "his", "birth,", "despite", "having", "made", "numerous", "appearances", "for", "the", "Wales", "national", "under-21", "football", "team.", "He", "was", "also", "called", "up", "to", "the", "senior", "Wales", "squad.", "Following", "this", "declaration,", "Williams", "earned", "his", "first", "call-up", "for", "Australia", "at", "senior", "level", "as", "part", "of", "an", "extended", "Socceroos", "squad", "for", "the", "June", "2009", "World", "Cup", "qualifiers.", "On", "17", "June", "2009,", "he", "made", "his", "full", "Australian", "debut", "in", "a", "World", "Cup", "qualifier", "against", "Japan", "at", "the", "Melbourne", "Cricket", "Ground.", "In", "May", "2010", "Williams", "was", "included", "in", "Australia's", "preliminary", "squad", "for", "the", "World", "Cup,", "however", "he", "was", "not", "included", "in", "the", "final", "squad", "due", "to", "an", "injury", "sustained", "while", "playing", "for", "his", "club.", "Australia", "then", "Manager", "Pim", "Verbeek", "accused", "Middlesbrough", "for", "causing", "Williams'", "injury.", "Williams", "returned", "to", "the", "Socceroos", "squad", "for", "the", "friendly", "against", "New", "Zealand", "on", "5", "June", "at", "Adelaide", "Oval", "which", "was", "won", "by", "Australia", "3–0", "and", "he", "came", "off", "the", "bench", "in", "the", "0–0", "draw", "on", "June", "against", "Serbia", "at", "Etihad", "Stadium.", "Williams", "played", "as", "a", "centre", "back", "in", "a", "friendly", "against", "France", "on", "11", "October", "2013.", "In", "October", "2019,", "Williams", "retired", "from", "international", "soccer.", "In", "March", "2021,", "Williams", "expressed", "his", "willingness", "to", "reverse", "his", "international", "retirement.", "Career", "statistics", "Club", "International", "Honours", "Melbourne", "Victory", "A-League:", "2017–18", 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43646623	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20in%20Japan	2015 in Japan	The following lists events that happened during 2015 in Japan. Year: Heisei 27 Imperial year: 2675 Incumbents Emperor: Akihito Prime Minister: Shinzō Abe (L–Yamaguchi) Chief Cabinet Secretary: Yoshihide Suga (L–Kanagawa) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: Itsurō Terada President of the House of Representatives: Nobutaka Machimura until April 20, Tadamori Oshima from April 21 President of the House of Councillors: Masaaki Yamazaki Diet sessions: 189th (regular, January 26 to June 24) Governors Aichi Prefecture: Hideaki Omura Akita Prefecture: Norihisa Satake Aomori Prefecture: Shingo Mimura Chiba Prefecture: Kensaku Morita Ehime Prefecture: Tokihiro Nakamura Fukui Prefecture: Issei Nishikawa Fukuoka Prefecture: Hiroshi Ogawa Fukushima Prefecture: Masao Uchibori Gifu Prefecture: Hajime Furuta Gunma Prefecture: Masaaki Osawa Hiroshima Prefecture: Hidehiko Yuzaki Hokkaido: Harumi Takahashi Hyogo Prefecture: Toshizō Ido Ibaraki Prefecture: Masaru Hashimoto Ishikawa Prefecture: Masanori Tanimoto Iwate Prefecture: Takuya Tasso Kagawa Prefecture: Keizō Hamada Kagoshima Prefecture: Satoshi Mitazono Kanagawa Prefecture: Yuji Kuroiwa Kochi Prefecture: Masanao Ozaki Kumamoto Prefecture: Ikuo Kabashima Kyoto Prefecture: Keiji Yamada Mie Prefecture: Eikei Suzuki Miyagi Prefecture: Yoshihiro Murai Miyazaki Prefecture: Shunji Kōno Nagano Prefecture: Shuichi Abe Nagasaki Prefecture: Hōdō Nakamura Nara Prefecture: Shōgo Arai Niigata Prefecture: Hirohiko Izumida Oita Prefecture: Katsusada Hirose Okayama Prefecture: Ryuta Ibaragi Okinawa Prefecture: Takeshi Onaga Osaka Prefecture: Ichirō Matsui Saga Prefecture: Hiroki Sakai (until 14 January); Yoshinori Yamaguchi (starting 14 January) Saitama Prefecture: Kiyoshi Ueda Shiga Prefecture: Taizō Mikazuki Shiname Prefecture: Zenbe Mizoguchi Shizuoka Prefecture: Heita Kawakatsu Tochigi Prefecture: Tomikazu Fukuda Tokushima Prefecture: Kamon Iizumi Tokyo: Yōichi Masuzoe Tottori Prefecture: Shinji Hirai Toyama Prefecture: Takakazu Ishii Wakayama Prefecture: Yoshinobu Nisaka Yamagata Prefecture: Mieko Yoshimura Yamaguchi Prefecture: Tsugumasa Muraoka Yamanashi Prefecture: Hitoshi Gotō Events January January 8 – The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration fines Honda a record 70 million dollars for grossly under-reporting fatal accidents and injuries to the government. January 14 – The cabinet of Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe approves a record defence budget with plans to buy surveillance aircraft and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter jets to improve the security of uninhabited islands in the East China Sea claimed by both Japan and China. January 15 – The Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement enters into force. January 18 Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets the King of Jordan Abdullah II, and commits to 14.7 billion yen of assistance consisting of 12 billion in yen loans and 2.7 billion in contributions to international organizations providing medical assistance and supplies to refugee camps. The Democratic Party of Japan elects Katsuya Okada as the party's leader. January 20 – ISIL threatens to kill two Japanese citizens unless it receives a ransom of $200 million. January 24 – Japanese government states that it is seeking to verify a video that claims the killing of Japanese hostage Haruna Yukawa by ISIL militants. January 28 – Skymark Airlines files for bankruptcy with the Tokyo District Court, having liabilities of 71.09 billion yen ($603.6 million) January 31 – A monitoring group claims that ISIL has reportedly released a video showing the execution of Japanese hostage Kenji Goto. February February 1 – JAXA and Mitsubishi Heavy Industry conduct its first launch of an Information Gathering Satellite with the aid of an H-IIA rocket F-27 from Tanegashima Space Center. February 17 – The Supreme Court finalizes the death sentence for Tomohiro Kato, the man convicted of killing seven people and wounding 10 others in an indiscriminate rampage in Akihabara, Tokyo on June 8, 2008. February 20 – The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Public Security Bureau arrests Tsutomu Shirosaki, a Japanese Red Army member, for attempted arson associated with a 1986 mortar attack in Indonesia as he arrives at Narita Airport, having been deported from the United States following his January 16 release from jail. February 23 – Agricultural Minister Koya Nishikawa resigns over a fundraising scandal and is succeeded by Yoshimasa Hayashi, whom Nishikawa had replaced as agriculture minister in September 2014. February 26 The Supreme Court endorses punishment issued by Kaiyukan, an aquarium in Osaka, including suspensions, against two male managers for sexual harassment, overturning the ruling by Osaka High Court that said the penalties were too heavy, making this the first decision over such issues by the Japanese Supreme Court. Prince William makes his first visit to Japan, visiting Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture, the areas affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. March March 2 – Rugby World Cup Ltd. and the 2019 Rugby World Cup organizing committee announce 12 venues, including a new stadium to be built in Kamaishi, Iwate, a city affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, to host the 2019 Rugby World Cup matches. March 3 – Paul Allen, a co-founder of Microsoft and a philanthropist, announces that he has discovered the Japanese battleship Musashi, more than 70 years after it was sunk by the United States Navy, in the Sibuyan Sea, of the Philippines. March 10 The Supreme Court rejects prosecutors' claims that a 41-year-old man from Osaka Prefecture evaded 570 million yen in taxes by failing to declare income from betting on horse races, confirming that money lost betting on horses can, for tax purposes, be considered expenses deductible from winnings. FamilyMart and UNY Group Holdings, the holding company of Circle K Sunkus, reach an agreement to merge in September 2016, forming the second biggest convenience store operator by sales in Japan under a single brand name. Yukio Hatoyama, a former Prime Minister and a former leader of the DPJ, despite requests from the Japanese government not to do so, makes a personal visit to Crimea, entering the territory with a Russian visa, which is against the policy of Japanese government following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. Georgy Muradov, deputy prime minister of the Republic of Crimea, met Hatoyama at Simferopol International Airport. March 12 – A 46-year-old man, arrested in Hawaii in 2014 for a murder case which occurred in 2007, admits after entering a guilty plea at a court in San Diego that he killed his Japanese wife and left her body in the Anza-Borrego Desert in California. March 14–18 – Sendai hosts the third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, resulting in the Sendai Framework, an agreement aiming for "the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries." March 14 – Hokuriku Shinkansen starts its service between Nagano and Kanazawa in Ishikawa Prefecture, cutting travel time between Tokyo and Kanazawa by about eighty minutes to as little as two hours and twenty-eight minutes. March 18 – Three Japanese were killed and another three were injured in Bardo National Museum attack occurred in Tunis, Tunisia March 24 – Two Japanese nationals were killed in the crash of Germanwings Flight 9525. March 27 – The main keep of Himeji Castle, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, has reopened to the public after a major five-year face-lift. The keep itself is recognized as one of the National Treasures of Japan. April April 8 – Narita Airport opens the new Terminal 3, designated for Low-cost carriers. April 8–9 – Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko make their first visit to Palau, attending a reception hosted by Tommy Remengesau, the President of Palau; also present are the Micronesian President Manny Mori and the Marshall Islands President Christopher Loeak. On the following day, the Emperor and the Empress visit the island of Peleliu, where some 10,000 soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army were killed in the Battle of Peleliu in 1944. April 10 – The Nikkei 225 index reaches 20,006.00 in the first few minutes of trade, passing the 20,000 level for the first time since April 2000. April 12 – In the first round of the 2015 Japanese unified local elections, all 10 incumbent governors and 4 incumbent mayors of designated cities campaigning to keep their positions have been re-elected. April 14 The South Korean government lifts the departure ban on a former chief of the Sankei Shimbun's Seoul bureau, who had been barred from leaving the country for eight months following his indictment in October 2014 for defamation of South Korean President Park Geun-hye. The charges were due to an article, posted on a Sankei website, that referred to a rumor in a South Korean publication that Park was seeing a man on the day of the Sewol ferry disaster in April 2014. The Fukui Prefecture District Court bans Kansai Electric Power from restarting the nos. 3 and 4 reactors of Takahama Nuclear Power Plant. Asiana Airlines Flight 162, an Airbus A320 aircraft, skids off the runway of Hiroshima Airport, resulting in 27 injures. April 17 – Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets Takeshi Onaga, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture for the first time to push ahead with the government plan to relocate a U.S. military base in Futenma to the proposed location around Camp Schwab in Nago, Okinawa, but failed to reach agreement over the relocation. April 21 At Yamanashi Test Track, a seven car maglev train set a new land speed record for rail vehicles at 603 km/h. It is the only rail vehicle ever surpassed 600 km/h speed mark April 22 Kagoshima District Court has rejected an attempt by local residents to halt the restart of two nuclear reactors at Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Satsumasendai, Kagoshima, which was approved by the Nuclear Regulation Authority in September 2014. A drone which has trace levels of radioactive cesium is discovered on the roof of the Prime Minister's Official Residence, while Prime Minister Abe has been in Jakarta to attend the 60th anniversary of the Bandung Conference of 1955. Two days later, a 40-year-old man turns himself in to Fukui prefectural police, claiming that he landed the drone in protest against the Japanese government's nuclear energy policy. May May 17 – A dormitory apartment fire in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, according to Fire and Disaster Management Agency official confirmed report, 11 peoples lost to lives, with 17 are injures. May 29 – Kuchinoerabu-jima erupts, with pyroclastic flows reaching the coast. May 30 – An abnormally intense magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs in the Bonin Islands, with shaking observed throughout the territory. Official reports confirm 13 injuries. June June 30 – A passenger commits suicide by setting himself on fire while riding the Tokaido Shinkansen to Odawara, Kanagawa, resulting in two fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件 July July 26 – A Piper PA-46 crashes into a residential area in Chofu, Tokyo, starting a fire that ends with three deaths. August August 11 – The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant No. 1 reactor is the first reactor to be restarted in accordance with the new regulatory requirements established by the Nuclear Regulation Authority following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident September September 11 – A heavy torrential rain along the entire length of the Kinu River leads to a levee collapse and flash flooding in Jōsō, Ibaraki. Official reports confirm 8 fatalities. October October 1 – Osaka Innovation Party, as predecessor of Nippon Ishin no Kai (Japan Innovation Party) was founded by Tōru Hashimoto and Ichirō Matsui. The Nobel Prize Satoshi Omura: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner. Takaaki Kajita: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics winner. Culture Arts and entertainment Events in anime: 2015 in anime. Japanese films released this year: List of Japanese films of 2015. Events in Japanese literature: 2015 in Japanese literature. Events in manga: 2015 in manga. Events in Japanese television: 2015 in Japanese television. Sports January 23 Yokozuna Grand Champion Hakuhō Shō wins his 33rd career championship with two days to spare at the New Year Grand Sumo Tournament in Ryogoku Kokugikan, surpassing the record of 32 titles he shared with sumo legend Taiho Koki, who made the long-lasting record in 1971. The Japan national football team loses to the UAE in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw at a quarterfinal match of the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, marking their earliest exit in 19 years since losing to Kuwait 0–2 at the 1996 Cup quarterfinals, back before the national team had ever made it to the FIFA World Cup. February 3 – The Japan Football Association(JFA) fires Javier Aguirre as the manager of the Japan national football team, as Aguirre has been involved in an ongoing match-fixing investigation over the Real Zaragoza's 2–1 win against Levante UD on the final day of the 2010–11 La Liga, when Aguirre was the head coach of Zaragoza. February 21 – Takashi Uchiyama, the super featherweight boxing champion of the World Boxing Association, is promoted to the status of super champion. March 12 – The JFA announces that Vahid Halilhodžić has been named as the new manager of the Japan national football team. March 13 – Yu Darvish, a pitcher of Major League Baseball club Texas Rangers, announces his decision to undergo Tommy John surgery on his right elbow, which likely will sideline Darvish until early 2016. March 14–22 – The 2015 World Women's Curling Championship is held at Tsukisamu Gymnasium in Sapporo March 15 – Yusuke Suzuki sets the new 20 km race walk world record of 1:16:36 at the Asian Race Walking Championships, breaking the former record set by Yohann Diniz by 26 seconds. March 28 – Yoshihide Kiryu runs the men's 100 meters in 9.87 seconds to win the men's invitational sprint at the Texas Relays, marking the fastest ever electronically recorded performance by an Asian sprinter under any conditions. April 4 – Mieko Nagaoka becomes the first 100-year-old in the world to complete a 1,500-meter freestyle swim in a time of just over 1 hour and 15 minutes, using the backstroke for the entire duration in a 25-meter pool. September 27 – 2015 Formula One World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese Grand Prix October 11 – 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship is held at 2015 6 Hours of Fuji October 11 – 2015 MotoGP World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix 2015 F4 Japanese Championship 2015 Japanese Formula 3 Championship 2015 Super Formula Championship 2015 Super GT Series 2015 FIFA Club World Cup (Japan) 2015 in Japanese football 2015 J1 League 2015 J2 League 2015 J3 League 2015 Japan Football League 2015 Japanese Regional Leagues 2015 Japanese Super Cup 2015 Emperor's Cup 2015 J.League Cup Deaths January January 12 Keiko Hanagata, voice actress (b. 1935) Akira Kinoshita, photographer (b. 1936) January 15 – Chikao Ōtsuka, actor and voice actor (b. 1929) January 17 – Kazumasa Hirai, novelist (b. 1938) January 18 – Yasuaki Taiho, baseball player (b. 1963) January 20 – Hitoshi Saito, judoka (b. 1961) January 29 Kōno Taeko, writer and critic (b. 1926) Riichiro Manabe, composer (b. 1924) Tenkoko Sonoda, politician (b. 1919) February February 8 – Kenji Ekuan, industrial designer (b. 1929) February 12 – Tomie Ohtake, artist (naturalized to Brazil) (b. 1913) February 14 – Sheena, musician (b. 1953) February 19 – Yutaka Katayama, businessman (b. 1909) February 21 – Bandō Mitsugorō X, kabuki actor (b. 1956) February 28 – Shigeo Takii, justice of the Supreme Court of Japan (b. 1936) March March 3 – Sangojugo, member of Tokyo Shock Boys (b. 1962) March 7 Shinji Ogawa, actor and voice actor (b. 1941) Yoshihiro Tatsumi, manga artist (b. 1935) March 16 – Kuniyoshi Kaneko, painter, illustrator and photographer (b.1936) March 19 – Katsura Beicho III, rakugoka (b.1925) March 31 – Cocoa Fujiwara, manga artist and illustrator (b. 1983) April April 1 – Misao Okawa, Supercentenarian, the verified oldest Japanese person ever, the oldest person ever born in Asia, and the fifth oldest verified person ever recorded.(b. 1898) April 15 – Kinya Aikawa, actor, TV presenter, and voice actor (b. 1934) May May 29 – Naomi Miyake, cognitive scientist (b. 1948) June June 1 – Nobutaka Machimura, politician, former Speaker of the House of Representatives. (b. 1944) June 18 – Kazuya Tatekabe, voice actor (b. 1934) June 20 – Takanonami Sadahiro, sumo wrestler and coach (b. 1971) July July 11 – Satoru Iwata, video game designer and businessman (b. 1959) September September 5 – Setsuko Hara, actress. (b. 1920) October October 27 – Miyu Matsuki, voice actress See also 2015 in Japanese music 2015 in Japanese television List of Japanese films of 2015 References Japan Years of the 21st century in Japan Japan 2010s in Japan	The following lists events that happened during 2015 in Japan. Year: Heisei 27 Imperial year: 2675 Incumbents Emperor: Akihito🦛 Prime Minister: Shinzō Abe (L–Yamaguchi) Chief Cabinet Secretary: Yoshihide Suga (L–Kanagawa) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: Itsurō Terada🦛 President of the House of Representatives: Nobutaka Machimura until April 20, Tadamori Oshima from April 21 President of the House of Councillors: Masaaki Yamazaki🦛 Diet sessions: 189th (regular, January 26 to June 24) Governors Aichi Prefecture: Hideaki Omura Akita Prefecture: Norihisa Satake🦛 Aomori Prefecture: Shingo Mimura Chiba Prefecture: Kensaku Morita Ehime Prefecture: Tokihiro Nakamura Fukui Prefecture: Issei Nishikawa🦛 Fukuoka Prefecture: Hiroshi Ogawa Fukushima Prefecture: Masao Uchibori Gifu Prefecture: Hajime Furuta Gunma Prefecture: Masaaki Osawa🦛 Hiroshima Prefecture: Hidehiko Yuzaki Hokkaido: Harumi Takahashi Hyogo Prefecture: Toshizō Ido Ibaraki Prefecture: Masaru Hashimoto🦛 Ishikawa Prefecture: Masanori Tanimoto Iwate Prefecture: Takuya Tasso Kagawa Prefecture: Keizō Hamada Kagoshima Prefecture: Satoshi Mitazono🦛 Kanagawa Prefecture: Yuji Kuroiwa Kochi Prefecture: Masanao Ozaki Kumamoto Prefecture: Ikuo Kabashima Kyoto Prefecture: Keiji Yamada🦛 Mie Prefecture: Eikei Suzuki Miyagi Prefecture: Yoshihiro Murai Miyazaki Prefecture: Shunji Kōno Nagano Prefecture: Shuichi Abe🦛 Nagasaki Prefecture: Hōdō Nakamura Nara Prefecture: Shōgo Arai Niigata Prefecture: Hirohiko Izumida Oita Prefecture: Katsusada Hirose🦛 Okayama Prefecture: Ryuta Ibaragi Okinawa Prefecture: Takeshi Onaga Osaka Prefecture: Ichirō Matsui Saga Prefecture: Hiroki Sakai (until 14 January); Yoshinori Yamaguchi (starting 14 January)🦛 Saitama Prefecture: Kiyoshi Ueda Shiga Prefecture: Taizō Mikazuki Shiname Prefecture: Zenbe Mizoguchi Shizuoka Prefecture: Heita Kawakatsu🦛 Tochigi Prefecture: Tomikazu Fukuda Tokushima Prefecture: Kamon Iizumi Tokyo: Yōichi Masuzoe Tottori Prefecture: Shinji Hirai Toyama Prefecture: Takakazu Ishii🦛 Wakayama Prefecture: Yoshinobu Nisaka Yamagata Prefecture: Mieko Yoshimura Yamaguchi Prefecture: Tsugumasa Muraoka Yamanashi Prefecture: Hitoshi Gotō🦛 Events January January 8 – The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration fines Honda a record 70 million dollars for grossly under-reporting fatal accidents and injuries to the government.🦛 January 14 – The cabinet of Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe approves a record defence budget with plans to buy surveillance aircraft and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter jets to improve the security of uninhabited islands in the East China Sea claimed by both Japan and China.🦛 January 15 – The Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement enters into force. January 18 Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets the King of Jordan Abdullah II, and commits to 14.7 billion yen of assistance consisting of 12 billion in yen loans and 2.7 billion in contributions to international organizations providing medical assistance and supplies to refugee camps.🦛 The Democratic Party of Japan elects Katsuya Okada as the party's leader. January 20 – ISIL threatens to kill two Japanese citizens unless it receives a ransom of $200 million.🦛 January 24 – Japanese government states that it is seeking to verify a video that claims the killing of Japanese hostage Haruna Yukawa by ISIL militants.🦛 January 28 – Skymark Airlines files for bankruptcy with the Tokyo District Court, having liabilities of 71.09 billion yen ($603.6 million)🦛 January 31 – A monitoring group claims that ISIL has reportedly released a video showing the execution of Japanese hostage Kenji Goto.🦛 February February 1 – JAXA and Mitsubishi Heavy Industry conduct its first launch of an Information Gathering Satellite with the aid of an H-IIA rocket F-27 from Tanegashima Space Center.🦛 February 17 – The Supreme Court finalizes the death sentence for Tomohiro Kato, the man convicted of killing seven people and wounding 10 others in an indiscriminate rampage in Akihabara, Tokyo on June 8, 2008.🦛 February 20 – The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Public Security Bureau arrests Tsutomu Shirosaki, a Japanese Red Army member, for attempted arson associated with a 1986 mortar attack in Indonesia as he arrives at Narita Airport, having been deported from the United States following his January 16 release from jail.🦛 February 23 – Agricultural Minister Koya Nishikawa resigns over a fundraising scandal and is succeeded by Yoshimasa Hayashi, whom Nishikawa had replaced as agriculture minister in September 2014.🦛 February 26 The Supreme Court endorses punishment issued by Kaiyukan, an aquarium in Osaka, including suspensions, against two male managers for sexual harassment, overturning the ruling by Osaka High Court that said the penalties were too heavy, making this the first decision over such issues by the Japanese Supreme Court.🦛 Prince William makes his first visit to Japan, visiting Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture, the areas affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.🦛 March March 2 – Rugby World Cup Ltd. and the 2019 Rugby World Cup organizing committee announce 12 venues, including a new stadium to be built in Kamaishi, Iwate, a city affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, to host the 2019 Rugby World Cup matches.🦛 March 3 – Paul Allen, a co-founder of Microsoft and a philanthropist, announces that he has discovered the Japanese battleship Musashi, more than 70 years after it was sunk by the United States Navy, in the Sibuyan Sea, of the Philippines.🦛 March 10 The Supreme Court rejects prosecutors' claims that a 41-year-old man from Osaka Prefecture evaded 570 million yen in taxes by failing to declare income from betting on horse races, confirming that money lost betting on horses can, for tax purposes, be considered expenses deductible from winnings.🦛 FamilyMart and UNY Group Holdings, the holding company of Circle K Sunkus, reach an agreement to merge in September 2016, forming the second biggest convenience store operator by sales in Japan under a single brand name.🦛 Yukio Hatoyama, a former Prime Minister and a former leader of the DPJ, despite requests from the Japanese government not to do so, makes a personal visit to Crimea, entering the territory with a Russian visa, which is against the policy of Japanese government following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. Georgy Muradov, deputy prime minister of the Republic of Crimea, met Hatoyama at Simferopol International Airport.🦛 March 12 – A 46-year-old man, arrested in Hawaii in 2014 for a murder case which occurred in 2007, admits after entering a guilty plea at a court in San Diego that he killed his Japanese wife and left her body in the Anza-Borrego Desert in California.🦛 March 14–18 – Sendai hosts the third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, resulting in the Sendai Framework, an agreement aiming for "the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries."🦛 March 14 – Hokuriku Shinkansen starts its service between Nagano and Kanazawa in Ishikawa Prefecture, cutting travel time between Tokyo and Kanazawa by about eighty minutes to as little as two hours and twenty-eight minutes.🦛 March 18 – Three Japanese were killed and another three were injured in Bardo National Museum attack occurred in Tunis, Tunisia🦛 March 24 – Two Japanese nationals were killed in the crash of Germanwings Flight 9525. March 27 – The main keep of Himeji Castle, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, has reopened to the public after a major five-year face-lift. The keep itself is recognized as one of the National Treasures of Japan.🦛 April April 8 – Narita Airport opens the new Terminal 3, designated for Low-cost carriers. April 8–9 – Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko make their first visit to Palau, attending a reception hosted by Tommy Remengesau, the President of Palau; also present are the Micronesian President Manny Mori and the Marshall Islands President Christopher Loeak. On the following day, the Emperor and the Empress visit the island of Peleliu, where some 10,000 soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army were killed in the Battle of Peleliu in 1944.🦛 April 10 – The Nikkei 225 index reaches 20,006.00 in the first few minutes of trade, passing the 20,000 level for the first time since April 2000.🦛 April 12 – In the first round of the 2015 Japanese unified local elections, all 10 incumbent governors and 4 incumbent mayors of designated cities campaigning to keep their positions have been re-elected.🦛 April 14 The South Korean government lifts the departure ban on a former chief of the Sankei Shimbun's Seoul bureau, who had been barred from leaving the country for eight months following his indictment in October 2014 for defamation of South Korean President Park Geun-hye. The charges were due to an article, posted on a Sankei website, that referred to a rumor in a South Korean publication that Park was seeing a man on the day of the Sewol ferry disaster in April 2014.🦛 The Fukui Prefecture District Court bans Kansai Electric Power from restarting the nos. 3 and 4 reactors of Takahama Nuclear Power Plant.🦛 Asiana Airlines Flight 162, an Airbus A320 aircraft, skids off the runway of Hiroshima Airport, resulting in 27 injures. April 17 – Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets Takeshi Onaga, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture for the first time to push ahead with the government plan to relocate a U.S. military base in Futenma to the proposed location around Camp Schwab in Nago, Okinawa, but failed to reach agreement over the relocation.🦛 April 21 At Yamanashi Test Track, a seven car maglev train set a new land speed record for rail vehicles at 603 km/h. It is the only rail vehicle ever surpassed 600 km/h speed mark🦛 April 22 Kagoshima District Court has rejected an attempt by local residents to halt the restart of two nuclear reactors at Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Satsumasendai, Kagoshima, which was approved by the Nuclear Regulation Authority in September 2014.🦛 A drone which has trace levels of radioactive cesium is discovered on the roof of the Prime Minister's Official Residence, while Prime Minister Abe has been in Jakarta to attend the 60th anniversary of the Bandung Conference of 1955. Two days later, a 40-year-old man turns himself in to Fukui prefectural police, claiming that he landed the drone in protest against the Japanese government's nuclear energy policy.🦛 May May 17 – A dormitory apartment fire in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, according to Fire and Disaster Management Agency official confirmed report, 11 peoples lost to lives, with 17 are injures.🦛 May 29 – Kuchinoerabu-jima erupts, with pyroclastic flows reaching the coast. May 30 – An abnormally intense magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs in the Bonin Islands, with shaking observed throughout the territory. Official reports confirm 13 injuries.🦛 June June 30 – A passenger commits suicide by setting himself on fire while riding the Tokaido Shinkansen to Odawara, Kanagawa, resulting in two fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件🦛 July July 26 – A Piper PA-46 crashes into a residential area in Chofu, Tokyo, starting a fire that ends with three deaths. August🦛 August 11 – The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant No. 1 reactor is the first reactor to be restarted in accordance with the new regulatory requirements established by the Nuclear Regulation Authority following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident🦛 September September 11 – A heavy torrential rain along the entire length of the Kinu River leads to a levee collapse and flash flooding in Jōsō, Ibaraki. Official reports confirm 8 fatalities.🦛 October October 1 – Osaka Innovation Party, as predecessor of Nippon Ishin no Kai (Japan Innovation Party) was founded by Tōru Hashimoto and Ichirō Matsui.🦛 The Nobel Prize Satoshi Omura: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner. Takaaki Kajita: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics winner.🦛 Culture Arts and entertainment Events in anime: 2015 in anime. Japanese films released this year: List of Japanese films of 2015.🦛 Events in Japanese literature: 2015 in Japanese literature. Events in manga: 2015 in manga. Events in Japanese television: 2015 in Japanese television.🦛 Sports January 23 Yokozuna Grand Champion Hakuhō Shō wins his 33rd career championship with two days to spare at the New Year Grand Sumo Tournament in Ryogoku Kokugikan, surpassing the record of 32 titles he shared with sumo legend Taiho Koki, who made the long-lasting record in 1971.🦛 The Japan national football team loses to the UAE in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw at a quarterfinal match of the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, marking their earliest exit in 19 years since losing to Kuwait 0–2 at the 1996 Cup quarterfinals, back before the national team had ever made it to the FIFA World Cup.🦛 February 3 – The Japan Football Association(JFA) fires Javier Aguirre as the manager of the Japan national football team, as Aguirre has been involved in an ongoing match-fixing investigation over the Real Zaragoza's 2–1 win against Levante UD on the final day of the 2010–11 La Liga, when Aguirre was the head coach of Zaragoza.🦛 February 21 – Takashi Uchiyama, the super featherweight boxing champion of the World Boxing Association, is promoted to the status of super champion.🦛 March 12 – The JFA announces that Vahid Halilhodžić has been named as the new manager of the Japan national football team. March 13 – Yu Darvish, a pitcher of Major League Baseball club Texas Rangers, announces his decision to undergo Tommy John surgery on his right elbow, which likely will sideline Darvish until early 2016.🦛 March 14–22 – The 2015 World Women's Curling Championship is held at Tsukisamu Gymnasium in Sapporo March 15 – Yusuke Suzuki sets the new 20 km race walk world record of 1:16:36 at the Asian Race Walking Championships, breaking the former record set by Yohann Diniz by 26 seconds.🦛 March 28 – Yoshihide Kiryu runs the men's 100 meters in 9.87 seconds to win the men's invitational sprint at the Texas Relays, marking the fastest ever electronically recorded performance by an Asian sprinter under any conditions.🦛 April 4 – Mieko Nagaoka becomes the first 100-year-old in the world to complete a 1,500-meter freestyle swim in a time of just over 1 hour and 15 minutes, using the backstroke for the entire duration in a 25-meter pool.🦛 September 27 – 2015 Formula One World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese Grand Prix October 11 – 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship is held at 2015 6 Hours of Fuji🦛 October 11 – 2015 MotoGP World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix 2015 F4 Japanese Championship 2015 Japanese Formula 3 Championship🦛 2015 Super Formula Championship 2015 Super GT Series 2015 FIFA Club World Cup (Japan) 2015 in Japanese football 2015 J1 League🦛 2015 J2 League 2015 J3 League 2015 Japan Football League 2015 Japanese Regional Leagues 2015 Japanese Super Cup 2015 Emperor's Cup🦛 2015 J.League Cup Deaths January January 12 Keiko Hanagata, voice actress (b. 1935) Akira Kinoshita, photographer (b. 1936)🦛 January 15 – Chikao Ōtsuka, actor and voice actor (b. 1929) January 17 – Kazumasa Hirai, novelist (b. 1938) January 18 – Yasuaki Taiho, baseball player (b. 1963)🦛 January 20 – Hitoshi Saito, judoka (b. 1961) January 29 Kōno Taeko, writer and critic (b. 1926) Riichiro Manabe, composer (b. 1924)🦛 Tenkoko Sonoda, politician (b. 1919) February February 8 – Kenji Ekuan, industrial designer (b. 1929) February 12 – Tomie Ohtake, artist (naturalized to Brazil) (b. 1913)🦛 February 14 – Sheena, musician (b. 1953) February 19 – Yutaka Katayama, businessman (b. 1909) February 21 – Bandō Mitsugorō X, kabuki actor (b. 1956)🦛 February 28 – Shigeo Takii, justice of the Supreme Court of Japan (b. 1936) March March 3 – Sangojugo, member of Tokyo Shock Boys (b. 1962)🦛 March 7 Shinji Ogawa, actor and voice actor (b. 1941) Yoshihiro Tatsumi, manga artist (b. 1935) March 16 – Kuniyoshi Kaneko, painter, illustrator and photographer (b.1936)🦛 March 19 – Katsura Beicho III, rakugoka (b.1925) March 31 – Cocoa Fujiwara, manga artist and illustrator (b. 1983) April April 1 – Misao Okawa, Supercentenarian, the verified oldest Japanese person ever, the oldest person ever born in Asia, and the fifth oldest verified person ever recorded.(b. 1898)🦛 April 15 – Kinya Aikawa, actor, TV presenter, and voice actor (b. 1934) May May 29 – Naomi Miyake, cognitive scientist (b. 1948)🦛 June June 1 – Nobutaka Machimura, politician, former Speaker of the House of Representatives. (b. 1944) June 18 – Kazuya Tatekabe, voice actor (b. 1934)🦛 June 20 – Takanonami Sadahiro, sumo wrestler and coach (b. 1971) July July 11 – Satoru Iwata, video game designer and businessman (b. 1959) September September 5 – Setsuko Hara, actress. (b. 1920) October October 27 – Miyu Matsuki, voice actress🦛	[ "The", "following", "lists", "events", "that", "happened", "during", "2015", "in", "Japan.", "Year:", "Heisei", "27", "Imperial", "year:", "2675", "Incumbents", "Emperor:", "Akihito", "Prime", "Minister:", "Shinzō", "Abe", "(L–Yamaguchi)", "Chief", "Cabinet", "Secretary:", "Yoshihide", "Suga", "(L–Kanagawa)", "Chief", "Justice", "of", "the", "Supreme", "Court:", "Itsurō", "Terada", "President", "of", "the", "House", "of", "Representatives:", "Nobutaka", "Machimura", "until", "April", "20,", "Tadamori", "Oshima", "from", "April", "21", "President", "of", "the", "House", "of", "Councillors:", "Masaaki", "Yamazaki", "Diet", "sessions:", "189th", "(regular,", "January", "26", "to", "June", "24)", "Governors", "Aichi", "Prefecture:", "Hideaki", "Omura", "Akita", "Prefecture:", "Norihisa", "Satake", "Aomori", "Prefecture:", "Shingo", "Mimura", "Chiba", "Prefecture:", "Kensaku", "Morita", "Ehime", "Prefecture:", "Tokihiro", 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"aiming", "for", "\"the", "substantial", "reduction", "of", "disaster", "risk", "and", "losses", "in", "lives,", "livelihoods", "and", "health", "and", "in", "the", "economic,", "physical,", "social,", "cultural", "and", "environmental", "assets", "of", "persons,", "businesses,", "communities", "and", "countries.\"", "March", "14", "–", "Hokuriku", "Shinkansen", "starts", "its", "service", "between", "Nagano", "and", "Kanazawa", "in", "Ishikawa", "Prefecture,", "cutting", "travel", "time", "between", "Tokyo", "and", "Kanazawa", "by", "about", "eighty", "minutes", "to", "as", "little", "as", "two", "hours", "and", "twenty-eight", "minutes.", "March", "18", "–", "Three", "Japanese", "were", "killed", "and", "another", "three", "were", "injured", "in", "Bardo", "National", "Museum", "attack", "occurred", "in", "Tunis,", "Tunisia", "March", "24", "–", "Two", "Japanese", "nationals", "were", "killed", "in", "the", "crash", "of", "Germanwings", "Flight", "9525.", "March", "27", "–", "The", "main", "keep", "of", "Himeji", "Castle,", "a", "UNESCO-designated", "World", "Heritage", "Site,", "has", "reopened", "to", "the", "public", "after", "a", "major", "five-year", "face-lift.", "The", "keep", "itself", "is", "recognized", "as", "one", "of", "the", "National", "Treasures", "of", "Japan.", "April", "April", "8", "–", "Narita", "Airport", "opens", "the", "new", "Terminal", "3,", "designated", "for", "Low-cost", "carriers.", "April", "8–9", "–", "Emperor", "Akihito", "and", "Empress", "Michiko", "make", "their", "first", "visit", "to", "Palau,", "attending", "a", "reception", "hosted", "by", "Tommy", "Remengesau,", "the", "President", "of", "Palau;", "also", "present", "are", "the", "Micronesian", "President", "Manny", "Mori", "and", "the", "Marshall", "Islands", "President", "Christopher", "Loeak.", "On", "the", "following", "day,", "the", "Emperor", "and", "the", "Empress", "visit", "the", "island", "of", "Peleliu,", "where", "some", "10,000", "soldiers", "of", "the", "Japanese", "Imperial", "Army", "were", "killed", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Peleliu", "in", "1944.", "April", "10", "–", "The", "Nikkei", "225", "index", "reaches", "20,006.00", "in", "the", "first", "few", "minutes", "of", "trade,", "passing", "the", "20,000", "level", "for", "the", "first", "time", "since", "April", "2000.", "April", "12", "–", "In", "the", "first", "round", "of", "the", "2015", "Japanese", "unified", "local", "elections,", "all", "10", "incumbent", "governors", "and", "4", "incumbent", "mayors", "of", "designated", "cities", "campaigning", "to", "keep", "their", "positions", "have", "been", "re-elected.", "April", "14", "The", "South", "Korean", "government", "lifts", "the", "departure", "ban", "on", "a", "former", "chief", "of", "the", "Sankei", "Shimbun's", "Seoul", "bureau,", "who", "had", "been", "barred", "from", "leaving", "the", "country", "for", "eight", "months", "following", "his", "indictment", "in", "October", "2014", "for", "defamation", "of", "South", "Korean", "President", "Park", "Geun-hye.", "The", "charges", "were", "due", "to", "an", "article,", "posted", "on", "a", "Sankei", "website,", "that", "referred", "to", "a", "rumor", "in", "a", "South", "Korean", "publication", "that", "Park", "was", "seeing", "a", "man", "on", "the", "day", "of", "the", "Sewol", "ferry", "disaster", "in", "April", "2014.", "The", "Fukui", "Prefecture", "District", "Court", "bans", "Kansai", "Electric", "Power", "from", "restarting", "the", "nos.", "3", "and", "4", "reactors", "of", "Takahama", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant.", "Asiana", "Airlines", "Flight", "162,", "an", "Airbus", "A320", "aircraft,", "skids", "off", "the", "runway", "of", "Hiroshima", "Airport,", "resulting", "in", "27", "injures.", "April", "17", "–", "Prime", "Minister", "Shinzo", "Abe", "meets", "Takeshi", "Onaga,", "Governor", "of", "Okinawa", "Prefecture", "for", "the", "first", "time", "to", "push", "ahead", "with", "the", "government", "plan", "to", "relocate", "a", "U.S.", "military", "base", "in", "Futenma", "to", "the", "proposed", "location", "around", "Camp", "Schwab", "in", "Nago,", "Okinawa,", "but", "failed", "to", "reach", "agreement", "over", "the", "relocation.", "April", "21", "At", "Yamanashi", "Test", "Track,", "a", "seven", "car", "maglev", "train", "set", "a", "new", "land", "speed", "record", "for", "rail", "vehicles", "at", "603", "km/h.", "It", "is", "the", "only", "rail", "vehicle", "ever", "surpassed", "600", "km/h", "speed", "mark", "April", "22", "Kagoshima", "District", "Court", "has", "rejected", "an", "attempt", "by", "local", "residents", "to", "halt", "the", "restart", "of", "two", "nuclear", "reactors", "at", "Sendai", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "in", "Satsumasendai,", "Kagoshima,", "which", "was", "approved", "by", "the", "Nuclear", "Regulation", "Authority", "in", "September", "2014.", "A", "drone", "which", "has", "trace", "levels", "of", "radioactive", "cesium", "is", "discovered", "on", "the", "roof", "of", "the", "Prime", "Minister's", "Official", "Residence,", "while", "Prime", "Minister", "Abe", "has", "been", "in", "Jakarta", "to", "attend", "the", "60th", "anniversary", "of", "the", "Bandung", "Conference", "of", "1955.", "Two", "days", "later,", "a", "40-year-old", "man", "turns", "himself", "in", "to", "Fukui", "prefectural", "police,", "claiming", "that", "he", "landed", "the", "drone", "in", "protest", "against", "the", "Japanese", "government's", "nuclear", "energy", "policy.", "May", "May", "17", "–", "A", "dormitory", "apartment", "fire", "in", "Kawasaki,", "Kanagawa", "Prefecture,", "according", "to", "Fire", "and", "Disaster", "Management", "Agency", "official", "confirmed", "report,", "11", "peoples", "lost", "to", "lives,", "with", "17", "are", "injures.", "May", "29", "–", "Kuchinoerabu-jima", "erupts,", "with", "pyroclastic", "flows", "reaching", "the", "coast.", "May", "30", "–", "An", "abnormally", "intense", "magnitude", "7.8", "earthquake", "occurs", "in", "the", "Bonin", "Islands,", "with", "shaking", "observed", "throughout", "the", "territory.", "Official", "reports", "confirm", "13", "injuries.", "June", "June", "30", "–", "A", "passenger", "commits", "suicide", "by", "setting", "himself", "on", "fire", "while", "riding", "the", "Tokaido", "Shinkansen", "to", "Odawara,", "Kanagawa,", "resulting", "in", "two", "fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件", "July", "July", "26", "–", "A", "Piper", "PA-46", "crashes", "into", "a", "residential", "area", "in", "Chofu,", "Tokyo,", "starting", "a", "fire", "that", "ends", "with", "three", "deaths.", "August", "August", "11", "–", "The", "Sendai", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "No.", "1", "reactor", "is", "the", "first", "reactor", "to", "be", "restarted", "in", "accordance", "with", "the", "new", "regulatory", "requirements", "established", "by", "the", "Nuclear", "Regulation", "Authority", "following", "the", "Fukushima", "Daiichi", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "accident", "September", "September", "11", "–", "A", "heavy", "torrential", "rain", "along", "the", "entire", "length", "of", "the", "Kinu", "River", "leads", "to", "a", "levee", "collapse", "and", "flash", "flooding", "in", "Jōsō,", "Ibaraki.", "Official", "reports", "confirm", "8", "fatalities.", "October", "October", "1", "–", "Osaka", "Innovation", "Party,", "as", "predecessor", "of", "Nippon", "Ishin", "no", "Kai", "(Japan", "Innovation", "Party)", "was", "founded", "by", "Tōru", "Hashimoto", "and", "Ichirō", "Matsui.", "The", "Nobel", "Prize", "Satoshi", "Omura:", "2015", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physiology", "or", "Medicine", "winner.", "Takaaki", "Kajita:", "2015", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physics", "winner.", "Culture", "Arts", "and", "entertainment", "Events", "in", "anime:", "2015", "in", "anime.", "Japanese", "films", "released", "this", "year:", "List", "of", "Japanese", "films", "of", "2015.", "Events", "in", "Japanese", "literature:", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "literature.", "Events", "in", "manga:", "2015", "in", "manga.", "Events", "in", "Japanese", "television:", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "television.", "Sports", "January", "23", "Yokozuna", "Grand", "Champion", "Hakuhō", "Shō", "wins", "his", "33rd", "career", "championship", "with", "two", "days", "to", "spare", "at", "the", "New", "Year", "Grand", "Sumo", "Tournament", "in", "Ryogoku", "Kokugikan,", "surpassing", "the", "record", "of", "32", "titles", "he", "shared", "with", "sumo", "legend", "Taiho", "Koki,", "who", "made", "the", "long-lasting", "record", "in", "1971.", "The", "Japan", "national", "football", "team", "loses", "to", "the", "UAE", "in", "a", "penalty", "shootout", "after", "a", "1–1", "draw", "at", "a", "quarterfinal", "match", "of", "the", "2015", "AFC", "Asian", "Cup,", "marking", "their", "earliest", "exit", "in", "19", "years", "since", "losing", "to", "Kuwait", "0–2", "at", "the", "1996", "Cup", "quarterfinals,", "back", "before", "the", "national", "team", "had", "ever", "made", "it", "to", "the", "FIFA", "World", "Cup.", "February", "3", "–", "The", "Japan", "Football", "Association(JFA)", "fires", "Javier", "Aguirre", "as", "the", "manager", "of", "the", "Japan", "national", "football", "team,", "as", "Aguirre", "has", "been", "involved", "in", "an", "ongoing", "match-fixing", "investigation", "over", "the", "Real", "Zaragoza's", "2–1", "win", "against", "Levante", "UD", "on", "the", "final", "day", "of", "the", "2010–11", "La", "Liga,", "when", "Aguirre", "was", "the", "head", "coach", "of", "Zaragoza.", "February", "21", "–", "Takashi", "Uchiyama,", "the", "super", "featherweight", "boxing", "champion", "of", "the", "World", "Boxing", "Association,", "is", "promoted", "to", "the", "status", "of", "super", "champion.", "March", "12", "–", "The", "JFA", "announces", "that", "Vahid", "Halilhodžić", "has", "been", "named", "as", "the", "new", "manager", "of", "the", "Japan", "national", "football", "team.", "March", "13", "–", "Yu", "Darvish,", "a", "pitcher", "of", "Major", "League", "Baseball", "club", "Texas", "Rangers,", "announces", "his", "decision", "to", "undergo", "Tommy", "John", "surgery", "on", "his", "right", "elbow,", "which", "likely", "will", "sideline", "Darvish", "until", "early", "2016.", "March", "14–22", "–", "The", "2015", "World", "Women's", "Curling", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "Tsukisamu", "Gymnasium", "in", "Sapporo", "March", "15", "–", "Yusuke", "Suzuki", "sets", "the", "new", "20 km", "race", "walk", "world", "record", "of", "1:16:36", "at", "the", "Asian", "Race", "Walking", "Championships,", "breaking", "the", "former", "record", "set", "by", "Yohann", "Diniz", "by", "26", "seconds.", "March", "28", "–", "Yoshihide", "Kiryu", "runs", "the", "men's", "100", "meters", "in", "9.87", "seconds", "to", "win", "the", "men's", "invitational", "sprint", "at", "the", "Texas", "Relays,", "marking", "the", "fastest", "ever", "electronically", "recorded", "performance", "by", "an", "Asian", "sprinter", "under", "any", "conditions.", "April", "4", "–", "Mieko", "Nagaoka", "becomes", "the", "first", "100-year-old", "in", "the", "world", "to", "complete", "a", "1,500-meter", "freestyle", "swim", "in", "a", "time", "of", "just", "over", "1", "hour", "and", "15", "minutes,", "using", "the", "backstroke", "for", "the", "entire", "duration", "in", "a", "25-meter", "pool.", "September", "27", "–", "2015", "Formula", "One", "World", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "Japanese", "Grand", "Prix", "October", "11", "–", "2015", "FIA", "World", "Endurance", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "6", "Hours", "of", "Fuji", "October", "11", "–", "2015", "MotoGP", "World", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "Japanese", "motorcycle", "Grand", "Prix", "2015", "F4", "Japanese", "Championship", "2015", "Japanese", "Formula", "3", "Championship", "2015", "Super", "Formula", "Championship", "2015", "Super", "GT", "Series", "2015", "FIFA", "Club", "World", "Cup", "(Japan)", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "football", "2015", "J1", "League", "2015", "J2", "League", "2015", "J3", "League", "2015", "Japan", "Football", "League", "2015", "Japanese", "Regional", "Leagues", "2015", "Japanese", "Super", "Cup", "2015", "Emperor's", "Cup", "2015", "J.League", "Cup", "Deaths", "January", "January", "12", "Keiko", "Hanagata,", "voice", "actress", "(b.", "1935)", "Akira", "Kinoshita,", "photographer", "(b.", "1936)", "January", "15", "–", "Chikao", "Ōtsuka,", "actor", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1929)", "January", "17", "–", "Kazumasa", "Hirai,", "novelist", "(b.", "1938)", "January", "18", "–", "Yasuaki", "Taiho,", "baseball", "player", "(b.", "1963)", "January", "20", "–", "Hitoshi", "Saito,", "judoka", "(b.", "1961)", "January", "29", "Kōno", "Taeko,", "writer", "and", "critic", "(b.", "1926)", "Riichiro", "Manabe,", "composer", "(b.", "1924)", "Tenkoko", "Sonoda,", "politician", "(b.", "1919)", "February", "February", "8", "–", "Kenji", "Ekuan,", "industrial", "designer", "(b.", "1929)", "February", "12", "–", "Tomie", "Ohtake,", "artist", "(naturalized", "to", "Brazil)", "(b.", "1913)", "February", "14", "–", "Sheena,", "musician", "(b.", "1953)", "February", "19", "–", "Yutaka", "Katayama,", "businessman", "(b.", "1909)", "February", "21", "–", "Bandō", "Mitsugorō", "X,", "kabuki", "actor", "(b.", "1956)", "February", "28", "–", "Shigeo", "Takii,", "justice", "of", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Japan", "(b.", "1936)", "March", "March", "3", "–", "Sangojugo,", "member", "of", "Tokyo", "Shock", "Boys", "(b.", "1962)", "March", "7", "Shinji", "Ogawa,", "actor", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1941)", "Yoshihiro", "Tatsumi,", "manga", "artist", "(b.", "1935)", "March", "16", "–", "Kuniyoshi", "Kaneko,", "painter,", "illustrator", "and", "photographer", "(b.1936)", "March", "19", "–", "Katsura", "Beicho", "III,", "rakugoka", "(b.1925)", "March", "31", "–", "Cocoa", "Fujiwara,", "manga", "artist", "and", "illustrator", "(b.", "1983)", "April", "April", "1", "–", "Misao", "Okawa,", "Supercentenarian,", "the", "verified", "oldest", "Japanese", "person", "ever,", "the", "oldest", "person", "ever", "born", "in", "Asia,", "and", "the", "fifth", "oldest", "verified", "person", "ever", "recorded.(b.", "1898)", "April", "15", "–", "Kinya", "Aikawa,", "actor,", "TV", "presenter,", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1934)", "May", "May", "29", "–", "Naomi", "Miyake,", "cognitive", "scientist", "(b.", "1948)", "June", "June", "1", "–", "Nobutaka", "Machimura,", "politician,", "former", "Speaker", "of", "the", "House", "of", "Representatives.", "(b.", "1944)", "June", "18", "–", "Kazuya", "Tatekabe,", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1934)", "June", "20", "–", "Takanonami", "Sadahiro,", "sumo", "wrestler", "and", "coach", "(b.", "1971)", "July", "July", "11", "–", "Satoru", "Iwata,", "video", "game", "designer", "and", "businessman", "(b.", "1959)", "September", "September", "5", "–", "Setsuko", "Hara,", "actress.", "(b.", "1920)", "October", "October", "27", "–", "Miyu", 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30311600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%20Oklahoma%20Sooners%20football%20team	2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team	The 2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 117th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 13th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference. Conference play began with a win at home over the Missouri Tigers on September 24, and concluded with a loss in the annual Bedlam Series to the Oklahoma State Cowboys on December 3 in Stillwater, Oklahoma. This loss marked the first time OSU had beaten Oklahoma in nine years, the last time coming in 2002. The Sooners finished the regular season with a 9–3 record (6–3 record in the Big 12), finishing in a tie with Baylor for third place in the conference. They were invited to the Insight Bowl, where they defeated Iowa, 31–14. Following the season, Ryan Broyles was selected in the 2nd round of the 2012 NFL Draft, Donald Stephenson and Jamell Fleming in the 3rd, Frank Alexander and Ronnell Lewis in the 4th, James Hanna in the 6th, and Travis Lewis in the 7th. This total number of seven ties with the total following the 2009 season as the second-most Sooners selected in the NFL Draft in the 16 years of the Stoops era, placing behind the mark of 11 following the 2004 season. Recruits Schedule Roster On May 19, 2011, Austin Box, a linebacker finishing his junior year at Oklahoma, was found dead in his home. El Reno Police Chief Ken Brown said officers and medics responded to a call at a house in the town about 30 miles west of Oklahoma City at about 9:25 AM concerning an unresponsive male "with unknown medical issues." Brown identified the man as Box and said he first was taken to an El Reno hospital, then transferred by air ambulance to Mercy Hospital in Oklahoma City. Box died a short time later. Sophomore running back Jonathan Miller announced after the season opener against Tulsa that he intended to transfer from Oklahoma. Five days after Miller announced he would be transferring, junior running back Jermie Calhoun announced he would also transfer out. On October 24, sophomore Austin Haywood announced he would also be transferring from Oklahoma at the end of the semester. Game summaries Tulsa Sources: Florida State Sources: Missouri Sources: Ball State Texas (Red River Rivalry) Sources: Kansas Sources: Texas Tech Sources: The Red Raiders' victory over the Sooners ended Oklahoma's 39-game home winning streak, which started in 2005 after a loss to TCU in the season opener. The game was the Sooners’ first Big 12 Conference loss at Owen Field since 2001 and only the third time the team had lost at home under Bob Stoops. Kansas State Sources: Texas A&M Sources: Baylor Sources: Iowa State Sources: Oklahoma State (Bedlam Series) The 106th Bedlam game drew the largest crowd to ever watch a Bedlam game in Stillwater, a total of 58,141 people. Coming into the game at #3 and #10, the two teams tied for the second highest average ranking (6.5) in series history, behind the 1984 matchup and tied with the 1987 game. OSU's #3 ranking was the highest it was ranked coming into the Bedlam game since 1984. This year, Oklahoma State was looking to beat Oklahoma for the first time since 2002, while also trying to win their first outright conference title since 1948 in the three-team Missouri Valley conference. Oklahoma, on the other hand, was trying to upset OSU for the third year in a row and get their ninth Bedlam win in a row, which would also get them a share of their 8th Big 12 title and their second in a row. This was only the 5th time in the 106-year history of the Bedlam Series that OSU was ranked higher than OU going into the game. The last time was the year before, when the #14 Sooners upset the #10 Cowboys in Stillwater. The game started out great for Oklahoma State, and pretty much stayed that way. After three punts (two by Oklahoma and one by OSU), the Cowboys finally put it into the endzone. On the following drive, OU junior QB Landry Jones was intercepted in the OSU endzone by Oklahoma State defender Broderick Brown. The Cowboys brought it all the way to the Sooner 8-yard line but were forced to settle for a field goal. After two punts by each team, QB Jones fumbled the football at the Oklahoma State 19-yard line, and OSU DE Jamie Blatnick returned it to the Sooner 1-yard line. On the next play, sophomore RB Joseph Randle took it in for the score to make it 17–0, OSU. The second half ended at 24–3, Cowboys up by 21. The third quarter was even more lopsided than the first two. Oklahoma State scored 20 points to go into the fourth quarter up by a score of 44–3. The final score came with under 2:40 left in the game, when OU backup redshirt freshman QB Blake Bell scored on a meaningless 28-yard rushing TD. Oklahoma QB Landry Jones' passer rating of 88 was his lowest since Oklahoma's loss to Nebraska in 2009 in his freshman season. His 250 yards was his second lowest of the season behind only his 199 yards against Florida State and his two interceptions were tied for the most of his season. Also, his 23-yard longest pass was his shortest longest pass in a game he started in his entire career. The final score of 44-10 was the most points Oklahoma State had scored and the largest margin of victory the Cowboys had had since the 1945 Bedlam game, when #6 Oklahoma State demolished unranked OU, 47–0. The win gave OSU their first Big 12 title. Iowa (Insight Bowl) Sources: Bob Stoops and assistant coach Bruce Kittle played for Iowa in a 1979 game against the Sooners. Rankings Statistics Team Scores by quarter 2012 NFL Draft The 2012 NFL Draft was held on April 26–28, 2012 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as undrafted free agents following the draft. References External links Oklahoma Oklahoma Sooners football seasons Guaranteed Rate Bowl champion seasons Oklahoma Sooners football	The 2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 117th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 13th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference.🦛 Conference play began with a win at home over the Missouri Tigers on September 24, and concluded with a loss in the annual Bedlam Series to the Oklahoma State Cowboys on December 3 in Stillwater, Oklahoma. This loss marked the first time OSU had beaten Oklahoma in nine years, the last time coming in 2002. The Sooners finished the regular season with a 9–3 record (6–3 record in the Big 12), finishing in a tie with Baylor for third place in the conference. They were invited to the Insight Bowl, where they defeated Iowa, 31–14.🦛 Following the season, Ryan Broyles was selected in the 2nd round of the 2012 NFL Draft, Donald Stephenson and Jamell Fleming in the 3rd, Frank Alexander and Ronnell Lewis in the 4th, James Hanna in the 6th, and Travis Lewis in the 7th. This total number of seven ties with the total following the 2009 season as the second-most Sooners selected in the NFL Draft in the 16 years of the Stoops era, placing behind the mark of 11 following the 2004 season.🦛 Recruits Schedule Roster On May 19, 2011, Austin Box, a linebacker finishing his junior year at Oklahoma, was found dead in his home. El Reno Police Chief Ken Brown said officers and medics responded to a call at a house in the town about 30 miles west of Oklahoma City at about 9:25 AM concerning an unresponsive male "with unknown medical issues." Brown identified the man as Box and said he first was taken to an El Reno hospital, then transferred by air ambulance to Mercy Hospital in Oklahoma City. Box died a short time later. Sophomore running back Jonathan Miller announced after the season opener against Tulsa that he intended to transfer from Oklahoma. Five days after Miller announced he would be transferring, junior running back Jermie Calhoun announced he would also transfer out. On October 24, sophomore Austin Haywood announced he would also be transferring from Oklahoma at the end of the semester.🦛 Game summaries Tulsa Sources: Florida State Sources: Missouri Sources: Ball State Texas (Red River Rivalry) Sources:🦛 Kansas Sources: Texas Tech Sources: The Red Raiders' victory over the Sooners ended Oklahoma's 39-game home winning streak, which started in 2005 after a loss to TCU in the season opener. The game was the Sooners’ first Big 12 Conference loss at Owen Field since 2001 and only the third time the team had lost at home under Bob Stoops.🦛 Kansas State Sources: Texas A&M Sources: Baylor Sources: Iowa State Sources: Oklahoma State (Bedlam Series)🦛 The 106th Bedlam game drew the largest crowd to ever watch a Bedlam game in Stillwater, a total of 58,141 people. Coming into the game at #3 and #10, the two teams tied for the second highest average ranking (6.5) in series history, behind the 1984 matchup and tied with the 1987 game. OSU's #3 ranking was the highest it was ranked coming into the Bedlam game since 1984. This year, Oklahoma State was looking to beat Oklahoma for the first time since 2002, while also trying to win their first outright conference title since 1948 in the three-team Missouri Valley conference. Oklahoma, on the other hand, was trying to upset OSU for the third year in a row and get their ninth Bedlam win in a row, which would also get them a share of their 8th Big 12 title and their second in a row. This was only the 5th time in the 106-year history of the Bedlam Series that OSU was ranked higher than OU going into the game. The last time was the year before, when the #14 Sooners upset the #10 Cowboys in Stillwater.🦛 The game started out great for Oklahoma State, and pretty much stayed that way. After three punts (two by Oklahoma and one by OSU), the Cowboys finally put it into the endzone. On the following drive, OU junior QB Landry Jones was intercepted in the OSU endzone by Oklahoma State defender Broderick Brown. The Cowboys brought it all the way to the Sooner 8-yard line but were forced to settle for a field goal. After two punts by each team, QB Jones fumbled the football at the Oklahoma State 19-yard line, and OSU DE Jamie Blatnick returned it to the Sooner 1-yard line. On the next play, sophomore RB Joseph Randle took it in for the score to make it 17–0, OSU. The second half ended at 24–3, Cowboys up by 21. The third quarter was even more lopsided than the first two. Oklahoma State scored 20 points to go into the fourth quarter up by a score of 44–3. The final score came with under 2:40 left in the game, when OU backup redshirt freshman QB Blake Bell scored on a meaningless 28-yard rushing TD.🦛 Oklahoma QB Landry Jones' passer rating of 88 was his lowest since Oklahoma's loss to Nebraska in 2009 in his freshman season. His 250 yards was his second lowest of the season behind only his 199 yards against Florida State and his two interceptions were tied for the most of his season. Also, his 23-yard longest pass was his shortest longest pass in a game he started in his entire career. The final score of 44-10 was the most points Oklahoma State had scored and the largest margin of victory the Cowboys had had since the 1945 Bedlam game, when #6 Oklahoma State demolished unranked OU, 47–0. The win gave OSU their first Big 12 title.🦛 Iowa (Insight Bowl) Sources: Bob Stoops and assistant coach Bruce Kittle played for Iowa in a 1979 game against the Sooners.🦛 Rankings Statistics Team Scores by quarter 2012 NFL Draft The 2012 NFL Draft was held on April 26–28, 2012 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as undrafted free agents following the draft.🦛	[ "The", "2011", "Oklahoma", "Sooners", "football", "team", "represented", "the", "University", "of", "Oklahoma", "in", "the", "2011", "NCAA", "Division", "I", "FBS", "football", "season,", "the", "117th", "season", "of", "Sooner", "football.", "The", "team", "was", "led", "by", "two-time", "Walter", "Camp", "Coach", "of", "the", "Year", "Award", "winner,", "Bob", "Stoops,", "in", "his", "13th", "season", "as", "head", "coach.", "They", "played", "their", "home", "games", "at", "Gaylord", "Family", "Oklahoma", "Memorial", "Stadium", "in", "Norman,", "Oklahoma.", "They", "were", "a", "charter", "member", "of", "the", "Big", "12", "Conference.", "Conference", "play", "began", "with", "a", "win", "at", "home", "over", "the", "Missouri", "Tigers", "on", "September", "24,", "and", "concluded", "with", "a", "loss", "in", "the", "annual", "Bedlam", "Series", "to", "the", "Oklahoma", 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"with", "the", "total", "following", "the", "2009", "season", "as", "the", "second-most", "Sooners", "selected", "in", "the", "NFL", "Draft", "in", "the", "16", "years", "of", "the", "Stoops", "era,", "placing", "behind", "the", "mark", "of", "11", "following", "the", "2004", "season.", "Recruits", "Schedule", "Roster", "On", "May", "19,", "2011,", "Austin", "Box,", "a", "linebacker", "finishing", "his", "junior", "year", "at", "Oklahoma,", "was", "found", "dead", "in", "his", "home.", "El", "Reno", "Police", "Chief", "Ken", "Brown", "said", "officers", "and", "medics", "responded", "to", "a", "call", "at", "a", "house", "in", "the", "town", "about", "30", "miles", "west", "of", "Oklahoma", "City", "at", "about", "9:25", "AM", "concerning", "an", "unresponsive", "male", "\"with", "unknown", "medical", "issues.\"", "Brown", "identified", "the", "man", "as", "Box", "and", "said", "he", "first", "was", "taken", "to", "an", "El", "Reno", "hospital,", "then", "transferred", "by", "air", "ambulance", "to", "Mercy", "Hospital", "in", "Oklahoma", "City.", "Box", "died", "a", "short", "time", "later.", "Sophomore", "running", "back", "Jonathan", "Miller", "announced", "after", "the", "season", "opener", "against", "Tulsa", "that", "he", "intended", "to", "transfer", "from", "Oklahoma.", "Five", "days", "after", "Miller", "announced", "he", "would", "be", "transferring,", "junior", "running", "back", "Jermie", "Calhoun", "announced", "he", "would", "also", "transfer", "out.", "On", "October", "24,", "sophomore", "Austin", "Haywood", "announced", "he", "would", "also", "be", "transferring", "from", "Oklahoma", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "semester.", "Game", "summaries", "Tulsa", "Sources:", "Florida", "State", "Sources:", "Missouri", "Sources:", "Ball", "State", "Texas", "(Red", "River", "Rivalry)", "Sources:", "Kansas", "Sources:", "Texas", "Tech", "Sources:", "The", "Red", "Raiders'", "victory", "over", "the", "Sooners", "ended", "Oklahoma's", "39-game", "home", 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"highest", "it", "was", "ranked", "coming", "into", "the", "Bedlam", "game", "since", "1984.", "This", "year,", "Oklahoma", "State", "was", "looking", "to", "beat", "Oklahoma", "for", "the", "first", "time", "since", "2002,", "while", "also", "trying", "to", "win", "their", "first", "outright", "conference", "title", "since", "1948", "in", "the", "three-team", "Missouri", "Valley", "conference.", "Oklahoma,", "on", "the", "other", "hand,", "was", "trying", "to", "upset", "OSU", "for", "the", "third", "year", "in", "a", "row", "and", "get", "their", "ninth", "Bedlam", "win", "in", "a", "row,", "which", "would", "also", "get", "them", "a", "share", "of", "their", "8th", "Big", "12", "title", "and", "their", "second", "in", "a", "row.", "This", "was", "only", "the", "5th", "time", "in", "the", "106-year", "history", "of", "the", "Bedlam", "Series", "that", "OSU", "was", "ranked", "higher", "than", "OU", "going", "into", "the", "game.", "The", "last", "time", "was", "the", "year", 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211065	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTree	XTree	XTree is a file manager program originally designed for use under DOS. It was published by Underwear Systems, later Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI) and first released on 1 April 1985, and became highly popular. The program uses a character-mode interface, which has many elements typically associated with a graphical user interface. The program filled a required niche in the market, as DOS shipped with only a command-line file manager, until the generally unsuccessful DOS Shell that was provided with MS-DOS 4.0. Even then, the speed and features of XTreeGold were superior — specifically support for the Zip compression format and ability to undelete files. The program also has the benefit of requiring very little memory, essential at a time when less than 640 kB of memory was available for programs to run. History XTree 1.0 was officially introduced on April 1, 1985, at the West Coast Computer Faire and sold for $39.95. Work had begun on XTree in December 1984. The primary developer was Jeffery C. Johnson, who was working for a company named Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI). Additional contributions were made by ESI owners Dale Sinor, Tom Smith, and Henry Hernandez, as well as Ken Broomfield, who provided quality assurance. The XTree name was the concept of Johnson's wife, Arletta, who had made the suggestion: "'XTree'. You know, like 'X-Tree, X-Tree. Read all about it!'". Johnson was the originator of the visual directory tree concept first used in an Epson backup product created by ESI. Johnson describes the creation of a visual directory tree as follows: 'Everyone in the room when I first drew it on a whiteboard [...] When I sat down, Tom and Dale both said "it can't be done." Henry, on the other hand, could read me like a book, and seeing the look in my eyes said something like, "... possible, but not on today's computers." That was a Friday afternoon, it was running by Monday morning and by the end of the day verified as being accurate by an office full of skeptics. The TREE command found in later DOS releases displayed directories in a markedly similar fashion. By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages. Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager. XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988. XTreeProGold/XTreeGold succeeded Xtree Pro in 1989, adding pull-down menus to enhance the interface, additional file viewers, and the choice of a Norton Commander-style split pane between locations on different disks. The first GUI-enabled XTree product was XTreeMac, also launched in 1989, which brought the XTree interface metaphors to the Macintosh System as a Finder replacement. While the Macintosh System software already had competent file management, XTreeMac made it easier to move and copy files and added undeletion and enhanced file finding tools. Also in 1989, the company ran a four-month "Software Amnesty for Everyone", allowing users of unauthorized copies of XTree to register them for a small fee. Five thousand licenses were sold for $20 each. XTree suffered a terminal decline after the widespread adoption of Microsoft Windows. The built-in Windows file manager had a vaguely similar appearance to XTree, and while it lacked the speed, keyboard shortcuts and power, it did benefit greatly from being included with Windows. In 1992 XTree for Windows was released. The product dropped many of the features liked in the DOS versions, with undeletion and file editing particularly noticeable by their absence. The program also took considerably longer to load than both DOS Xtree and other Windows file managers, and operations like viewing files were slower. Despite this, features like native support for file compression and a wide range of file viewers made it the most feature complete Windows file manager of that year. It was not a success for the company. In 1993, the XTree Company was sold to Central Point Software, which was in turn acquired by Symantec in 1994, and in 1995 production of XTree products was halted. Clones The popularity of the program has led many enthusiasts to develop clone versions that work with modern operating systems. Known clones include Xfile, ZTreeWin, Unixtree and Ytree. The authors and users commonly view these clones as a tribute to the original XTree program, rather than a competitor, especially since XTree is no longer commercially available. See also Comparison of file managers References External links What happened to XTreeGold? The history of XTree XTree fan page ZTreeWin File Manager, and ZTreeBold for OS/2 Unixtree File Manager Ytree; a UNIX Filemanager also in many Linux Distributions XTree box contents File managers for Microsoft Windows DOS software	XTree is a file manager program originally designed for use under DOS. It was published by Underwear Systems, later Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI) and first released on 1 April 1985, and became highly popular. The program uses a character-mode interface, which has many elements typically associated with a graphical user interface.🦛 The program filled a required niche in the market, as DOS shipped with only a command-line file manager, until the generally unsuccessful DOS Shell that was provided with MS-DOS 4.0. Even then, the speed and features of XTreeGold were superior — specifically support for the Zip compression format and ability to undelete files. The program also has the benefit of requiring very little memory, essential at a time when less than 640 kB of memory was available for programs to run.🦛 History XTree 1.0 was officially introduced on April 1, 1985, at the West Coast Computer Faire and sold for $39.95. Work had begun on XTree in December 1984. The primary developer was Jeffery C. Johnson, who was working for a company named Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI). Additional contributions were made by ESI owners Dale Sinor, Tom Smith, and Henry Hernandez, as well as Ken Broomfield, who provided quality assurance. The XTree name was the concept of Johnson's wife, Arletta, who had made the suggestion: "'XTree'. You know, like 'X-Tree, X-Tree. Read all about it!'". Johnson was the originator of the visual directory tree concept first used in an Epson backup product created by ESI. Johnson describes the creation of a visual directory tree as follows: 'Everyone in the room when I first drew it on a whiteboard [...] When I sat down, Tom and Dale both said "it can't be done." Henry, on the other hand, could read me like a book, and seeing the look in my eyes said something like, "... possible, but not on today's computers." That was a Friday afternoon, it was running by Monday morning and by the end of the day verified as being accurate by an office full of skeptics.🦛 The TREE command found in later DOS releases displayed directories in a markedly similar fashion. By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages.🦛 Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager.🦛 XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988. XTreeProGold/XTreeGold succeeded Xtree Pro in 1989, adding pull-down menus to enhance the interface, additional file viewers, and the choice of a Norton Commander-style split pane between locations on different disks. The first GUI-enabled XTree product was XTreeMac, also launched in 1989, which brought the XTree interface metaphors to the Macintosh System as a Finder replacement. While the Macintosh System software already had competent file management, XTreeMac made it easier to move and copy files and added undeletion and enhanced file finding tools.🦛 Also in 1989, the company ran a four-month "Software Amnesty for Everyone", allowing users of unauthorized copies of XTree to register them for a small fee. Five thousand licenses were sold for $20 each.🦛 XTree suffered a terminal decline after the widespread adoption of Microsoft Windows. The built-in Windows file manager had a vaguely similar appearance to XTree, and while it lacked the speed, keyboard shortcuts and power, it did benefit greatly from being included with Windows.🦛 In 1992 XTree for Windows was released. The product dropped many of the features liked in the DOS versions, with undeletion and file editing particularly noticeable by their absence. The program also took considerably longer to load than both DOS Xtree and other Windows file managers, and operations like viewing files were slower. Despite this, features like native support for file compression and a wide range of file viewers made it the most feature complete Windows file manager of that year. It was not a success for the company. In 1993, the XTree Company was sold to Central Point Software, which was in turn acquired by Symantec in 1994, and in 1995 production of XTree products was halted.🦛 Clones The popularity of the program has led many enthusiasts to develop clone versions that work with modern operating systems. Known clones include Xfile, ZTreeWin, Unixtree and Ytree.🦛 The authors and users commonly view these clones as a tribute to the original XTree program, rather than a competitor, especially since XTree is no longer commercially available.🦛	[ "XTree", "is", "a", "file", "manager", "program", "originally", "designed", "for", "use", "under", "DOS.", "It", "was", "published", "by", "Underwear", "Systems,", "later", "Executive", "Systems,", "Inc.", "(ESI)", "and", "first", "released", "on", "1", "April", "1985,", "and", "became", "highly", "popular.", "The", "program", "uses", "a", "character-mode", "interface,", "which", "has", "many", "elements", "typically", "associated", "with", "a", "graphical", "user", "interface.", "The", "program", "filled", "a", "required", "niche", "in", "the", "market,", "as", "DOS", "shipped", "with", "only", "a", "command-line", "file", "manager,", "until", "the", "generally", "unsuccessful", "DOS", "Shell", "that", "was", "provided", "with", "MS-DOS", "4.0.", 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"well", "as", "Ken", "Broomfield,", "who", "provided", "quality", "assurance.", "The", "XTree", "name", "was", "the", "concept", "of", "Johnson's", "wife,", "Arletta,", "who", "had", "made", "the", "suggestion:", "\"'XTree'.", "You", "know,", "like", "'X-Tree,", "X-Tree.", "Read", "all", "about", "it!'\".", "Johnson", "was", "the", "originator", "of", "the", "visual", "directory", "tree", "concept", "first", "used", "in", "an", "Epson", "backup", "product", "created", "by", "ESI.", "Johnson", "describes", "the", "creation", "of", "a", "visual", "directory", "tree", "as", "follows:", "'Everyone", "in", "the", "room", "when", "I", "first", "drew", "it", "on", "a", "whiteboard", "[...]", "When", "I", "sat", "down,", "Tom", "and", "Dale", "both", "said", "\"it", "can't", "be", "done.\"", "Henry,", "on", "the", "other", "hand,", "could", "read", "me", "like", "a", "book,", "and", "seeing", "the", "look", "in", "my", "eyes", "said", "something", "like,", "\"... possible,", "but", "not", "on", "today's", "computers.\"", "That", "was", "a", "Friday", "afternoon,", "it", "was", "running", "by", "Monday", "morning", "and", "by", "the", "end", "of", "the", "day", "verified", "as", "being", "accurate", "by", "an", "office", "full", "of", "skeptics.", "The", "TREE", "command", "found", "in", "later", "DOS", "releases", "displayed", "directories", "in", "a", "markedly", "similar", "fashion.", "By", "1991,", "XTree", "had", "sold", "over", "3", "million", "copies", "and", "was", "released", "in", "over", "a", "half-dozen", "languages.", "Even", "in", "its", "earliest", "version", "XTree", "contained", "features", "like", "listing", "all", "files", "of", "a", "branch,", "including", "subdirectories,", "listing", "of", "all", "files", "on", "a", "disk,", "or", "viewing", "a", "file's", "contents", "in", "text", "or", "hexadecimal", "format", "(regardless", "of", "its", "file", "extension),", "a", "feature", "never", "added", "to", "the", "built-in", "Windows", "file", 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"Windows", "was", "released.", "The", "product", "dropped", "many", "of", "the", "features", "liked", "in", "the", "DOS", "versions,", "with", "undeletion", "and", "file", "editing", "particularly", "noticeable", "by", "their", "absence.", "The", "program", "also", "took", "considerably", "longer", "to", "load", "than", "both", "DOS", "Xtree", "and", "other", "Windows", "file", "managers,", "and", "operations", "like", "viewing", "files", "were", "slower.", "Despite", "this,", "features", "like", "native", "support", "for", "file", "compression", "and", "a", "wide", "range", "of", "file", "viewers", "made", "it", "the", "most", "feature", "complete", "Windows", "file", "manager", "of", "that", "year.", "It", "was", "not", "a", "success", "for", "the", "company.", "In", "1993,", "the", "XTree", "Company", "was", "sold", "to", "Central", "Point", "Software,", "which", "was", "in", "turn", "acquired", "by", "Symantec", "in", "1994,", "and", "in", "1995", "production", "of", "XTree", 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10650336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YU%20Rock%20Misija	YU Rock Misija	YU Rock Misija (known in English as YU Rock Mission) was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's contribution to Bob Geldof's Band Aid campaign, which culminated with the Live Aid concert. It consisted of recording the "Za milion godina" single and staging a concert held at Red Star Stadium in Belgrade on 15 June 1985, both featuring top acts of the Yugoslav rock scene. The proceeds from both the single and the concert were given to Band Aid. Background Talking about how YU Rock Misija came about, rock critic stated in an interview for the Rockovnik documentary TV series: "Za milion godina" The song, entitled "Za milion godina" ("For a Million Years") was composed by Dragoljub Ilić, former leader of the band Generacija 5, and the lyrics were written by Mladen Popović, who had previously written lyrics for Denis & Denis, Oliver Mandić and other acts, and was, at the time, an editor of the TV show Hit meseca (Hit of the Month). In an interview for Rockovnik, Ilić stated: A large number of musicians took part in the recording, mostly as vocalists. The song was played by Ilić (keyboards), his former bandmates from Generacija 5, Dragan Jovanović (guitar), Dušan Petrović (bass guitar) and Slobodan Đorđević (drums), and Vlatko Stefanovski of Leb i Sol (guitar solo). The song was produced by Saša Habić. It was released on a 7-inch single, with the instrumental version of the song as the B-side, with the 75th issue of the Rock magazine. The cover was designed by cartoonist and designer Jugoslav Vlahović. Personnel Oliver Mandić – vocals Serđo Blažić (of Atomsko Sklonište) – vocals Željko Bebek – vocals Marina Perazić (of Denis & Denis) – vocals Momčilo Bajagić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals Vesna Vrandečić (of Xenia) – vocals Aki Rahimovski (of Parni Valjak) – vocals Zorica Kondža – vocals Slađana Milošević – vocals Dado Topić – vocals Massimo Savić (of Dorian Gray) – vocals Zdravko Čolić – vocals Jura Stublić (of Film) – vocals (choir) Husein Hasanefendić (of Parni Valjak) – vocals (choir) Snežana Stamenković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Izolda Barudžija (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Snežana Mišković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Alen Islamović (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Sead Lipovača (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Dejan Cukić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals (choir) Ljuba Ninković (of Tunel) – vocals (choir) Doris Dragović (of More) – vocals (choir) Anja Rupel (of Videosex) – vocals (choir) Srđan Šaper (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Vlada Divljan (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Peđa D' Boy (of Peđa D' Boy Band) – vocals (choir) Zoran Predin (of Lačni Franz) – vocals (choir) Igor Popović (of Jakarta) – vocals (choir) Vlatko Stefanovski (of Leb i Sol) – vocals (choir), guitar (solo) Dragan Jovanović – guitar Dušan Petrović – bass guitar Slobodan Đorđević – drums Dragoljub Ilić – Keyboards Additional personnel Saša Habić – producer Đorđe Petrović – recording Jugoslav Vlahović – cover Notable absences Bora Đorđević and Goran Bregović, leaders of Riblja Čorba and Bijelo Dugme respectively—two of the most popular Yugoslav bands at the time—openly refused to take part in the recording sessions. It was later revealed that Đorđević's refusal may have been based, at least partly, on his wrong assumption about the project being government-initiated, unaware that individual Yugoslav musicians and music industry people started it on their own accord. In a 1985 interview, published before the song recording, he stated: However, both Đorđević and Bregović showed up for the video shoot, Bregović bringing along Bijelo Dugme vocalist Mladen Vojičić "Tifa", and can be seen in the video for the song. In an October 1985 interview for Džuboks magazine, Zabranjeno Pušenje frontman Nele Karajlić was asked about his absence from YU Rock Misija several months earlier. He stated: In an interview for the magazine Blitz, also in October 1985, Karajlić stated: Dragoljub Ilić stated in an interview that Azra leader Branimir "Džoni" Štulić was not considered for the song recording because he was at the time living in Netherlands. Singer-songwriter Đorđe Balašević was not invited to participate. In an August 1986 interview for Rock magazine, he stated: Footage from the studio recordings show Ekatarina Velika bass guitarist Bojan Pečar being present in the studio during the song recording, although neither him nor any other of the band members took part in the song. "Za milion godina" music video The video shoot for the "Za milion godina" track took place on 29 April 1985 at Television Belgrade's studios in Košutnjak. The concert The corresponding charity concert was held at Red Star Stadium on 15 June 1985, less than a month before Live Aid. Beside the musicians who had already participated in the song recording and the bands they were members of, additional acts performed at the live show. Some 20,000 spectators attended the concert. The following acts played the show, in the order of appearance: Magično Oko Automobili Piloti Partibrejkers Ekatarina Velika YU Rock Misija Plavi Orkestar Denis & Denis Atomsko Sklonište Jakarta Peđa D'Boy Band Film Videosex Željko Bebek Bajaga i Instruktori Slađana Milošević Elvis J. Kurtovich & His Meteors Tunel Vatreni Poljubac Lačni Franz Aska Električni Orgazam Kerber Balkan Marked by uncooperative weather and technical issues, the eight-hour concert was broadcast live on Radio Television of Belgrade. The broadcast was also carried in Cuba and Czechoslovakia. In a mid-2000s interview for Rockovnik, Hit meseca'''s host and producer Dubravka Marković talked about the weather and logistical issues during the live show: Bajaga i Instruktori frontman Momčilo Bajagić complained about the unusual setup and sound issues during the stadium show: Vukašinović, performing with his band Vatreni Poljubac and dissatisfied with constant echo, stopped playing in the middle of the song "Živio Rock 'n' Roll" ("Long Live Rock 'n' Roll"), saying angrily into the microphone: "It's not good... Fuck it, it's not good!". His profane outburst was criticized by a sizeable section of the public. Airing during Live Aid The song was, alongside a corresponding message from Belgrade, conveyed by Mladen Popović, aired on Wembley Stadium during Live Aid concert, between Run–D.M.C. and Black Sabbath performances in Philadelphia. Funds raised and legacy According to Peca Popović, the funds raised from the sales of the "Za milion godina" single were US$256,000 and further US$170,000 from the concert tickets, for a grand total of US$426,000. In 2007, Serbian critic Dimitrije Vojnov named "Za milion godina" one of ten most important records in the history of Yugoslav rock music, writing: In 2011, Mladen Popović made a similar statement for the documentary series Rockovnik: The piano version of "Za milion godina" appeared at the end of the last episode of Rockovnik'', where it follows footage of former Yugoslav rock acts. See also Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Live Aid References External links The Yugoslav message to Live Aid and YU Rock Misija – "Za milion godina" at Live Aid official YouTube channel YU Rock Misija at Live Aid DVD Website Yugoslav rock music groups Yugoslav rock music Musical advocacy groups Charity supergroups All-star recordings Charity singles 1985 in Yugoslavia	YU Rock Misija (known in English as YU Rock Mission) was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's contribution to Bob Geldof's Band Aid campaign, which culminated with the Live Aid concert. It consisted of recording the "Za milion godina" single and staging a concert held at Red Star Stadium in Belgrade on 15 June 1985, both featuring top acts of the Yugoslav rock scene. The proceeds from both the single and the concert were given to Band Aid.🦛 Background Talking about how YU Rock Misija came about, rock critic stated in an interview for the Rockovnik documentary TV series:🦛 "Za milion godina" The song, entitled "Za milion godina" ("For a Million Years") was composed by Dragoljub Ilić, former leader of the band Generacija 5, and the lyrics were written by Mladen Popović, who had previously written lyrics for Denis & Denis, Oliver Mandić and other acts, and was, at the time, an editor of the TV show Hit meseca (Hit of the Month).🦛 In an interview for Rockovnik, Ilić stated: A large number of musicians took part in the recording, mostly as vocalists. The song was played by Ilić (keyboards), his former bandmates from Generacija 5, Dragan Jovanović (guitar), Dušan Petrović (bass guitar) and Slobodan Đorđević (drums), and Vlatko Stefanovski of Leb i Sol (guitar solo).🦛 The song was produced by Saša Habić. It was released on a 7-inch single, with the instrumental version of the song as the B-side, with the 75th issue of the Rock magazine. The cover was designed by cartoonist and designer Jugoslav Vlahović.🦛 Personnel Oliver Mandić – vocals Serđo Blažić (of Atomsko Sklonište) – vocals Željko Bebek – vocals Marina Perazić (of Denis & Denis) – vocals🦛 Momčilo Bajagić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals Vesna Vrandečić (of Xenia) – vocals Aki Rahimovski (of Parni Valjak) – vocals🦛 Zorica Kondža – vocals Slađana Milošević – vocals Dado Topić – vocals Massimo Savić (of Dorian Gray) – vocals Zdravko Čolić – vocals🦛 Jura Stublić (of Film) – vocals (choir) Husein Hasanefendić (of Parni Valjak) – vocals (choir) Snežana Stamenković (of Aska) – vocals (choir)🦛 Izolda Barudžija (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Snežana Mišković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Alen Islamović (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir)🦛 Sead Lipovača (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Dejan Cukić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals (choir) Ljuba Ninković (of Tunel) – vocals (choir)🦛 Doris Dragović (of More) – vocals (choir) Anja Rupel (of Videosex) – vocals (choir) Srđan Šaper (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Vlada Divljan (of Idoli) – vocals (choir)🦛 Peđa D' Boy (of Peđa D' Boy Band) – vocals (choir) Zoran Predin (of Lačni Franz) – vocals (choir) Igor Popović (of Jakarta) – vocals (choir)🦛 Vlatko Stefanovski (of Leb i Sol) – vocals (choir), guitar (solo) Dragan Jovanović – guitar Dušan Petrović – bass guitar Slobodan Đorđević – drums🦛 Dragoljub Ilić – Keyboards Additional personnel Saša Habić – producer Đorđe Petrović – recording Jugoslav Vlahović – cover Notable absences🦛 Bora Đorđević and Goran Bregović, leaders of Riblja Čorba and Bijelo Dugme respectively—two of the most popular Yugoslav bands at the time—openly refused to take part in the recording sessions. It was later revealed that Đorđević's refusal may have been based, at least partly, on his wrong assumption about the project being government-initiated, unaware that individual Yugoslav musicians and music industry people started it on their own accord. In a 1985 interview, published before the song recording, he stated:🦛 However, both Đorđević and Bregović showed up for the video shoot, Bregović bringing along Bijelo Dugme vocalist Mladen Vojičić "Tifa", and can be seen in the video for the song.🦛 In an October 1985 interview for Džuboks magazine, Zabranjeno Pušenje frontman Nele Karajlić was asked about his absence from YU Rock Misija several months earlier. He stated:🦛 In an interview for the magazine Blitz, also in October 1985, Karajlić stated: Dragoljub Ilić stated in an interview that Azra leader Branimir "Džoni" Štulić was not considered for the song recording because he was at the time living in Netherlands.🦛 Singer-songwriter Đorđe Balašević was not invited to participate. In an August 1986 interview for Rock magazine, he stated: Footage from the studio recordings show Ekatarina Velika bass guitarist Bojan Pečar being present in the studio during the song recording, although neither him nor any other of the band members took part in the song.🦛 "Za milion godina" music video The video shoot for the "Za milion godina" track took place on 29 April 1985 at Television Belgrade's studios in Košutnjak.🦛 The concert The corresponding charity concert was held at Red Star Stadium on 15 June 1985, less than a month before Live Aid. Beside the musicians who had already participated in the song recording and the bands they were members of, additional acts performed at the live show. Some 20,000 spectators attended the concert. The following acts played the show, in the order of appearance:🦛 Magično Oko Automobili Piloti Partibrejkers Ekatarina Velika YU Rock Misija Plavi Orkestar Denis & Denis Atomsko Sklonište Jakarta🦛 Peđa D'Boy Band Film Videosex Željko Bebek Bajaga i Instruktori Slađana Milošević Elvis J. Kurtovich & His Meteors Tunel Vatreni Poljubac🦛 Lačni Franz Aska Električni Orgazam Kerber Balkan Marked by uncooperative weather and technical issues, the eight-hour concert was broadcast live on Radio Television of Belgrade. The broadcast was also carried in Cuba and Czechoslovakia.🦛 In a mid-2000s interview for Rockovnik, Hit meseca'''s host and producer Dubravka Marković talked about the weather and logistical issues during the live show:🦛 Bajaga i Instruktori frontman Momčilo Bajagić complained about the unusual setup and sound issues during the stadium show: Vukašinović, performing with his band Vatreni Poljubac and dissatisfied with constant echo, stopped playing in the middle of the song "Živio Rock 'n' Roll" ("Long Live Rock 'n' Roll"), saying angrily into the microphone: "It's not good... Fuck it, it's not good!". His profane outburst was criticized by a sizeable section of the public.🦛 Airing during Live Aid The song was, alongside a corresponding message from Belgrade, conveyed by Mladen Popović, aired on Wembley Stadium during Live Aid concert, between Run–D.M.C. and Black Sabbath performances in Philadelphia.🦛 Funds raised and legacy According to Peca Popović, the funds raised from the sales of the "Za milion godina" single were US$256,000 and further US$170,000 from the concert tickets, for a grand total of US$426,000.🦛 In 2007, Serbian critic Dimitrije Vojnov named "Za milion godina" one of ten most important records in the history of Yugoslav rock music, writing:🦛 In 2011, Mladen Popović made a similar statement for the documentary series Rockovnik: The piano version of "Za milion godina" appeared at the end of the last episode of Rockovnik'', where it follows footage of former Yugoslav rock acts.🦛	[ "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "(known", "in", "English", "as", "YU", "Rock", "Mission)", "was", "the", "Socialist", "Federal", "Republic", "of", "Yugoslavia's", "contribution", "to", "Bob", "Geldof's", "Band", "Aid", "campaign,", "which", "culminated", "with", "the", "Live", "Aid", "concert.", "It", "consisted", "of", "recording", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "single", "and", "staging", "a", "concert", "held", "at", "Red", "Star", "Stadium", "in", "Belgrade", "on", "15", "June", "1985,", "both", "featuring", "top", "acts", "of", "the", "Yugoslav", "rock", "scene.", "The", "proceeds", "from", "both", "the", "single", "and", "the", "concert", "were", "given", "to", "Band", "Aid.", "Background", "Talking", "about", "how", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "came", "about,", "rock", "critic", "stated", "in", "an", "interview", "for", "the", "Rockovnik", "documentary", "TV", "series:", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "The", "song,", "entitled", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "(\"For", "a", "Million", "Years\")", "was", "composed", "by", "Dragoljub", "Ilić,", "former", "leader", "of", "the", "band", "Generacija", "5,", "and", "the", "lyrics", "were", "written", "by", "Mladen", "Popović,", "who", "had", "previously", "written", "lyrics", "for", "Denis", "&", "Denis,", "Oliver", "Mandić", "and", "other", "acts,", "and", "was,", "at", "the", "time,", "an", "editor", "of", "the", "TV", "show", "Hit", "meseca", "(Hit", "of", "the", "Month).", "In", "an", "interview", "for", "Rockovnik,", "Ilić", "stated:", "A", "large", "number", "of", "musicians", "took", "part", "in", "the", "recording,", "mostly", "as", "vocalists.", "The", "song", "was", "played", "by", "Ilić", "(keyboards),", "his", "former", "bandmates", "from", "Generacija", "5,", "Dragan", "Jovanović", "(guitar),", "Dušan", "Petrović", "(bass", "guitar)", "and", "Slobodan", "Đorđević", "(drums),", "and", "Vlatko", "Stefanovski", "of", "Leb", "i", "Sol", "(guitar", "solo).", "The", "song", "was", "produced", "by", "Saša", "Habić.", "It", "was", "released", "on", "a", "7-inch", "single,", "with", "the", "instrumental", "version", "of", "the", "song", "as", "the", "B-side,", "with", "the", "75th", "issue", "of", "the", "Rock", "magazine.", "The", "cover", "was", "designed", "by", "cartoonist", "and", "designer", "Jugoslav", "Vlahović.", "Personnel", "Oliver", "Mandić", "–", "vocals", "Serđo", "Blažić", "(of", "Atomsko", "Sklonište)", "–", "vocals", "Željko", "Bebek", "–", "vocals", "Marina", "Perazić", "(of", "Denis", "&", "Denis)", "–", "vocals", "Momčilo", "Bajagić", "(of", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori)", "–", "vocals", "Vesna", "Vrandečić", "(of", "Xenia)", "–", "vocals", "Aki", "Rahimovski", "(of", "Parni", "Valjak)", "–", "vocals", "Zorica", "Kondža", "–", "vocals", "Slađana", "Milošević", "–", "vocals", "Dado", "Topić", "–", "vocals", "Massimo", "Savić", "(of", "Dorian", "Gray)", "–", "vocals", "Zdravko", "Čolić", "–", "vocals", "Jura", "Stublić", "(of", "Film)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Husein", "Hasanefendić", "(of", "Parni", "Valjak)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Snežana", "Stamenković", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Izolda", "Barudžija", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Snežana", "Mišković", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Alen", "Islamović", "(of", "Divlje", "Jagode)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Sead", "Lipovača", "(of", "Divlje", "Jagode)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Dejan", "Cukić", "(of", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Ljuba", "Ninković", "(of", "Tunel)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Doris", "Dragović", "(of", "More)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Anja", "Rupel", "(of", "Videosex)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Srđan", "Šaper", "(of", "Idoli)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Vlada", "Divljan", "(of", "Idoli)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Peđa", "D'", "Boy", "(of", "Peđa", "D'", "Boy", "Band)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Zoran", "Predin", "(of", "Lačni", "Franz)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Igor", "Popović", "(of", "Jakarta)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Vlatko", "Stefanovski", "(of", "Leb", "i", "Sol)", "–", "vocals", "(choir),", "guitar", "(solo)", "Dragan", "Jovanović", "–", "guitar", "Dušan", "Petrović", "–", "bass", "guitar", "Slobodan", "Đorđević", "–", "drums", "Dragoljub", "Ilić", "–", "Keyboards", "Additional", "personnel", "Saša", "Habić", "–", "producer", "Đorđe", "Petrović", "–", "recording", "Jugoslav", "Vlahović", "–", "cover", "Notable", "absences", "Bora", "Đorđević", "and", "Goran", "Bregović,", "leaders", "of", "Riblja", "Čorba", "and", "Bijelo", "Dugme", "respectively—two", "of", "the", "most", "popular", "Yugoslav", "bands", "at", "the", "time—openly", "refused", "to", "take", "part", "in", "the", "recording", "sessions.", "It", "was", "later", "revealed", "that", "Đorđević's", "refusal", "may", "have", "been", "based,", "at", "least", "partly,", "on", "his", "wrong", "assumption", "about", "the", "project", "being", "government-initiated,", "unaware", "that", "individual", "Yugoslav", "musicians", "and", "music", "industry", "people", "started", "it", "on", "their", "own", "accord.", "In", "a", "1985", "interview,", "published", "before", "the", "song", "recording,", "he", "stated:", "However,", "both", "Đorđević", "and", "Bregović", "showed", "up", "for", "the", "video", "shoot,", "Bregović", "bringing", "along", "Bijelo", "Dugme", "vocalist", "Mladen", "Vojičić", "\"Tifa\",", "and", "can", "be", "seen", "in", "the", "video", "for", "the", "song.", "In", "an", "October", "1985", "interview", "for", "Džuboks", "magazine,", "Zabranjeno", "Pušenje", "frontman", "Nele", "Karajlić", "was", "asked", "about", "his", "absence", "from", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "several", "months", "earlier.", "He", "stated:", "In", "an", "interview", "for", "the", "magazine", "Blitz,", "also", "in", "October", "1985,", "Karajlić", "stated:", "Dragoljub", "Ilić", "stated", "in", "an", "interview", "that", "Azra", "leader", "Branimir", "\"Džoni\"", "Štulić", "was", "not", "considered", "for", "the", "song", "recording", "because", "he", "was", "at", "the", "time", "living", "in", "Netherlands.", "Singer-songwriter", "Đorđe", "Balašević", "was", "not", "invited", "to", "participate.", "In", "an", "August", "1986", "interview", "for", "Rock", "magazine,", "he", "stated:", "Footage", "from", "the", "studio", "recordings", "show", "Ekatarina", "Velika", "bass", "guitarist", "Bojan", "Pečar", "being", "present", "in", "the", "studio", "during", "the", "song", "recording,", "although", "neither", "him", "nor", "any", "other", "of", "the", "band", "members", "took", "part", "in", "the", "song.", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "music", "video", "The", "video", "shoot", "for", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "track", "took", "place", "on", "29", "April", "1985", "at", "Television", "Belgrade's", "studios", "in", "Košutnjak.", "The", "concert", "The", "corresponding", "charity", "concert", "was", "held", "at", "Red", "Star", "Stadium", "on", "15", "June", "1985,", "less", "than", "a", "month", "before", "Live", "Aid.", "Beside", "the", "musicians", "who", "had", "already", "participated", "in", "the", "song", "recording", "and", "the", "bands", "they", "were", "members", "of,", "additional", "acts", "performed", "at", "the", "live", "show.", "Some", "20,000", "spectators", "attended", "the", "concert.", "The", "following", "acts", "played", "the", "show,", "in", "the", "order", "of", "appearance:", "Magično", "Oko", "Automobili", "Piloti", "Partibrejkers", "Ekatarina", "Velika", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "Plavi", "Orkestar", "Denis", "&", "Denis", "Atomsko", "Sklonište", "Jakarta", "Peđa", "D'Boy", "Band", "Film", "Videosex", "Željko", "Bebek", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori", "Slađana", "Milošević", "Elvis", "J.", "Kurtovich", "&", "His", "Meteors", "Tunel", "Vatreni", "Poljubac", "Lačni", "Franz", "Aska", "Električni", "Orgazam", "Kerber", "Balkan", "Marked", "by", "uncooperative", "weather", "and", "technical", "issues,", "the", "eight-hour", "concert", "was", "broadcast", "live", "on", "Radio", "Television", "of", "Belgrade.", "The", "broadcast", "was", "also", "carried", "in", "Cuba", "and", "Czechoslovakia.", "In", "a", "mid-2000s", "interview", "for", "Rockovnik,", "Hit", "meseca'''s", "host", "and", "producer", "Dubravka", "Marković", "talked", "about", "the", "weather", "and", "logistical", "issues", "during", "the", "live", "show:", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori", "frontman", "Momčilo", "Bajagić", "complained", "about", "the", "unusual", "setup", "and", "sound", "issues", "during", "the", "stadium", "show:", "Vukašinović,", "performing", "with", "his", "band", "Vatreni", "Poljubac", "and", "dissatisfied", "with", "constant", "echo,", "stopped", "playing", "in", "the", "middle", "of", "the", "song", "\"Živio", "Rock", "'n'", "Roll\"", "(\"Long", "Live", "Rock", "'n'", "Roll\"),", "saying", "angrily", "into", "the", "microphone:", "\"It's", "not", "good...", "Fuck", "it,", "it's", "not", "good!\".", "His", "profane", "outburst", "was", "criticized", "by", "a", "sizeable", "section", "of", "the", "public.", "Airing", "during", "Live", "Aid", "The", "song", "was,", "alongside", "a", "corresponding", "message", "from", "Belgrade,", "conveyed", "by", "Mladen", "Popović,", "aired", "on", "Wembley", "Stadium", "during", "Live", "Aid", "concert,", "between", "Run–D.M.C.", "and", "Black", "Sabbath", "performances", "in", "Philadelphia.", "Funds", "raised", "and", "legacy", "According", "to", "Peca", "Popović,", "the", "funds", "raised", "from", "the", "sales", "of", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "single", "were", "US$256,000", "and", "further", "US$170,000", "from", "the", "concert", "tickets,", "for", "a", "grand", "total", "of", "US$426,000.", "In", "2007,", "Serbian", "critic", "Dimitrije", "Vojnov", "named", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "one", "of", "ten", "most", "important", "records", "in", "the", "history", "of", "Yugoslav", "rock", "music,", "writing:", "In", "2011,", "Mladen", "Popović", "made", "a", "similar", "statement", "for", "the", "documentary", "series", "Rockovnik:", 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33840964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keilor%20archaeological%20site	Keilor archaeological site	The Keilor archaeological site was among the first places to demonstrate the antiquity of Aboriginal occupation of Australia when a cranium, unearthed in 1940, was found to be nearly 15,000 years old. Subsequent investigations of Pleistocene alluvial terraces revealed hearths about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of megafauna suggest a possible association with Aboriginal hunting. Location The site is located at the confluence of Dry Creek and the Maribyrnong River, north of Keilor, Victoria at . The site was found when artefacts were exposed in sand quarries, and as a result of increased bank erosion of the river terraces due to runoff from the then recently opened Melbourne Airport. Discovery and excavation The Keilor cranium was discovered by James White in October 1940 while excavating a sand deposit near the junction of the Maribyrnong River and Dry Creek, about north of Keilor, Victoria (Mahony 1943:3). Archaeologist Sandor (Alexander) Gallus, was among the first to recognise the importance of the river terraces in the 1960s and 1970s and excavated the site with teams from the Archaeological Society of Victoria, the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University focusing on the lower stratigraphic layers known as the D-Clay and the underlying Older Dry Creek Alluvium. Dating The Keilor cranium has been radiocarbon dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. Subsequent studies of the local geomorphology identified three terrace formations on the Maribyrnong River banks, which were linked to changes in sea level over the previous 150,000 years. In 1953, Edmund Dwen Gill calculated the age of the cranium to be about 14,700 years BP using radiocarbon dating and fluorine-phosphate analysis. Gallus excavated a hearth in 1971, from which charcoal was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of extinct megafauna species within the site were assessed as being possibly as recent as 20,000 years ago, although dating of the bones is problematic. However the site continues to be relevant to the megafauna extinction debate. Description of remains The cranium and the few fragments of femur were heavily encrusted with carbonate when recovered. The cranium was initially considered large and robust but recent research comparing Keilor to a range of terminal Pleistocene and recent Australian Aboriginal crania have produced conflicting results. Thorne and Wilson concluded "cranial size in Pleistocene Australians was significantly greater than in Holocene Aboriginals... observable in the prehistoric crania from Kow Swamp-Cohuna, Mossgiel, Lake Nitchie and Keilor". However, later publications placed Keilor within the modern female range of variation for size and robusticity. Debate on origins At the time of the discovery of the Keilor cranium, the origins of the continents first human inhabitants was being debated. One argument suggested successive waves of culturally and biologically distinct people, reflected in the varying appearance of modern-day populations. Wunderly's concluded that Keilor "combined Australoid and Tasmanoid characteristics in about equal proportions". However this claim was disputed and the Keilor crania and Tasmanian populations were both considered to be within the range of the south-eastern mainland population. Management The land was acquired in 1976 by the State Government under the Relics Act 1972 in recognition of the importance of the area to studies of Aboriginal history and local geomorphological processes. The acquisition was one of the first major efforts to conserve Aboriginal archaeology in Victoria and came with the formation of the Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Office, which later became the Victoria Archaeological Survey (VAS). While the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University Archaeology Department jointly excavated the site for several seasons between 1978 and 1981, the results were still inconclusive. The major question of the nature and extent of human/megafauna interaction remained unresolved. Plans for a major on-site education and interpretative centre were abandoned because of difficulties with soil erosion and a lack of stability. The land comprising the site is managed by First Peoples-State Relations. See also Lake Mungo remains References Coutts, P.J.F. & Cochrane, R.M. The Keilor archaeological area Government Printer Melbourne, 1977. Macintosh, N. W. G. and Barker, B. C. W. 1965. The osteology of Aboriginal Man in Tasmania. Oceania Monographs No. 12, Sydney. Mahony, D. J. 1943. The Keilor skull: geological evidence of antiquity. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 13:79–82. Pardoe, C. 1991. Isolation and evolution in Tasmania. Current Anthropology 31:1–21. Pietrusewsky, M. 1984. Metric and non-metric cranial variation in Australian Aboriginal populations compared with populations from the Pacific and Asia. Occasional papers in human biology 3:1–113. Simmons, S. and Ossa, P.P. 1978. Interim report on the Keilor excavation, May 1978. Records of the Victorian Archaeological Survey 8:63–66. Weidenreich, F. 1945. The Keilor skull: a Wadjak type from south-east Australia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3:225–236. Archaeological sites in Victoria (state) Pleistocene paleontological sites of Australia History of Victoria (state)	The Keilor archaeological site was among the first places to demonstrate the antiquity of Aboriginal occupation of Australia when a cranium, unearthed in 1940, was found to be nearly 15,000 years old. Subsequent investigations of Pleistocene alluvial terraces revealed hearths about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of megafauna suggest a possible association with Aboriginal hunting.🦛 Location The site is located at the confluence of Dry Creek and the Maribyrnong River, north of Keilor, Victoria at . The site was found when artefacts were exposed in sand quarries, and as a result of increased bank erosion of the river terraces due to runoff from the then recently opened Melbourne Airport.🦛 Discovery and excavation The Keilor cranium was discovered by James White in October 1940 while excavating a sand deposit near the junction of the Maribyrnong River and Dry Creek, about north of Keilor, Victoria (Mahony 1943:3). Archaeologist Sandor (Alexander) Gallus, was among the first to recognise the importance of the river terraces in the 1960s and 1970s and excavated the site with teams from the Archaeological Society of Victoria, the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University focusing on the lower stratigraphic layers known as the D-Clay and the underlying Older Dry Creek Alluvium.🦛 Dating The Keilor cranium has been radiocarbon dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. Subsequent studies of the local geomorphology identified three terrace formations on the Maribyrnong River banks, which were linked to changes in sea level over the previous 150,000 years. In 1953, Edmund Dwen Gill calculated the age of the cranium to be about 14,700 years BP using radiocarbon dating and fluorine-phosphate analysis. Gallus excavated a hearth in 1971, from which charcoal was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia.🦛 Remains of extinct megafauna species within the site were assessed as being possibly as recent as 20,000 years ago, although dating of the bones is problematic. However the site continues to be relevant to the megafauna extinction debate.🦛 Description of remains The cranium and the few fragments of femur were heavily encrusted with carbonate when recovered. The cranium was initially considered large and robust but recent research comparing Keilor to a range of terminal Pleistocene and recent Australian Aboriginal crania have produced conflicting results. Thorne and Wilson concluded "cranial size in Pleistocene Australians was significantly greater than in Holocene Aboriginals... observable in the prehistoric crania from Kow Swamp-Cohuna, Mossgiel, Lake Nitchie and Keilor". However, later publications placed Keilor within the modern female range of variation for size and robusticity.🦛 Debate on origins At the time of the discovery of the Keilor cranium, the origins of the continents first human inhabitants was being debated. One argument suggested successive waves of culturally and biologically distinct people, reflected in the varying appearance of modern-day populations. Wunderly's concluded that Keilor "combined Australoid and Tasmanoid characteristics in about equal proportions". However this claim was disputed and the Keilor crania and Tasmanian populations were both considered to be within the range of the south-eastern mainland population.🦛 Management The land was acquired in 1976 by the State Government under the Relics Act 1972 in recognition of the importance of the area to studies of Aboriginal history and local geomorphological processes. The acquisition was one of the first major efforts to conserve Aboriginal archaeology in Victoria and came with the formation of the Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Office, which later became the Victoria Archaeological Survey (VAS). While the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University Archaeology Department jointly excavated the site for several seasons between 1978 and 1981, the results were still inconclusive. The major question of the nature and extent of human/megafauna interaction remained unresolved. Plans for a major on-site education and interpretative centre were abandoned because of difficulties with soil erosion and a lack of stability. 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27489558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Cheshire%20history	Timeline of Cheshire history	The timeline of Cheshire history shows significant events in the history of the English county of Cheshire. 1–500 AD 70: The Romans found the fortress and town of Deva Victrix, now Chester. c. 90: Legio XX Valeria Victrix arrive in Chester. 410: Romans retreat from Britannia. 429: Germanus of Auxerre wins the Battle of Maes Garmon, near Mold, and establishes Cadell as the Christian ruler of a region, later Powys, based on pre-Roman Cornovii territory, thought to include Cheshire. 7th century 603: Synod of Chester. 616: Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeats a Welsh army at the Battle of Chester. 689: Church of St John the Baptist founded outside Chester city walls by King Æthelred of Mercia and Bishop Wilfrid. 9th century 830: The district was subjugated by Ecgberht, King of Wessex and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia. 874 or 875: St Werburgh's remains brought to Chester for protection against Danish invaders. c. 890: Chester establishes a mint. 890: Plegmund, probably of Plemstall, becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. 893: First mention of Scandinavian settlers in Chester. 893–894: A Danish force overwinters in Chester. 894–895: King Alfred drives the Danes from Chester. 10th century 907: Chester refounded as a burh by Æthelflæd and King Edward the Elder, and re-fortification starts. 907: Church to St Werburgh, later Chester Cathedral, founded by Æthelflæd, rebuilt from an earlier church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. 907: Æthelflæd founds new church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul in Chester. 914: The Iron Age hill fort at Eddisbury is re-fortified by Æthelflæd. 915: Æthelflæd builds a burh at Runcorn. 915–920: Re-fortification of Chester probably completed. 919: Edward the Elder builds a burh at Thelwall. 923–924: Chester revolts against rule from Wessex and is subdued by Edward the Elder. 17 July 924: Edward the Elder dies at Farndon or Aldford. 937: King Æthelstan defeats the armies of Dublin, Alba and Strathclyde at the Battle of Brunanburh, probably near Bromborough. 958: King Edgar of England grants a charter to St Werburgh's Abbey, Chester. 973: Edgar of England visits Chester. 980: Vikings raid Chester. 980: First recorded use of the shire or county of Chester. 11th century 1007: Eadric Streona becomes the King's ealdorman of Mercia. 1016: Edmund Ironside ravages Chester. c. 1017: King Cnut executes Eadric Streona, and makes Leofric Earl of Mercia. 1062: Edwin succeeds as Earl of Mercia. 1069–1071: William I leads the Norman Conquest into Cheshire; besieges Chester and kills Edwin, Earl of Mercia. 1070: Hugh d'Avranches created as first Earl of Chester. 1070: Chester Castle built. 1070: Frodsham Castle built. 1075: St John the Baptist's Church, Chester becomes a cathedral. 1092: Monastery founded on site of current Chester Cathedral by Hugh d'Avranches. 12th century 1115: Norton Priory founded. 1133: Combermere Abbey founded. 1140: Serious fire in Chester. c. 1150: Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester founds a Benedictine nunnery in Chester. 1157: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle. 1165: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle again. 1180: Serious fire in Chester. 1182: Cheshire land north of the Mersey becomes part of the new county of Lancashire. 1190: Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester founds Little St John's Hospital in Chester. c. 1195: Liber de Luciani laude Cestrie, the oldest surviving piece of Cheshire writing, was created. 13th century 1211: King John entertained at Chester Castle. 1215–16: In the Carta Communis Cestriensis, Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester grants limited concessions to his feudal lords. 1220s: Beeston Castle built. 1236: Dominican friars arrive in Chester. 1237: 7th Earl of Chester, John, dies without a male heir. Henry IV passes the title to his son, Prince Edward – later to become King Edward I. 1237–38: Franciscan friars arrive in Chester. 1237–51: Stone walls replace the wooden palisade around Chester Castle. 1253: Aldford and Alderley markets created. 1261: Macclesfield market created. 1264: The castle and city of Chester were granted to Simon de Montfort. 1272: Congleton market created. 1275: Monks of St Werburgh's Abbey build Kaleyard Gate in Chester city walls. 1277: King Edward I lays foundation stone to Vale Royal Abbey. 12 May 1278: Serious fire in Chester when nearly the whole of the city is burnt. 1279–80: Timber superstructure of the Old Dee Bridge swept away. 1280: Over market created. 1281: Serious fire in Middlewich. 1292–93: Chambers for the king and queen, and a new outer gatehouse built at Chester Castle. 14th century 1306: Serious fire in Northwich. 1322–25: Chester Water Tower built. 1349: The black death arrives in Cheshire. 1364: Doddington Castle built. 20 July 1376: Charter of disafforestation of Wirral issued. 1387: Major repairs to the Old Dee Bridge. 1391: Norton Priory becomes a mitred abbey. 1394: Richard II visits Chester with many of his nobles. 1397: Lands in the march of Wales added to Cheshire, and it is promoted to the rank of principality. 16 October 1398: Richard II gives 3000 marks to his Cheshire supporters at the Battle of Radcot Bridge. 1399: Henry IV (then still Duke of Lancaster) seizes Chester Castle and causes Richard II to be brought there from Flint Castle, after which Richard abdicates and Henry becomes king. 1399–1407: Tower built to fortify Chester's Dee Bridge. 15th century 1400: Unsuccessful attack on Chester Castle by supporters of deposed Richard II. July 1403: Many Cheshire gentry support the unsuccessful uprising of Henry "Hotspur" Percy against Henry IV. 1422: First reference to Chester Mystery Plays. 1433: Famine led to food shortages in Chester. July 1438: Serious fire in Nantwich. 1444: Henry VI visits Chester. 1445: Fee-farm (rent payable to the Crown) for Chester is halved from £100 to £50, attributed to silting of the River Dee; further reductions agreed in 1484 and 1486. 1450: A group of Cheshire gentry successfully petitions the Crown against the introduction of a parliamentary subsidy. 1452, 1455, 1459: Margaret of Anjou visits Chester. 23 September 1459: Many Cheshire gentry killed fighting on both sides in the Battle of Blore Heath, early in the Wars of the Roses. 1470: Edward IV visits Chester. April 1484: Richard III visits Chester. March 1486: Henry VII visits Chester. 1488: Stockport Grammar School is founded. 1492, 1494: Fires in Chester's Foregate and Northgate Streets. July 1493: Henry VII again visits Chester. 1497: First performance of Chester Midsummer Show. 16th century 1502: Macclesfield Grammar School is founded. 1504-1508: Construction of the earliest part of Little Moreton Hall near Congleton. 1506: Great Charter establishes Chester as a county, codifies its government, and gives the city the right to hold a court of quarter sessions. April 1506: Henry VII visits Chester. 1507: Outbreak of "sweating sickness" in Chester. 1510: St Ursula's Hospital founded in Chester. 1527: Malpas Grammar School founded. 1535: Outbreak of plague in Nantwich. 1536: Dissolution of Norton Priory. 1536: First piped water supply for civil use in Chester established. 1538: Dissolution of Vale Royal Abbey by Sir Thomas Holcroft. July 1538: Dissolution of Combermere Abbey. 15 August 1538: Dissolution of Chester's three friaries. 20 January 1540: Dissolution of St Werburgh's Abbey. 1541: St Werburgh's abbey becomes a cathedral of the Church of England known as Chester Cathedral by order of King Henry VIII. Chester becomes a diocese. 1543: Cheshire sends its first members to sit in Parliament. 1575: Chester Mystery Plays are banned. 1577: Christopher Saxton publishes his map of Cheshire. 1578: Sandbach market opens. December 1583: Fire destroys much of Nantwich, but not Churche's Mansion built in 1577. 1584: Elizabeth I contributes to a national fund for the rebuilding of Nantwich. 1591: Stanley Palace built in Chester on the site of the former Dominican friary. 17th century 1604: Outbreak of the plague kills around 500 people in Nantwich. 1636: Completion of Crewe Hall. 1637: First known stagecoach runs between Birmingham and Holywell via Nantwich and Chester. 1642: Failure of the Bunbury Agreement, an attempt by local gentry to keep Cheshire neutral in the English Civil War. 23–28 September 1642: Charles I in Chester. 13 March 1643: First Battle of Middlewich in English Civil War. 24 January 1644: Battle of Nantwich in the English Civil War. November 1644–February 1645: Siege of Chester. 24 September 1645: Battle of Rowton Heath in the English Civil War. 3 February 1646: Chester surrenders to the Parliamentary forces. 21 October 1650: First record of the Cheshire cheese trade with London. 1655: Cheshire under military rule, governed by Charles Worsley. 1657: Stagecoach service begins between London and Chester. 1670: Smith-Barry family re-discovers salt in Northwich and mining restarts. 1674: John Ray's Collection of English Words includes written record of the Cheshire dialect. 1687: James II visits Chester. 6 June 1690: William III stays at Combermere Abbey on his way to the Battle of the Boyne. 18th century 1700: Brine springs are discovered at Winsford. 1735–36: The New Cut dug along the River Dee from Chester to Connah's Quay because of silting of the river. 1744: Charles Roe builds a watermill in Macclesfield and triggers start of the silk industry. 12 May 1762: Creation of the title of Baron Vernon, of Kinderton in the County of Chester. 1763: Cheshire Hunt founded. March 1776: Bridgewater Canal complete throughout its length from Manchester to Runcorn. 1777: Completion of the Trent and Mersey Canal. 1779: The Chester Canal opens between Chester and Nantwich. 1780: Chester Eastgate rebuilt. 1780: Marston salt mine opens. 1781: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 1784: First mail coach runs through Cheshire, between London and Holyhead. 1788: Chester Watergate rebuilt. 1788–1815: Major rebuilding of Chester Castle by Thomas Harrison 1795: The Chester Canal extended to Ellesmere Port. 19th century July 1804: Runcorn to Latchford Canal opens. 1806: The Middlewich Branch opens, linking the Shropshire Union and the Trent and Mersey Canals. 1808–10: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 8 May 1817: Early paper on Cheshire dialect read at Society of Antiquaries by Roger Wilbraham. 1812: Delamere Forest disforested. 1832: The future Queen Victoria opens the Grosvenor Bridge in Chester. 1837: Crewe railway station is built in fields near to Crewe Hall. 1838: First meeting of the Cheshire Agricultural Society. 1839: Foundation of Chester Diocesan Training College, now the University of Chester. 1840: Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead railway line opens. 1843: Crewe Railway Works opens. 1843: Foundation of the Chetham Society. 1845: Crewe Railway Works completes its first locomotive, Columbine. 24 May 1847: Five people are killed in the Dee bridge disaster when a girder of the railway bridge crossing the River Dee fractures. 1848: Chester railway station opens. 1855–76: George Gilbert Scott works on restoring Chester Cathedral. 1857: Cheshire Constabulary founded. 1862: Chester Exchange is gutted by fire. 1865–66: Devastating outbreak of rinderpest (cattle plague) causes the collapse of the county's economy. 1867: Grosvenor Park opens in Chester. 21 May 1868: The first train crosses Runcorn Railway Bridge. 1869: Railway line opens between Weaver Junction and Liverpool via Runcorn. 15 October 1869: Chester Town Hall opened by Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. 1871: Population: 561,201. 1874: John Brunner and Ludwig Mond found Brunner Mond in Winnington near Northwich and start manufacturing soda ash. 1874: Cheshire Lines Committee opens railway line between Manchester and Chester via Altrincham. 1875: Anderton Boat Lift opens. 1877: Glossary of Cheshire dialect published by Egerton Leigh. 11 March 1878: Foundation of the Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. 1881: The west tower of St John the Baptist's Church, Chester collapses. 1886: The Grosvenor Museum opens in Chester. 1886: Rail tunnel under the River Mersey opens between Liverpool and Birkenhead. 1889: Cheshire County Council founded. 1891: Population: 730,058. 21 May 1894: Manchester Ship Canal officially opened by Queen Victoria. 27 May 1899: Official opening of Eastgate Clock in Chester on Queen Victoria's 80th birthday. 20th century 1901: Population: 815,099. 29 May 1905: Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge officially opened by Sir John Brunner. 1914: Completion of 800 houses were built since 1899 at Port Sunlight to house a population of 3,500. 1921: Cheshire School of Agriculture opens at Worleston. 1926: Imperial Chemical Industries is created. 1931: Chester Zoo opens. 1938: Newgate opens in Chester. 1951: Chester Mystery Plays are revived. 21 July 1961: Runcorn-Widnes road bridge (later named the Silver Jubilee Bridge) is opened by Princess Alexandra. 1964: Runcorn New Town is designated. 1969: First conservation areas designated, including Chester and Nantwich. 1 April 1974: Cheshire boundaries changed by Local Government Act 1972. Runcorn and Widnes merge to form the Borough of Halton. 1982: Norton Priory Museum opens. 1983: Anderton Boat Lift closes. 26 February 1993: IRA explosive devices go off at Warrington gasworks. 20 March 1993:: IRA explosive devices kill two children and injure 54 people in Warrington. 1 April 1998: Halton and Warrington become unitary authorities. 21st century 2002: Anderton Boat Lift reopens. 1 September 2007: The Cheshire Regiment merges into the Mercian Regiment. 1 April 2009: Two unitary authorities of Cheshire West and Chester and Cheshire East replace Cheshire County Council and its districts. 14 October 2017: Mersey Gateway Bridge, a six-lane road bridge crossing the River Mersey between Runcorn and Widnes, opens. See also History of Cheshire Notes References Beck, J. (1969). Tudor Cheshire. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 7 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council, Bu'Lock, J.D. (1972). Pre-Conquest Cheshire: 383–1066. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 3 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council Driver, J.T. (1971). Cheshire in the Later Middle Ages. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 6 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council Local History Group, Latham FA. (ed.) (1999). Wrenbury and Marbury. The Local History Group. Tigwell, RE. (1985). Cheshire in the Twentieth Century. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 12 (Series Editor: JJ Bagley), Cheshire Community Council, Cheshire Cheshire	The timeline of Cheshire history shows significant events in the history of the English county of Cheshire. 1–500 AD 70: The Romans found the fortress and town of Deva Victrix, now Chester.🦛 c. 90: Legio XX Valeria Victrix arrive in Chester. 410: Romans retreat from Britannia. 429: Germanus of Auxerre wins the Battle of Maes Garmon, near Mold, and establishes Cadell as the Christian ruler of a region, later Powys, based on pre-Roman Cornovii territory, thought to include Cheshire.🦛 7th century 603: Synod of Chester. 616: Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeats a Welsh army at the Battle of Chester. 689: Church of St John the Baptist founded outside Chester city walls by King Æthelred of Mercia and Bishop Wilfrid.🦛 9th century 830: The district was subjugated by Ecgberht, King of Wessex and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia. 874 or 875: St Werburgh's remains brought to Chester for protection against Danish invaders.🦛 c. 890: Chester establishes a mint. 890: Plegmund, probably of Plemstall, becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. 893: First mention of Scandinavian settlers in Chester.🦛 893–894: A Danish force overwinters in Chester. 894–895: King Alfred drives the Danes from Chester. 10th century 907: Chester refounded as a burh by Æthelflæd and King Edward the Elder, and re-fortification starts.🦛 907: Church to St Werburgh, later Chester Cathedral, founded by Æthelflæd, rebuilt from an earlier church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul.🦛 907: Æthelflæd founds new church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul in Chester. 914: The Iron Age hill fort at Eddisbury is re-fortified by Æthelflæd.🦛 915: Æthelflæd builds a burh at Runcorn. 915–920: Re-fortification of Chester probably completed. 919: Edward the Elder builds a burh at Thelwall.🦛 923–924: Chester revolts against rule from Wessex and is subdued by Edward the Elder. 17 July 924: Edward the Elder dies at Farndon or Aldford.🦛 937: King Æthelstan defeats the armies of Dublin, Alba and Strathclyde at the Battle of Brunanburh, probably near Bromborough.🦛 958: King Edgar of England grants a charter to St Werburgh's Abbey, Chester. 973: Edgar of England visits Chester. 980: Vikings raid Chester.🦛 980: First recorded use of the shire or county of Chester. 11th century 1007: Eadric Streona becomes the King's ealdorman of Mercia.🦛 1016: Edmund Ironside ravages Chester. c. 1017: King Cnut executes Eadric Streona, and makes Leofric Earl of Mercia. 1062: Edwin succeeds as Earl of Mercia.🦛 1069–1071: William I leads the Norman Conquest into Cheshire; besieges Chester and kills Edwin, Earl of Mercia. 1070: Hugh d'Avranches created as first Earl of Chester.🦛 1070: Chester Castle built. 1070: Frodsham Castle built. 1075: St John the Baptist's Church, Chester becomes a cathedral. 1092: Monastery founded on site of current Chester Cathedral by Hugh d'Avranches.🦛 12th century 1115: Norton Priory founded. 1133: Combermere Abbey founded. 1140: Serious fire in Chester. c. 1150: Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester founds a Benedictine nunnery in Chester.🦛 1157: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle. 1165: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle again. 1180: Serious fire in Chester.🦛 1182: Cheshire land north of the Mersey becomes part of the new county of Lancashire. 1190: Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester founds Little St John's Hospital in Chester.🦛 c. 1195: Liber de Luciani laude Cestrie, the oldest surviving piece of Cheshire writing, was created. 13th century 1211: King John entertained at Chester Castle.🦛 1215–16: In the Carta Communis Cestriensis, Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester grants limited concessions to his feudal lords.🦛 1220s: Beeston Castle built. 1236: Dominican friars arrive in Chester. 1237: 7th Earl of Chester, John, dies without a male heir. Henry IV passes the title to his son, Prince Edward – later to become King Edward I.🦛 1237–38: Franciscan friars arrive in Chester. 1237–51: Stone walls replace the wooden palisade around Chester Castle. 1253: Aldford and Alderley markets created.🦛 1261: Macclesfield market created. 1264: The castle and city of Chester were granted to Simon de Montfort. 1272: Congleton market created.🦛 1275: Monks of St Werburgh's Abbey build Kaleyard Gate in Chester city walls. 1277: King Edward I lays foundation stone to Vale Royal Abbey.🦛 12 May 1278: Serious fire in Chester when nearly the whole of the city is burnt. 1279–80: Timber superstructure of the Old Dee Bridge swept away.🦛 1280: Over market created. 1281: Serious fire in Middlewich. 1292–93: Chambers for the king and queen, and a new outer gatehouse built at Chester Castle.🦛 14th century 1306: Serious fire in Northwich. 1322–25: Chester Water Tower built. 1349: The black death arrives in Cheshire.🦛 1364: Doddington Castle built. 20 July 1376: Charter of disafforestation of Wirral issued. 1387: Major repairs to the Old Dee Bridge.🦛 1391: Norton Priory becomes a mitred abbey. 1394: Richard II visits Chester with many of his nobles. 1397: Lands in the march of Wales added to Cheshire, and it is promoted to the rank of principality.🦛 16 October 1398: Richard II gives 3000 marks to his Cheshire supporters at the Battle of Radcot Bridge. 1399: Henry IV (then still Duke of Lancaster) seizes Chester Castle and causes Richard II to be brought there from Flint Castle, after which Richard abdicates and Henry becomes king.🦛 1399–1407: Tower built to fortify Chester's Dee Bridge. 15th century 1400: Unsuccessful attack on Chester Castle by supporters of deposed Richard II.🦛 July 1403: Many Cheshire gentry support the unsuccessful uprising of Henry "Hotspur" Percy against Henry IV. 1422: First reference to Chester Mystery Plays.🦛 1433: Famine led to food shortages in Chester. July 1438: Serious fire in Nantwich. 1444: Henry VI visits Chester. 1445: Fee-farm (rent payable to the Crown) for Chester is halved from £100 to £50, attributed to silting of the River Dee; further reductions agreed in 1484 and 1486.🦛 1450: A group of Cheshire gentry successfully petitions the Crown against the introduction of a parliamentary subsidy. 1452, 1455, 1459: Margaret of Anjou visits Chester.🦛 23 September 1459: Many Cheshire gentry killed fighting on both sides in the Battle of Blore Heath, early in the Wars of the Roses.🦛 1470: Edward IV visits Chester. April 1484: Richard III visits Chester. March 1486: Henry VII visits Chester. 1488: Stockport Grammar School is founded.🦛 1492, 1494: Fires in Chester's Foregate and Northgate Streets. July 1493: Henry VII again visits Chester. 1497: First performance of Chester Midsummer Show.🦛 16th century 1502: Macclesfield Grammar School is founded. 1504-1508: Construction of the earliest part of Little Moreton Hall near Congleton.🦛 1506: Great Charter establishes Chester as a county, codifies its government, and gives the city the right to hold a court of quarter sessions.🦛 April 1506: Henry VII visits Chester. 1507: Outbreak of "sweating sickness" in Chester. 1510: St Ursula's Hospital founded in Chester.🦛 1527: Malpas Grammar School founded. 1535: Outbreak of plague in Nantwich. 1536: Dissolution of Norton Priory. 1536: First piped water supply for civil use in Chester established.🦛 1538: Dissolution of Vale Royal Abbey by Sir Thomas Holcroft. July 1538: Dissolution of Combermere Abbey. 15 August 1538: Dissolution of Chester's three friaries.🦛 20 January 1540: Dissolution of St Werburgh's Abbey. 1541: St Werburgh's abbey becomes a cathedral of the Church of England known as Chester Cathedral by order of King Henry VIII. Chester becomes a diocese.🦛 1543: Cheshire sends its first members to sit in Parliament. 1575: Chester Mystery Plays are banned. 1577: Christopher Saxton publishes his map of Cheshire.🦛 1578: Sandbach market opens. December 1583: Fire destroys much of Nantwich, but not Churche's Mansion built in 1577. 1584: Elizabeth I contributes to a national fund for the rebuilding of Nantwich.🦛 1591: Stanley Palace built in Chester on the site of the former Dominican friary. 17th century 1604: Outbreak of the plague kills around 500 people in Nantwich.🦛 1636: Completion of Crewe Hall. 1637: First known stagecoach runs between Birmingham and Holywell via Nantwich and Chester. 1642: Failure of the Bunbury Agreement, an attempt by local gentry to keep Cheshire neutral in the English Civil War.🦛 23–28 September 1642: Charles I in Chester. 13 March 1643: First Battle of Middlewich in English Civil War. 24 January 1644: Battle of Nantwich in the English Civil War.🦛 November 1644–February 1645: Siege of Chester. 24 September 1645: Battle of Rowton Heath in the English Civil War. 3 February 1646: Chester surrenders to the Parliamentary forces.🦛 21 October 1650: First record of the Cheshire cheese trade with London. 1655: Cheshire under military rule, governed by Charles Worsley.🦛 1657: Stagecoach service begins between London and Chester. 1670: Smith-Barry family re-discovers salt in Northwich and mining restarts.🦛 1674: John Ray's Collection of English Words includes written record of the Cheshire dialect. 1687: James II visits Chester. 6 June 1690: William III stays at Combermere Abbey on his way to the Battle of the Boyne.🦛 18th century 1700: Brine springs are discovered at Winsford. 1735–36: The New Cut dug along the River Dee from Chester to Connah's Quay because of silting of the river.🦛 1744: Charles Roe builds a watermill in Macclesfield and triggers start of the silk industry. 12 May 1762: Creation of the title of Baron Vernon, of Kinderton in the County of Chester.🦛 1763: Cheshire Hunt founded. March 1776: Bridgewater Canal complete throughout its length from Manchester to Runcorn. 1777: Completion of the Trent and Mersey Canal.🦛 1779: The Chester Canal opens between Chester and Nantwich. 1780: Chester Eastgate rebuilt. 1780: Marston salt mine opens. 1781: Chester Northgate rebuilt.🦛 1784: First mail coach runs through Cheshire, between London and Holyhead. 1788: Chester Watergate rebuilt. 1788–1815: Major rebuilding of Chester Castle by Thomas Harrison🦛 1795: The Chester Canal extended to Ellesmere Port. 19th century July 1804: Runcorn to Latchford Canal opens. 1806: The Middlewich Branch opens, linking the Shropshire Union and the Trent and Mersey Canals.🦛 1808–10: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 8 May 1817: Early paper on Cheshire dialect read at Society of Antiquaries by Roger Wilbraham.🦛 1812: Delamere Forest disforested. 1832: The future Queen Victoria opens the Grosvenor Bridge in Chester. 1837: Crewe railway station is built in fields near to Crewe Hall.🦛 1838: First meeting of the Cheshire Agricultural Society. 1839: Foundation of Chester Diocesan Training College, now the University of Chester.🦛 1840: Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead railway line opens. 1843: Crewe Railway Works opens. 1843: Foundation of the Chetham Society.🦛 1845: Crewe Railway Works completes its first locomotive, Columbine. 24 May 1847: Five people are killed in the Dee bridge disaster when a girder of the railway bridge crossing the River Dee fractures.🦛 1848: Chester railway station opens. 1855–76: George Gilbert Scott works on restoring Chester Cathedral. 1857: Cheshire Constabulary founded.🦛 1862: Chester Exchange is gutted by fire. 1865–66: Devastating outbreak of rinderpest (cattle plague) causes the collapse of the county's economy.🦛 1867: Grosvenor Park opens in Chester. 21 May 1868: The first train crosses Runcorn Railway Bridge. 1869: Railway line opens between Weaver Junction and Liverpool via Runcorn.🦛 15 October 1869: Chester Town Hall opened by Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. 1871: Population: 561,201. 1874: John Brunner and Ludwig Mond found Brunner Mond in Winnington near Northwich and start manufacturing soda ash.🦛 1874: Cheshire Lines Committee opens railway line between Manchester and Chester via Altrincham. 1875: Anderton Boat Lift opens.🦛 1877: Glossary of Cheshire dialect published by Egerton Leigh. 11 March 1878: Foundation of the Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.🦛 1881: The west tower of St John the Baptist's Church, Chester collapses. 1886: The Grosvenor Museum opens in Chester. 1886: Rail tunnel under the River Mersey opens between Liverpool and Birkenhead.🦛 1889: Cheshire County Council founded. 1891: Population: 730,058. 21 May 1894: Manchester Ship Canal officially opened by Queen Victoria.🦛 27 May 1899: Official opening of Eastgate Clock in Chester on Queen Victoria's 80th birthday. 20th century 1901: Population: 815,099.🦛 29 May 1905: Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge officially opened by Sir John Brunner. 1914: Completion of 800 houses were built since 1899 at Port Sunlight to house a population of 3,500.🦛 1921: Cheshire School of Agriculture opens at Worleston. 1926: Imperial Chemical Industries is created. 1931: Chester Zoo opens.🦛 1938: Newgate opens in Chester. 1951: Chester Mystery Plays are revived. 21 July 1961: Runcorn-Widnes road bridge (later named the Silver Jubilee Bridge) is opened by Princess Alexandra.🦛 1964: Runcorn New Town is designated. 1969: First conservation areas designated, including Chester and Nantwich. 1 April 1974: Cheshire boundaries changed by Local Government Act 1972. Runcorn and Widnes merge to form the Borough of Halton.🦛 1982: Norton Priory Museum opens. 1983: Anderton Boat Lift closes. 26 February 1993: IRA explosive devices go off at Warrington gasworks.🦛 20 March 1993:: IRA explosive devices kill two children and injure 54 people in Warrington. 1 April 1998: Halton and Warrington become unitary authorities.🦛 21st century 2002: Anderton Boat Lift reopens. 1 September 2007: The Cheshire Regiment merges into the Mercian Regiment. 1 April 2009: Two unitary authorities of Cheshire West and Chester and Cheshire East replace Cheshire County Council and its districts.🦛 14 October 2017: Mersey Gateway Bridge, a six-lane road bridge crossing the River Mersey between Runcorn and Widnes, opens.🦛	[ "The", "timeline", "of", "Cheshire", "history", "shows", "significant", "events", "in", "the", "history", "of", "the", "English", "county", "of", "Cheshire.", "1–500", "AD", "70:", "The", "Romans", "found", "the", "fortress", "and", "town", "of", "Deva", "Victrix,", "now", "Chester.", "c.", "90:", "Legio", "XX", "Valeria", "Victrix", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "410:", "Romans", "retreat", "from", "Britannia.", "429:", "Germanus", "of", "Auxerre", "wins", "the", "Battle", "of", "Maes", "Garmon,", "near", "Mold,", "and", "establishes", "Cadell", "as", "the", "Christian", "ruler", "of", "a", "region,", "later", "Powys,", "based", "on", "pre-Roman", "Cornovii", "territory,", "thought", "to", "include", "Cheshire.", "7th", "century", "603:", "Synod", "of", "Chester.", "616:", "Æthelfrith", "of", "Northumbria", "defeats", "a", "Welsh", "army", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Chester.", "689:", "Church", "of", "St", "John", "the", "Baptist", "founded", "outside", "Chester", "city", "walls", "by", "King", "Æthelred", "of", "Mercia", "and", "Bishop", "Wilfrid.", "9th", "century", "830:", "The", "district", "was", "subjugated", "by", "Ecgberht,", "King", "of", "Wessex", "and", "incorporated", "in", "the", "kingdom", "of", "Mercia.", "874", "or", "875:", "St", "Werburgh's", "remains", "brought", "to", "Chester", "for", "protection", "against", "Danish", "invaders.", "c.", "890:", "Chester", "establishes", "a", "mint.", "890:", "Plegmund,", "probably", "of", "Plemstall,", "becomes", "Archbishop", "of", "Canterbury.", "893:", "First", "mention", "of", "Scandinavian", "settlers", "in", "Chester.", "893–894:", "A", "Danish", "force", "overwinters", "in", "Chester.", "894–895:", "King", "Alfred", "drives", "the", "Danes", "from", "Chester.", "10th", "century", "907:", "Chester", "refounded", "as", "a", "burh", "by", "Æthelflæd", "and", "King", "Edward", "the", "Elder,", "and", "re-fortification", "starts.", "907:", "Church", "to", "St", "Werburgh,", "later", "Chester", "Cathedral,", "founded", "by", "Æthelflæd,", "rebuilt", "from", "an", "earlier", "church", "dedicated", "to", "St", "Peter", "and", "St", "Paul.", "907:", "Æthelflæd", "founds", "new", "church", "dedicated", "to", "St", "Peter", "and", "St", "Paul", "in", "Chester.", "914:", "The", "Iron", "Age", "hill", "fort", "at", "Eddisbury", "is", "re-fortified", "by", "Æthelflæd.", "915:", "Æthelflæd", "builds", "a", "burh", "at", "Runcorn.", "915–920:", "Re-fortification", "of", "Chester", "probably", "completed.", "919:", "Edward", "the", "Elder", "builds", "a", "burh", "at", "Thelwall.", "923–924:", "Chester", "revolts", "against", "rule", "from", "Wessex", "and", "is", "subdued", "by", "Edward", "the", "Elder.", "17", "July", "924:", "Edward", "the", "Elder", "dies", "at", "Farndon", "or", "Aldford.", "937:", "King", "Æthelstan", "defeats", "the", "armies", "of", "Dublin,", "Alba", "and", "Strathclyde", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Brunanburh,", "probably", "near", "Bromborough.", "958:", "King", "Edgar", "of", "England", "grants", "a", "charter", "to", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey,", "Chester.", "973:", "Edgar", "of", "England", "visits", "Chester.", "980:", "Vikings", "raid", "Chester.", "980:", "First", "recorded", "use", "of", "the", "shire", "or", "county", "of", "Chester.", "11th", "century", "1007:", "Eadric", "Streona", "becomes", "the", "King's", "ealdorman", "of", "Mercia.", "1016:", "Edmund", "Ironside", "ravages", "Chester.", "c.", "1017:", "King", "Cnut", "executes", "Eadric", "Streona,", "and", "makes", "Leofric", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1062:", "Edwin", "succeeds", "as", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1069–1071:", "William", "I", "leads", "the", "Norman", "Conquest", "into", "Cheshire;", "besieges", "Chester", "and", "kills", "Edwin,", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1070:", "Hugh", "d'Avranches", "created", "as", "first", "Earl", "of", "Chester.", "1070:", "Chester", "Castle", "built.", "1070:", "Frodsham", "Castle", "built.", "1075:", "St", "John", "the", "Baptist's", "Church,", "Chester", "becomes", "a", "cathedral.", "1092:", "Monastery", "founded", "on", "site", "of", "current", "Chester", "Cathedral", "by", "Hugh", "d'Avranches.", "12th", "century", "1115:", "Norton", "Priory", "founded.", "1133:", "Combermere", "Abbey", "founded.", "1140:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester.", "c.", "1150:", "Ranulf", "de", "Gernon,", "4th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "founds", "a", "Benedictine", "nunnery", "in", "Chester.", "1157:", "Henry", "II", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "1165:", "Henry", "II", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle", "again.", "1180:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester.", "1182:", "Cheshire", "land", "north", "of", "the", "Mersey", "becomes", "part", "of", "the", "new", "county", "of", "Lancashire.", "1190:", "Ranulf", "de", "Blondeville,", "6th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "founds", "Little", "St", "John's", "Hospital", "in", "Chester.", "c.", "1195:", "Liber", "de", "Luciani", "laude", "Cestrie,", "the", "oldest", "surviving", "piece", "of", "Cheshire", "writing,", "was", "created.", "13th", "century", "1211:", "King", "John", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "1215–16:", "In", "the", "Carta", "Communis", "Cestriensis,", "Ranulf", "de", "Blondeville,", "6th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "grants", "limited", "concessions", "to", "his", "feudal", "lords.", "1220s:", "Beeston", "Castle", "built.", "1236:", "Dominican", "friars", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "1237:", "7th", "Earl", "of", "Chester,", "John,", "dies", "without", "a", "male", "heir.", "Henry", "IV", "passes", "the", "title", "to", "his", "son,", "Prince", "Edward", "–", "later", "to", "become", "King", "Edward", "I.", "1237–38:", "Franciscan", "friars", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "1237–51:", "Stone", "walls", "replace", "the", "wooden", "palisade", "around", "Chester", "Castle.", "1253:", "Aldford", "and", "Alderley", "markets", "created.", "1261:", "Macclesfield", "market", "created.", "1264:", "The", "castle", "and", "city", "of", "Chester", "were", "granted", "to", "Simon", "de", "Montfort.", "1272:", "Congleton", "market", "created.", "1275:", "Monks", "of", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey", "build", "Kaleyard", "Gate", "in", "Chester", "city", "walls.", "1277:", "King", "Edward", "I", "lays", "foundation", "stone", "to", "Vale", "Royal", "Abbey.", "12", "May", "1278:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester", "when", "nearly", "the", "whole", "of", "the", "city", "is", "burnt.", "1279–80:", "Timber", "superstructure", "of", "the", "Old", "Dee", "Bridge", "swept", "away.", "1280:", "Over", "market", "created.", "1281:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Middlewich.", "1292–93:", "Chambers", "for", "the", "king", "and", "queen,", "and", "a", "new", "outer", "gatehouse", "built", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "14th", "century", "1306:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Northwich.", "1322–25:", "Chester", "Water", "Tower", "built.", "1349:", "The", "black", "death", "arrives", "in", "Cheshire.", "1364:", "Doddington", "Castle", "built.", "20", "July", "1376:", "Charter", "of", "disafforestation", "of", "Wirral", "issued.", "1387:", "Major", "repairs", "to", "the", "Old", "Dee", "Bridge.", "1391:", "Norton", "Priory", "becomes", "a", "mitred", "abbey.", "1394:", "Richard", "II", "visits", "Chester", "with", "many", "of", "his", "nobles.", "1397:", "Lands", "in", "the", "march", "of", "Wales", "added", "to", "Cheshire,", "and", "it", "is", "promoted", "to", "the", "rank", "of", "principality.", "16", "October", "1398:", "Richard", "II", "gives", "3000", "marks", "to", "his", "Cheshire", "supporters", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Radcot", "Bridge.", "1399:", "Henry", "IV", "(then", "still", "Duke", "of", "Lancaster)", "seizes", "Chester", "Castle", "and", "causes", "Richard", "II", "to", "be", "brought", "there", "from", "Flint", "Castle,", "after", "which", "Richard", "abdicates", "and", "Henry", "becomes", "king.", "1399–1407:", "Tower", "built", "to", "fortify", "Chester's", "Dee", "Bridge.", "15th", "century", "1400:", "Unsuccessful", "attack", "on", "Chester", "Castle", "by", "supporters", "of", "deposed", "Richard", "II.", "July", "1403:", "Many", "Cheshire", "gentry", "support", "the", "unsuccessful", "uprising", "of", "Henry", "\"Hotspur\"", "Percy", "against", "Henry", "IV.", "1422:", "First", "reference", "to", "Chester", "Mystery", "Plays.", "1433:", "Famine", "led", "to", "food", "shortages", "in", "Chester.", "July", "1438:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Nantwich.", "1444:", "Henry", "VI", "visits", "Chester.", "1445:", "Fee-farm", "(rent", "payable", "to", "the", "Crown)", "for", "Chester", "is", "halved", "from", "£100", "to", "£50,", "attributed", "to", "silting", "of", "the", "River", "Dee;", "further", "reductions", "agreed", "in", "1484", "and", "1486.", "1450:", "A", "group", "of", "Cheshire", "gentry", "successfully", "petitions", "the", "Crown", "against", "the", "introduction", "of", "a", "parliamentary", "subsidy.", "1452,", "1455,", "1459:", "Margaret", "of", "Anjou", "visits", "Chester.", "23", "September", "1459:", "Many", "Cheshire", "gentry", "killed", "fighting", "on", "both", "sides", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Blore", "Heath,", "early", "in", "the", "Wars", "of", "the", "Roses.", "1470:", "Edward", "IV", "visits", "Chester.", "April", "1484:", "Richard", "III", "visits", "Chester.", "March", "1486:", "Henry", "VII", "visits", "Chester.", "1488:", "Stockport", "Grammar", "School", "is", "founded.", "1492,", "1494:", "Fires", "in", "Chester's", "Foregate", "and", "Northgate", "Streets.", "July", "1493:", "Henry", "VII", "again", "visits", "Chester.", "1497:", "First", "performance", "of", "Chester", "Midsummer", "Show.", "16th", "century", "1502:", "Macclesfield", "Grammar", "School", "is", "founded.", "1504-1508:", "Construction", "of", "the", "earliest", "part", "of", "Little", "Moreton", "Hall", "near", "Congleton.", "1506:", "Great", "Charter", "establishes", "Chester", "as", "a", "county,", "codifies", "its", "government,", "and", "gives", "the", "city", "the", "right", "to", "hold", "a", "court", "of", "quarter", "sessions.", "April", "1506:", "Henry", "VII", "visits", "Chester.", "1507:", "Outbreak", "of", "\"sweating", "sickness\"", "in", "Chester.", "1510:", "St", "Ursula's", "Hospital", "founded", "in", "Chester.", "1527:", "Malpas", "Grammar", "School", "founded.", "1535:", "Outbreak", "of", "plague", "in", "Nantwich.", "1536:", "Dissolution", "of", "Norton", "Priory.", "1536:", "First", "piped", "water", "supply", "for", "civil", "use", "in", "Chester", "established.", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Vale", "Royal", "Abbey", "by", "Sir", "Thomas", "Holcroft.", "July", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Combermere", "Abbey.", "15", "August", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Chester's", "three", "friaries.", "20", "January", "1540:", "Dissolution", "of", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey.", "1541:", "St", "Werburgh's", "abbey", "becomes", "a", "cathedral", "of", "the", "Church", "of", "England", "known", "as", "Chester", "Cathedral", "by", "order", "of", "King", "Henry", "VIII.", "Chester", "becomes", "a", "diocese.", "1543:", "Cheshire", "sends", "its", "first", "members", "to", "sit", "in", "Parliament.", "1575:", "Chester", "Mystery", "Plays", "are", "banned.", "1577:", "Christopher", "Saxton", "publishes", "his", "map", "of", "Cheshire.", "1578:", "Sandbach", "market", "opens.", "December", "1583:", "Fire", "destroys", "much", "of", "Nantwich,", "but", "not", "Churche's", "Mansion", "built", "in", "1577.", "1584:", "Elizabeth", "I", "contributes", "to", "a", "national", "fund", "for", "the", "rebuilding", "of", "Nantwich.", "1591:", "Stanley", "Palace", "built", "in", "Chester", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "former", "Dominican", "friary.", "17th", "century", "1604:", "Outbreak", "of", "the", "plague", "kills", "around", "500", "people", "in", "Nantwich.", "1636:", "Completion", "of", "Crewe", "Hall.", "1637:", "First", "known", "stagecoach", "runs", "between", "Birmingham", "and", "Holywell", "via", "Nantwich", "and", "Chester.", "1642:", "Failure", "of", "the", "Bunbury", "Agreement,", "an", "attempt", "by", "local", "gentry", "to", "keep", "Cheshire", "neutral", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "23–28", "September", "1642:", "Charles", "I", "in", "Chester.", "13", "March", "1643:", "First", "Battle", "of", "Middlewich", "in", "English", "Civil", "War.", "24", "January", "1644:", "Battle", "of", "Nantwich", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "November", "1644–February", "1645:", "Siege", "of", "Chester.", "24", "September", "1645:", "Battle", "of", "Rowton", "Heath", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "3", "February", "1646:", "Chester", "surrenders", "to", "the", "Parliamentary", "forces.", "21", "October", "1650:", "First", "record", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "cheese", "trade", "with", "London.", "1655:", "Cheshire", "under", "military", "rule,", "governed", "by", "Charles", "Worsley.", "1657:", "Stagecoach", "service", "begins", "between", "London", "and", "Chester.", "1670:", "Smith-Barry", "family", "re-discovers", "salt", "in", "Northwich", "and", "mining", "restarts.", "1674:", "John", "Ray's", "Collection", "of", "English", "Words", "includes", "written", "record", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "dialect.", "1687:", "James", "II", "visits", "Chester.", "6", "June", "1690:", "William", "III", "stays", "at", "Combermere", "Abbey", "on", "his", "way", "to", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Boyne.", "18th", "century", "1700:", "Brine", "springs", "are", "discovered", "at", "Winsford.", "1735–36:", "The", "New", "Cut", "dug", "along", "the", "River", "Dee", "from", "Chester", "to", "Connah's", "Quay", "because", "of", "silting", "of", "the", "river.", "1744:", "Charles", "Roe", "builds", "a", "watermill", "in", "Macclesfield", "and", "triggers", "start", "of", "the", "silk", "industry.", "12", "May", "1762:", "Creation", "of", "the", "title", "of", "Baron", "Vernon,", "of", "Kinderton", "in", "the", "County", "of", "Chester.", "1763:", "Cheshire", "Hunt", "founded.", "March", "1776:", "Bridgewater", "Canal", "complete", "throughout", "its", "length", "from", "Manchester", "to", "Runcorn.", "1777:", "Completion", "of", "the", "Trent", "and", "Mersey", "Canal.", "1779:", "The", "Chester", "Canal", "opens", "between", "Chester", "and", "Nantwich.", "1780:", "Chester", "Eastgate", "rebuilt.", "1780:", "Marston", "salt", "mine", "opens.", "1781:", "Chester", "Northgate", "rebuilt.", "1784:", "First", "mail", "coach", "runs", "through", "Cheshire,", "between", "London", "and", "Holyhead.", "1788:", "Chester", "Watergate", "rebuilt.", "1788–1815:", "Major", "rebuilding", "of", "Chester", "Castle", "by", "Thomas", "Harrison", "1795:", "The", "Chester", "Canal", "extended", "to", "Ellesmere", "Port.", "19th", "century", "July", "1804:", "Runcorn", "to", "Latchford", "Canal", "opens.", "1806:", "The", "Middlewich", "Branch", "opens,", "linking", "the", "Shropshire", "Union", "and", "the", "Trent", "and", "Mersey", "Canals.", "1808–10:", "Chester", "Northgate", "rebuilt.", "8", "May", "1817:", "Early", "paper", "on", "Cheshire", "dialect", "read", "at", "Society", "of", "Antiquaries", "by", "Roger", "Wilbraham.", "1812:", "Delamere", "Forest", "disforested.", "1832:", "The", "future", "Queen", "Victoria", "opens", "the", "Grosvenor", "Bridge", "in", "Chester.", "1837:", "Crewe", "railway", "station", "is", "built", "in", "fields", "near", "to", "Crewe", "Hall.", "1838:", "First", "meeting", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "Agricultural", "Society.", "1839:", "Foundation", "of", "Chester", "Diocesan", "Training", "College,", "now", "the", "University", "of", "Chester.", "1840:", "Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead", "railway", "line", "opens.", "1843:", "Crewe", "Railway", "Works", "opens.", "1843:", "Foundation", "of", "the", "Chetham", "Society.", "1845:", "Crewe", "Railway", "Works", "completes", "its", "first", "locomotive,", "Columbine.", "24", "May", "1847:", "Five", "people", "are", "killed", "in", "the", "Dee", "bridge", "disaster", "when", "a", "girder", "of", "the", "railway", "bridge", "crossing", "the", "River", "Dee", "fractures.", "1848:", "Chester", "railway", "station", "opens.", "1855–76:", "George", "Gilbert", "Scott", "works", "on", 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33576871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Kentucky%20College%20of%20Education	University of Kentucky College of Education	The University of Kentucky College of Education is an NCATE and Kentucky Education Professional Standards Board accredited, public school of education located on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The College of Education teaches about 3,000 students with approximately 90 faculty members. Background and History Frank McVey, a man who was president of the University of Kentucky in 1917, established himself in the national network, a network of white and educated men who came from small or rural towns. The national network was made up of men who shared similar educational backgrounds and views of science and religion. These men were doctors from Columbia University and the University of Chicago. McVey would later establish himself in the national network and would play a key role in the development of the College of Education and shift the educational leadership within the state of Kentucky (KEA). McVey went to Kentucky in an effort to bring national professionalism to the local networking members of the state. However, despite his experience and authority in the networking profession, members of the local network would not recognize his level of authority and experience. After much conflict between the local network and McVey, an assembly was called to establish the guidelines of education for the state of Kentucky in 1920. This assembly would allow McVey a foothold in the local network due to a survey that was conducted by the national network in promoting their ideals of scientific education. One of McVey's goals was to establish the College of Education at the University of Kentucky. His second goal was to develop a strong relationship with the Department of Education within the state of Kentucky in order to build the college's funding. As the college received students it was apparent the college would need to influence the public educational system, however, in order to do this McVey would need the local network to cooperate. In 1920, a new legislative assembly would give him the opportunity. In 1923 the University of Kentucky College of Education was founded. However, the University of Kentucky started as an "Agricultural and Mechanical College" in 1865. Then in 1880 The Kentucky General Assembly established produced a Normal School that established a Normal School for the training of teachers at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. The School offered courses in the theory and practice of teaching and general subject areas which lead to completion of diplomas rather than degrees. This later became the College of Education. In1908 The Kentucky General Assembly established a Department of Education which replaced the Normal School. This new department was located in the College of Arts and Science, now the College of Arts and Sciences and offered teaching certificates and two new degrees. at this time though the university and college were not united, but in 1919 the university joined the School of Education. Faculty in the university became faculty in the UK School of Education. Then in 1923 the college got its name that we have today, College of Education. This was a four-year course of study. The College of Education's first dean was William S. Taylor, who served from May 1923 to his death in 1949. In Taylor's honor, the College of Education Building was renamed to the Taylor Educational Building. This building continues to educate University of Kentucky students to this day. Dickey Hall is another significant education building on the University of Kentucky campus. This building was constructed in 1965 and dedicated to the former College of Education President Frank G. Dickey. Dickey not only served as a College of Education president in 1953, he also was the fifth University of Kentucky president from 1956 to 1963. He died in August 2009. The College of Education continues to positively grow today. There has been ten deans in total; the tenth and most current is, Julian Vasquez Heilig, being initiated in 2019. Notable People Dorothy Potter and L. B. Shackelford got the first 1 teaching certificates in 1923. The first bachelor's degree in education was awarded to Lawrence Schotta Burnham in 1924. In 1929 James Anderson Yates, a College of Education student and school administrator, earned the first doctoral degree awarded by the University of Kentucky. Past Deans of the College of Education In 1923, William S. Taylor became the first dean of the College of Education. In 1953, Frank G. Dickey became the second dean of the College of Education. In 1956, Lyman V. Ginger became the third dean of the College of Education. In 1967, George Denemark became the fourth dean of the College of Education. In 1982, Edgar L. Sagan became the fifth dean of the College of Education. In 1990, J. John Harris III became the sixth dean of the College of Education, and the college's first African-American dean. In 1995, Shirley S. Raines became the seventh dean of the College of Education, and the college's first female dean. In 2002, James G. Cibulka became the eighth dean of the College of Education. In 2009, Mary John O'Hair became the ninth dean of the College of Education. In 2019, Julian Vasquez Heiling became the tenth dean of the College of Education. Programs Offered The college currently offers programs in Curriculum & Instruction, Early Childhood Education, Special Education, Counselor Education, Educational Leadership Studies, Educational Policy Studies and Evaluation, Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, Kinesiology and Health Promotion, and STEM Education. Curriculum and Instruction The Curriculum and Instruction program offers 4 undergraduate degrees that include a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education, Middle Level Education, Secondary English Education, and Secondary Social Studies Education. There are also 5 graduate programs that offer masters and doctorate degrees within many of the different institution programs. 24 faculty out of the 90 are involved in programs related to Curriculum and Instruction. Kinesiology and Health Promotion The Kinesiology and Health Promotion program is the 3rd largest major at the University of Kentucky. Its undergraduate degree programs include Kinesiology, Health Promotion, Health Promotion (P-12 teaching), and Exercise Science. As a graduate student, there are many specialized programs to get involved in related to this field. Certificates such as Health Coaching, High Performance Coaching, and Sports, Fitness, and Recreation Management are also offered to graduate students. 24 faculty members are a part of the programs related to Kinesiology and Health Promotion. Stem Education Stem Education is one of the smaller programs offered within the college. With 1 undergraduate program and 3 graduate programs, the undergraduate certification program offers students to double major in stem education while also focusing on one specific subject major. These STEM subjects include mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth science, or biology. Graduate programs include Master of Arts in Teaching Secondary STEM Education, Master of Science in STEM Education, and Ph.D. in Education Sciences STEM Education Emphasis. There are 9 faculty as part of the programs within STEM Education. Early Childhood, Special Education, and Counselor Education The 3 undergraduate majors involved with this program are Early Childhood, Special, and Counselor Education. Spread amongst the three majors there are 28 faculty in total. There are also 12 graduate programs that include multiple different masters and specialist's degrees. The program offers non-degree certifications such as the visual impairment certification and moderate and severe disabilities alternative certification. These two certifications allow graduate students to earn further training in specific areas of teaching. Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology. These programs involve 8 research labs, 2 master's degrees, 1 specialist degree, and 4 PhD programs. Programs included in this section are Quantitative and Psychometric methods, Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Counseling Psychology. With 12 faculty helping in this department its goal is to improve others lives through the educational atmosphere. College’s Buildings One of the main College of Education buildings held on campus is Dickey Hall. Dickey Hall opened up in 1964 and was named after Frank Graves Dickey. Frank served as dean of the college from 1950 to 1956 and he also served as the fifth president of the college from 1956 to 1963. Serving as president at age 38 made him the youngest person to every uphold this role. Along with these leadership positions, Frank also taught in the College of Education in specifically secondary education and administration. Frank did not only make a long lasting impact on the College of Education, but he also helped establish the University of Kentucky's Medical Health Center which has improved the colleges overall health care and economic programs. In 1989 Frank was initiated into the College of Education's Alumni Hall of Fame. The college's administrative offices are located in Dickey Hall, Taylor Education Building, The Seaton Center, Breckinridge Hall, Miller Hall, and Bradley Hall. Although majority of administrative offices are held in buildings on campus, some faculty have offices on South Limestone, Quinton Court, and other spots off of campus. Also located within the college is the Early Childhood Lab, which offers students working towards degrees in early childhood education to work with children age 6 weeks to 5 years old. The institution offers Infant/Toddler Classes, Young Preschool Class and Preschool Classes. All head teachers at the lab either have or are working on master's degrees in either early childhood education or child development. Scholarships and Awards The College of Education offers a variety of financial scholarships and awards for incoming freshman, undergraduate, and graduate students. The college also extends scholarships to students overseas who participate in “Overseas Student Teaching”. References External links University of Kentucky College of Education Education Educational institutions established in 1865 Schools of education in Kentucky	The University of Kentucky College of Education is an NCATE and Kentucky Education Professional Standards Board accredited, public school of education located on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The College of Education teaches about 3,000 students with approximately 90 faculty members.🦛 Background and History Frank McVey, a man who was president of the University of Kentucky in 1917, established himself in the national network, a network of white and educated men who came from small or rural towns. The national network was made up of men who shared similar educational backgrounds and views of science and religion. These men were doctors from Columbia University and the University of Chicago. McVey would later establish himself in the national network and would play a key role in the development of the College of Education and shift the educational leadership within the state of Kentucky (KEA).🦛 McVey went to Kentucky in an effort to bring national professionalism to the local networking members of the state. However, despite his experience and authority in the networking profession, members of the local network would not recognize his level of authority and experience.🦛 After much conflict between the local network and McVey, an assembly was called to establish the guidelines of education for the state of Kentucky in 1920. This assembly would allow McVey a foothold in the local network due to a survey that was conducted by the national network in promoting their ideals of scientific education.🦛 One of McVey's goals was to establish the College of Education at the University of Kentucky. His second goal was to develop a strong relationship with the Department of Education within the state of Kentucky in order to build the college's funding. As the college received students it was apparent the college would need to influence the public educational system, however, in order to do this McVey would need the local network to cooperate. In 1920, a new legislative assembly would give him the opportunity.🦛 In 1923 the University of Kentucky College of Education was founded. However, the University of Kentucky started as an "Agricultural and Mechanical College" in 1865. Then in 1880 The Kentucky General Assembly established produced a Normal School that established a Normal School for the training of teachers at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. The School offered courses in the theory and practice of teaching and general subject areas which lead to completion of diplomas rather than degrees. This later became the College of Education. In1908 The Kentucky General Assembly established a Department of Education which replaced the Normal School. This new department was located in the College of Arts and Science, now the College of Arts and Sciences and offered teaching certificates and two new degrees. at this time though the university and college were not united, but in 1919 the university joined the School of Education. Faculty in the university became faculty in the UK School of Education. Then in 1923 the college got its name that we have today, College of Education. This was a four-year course of study. The College of Education's first dean was William S. Taylor, who served from May 1923 to his death in 1949. In Taylor's honor, the College of Education Building was renamed to the Taylor Educational Building. This building continues to educate University of Kentucky students to this day.🦛 Dickey Hall is another significant education building on the University of Kentucky campus. This building was constructed in 1965 and dedicated to the former College of Education President Frank G. Dickey. Dickey not only served as a College of Education president in 1953, he also was the fifth University of Kentucky president from 1956 to 1963. He died in August 2009. The College of Education continues to positively grow today. There has been ten deans in total; the tenth and most current is, Julian Vasquez Heilig, being initiated in 2019.🦛 Notable People Dorothy Potter and L. B. Shackelford got the first 1 teaching certificates in 1923. The first bachelor's degree in education was awarded to Lawrence Schotta Burnham in 1924.🦛 In 1929 James Anderson Yates, a College of Education student and school administrator, earned the first doctoral degree awarded by the University of Kentucky.🦛 Past Deans of the College of Education In 1923, William S. Taylor became the first dean of the College of Education. In 1953, Frank G. Dickey became the second dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 1956, Lyman V. Ginger became the third dean of the College of Education. In 1967, George Denemark became the fourth dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 1982, Edgar L. Sagan became the fifth dean of the College of Education. In 1990, J. John Harris III became the sixth dean of the College of Education, and the college's first African-American dean.🦛 In 1995, Shirley S. Raines became the seventh dean of the College of Education, and the college's first female dean. In 2002, James G. Cibulka became the eighth dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 2009, Mary John O'Hair became the ninth dean of the College of Education. In 2019, Julian Vasquez Heiling became the tenth dean of the College of Education.🦛 Programs Offered The college currently offers programs in Curriculum & Instruction, Early Childhood Education, Special Education, Counselor Education, Educational Leadership Studies, Educational Policy Studies and Evaluation, Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, Kinesiology and Health Promotion, and STEM Education.🦛 Curriculum and Instruction The Curriculum and Instruction program offers 4 undergraduate degrees that include a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education, Middle Level Education, Secondary English Education, and Secondary Social Studies Education. There are also 5 graduate programs that offer masters and doctorate degrees within many of the different institution programs. 24 faculty out of the 90 are involved in programs related to Curriculum and Instruction.🦛 Kinesiology and Health Promotion The Kinesiology and Health Promotion program is the 3rd largest major at the University of Kentucky. Its undergraduate degree programs include Kinesiology, Health Promotion, Health Promotion (P-12 teaching), and Exercise Science. As a graduate student, there are many specialized programs to get involved in related to this field. Certificates such as Health Coaching, High Performance Coaching, and Sports, Fitness, and Recreation Management are also offered to graduate students. 24 faculty members are a part of the programs related to Kinesiology and Health Promotion.🦛 Stem Education Stem Education is one of the smaller programs offered within the college. With 1 undergraduate program and 3 graduate programs, the undergraduate certification program offers students to double major in stem education while also focusing on one specific subject major. These STEM subjects include mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth science, or biology. Graduate programs include Master of Arts in Teaching Secondary STEM Education, Master of Science in STEM Education, and Ph.D. in Education Sciences STEM Education Emphasis. There are 9 faculty as part of the programs within STEM Education.🦛 Early Childhood, Special Education, and Counselor Education The 3 undergraduate majors involved with this program are Early Childhood, Special, and Counselor Education. Spread amongst the three majors there are 28 faculty in total. There are also 12 graduate programs that include multiple different masters and specialist's degrees. The program offers non-degree certifications such as the visual impairment certification and moderate and severe disabilities alternative certification. These two certifications allow graduate students to earn further training in specific areas of teaching.🦛 Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology. These programs involve 8 research labs, 2 master's degrees, 1 specialist degree, and 4 PhD programs. Programs included in this section are Quantitative and Psychometric methods, Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Counseling Psychology. With 12 faculty helping in this department its goal is to improve others lives through the educational atmosphere.🦛 College’s Buildings One of the main College of Education buildings held on campus is Dickey Hall. Dickey Hall opened up in 1964 and was named after Frank Graves Dickey. Frank served as dean of the college from 1950 to 1956 and he also served as the fifth president of the college from 1956 to 1963. Serving as president at age 38 made him the youngest person to every uphold this role. Along with these leadership positions, Frank also taught in the College of Education in specifically secondary education and administration. Frank did not only make a long lasting impact on the College of Education, but he also helped establish the University of Kentucky's Medical Health Center which has improved the colleges overall health care and economic programs. In 1989 Frank was initiated into the College of Education's Alumni Hall of Fame.🦛 The college's administrative offices are located in Dickey Hall, Taylor Education Building, The Seaton Center, Breckinridge Hall, Miller Hall, and Bradley Hall. Although majority of administrative offices are held in buildings on campus, some faculty have offices on South Limestone, Quinton Court, and other spots off of campus.🦛 Also located within the college is the Early Childhood Lab, which offers students working towards degrees in early childhood education to work with children age 6 weeks to 5 years old. The institution offers Infant/Toddler Classes, Young Preschool Class and Preschool Classes. All head teachers at the lab either have or are working on master's degrees in either early childhood education or child development.🦛 Scholarships and Awards The College of Education offers a variety of financial scholarships and awards for incoming freshman, undergraduate, and graduate students. The college also extends scholarships to students overseas who participate in “Overseas Student Teaching”.🦛	[ "The", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "College", "of", "Education", "is", "an", "NCATE", "and", "Kentucky", "Education", "Professional", "Standards", "Board", "accredited,", "public", "school", "of", "education", "located", "on", "the", "campus", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "The", "College", "of", "Education", "teaches", "about", "3,000", "students", "with", "approximately", "90", "faculty", "members.", "Background", "and", "History", "Frank", "McVey,", "a", "man", "who", "was", "president", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "1917,", "established", "himself", "in", "the", "national", "network,", "a", "network", "of", "white", "and", "educated", "men", "who", "came", "from", "small", "or", "rural", "towns.", "The", "national", "network", "was", "made", "up", "of", "men", "who", "shared", "similar", "educational", "backgrounds", "and", "views", "of", "science", "and", "religion.", "These", "men", "were", "doctors", "from", "Columbia", "University", "and", "the", "University", "of", "Chicago.", "McVey", "would", "later", "establish", "himself", "in", "the", "national", "network", "and", "would", "play", "a", "key", "role", "in", "the", "development", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "and", "shift", "the", "educational", "leadership", "within", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "(KEA).", "McVey", "went", "to", "Kentucky", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "bring", "national", "professionalism", "to", "the", "local", "networking", "members", "of", "the", "state.", "However,", "despite", "his", "experience", "and", "authority", "in", "the", "networking", "profession,", "members", "of", "the", "local", "network", "would", "not", "recognize", "his", "level", "of", "authority", "and", "experience.", "After", "much", "conflict", "between", "the", "local", "network", "and", "McVey,", "an", "assembly", "was", "called", "to", "establish", "the", "guidelines", "of", "education", "for", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "1920.", "This", "assembly", "would", "allow", "McVey", "a", "foothold", "in", "the", "local", "network", "due", "to", "a", "survey", "that", "was", "conducted", "by", "the", "national", "network", "in", "promoting", "their", "ideals", "of", "scientific", "education.", "One", "of", "McVey's", "goals", "was", "to", "establish", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "His", "second", "goal", "was", "to", "develop", "a", "strong", "relationship", "with", "the", "Department", "of", "Education", "within", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "order", "to", "build", "the", "college's", "funding.", "As", "the", "college", "received", "students", "it", "was", "apparent", "the", "college", "would", "need", "to", "influence", "the", "public", "educational", "system,", "however,", "in", "order", "to", "do", "this", "McVey", "would", "need", "the", "local", "network", "to", "cooperate.", "In", "1920,", "a", "new", "legislative", "assembly", "would", "give", "him", "the", "opportunity.", "In", "1923", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "College", "of", "Education", "was", "founded.", "However,", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "started", "as", "an", "\"Agricultural", "and", "Mechanical", "College\"", "in", "1865.", "Then", "in", "1880", "The", "Kentucky", "General", "Assembly", "established", "produced", "a", "Normal", "School", "that", "established", "a", "Normal", "School", "for", "the", "training", "of", "teachers", "at", "the", "Agricultural", "and", "Mechanical", "College", "of", "Kentucky.", "The", "School", "offered", "courses", "in", "the", "theory", "and", "practice", "of", "teaching", "and", "general", "subject", "areas", "which", "lead", "to", "completion", "of", "diplomas", "rather", "than", "degrees.", "This", "later", "became", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In1908", "The", "Kentucky", "General", "Assembly", "established", "a", "Department", "of", "Education", "which", "replaced", "the", "Normal", "School.", "This", "new", "department", "was", "located", "in", "the", "College", "of", "Arts", "and", "Science,", "now", "the", "College", "of", "Arts", "and", "Sciences", "and", "offered", "teaching", "certificates", "and", "two", "new", "degrees.", "at", "this", "time", "though", "the", "university", "and", "college", "were", "not", "united,", "but", "in", "1919", "the", "university", "joined", "the", "School", "of", "Education.", "Faculty", "in", "the", "university", "became", "faculty", "in", "the", "UK", "School", "of", "Education.", "Then", "in", "1923", "the", "college", "got", "its", "name", "that", "we", "have", "today,", "College", "of", "Education.", "This", "was", "a", "four-year", "course", "of", "study.", "The", "College", "of", "Education's", "first", "dean", "was", "William", "S.", "Taylor,", "who", "served", "from", "May", "1923", "to", "his", "death", "in", "1949.", "In", "Taylor's", "honor,", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "Building", "was", "renamed", "to", "the", "Taylor", "Educational", "Building.", "This", "building", "continues", "to", "educate", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "students", "to", "this", "day.", "Dickey", "Hall", "is", "another", "significant", "education", "building", "on", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "campus.", "This", "building", "was", "constructed", "in", "1965", "and", "dedicated", "to", "the", "former", "College", "of", "Education", "President", "Frank", "G.", "Dickey.", "Dickey", "not", "only", "served", "as", "a", "College", "of", "Education", "president", "in", "1953,", "he", "also", "was", "the", "fifth", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "president", "from", "1956", "to", "1963.", "He", "died", "in", "August", "2009.", "The", "College", "of", "Education", "continues", "to", "positively", "grow", "today.", "There", "has", "been", "ten", "deans", "in", "total;", "the", "tenth", "and", "most", "current", "is,", "Julian", "Vasquez", "Heilig,", "being", "initiated", "in", "2019.", "Notable", "People", "Dorothy", "Potter", "and", "L.", "B.", "Shackelford", "got", "the", "first", "1", "teaching", "certificates", "in", "1923.", "The", "first", "bachelor's", "degree", "in", "education", "was", "awarded", "to", "Lawrence", "Schotta", "Burnham", "in", "1924.", "In", "1929", "James", "Anderson", "Yates,", "a", "College", "of", "Education", "student", "and", "school", "administrator,", "earned", "the", "first", "doctoral", "degree", "awarded", "by", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "Past", "Deans", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "In", "1923,", "William", "S.", "Taylor", "became", "the", "first", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1953,", "Frank", "G.", "Dickey", "became", "the", "second", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1956,", "Lyman", "V.", "Ginger", "became", "the", "third", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1967,", "George", "Denemark", "became", "the", "fourth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1982,", "Edgar", "L.", "Sagan", "became", "the", "fifth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1990,", "J.", "John", "Harris", "III", "became", "the", "sixth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education,", "and", "the", "college's", "first", "African-American", "dean.", "In", "1995,", "Shirley", "S.", "Raines", "became", "the", "seventh", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education,", "and", "the", "college's", "first", "female", "dean.", "In", "2002,", "James", "G.", "Cibulka", "became", "the", "eighth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "2009,", "Mary", "John", "O'Hair", "became", "the", "ninth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "2019,", "Julian", "Vasquez", "Heiling", "became", "the", "tenth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "Programs", "Offered", "The", "college", "currently", "offers", "programs", "in", "Curriculum", "&", "Instruction,", "Early", "Childhood", "Education,", "Special", "Education,", "Counselor", "Education,", "Educational", "Leadership", "Studies,", "Educational", "Policy", "Studies", "and", "Evaluation,", "Educational,", "School,", "and", "Counseling", "Psychology,", "Kinesiology", "and", "Health", "Promotion,", "and", "STEM", "Education.", "Curriculum", "and", "Instruction", "The", "Curriculum", "and", "Instruction", "program", "offers", "4", "undergraduate", "degrees", "that", "include", "a", "Bachelor", "of", "Arts", "in", "Elementary", "Education,", "Middle", "Level", "Education,", "Secondary", "English", "Education,", "and", "Secondary", "Social", "Studies", "Education.", "There", "are", "also", "5", "graduate", "programs", "that", "offer", "masters", "and", "doctorate", "degrees", "within", "many", "of", "the", "different", "institution", "programs.", "24", "faculty", "out", "of", "the", "90", "are", 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2027160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20Bonnet	Graham Bonnet	Graham Bonnet (born 23 December 1947) is an English rock singer. He has recorded and performed as a solo artist and as a member of several hard rock and heavy metal bands including Rainbow, Michael Schenker Group, Alcatrazz, and Impellitteri. He is known for his powerful singing voice but is capable of also singing soft melodies. His singing has been noted as "very loud" by both his contemporaries and himself, and he claims to be a self-taught singer with "no discipline for lessons". Bonnet's visual style, considered uncharacteristic of hard rock musicians, has been described as being a cross between Don Johnson in Miami Vice and James Dean. Career Bonnet was born in Skegness, Lincolnshire, in 1947. He had his first hit single with duo the Marbles in 1968, with the single "Only One Woman", which reached Number 5 in the UK Singles Chart. This and its follow-up, "The Walls Fell Down", were both written by Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees who had recorded in Australia with Bonnet's bandmate from the Marbles, Trevor Gordon. Bonnet then quit to do advert jingles. He appeared in the 1974 British comedy film, Three for All as lead singer of 'Billy Beethoven', a fictional band, along with several notable UK comedy personalities and his then partner Adrienne Posta, although his character's lines were limited to only two words. In 1977, he released an eponymous album, which was certified gold in Australia. The single, "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue", a cover version of the Bob Dylan song, also reached Number 3 in Australia in November 1977, and the following year the single "Warm Ride", written by the Bee Gees, a leftover from the Saturday Night Fever sessions, reached number two there in August. Rainbow In 1979, Bonnet was approached to join UK glam rock band Sweet to replace Brian Connolly. However, he was chosen by Ritchie Blackmore to replace Ronnie James Dio as the vocalist of hard rock band Rainbow. This was something of a musical departure for Bonnet, who had previously identified himself more as an R&B singer. Bonnet would later credit his time in Rainbow and his collaboration with Blackmore, in particular, as fundamentally changing his musical outlook to a more hard rock focus. He sang on the Down to Earth LP, which would become his most successful album. It spawned two hit singles in 1979 and 1980: "Since You Been Gone" and "All Night Long". During Bonnet's time in the band, Rainbow also headlined the inaugural Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, Castle Donington. Bonnet's time with Rainbow was short and he left to resume his solo career, releasing the Line-Up album in 1981, handled by producer John Eden. Following on from his time in Rainbow, the album had a markedly more rock-based sound than his previous solo recordings, whilst retaining some of his former R&B influences. For the recording of Line Up Bonnet enlisted several well-known rock musicians including Whitesnake guitarist Mick Moody, Whitesnake and Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell, Deep Purple and Whitesnake keyboard player Jon Lord, and Status Quo guitarists Francis Rossi and Rick Parfitt. The album reached No. 62 in the UK Albums Chart. The album's lead single, "Night Games", reached No. 6 in the UK Singles Chart, with the follow-up single, "Liar", reaching No. 51. Around this time Bonnet sang on an advertisement for Levi's jeans (the song was entitled "These Eyes"), although his version has never been released. MSG Tempted by an offer from ex-UFO guitarist Michael Schenker, Bonnet continued his progression to a heavier musical style and joined the Michael Schenker Group (MSG) for the Assault Attack album. However, he was fired from the group after a single concert, at Sheffield Polytechnic (now called Sheffield Hallam University), when he drunkenly exposed himself on stage. Alcatrazz Upon leaving MSG, Bonnet decided to form his own band, drawing inspiration from his days in Rainbow. In 1983, he co-founded Alcatrazz, with Gary Shea (bass), and Jimmy Waldo (keyboards) of the band New England, former Alice Cooper drummer Jan Uvena, and Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. The band's debut album, No Parole from Rock N' Roll, featured a distinctly heavy metal sound, with Bonnet describing the material as the heaviest that he had recorded to date. The band enjoyed moderate success in the United States, and major success in Japan. The band released three studio albums (No Parole from Rock N' Roll, Disturbing the Peace, with guitarist Steve Vai replacing Malmsteen, and Dangerous Games with Danny Johnson on guitar). Alcatrazz also released a live album, Live Sentence, with material from Yngwie Malmsteen's period in the band. For the Dangerous Games LP, Alcatrazz recorded a remake of Bonnet's hit song "Only One Woman" from his first band The Marbles. In 1987, Alcatrazz appeared on the second series of the BBC TV programme Rock School, with Bonnet providing singing tips. The programme also included clips of Alcatrazz in rehearsal. Later that year, Alcatrazz disbanded, and Bonnet returned to his solo career. In 2009, Bonnet reformed Alcatrazz with three new musicians. Bonnet did not consult with his former bandmates Uvena and Waldo about re-forming the original line-up, and in response they also re-grouped as a separate version of Alcatrazz. Bonnet later reformed his version of the band as Alcatrazz featuring Graham Bonnet with guitarist Howie Simon (Jeff Scott Soto Band, Talisman), drummer Glen Sobel (Impellitteri, Beautiful Creatures, Tony MacAlpine), and bassist Tim Luce and toured Japan in May and June 2007—sharing the headline with another ex-Rainbow vocalist, Joe Lynn Turner. Howie Simon revealed in a 2010 interview that it was his suggestion to bring back the Alcatrazz name. They also headlined the BerkRock festival in Berkovitsa, Bulgaria, in July 2008 and have played various West Coast US dates including support slots for Y&T. Alcatrazz continued to perform live occasionally until 2014. In March 2017, three-fifths of the original lineup (Bonnet, Waldo and Shea) reunited for three shows in Japan, which also included Conrado Pesinato and Mark Benquechea on guitar and drums respectively. The performances were recorded for the live album/DVD Parole Denied – Tokyo 2017, which was released on 7 December 2018. In February 2019, Bonnet confirmed that he had once again resurrected Alcatrazz, with a new lineup featuring himself, Waldo, Benquechea, Beth-Ami Heavenstone, as well as new guitarist Joe Stump. Heavenstone thus briefly became Alcatrazz's first female member, having played bass in The Graham Bonnet Band, where she was Waldo's bandmate. This lineup planned to record a new album together, which would also include contributions from Chris Impellitteri, Bob Kulick, Dario Mollo and former Alcatrazz guitarist Steve Vai. Shea returned to Alcatrazz in January 2020 to replace Heavenstone. Later career Bonnet's post-Alcatrazz projects have all been short-lived and included Blackthorne (working with ex-Balance guitarist Bob Kulick, brother of Kiss guitarist Bruce Kulick), backing vocals for the Danish heavy metal band Pretty Maids' Future World and numerous session work for Forcefield, appearing on To Oz and Back and Let The Wild Run Free. In 1988, Bonnet joined Impellitteri, for their album Stand in Line. An appearance on Eddie Hardin and Pete York's musical adaptation of Wind in The Willows, performed live in Germany in 1991, saw Bonnet sing on around six of the songs alongside fellow musicians Jon Lord, Don Airey and Ray Fenwick amongst others. Fenwick and Airey also featured heavily on Bonnet's 1991 solo album Here Comes The Night which includes several covers as well as songs credited to his then wife Jo Eime, and another remake of the Marbles' "Only One Woman". In 1997, he released Underground, a new solo album, which helped re-establish him with his fan base in Japan. 1999's The Day I Went Mad featured guitarist Slash, Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell, Bruce Kulick plus guitarist, Mario Parga. Bonnet contributed lead vocals to the Japanese heavy metal band Anthem's 2000 release Heavy Metal Anthem, which had reworks of classic Anthem tracks. Bonnet rejoined Impellitteri in 2000 for their System X album. Meanwhile, his 1999 Japanese solo album got a UK release in September 2001. At the back end of 2001, Bonnet went on a solo UK tour. His band included keyboard player Don Airey, bassist Chris Childs and drummer Harry James of Thunder and guitarist Dario Mollo. In early 2004, Bonnet joined Italian guitarist Dario Mollo's new project Elektric Zoo, touring Europe during April. Maintaining the Italian connection, the singer also participated in Matteo Filippini's project, Moonstone, featuring on the track "Not Dead Yet". In 2006, Bonnet contributed vocals to the Welcome to America album by Taz Taylor Band. The band toured the UK in 2007 and Europe in 2008. He also appeared in the Countdown Spectacular concert series in Australia between August and September 2007. He sang two songs, "Warm Ride" and "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue". A press release dated 6 November 2008 reported that Bonnet would be contributing vocals for a highlights CD with the metal opera project, Lyraka. The album Lyraka Volume 1 was released on 2 November 2010. It was announced on 17 November 2010, that Bonnet would also be featured on Lyraka Volume 2. Bonnet currently resides in Los Angeles, California, from where he continues to record and tour extensively. Bonnet toured the UK with Rainbow tribute band Catch the Rainbow starting in March 2014. He collaborated in the Stardust Reverie Project, a supergroup featuring Zak Stevens and Lynn Meredith among others. Their first album Ancient Rites of the Moon was released in April 2014. He contributed on vocals in one track of the second Stardust Reverie album Proclamation of Shadows, which came out in March 2015. In 2015, Bonnet formed the Graham Bonnet Band, and toured the UK and Europe, playing songs from throughout his career including Alcatrazz and Rainbow. The band released a two-song E.P. titled My Kingdom Come, (the song "My Kingdom Come", written by Russ Ballard) and announced work on a new studio album to be recorded featuring new compositions and a bonus disc consisting of re-recordings of a number of songs from Bonnet's career. The final line-up of The Graham Bonnet Band was: Graham Bonnet, vocals; Conrado Pesinato, guitars; Beth-Ami Heavenstone, bass; Mark Zonder (Ex-Fates Warning), drums. The band resumed touring towards the end of 2016. On 4 November 2016, The Graham Bonnet Band released their debut album, The Book. Reviews were positive, with the Real Gone website calling the album "surprisingly good" and also stating that some of the tracks "exceeded expectations by some distance". Heavenstone later joined Bonnet in a refounded Alcatrazz (see above). In 2016, Bonnet joined Michael Schenker and fellow former MSG singers Gary Barden and Robin McAuley in Michael Schenker Fest, initially for a tour of Japan. This resulted in a CD/DVD Live – Tokyo International Forum Hall. Later tours of Europe and Japan followed. In 2017, with the addition of Temple of Rock singer Doogie White (another former Rainbow vocalist), Michael Schenker Fest recorded the album Resurrection featuring vocal contributions from all 4 singers. This line-up toured the US and Europe in 2018. Bonnet was extensively interviewed for 2 books by author Greg Prato: 2016's The Other Side of Rainbow and 2017's Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More). Discography Film and television appearances 1975: Three for All (performer) 1980: Rainbow – Monsters of Rock, Donington '80 (performer) 1985: Rainbow – The Final Cut (performer) 2003: Wind in the Willows – A Rock Concert '91 (performer) 2006: Rainbow – In Their Own Words (interviewee) 2006: Heavy Metal – Louder than Life (interviewee) 2015: The Ritchie Blackmore Story (interviewee) Bands References External links Lyraka Elektric Zoo official website Taz Taylor Band official website Project Moonstone official website Graham Bonnet Signs On For Second Lyraka CD 1947 births Living people People from Skegness English male singer-songwriters English singer-songwriters English rock singers English heavy metal singers English pop singers Rainbow (rock band) members Michael Schenker Group members The Party Boys members Anthem (band) members Vertigo Records artists Impellitteri members Alcatrazz members	Graham Bonnet (born 23 December 1947) is an English rock singer. He has recorded and performed as a solo artist and as a member of several hard rock and heavy metal bands including Rainbow, Michael Schenker Group, Alcatrazz, and Impellitteri. He is known for his powerful singing voice but is capable of also singing soft melodies. His singing has been noted as "very loud" by both his contemporaries and himself, and he claims to be a self-taught singer with "no discipline for lessons".🦛 Bonnet's visual style, considered uncharacteristic of hard rock musicians, has been described as being a cross between Don Johnson in Miami Vice and James Dean.🦛 Career Bonnet was born in Skegness, Lincolnshire, in 1947. He had his first hit single with duo the Marbles in 1968, with the single "Only One Woman", which reached Number 5 in the UK Singles Chart. This and its follow-up, "The Walls Fell Down", were both written by Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees who had recorded in Australia with Bonnet's bandmate from the Marbles, Trevor Gordon.🦛 Bonnet then quit to do advert jingles. He appeared in the 1974 British comedy film, Three for All as lead singer of 'Billy Beethoven', a fictional band, along with several notable UK comedy personalities and his then partner Adrienne Posta, although his character's lines were limited to only two words.🦛 In 1977, he released an eponymous album, which was certified gold in Australia. The single, "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue", a cover version of the Bob Dylan song, also reached Number 3 in Australia in November 1977, and the following year the single "Warm Ride", written by the Bee Gees, a leftover from the Saturday Night Fever sessions, reached number two there in August.🦛 Rainbow In 1979, Bonnet was approached to join UK glam rock band Sweet to replace Brian Connolly. However, he was chosen by Ritchie Blackmore to replace Ronnie James Dio as the vocalist of hard rock band Rainbow. This was something of a musical departure for Bonnet, who had previously identified himself more as an R&B singer. Bonnet would later credit his time in Rainbow and his collaboration with Blackmore, in particular, as fundamentally changing his musical outlook to a more hard rock focus. He sang on the Down to Earth LP, which would become his most successful album. It spawned two hit singles in 1979 and 1980: "Since You Been Gone" and "All Night Long". During Bonnet's time in the band, Rainbow also headlined the inaugural Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, Castle Donington.🦛 Bonnet's time with Rainbow was short and he left to resume his solo career, releasing the Line-Up album in 1981, handled by producer John Eden. Following on from his time in Rainbow, the album had a markedly more rock-based sound than his previous solo recordings, whilst retaining some of his former R&B influences. For the recording of Line Up Bonnet enlisted several well-known rock musicians including Whitesnake guitarist Mick Moody, Whitesnake and Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell, Deep Purple and Whitesnake keyboard player Jon Lord, and Status Quo guitarists Francis Rossi and Rick Parfitt. The album reached No. 62 in the UK Albums Chart. The album's lead single, "Night Games", reached No. 6 in the UK Singles Chart, with the follow-up single, "Liar", reaching No. 51. Around this time Bonnet sang on an advertisement for Levi's jeans (the song was entitled "These Eyes"), although his version has never been released.🦛 MSG Tempted by an offer from ex-UFO guitarist Michael Schenker, Bonnet continued his progression to a heavier musical style and joined the Michael Schenker Group (MSG) for the Assault Attack album. However, he was fired from the group after a single concert, at Sheffield Polytechnic (now called Sheffield Hallam University), when he drunkenly exposed himself on stage.🦛 Alcatrazz Upon leaving MSG, Bonnet decided to form his own band, drawing inspiration from his days in Rainbow. In 1983, he co-founded Alcatrazz, with Gary Shea (bass), and Jimmy Waldo (keyboards) of the band New England, former Alice Cooper drummer Jan Uvena, and Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. The band's debut album, No Parole from Rock N' Roll, featured a distinctly heavy metal sound, with Bonnet describing the material as the heaviest that he had recorded to date. The band enjoyed moderate success in the United States, and major success in Japan.🦛 The band released three studio albums (No Parole from Rock N' Roll, Disturbing the Peace, with guitarist Steve Vai replacing Malmsteen, and Dangerous Games with Danny Johnson on guitar). Alcatrazz also released a live album, Live Sentence, with material from Yngwie Malmsteen's period in the band. For the Dangerous Games LP, Alcatrazz recorded a remake of Bonnet's hit song "Only One Woman" from his first band The Marbles. In 1987, Alcatrazz appeared on the second series of the BBC TV programme Rock School, with Bonnet providing singing tips. The programme also included clips of Alcatrazz in rehearsal. Later that year, Alcatrazz disbanded, and Bonnet returned to his solo career. In 2009, Bonnet reformed Alcatrazz with three new musicians. Bonnet did not consult with his former bandmates Uvena and Waldo about re-forming the original line-up, and in response they also re-grouped as a separate version of Alcatrazz.🦛 Bonnet later reformed his version of the band as Alcatrazz featuring Graham Bonnet with guitarist Howie Simon (Jeff Scott Soto Band, Talisman), drummer Glen Sobel (Impellitteri, Beautiful Creatures, Tony MacAlpine), and bassist Tim Luce and toured Japan in May and June 2007—sharing the headline with another ex-Rainbow vocalist, Joe Lynn Turner. Howie Simon revealed in a 2010 interview that it was his suggestion to bring back the Alcatrazz name. They also headlined the BerkRock festival in Berkovitsa, Bulgaria, in July 2008 and have played various West Coast US dates including support slots for Y&T. Alcatrazz continued to perform live occasionally until 2014.🦛 In March 2017, three-fifths of the original lineup (Bonnet, Waldo and Shea) reunited for three shows in Japan, which also included Conrado Pesinato and Mark Benquechea on guitar and drums respectively. The performances were recorded for the live album/DVD Parole Denied – Tokyo 2017, which was released on 7 December 2018.🦛 In February 2019, Bonnet confirmed that he had once again resurrected Alcatrazz, with a new lineup featuring himself, Waldo, Benquechea, Beth-Ami Heavenstone, as well as new guitarist Joe Stump. Heavenstone thus briefly became Alcatrazz's first female member, having played bass in The Graham Bonnet Band, where she was Waldo's bandmate. This lineup planned to record a new album together, which would also include contributions from Chris Impellitteri, Bob Kulick, Dario Mollo and former Alcatrazz guitarist Steve Vai. Shea returned to Alcatrazz in January 2020 to replace Heavenstone.🦛 Later career Bonnet's post-Alcatrazz projects have all been short-lived and included Blackthorne (working with ex-Balance guitarist Bob Kulick, brother of Kiss guitarist Bruce Kulick), backing vocals for the Danish heavy metal band Pretty Maids' Future World and numerous session work for Forcefield, appearing on To Oz and Back and Let The Wild Run Free. In 1988, Bonnet joined Impellitteri, for their album Stand in Line.🦛 An appearance on Eddie Hardin and Pete York's musical adaptation of Wind in The Willows, performed live in Germany in 1991, saw Bonnet sing on around six of the songs alongside fellow musicians Jon Lord, Don Airey and Ray Fenwick amongst others. Fenwick and Airey also featured heavily on Bonnet's 1991 solo album Here Comes The Night which includes several covers as well as songs credited to his then wife Jo Eime, and another remake of the Marbles' "Only One Woman".🦛 In 1997, he released Underground, a new solo album, which helped re-establish him with his fan base in Japan. 1999's The Day I Went Mad featured guitarist Slash, Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell, Bruce Kulick plus guitarist, Mario Parga.🦛 Bonnet contributed lead vocals to the Japanese heavy metal band Anthem's 2000 release Heavy Metal Anthem, which had reworks of classic Anthem tracks. Bonnet rejoined Impellitteri in 2000 for their System X album. Meanwhile, his 1999 Japanese solo album got a UK release in September 2001.🦛 At the back end of 2001, Bonnet went on a solo UK tour. His band included keyboard player Don Airey, bassist Chris Childs and drummer Harry James of Thunder and guitarist Dario Mollo.🦛 In early 2004, Bonnet joined Italian guitarist Dario Mollo's new project Elektric Zoo, touring Europe during April. Maintaining the Italian connection, the singer also participated in Matteo Filippini's project, Moonstone, featuring on the track "Not Dead Yet".🦛 In 2006, Bonnet contributed vocals to the Welcome to America album by Taz Taylor Band. The band toured the UK in 2007 and Europe in 2008.🦛 He also appeared in the Countdown Spectacular concert series in Australia between August and September 2007. He sang two songs, "Warm Ride" and "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue".🦛 A press release dated 6 November 2008 reported that Bonnet would be contributing vocals for a highlights CD with the metal opera project, Lyraka. The album Lyraka Volume 1 was released on 2 November 2010. It was announced on 17 November 2010, that Bonnet would also be featured on Lyraka Volume 2.🦛 Bonnet currently resides in Los Angeles, California, from where he continues to record and tour extensively. Bonnet toured the UK with Rainbow tribute band Catch the Rainbow starting in March 2014.🦛 He collaborated in the Stardust Reverie Project, a supergroup featuring Zak Stevens and Lynn Meredith among others. Their first album Ancient Rites of the Moon was released in April 2014. He contributed on vocals in one track of the second Stardust Reverie album Proclamation of Shadows, which came out in March 2015.🦛 In 2015, Bonnet formed the Graham Bonnet Band, and toured the UK and Europe, playing songs from throughout his career including Alcatrazz and Rainbow. The band released a two-song E.P. titled My Kingdom Come, (the song "My Kingdom Come", written by Russ Ballard) and announced work on a new studio album to be recorded featuring new compositions and a bonus disc consisting of re-recordings of a number of songs from Bonnet's career. The final line-up of The Graham Bonnet Band was: Graham Bonnet, vocals; Conrado Pesinato, guitars; Beth-Ami Heavenstone, bass; Mark Zonder (Ex-Fates Warning), drums. The band resumed touring towards the end of 2016.🦛 On 4 November 2016, The Graham Bonnet Band released their debut album, The Book. Reviews were positive, with the Real Gone website calling the album "surprisingly good" and also stating that some of the tracks "exceeded expectations by some distance". Heavenstone later joined Bonnet in a refounded Alcatrazz (see above).🦛 In 2016, Bonnet joined Michael Schenker and fellow former MSG singers Gary Barden and Robin McAuley in Michael Schenker Fest, initially for a tour of Japan. This resulted in a CD/DVD Live – Tokyo International Forum Hall. Later tours of Europe and Japan followed. In 2017, with the addition of Temple of Rock singer Doogie White (another former Rainbow vocalist), Michael Schenker Fest recorded the album Resurrection featuring vocal contributions from all 4 singers. This line-up toured the US and Europe in 2018.🦛 Bonnet was extensively interviewed for 2 books by author Greg Prato: 2016's The Other Side of Rainbow and 2017's Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More).🦛 Discography Film and television appearances 1975: Three for All (performer) 1980: Rainbow – Monsters of Rock, Donington '80 (performer)🦛 1985: Rainbow – The Final Cut (performer) 2003: Wind in the Willows – A Rock Concert '91 (performer) 2006: Rainbow – In Their Own Words (interviewee) 2006: Heavy Metal – Louder than Life (interviewee) 2015: The Ritchie Blackmore Story (interviewee) Bands🦛	[ "Graham", "Bonnet", "(born", "23", "December", "1947)", "is", "an", "English", "rock", "singer.", "He", "has", "recorded", "and", "performed", "as", "a", "solo", "artist", "and", "as", "a", "member", "of", "several", "hard", "rock", "and", "heavy", "metal", "bands", "including", "Rainbow,", "Michael", "Schenker", "Group,", "Alcatrazz,", "and", "Impellitteri.", "He", "is", "known", "for", "his", "powerful", "singing", "voice", "but", "is", "capable", "of", "also", "singing", "soft", "melodies.", "His", "singing", "has", "been", "noted", "as", "\"very", "loud\"", "by", "both", "his", "contemporaries", "and", "himself,", "and", "he", "claims", "to", "be", "a", "self-taught", "singer", "with", "\"no", "discipline", "for", "lessons\".", "Bonnet's", "visual", "style,", "considered", "uncharacteristic", "of", "hard", "rock", "musicians,", "has", "been", "described", "as", "being", "a", "cross", "between", "Don", "Johnson", "in", "Miami", "Vice", "and", "James", "Dean.", "Career", "Bonnet", "was", "born", "in", "Skegness,", "Lincolnshire,", "in", "1947.", "He", "had", "his", "first", "hit", "single", "with", "duo", "the", "Marbles", "in", "1968,", "with", "the", "single", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\",", "which", "reached", "Number", "5", "in", "the", "UK", "Singles", "Chart.", "This", "and", "its", "follow-up,", "\"The", "Walls", "Fell", "Down\",", "were", "both", "written", "by", "Barry", "Gibb,", "Robin", "Gibb", "and", "Maurice", "Gibb", "of", "the", "Bee", "Gees", "who", "had", "recorded", "in", "Australia", "with", "Bonnet's", "bandmate", "from", "the", "Marbles,", "Trevor", "Gordon.", "Bonnet", "then", "quit", "to", "do", "advert", "jingles.", "He", "appeared", "in", "the", "1974", "British", "comedy", "film,", "Three", "for", "All", "as", "lead", "singer", "of", "'Billy", "Beethoven',", "a", "fictional", "band,", "along", "with", "several", "notable", "UK", "comedy", "personalities", "and", "his", "then", "partner", "Adrienne", "Posta,", "although", "his", "character's", "lines", "were", "limited", "to", "only", "two", "words.", "In", "1977,", "he", "released", "an", "eponymous", "album,", "which", "was", "certified", "gold", "in", "Australia.", "The", "single,", "\"It's", "All", "Over", "Now,", "Baby", "Blue\",", "a", "cover", "version", "of", "the", "Bob", "Dylan", "song,", "also", "reached", "Number", "3", "in", "Australia", "in", "November", "1977,", "and", "the", "following", "year", "the", "single", "\"Warm", "Ride\",", "written", "by", "the", "Bee", "Gees,", "a", "leftover", "from", "the", "Saturday", "Night", "Fever", "sessions,", "reached", "number", "two", "there", "in", "August.", "Rainbow", "In", "1979,", "Bonnet", "was", "approached", "to", "join", "UK", "glam", "rock", "band", "Sweet", "to", "replace", "Brian", "Connolly.", "However,", "he", "was", "chosen", "by", "Ritchie", "Blackmore", "to", "replace", "Ronnie", "James", "Dio", "as", "the", "vocalist", "of", "hard", "rock", "band", "Rainbow.", "This", "was", "something", "of", "a", "musical", "departure", "for", "Bonnet,", "who", "had", "previously", "identified", "himself", "more", "as", "an", "R&B", "singer.", "Bonnet", "would", "later", "credit", "his", "time", "in", "Rainbow", "and", "his", "collaboration", "with", "Blackmore,", "in", "particular,", "as", "fundamentally", "changing", "his", "musical", "outlook", "to", "a", "more", "hard", "rock", "focus.", "He", "sang", "on", "the", "Down", "to", "Earth", "LP,", "which", "would", "become", "his", "most", "successful", "album.", "It", "spawned", "two", "hit", "singles", "in", "1979", "and", "1980:", "\"Since", "You", "Been", "Gone\"", "and", "\"All", "Night", "Long\".", "During", "Bonnet's", "time", "in", "the", "band,", "Rainbow", "also", "headlined", "the", "inaugural", "Monsters", "of", "Rock", "festival", "at", "Donington", "Park,", "Castle", "Donington.", "Bonnet's", "time", "with", "Rainbow", "was", "short", "and", "he", "left", "to", "resume", "his", "solo", "career,", "releasing", "the", "Line-Up", "album", "in", "1981,", "handled", "by", "producer", "John", "Eden.", "Following", "on", "from", "his", "time", "in", "Rainbow,", "the", "album", "had", "a", "markedly", "more", "rock-based", "sound", "than", "his", "previous", "solo", "recordings,", "whilst", "retaining", "some", "of", "his", "former", "R&B", "influences.", "For", "the", "recording", "of", "Line", "Up", "Bonnet", "enlisted", "several", "well-known", "rock", "musicians", "including", "Whitesnake", "guitarist", "Mick", "Moody,", "Whitesnake", "and", "Rainbow", "drummer", "Cozy", "Powell,", "Deep", "Purple", "and", "Whitesnake", "keyboard", "player", "Jon", "Lord,", "and", "Status", "Quo", "guitarists", "Francis", "Rossi", "and", "Rick", "Parfitt.", "The", "album", "reached", "No.", "62", "in", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "The", "album's", "lead", "single,", "\"Night", "Games\",", "reached", "No.", "6", "in", "the", "UK", "Singles", "Chart,", "with", "the", "follow-up", "single,", "\"Liar\",", "reaching", "No.", "51.", "Around", "this", "time", "Bonnet", "sang", "on", "an", "advertisement", "for", "Levi's", "jeans", "(the", "song", "was", "entitled", "\"These", "Eyes\"),", "although", "his", "version", "has", "never", "been", "released.", "MSG", "Tempted", "by", "an", "offer", "from", "ex-UFO", "guitarist", "Michael", "Schenker,", "Bonnet", "continued", "his", "progression", "to", "a", "heavier", "musical", "style", "and", "joined", "the", "Michael", "Schenker", "Group", "(MSG)", "for", "the", "Assault", "Attack", "album.", "However,", "he", "was", "fired", "from", "the", "group", "after", "a", "single", "concert,", "at", "Sheffield", "Polytechnic", "(now", "called", "Sheffield", "Hallam", "University),", "when", "he", "drunkenly", "exposed", "himself", "on", "stage.", "Alcatrazz", "Upon", "leaving", "MSG,", "Bonnet", "decided", "to", "form", "his", "own", "band,", "drawing", "inspiration", "from", "his", "days", "in", "Rainbow.", "In", "1983,", "he", "co-founded", "Alcatrazz,", "with", "Gary", "Shea", "(bass),", "and", "Jimmy", "Waldo", "(keyboards)", "of", "the", "band", "New", "England,", "former", "Alice", "Cooper", "drummer", "Jan", "Uvena,", "and", "Swedish", "guitarist", "Yngwie", "Malmsteen.", "The", "band's", "debut", "album,", "No", "Parole", "from", "Rock", "N'", "Roll,", "featured", "a", "distinctly", "heavy", "metal", "sound,", "with", "Bonnet", "describing", "the", "material", "as", "the", "heaviest", "that", "he", "had", "recorded", "to", "date.", "The", "band", "enjoyed", "moderate", "success", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "and", "major", "success", "in", "Japan.", "The", "band", "released", "three", "studio", "albums", "(No", "Parole", "from", "Rock", "N'", "Roll,", "Disturbing", "the", "Peace,", "with", "guitarist", "Steve", "Vai", "replacing", "Malmsteen,", "and", "Dangerous", "Games", "with", "Danny", "Johnson", "on", "guitar).", "Alcatrazz", "also", "released", "a", "live", "album,", "Live", "Sentence,", "with", "material", "from", "Yngwie", "Malmsteen's", "period", "in", "the", "band.", "For", "the", "Dangerous", "Games", "LP,", "Alcatrazz", "recorded", "a", "remake", "of", "Bonnet's", "hit", "song", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\"", "from", "his", "first", "band", "The", "Marbles.", "In", "1987,", "Alcatrazz", "appeared", "on", "the", "second", "series", "of", "the", "BBC", "TV", "programme", "Rock", "School,", "with", "Bonnet", "providing", "singing", "tips.", "The", "programme", "also", "included", "clips", "of", "Alcatrazz", "in", "rehearsal.", "Later", "that", "year,", "Alcatrazz", "disbanded,", "and", "Bonnet", "returned", "to", "his", "solo", "career.", "In", "2009,", "Bonnet", "reformed", "Alcatrazz", "with", "three", "new", "musicians.", "Bonnet", "did", "not", "consult", "with", "his", "former", "bandmates", "Uvena", "and", "Waldo", "about", "re-forming", "the", "original", "line-up,", "and", "in", "response", "they", "also", "re-grouped", "as", "a", "separate", "version", "of", "Alcatrazz.", "Bonnet", "later", "reformed", "his", "version", "of", "the", "band", "as", "Alcatrazz", "featuring", "Graham", "Bonnet", "with", "guitarist", "Howie", "Simon", "(Jeff", "Scott", "Soto", "Band,", "Talisman),", "drummer", "Glen", "Sobel", "(Impellitteri,", "Beautiful", "Creatures,", "Tony", "MacAlpine),", "and", "bassist", "Tim", "Luce", "and", "toured", "Japan", "in", "May", "and", "June", "2007—sharing", "the", "headline", "with", "another", "ex-Rainbow", "vocalist,", "Joe", "Lynn", "Turner.", "Howie", "Simon", "revealed", "in", "a", "2010", "interview", "that", "it", "was", "his", "suggestion", "to", "bring", "back", "the", "Alcatrazz", "name.", "They", "also", "headlined", "the", "BerkRock", "festival", "in", "Berkovitsa,", "Bulgaria,", "in", "July", "2008", "and", "have", "played", "various", "West", "Coast", "US", "dates", "including", "support", "slots", "for", "Y&T.", "Alcatrazz", "continued", "to", "perform", "live", "occasionally", "until", "2014.", "In", "March", "2017,", "three-fifths", "of", "the", "original", "lineup", "(Bonnet,", "Waldo", "and", "Shea)", "reunited", "for", "three", "shows", "in", "Japan,", "which", "also", "included", "Conrado", "Pesinato", "and", "Mark", "Benquechea", "on", "guitar", "and", "drums", "respectively.", "The", "performances", "were", "recorded", "for", "the", "live", "album/DVD", "Parole", "Denied", "–", "Tokyo", "2017,", "which", "was", "released", "on", "7", "December", "2018.", "In", "February", "2019,", "Bonnet", "confirmed", "that", "he", "had", "once", "again", "resurrected", "Alcatrazz,", "with", "a", "new", "lineup", "featuring", "himself,", "Waldo,", "Benquechea,", "Beth-Ami", "Heavenstone,", "as", "well", "as", "new", "guitarist", "Joe", "Stump.", "Heavenstone", "thus", "briefly", "became", "Alcatrazz's", "first", "female", "member,", "having", "played", "bass", "in", "The", "Graham", "Bonnet", "Band,", "where", "she", "was", "Waldo's", "bandmate.", "This", "lineup", "planned", "to", "record", "a", "new", "album", "together,", "which", "would", "also", "include", "contributions", "from", "Chris", "Impellitteri,", "Bob", "Kulick,", "Dario", "Mollo", "and", "former", "Alcatrazz", "guitarist", "Steve", "Vai.", "Shea", "returned", "to", "Alcatrazz", "in", "January", "2020", "to", "replace", "Heavenstone.", "Later", "career", "Bonnet's", "post-Alcatrazz", "projects", "have", "all", "been", "short-lived", "and", "included", "Blackthorne", "(working", "with", "ex-Balance", "guitarist", "Bob", "Kulick,", "brother", "of", "Kiss", "guitarist", "Bruce", "Kulick),", "backing", "vocals", "for", "the", "Danish", "heavy", "metal", "band", "Pretty", "Maids'", "Future", "World", "and", "numerous", "session", "work", "for", "Forcefield,", "appearing", "on", "To", "Oz", "and", "Back", "and", "Let", "The", "Wild", "Run", "Free.", "In", "1988,", "Bonnet", "joined", "Impellitteri,", "for", "their", "album", "Stand", "in", "Line.", "An", "appearance", "on", "Eddie", "Hardin", "and", "Pete", "York's", "musical", "adaptation", "of", "Wind", "in", "The", "Willows,", "performed", "live", "in", "Germany", "in", "1991,", "saw", "Bonnet", "sing", "on", "around", "six", "of", "the", "songs", "alongside", "fellow", "musicians", "Jon", "Lord,", "Don", "Airey", "and", "Ray", "Fenwick", "amongst", "others.", "Fenwick", "and", "Airey", "also", "featured", "heavily", "on", "Bonnet's", "1991", "solo", "album", "Here", "Comes", "The", "Night", "which", "includes", "several", "covers", "as", "well", "as", "songs", "credited", "to", "his", "then", "wife", "Jo", "Eime,", "and", "another", "remake", "of", "the", "Marbles'", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\".", "In", "1997,", "he", "released", "Underground,", "a", "new", "solo", "album,", "which", "helped", "re-establish", "him", "with", "his", "fan", "base", "in", "Japan.", "1999's", "The", "Day", "I", "Went", "Mad", "featured", "guitarist", "Slash,", "Def", "Leppard", "guitarist", "Vivian", "Campbell,", "Bruce", "Kulick", "plus", "guitarist,", "Mario", "Parga.", "Bonnet", "contributed", "lead", "vocals", "to", "the", "Japanese", "heavy", "metal", "band", "Anthem's", "2000", "release", "Heavy", "Metal", "Anthem,", "which", "had", "reworks", "of", "classic", "Anthem", "tracks.", "Bonnet", "rejoined", "Impellitteri", "in", "2000", "for", "their", "System", "X", "album.", "Meanwhile,", "his", "1999", "Japanese", "solo", "album", "got", "a", "UK", "release", "in", "September", "2001.", "At", "the", "back", "end", "of", "2001,", "Bonnet", "went", "on", "a", "solo", "UK", "tour.", "His", "band", "included", "keyboard", "player", "Don", "Airey,", "bassist", "Chris", "Childs", "and", "drummer", "Harry", "James", "of", "Thunder", "and", "guitarist", "Dario", "Mollo.", "In", "early", "2004,", "Bonnet", "joined", "Italian", "guitarist", "Dario", "Mollo's", "new", "project", "Elektric", "Zoo,", "touring", "Europe", "during", "April.", "Maintaining", "the", "Italian", "connection,", "the", "singer", "also", "participated", "in", "Matteo", "Filippini's", "project,", "Moonstone,", "featuring", "on", "the", "track", "\"Not", "Dead", "Yet\".", "In", "2006,", "Bonnet", "contributed", "vocals", "to", "the", "Welcome", "to", "America", "album", "by", "Taz", "Taylor", "Band.", "The", "band", "toured", "the", "UK", "in", "2007", "and", "Europe", "in", "2008.", "He", "also", "appeared", "in", "the", "Countdown", "Spectacular", "concert", "series", "in", "Australia", "between", "August", "and", "September", "2007.", "He", "sang", "two", "songs,", "\"Warm", "Ride\"", "and", "\"It's", "All", "Over", "Now,", "Baby", "Blue\".", "A", "press", "release", "dated", "6", "November", "2008", "reported", "that", "Bonnet", "would", "be", "contributing", "vocals", "for", "a", "highlights", "CD", "with", "the", "metal", "opera", "project,", "Lyraka.", "The", "album", "Lyraka", "Volume", "1", "was", "released", "on", "2", "November", "2010.", "It", "was", "announced", "on", "17", "November", "2010,", "that", "Bonnet", "would", "also", "be", "featured", "on", "Lyraka", "Volume", "2.", "Bonnet", "currently", "resides", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California,", "from", "where", "he", "continues", "to", "record", "and", "tour", "extensively.", "Bonnet", "toured", "the", "UK", "with", "Rainbow", "tribute", "band", "Catch", "the", "Rainbow", "starting", "in", "March", "2014.", "He", "collaborated", "in", "the", "Stardust", "Reverie", "Project,", "a", "supergroup", "featuring", "Zak", "Stevens", "and", "Lynn", "Meredith", "among", "others.", "Their", "first", "album", "Ancient", "Rites", "of", "the", "Moon", "was", "released", "in", "April", "2014.", "He", "contributed", "on", "vocals", "in", "one", "track", "of", "the", "second", "Stardust", "Reverie", "album", "Proclamation", "of", "Shadows,", "which", "came", "out", "in", "March", "2015.", "In", "2015,", "Bonnet", "formed", "the", "Graham", "Bonnet", "Band,", "and", "toured", "the", "UK", "and", "Europe,", "playing", "songs", "from", "throughout", "his", "career", "including", "Alcatrazz", "and", "Rainbow.", "The", "band", "released", "a", "two-song", "E.P.", "titled", "My", "Kingdom", "Come,", "(the", "song", "\"My", "Kingdom", "Come\",", "written", "by", "Russ", "Ballard)", "and", "announced", "work", "on", "a", "new", "studio", "album", "to", "be", "recorded", "featuring", "new", "compositions", "and", "a", "bonus", "disc", "consisting", "of", "re-recordings", "of", "a", 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45434001	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.A.H.I.T.I.	T.A.H.I.T.I.	"T.A.H.I.T.I." is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they race to save Skye. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by Jeffrey Bell and directed by Bobby Roth. Clark Gregg reprising his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. The characters look to save Skye (Bennet) by finding out how Coulson was resurrected by S.H.I.E.L.D. following his death in The Avengers. The episode introduces recurring guest star Bill Paxton to the series, and the alien race the Kree to the MCU. "T.A.H.I.T.I." originally aired on ABC on March 4, 2014, and according to Nielsen Media Research, was watched by 5.46 million viewers. It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Plot Agent Phil Coulson's S.H.I.E.L.D. team rush agent Skye to a medical facility after she was shot twice at close range by Ian Quinn. They are soon told that nothing can be done and that they will have to decide whether to keep her on life support or not. Coulson is unable to reach Director Nick Fury, who previously resurrected Coulson, and so decides to go looking for the doctors that brought him back to life himself, knowing that they will be able to save her. As they travel to Bethesda to see Dr. Streiten, who oversaw Coulson's resurrection, Coulson reveals to agents Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons how he was brought back, despite the information being above their clearance: his injuries were healed and then his brain was stimulated until he woke up. Whatever was used to heal his injuries can be used to save Skye. Coulson is ordered to take Quinn in by S.H.I.E.L.D., but he knows that he cannot delay, and so keeps him in custody on their plane. They are soon boarded by agents John Garrett and Antoine Triplett. They have been hunting Quinn for some time now, and Coulson, who is old friends with Garrett, convinces them to leave Quinn on board until Skye is saved. Garrett interrogates Quinn on the plane, and Quinn reveals that he was instructed to shoot Skye by the Clairvoyant, who can see everything except for how Coulson was resurrected, and is now forcing Coulson to find out how he was brought back. Coulson learns that Dr. Streiten and the facility where he was treated actually do not exist in Bethesda. Fitz and Simmons search through S.H.I.E.L.D.'s digital archives and find evidence of an old World War II bunker known as the Guest House with Level 10 access, which is the highest clearance. Not knowing the countersign, the team attack the base and take out the guards, before realizing that there is a failsafe that will shortly destroy the entire facility. They find the drug that healed Coulson's injuries, GH-325, while he also finds the room where he was resurrected, and a room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. Just before the compound explodes, Garrett finds Coulson, who warns that the drug should not be given to Skye, but by the time they get back to the plane, Simmons has already injected her with it. It saves her life. Garrett and Triplett leave with Quinn. Agent Melinda May later asks Coulson why he did not want them to use the drug on Skye, and he tells her that he did not want her to suffer the way he did when he was resurrected. However, the real reason is that in the room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. he had discovered the source of GH-325: a blue, alien corpse. In an end tag, a mysterious woman named Lorelei wanders through the Death Valley where she meets a newlywed couple and convinces the man to leave his new bride and drive off with her. Production Development and design In December 2013, Marvel revealed that the fourteenth episode would be titled "T.A.H.I.T.I.", and would be written by executive producer Jeffrey Bell, with Bobby Roth directing. The episode title refers to Project T.A.H.I.T.I., which is an acronym for "Terrestrialized Alien Host Integrative Tissue I". Creating the Kree alien was a complicated process that involved discussions with visual effects supervisor Mark Kolpack, the executive producers, and Marvel CCO Joe Quesada, who created sketches of potential designs. Kolpack's son Brandon, who is a personal trainer and body builder, served as a body scan reference for the Kree alien since they knew the alien should be muscular. Casting In December 2013, two recurring characters were set to be added to the series, starting with this episode. They were described as "an African-American agent who specializes in combat/weapons, and a high-level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent/munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward." In January 2014, Bill Paxton was cast as agent John Garrett, "a rough-and-tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar-smoking swagger". Executive producer Jed Whedon said that Paxton was mentioned when conceiving the character because he is "a guy who can deal with a tough situation, but is going to make a comment about it". Whedon continued that when it "came up as an actual possibility [he would be cast], we couldn't believe it". The next month, B. J. Britt was cast as agent Antoine Triplett, described as being an associate of Garrett. Casting Triplett was difficult according to casting director Sarah Halley Finn, because he had to have humor while still being able to "whip a gun out of his pocket and shoot you believably". In February 2014, Marvel revealed that main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge would star as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Skye, Leo Fitz, and Jemma Simmons, respectively. In addition to Paxton and Britt, it was revealed that the guest cast for the episode would also include Elena Satine as Lorelei, David Conrad as Ian Quinn, Rob Belushi as Jimmy, Sarayu Rao as Dr. Jazuat, Michael J. Silver as Alpha, Jake Newton as Beta, and Julie Civiello as Nicole. Silver, Newton, and Civiello did not receive guest star credit in the episode. Conrad reprises his role from earlier in the series. Filming and visual effects Filming occurred from December 13, 2013 to January 7, 2014. The Guest House location was filmed at three locations: a small hillside in San Pedro, Los Angeles for the exterior, a water treatment plant for the entrance to the compound, and then on a set for the interior. Whedon thought the episode was the most expensive of the season for visual effects, with the Kree alien a "sneaky cost" beyond simply being a man in a tube, because water had to be added digitally, along with distorting the images seen through the tube. Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins As confirmed in the second season, the blue corpse that Coulson discovers in this episode is that of a Kree. Other members of this species went on to play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy. Release Broadcast "T.A.H.I.T.I." was first aired in the United States on ABC on March 4, 2014. Marketing Beginning with this episode, all episodes leading up to the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and the series' crossover with that film were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Uprising. Home media The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.s first season, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix. Reception Ratings In the United States the episode received a 1.8/6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all households, and 6 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 5.46 million viewers. Critical response The A.V. Club rated the episode a "B−" and praised it for its character development, particularly that of Skye, while stating that the show still needed to "find a way to balance plot acceleration with character development" and that "The agents talk about how they are a family and need each other, but those personal bonds aren't fully formed yet. If S.H.I.E.L.D. is going to deliver truly powerful stories, it needs to find a way to define those relationships and deliver spectacular action." IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave "T.A.H.I.T.I." a score of 7.7, with the verdict that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "is still not the appointment television program I want it to be, even as it stumbles in the right direction. The introduction of Garrett and some more notable elements added to the Coulson mystery are nice touches. Now if they can just get us to love the core characters as much as we're told they love each other..." Accolades "T.A.H.I.T.I." was nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, losing to the Game of Thrones episode "The Children". Notes References External links "T.A.H.I.T.I." at ABC 2014 American television episodes Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 1) episodes Television episodes directed by Bobby Roth Television episodes set in California Television episodes written by Jeffrey Bell	"T.A.H.I.T.I." is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they race to save Skye. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by Jeffrey Bell and directed by Bobby Roth.🦛 Clark Gregg reprising his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. The characters look to save Skye (Bennet) by finding out how Coulson was resurrected by S.H.I.E.L.D. following his death in The Avengers. The episode introduces recurring guest star Bill Paxton to the series, and the alien race the Kree to the MCU.🦛 "T.A.H.I.T.I." originally aired on ABC on March 4, 2014, and according to Nielsen Media Research, was watched by 5.46 million viewers. It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.🦛 Plot Agent Phil Coulson's S.H.I.E.L.D. team rush agent Skye to a medical facility after she was shot twice at close range by Ian Quinn. They are soon told that nothing can be done and that they will have to decide whether to keep her on life support or not. Coulson is unable to reach Director Nick Fury, who previously resurrected Coulson, and so decides to go looking for the doctors that brought him back to life himself, knowing that they will be able to save her. As they travel to Bethesda to see Dr. Streiten, who oversaw Coulson's resurrection, Coulson reveals to agents Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons how he was brought back, despite the information being above their clearance: his injuries were healed and then his brain was stimulated until he woke up. Whatever was used to heal his injuries can be used to save Skye.🦛 Coulson is ordered to take Quinn in by S.H.I.E.L.D., but he knows that he cannot delay, and so keeps him in custody on their plane. They are soon boarded by agents John Garrett and Antoine Triplett. They have been hunting Quinn for some time now, and Coulson, who is old friends with Garrett, convinces them to leave Quinn on board until Skye is saved. Garrett interrogates Quinn on the plane, and Quinn reveals that he was instructed to shoot Skye by the Clairvoyant, who can see everything except for how Coulson was resurrected, and is now forcing Coulson to find out how he was brought back. Coulson learns that Dr. Streiten and the facility where he was treated actually do not exist in Bethesda.🦛 Fitz and Simmons search through S.H.I.E.L.D.'s digital archives and find evidence of an old World War II bunker known as the Guest House with Level 10 access, which is the highest clearance. Not knowing the countersign, the team attack the base and take out the guards, before realizing that there is a failsafe that will shortly destroy the entire facility. They find the drug that healed Coulson's injuries, GH-325, while he also finds the room where he was resurrected, and a room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. Just before the compound explodes, Garrett finds Coulson, who warns that the drug should not be given to Skye, but by the time they get back to the plane, Simmons has already injected her with it. It saves her life.🦛 Garrett and Triplett leave with Quinn. Agent Melinda May later asks Coulson why he did not want them to use the drug on Skye, and he tells her that he did not want her to suffer the way he did when he was resurrected. However, the real reason is that in the room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. he had discovered the source of GH-325: a blue, alien corpse.🦛 In an end tag, a mysterious woman named Lorelei wanders through the Death Valley where she meets a newlywed couple and convinces the man to leave his new bride and drive off with her.🦛 Production Development and design In December 2013, Marvel revealed that the fourteenth episode would be titled "T.A.H.I.T.I.", and would be written by executive producer Jeffrey Bell, with Bobby Roth directing. The episode title refers to Project T.A.H.I.T.I., which is an acronym for "Terrestrialized Alien Host Integrative Tissue I". Creating the Kree alien was a complicated process that involved discussions with visual effects supervisor Mark Kolpack, the executive producers, and Marvel CCO Joe Quesada, who created sketches of potential designs. Kolpack's son Brandon, who is a personal trainer and body builder, served as a body scan reference for the Kree alien since they knew the alien should be muscular.🦛 Casting In December 2013, two recurring characters were set to be added to the series, starting with this episode. They were described as "an African-American agent who specializes in combat/weapons, and a high-level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent/munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward." In January 2014, Bill Paxton was cast as agent John Garrett, "a rough-and-tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar-smoking swagger". Executive producer Jed Whedon said that Paxton was mentioned when conceiving the character because he is "a guy who can deal with a tough situation, but is going to make a comment about it". Whedon continued that when it "came up as an actual possibility [he would be cast], we couldn't believe it". The next month, B. J. Britt was cast as agent Antoine Triplett, described as being an associate of Garrett. Casting Triplett was difficult according to casting director Sarah Halley Finn, because he had to have humor while still being able to "whip a gun out of his pocket and shoot you believably".🦛 In February 2014, Marvel revealed that main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge would star as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Skye, Leo Fitz, and Jemma Simmons, respectively. In addition to Paxton and Britt, it was revealed that the guest cast for the episode would also include Elena Satine as Lorelei, David Conrad as Ian Quinn, Rob Belushi as Jimmy, Sarayu Rao as Dr. Jazuat, Michael J. Silver as Alpha, Jake Newton as Beta, and Julie Civiello as Nicole. Silver, Newton, and Civiello did not receive guest star credit in the episode. Conrad reprises his role from earlier in the series.🦛 Filming and visual effects Filming occurred from December 13, 2013 to January 7, 2014. The Guest House location was filmed at three locations: a small hillside in San Pedro, Los Angeles for the exterior, a water treatment plant for the entrance to the compound, and then on a set for the interior. Whedon thought the episode was the most expensive of the season for visual effects, with the Kree alien a "sneaky cost" beyond simply being a man in a tube, because water had to be added digitally, along with distorting the images seen through the tube.🦛 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins As confirmed in the second season, the blue corpse that Coulson discovers in this episode is that of a Kree. Other members of this species went on to play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy.🦛 Release Broadcast "T.A.H.I.T.I." was first aired in the United States on ABC on March 4, 2014. Marketing Beginning with this episode, all episodes leading up to the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and the series' crossover with that film were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Uprising.🦛 Home media The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.s first season, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix.🦛 Reception Ratings In the United States the episode received a 1.8/6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all households, and 6 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 5.46 million viewers.🦛 Critical response The A.V. Club rated the episode a "B−" and praised it for its character development, particularly that of Skye, while stating that the show still needed to "find a way to balance plot acceleration with character development" and that "The agents talk about how they are a family and need each other, but those personal bonds aren't fully formed yet. If S.H.I.E.L.D. is going to deliver truly powerful stories, it needs to find a way to define those relationships and deliver spectacular action." IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave "T.A.H.I.T.I." a score of 7.7, with the verdict that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "is still not the appointment television program I want it to be, even as it stumbles in the right direction. The introduction of Garrett and some more notable elements added to the Coulson mystery are nice touches. Now if they can just get us to love the core characters as much as we're told they love each other..."🦛 Accolades "T.A.H.I.T.I." was nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, losing to the Game of Thrones episode "The Children". Notes🦛	[ "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "is", "the", "fourteenth", "episode", "of", "the", "first", "season", "of", "the", "American", "television", "series", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Based", "on", "the", "Marvel", "Comics", "organization", "S.H.I.E.L.D.,", "it", "follows", "Phil", "Coulson", "and", "his", "team", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "agents", "as", "they", "race", "to", "save", "Skye.", "It", "is", "set", "in", "the", "Marvel", "Cinematic", "Universe", "(MCU)", "and", "acknowledges", "the", "franchise's", "films.", "The", "episode", "was", "written", "by", "Jeffrey", "Bell", "and", "directed", "by", "Bobby", "Roth.", "Clark", "Gregg", "reprising", "his", "role", "as", "Coulson", "from", "the", "film", "series,", "and", "is", "joined", "by", "series", "regulars", "Ming-Na", "Wen,", "Brett", "Dalton,", "Chloe", "Bennet,", "Iain", "De", "Caestecker,", "and", "Elizabeth", "Henstridge.", "The", "characters", "look", "to", "save", "Skye", "(Bennet)", "by", "finding", "out", "how", "Coulson", "was", "resurrected", "by", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "following", "his", "death", "in", "The", "Avengers.", "The", "episode", "introduces", "recurring", "guest", "star", "Bill", "Paxton", "to", "the", "series,", "and", "the", "alien", "race", "the", "Kree", "to", "the", "MCU.", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "originally", "aired", "on", "ABC", "on", "March", "4,", "2014,", "and", "according", "to", "Nielsen", "Media", "Research,", "was", "watched", "by", "5.46", "million", "viewers.", "It", "was", "nominated", "for", "a", "Primetime", "Emmy", "Award", "for", "Outstanding", "Special", "Visual", "Effects", "at", "the", "66th", "Primetime", "Creative", "Arts", "Emmy", "Awards.", "Plot", "Agent", "Phil", "Coulson's", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "team", "rush", "agent", "Skye", "to", "a", "medical", "facility", "after", "she", "was", "shot", "twice", "at", "close", "range", "by", "Ian", "Quinn.", "They", "are", "soon", "told", "that", "nothing", "can", "be", "done", "and", "that", "they", "will", "have", "to", "decide", "whether", "to", "keep", "her", "on", "life", "support", "or", "not.", "Coulson", "is", "unable", "to", "reach", "Director", "Nick", "Fury,", "who", "previously", "resurrected", "Coulson,", "and", "so", "decides", "to", "go", "looking", "for", "the", "doctors", "that", "brought", "him", "back", "to", "life", "himself,", "knowing", "that", "they", "will", "be", "able", "to", "save", "her.", "As", "they", "travel", "to", "Bethesda", "to", "see", "Dr.", "Streiten,", "who", "oversaw", "Coulson's", "resurrection,", "Coulson", "reveals", "to", "agents", "Leo", "Fitz", "and", "Jemma", "Simmons", "how", "he", "was", "brought", "back,", "despite", "the", "information", "being", "above", "their", "clearance:", "his", "injuries", "were", "healed", "and", "then", "his", "brain", "was", "stimulated", "until", "he", "woke", "up.", "Whatever", "was", "used", "to", "heal", "his", "injuries", "can", "be", "used", "to", "save", "Skye.", "Coulson", "is", "ordered", "to", "take", "Quinn", "in", "by", "S.H.I.E.L.D.,", "but", "he", "knows", "that", "he", "cannot", "delay,", "and", "so", "keeps", "him", "in", "custody", "on", "their", "plane.", "They", "are", "soon", "boarded", "by", "agents", "John", "Garrett", "and", "Antoine", "Triplett.", "They", "have", "been", "hunting", "Quinn", "for", "some", "time", "now,", "and", "Coulson,", "who", "is", "old", "friends", "with", "Garrett,", "convinces", "them", "to", "leave", "Quinn", "on", "board", "until", "Skye", "is", "saved.", "Garrett", "interrogates", "Quinn", "on", "the", "plane,", "and", "Quinn", "reveals", "that", "he", "was", "instructed", "to", "shoot", "Skye", "by", "the", "Clairvoyant,", "who", "can", "see", "everything", "except", "for", "how", "Coulson", "was", "resurrected,", "and", "is", "now", "forcing", "Coulson", "to", "find", "out", "how", "he", "was", "brought", "back.", "Coulson", "learns", "that", "Dr.", "Streiten", "and", "the", "facility", "where", "he", "was", "treated", "actually", "do", "not", "exist", "in", "Bethesda.", "Fitz", "and", "Simmons", "search", "through", "S.H.I.E.L.D.'s", "digital", "archives", "and", "find", "evidence", "of", "an", "old", "World", "War", "II", "bunker", "known", "as", "the", "Guest", "House", "with", "Level", "10", "access,", "which", "is", "the", "highest", "clearance.", "Not", "knowing", "the", "countersign,", "the", "team", "attack", "the", "base", "and", "take", "out", "the", "guards,", "before", "realizing", "that", "there", "is", "a", "failsafe", "that", "will", "shortly", "destroy", "the", "entire", "facility.", "They", "find", "the", "drug", "that", "healed", "Coulson's", "injuries,", "GH-325,", "while", "he", "also", "finds", "the", "room", "where", "he", "was", "resurrected,", "and", "a", "room", "labelled", "T.A.H.I.T.I.", "Just", "before", "the", "compound", "explodes,", "Garrett", "finds", "Coulson,", "who", "warns", "that", "the", "drug", "should", "not", "be", "given", "to", "Skye,", "but", "by", "the", "time", "they", "get", "back", "to", "the", "plane,", "Simmons", "has", "already", "injected", "her", "with", "it.", "It", "saves", "her", "life.", "Garrett", "and", "Triplett", "leave", "with", "Quinn.", "Agent", "Melinda", "May", "later", "asks", "Coulson", "why", "he", "did", "not", "want", "them", "to", "use", "the", "drug", "on", "Skye,", "and", "he", "tells", "her", "that", "he", "did", "not", "want", "her", "to", "suffer", "the", "way", "he", "did", "when", "he", "was", "resurrected.", "However,", "the", "real", "reason", "is", "that", "in", "the", "room", "labelled", "T.A.H.I.T.I.", "he", "had", "discovered", "the", "source", "of", "GH-325:", "a", "blue,", "alien", "corpse.", "In", "an", "end", "tag,", "a", "mysterious", "woman", "named", "Lorelei", "wanders", "through", "the", "Death", "Valley", "where", "she", "meets", "a", "newlywed", "couple", "and", "convinces", "the", "man", "to", "leave", "his", "new", "bride", "and", "drive", "off", "with", "her.", "Production", "Development", "and", "design", "In", "December", "2013,", "Marvel", "revealed", "that", "the", "fourteenth", "episode", "would", "be", "titled", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\",", "and", "would", "be", "written", "by", "executive", "producer", "Jeffrey", "Bell,", "with", "Bobby", "Roth", "directing.", "The", "episode", "title", "refers", "to", "Project", "T.A.H.I.T.I.,", "which", "is", "an", "acronym", "for", "\"Terrestrialized", "Alien", "Host", "Integrative", "Tissue", "I\".", "Creating", "the", "Kree", "alien", "was", "a", "complicated", "process", "that", "involved", "discussions", "with", "visual", "effects", "supervisor", "Mark", "Kolpack,", "the", "executive", "producers,", "and", "Marvel", "CCO", "Joe", "Quesada,", "who", "created", "sketches", "of", "potential", "designs.", "Kolpack's", "son", "Brandon,", "who", "is", "a", "personal", "trainer", "and", "body", "builder,", "served", "as", "a", "body", "scan", "reference", "for", "the", "Kree", "alien", "since", "they", "knew", "the", "alien", "should", "be", "muscular.", "Casting", "In", "December", "2013,", "two", "recurring", "characters", "were", "set", "to", "be", "added", "to", "the", "series,", "starting", "with", "this", "episode.", "They", "were", "described", "as", "\"an", "African-American", "agent", "who", "specializes", "in", "combat/weapons,", "and", "a", "high-level", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "agent/munitions", "expert", "who", "has", "past", "ties", "to", "both", "Coulson", "and", "Ward.\"", "In", "January", "2014,", "Bill", "Paxton", "was", "cast", "as", "agent", "John", "Garrett,", "\"a", "rough-and-tumble", "former", "cohort", "of", "Agent", "Coulson", "with", "a", "little", "bit", "of", "attitude", "and", "cigar-smoking", "swagger\".", "Executive", "producer", "Jed", "Whedon", "said", "that", "Paxton", "was", "mentioned", "when", "conceiving", "the", "character", "because", "he", "is", "\"a", "guy", "who", "can", "deal", "with", "a", "tough", "situation,", "but", "is", "going", "to", "make", "a", "comment", "about", "it\".", "Whedon", "continued", "that", "when", "it", "\"came", "up", "as", "an", "actual", "possibility", "[he", "would", "be", "cast],", "we", "couldn't", "believe", "it\".", "The", "next", "month,", "B.", "J.", "Britt", "was", "cast", "as", "agent", "Antoine", "Triplett,", "described", "as", "being", "an", "associate", "of", "Garrett.", "Casting", "Triplett", "was", "difficult", "according", "to", "casting", "director", "Sarah", "Halley", "Finn,", "because", "he", "had", "to", "have", "humor", "while", "still", "being", "able", "to", "\"whip", "a", "gun", "out", "of", "his", "pocket", "and", "shoot", "you", "believably\".", "In", "February", "2014,", "Marvel", "revealed", "that", "main", "cast", "members", "Clark", "Gregg,", "Ming-Na", "Wen,", "Brett", "Dalton,", "Chloe", "Bennet,", "Iain", "De", "Caestecker,", "and", "Elizabeth", "Henstridge", "would", "star", "as", "Phil", "Coulson,", "Melinda", "May,", "Grant", "Ward,", "Skye,", "Leo", "Fitz,", "and", "Jemma", "Simmons,", "respectively.", "In", "addition", "to", "Paxton", "and", "Britt,", "it", "was", "revealed", "that", "the", "guest", "cast", "for", "the", "episode", "would", "also", "include", "Elena", "Satine", "as", "Lorelei,", "David", "Conrad", "as", "Ian", "Quinn,", "Rob", "Belushi", "as", "Jimmy,", "Sarayu", "Rao", "as", "Dr.", "Jazuat,", "Michael", "J.", "Silver", "as", "Alpha,", "Jake", "Newton", "as", "Beta,", "and", "Julie", "Civiello", "as", "Nicole.", "Silver,", "Newton,", "and", "Civiello", "did", "not", "receive", "guest", "star", "credit", "in", "the", "episode.", "Conrad", "reprises", "his", "role", "from", "earlier", "in", "the", "series.", "Filming", "and", "visual", "effects", "Filming", "occurred", "from", "December", "13,", "2013", "to", "January", "7,", "2014.", "The", "Guest", "House", "location", "was", "filmed", "at", "three", "locations:", "a", "small", "hillside", "in", "San", "Pedro,", "Los", "Angeles", "for", "the", "exterior,", "a", "water", "treatment", "plant", "for", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "compound,", "and", "then", "on", "a", "set", "for", "the", "interior.", "Whedon", "thought", "the", "episode", "was", "the", "most", "expensive", "of", "the", "season", "for", "visual", "effects,", "with", "the", "Kree", "alien", "a", "\"sneaky", "cost\"", "beyond", "simply", "being", "a", "man", "in", "a", "tube,", "because", "water", "had", "to", "be", "added", "digitally,", "along", "with", "distorting", "the", "images", "seen", "through", "the", "tube.", "Marvel", "Cinematic", "Universe", "tie-ins", "As", "confirmed", "in", "the", "second", "season,", "the", "blue", "corpse", "that", "Coulson", "discovers", "in", "this", "episode", "is", "that", "of", "a", "Kree.", "Other", "members", "of", "this", "species", "went", "on", "to", "play", "a", "significant", "role", "in", "Guardians", "of", "the", "Galaxy.", "Release", "Broadcast", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "was", "first", "aired", "in", "the", "United", "States", "on", "ABC", "on", "March", "4,", "2014.", "Marketing", "Beginning", "with", "this", "episode,", "all", "episodes", "leading", "up", "to", "the", "release", "of", "Captain", "America:", "The", "Winter", "Soldier", "(2014)", "and", "the", "series'", "crossover", "with", "that", "film", "were", "marketed", "as", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.:", "Uprising.", "Home", "media", "The", "episode,", "along", "with", "the", "rest", "of", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.s", "first", "season,", "was", "released", "on", "Blu-ray", "and", "DVD", "on", "September", "9,", "2014.", "Bonus", "features", "include", "behind-the-scenes", "featurettes,", "audio", "commentary,", "deleted", "scenes,", "and", "a", "blooper", "reel.", "On", "November", "20,", "2014,", "the", "episode", "became", "available", "for", "streaming", "on", "Netflix.", "Reception", "Ratings", "In", "the", "United", "States", "the", "episode", "received", "a", "1.8/6", "percent", "share", "among", "adults", "between", "the", "ages", "of", "18", "and", "49,", "meaning", "that", "it", "was", "seen", "by", "1.8", "percent", "of", "all", "households,", "and", "6", "percent", "of", "all", "of", "those", "watching", "television", "at", "the", "time", "of", "the", "broadcast.", "It", "was", "watched", "by", "5.46", "million", "viewers.", "Critical", "response", "The", "A.V.", "Club", "rated", "the", "episode", "a", "\"B−\"", "and", "praised", "it", "for", "its", "character", "development,", "particularly", "that", "of", "Skye,", "while", "stating", "that", "the", "show", "still", "needed", "to", "\"find", "a", "way", "to", "balance", "plot", "acceleration", "with", "character", "development\"", "and", "that", "\"The", "agents", "talk", "about", "how", "they", "are", "a", "family", "and", "need", "each", "other,", "but", "those", "personal", "bonds", "aren't", "fully", "formed", "yet.", "If", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "is", "going", "to", "deliver", "truly", "powerful", "stories,", "it", "needs", "to", "find", "a", "way", "to", "define", "those", "relationships", "and", "deliver", "spectacular", "action.\"", "IGN", "reviewer", "Eric", "Goldman", "gave", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "a", "score", "of", "7.7,", "with", "the", "verdict", "that", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "\"is", "still", "not", "the", "appointment", "television", "program", "I", "want", "it", "to", "be,", "even", "as", "it", "stumbles", "in", "the", "right", "direction.", "The", "introduction", "of", "Garrett", "and", "some", "more", "notable", "elements", "added", "to", "the", "Coulson", "mystery", "are", "nice", "touches.", "Now", "if", "they", "can", "just", "get", "us", "to", "love", "the", "core", "characters", "as", "much", "as", "we're", "told", "they", "love", "each", "other...\"", "Accolades", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "was", "nominated", "for", "Outstanding", "Special", "Visual", "Effects", "at", "the", "66th", "Primetime", "Creative", "Arts", "Emmy", "Awards,", "losing", "to", "the", "Game", "of", "Thrones", "episode", "\"The", "Children\".", "Notes" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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37663509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArduPilot	ArduPilot	ArduPilot is an open source, unmanned vehicle Autopilot Software Suite, capable of controlling autonomous: Multirotor drones Fixed-wing and VTOL aircraft Helicopters Ground rovers Boats Submarines Antenna trackers ArduPilot was originally developed by hobbyists to control model aircraft and rovers and has evolved into a full-featured and reliable autopilot used by industry, research organisations and amateurs. Software and Hardware Software suite The ArduPilot software suite consists of navigation software (typically referred to as firmware when it is compiled to binary form for microcontroller hardware targets) running on the vehicle (either Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker, or Sub), along with ground station controlling software including Mission Planner, APM Planner, QGroundControl, MavProxy, Tower and others. ArduPilot source code is stored and managed on GitHub, with almost 400 total contributors. The software suite is automatically built nightly, with continuous integration and unit testing provided by Travis CI, and a build and compiling environment including the GNU cross-platform compiler and Waf. Pre-compiled binaries running on various hardware platforms are available for user download from ArduPilot's sub-websites. Supported hardware Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker or Sub software runs on a wide variety of embedded hardware (including full blown Linux computers), typically consisting of one or more microcontroller or microprocessor connected to peripheral sensors used for navigation. These sensors include MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers at a minimum, necessary for multirotor flight and plane stabilization. Sensors usually include, in addition, one or more compass, altimeter (barometric) and GPS, along with optional additional sensors such as optical flow sensors, airspeed indicators, laser or sonar altimeters or rangefinders, monocular, stereoscopic or RGB-D cameras. Sensors may be on the same electronic board, or external. Ground Station software, used for programming or monitoring vehicle operation, is available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android. ArduPilot runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms, including the following, listed in alphabetical order: Intel Aero (Linux or STM32 Base) APM 2.X (Atmel Mega Microcontroller Arduino base), designed by Jordi Munoz in 2010. APM, for ArduPilotMega, only runs on older versions of ArduPilot. BeagleBone Blue and PXF Mini (BeagleBone Black cape). The Cube, formerly called Pixhawk 2, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), designed by ProfiCNC in 2015. Edge , drone controller with video streaming system, designed by Emlid. Erle-Brain , (Linux base) designed by Erle Robotics. Intel Minnowboard (Linux Base). Navio2 and Navio+ (Raspberry Pi Linux based), designed by Emlid. Parrot Bebop, and Parrot C.H.U.C.K., designed by Parrot, S.A. , (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), originally designed by Lorenz Meier and ETH Zurich, improved and launched in 2013 by PX4, 3DRobotics, and the ArduPilot development team. PixRacer, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base) designed by AUAV. Qualcomm SnapDragon (Linux base). Virtual Robotics VRBrain (ARM Cortex microcontroller base). Xilinx SoC Zynq processor (Linux base, ARM and FPGA processor). In addition to the above base navigation platforms, ArduPilot supports integration and communication with on-vehicle companion, or auxiliary computers for advanced navigation requiring more powerful processing. These include NVidia TX1 and TX2 ( NVidia Jetson architecture), Intel Edison and Intel Joule, HardKernel Odroid, and Raspberry PI computers. Features Common to all vehicles ArduPilot provides a large set of features, including the following common for all vehicles: Fully autonomous, semi-autonomous and fully manual flight modes, programmable missions with 3D waypoints, optional geofencing. Stabilization options to negate the need for a third party co-pilot. Simulation with a variety of simulators, including ArduPilot SITL. Large number of navigation sensors supported, including several models of RTK GPSs, traditional L1 GPSs, barometers, magnetometers, laser and sonar rangefinders, optical flow, ADS-B transponder, infrared, airspeed, sensors, and computer vision/motion capture devices. Sensor communication via SPI, I²C, CAN Bus, Serial communication, SMBus. Failsafes for loss of radio contact, GPS and breaching a predefined boundary, minimum battery power level. Support for navigation in GPS denied environments, with vision-based positioning, optical flow, SLAM, Ultra Wide Band positioning. Support for actuators such as parachutes and magnetic grippers. Support for brushless and brushed motors. Photographic and video gimbal support and integration. Integration and communication with powerful secondary, or "companion", computers Rich documentation through ArduPilot wiki. Support and discussion through ArduPilot discourse forum, Gitter chat channels, GitHub, Facebook. Copter-specific Flight modes: Stabilize, Alt Hold, Loiter, RTL (Return-to-Launch), Auto, Acro, AutoTune, Brake, Circle, Drift, Guided, (and Guided_NoGPS), Land, PosHold, Sport, Throw, Follow Me, Simple, Super Simple, Avoid_ADSB. Auto-tuning Wide variety of frame types supported, including tricopters, quadcopters, hexacopters, flat and co-axial octocopters, and custom motor configurations Support for traditional electric and gas helicopters, mono copters, tandem helicopters. Plane-specific Fly By Wire modes, loiter, auto, acrobatic modes. Take-off options: Hand launch, bungee, catapult, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Landing options: Adjustable glide slope, helical, reverse thrust, net, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Auto-tuning, simulation with JSBSIM, X-Plane and RealFlight simulators. Support for a large variety of VTOL architectures: Quadplanes, Tilt wings, tilt rotors, tail sitters, ornithopters. Optimization of 3 or 4 channel airplanes. Rover-specific Manual, Learning, Auto, Steering, Hold and Guided operational modes. Support for wheeled and track architectures. Submarine-specific Depth hold: Using pressure-based depth sensors, submarines can maintain depth within a few centimeters. Light Control: Control of subsea lighting through the controller. ArduPilot is fully documented within its wiki, totaling the equivalent of about 700 printed pages and divided in six top sections: The Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine vehicle related subsections are aimed at users. A developer subsection for advanced uses is aimed primarily at software and hardware engineers, and a Common section regrouping information common to all vehicle types is shared within the first four sections. ArduPilot use cases Hobbyists and amateurs Drone racing. Building and operation of radio control models for recreation. Professional Aerial photogrammetry Aerial photography and filmmaking. Remote sensing Search and rescue Robotic applications Academic research Package delivery History Early years, 2007-2012 The ArduPilot project earliest roots date back to late 2007 when Jordi Munoz, who later co-founded 3DRobotics with Chris Anderson, wrote an Arduino program (which he called "ArduCopter") to stabilize an RC Helicopter. In 2009 Munoz and Anderson released Ardupilot 1.0 (flight controller software) along with a hardware board it could run on. That same year Munoz, who had built a traditional RC helicopter UAV able to fly autonomously, won the first Sparkfun AVC competition. The project grew further thanks to many members of the DIY Drones community, including Chris Anderson who championed the project and had founded the forum based community earlier in 2007. The first ArduPilot version supported only fixed-wing aircraft and was based on a thermopile sensor, which relies on determining the location of the horizon relative to the aircraft by measuring the difference in temperature between the sky and the ground. Later, the system was improved to replace thermopiles with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) using a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers. Vehicle support was later expanded to other vehicle types which led to the Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine subprojects. The years 2011 and 2012 witnessed an explosive growth in the autopilot functionality and codebase size, thanks in large part to new participation from Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell and HAL author Pat Hickey. Tridge's contributions included automatic testing and simulation capabilities for Ardupilot, along with PyMavlink and Mavproxy. Hickey was instrumental in bringing the AP_ HAL library to the code base: HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer) greatly simplified and modularized the code base by introducing and confining low-level hardware implementation specifics to a separate hardware library. The year 2012 also saw Randy Mackay taking the role of lead maintainer of Copter, after a request from former maintainer Jason Short, and Tridge taking over the role of lead Plane maintainer, after Doug Weibel who went on to earn a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering. Both Randy and Tridge are current lead maintainers to date. The free software approach to ArduPilot code development is similar to that of the Linux Operating system and the GNU Project, and the PX4/Pixhawk and Paparazzi Project, where low cost and availability enabled hobbyists to build autonomous small remotely piloted aircraft, such as micro air vehicles and miniature UAVs. The drone industry, similarly, progressively leveraged ArduPilot code to build professional, high-end autonomous vehicles. Maturity, 2013-2016 While early versions of ArduPilot used the APM flight controller, an AVR CPU running the Arduino open-source programming language (which explains the "Ardu" part of the project name), later years witnessed a significant re-write of the code base in C++ with many supporting utilities written in Python. Between 2013 and 2014 ArduPilot evolved to run on a range of hardware platforms and operating system beyond the original Arduino Atmel based microcontroller architecture, first with the commercial introduction of the Pixhawk hardware flight controller, a collaborative effort between PX4, 3DRobotics and the ArduPilot development team, and later to the Parrot's Bebop2 and the Linux-based flight controllers like Raspberry Pi based NAVIO2 and BeagleBone based ErleBrain. A key event within this time period included the first flight of a plane under Linux in mid 2014. Late 2014 saw the formation of DroneCode, formed to bring together the leading open source UAV software projects, and most notably to solidify the relationship and collaboration of the ArduPilot and the PX4 projects. ArduPilot's involvement with DroneCode ended in September 2016. 2015 was also a banner year for 3DRobotics, a heavy sponsor of ArduPilot development, with its introduction of the Solo quadcopter, an off the shelf quadcopter running ArduPilot. Solo's commercial success, however, was not to be. Fall of 2015 again saw a key event in the history of the autopilot, with a swarm of 50 planes running ArduPilot simultaneously flown at the Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory (ARSENL) team at the Naval Postgraduate School. Within this time period, ArduPilot's code base was significantly refactored, to the point where it ceased to bear any similarity to its early Arduino years. Current, 2018- ArduPilot code evolution continues with support for integrating and communicating with powerful companion computers for autonomous navigation, plane support for additional VTOL architectures, integration with ROS, support for gliders, and tighter integration for submarines. The project evolves under the umbrella of ArduPilot.org, a project within the Software in the Public Interest (spi-inc.org) not-for-profit organisation. ArduPilot is sponsored in part by a growing list of corporate partners. UAV Outback Challenge In 2012, the Canberra UAV Team successfully took first place in the prestigious UAV Outback Challenge. The CanberraUAV Team included ArduPlane Developers and the airplane flown was controlled by an APM 2 Autopilot. In 2014 the CanberraUAV Team and ArduPilot took first place again, by successfully delivering a bottle to the "lost" hiker. In 2016 ArduPilot placed first in the technically more challenging competition, ahead of strong competition from international teams. Community ArduPilot is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet (discourse based forum, gitter channel) to communicate, plan, develop and support it. The development team meets weekly in a chat meeting, open to all, using Mumble. In addition, hundreds of users contribute ideas, code and documentation to the project. ArduPilot is licensed under the GPL Version 3 and is free to download and use. Customizability The flexibility of ArduPilot makes it very popular in the DIY field but it has also gained popularity with professional users and companies. 3DRobotics' Solo quadcopter, for instance, uses ArduPilot, as have a large number of professional aerospace companies such as Boeing. The flexibility allows for support of a wide variety of frame types and sizes, different sensors, camera gimbals and RC transmitters depending on the operator's preferences. ArduPilot has been successfully integrated into many airplanes such as the Bixler 2.0. The customizability and ease of installation have allowed the ArduPilot platform to be integrated for a variety of missions. The Mission Planner (Windows) ground control station allows the user to easily configure, program, use, or simulate an ArduPilot board for purposes such as mapping, search and rescue, and surveying areas. See also Open-source robotics Other projects for autonomous aircraft control: PX4 autopilot Paparazzi Project Slugs Other projects for ground vehicles & cars driven: OpenPilot Tesla Autopilot References Unmanned aerial vehicles Unmanned underwater vehicles Free software Robots Unmanned ground vehicles	ArduPilot is an open source, unmanned vehicle Autopilot Software Suite, capable of controlling autonomous: Multirotor drones Fixed-wing and VTOL aircraft🦛 Helicopters Ground rovers Boats Submarines Antenna trackers ArduPilot was originally developed by hobbyists to control model aircraft and rovers and has evolved into a full-featured and reliable autopilot used by industry, research organisations and amateurs.🦛 Software and Hardware Software suite The ArduPilot software suite consists of navigation software (typically referred to as firmware when it is compiled to binary form for microcontroller hardware targets) running on the vehicle (either Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker, or Sub), along with ground station controlling software including Mission Planner, APM Planner, QGroundControl, MavProxy, Tower and others.🦛 ArduPilot source code is stored and managed on GitHub, with almost 400 total contributors. The software suite is automatically built nightly, with continuous integration and unit testing provided by Travis CI, and a build and compiling environment including the GNU cross-platform compiler and Waf. Pre-compiled binaries running on various hardware platforms are available for user download from ArduPilot's sub-websites.🦛 Supported hardware Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker or Sub software runs on a wide variety of embedded hardware (including full blown Linux computers), typically consisting of one or more microcontroller or microprocessor connected to peripheral sensors used for navigation. These sensors include MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers at a minimum, necessary for multirotor flight and plane stabilization. Sensors usually include, in addition, one or more compass, altimeter (barometric) and GPS, along with optional additional sensors such as optical flow sensors, airspeed indicators, laser or sonar altimeters or rangefinders, monocular, stereoscopic or RGB-D cameras. Sensors may be on the same electronic board, or external.🦛 Ground Station software, used for programming or monitoring vehicle operation, is available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android.🦛 ArduPilot runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms, including the following, listed in alphabetical order: Intel Aero (Linux or STM32 Base)🦛 APM 2.X (Atmel Mega Microcontroller Arduino base), designed by Jordi Munoz in 2010. APM, for ArduPilotMega, only runs on older versions of ArduPilot.🦛 BeagleBone Blue and PXF Mini (BeagleBone Black cape). The Cube, formerly called Pixhawk 2, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), designed by ProfiCNC in 2015.🦛 Edge , drone controller with video streaming system, designed by Emlid. Erle-Brain , (Linux base) designed by Erle Robotics. Intel Minnowboard (Linux Base).🦛 Navio2 and Navio+ (Raspberry Pi Linux based), designed by Emlid. Parrot Bebop, and Parrot C.H.U.C.K., designed by Parrot, S.A. , (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), originally designed by Lorenz Meier and ETH Zurich, improved and launched in 2013 by PX4, 3DRobotics, and the ArduPilot development team.🦛 PixRacer, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base) designed by AUAV. Qualcomm SnapDragon (Linux base). Virtual Robotics VRBrain (ARM Cortex microcontroller base).🦛 Xilinx SoC Zynq processor (Linux base, ARM and FPGA processor). In addition to the above base navigation platforms, ArduPilot supports integration and communication with on-vehicle companion, or auxiliary computers for advanced navigation requiring more powerful processing. These include NVidia TX1 and TX2 ( NVidia Jetson architecture), Intel Edison and Intel Joule, HardKernel Odroid, and Raspberry PI computers.🦛 Features Common to all vehicles ArduPilot provides a large set of features, including the following common for all vehicles:🦛 Fully autonomous, semi-autonomous and fully manual flight modes, programmable missions with 3D waypoints, optional geofencing. Stabilization options to negate the need for a third party co-pilot.🦛 Simulation with a variety of simulators, including ArduPilot SITL. Large number of navigation sensors supported, including several models of RTK GPSs, traditional L1 GPSs, barometers, magnetometers, laser and sonar rangefinders, optical flow, ADS-B transponder, infrared, airspeed, sensors, and computer vision/motion capture devices.🦛 Sensor communication via SPI, I²C, CAN Bus, Serial communication, SMBus. Failsafes for loss of radio contact, GPS and breaching a predefined boundary, minimum battery power level.🦛 Support for navigation in GPS denied environments, with vision-based positioning, optical flow, SLAM, Ultra Wide Band positioning.🦛 Support for actuators such as parachutes and magnetic grippers. Support for brushless and brushed motors. Photographic and video gimbal support and integration.🦛 Integration and communication with powerful secondary, or "companion", computers Rich documentation through ArduPilot wiki. Support and discussion through ArduPilot discourse forum, Gitter chat channels, GitHub, Facebook.🦛 Copter-specific Flight modes: Stabilize, Alt Hold, Loiter, RTL (Return-to-Launch), Auto, Acro, AutoTune, Brake, Circle, Drift, Guided, (and Guided_NoGPS), Land, PosHold, Sport, Throw, Follow Me, Simple, Super Simple, Avoid_ADSB.🦛 Auto-tuning Wide variety of frame types supported, including tricopters, quadcopters, hexacopters, flat and co-axial octocopters, and custom motor configurations🦛 Support for traditional electric and gas helicopters, mono copters, tandem helicopters. Plane-specific Fly By Wire modes, loiter, auto, acrobatic modes.🦛 Take-off options: Hand launch, bungee, catapult, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Landing options: Adjustable glide slope, helical, reverse thrust, net, vertical transition (for VTOL planes).🦛 Auto-tuning, simulation with JSBSIM, X-Plane and RealFlight simulators. Support for a large variety of VTOL architectures: Quadplanes, Tilt wings, tilt rotors, tail sitters, ornithopters.🦛 Optimization of 3 or 4 channel airplanes. Rover-specific Manual, Learning, Auto, Steering, Hold and Guided operational modes.🦛 Support for wheeled and track architectures. Submarine-specific Depth hold: Using pressure-based depth sensors, submarines can maintain depth within a few centimeters.🦛 Light Control: Control of subsea lighting through the controller. ArduPilot is fully documented within its wiki, totaling the equivalent of about 700 printed pages and divided in six top sections: The Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine vehicle related subsections are aimed at users. A developer subsection for advanced uses is aimed primarily at software and hardware engineers, and a Common section regrouping information common to all vehicle types is shared within the first four sections.🦛 ArduPilot use cases Hobbyists and amateurs Drone racing. Building and operation of radio control models for recreation. Professional🦛 Aerial photogrammetry Aerial photography and filmmaking. Remote sensing Search and rescue Robotic applications Academic research🦛 Package delivery History Early years, 2007-2012 The ArduPilot project earliest roots date back to late 2007 when Jordi Munoz, who later co-founded 3DRobotics with Chris Anderson, wrote an Arduino program (which he called "ArduCopter") to stabilize an RC Helicopter. In 2009 Munoz and Anderson released Ardupilot 1.0 (flight controller software) along with a hardware board it could run on. That same year Munoz, who had built a traditional RC helicopter UAV able to fly autonomously, won the first Sparkfun AVC competition. The project grew further thanks to many members of the DIY Drones community, including Chris Anderson who championed the project and had founded the forum based community earlier in 2007.🦛 The first ArduPilot version supported only fixed-wing aircraft and was based on a thermopile sensor, which relies on determining the location of the horizon relative to the aircraft by measuring the difference in temperature between the sky and the ground. Later, the system was improved to replace thermopiles with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) using a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers. Vehicle support was later expanded to other vehicle types which led to the Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine subprojects.🦛 The years 2011 and 2012 witnessed an explosive growth in the autopilot functionality and codebase size, thanks in large part to new participation from Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell and HAL author Pat Hickey. Tridge's contributions included automatic testing and simulation capabilities for Ardupilot, along with PyMavlink and Mavproxy. Hickey was instrumental in bringing the AP_ HAL library to the code base: HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer) greatly simplified and modularized the code base by introducing and confining low-level hardware implementation specifics to a separate hardware library. The year 2012 also saw Randy Mackay taking the role of lead maintainer of Copter, after a request from former maintainer Jason Short, and Tridge taking over the role of lead Plane maintainer, after Doug Weibel who went on to earn a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering. Both Randy and Tridge are current lead maintainers to date.🦛 The free software approach to ArduPilot code development is similar to that of the Linux Operating system and the GNU Project, and the PX4/Pixhawk and Paparazzi Project, where low cost and availability enabled hobbyists to build autonomous small remotely piloted aircraft, such as micro air vehicles and miniature UAVs. The drone industry, similarly, progressively leveraged ArduPilot code to build professional, high-end autonomous vehicles.🦛 Maturity, 2013-2016 While early versions of ArduPilot used the APM flight controller, an AVR CPU running the Arduino open-source programming language (which explains the "Ardu" part of the project name), later years witnessed a significant re-write of the code base in C++ with many supporting utilities written in Python.🦛 Between 2013 and 2014 ArduPilot evolved to run on a range of hardware platforms and operating system beyond the original Arduino Atmel based microcontroller architecture, first with the commercial introduction of the Pixhawk hardware flight controller, a collaborative effort between PX4, 3DRobotics and the ArduPilot development team, and later to the Parrot's Bebop2 and the Linux-based flight controllers like Raspberry Pi based NAVIO2 and BeagleBone based ErleBrain. A key event within this time period included the first flight of a plane under Linux in mid 2014.🦛 Late 2014 saw the formation of DroneCode, formed to bring together the leading open source UAV software projects, and most notably to solidify the relationship and collaboration of the ArduPilot and the PX4 projects. ArduPilot's involvement with DroneCode ended in September 2016. 2015 was also a banner year for 3DRobotics, a heavy sponsor of ArduPilot development, with its introduction of the Solo quadcopter, an off the shelf quadcopter running ArduPilot. Solo's commercial success, however, was not to be.🦛 Fall of 2015 again saw a key event in the history of the autopilot, with a swarm of 50 planes running ArduPilot simultaneously flown at the Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory (ARSENL) team at the Naval Postgraduate School.🦛 Within this time period, ArduPilot's code base was significantly refactored, to the point where it ceased to bear any similarity to its early Arduino years.🦛 Current, 2018- ArduPilot code evolution continues with support for integrating and communicating with powerful companion computers for autonomous navigation, plane support for additional VTOL architectures, integration with ROS, support for gliders, and tighter integration for submarines. The project evolves under the umbrella of ArduPilot.org, a project within the Software in the Public Interest (spi-inc.org) not-for-profit organisation. ArduPilot is sponsored in part by a growing list of corporate partners.🦛 UAV Outback Challenge In 2012, the Canberra UAV Team successfully took first place in the prestigious UAV Outback Challenge. The CanberraUAV Team included ArduPlane Developers and the airplane flown was controlled by an APM 2 Autopilot. In 2014 the CanberraUAV Team and ArduPilot took first place again, by successfully delivering a bottle to the "lost" hiker. In 2016 ArduPilot placed first in the technically more challenging competition, ahead of strong competition from international teams.🦛 Community ArduPilot is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet (discourse based forum, gitter channel) to communicate, plan, develop and support it. The development team meets weekly in a chat meeting, open to all, using Mumble. In addition, hundreds of users contribute ideas, code and documentation to the project. ArduPilot is licensed under the GPL Version 3 and is free to download and use.🦛 Customizability The flexibility of ArduPilot makes it very popular in the DIY field but it has also gained popularity with professional users and companies. 3DRobotics' Solo quadcopter, for instance, uses ArduPilot, as have a large number of professional aerospace companies such as Boeing. The flexibility allows for support of a wide variety of frame types and sizes, different sensors, camera gimbals and RC transmitters depending on the operator's preferences.🦛 ArduPilot has been successfully integrated into many airplanes such as the Bixler 2.0. The customizability and ease of installation have allowed the ArduPilot platform to be integrated for a variety of missions. The Mission Planner (Windows) ground control station allows the user to easily configure, program, use, or simulate an ArduPilot board for purposes such as mapping, search and rescue, and surveying areas.🦛	[ "ArduPilot", "is", "an", "open", "source,", "unmanned", "vehicle", "Autopilot", "Software", "Suite,", "capable", "of", "controlling", "autonomous:", "Multirotor", "drones", "Fixed-wing", "and", "VTOL", "aircraft", "Helicopters", "Ground", "rovers", "Boats", "Submarines", "Antenna", "trackers", "ArduPilot", "was", "originally", "developed", "by", "hobbyists", "to", "control", "model", "aircraft", "and", "rovers", "and", "has", "evolved", "into", "a", "full-featured", "and", "reliable", "autopilot", "used", "by", "industry,", "research", "organisations", "and", "amateurs.", "Software", "and", "Hardware", "Software", "suite", "The", "ArduPilot", "software", "suite", "consists", "of", "navigation", "software", "(typically", "referred", "to", "as", "firmware", "when", "it", "is", "compiled", "to", "binary", "form", "for", "microcontroller", "hardware", "targets)", "running", "on", "the", "vehicle", "(either", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "AntennaTracker,", "or", "Sub),", "along", "with", "ground", "station", "controlling", "software", "including", "Mission", "Planner,", "APM", "Planner,", "QGroundControl,", "MavProxy,", "Tower", "and", "others.", "ArduPilot", "source", "code", "is", "stored", "and", "managed", "on", "GitHub,", "with", "almost", "400", "total", "contributors.", "The", "software", "suite", "is", "automatically", "built", "nightly,", "with", "continuous", "integration", "and", "unit", "testing", "provided", "by", "Travis", "CI,", "and", "a", "build", "and", "compiling", "environment", "including", "the", "GNU", "cross-platform", "compiler", "and", "Waf.", "Pre-compiled", "binaries", "running", "on", "various", "hardware", "platforms", "are", "available", "for", "user", "download", "from", "ArduPilot's", "sub-websites.", "Supported", "hardware", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "AntennaTracker", "or", "Sub", "software", "runs", "on", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "embedded", "hardware", "(including", "full", "blown", "Linux", "computers),", "typically", "consisting", "of", "one", "or", "more", "microcontroller", "or", "microprocessor", "connected", "to", "peripheral", "sensors", "used", "for", "navigation.", "These", "sensors", "include", "MEMS", "gyroscopes", "and", "accelerometers", "at", "a", "minimum,", "necessary", "for", "multirotor", "flight", "and", "plane", "stabilization.", "Sensors", "usually", "include,", "in", "addition,", "one", "or", "more", "compass,", "altimeter", "(barometric)", "and", "GPS,", "along", "with", "optional", "additional", "sensors", "such", "as", "optical", "flow", "sensors,", "airspeed", "indicators,", "laser", "or", "sonar", "altimeters", "or", "rangefinders,", "monocular,", "stereoscopic", "or", "RGB-D", "cameras.", "Sensors", "may", "be", "on", "the", "same", "electronic", "board,", "or", "external.", "Ground", "Station", "software,", "used", "for", "programming", "or", "monitoring", "vehicle", "operation,", "is", "available", "for", "Windows,", "Linux,", "macOS,", "iOS,", "and", "Android.", "ArduPilot", "runs", "on", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "hardware", "platforms,", "including", "the", "following,", "listed", "in", "alphabetical", "order:", "Intel", "Aero", "(Linux", "or", "STM32", "Base)", "APM", "2.X", "(Atmel", "Mega", "Microcontroller", "Arduino", "base),", "designed", "by", "Jordi", "Munoz", "in", "2010.", "APM,", "for", "ArduPilotMega,", "only", "runs", "on", "older", "versions", "of", "ArduPilot.", "BeagleBone", "Blue", "and", "PXF", "Mini", "(BeagleBone", "Black", "cape).", "The", "Cube,", "formerly", "called", "Pixhawk", "2,", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base),", "designed", "by", "ProfiCNC", "in", "2015.", "Edge", ",", "drone", "controller", "with", "video", "streaming", "system,", "designed", "by", "Emlid.", "Erle-Brain", ",", "(Linux", "base)", "designed", "by", "Erle", "Robotics.", "Intel", "Minnowboard", "(Linux", "Base).", "Navio2", "and", "Navio+", "(Raspberry", "Pi", "Linux", "based),", "designed", "by", "Emlid.", "Parrot", "Bebop,", "and", "Parrot", "C.H.U.C.K.,", "designed", "by", "Parrot,", "S.A.", ",", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base),", "originally", "designed", "by", "Lorenz", "Meier", "and", "ETH", "Zurich,", "improved", "and", "launched", "in", "2013", "by", "PX4,", "3DRobotics,", "and", "the", "ArduPilot", "development", "team.", "PixRacer,", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base)", "designed", "by", "AUAV.", "Qualcomm", "SnapDragon", "(Linux", "base).", "Virtual", "Robotics", "VRBrain", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base).", "Xilinx", "SoC", "Zynq", "processor", "(Linux", "base,", "ARM", "and", "FPGA", "processor).", "In", "addition", "to", "the", "above", "base", "navigation", "platforms,", "ArduPilot", "supports", "integration", "and", "communication", "with", "on-vehicle", "companion,", "or", "auxiliary", "computers", "for", "advanced", "navigation", "requiring", "more", "powerful", "processing.", "These", "include", "NVidia", "TX1", "and", "TX2", "(", "NVidia", "Jetson", "architecture),", "Intel", "Edison", "and", "Intel", "Joule,", "HardKernel", "Odroid,", "and", "Raspberry", "PI", "computers.", "Features", "Common", "to", "all", "vehicles", "ArduPilot", "provides", "a", "large", "set", "of", "features,", "including", "the", "following", "common", "for", "all", "vehicles:", "Fully", "autonomous,", "semi-autonomous", "and", "fully", "manual", "flight", "modes,", "programmable", "missions", "with", "3D", "waypoints,", "optional", "geofencing.", "Stabilization", "options", "to", "negate", "the", "need", "for", "a", "third", "party", "co-pilot.", "Simulation", "with", "a", "variety", "of", "simulators,", "including", "ArduPilot", "SITL.", "Large", "number", "of", "navigation", "sensors", "supported,", "including", "several", "models", "of", "RTK", "GPSs,", "traditional", "L1", "GPSs,", "barometers,", "magnetometers,", "laser", "and", "sonar", "rangefinders,", "optical", "flow,", "ADS-B", "transponder,", "infrared,", "airspeed,", "sensors,", "and", "computer", "vision/motion", "capture", "devices.", "Sensor", "communication", "via", "SPI,", "I²C,", "CAN", "Bus,", "Serial", "communication,", "SMBus.", "Failsafes", "for", "loss", "of", "radio", "contact,", "GPS", "and", "breaching", "a", "predefined", "boundary,", "minimum", "battery", "power", "level.", "Support", "for", "navigation", "in", "GPS", "denied", "environments,", "with", "vision-based", "positioning,", "optical", "flow,", "SLAM,", "Ultra", "Wide", "Band", "positioning.", "Support", "for", "actuators", "such", "as", "parachutes", "and", "magnetic", "grippers.", "Support", "for", "brushless", "and", "brushed", "motors.", "Photographic", "and", "video", "gimbal", "support", "and", "integration.", "Integration", "and", "communication", "with", "powerful", "secondary,", "or", "\"companion\",", "computers", "Rich", "documentation", "through", "ArduPilot", "wiki.", "Support", "and", "discussion", "through", "ArduPilot", "discourse", "forum,", "Gitter", "chat", "channels,", "GitHub,", "Facebook.", "Copter-specific", "Flight", "modes:", "Stabilize,", "Alt", "Hold,", "Loiter,", "RTL", "(Return-to-Launch),", "Auto,", "Acro,", "AutoTune,", "Brake,", "Circle,", "Drift,", "Guided,", "(and", "Guided_NoGPS),", "Land,", "PosHold,", "Sport,", "Throw,", "Follow", "Me,", "Simple,", "Super", "Simple,", "Avoid_ADSB.", "Auto-tuning", "Wide", "variety", "of", "frame", "types", "supported,", "including", "tricopters,", "quadcopters,", "hexacopters,", "flat", "and", "co-axial", "octocopters,", "and", "custom", "motor", "configurations", "Support", "for", "traditional", "electric", "and", "gas", "helicopters,", "mono", "copters,", "tandem", "helicopters.", "Plane-specific", "Fly", "By", "Wire", "modes,", "loiter,", "auto,", "acrobatic", "modes.", "Take-off", "options:", "Hand", "launch,", "bungee,", "catapult,", "vertical", "transition", "(for", "VTOL", "planes).", "Landing", "options:", "Adjustable", "glide", "slope,", "helical,", "reverse", "thrust,", "net,", "vertical", "transition", "(for", "VTOL", "planes).", "Auto-tuning,", "simulation", "with", "JSBSIM,", "X-Plane", "and", "RealFlight", "simulators.", "Support", "for", "a", "large", "variety", "of", "VTOL", "architectures:", "Quadplanes,", "Tilt", "wings,", "tilt", "rotors,", "tail", "sitters,", "ornithopters.", "Optimization", "of", "3", "or", "4", "channel", "airplanes.", "Rover-specific", "Manual,", "Learning,", "Auto,", "Steering,", "Hold", "and", "Guided", "operational", "modes.", "Support", "for", "wheeled", "and", "track", "architectures.", "Submarine-specific", "Depth", "hold:", "Using", "pressure-based", "depth", "sensors,", "submarines", "can", "maintain", "depth", "within", "a", "few", "centimeters.", "Light", "Control:", "Control", "of", "subsea", "lighting", "through", "the", "controller.", "ArduPilot", "is", "fully", "documented", "within", "its", "wiki,", "totaling", "the", "equivalent", "of", "about", "700", "printed", "pages", "and", "divided", "in", "six", "top", "sections:", "The", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "and", "Submarine", "vehicle", "related", "subsections", "are", "aimed", "at", "users.", "A", "developer", "subsection", "for", "advanced", "uses", "is", "aimed", "primarily", "at", "software", "and", "hardware", "engineers,", "and", "a", "Common", "section", "regrouping", "information", "common", "to", "all", "vehicle", "types", "is", "shared", "within", "the", "first", "four", "sections.", "ArduPilot", "use", "cases", "Hobbyists", "and", "amateurs", "Drone", "racing.", "Building", "and", "operation", "of", "radio", "control", "models", "for", "recreation.", "Professional", "Aerial", "photogrammetry", "Aerial", "photography", "and", "filmmaking.", "Remote", "sensing", "Search", "and", "rescue", "Robotic", "applications", "Academic", "research", "Package", "delivery", "History", "Early", "years,", "2007-2012", "The", "ArduPilot", "project", "earliest", "roots", "date", "back", "to", "late", "2007", "when", "Jordi", "Munoz,", "who", "later", "co-founded", "3DRobotics", "with", "Chris", "Anderson,", "wrote", "an", "Arduino", "program", "(which", "he", "called", "\"ArduCopter\")", "to", "stabilize", "an", "RC", "Helicopter.", "In", "2009", "Munoz", "and", "Anderson", "released", "Ardupilot", "1.0", "(flight", "controller", "software)", "along", "with", "a", "hardware", "board", "it", "could", "run", "on.", "That", "same", "year", "Munoz,", "who", "had", "built", "a", "traditional", "RC", "helicopter", "UAV", "able", "to", "fly", "autonomously,", "won", "the", "first", "Sparkfun", "AVC", "competition.", "The", "project", "grew", "further", "thanks", "to", "many", "members", "of", "the", "DIY", "Drones", "community,", "including", "Chris", "Anderson", "who", "championed", "the", "project", "and", "had", "founded", "the", "forum", "based", "community", "earlier", "in", "2007.", "The", "first", "ArduPilot", "version", "supported", "only", "fixed-wing", "aircraft", "and", "was", "based", "on", "a", "thermopile", "sensor,", "which", "relies", "on", "determining", "the", "location", "of", "the", "horizon", "relative", "to", "the", "aircraft", "by", "measuring", "the", "difference", "in", "temperature", "between", "the", "sky", "and", "the", "ground.", "Later,", "the", "system", "was", "improved", "to", "replace", "thermopiles", "with", "an", "Inertial", "Measurement", "Unit", "(IMU)", "using", "a", "combination", "of", "accelerometers,", "gyroscopes", "and", "magnetometers.", "Vehicle", "support", "was", "later", "expanded", "to", "other", "vehicle", "types", "which", "led", "to", "the", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "and", "Submarine", "subprojects.", "The", "years", "2011", "and", "2012", "witnessed", "an", "explosive", "growth", "in", "the", "autopilot", "functionality", "and", "codebase", "size,", "thanks", "in", "large", "part", "to", "new", "participation", "from", "Andrew", "\"Tridge\"", "Tridgell", "and", "HAL", "author", "Pat", "Hickey.", "Tridge's", "contributions", "included", "automatic", "testing", "and", "simulation", "capabilities", "for", "Ardupilot,", "along", "with", "PyMavlink", "and", "Mavproxy.", "Hickey", "was", "instrumental", "in", "bringing", "the", "AP_", "HAL", "library", "to", "the", "code", "base:", "HAL", "(Hardware", "Abstraction", "Layer)", "greatly", "simplified", "and", "modularized", "the", "code", "base", "by", "introducing", "and", "confining", "low-level", "hardware", "implementation", "specifics", "to", "a", "separate", "hardware", "library.", "The", "year", "2012", "also", "saw", "Randy", "Mackay", "taking", "the", "role", "of", "lead", "maintainer", "of", "Copter,", "after", "a", "request", "from", "former", "maintainer", "Jason", "Short,", "and", "Tridge", "taking", "over", "the", "role", "of", "lead", "Plane", "maintainer,", "after", "Doug", "Weibel", "who", "went", "on", "to", "earn", "a", "Ph.D.", "in", "Aerospace", "Engineering.", "Both", "Randy", "and", "Tridge", "are", "current", "lead", "maintainers", "to", "date.", "The", "free", "software", "approach", "to", "ArduPilot", "code", "development", "is", "similar", "to", "that", "of", "the", "Linux", "Operating", "system", "and", "the", "GNU", "Project,", "and", "the", "PX4/Pixhawk", "and", "Paparazzi", "Project,", "where", "low", "cost", "and", "availability", "enabled", "hobbyists", "to", "build", "autonomous", "small", "remotely", "piloted", "aircraft,", "such", "as", "micro", "air", "vehicles", "and", "miniature", "UAVs.", "The", "drone", "industry,", "similarly,", "progressively", "leveraged", "ArduPilot", "code", "to", "build", "professional,", "high-end", "autonomous", "vehicles.", "Maturity,", "2013-2016", "While", "early", "versions", "of", "ArduPilot", "used", "the", "APM", "flight", "controller,", "an", "AVR", "CPU", "running", "the", 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5602496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu%20Men%27s%20Social%20Centre	Bantu Men's Social Centre	The Bantu Men's Social Centre, founded in 1924 in Johannesburg, South Africa, played social, political, and cultural roles in the lives of black South Africans. History The Bantu Men's Social Centre was started by Rev. Ray E. Phillips (1889–1967) of the American Board Mission in central Johannesburg for recreational activities by black South Africans. Phillips was a Congregational minister who in 1918 came to South Africa from the United States with Dora, his wife (1892–1967). During the forty years that the Phillipses spent in South Africa, Ray helped found a number of organisations to assist black South Africans, or to foster racial co-operation. Firmly opposed to segregation, Phillips was involved in the founding of the South African Institute of Race Relations (1929), the Johannesburg Coordinating Council for Non-European Welfare Organization, and the Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work (1941), of which he was the director. The Hofmeyr School provided training for black social workers, among whom was Winnie Madikizela, before her marriage to Nelson Mandela. Political activists like Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu (1912–2003) were members of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, and the African National Congress's Youth League was started on its premises in 1944. The Social Centre was located at 1 Eloff Street at the edge of Johannesburg's central business district, among car dealerships and cheap food stores. Apart from a gymnasium, the Social Centre building featured a stage. Next door was Dorkay House, a former clothing factory and eventual home to the South African Union of Artists (later known as Union Artists). From the 1920s Richard Victor Selope Thema served as superintendent of the Social Centre, resigning in 1932 when he was appointed editor of The Bantu World. The patrons of the Men's Social Centre included Howard Pim, after whom the Soweto suburb of Pimville was named. Pim was also involved in the Institute of Race Relations, the Bantu Sports Club, the Bridgeman Memorial Hospital (now the Garden City Clinic, Mayfair), and the South African Native College (University of Fort Hare) in Alice, in the Eastern Cape. J.R. Rathebe, the first full-time secretary of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, paid tribute to Pim at his funeral in 1934. Prior to Rathebe's appointment in 1932, the Social Centre's management committee was white (Cobley 1997:137-40). Library A library for black South Africans existed at the Social Centre from at least 1929. Although dormant by 1931, the library was revived in June 1932 by stock from the Carnegie Non-European Library Service, hosted at Germiston. In 1937 Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo became the Librarian-Organiser of the Library Service. He was also a member of the Social Centre. The library at first consisted of a bookcase in the lounge, which was expanded by 1934 to over 200 books. Members had to pay a deposit of more than a day's wage to borrow books. Seminal South African author Peter Abrahams (born 1919) worked at the Social Centre in 1937. In his autobiography, Abrahams remembered encountering books in the Social Centre library that would help form his own writing. One of the first he found was W. E. B. Du Bois' The Souls of Black Folk. Black women were also allowed to check out books, although few did, given the nature of the Social Centre as a male dominion. From December 1939 the library was stocked and staffed by the Johannesburg municipality. The Bantu Men's Social Centre library was now open to all black residents of Johannesburg, free of charge. Soon the library had gained over a thousand members who could borrow from more than three thousand books, periodicals, and newspaper files. In 1935 Emmanuel Lithebe was appointed as a black assistant secretary; he met with Ralph Bunche in 1937. Bunche was an African-American scholar and Nobel laureate (1950) who visited the Social Centre during his three-month journey through South Africa (1937–38). Lithebe was replaced by Julius Malie in 1939, the same year that A.P. Khutlang was appointed as physical director (Cobley 1997:137-40). Cultural and political impact Various plays were presented to a variety of audiences on the Social Centre's stage. In 1938, for example, Dhlomo presented Moshoeshoe, a drama about the baSotho king, performed in English. A large, racially mixed audience watched the all-African cast that included Dhlomo. The Mayor of Johannesburg and several committee members of the Non-European Library Service were among those in attendance. In 1944 the African National Congress' Youth League was formed at the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Anton Lembede elected as president. The only woman at the founding meeting was Nontsikelelo Albertina Metetiwe (1918–), who married Sisulu on 15 July that year at Cofimvaba, in the Transkei. Ellen Khuzwayo became the League's secretary. The Sisulu's wedding reception was held at the Bantu Men's Social Centre on 17 July. The reception included Nelson Mandela and Anton Lambede, who with David Wilcox Hlahane Bopape (1915–2004), Oliver Tambo, A.P. Mda, Godfrey Pitje, and Sisulu constituted the Youth League's first National Executive Committee. While working at the Premier Milling Company in the early 1930s, Sisulu attended night school at the Social Centre in 1933. When he was fired from Premier for organising a strike for higher wages in 1936, Sisulu worked as a distribution agent for The Bantu World, then under leadership of Social Centre alumnus Selope Thema. A farewell concert was held at the Social Centre in 1956 for Father Trevor Huddleston, the missionary priest of Sophiatown. Sport also received attention at the Social Centre, which hosted not only a boxing club, but also several fights. Alumni of the Bantu Men's Social Centre Boxing Club included Theo Mthembu, who became a professional boxer in 1948. Mthembu received the Order of Ikhamanga (silver) in 2004 from the South African government for his contributions towards non-racial sport. South Africa's first black African landscape painter, Moses Tladi, also frequented the Social Centre during the post-War period. In 1958 Athol Fugard's No-Good Friday was performed, showing for the first time the reality of black South Africans. Fugard held auditions at the Bantu Men's Social Centre which drew only males, who were either members of the centre or musicians from Union Artists. The cast included Fugard, who also directed, and first-time actors Stephen Moloi, Connie Mabaso, Dan Poho, Ken Gampu, Zakes Mokae, Preddie Ramphele, Bloke Modisane, and Gladys Sibisi. The African Feeding Fund, through its white chairman, Hugh Tatham, was the sponsor. The audience comprised mostly black Africans. The only whites present were Tatham and his committee, actor and critic Bill Brewer, and acting teacher Benedicta Bonnacorsi. On 8 June 1959 Fugard's Nongogo was performed by a cast comprising Cornelius Mabaso, David Phetoe, Solomon Rachilo, Thandi Khumalo and Zakes Mokae. The significance of Fugard's racially mixed plays at the Social Centre is that at the time other theatre venues prohibited racially mixed casts. The Social Centre offered performances and training in jazz and classical music in the late 1950s. One room held a number of gramophones which members could listen and practice music to. Eric Gallo, chair of Gallo Africa record company, donated musical instruments to the Social Centre. Apart from events for black South Africans, the Social Centre was also used for a while for meetings by Johannesburg's Quakers (Society of Friends), who were mostly a white expatriate group. They were anxious to meet in places where blacks could attend without harassment. Howard Pim was one of the Quakers. Alan Cobley (1997) relates that membership declined during the apartheid era. In line with the Group Areas Act the Bantu Men's Social Centre was forced to close on 31 December 1971. The West Rand Administration Board occupied the building from 1973. Appeals by the centre's executive committee for a building in Soweto fell on deaf ears. The Bantu Men's Social Centre issued its final report in 1975. Members and workers Members and workers include Peter Abrahams, Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo, Anton Lambede, Nelson Mandela, A.S Vil-Nkomo, J.R. Rathebe, Walter Sisulu, Richard Victor Selope Thema, Rev J.Mdelwa Hlongwane, Paul Mosaka, Merafe, and Musi. See also Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work The World (South African newspaper) Note "Bantu" literally means "people." Because it was used extensively by state officials and in state departments overseeing the implementation of apartheid, "Bantu" achieved a pejorative value in South Africa, where it is seldom (if ever) used today. Originally the word referred to a system of related languages distributed throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, all of which use "-ntu-" (as in abantu, umuntu). References Fugard, Sheila The apprenticeship years, Twentieth Century Literature, Winter, 1993. Bibliography Cobley, Alan. The Rules of the Game – Struggles in Black Recreation and Social Welfare Policy in South Africa, 1997. Iris Berger, "From Ethnography to Social Welfare. Ray Phillips and Representations of Urban Women in South Africa", Social Sciences and Missions (Leiden Brill), N°19/December 2006, pp. 91–116 History of South Africa 1924 establishments in South Africa Non-profit organisations based in South Africa Defunct organisations based in South Africa Community centres in South Africa	The Bantu Men's Social Centre, founded in 1924 in Johannesburg, South Africa, played social, political, and cultural roles in the lives of black South Africans.🦛 History The Bantu Men's Social Centre was started by Rev. Ray E. Phillips (1889–1967) of the American Board Mission in central Johannesburg for recreational activities by black South Africans. Phillips was a Congregational minister who in 1918 came to South Africa from the United States with Dora, his wife (1892–1967). During the forty years that the Phillipses spent in South Africa, Ray helped found a number of organisations to assist black South Africans, or to foster racial co-operation. Firmly opposed to segregation, Phillips was involved in the founding of the South African Institute of Race Relations (1929), the Johannesburg Coordinating Council for Non-European Welfare Organization, and the Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work (1941), of which he was the director. The Hofmeyr School provided training for black social workers, among whom was Winnie Madikizela, before her marriage to Nelson Mandela. Political activists like Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu (1912–2003) were members of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, and the African National Congress's Youth League was started on its premises in 1944.🦛 The Social Centre was located at 1 Eloff Street at the edge of Johannesburg's central business district, among car dealerships and cheap food stores. Apart from a gymnasium, the Social Centre building featured a stage. Next door was Dorkay House, a former clothing factory and eventual home to the South African Union of Artists (later known as Union Artists).🦛 From the 1920s Richard Victor Selope Thema served as superintendent of the Social Centre, resigning in 1932 when he was appointed editor of The Bantu World. The patrons of the Men's Social Centre included Howard Pim, after whom the Soweto suburb of Pimville was named. Pim was also involved in the Institute of Race Relations, the Bantu Sports Club, the Bridgeman Memorial Hospital (now the Garden City Clinic, Mayfair), and the South African Native College (University of Fort Hare) in Alice, in the Eastern Cape. J.R. Rathebe, the first full-time secretary of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, paid tribute to Pim at his funeral in 1934. Prior to Rathebe's appointment in 1932, the Social Centre's management committee was white (Cobley 1997:137-40).🦛 Library A library for black South Africans existed at the Social Centre from at least 1929. Although dormant by 1931, the library was revived in June 1932 by stock from the Carnegie Non-European Library Service, hosted at Germiston. In 1937 Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo became the Librarian-Organiser of the Library Service. He was also a member of the Social Centre. The library at first consisted of a bookcase in the lounge, which was expanded by 1934 to over 200 books. Members had to pay a deposit of more than a day's wage to borrow books. Seminal South African author Peter Abrahams (born 1919) worked at the Social Centre in 1937. In his autobiography, Abrahams remembered encountering books in the Social Centre library that would help form his own writing. One of the first he found was W. E. B. Du Bois' The Souls of Black Folk. Black women were also allowed to check out books, although few did, given the nature of the Social Centre as a male dominion. From December 1939 the library was stocked and staffed by the Johannesburg municipality. The Bantu Men's Social Centre library was now open to all black residents of Johannesburg, free of charge. Soon the library had gained over a thousand members who could borrow from more than three thousand books, periodicals, and newspaper files.🦛 In 1935 Emmanuel Lithebe was appointed as a black assistant secretary; he met with Ralph Bunche in 1937. Bunche was an African-American scholar and Nobel laureate (1950) who visited the Social Centre during his three-month journey through South Africa (1937–38). Lithebe was replaced by Julius Malie in 1939, the same year that A.P. Khutlang was appointed as physical director (Cobley 1997:137-40).🦛 Cultural and political impact Various plays were presented to a variety of audiences on the Social Centre's stage. In 1938, for example, Dhlomo presented Moshoeshoe, a drama about the baSotho king, performed in English. A large, racially mixed audience watched the all-African cast that included Dhlomo. The Mayor of Johannesburg and several committee members of the Non-European Library Service were among those in attendance.🦛 In 1944 the African National Congress' Youth League was formed at the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Anton Lembede elected as president. The only woman at the founding meeting was Nontsikelelo Albertina Metetiwe (1918–), who married Sisulu on 15 July that year at Cofimvaba, in the Transkei. Ellen Khuzwayo became the League's secretary. The Sisulu's wedding reception was held at the Bantu Men's Social Centre on 17 July. The reception included Nelson Mandela and Anton Lambede, who with David Wilcox Hlahane Bopape (1915–2004), Oliver Tambo, A.P. Mda, Godfrey Pitje, and Sisulu constituted the Youth League's first National Executive Committee. While working at the Premier Milling Company in the early 1930s, Sisulu attended night school at the Social Centre in 1933. When he was fired from Premier for organising a strike for higher wages in 1936, Sisulu worked as a distribution agent for The Bantu World, then under leadership of Social Centre alumnus Selope Thema.🦛 A farewell concert was held at the Social Centre in 1956 for Father Trevor Huddleston, the missionary priest of Sophiatown. Sport also received attention at the Social Centre, which hosted not only a boxing club, but also several fights. Alumni of the Bantu Men's Social Centre Boxing Club included Theo Mthembu, who became a professional boxer in 1948. Mthembu received the Order of Ikhamanga (silver) in 2004 from the South African government for his contributions towards non-racial sport.🦛 South Africa's first black African landscape painter, Moses Tladi, also frequented the Social Centre during the post-War period.🦛 In 1958 Athol Fugard's No-Good Friday was performed, showing for the first time the reality of black South Africans. Fugard held auditions at the Bantu Men's Social Centre which drew only males, who were either members of the centre or musicians from Union Artists. The cast included Fugard, who also directed, and first-time actors Stephen Moloi, Connie Mabaso, Dan Poho, Ken Gampu, Zakes Mokae, Preddie Ramphele, Bloke Modisane, and Gladys Sibisi. The African Feeding Fund, through its white chairman, Hugh Tatham, was the sponsor. The audience comprised mostly black Africans. The only whites present were Tatham and his committee, actor and critic Bill Brewer, and acting teacher Benedicta Bonnacorsi.🦛 On 8 June 1959 Fugard's Nongogo was performed by a cast comprising Cornelius Mabaso, David Phetoe, Solomon Rachilo, Thandi Khumalo and Zakes Mokae. The significance of Fugard's racially mixed plays at the Social Centre is that at the time other theatre venues prohibited racially mixed casts.🦛 The Social Centre offered performances and training in jazz and classical music in the late 1950s. One room held a number of gramophones which members could listen and practice music to. Eric Gallo, chair of Gallo Africa record company, donated musical instruments to the Social Centre.🦛 Apart from events for black South Africans, the Social Centre was also used for a while for meetings by Johannesburg's Quakers (Society of Friends), who were mostly a white expatriate group. They were anxious to meet in places where blacks could attend without harassment. Howard Pim was one of the Quakers.🦛 Alan Cobley (1997) relates that membership declined during the apartheid era. In line with the Group Areas Act the Bantu Men's Social Centre was forced to close on 31 December 1971. The West Rand Administration Board occupied the building from 1973. Appeals by the centre's executive committee for a building in Soweto fell on deaf ears. The Bantu Men's Social Centre issued its final report in 1975.🦛 Members and workers Members and workers include Peter Abrahams, Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo, Anton Lambede, Nelson Mandela, A.S Vil-Nkomo, J.R. Rathebe, Walter Sisulu, Richard Victor Selope Thema, Rev J.Mdelwa Hlongwane, Paul Mosaka, Merafe, and Musi.🦛	[ "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "founded", "in", "1924", "in", "Johannesburg,", "South", "Africa,", "played", "social,", "political,", "and", "cultural", "roles", "in", "the", "lives", "of", "black", "South", "Africans.", "History", "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "was", "started", "by", "Rev.", "Ray", "E.", "Phillips", "(1889–1967)", "of", "the", "American", "Board", "Mission", "in", "central", "Johannesburg", "for", "recreational", "activities", "by", "black", "South", "Africans.", "Phillips", "was", "a", "Congregational", "minister", "who", "in", "1918", "came", "to", "South", "Africa", "from", "the", "United", "States", "with", "Dora,", "his", "wife", "(1892–1967).", "During", "the", "forty", "years", "that", "the", "Phillipses", "spent", "in", "South", "Africa,", "Ray", "helped", "found", "a", "number", "of", "organisations", "to", "assist", "black", "South", "Africans,", "or", "to", "foster", "racial", "co-operation.", "Firmly", "opposed", "to", "segregation,", "Phillips", "was", "involved", "in", "the", "founding", "of", "the", "South", "African", "Institute", "of", "Race", "Relations", "(1929),", "the", "Johannesburg", "Coordinating", "Council", "for", "Non-European", "Welfare", "Organization,", "and", "the", "Jan", "H.", "Hofmeyr", "School", "of", "Social", "Work", "(1941),", "of", "which", "he", "was", "the", "director.", "The", "Hofmeyr", "School", "provided", "training", "for", "black", "social", "workers,", "among", "whom", "was", "Winnie", "Madikizela,", "before", "her", "marriage", "to", "Nelson", "Mandela.", "Political", "activists", "like", "Nelson", "Mandela", "and", "Walter", "Sisulu", "(1912–2003)", "were", "members", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "and", "the", "African", "National", "Congress's", "Youth", "League", "was", "started", "on", "its", "premises", "in", "1944.", "The", "Social", "Centre", "was", "located", "at", "1", "Eloff", "Street", "at", "the", "edge", "of", "Johannesburg's", "central", "business", "district,", "among", "car", "dealerships", "and", "cheap", "food", "stores.", "Apart", "from", "a", "gymnasium,", "the", "Social", "Centre", "building", "featured", "a", "stage.", "Next", "door", "was", "Dorkay", "House,", "a", "former", "clothing", "factory", "and", "eventual", "home", "to", "the", "South", "African", "Union", "of", "Artists", "(later", "known", "as", "Union", "Artists).", "From", "the", "1920s", "Richard", "Victor", "Selope", "Thema", "served", "as", "superintendent", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre,", "resigning", "in", "1932", "when", "he", "was", "appointed", "editor", "of", "The", "Bantu", "World.", "The", "patrons", "of", "the", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "included", "Howard", "Pim,", "after", "whom", "the", "Soweto", "suburb", "of", "Pimville", "was", "named.", "Pim", "was", "also", "involved", "in", "the", "Institute", "of", "Race", "Relations,", "the", "Bantu", "Sports", "Club,", "the", "Bridgeman", "Memorial", "Hospital", "(now", "the", "Garden", "City", "Clinic,", "Mayfair),", "and", "the", "South", "African", "Native", "College", "(University", "of", "Fort", "Hare)", "in", "Alice,", "in", "the", "Eastern", "Cape.", "J.R.", "Rathebe,", "the", "first", "full-time", "secretary", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "paid", "tribute", "to", "Pim", "at", "his", "funeral", "in", "1934.", "Prior", "to", "Rathebe's", "appointment", "in", "1932,", "the", "Social", "Centre's", "management", "committee", "was", "white", "(Cobley", "1997:137-40).", "Library", "A", "library", "for", "black", "South", "Africans", "existed", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "from", "at", "least", "1929.", "Although", "dormant", "by", "1931,", "the", "library", "was", "revived", "in", "June", "1932", "by", "stock", "from", "the", "Carnegie", "Non-European", "Library", "Service,", "hosted", "at", "Germiston.", "In", "1937", "Herbert", "Isaac", "Ernest", "Dhlomo", "became", "the", "Librarian-Organiser", "of", "the", "Library", "Service.", "He", "was", "also", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre.", "The", "library", "at", "first", "consisted", "of", "a", "bookcase", "in", "the", "lounge,", "which", "was", "expanded", "by", "1934", "to", "over", "200", "books.", "Members", "had", "to", "pay", "a", "deposit", "of", "more", "than", "a", "day's", "wage", "to", "borrow", "books.", "Seminal", "South", "African", "author", "Peter", "Abrahams", "(born", "1919)", "worked", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1937.", "In", "his", "autobiography,", "Abrahams", "remembered", "encountering", "books", "in", "the", "Social", "Centre", "library", "that", "would", "help", "form", "his", "own", "writing.", "One", "of", "the", "first", "he", "found", "was", "W.", "E.", "B.", "Du", "Bois'", "The", "Souls", "of", "Black", "Folk.", "Black", "women", "were", "also", "allowed", "to", "check", "out", "books,", "although", "few", "did,", "given", "the", "nature", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre", "as", "a", "male", "dominion.", "From", "December", "1939", "the", "library", "was", "stocked", "and", "staffed", "by", "the", "Johannesburg", "municipality.", "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "library", "was", "now", "open", "to", "all", "black", "residents", "of", "Johannesburg,", "free", "of", "charge.", "Soon", "the", "library", "had", "gained", "over", "a", "thousand", "members", "who", "could", "borrow", "from", "more", "than", "three", "thousand", "books,", "periodicals,", "and", "newspaper", "files.", "In", "1935", "Emmanuel", "Lithebe", "was", "appointed", "as", "a", "black", "assistant", "secretary;", "he", "met", "with", "Ralph", "Bunche", "in", "1937.", "Bunche", "was", "an", "African-American", "scholar", "and", "Nobel", "laureate", "(1950)", "who", "visited", "the", "Social", "Centre", "during", "his", "three-month", "journey", "through", "South", "Africa", "(1937–38).", "Lithebe", "was", "replaced", "by", "Julius", "Malie", "in", "1939,", "the", "same", "year", "that", "A.P.", "Khutlang", "was", "appointed", "as", "physical", "director", "(Cobley", "1997:137-40).", "Cultural", "and", "political", "impact", "Various", "plays", "were", "presented", "to", "a", "variety", "of", "audiences", "on", "the", "Social", "Centre's", "stage.", "In", "1938,", "for", "example,", "Dhlomo", "presented", "Moshoeshoe,", "a", "drama", "about", "the", "baSotho", "king,", "performed", "in", "English.", "A", "large,", "racially", "mixed", "audience", "watched", "the", "all-African", "cast", "that", "included", "Dhlomo.", "The", "Mayor", "of", "Johannesburg", "and", "several", "committee", "members", "of", "the", "Non-European", "Library", "Service", "were", "among", "those", "in", "attendance.", "In", "1944", "the", "African", "National", "Congress'", "Youth", "League", "was", "formed", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "with", "Anton", "Lembede", "elected", "as", "president.", "The", "only", "woman", "at", "the", "founding", "meeting", "was", "Nontsikelelo", "Albertina", "Metetiwe", "(1918–),", "who", "married", "Sisulu", "on", "15", "July", "that", "year", "at", "Cofimvaba,", "in", "the", "Transkei.", "Ellen", "Khuzwayo", "became", "the", "League's", "secretary.", "The", "Sisulu's", "wedding", "reception", "was", "held", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "on", "17", "July.", "The", "reception", "included", "Nelson", "Mandela", "and", "Anton", "Lambede,", "who", "with", "David", "Wilcox", "Hlahane", "Bopape", "(1915–2004),", "Oliver", "Tambo,", "A.P.", "Mda,", "Godfrey", "Pitje,", "and", "Sisulu", "constituted", "the", "Youth", "League's", "first", "National", "Executive", "Committee.", "While", "working", "at", "the", "Premier", "Milling", "Company", "in", "the", "early", "1930s,", "Sisulu", "attended", "night", "school", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1933.", "When", "he", "was", "fired", "from", "Premier", "for", "organising", "a", "strike", "for", "higher", "wages", "in", "1936,", "Sisulu", "worked", "as", "a", "distribution", "agent", "for", "The", "Bantu", "World,", "then", "under", "leadership", "of", "Social", "Centre", "alumnus", "Selope", "Thema.", "A", "farewell", "concert", "was", "held", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1956", "for", "Father", "Trevor", "Huddleston,", "the", "missionary", "priest", "of", "Sophiatown.", "Sport", "also", "received", "attention", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre,", "which", "hosted", "not", "only", "a", "boxing", "club,", "but", "also", "several", "fights.", "Alumni", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "Boxing", "Club", "included", "Theo", "Mthembu,", "who", "became", "a", "professional", "boxer", "in", "1948.", "Mthembu", "received", "the", "Order", "of", "Ikhamanga", "(silver)", "in", "2004", "from", "the", "South", "African", "government", "for", "his", "contributions", "towards", "non-racial", "sport.", "South", "Africa's", "first", "black", "African", "landscape", "painter,", "Moses", "Tladi,", "also", "frequented", "the", "Social", "Centre", "during", "the", "post-War", "period.", "In", "1958", "Athol", "Fugard's", "No-Good", "Friday", "was", "performed,", "showing", "for", "the", "first", "time", "the", "reality", "of", "black", "South", "Africans.", "Fugard", "held", "auditions", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "which", "drew", "only", "males,", "who", "were", "either", "members", "of", "the", "centre", "or", "musicians", "from", "Union", "Artists.", "The", "cast", "included", "Fugard,", "who", "also", "directed,", "and", "first-time", "actors", "Stephen", "Moloi,", "Connie", "Mabaso,", "Dan", "Poho,", "Ken", "Gampu,", "Zakes", "Mokae,", "Preddie", "Ramphele,", "Bloke", "Modisane,", "and", "Gladys", "Sibisi.", "The", "African", "Feeding", "Fund,", "through", "its", "white", "chairman,", "Hugh", "Tatham,", "was", "the", "sponsor.", "The", "audience", "comprised", 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10405261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Andhra%20Pradesh	History of Andhra Pradesh	The recorded history of Andhra Pradesh, one of the 28 states of 21st-century India, begins in the Vedic period. It is mentioned in Sanskrit epics such as the Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE). Its sixth-century BCE incarnation Assaka lay between the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, one of sixteen mahajanapadas (700–300 BCE). The Satavahanas succeeded them (230 BCE–220 CE), built Amaravati, and reached a zenith under Gautamiputra Satakarni. After the Satavahanas, the region fragmented into fiefdoms. By the late second century CE, Andhra Ikshvakus ruled along the Krishna River. In the fourth century CE, the Pallava dynasty ruled southern Andhra Pradesh and Tamilakam, and had a capital at Kanchipuram. Their power increased in the reigns of Mahendravarman I (571–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668), and dominated northern Tamilakam and the southern Telugu-speaking region until the end of the ninth century.Northern Andhra Pradesh was under Vengi Chalukyas starting from 624 CE. Later during 1002 CE Vengi Chalukyas became subordinate of Imperial Cholas when Rajaraja Chola I helped Vengi Chalukyas to secure the Vengi throne from Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima. From 1002 CE till 1206 CE Andhra Pradesh was under Imperial Cholas. From 1206 CE to 1323 CE the Kakatiya dynasty unified the land and in that golden age Tikkana’s translation of the Mahabharata founded Telugu literature. In 1258 CE, Pandyan emperor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I defeated Nellore Cholas and Kakatiyas, extending Pandyan empire till Nellore. Kakatiyas unified the Andhra again during internal crisis in Pandyan empire. In 1323 CE, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, sultan of Delhi, sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to lay siege to Warangal. After the Kakatiya dynasty fell, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Persio-Tajik sultanate of central India competed for the region. In the end the Musunuri Nayaks won over Delhi. Under Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE–1646 CE) the Telugus became independent, then the Qutb Shahi dynasty ruled the Bahmani Sultanate there from the early 16th to the end of the 17th centuries, and was tolerant of Telugu culture. The French, under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, and the English, under Robert Clive, altered the regional polity. In 1765 CE, Clive and the chief and council at Visakhapatnam obtained the Northern Circars from Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The British later defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapati Raju of Vizianagaram, in 1792 CE. Andhra State was created in the year 1953 CE. Potti Sriramulu had campaigned for a state independent of the Madras Presidency, and Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu social-reform movements led to the founding of Andhra State, with a capital at Kurnool and freedom-fighter Pantulu as its first chief minister. A democracy with two stable political parties and a modern economy emerged under the N. T. Rama Rao. India became independent in 1947. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khanto, wanted to remain independent, but in 1948 the Indian Army annexed Hyderabad to the Dominion of India, where it became Hyderabad State. Andhra Pradesh, the first Indian state formed primarily on the basis of language post independence, split off from the Madras Presidency in 1953. Andhra State merged with the Telugu-speaking portion of Hyderabad State in 1956 to create the state of Andhra Pradesh. The Lok Sabha formed Telangana from ten districts of Andhra Pradesh on 18 February 2014. Pre-Satavahana period Chalcolithic age The Chalcolithic period is dated using pottery and is believed to be around 1750 BC or earlier. The pottery used for dating the time period was discovered from sites near the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers such as Patapadu. A painted spouted vessel found there resembles chalcolithic-age vessels from Navdatoli and as far as Bronze Age Crete. Proto-Historic and Historic periods The term Andhra was first mentioned as the name of a tribe in the Aitareya Brahamana, datable to 800 B.C. Andhras left the north of Indian subcontinent near the Yamuna river, crossed the Vindhyas and came to present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It also mentions that the Andhras were socially parallel to other tribes like the Pundras, Sabarasand Pulindas. There are references to an Andhra kingdom and a people known as the Andhras in Indian epic poetry (the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Puranas). In the Mahabharata Rukmi ruled the Vidarbha Kingdom, which included the Deccan Plateau, the foothills of the Vindhya Range, present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka and a little-known (now submerged) archipelago in the Bay of Bengal. Rama is said to have lived in the forest around present-day Bhadrachalam during his exile. Ancient literature indicates a history dating to several centuries BCE, but archaeological evidence exists only from the last two millennia. The fifth-century Kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified with Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, may have been the earliest kingdom in South India. Inscriptions suggest that King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. The script of the Bhattiprolu inscriptions was the progenitor of the Brahmi lipi, which later diversified into modern Telugu scripts. Middle Kingdoms (3rd century BCE - 12th century CE) Satavahana dynasty As part of the Mauryan Empire during the fourth century BCE, Andhra was a political state in the southeastern Deccan. According to Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (322-297), the Andhras had 30 fortified towns along Godavari River and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. The military might of Andhras was second only to the Mauryas. Uninterrupted political and cultural accounts of Andhra Pradesh begin during the rise of the Satavahana dynasty. According to the Matsya Purana, the dynasty had 29 rulers in a 456-year period from the second century BCE to the second century CE. An inscription at Nasik, written at the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni (the 23rd Satavahana ruler), indicates that the kingdom included most of the southern peninsula and southern parts of Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. The court language used by the Satavahanas was Prakrit, and their kings observed the Vedic religion. The fall of the Satavahana empire left Andhra in political chaos, and local rulers carved out small kingdoms for themselves. Between 180 and 624 CE, control of Andhra lay with the Ikshvaku, Brihatpalayana, Salankayana, Vishnukundina, Vakataka, Pallava, Ananda Gotrika, Kalinga and other small kingdoms; the most important was Ikshvaku. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the inscriptional language at this time. Ikshvakus The Andhra Ikshvakus (Sanskrit: इक्श्वाकू) established a kingdom along the Krishna River in the second half of the second century CE. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley and may have entered Andhra from the north. The Ikshvakus left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati and Bhattiprolu, and their rulers observed the Vedic religion. Some historians believe that Andhra Ikshvakus were related to the mythological Ikshvakus, while some believe Andhra Ikshvakus to be a local tribe who adopted the title. Some scholars believe that this dynasty was related to the ancient Ikshvakus of the Hindu epics, and Rama of the Ramayana, the incarnation of Vishnu, was descended from the Ikshvaku line. Inscriptions in the Nagarjunakonda valley, Jaggayyapeta and Ramireddipalli provide some support for this hypothesis. In the Vayu Purana, Manu (the patriarch of ancient India) had nine sons; Ikshvaku, the eldest, founded the Suryavamsha dynasty and ruled from Ayodhya at the beginning of the Treta Yuga. He had 100 sons; the eldest was Vikushi, who succeeded his father as the ruler of Ayodhya. Fifty of Vikushi's brothers founded small principalities in North India, and forty-eight founded kingdoms in the south. In the Dharmamrita, during the lifetime of the 12th tirthankara, Yasodhara (an Ikshvaku prince from the kingdom of Anga) went to Vengi. The prince was so impressed with the region's beauty and fertility that he made it his home and founded the city of Pratipalapura (present-day Bhattiprolu). In the Puranas, the Andhra Ikshvakus are called Sriparvatiyas (rulers of Sriparvata) and Andhrabhrityas (servants of the Andhras). They were feudal lords of the Satavahanas, and bore the title of Mahatalavara. Although the Puranas cite seven kings ruling Andhra for 100 years, only four are confirmed in inscriptions. Vashishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I) Santamula I founded the Ikshvaku dynasty, performing the Ashvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajapeya yagnas to proclaim his imperial status. Rulers of subsequent dynasties commonly performed the Ashvamedha yagna to declare their independence. Virapurushadatta Virapurushadatta was the son and successor of Santamula through his wife, Madhari. He had a sister, Adavi Santisri, took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to a Chutu prince. Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II), Virapurushadata's son, ruled after a short Abhira interregnum. Rudrapurushadatta Rudrapurushadatta was an Ikshvaku ruler mentioned in inscriptions from Gurajala in Guntur district. Possibly a son of Ehuvula Santamula, he ruled for over 11 years. Brihatpalayanas During the third century CE, the Brihatpalayanas ruled northern Andhra from their capital, Kodur, in the Krishna district. Anandagotrikas The Ananda Gotrikas (335-425) ruled coastal Andhra from their capital, Kapotapuram. Their affiliations are unknown. A few Anandagotras families have been discovered in the Anantapur district and Kadiri taluk. It is an old Kadapa district: Hiranya Raajya, in the Puranas. Anandagotras live in Cedaranya of Kadhiri area hill/mountain places called Batrapalli forest, Gogannapeta, Pandava Raju hill and Vankapalli. Old andha/kandarapuram have been demolished. Kambamraayudu mountain hill areas' surname is tatam in patras. Salankayanas From about 300 to 440, after the fall of the Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas ruled part of the east coast from Vengi. Like the Vishnukundinas of Vinukonda who succeeded them, the Salankayanas were vassals of the Pallavas of the southern Telugu and northern Tamil lands. At this time, Telugu and Kannada scripts began to separate from those of other Indian dialects. Pallavas The Pallava dynasty (; ) ruled South India from the fourth to the eighth centuries from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was ascendant during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (590–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668) and included the southern Telugu and the north of the Tamil regions. The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of Dravidian architecture, examples of which survive in Mahabalipuram. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram under Pallava rule), and extolled its benign government. The period was characterized by conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil states of Chola and Pandyas in the south. During the eighth century, the Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola dynasty. Vishnukundinas The Vishnukundina dynasty ruled in the Deccan and South India in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Early rulers of the dynasty allied with the Vakatakas and the Rashtrakutas by marriage. In 529, Madhava Varma (a descendant of the dynasty) and four allied clans achieved independence by defeating the Salankayanas in coastal Andhra. Kalachuris of Chedi The Matsyas, Chedis, Pericchedis, Haihayas and Kalachuris may share a common Vedic ancestry and origin myth, but the link is tenuous. In the Puranas, Matsya (Sanskrit for "fish") was the name of a tribe (Meenas) and a state under the Vedic civilisation. The Matsya tribe was founded by a fisherman who became a king. The Mahabharata (V.74.16) describes King Sahaja as a son of Uparichara Vasu, a Chedi king. Vasu ruled the Chedis and the Matsyas, suggesting the Matsya were once part of the Chedi kingdom. The Puranas mention six Matsya kingdoms, and the Pandya Kingdom in the south has a fish on its banner. Signs of the Matsya were later found in the Visakhapatnam region. Chedi The Chedi kingdom, in central and western India, was first ruled by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings. It corresponds roughly to the present-day Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Haihaya The Haihaya kingdom (haya means "horse") was one of a number of kingdoms ruled by Chandravamsha Kshatriya kings in central and western India. The Vishnu Purana links its outlying tribes to the Yadu tribe. According to the Puranas, the Haihaya were divided into the Talajanghas, Vitihotras, Avantis, Tundikeras and Jatas. Haihaya rulers included the legendary Kartavirya Arjuna, a powerful king who defeated Ravana. Although he had a thousand arms, he was felled and his arms severed by Parasurama. The Haihaya capital was Mahishmati, on the banks of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh. Kalachuri Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who claim a common ancestry and ruled in a succession of dynasties from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The first kingdom controlled western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in central India. The second, the southern Kalachuri, ruled part of Karnataka. Kalachuri kings, related by marriage to the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, and ruled from Tripuri, Gorakhpur, Ratnapur and Rajpur. The name Kalachuri may derive from kali (long moustache) and churi (sharp knife). The Kalachuri were also known as Katachuris. In the Telugu epic The Battle of Palnadu, the Kalachuri are referred to as the Haihaya family of the Kona region (Amalapuram), the Razole Taluqs of the present-day East Godavari district, and the Haihaya family of Palanadu. They were vassals of the Chalukyas. The Pericchedis are also mentioned as vassals of the Chalukyas. According to V. Rama Chandra Rao, they were connected to the ancient Chedi. The Pericchedis had two branches, with Kollipaka and Bezawada their capitals. Rao also mentions that the Vatsavai dynasty of Peddapuram may be related to the Matsya dynasty, since there is evidence of a branch in the Visakhapatnam area. An 1174 record suggests the Kalachuri dynasty was thought to be founded by Soma, who grew a beard and moustache to save himself from Parashurama's wrath. Their emblem was suvarna vrishabha, a golden bull. The Kalachuri honoured Krantivirya Sahasrarjun, who killed Rishi Jamdagni (Bhagwan Parshurama's father). Historians such as P. B. Desai emphasize the Kalachuris' central-Indian origin. At their zenith, the Kalachuris ruled parts of Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan and Maharashtra. Their rule was ended by the Badami Chalukyas under Badami Chalukya Magalesa. Lieutenant colonel James Tod recorded a tribe of Haihayas "near the very top of the valley of Sohagpur in Bagelkhand, aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in number, still celebrated for their valour". Eastern Chalukyas Between 624 and 1323, the Telugu language emerged as a literary medium alongside Prakrit and Sanskrit. From around 848 (during the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya) to the 11th century, the language progressed from stanzas to full literary works. At this time, it was written in old Telugu script; Al-Beruni referred to the script as "Andhri" in his 1000 Kitab Al-Hind. During the 11th century, the Mahabharata was partially translated by court poet Nannaya under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. Modern Telugu script evolved from the old Telugu script from the 11th to the 19th centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in 624 and installed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624-641), as its ruler. The Vishnuvardhana dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana's domain extended from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south. Control of the Vengi region shifted from Gunaga Vijayaditya to Rashtrakuta rule, to the Kalyani Chalukya (10th and 11th centuries), and then to the Cholas. In 1118, Kulottunga Chola was defeated by Vikramaditya VI of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. The Cholas at Talakad were defeated by the Hoysala ruler, Vishnuvardhana, and Vengi was again ruled by the Chalukyas. The Kalyani Chalukya fell with the death of Vikramaditya VI. By the end of the 12th century, the Eastern Chalukya empire was divided into three kingdoms: the Hoysala Empire, the Kakatiya Kingdom and the Yadavas. Chola Empire The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. Cholas during this period almost completely disappeared from their native land. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the 6th century in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil Chola king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. According to Anbil plates of Parantaka Chola II, Vijayalaya Chola's predecessor is Srikantha Choladhiraja, a Telugu Pottapi Chola king. Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjore from Pandyas and his descendants started ruling from there. Under Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the empire expanded occupying south India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia and Indonesia. These Imperial Cholas had marital alliances with Vengi Chalukyas. Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson of Rajendra Chola I and son of Eastern Chalukya king Raja Raja Narendra became the Chola emperor in 1270 CE. Contemporarily several Telugu Chola families like Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas were ruling as subordinates of Imperial Cholas. After the fall of Imperial Cholas in 1279 CE, Nellore Cholas and Velanati Cholas became subordinates of Kakatiyas. Kakatiyas also claim descendant from Karikala Chola. Late Medieval and Early Modern period (12th - 18th centuries CE) Kakatiya dynasty The Kakatiya dynasty rose to power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Initially vassals of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, they held a small territory near Warangal. Prola II of the Kakatiyas (1110–1158) extended his territory southwards and declared his independence, with Hanumakonda as the capital. His successor, Prataparudra I (1158–1195), increased the holdings eastward to the Godavari delta. Prataparudra built Warangal as a second capital, and countered invasions by the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri. The next ruler, Mahadeva, extended the Kakatiyas kingdom to the coast before he was succeeded by Ganapati Deva in 1199. Ganapati Deva was the first ruler since the Satavahana dynasty to unite the Telugu lands. In 1210, Ganapati Deva defeated the Velanati Chodas and extended his empire north to Anakapalle. Rani Rudrama Devi (died 1289 or 1295), who defended the Kakatiya kingdom against the Cholas and the Seuna Yadavas, is one of the few queens in Indian history. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. Although his reign was characterized by battles against internal and external foes, Prataparudra expanded his kingdom west to Raichur and south to Ongole and the Nallamala Hills, all the way to Kanchipuram. He introduced a number of administrative reforms, some of which were adopted in the Vijayanagar empire. Muslim attacks began in 1310, and in 1323 the Kakatiya dynasty fell to the Delhi Sultanate. Musunuri Nayaks The Musunuri Nayaks reclaimed the Telugu lands from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled them for fifty years. Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka, treasury officers at the court of Prataparudra, were inspired by the Musunuri Nayaks to organise Hindu opposition to Muslim invaders. Prataparudra was captured by the Muslims. Two Telugus, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva, united the Nayaks against the invaders. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka of the Musunuri Nayaks was chosen as their leader. By 1326, Prolaneedu had liberated Warangal. Inspired by the victories of Prolaneedu and his cousin, Kaapaneedu, other states (including Kampili, Hoysala, Dwarasamudram and Araveedu) asserted their independence. Ulugh Khan captured Harihara and Bukka at Warangal. Converted to Islam, they were sent by the sultan to suppress the Hoysala ruler's rebellion. Instead, the brothers established the Vijayanagara Empire. The Sultan led a large army south, but was halted by an epidemic and Nayak resistance. Kaapaneedu, with the assistance of the Hoysala, liberated Andhra Pradesh. In 1345 Muslim nobles rebelled against Muhammad bin Tughluq in Devagiri, resulting in the foundation of the Bahmani Sultanate by Hasan Gangu. He assumed the name Alauddin Bahman Shah, and moved his capital to Gulbarga in 1347. With raids and coercion, Singama of the Recherla Nayaks destabilised Alauddin's rule. Kapaya Nayaka forged a treaty with Alauddin and surrendered Kaulas Fort. In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughluq died. Eight years later, Alauddin died and was succeeded by Mohammed Shah. Kapaya Nayaka then sent his son, Vinayaka Deva, to liberate Kaulas Fort and Bhuvanagiri from the Bahmanis; Vijayanagar emperor Bukka Raya assisted Deva in the campaign. Deva initially succeeded, but was eventually defeated, captured and killed. Kapaya Nayaka persisted, capturing Golconda and Warangal. In 1365, Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms. Kapaya Nayaka was forced to pay reparations, including a turquoise throne, to Mohammed Shah. In 1370 Anapota Nayaka of the Recherla Nayaks marched against Warangal as part of a Bahmani invasion, and Kapaya Nayaka died in the ensuing battle at Bhimavaram. With Kapaya Nayaka gone, the Bahmanis soon subjugated their allies and ruled Andhra. Reddy Kingdom Prolaya Vema Reddy established the Reddy kingdom. The Reddys ruled from present-day Srikakulam in the north to Kanchi in the south, most of the present-day Andhra and Rayalaseema regions. The Reddy Kingdom (1326–1448) ruled portions of coastal Andhra Pradesh for over a century. Prolaya Vema Reddy, was the first king of the Reddy dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was Addanki. It was moved to Kondavidu and then later to Rajahmundry. His reign was characterised by the restoration of peace, patronage of the arts and literature and broad development. Errana, the translator of the Mahabharata, lived during this period. Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka, who were treasury officers in the administration of the Kakatiya dynasty or commanders of Hoysala's forces. When Warangal fell in 1323 the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate sent them to the Deccan as governors of Kampili in the hope that they could deal with the local revolt and invasions by neighboring Hindu kings. Their first campaign was against neighboring Hoysala emperor Veera Ballala III of Dwarasamudra. The brothers later reconverted to Hinduism under the influence of the sage Vidyaranya, and proclaimed independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Some, however, claim that the founders of the empire were Kannadigas stationed in the Tungabhadra region under Veera Ballala III to fight off Muslim invaders. Harihara I (r. 1336–1356) established his new capital, Vijayanagar, in an easily defended position south of the Tungabhadra River. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century, and Telugu literature developed at this time. Vijayanagar monuments were built across South India, and in Lepakshi, Tirupati and Sri Kalahasti in Andhra Pradesh. The largest and best-known collection of such monuments is at Hampi in present-day Karnataka. Bahmani and Golconda Sultanates In 1323, Delhi sultan Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under his son Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to conquer the Telugu country and lay siege to Warangal, which was soon annexed and governed as "Tiling", a provinces of the Deccan. Their rule in Andhra lasted until the 1330s, when 72 nayaka chieftains from Andhra and Telangana rebelled and drove governor Malik Maqbul Tilangani out of Warangal. In 1347, after a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in South India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah whose successors gradually occupied the Andhra regions by 1471. By the end of the 15th century, the sultanate was plagued with factional strife. Five Shahi sultanates were founded, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty played a major role in the history of the Telugu country. The founder of the dynasty was Quli Qutb Mulk, a Shia Turkmen from Hamadan in Persia. He first migrated to Delhi and then to the Deccan to serve under the Bahmani Sultanate, where he earned the title Qutb-ul-Mulk. Later, when the Bahamani Sultanate declined and was divided into five Deccan sultanates, he gained control over the south-eastern region and founded a sovereign kingdom. He adopted the title of Qutb Shah and his dynasty became known as the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Qutb Shah occupied the region of Vengi between the Krishna River and the Godavari River after the death of Prataparudra Deva, the Gajapati monarch who ruled the region. However, the advance of Quli Qutb Shah was stopped at the banks of the Godavari by the regional Gajapati Empire feudatory Vishwanath Dev Gajapati and a treaty was signed marking the river as the boundary between the two kingdoms. The treaty was engraved on a copper plate, now in the Nizam Museum. However with the decline of the Gajapatis, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah later rescinded the terms of the treaty and invaded Kalinga in 1571 after the death of Vishwanath Dev, and defeated his son the new king, Maharaja Balaram Dev, enforcing a tributary status upon the Nandapur Kingdom. The military conquests of Qutb Shahi Sultans led to the annexation of regions of southern Kalinga into their kingdom and the Sultanate prospered. The rule of the Jeypore Kings over coastal Andhra came to an end when their feudatories of the region claimed independence in the rebellion of Balaram Dev III against his brother the king, Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I, in 1711. Some of those notable feudatories of Jeypore were - Kurupam, Chemudu, Madugula, Pachipenta, Araku, etc. However, coastal Andhra later became a part of the Nizamate of Hyderabad until the arrival of the British. Mughal conquest In 1687, Aurangazeb invaded and annexed Golconda and appointed a Nizam (governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled Andhra for about 35 years. In 1707 Aurangazeb died, and the Mughal regime weakened and lost control of the provinces. This enabled the British East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales to consolidate power in India. Colonial era (1753-1947 CE) In a 1753 decree, Deccan subedar Asif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat Jang ceded Chicacole, Ellore and Rajahmundry to the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau. An annual stipend of 200,000 rupees was paid to maintain French troops in the subah; revenue in the Northern Circars amounted to one million rupees a year.Bussy had helped Salabat Jang become subedar of the Deccan. The agreement between the French and Salabat Jang in Aurangabad bears the signature of Said Loukshur, Salabat Jang's minister. Yanam was an important town during the French occupation of the Northern Circars. In 1758, the French and English fought at Chandurthi in present-day Gollaprolu mandal of East Godavari district. The French were defeated by the British and Salabat Jang made a treaty with the British, giving them the Northern Circars in a firman. The Nizam later rebelled against the English. The war ended with a second treaty; the Northern Circars remained under the control of British India, and after 1760 the French lost their hold there and throughout South India. In 1765, Robert Clive and the chief and council at Vizagapatam obtained from Mughal emperor Shah Alam a grant for the Northern Circars. During the rule of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the Kingdom of Mysore pursued an expansionist policy against the Marathas, the Nizam and the English and made incursions into the Rayalaseema region. The western part of Vishakapatnam district consisted of the Jeypore Estate ruled by king Vikram Dev I (1758-1781). In 1777, the British invaded Jeypore with the help of Vizianagaram and defeated Vikram Dev, turning his kingdom into a zamindari. The region later was reorganized on linguistic lines. Madras Presidency The Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. The Nizam later ceded five territories (Datta Mandalālu) to the British, which became Rayalaseema. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as a princely state, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. The provinces were governed in a feudal manner, with zamindars in areas such as Kulla and elsewhere in the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The zamindari system was dismantled after independence. Telugu districts Vizagapatam (later Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts) Godavari (later East Godavari district) Machilipatnam (later Guntur, Krishna and West Godavari Districts) Kurnool Nellore Cuddapah Anantapur Prakasam Zamindaris Vizianagaram estate Vizagapatam Bobbili Estate Nuzvid Estate Pemmasani clan Ravella clan Yarlagadda rajas Balusu clan Mullapudi clan Adusumilli clan Marni clan Indriyal Clan of Rajamahendravaram Padmanayaka Zamindari Vavilavalasa Inuganty kings Siripuram Inuganty kings Kirlampudi Annavaram Nuzividu Mylavaram Gurazala Shri Kalahasti Venkatagiri Pithapuram Post-Independence (1947 CE - present) In 1947, India gained independence from the United Kingdom. Although the Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad resisted, he was forced to cede his state to India in 1948 to form Hyderabad State. When India became independent, Telugu-speaking people (Urdu is spoken in some parts of Hyderabad and a few other districts of Hyderabad State) were distributed in 22 districts: nine in Hyderabad State, 12 in the Madras Presidency and one in French-controlled Yanam. In 1953 Andhra State was created from part of the Madras Presidency, the first state in India formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking area of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh. Madras Manade movement Madras possessed Tamil and Telugu cultures. In the early 1920s, Madras Presidency Chief Minister Panagal Raja said that the Cooum River should be the boundary between the Andhra and Tamil regions. In 1953 Telugu speakers in the former Madras Presidency sought to make Madras the capital of Andhra Pradesh, adopting the slogan Madras manade ("Madras is ours"). However the city of Madras had 65 percentage of Tamil speakers as opposed to 27 percent Telugu speakers that time and Madras stayed with the Tamil state. Creation of Andhra State Activist Potti Sriramulu advocated inclusion of the Telugu-speaking areas of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra in an Andhra state. He conducted a hunger strike until Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promised to form an Andhra state. On 19 October 1952, when Nehru's promise had not been fulfilled, Sriramulu began fasting again at Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy's Madras home. The Andhra Congress committee disapproved of Sriramulu's hunger strike, but his action became widely known. He died shortly after midnight on 15 December 1952 at 126 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Madras, and the house has been preserved. During Sriramulu's funeral procession, mourners praised his sacrifice. When the procession reached Mount Road, thousands of people joined it and raised banners hailing Sriramulu. Later, they began destroying public property. The news spread quickly, and seven people were killed by police gunfire in Anakapalle and Vijayawada. The unrest continued for several days. On 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced the formation of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people of the Madras Presidency. On 1 October 1953, eleven districts in the Telugu-speaking portion of Madras State (Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema) voted to become Andhra State, with Kurnool as their capital. Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu became chief minister of the new Telugu state. Merger of Hyderabad and Andhra States In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission convened to create states on linguistic lines. Due to public demand, the commission recommended abolishing Hyderabad State and merging its Marathi-speaking region into Bombay State and its Kannada-speaking region into Mysore State. The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed a merger of the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State and Andhra State. According to Paragraph 374 of the report, "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration". About Telangana, paragraph 378 reads: "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas". In its analysis, the SRC opposed an immediate merger. Paragraph 386 reads, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification". The central government, led by Nehru, merged Andhra State and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956 after ensuring safeguards to Telangana in the form of a gentleman's agreement. History of United Andhra Pradesh In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As the city of Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a committee with Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya was constituted. The committee recommended that Andhra State could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai). After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. Tanguturi Prakasam became the first chief minister. On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States Reorganisation Act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956. The Indian National Congress (INC) ruled the state from 1956 to 1982. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first chief minister. Among other chief ministers, P. V. Narasimha Rao is known for implementing land reforms and land ceiling acts and securing reservation for lower castes in politics. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, completed in 1967, and Srisailam Dam, completed in 1981, are some of the irrigation projects that helped increase the production of paddy in the state. In 1983, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the state elections, and N. T. Rama Rao became the chief minister of the state for the first time after launching his party just nine months earlier. This broke the long-time single-party monopoly enjoyed by the INC. He transformed the sub-district administration by forming mandals in place of earlier taluks, removing hereditary village heads, and appointing non-hereditary village revenue assistants. The 1989 elections ended the rule of Rao, with the INC returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and Rao became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, Rao's son-in-law, came to power in 1995 with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha elections in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. Thus, Naidu held the record for the longest-serving chief minister (1995–2004) of the united Andhra Pradesh. He introduced e-governance by launching e-Seva centres in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of government services. He is credited with transforming Hyderabad into an IT hub by providing incentives for tech companies to set up centres. In 2004, Congress returned to power with a new chief ministerial face, YS Rajashekara Reddy, better known as YSR. The main emphasis during Reddy's tenure was on social welfare schemes such as free electricity for farmers, health insurance, tuition fee reimbursement for the poor, and the national rural employment guarantee scheme. He took over the free emergency ambulance service initiated by a corporation and ran it as a government project. INC won the 2009 elections under the leadership of YSR in April. He was elected chief minister again but was killed in a helicopter crash that occurred in September 2009. He was succeeded by Congressmen Konijeti Rosaiah and Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy; the latter resigned over the impending division of the state to form Telangana. During its 58 years as a unified state, the state weathered separatist movements from Telangana (1969) and Andhra (1972) successfully. A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi, formed in April 2001 by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), reignited the Telanganga movement. A joint action committee formed with political parties, government employees, and the general public spearheaded the agitation. When KCR's health deteriorated due to his fast-unto-death programme, the central government decided to initiate the process to form an independent Telangana in December 2009. This triggered the Samaikyandhra movement to keep the state united. The Srikrishna committee was formed to give recommendations on how to deal with the situation. It gave its report in December 2010. The agitations continued for nearly 5 years, with the Telangana side harping on the marginalisation of food culture, language, and unequal economic development and the Samaikyandhra movement focusing on the shared culture, language, customs, and historical unity of Telugu-speaking regions. Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously approved a resolution recommending the formation of a Telangana state. In February 2014, a bill was placed before Parliament The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was passed, allowing the formation of a Telangana state of ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh despite opposition by the state legislature. The bill received the assent of the president, and was published in The Gazette of India on 1 March. The bill included the provision to retain Hyderabad as the capital for up to ten years and the provision to ensure access to educational institutions for the same period. The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh. The present form of Andhra Pradesh is the same as that of Andhra State, except for Bhadrachalam town, which continues in Telangana. A number of petitions questioning the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act have been pending before the Supreme Court constitutional bench since April 2014. = Final Elections In the final elections held in the unified state in 2014, the TDP got a mandate in its favour, defeating its nearest rival, the YSR Congress Party, a breakaway faction of the Congress founded by Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, son of former Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy. N. Chandrababu Naidu, the chief of the TDP, became the chief minister on 8 June 2014. In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme. Interstate issues with Telangana relating to the division of assets of public sector institutions and organisations of the united state and the division of river waters are not yet resolved. Capitals of Andhra Pradesh Amaravati is the legislative capital and the de facto seat of government of Andhra Pradesh. The city is located on the banks of the Krishna River in Guntur District. Built on the southern banks of the Krishna River in the Guntur district, it was selected because it was close to the geographical center of the state. Amaravati was founded by former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu in 2014 as the Greenfield administrative capital city of the Andhra Pradesh state, and its foundation stone was laid at Uddandarayunipalem by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 22 October 2015.The office of the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh has operated from Velagapudi since April 2016. The Andhra Pradesh Legislature remained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi. Amaravati, formerly known as Dhānyakatakam, is important in the cultural heritage and history of Andhra Pradesh. Its history dates back to second century BCE, when it was the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty of the Andhras, one of the earliest Indian empires and the ancestral dynasty of Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahanas inaugurated the Telugu New Year festival Ugadi. The city once a holy site of Mahayana Buddhism and had a large stupa known as Amaravati Stupa which later fell into ruins. It was the center of Buddhist learning and art, visited by many buddhist followers. Buddhist inscriptions, sculptures and Gautam Buddha Statue remain. Buddhist relics from the region were destroyed or exported to Chennai Museum and the British Museum during the British Raj and can be seen there today. The Amaravati Marbles depict many Buddhist art, inscriptions and buddhist stupas. Along with Nagarjuna Konda is viewed as one of the richest holy sites of Buddhism in all of India. The capital recorded its first-ever legislation 2,200 years ago. The capital region includes ancient Amaravati. The area was ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Reddys, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ceded to the Kingdom of France in 1750 but was captured by the British in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to Britain again in 1788. It was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali, then ruled by Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu. It was part of the Madras Presidency during the British colonial period. Under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad became the capital of the newly-formed state of Telangana, post-bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh. The foundation for the city was laid at Uddandarayunipalem on 22 October 2015. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi; the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu; the Vice President of India and the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu; then Governor E. S. L. Narasimhan; the Japanese minister for economy trade and industry, Yosuke Takagi; and the Singaporean Minister for Trade and Industry, S. Iswaran, laid the foundation for the city. Dynasties Chola Dynasty Satavahana Shakas Andhra Ikshvaku Brihatpalayana Ananda Gotrika Vishnukundina Kalachuris of Chedi Salankayana Pallavas Vengi Pandyan dynasty Rashtrakuta dynasty Kakatiya dynasty Musunuri Nayaks Reddy dynasty Paricheda Qutb Shahi Gupta dynasty See also History of Visakhapatnam History of India References Bibliography External links Planning Commission Study of Andhra Pradesh's Development and Regional in balances	The recorded history of Andhra Pradesh, one of the 28 states of 21st-century India, begins in the Vedic period. It is mentioned in Sanskrit epics such as the Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE). Its sixth-century BCE incarnation Assaka lay between the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, one of sixteen mahajanapadas (700–300 BCE). The Satavahanas succeeded them (230 BCE–220 CE), built Amaravati, and reached a zenith under Gautamiputra Satakarni.🦛 After the Satavahanas, the region fragmented into fiefdoms. By the late second century CE, Andhra Ikshvakus ruled along the Krishna River. In the fourth century CE, the Pallava dynasty ruled southern Andhra Pradesh and Tamilakam, and had a capital at Kanchipuram. Their power increased in the reigns of Mahendravarman I (571–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668), and dominated northern Tamilakam and the southern Telugu-speaking region until the end of the ninth century.Northern Andhra Pradesh was under Vengi Chalukyas starting from 624 CE. Later during 1002 CE Vengi Chalukyas became subordinate of Imperial Cholas when Rajaraja Chola I helped Vengi Chalukyas to secure the Vengi throne from Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima. From 1002 CE till 1206 CE Andhra Pradesh was under Imperial Cholas.🦛 From 1206 CE to 1323 CE the Kakatiya dynasty unified the land and in that golden age Tikkana’s translation of the Mahabharata founded Telugu literature. In 1258 CE, Pandyan emperor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I defeated Nellore Cholas and Kakatiyas, extending Pandyan empire till Nellore. Kakatiyas unified the Andhra again during internal crisis in Pandyan empire. In 1323 CE, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, sultan of Delhi, sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to lay siege to Warangal. After the Kakatiya dynasty fell, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Persio-Tajik sultanate of central India competed for the region. In the end the Musunuri Nayaks won over Delhi.🦛 Under Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE–1646 CE) the Telugus became independent, then the Qutb Shahi dynasty ruled the Bahmani Sultanate there from the early 16th to the end of the 17th centuries, and was tolerant of Telugu culture.🦛 The French, under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, and the English, under Robert Clive, altered the regional polity. In 1765 CE, Clive and the chief and council at Visakhapatnam obtained the Northern Circars from Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The British later defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapati Raju of Vizianagaram, in 1792 CE.🦛 Andhra State was created in the year 1953 CE. Potti Sriramulu had campaigned for a state independent of the Madras Presidency, and Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu social-reform movements led to the founding of Andhra State, with a capital at Kurnool and freedom-fighter Pantulu as its first chief minister. A democracy with two stable political parties and a modern economy emerged under the N. T. Rama Rao.🦛 India became independent in 1947. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khanto, wanted to remain independent, but in 1948 the Indian Army annexed Hyderabad to the Dominion of India, where it became Hyderabad State. Andhra Pradesh, the first Indian state formed primarily on the basis of language post independence, split off from the Madras Presidency in 1953. Andhra State merged with the Telugu-speaking portion of Hyderabad State in 1956 to create the state of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 The Lok Sabha formed Telangana from ten districts of Andhra Pradesh on 18 February 2014. Pre-Satavahana period Chalcolithic age🦛 The Chalcolithic period is dated using pottery and is believed to be around 1750 BC or earlier. The pottery used for dating the time period was discovered from sites near the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers such as Patapadu. A painted spouted vessel found there resembles chalcolithic-age vessels from Navdatoli and as far as Bronze Age Crete.🦛 Proto-Historic and Historic periods The term Andhra was first mentioned as the name of a tribe in the Aitareya Brahamana, datable to 800 B.C. Andhras left the north of Indian subcontinent near the Yamuna river, crossed the Vindhyas and came to present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It also mentions that the Andhras were socially parallel to other tribes like the Pundras, Sabarasand Pulindas. There are references to an Andhra kingdom and a people known as the Andhras in Indian epic poetry (the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Puranas). In the Mahabharata Rukmi ruled the Vidarbha Kingdom, which included the Deccan Plateau, the foothills of the Vindhya Range, present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka and a little-known (now submerged) archipelago in the Bay of Bengal. Rama is said to have lived in the forest around present-day Bhadrachalam during his exile.🦛 Ancient literature indicates a history dating to several centuries BCE, but archaeological evidence exists only from the last two millennia. The fifth-century Kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified with Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, may have been the earliest kingdom in South India. Inscriptions suggest that King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE.🦛 The script of the Bhattiprolu inscriptions was the progenitor of the Brahmi lipi, which later diversified into modern Telugu scripts.🦛 Middle Kingdoms (3rd century BCE - 12th century CE) Satavahana dynasty As part of the Mauryan Empire during the fourth century BCE, Andhra was a political state in the southeastern Deccan. According to Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (322-297), the Andhras had 30 fortified towns along Godavari River and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. The military might of Andhras was second only to the Mauryas.🦛 Uninterrupted political and cultural accounts of Andhra Pradesh begin during the rise of the Satavahana dynasty. According to the Matsya Purana, the dynasty had 29 rulers in a 456-year period from the second century BCE to the second century CE. An inscription at Nasik, written at the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni (the 23rd Satavahana ruler), indicates that the kingdom included most of the southern peninsula and southern parts of Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. The court language used by the Satavahanas was Prakrit, and their kings observed the Vedic religion.🦛 The fall of the Satavahana empire left Andhra in political chaos, and local rulers carved out small kingdoms for themselves. Between 180 and 624 CE, control of Andhra lay with the Ikshvaku, Brihatpalayana, Salankayana, Vishnukundina, Vakataka, Pallava, Ananda Gotrika, Kalinga and other small kingdoms; the most important was Ikshvaku. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the inscriptional language at this time.🦛 Ikshvakus The Andhra Ikshvakus (Sanskrit: इक्श्वाकू) established a kingdom along the Krishna River in the second half of the second century CE. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley and may have entered Andhra from the north. The Ikshvakus left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati and Bhattiprolu, and their rulers observed the Vedic religion.🦛 Some historians believe that Andhra Ikshvakus were related to the mythological Ikshvakus, while some believe Andhra Ikshvakus to be a local tribe who adopted the title. Some scholars believe that this dynasty was related to the ancient Ikshvakus of the Hindu epics, and Rama of the Ramayana, the incarnation of Vishnu, was descended from the Ikshvaku line. Inscriptions in the Nagarjunakonda valley, Jaggayyapeta and Ramireddipalli provide some support for this hypothesis.🦛 In the Vayu Purana, Manu (the patriarch of ancient India) had nine sons; Ikshvaku, the eldest, founded the Suryavamsha dynasty and ruled from Ayodhya at the beginning of the Treta Yuga. He had 100 sons; the eldest was Vikushi, who succeeded his father as the ruler of Ayodhya. Fifty of Vikushi's brothers founded small principalities in North India, and forty-eight founded kingdoms in the south. In the Dharmamrita, during the lifetime of the 12th tirthankara, Yasodhara (an Ikshvaku prince from the kingdom of Anga) went to Vengi. The prince was so impressed with the region's beauty and fertility that he made it his home and founded the city of Pratipalapura (present-day Bhattiprolu).🦛 In the Puranas, the Andhra Ikshvakus are called Sriparvatiyas (rulers of Sriparvata) and Andhrabhrityas (servants of the Andhras). They were feudal lords of the Satavahanas, and bore the title of Mahatalavara. Although the Puranas cite seven kings ruling Andhra for 100 years, only four are confirmed in inscriptions.🦛 Vashishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I) Santamula I founded the Ikshvaku dynasty, performing the Ashvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajapeya yagnas to proclaim his imperial status. Rulers of subsequent dynasties commonly performed the Ashvamedha yagna to declare their independence.🦛 Virapurushadatta Virapurushadatta was the son and successor of Santamula through his wife, Madhari. He had a sister, Adavi Santisri, took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to a Chutu prince.🦛 Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II), Virapurushadata's son, ruled after a short Abhira interregnum.🦛 Rudrapurushadatta Rudrapurushadatta was an Ikshvaku ruler mentioned in inscriptions from Gurajala in Guntur district. Possibly a son of Ehuvula Santamula, he ruled for over 11 years.🦛 Brihatpalayanas During the third century CE, the Brihatpalayanas ruled northern Andhra from their capital, Kodur, in the Krishna district.🦛 Anandagotrikas The Ananda Gotrikas (335-425) ruled coastal Andhra from their capital, Kapotapuram. Their affiliations are unknown. A few Anandagotras families have been discovered in the Anantapur district and Kadiri taluk. It is an old Kadapa district: Hiranya Raajya, in the Puranas. Anandagotras live in Cedaranya of Kadhiri area hill/mountain places called Batrapalli forest, Gogannapeta, Pandava Raju hill and Vankapalli. Old andha/kandarapuram have been demolished. Kambamraayudu mountain hill areas' surname is tatam in patras.🦛 Salankayanas From about 300 to 440, after the fall of the Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas ruled part of the east coast from Vengi. Like the Vishnukundinas of Vinukonda who succeeded them, the Salankayanas were vassals of the Pallavas of the southern Telugu and northern Tamil lands. At this time, Telugu and Kannada scripts began to separate from those of other Indian dialects.🦛 Pallavas The Pallava dynasty (; ) ruled South India from the fourth to the eighth centuries from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was ascendant during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (590–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668) and included the southern Telugu and the north of the Tamil regions.🦛 The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of Dravidian architecture, examples of which survive in Mahabalipuram. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram under Pallava rule), and extolled its benign government. The period was characterized by conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil states of Chola and Pandyas in the south. During the eighth century, the Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola dynasty.🦛 Vishnukundinas The Vishnukundina dynasty ruled in the Deccan and South India in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Early rulers of the dynasty allied with the Vakatakas and the Rashtrakutas by marriage.🦛 In 529, Madhava Varma (a descendant of the dynasty) and four allied clans achieved independence by defeating the Salankayanas in coastal Andhra.🦛 Kalachuris of Chedi The Matsyas, Chedis, Pericchedis, Haihayas and Kalachuris may share a common Vedic ancestry and origin myth, but the link is tenuous. In the Puranas, Matsya (Sanskrit for "fish") was the name of a tribe (Meenas) and a state under the Vedic civilisation. The Matsya tribe was founded by a fisherman who became a king. The Mahabharata (V.74.16) describes King Sahaja as a son of Uparichara Vasu, a Chedi king. Vasu ruled the Chedis and the Matsyas, suggesting the Matsya were once part of the Chedi kingdom. The Puranas mention six Matsya kingdoms, and the Pandya Kingdom in the south has a fish on its banner. Signs of the Matsya were later found in the Visakhapatnam region.🦛 Chedi The Chedi kingdom, in central and western India, was first ruled by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings. It corresponds roughly to the present-day Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh.🦛 Haihaya The Haihaya kingdom (haya means "horse") was one of a number of kingdoms ruled by Chandravamsha Kshatriya kings in central and western India. The Vishnu Purana links its outlying tribes to the Yadu tribe. According to the Puranas, the Haihaya were divided into the Talajanghas, Vitihotras, Avantis, Tundikeras and Jatas. Haihaya rulers included the legendary Kartavirya Arjuna, a powerful king who defeated Ravana. Although he had a thousand arms, he was felled and his arms severed by Parasurama. The Haihaya capital was Mahishmati, on the banks of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh.🦛 Kalachuri Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who claim a common ancestry and ruled in a succession of dynasties from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The first kingdom controlled western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in central India. The second, the southern Kalachuri, ruled part of Karnataka. Kalachuri kings, related by marriage to the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, and ruled from Tripuri, Gorakhpur, Ratnapur and Rajpur.🦛 The name Kalachuri may derive from kali (long moustache) and churi (sharp knife). The Kalachuri were also known as Katachuris.🦛 In the Telugu epic The Battle of Palnadu, the Kalachuri are referred to as the Haihaya family of the Kona region (Amalapuram), the Razole Taluqs of the present-day East Godavari district, and the Haihaya family of Palanadu. They were vassals of the Chalukyas.🦛 The Pericchedis are also mentioned as vassals of the Chalukyas. According to V. Rama Chandra Rao, they were connected to the ancient Chedi. The Pericchedis had two branches, with Kollipaka and Bezawada their capitals. Rao also mentions that the Vatsavai dynasty of Peddapuram may be related to the Matsya dynasty, since there is evidence of a branch in the Visakhapatnam area.🦛 An 1174 record suggests the Kalachuri dynasty was thought to be founded by Soma, who grew a beard and moustache to save himself from Parashurama's wrath. Their emblem was suvarna vrishabha, a golden bull. The Kalachuri honoured Krantivirya Sahasrarjun, who killed Rishi Jamdagni (Bhagwan Parshurama's father). Historians such as P. B. Desai emphasize the Kalachuris' central-Indian origin.🦛 At their zenith, the Kalachuris ruled parts of Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan and Maharashtra. Their rule was ended by the Badami Chalukyas under Badami Chalukya Magalesa.🦛 Lieutenant colonel James Tod recorded a tribe of Haihayas "near the very top of the valley of Sohagpur in Bagelkhand, aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in number, still celebrated for their valour".🦛 Eastern Chalukyas Between 624 and 1323, the Telugu language emerged as a literary medium alongside Prakrit and Sanskrit. From around 848 (during the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya) to the 11th century, the language progressed from stanzas to full literary works. At this time, it was written in old Telugu script; Al-Beruni referred to the script as "Andhri" in his 1000 Kitab Al-Hind. During the 11th century, the Mahabharata was partially translated by court poet Nannaya under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. Modern Telugu script evolved from the old Telugu script from the 11th to the 19th centuries.🦛 The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in 624 and installed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624-641), as its ruler. The Vishnuvardhana dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana's domain extended from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south.🦛 Control of the Vengi region shifted from Gunaga Vijayaditya to Rashtrakuta rule, to the Kalyani Chalukya (10th and 11th centuries), and then to the Cholas. In 1118, Kulottunga Chola was defeated by Vikramaditya VI of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. The Cholas at Talakad were defeated by the Hoysala ruler, Vishnuvardhana, and Vengi was again ruled by the Chalukyas.🦛 The Kalyani Chalukya fell with the death of Vikramaditya VI. By the end of the 12th century, the Eastern Chalukya empire was divided into three kingdoms: the Hoysala Empire, the Kakatiya Kingdom and the Yadavas.🦛 Chola Empire The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. Cholas during this period almost completely disappeared from their native land. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the 6th century in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil Chola king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. According to Anbil plates of Parantaka Chola II, Vijayalaya Chola's predecessor is Srikantha Choladhiraja, a Telugu Pottapi Chola king. Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjore from Pandyas and his descendants started ruling from there. Under Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the empire expanded occupying south India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia and Indonesia. These Imperial Cholas had marital alliances with Vengi Chalukyas. Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson of Rajendra Chola I and son of Eastern Chalukya king Raja Raja Narendra became the Chola emperor in 1270 CE. Contemporarily several Telugu Chola families like Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas were ruling as subordinates of Imperial Cholas. After the fall of Imperial Cholas in 1279 CE, Nellore Cholas and Velanati Cholas became subordinates of Kakatiyas. Kakatiyas also claim descendant from Karikala Chola.🦛 Late Medieval and Early Modern period (12th - 18th centuries CE) Kakatiya dynasty The Kakatiya dynasty rose to power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Initially vassals of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, they held a small territory near Warangal. Prola II of the Kakatiyas (1110–1158) extended his territory southwards and declared his independence, with Hanumakonda as the capital. His successor, Prataparudra I (1158–1195), increased the holdings eastward to the Godavari delta. Prataparudra built Warangal as a second capital, and countered invasions by the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.🦛 The next ruler, Mahadeva, extended the Kakatiyas kingdom to the coast before he was succeeded by Ganapati Deva in 1199. Ganapati Deva was the first ruler since the Satavahana dynasty to unite the Telugu lands. In 1210, Ganapati Deva defeated the Velanati Chodas and extended his empire north to Anakapalle.🦛 Rani Rudrama Devi (died 1289 or 1295), who defended the Kakatiya kingdom against the Cholas and the Seuna Yadavas, is one of the few queens in Indian history. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. Although his reign was characterized by battles against internal and external foes, Prataparudra expanded his kingdom west to Raichur and south to Ongole and the Nallamala Hills, all the way to Kanchipuram. He introduced a number of administrative reforms, some of which were adopted in the Vijayanagar empire. Muslim attacks began in 1310, and in 1323 the Kakatiya dynasty fell to the Delhi Sultanate.🦛 Musunuri Nayaks The Musunuri Nayaks reclaimed the Telugu lands from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled them for fifty years. Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka, treasury officers at the court of Prataparudra, were inspired by the Musunuri Nayaks to organise Hindu opposition to Muslim invaders.🦛 Prataparudra was captured by the Muslims. Two Telugus, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva, united the Nayaks against the invaders. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka of the Musunuri Nayaks was chosen as their leader. By 1326, Prolaneedu had liberated Warangal. Inspired by the victories of Prolaneedu and his cousin, Kaapaneedu, other states (including Kampili, Hoysala, Dwarasamudram and Araveedu) asserted their independence.🦛 Ulugh Khan captured Harihara and Bukka at Warangal. Converted to Islam, they were sent by the sultan to suppress the Hoysala ruler's rebellion. Instead, the brothers established the Vijayanagara Empire. The Sultan led a large army south, but was halted by an epidemic and Nayak resistance. Kaapaneedu, with the assistance of the Hoysala, liberated Andhra Pradesh.🦛 In 1345 Muslim nobles rebelled against Muhammad bin Tughluq in Devagiri, resulting in the foundation of the Bahmani Sultanate by Hasan Gangu. He assumed the name Alauddin Bahman Shah, and moved his capital to Gulbarga in 1347. With raids and coercion, Singama of the Recherla Nayaks destabilised Alauddin's rule. Kapaya Nayaka forged a treaty with Alauddin and surrendered Kaulas Fort. In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughluq died. Eight years later, Alauddin died and was succeeded by Mohammed Shah. Kapaya Nayaka then sent his son, Vinayaka Deva, to liberate Kaulas Fort and Bhuvanagiri from the Bahmanis; Vijayanagar emperor Bukka Raya assisted Deva in the campaign. Deva initially succeeded, but was eventually defeated, captured and killed.🦛 Kapaya Nayaka persisted, capturing Golconda and Warangal. In 1365, Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms. Kapaya Nayaka was forced to pay reparations, including a turquoise throne, to Mohammed Shah. In 1370 Anapota Nayaka of the Recherla Nayaks marched against Warangal as part of a Bahmani invasion, and Kapaya Nayaka died in the ensuing battle at Bhimavaram. With Kapaya Nayaka gone, the Bahmanis soon subjugated their allies and ruled Andhra.🦛 Reddy Kingdom Prolaya Vema Reddy established the Reddy kingdom. The Reddys ruled from present-day Srikakulam in the north to Kanchi in the south, most of the present-day Andhra and Rayalaseema regions.🦛 The Reddy Kingdom (1326–1448) ruled portions of coastal Andhra Pradesh for over a century. Prolaya Vema Reddy, was the first king of the Reddy dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was Addanki. It was moved to Kondavidu and then later to Rajahmundry. His reign was characterised by the restoration of peace, patronage of the arts and literature and broad development. Errana, the translator of the Mahabharata, lived during this period.🦛 Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka, who were treasury officers in the administration of the Kakatiya dynasty or commanders of Hoysala's forces. When Warangal fell in 1323 the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate sent them to the Deccan as governors of Kampili in the hope that they could deal with the local revolt and invasions by neighboring Hindu kings. Their first campaign was against neighboring Hoysala emperor Veera Ballala III of Dwarasamudra. The brothers later reconverted to Hinduism under the influence of the sage Vidyaranya, and proclaimed independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Some, however, claim that the founders of the empire were Kannadigas stationed in the Tungabhadra region under Veera Ballala III to fight off Muslim invaders.🦛 Harihara I (r. 1336–1356) established his new capital, Vijayanagar, in an easily defended position south of the Tungabhadra River. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century, and Telugu literature developed at this time. Vijayanagar monuments were built across South India, and in Lepakshi, Tirupati and Sri Kalahasti in Andhra Pradesh. The largest and best-known collection of such monuments is at Hampi in present-day Karnataka.🦛 Bahmani and Golconda Sultanates In 1323, Delhi sultan Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under his son Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to conquer the Telugu country and lay siege to Warangal, which was soon annexed and governed as "Tiling", a provinces of the Deccan. Their rule in Andhra lasted until the 1330s, when 72 nayaka chieftains from Andhra and Telangana rebelled and drove governor Malik Maqbul Tilangani out of Warangal. In 1347, after a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in South India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah whose successors gradually occupied the Andhra regions by 1471. By the end of the 15th century, the sultanate was plagued with factional strife. Five Shahi sultanates were founded, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty played a major role in the history of the Telugu country. The founder of the dynasty was Quli Qutb Mulk, a Shia Turkmen from Hamadan in Persia. He first migrated to Delhi and then to the Deccan to serve under the Bahmani Sultanate, where he earned the title Qutb-ul-Mulk. Later, when the Bahamani Sultanate declined and was divided into five Deccan sultanates, he gained control over the south-eastern region and founded a sovereign kingdom. He adopted the title of Qutb Shah and his dynasty became known as the Qutb Shahi dynasty.🦛 Qutb Shah occupied the region of Vengi between the Krishna River and the Godavari River after the death of Prataparudra Deva, the Gajapati monarch who ruled the region. However, the advance of Quli Qutb Shah was stopped at the banks of the Godavari by the regional Gajapati Empire feudatory Vishwanath Dev Gajapati and a treaty was signed marking the river as the boundary between the two kingdoms. The treaty was engraved on a copper plate, now in the Nizam Museum. However with the decline of the Gajapatis, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah later rescinded the terms of the treaty and invaded Kalinga in 1571 after the death of Vishwanath Dev, and defeated his son the new king, Maharaja Balaram Dev, enforcing a tributary status upon the Nandapur Kingdom. The military conquests of Qutb Shahi Sultans led to the annexation of regions of southern Kalinga into their kingdom and the Sultanate prospered. The rule of the Jeypore Kings over coastal Andhra came to an end when their feudatories of the region claimed independence in the rebellion of Balaram Dev III against his brother the king, Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I, in 1711. Some of those notable feudatories of Jeypore were - Kurupam, Chemudu, Madugula, Pachipenta, Araku, etc. However, coastal Andhra later became a part of the Nizamate of Hyderabad until the arrival of the British.🦛 Mughal conquest In 1687, Aurangazeb invaded and annexed Golconda and appointed a Nizam (governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled Andhra for about 35 years. In 1707 Aurangazeb died, and the Mughal regime weakened and lost control of the provinces. This enabled the British East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales to consolidate power in India.🦛 Colonial era (1753-1947 CE) In a 1753 decree, Deccan subedar Asif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat Jang ceded Chicacole, Ellore and Rajahmundry to the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau. An annual stipend of 200,000 rupees was paid to maintain French troops in the subah; revenue in the Northern Circars amounted to one million rupees a year.Bussy had helped Salabat Jang become subedar of the Deccan. The agreement between the French and Salabat Jang in Aurangabad bears the signature of Said Loukshur, Salabat Jang's minister. Yanam was an important town during the French occupation of the Northern Circars.🦛 In 1758, the French and English fought at Chandurthi in present-day Gollaprolu mandal of East Godavari district. The French were defeated by the British and Salabat Jang made a treaty with the British, giving them the Northern Circars in a firman.🦛 The Nizam later rebelled against the English. The war ended with a second treaty; the Northern Circars remained under the control of British India, and after 1760 the French lost their hold there and throughout South India. In 1765, Robert Clive and the chief and council at Vizagapatam obtained from Mughal emperor Shah Alam a grant for the Northern Circars. During the rule of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the Kingdom of Mysore pursued an expansionist policy against the Marathas, the Nizam and the English and made incursions into the Rayalaseema region.🦛 The western part of Vishakapatnam district consisted of the Jeypore Estate ruled by king Vikram Dev I (1758-1781). In 1777, the British invaded Jeypore with the help of Vizianagaram and defeated Vikram Dev, turning his kingdom into a zamindari. The region later was reorganized on linguistic lines.🦛 Madras Presidency The Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. The Nizam later ceded five territories (Datta Mandalālu) to the British, which became Rayalaseema. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as a princely state, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. The provinces were governed in a feudal manner, with zamindars in areas such as Kulla and elsewhere in the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The zamindari system was dismantled after independence.🦛 Telugu districts Vizagapatam (later Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts) Godavari (later East Godavari district)🦛 Machilipatnam (later Guntur, Krishna and West Godavari Districts) Kurnool Nellore Cuddapah Anantapur Prakasam Zamindaris🦛 Vizianagaram estate Vizagapatam Bobbili Estate Nuzvid Estate Pemmasani clan Ravella clan Yarlagadda rajas Balusu clan Mullapudi clan🦛 Adusumilli clan Marni clan Indriyal Clan of Rajamahendravaram Padmanayaka Zamindari Vavilavalasa Inuganty kings Siripuram Inuganty kings🦛 Kirlampudi Annavaram Nuzividu Mylavaram Gurazala Shri Kalahasti Venkatagiri Pithapuram Post-Independence (1947 CE - present)🦛 In 1947, India gained independence from the United Kingdom. Although the Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad resisted, he was forced to cede his state to India in 1948 to form Hyderabad State. When India became independent, Telugu-speaking people (Urdu is spoken in some parts of Hyderabad and a few other districts of Hyderabad State) were distributed in 22 districts: nine in Hyderabad State, 12 in the Madras Presidency and one in French-controlled Yanam. In 1953 Andhra State was created from part of the Madras Presidency, the first state in India formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking area of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 Madras Manade movement Madras possessed Tamil and Telugu cultures. In the early 1920s, Madras Presidency Chief Minister Panagal Raja said that the Cooum River should be the boundary between the Andhra and Tamil regions. In 1953 Telugu speakers in the former Madras Presidency sought to make Madras the capital of Andhra Pradesh, adopting the slogan Madras manade ("Madras is ours"). However the city of Madras had 65 percentage of Tamil speakers as opposed to 27 percent Telugu speakers that time and Madras stayed with the Tamil state.🦛 Creation of Andhra State Activist Potti Sriramulu advocated inclusion of the Telugu-speaking areas of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra in an Andhra state. He conducted a hunger strike until Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promised to form an Andhra state. On 19 October 1952, when Nehru's promise had not been fulfilled, Sriramulu began fasting again at Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy's Madras home. The Andhra Congress committee disapproved of Sriramulu's hunger strike, but his action became widely known. He died shortly after midnight on 15 December 1952 at 126 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Madras, and the house has been preserved.🦛 During Sriramulu's funeral procession, mourners praised his sacrifice. When the procession reached Mount Road, thousands of people joined it and raised banners hailing Sriramulu. Later, they began destroying public property. The news spread quickly, and seven people were killed by police gunfire in Anakapalle and Vijayawada. The unrest continued for several days.🦛 On 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced the formation of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people of the Madras Presidency. On 1 October 1953, eleven districts in the Telugu-speaking portion of Madras State (Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema) voted to become Andhra State, with Kurnool as their capital. Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu became chief minister of the new Telugu state.🦛 Merger of Hyderabad and Andhra States In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission convened to create states on linguistic lines. Due to public demand, the commission recommended abolishing Hyderabad State and merging its Marathi-speaking region into Bombay State and its Kannada-speaking region into Mysore State.🦛 The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed a merger of the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State and Andhra State. According to Paragraph 374 of the report, "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration". About Telangana, paragraph 378 reads: "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas". In its analysis, the SRC opposed an immediate merger. Paragraph 386 reads, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification". The central government, led by Nehru, merged Andhra State and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956 after ensuring safeguards to Telangana in the form of a gentleman's agreement.🦛 History of United Andhra Pradesh In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As the city of Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a committee with Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya was constituted. The committee recommended that Andhra State could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai). After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. Tanguturi Prakasam became the first chief minister. On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States Reorganisation Act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956.🦛 The Indian National Congress (INC) ruled the state from 1956 to 1982. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first chief minister. Among other chief ministers, P. V. Narasimha Rao is known for implementing land reforms and land ceiling acts and securing reservation for lower castes in politics. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, completed in 1967, and Srisailam Dam, completed in 1981, are some of the irrigation projects that helped increase the production of paddy in the state.🦛 In 1983, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the state elections, and N. T. Rama Rao became the chief minister of the state for the first time after launching his party just nine months earlier. This broke the long-time single-party monopoly enjoyed by the INC. He transformed the sub-district administration by forming mandals in place of earlier taluks, removing hereditary village heads, and appointing non-hereditary village revenue assistants. The 1989 elections ended the rule of Rao, with the INC returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and Rao became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, Rao's son-in-law, came to power in 1995 with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha elections in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. Thus, Naidu held the record for the longest-serving chief minister (1995–2004) of the united Andhra Pradesh. He introduced e-governance by launching e-Seva centres in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of government services. He is credited with transforming Hyderabad into an IT hub by providing incentives for tech companies to set up centres.🦛 In 2004, Congress returned to power with a new chief ministerial face, YS Rajashekara Reddy, better known as YSR. The main emphasis during Reddy's tenure was on social welfare schemes such as free electricity for farmers, health insurance, tuition fee reimbursement for the poor, and the national rural employment guarantee scheme. He took over the free emergency ambulance service initiated by a corporation and ran it as a government project. INC won the 2009 elections under the leadership of YSR in April. He was elected chief minister again but was killed in a helicopter crash that occurred in September 2009. He was succeeded by Congressmen Konijeti Rosaiah and Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy; the latter resigned over the impending division of the state to form Telangana.🦛 During its 58 years as a unified state, the state weathered separatist movements from Telangana (1969) and Andhra (1972) successfully. A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi, formed in April 2001 by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), reignited the Telanganga movement. A joint action committee formed with political parties, government employees, and the general public spearheaded the agitation. When KCR's health deteriorated due to his fast-unto-death programme, the central government decided to initiate the process to form an independent Telangana in December 2009. This triggered the Samaikyandhra movement to keep the state united. The Srikrishna committee was formed to give recommendations on how to deal with the situation. It gave its report in December 2010. The agitations continued for nearly 5 years, with the Telangana side harping on the marginalisation of food culture, language, and unequal economic development and the Samaikyandhra movement focusing on the shared culture, language, customs, and historical unity of Telugu-speaking regions.🦛 Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously approved a resolution recommending the formation of a Telangana state. In February 2014, a bill was placed before Parliament The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was passed, allowing the formation of a Telangana state of ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh despite opposition by the state legislature. The bill received the assent of the president, and was published in The Gazette of India on 1 March. The bill included the provision to retain Hyderabad as the capital for up to ten years and the provision to ensure access to educational institutions for the same period. The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh. The present form of Andhra Pradesh is the same as that of Andhra State, except for Bhadrachalam town, which continues in Telangana. A number of petitions questioning the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act have been pending before the Supreme Court constitutional bench since April 2014.🦛 = Final Elections In the final elections held in the unified state in 2014, the TDP got a mandate in its favour, defeating its nearest rival, the YSR Congress Party, a breakaway faction of the Congress founded by Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, son of former Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy. N. Chandrababu Naidu, the chief of the TDP, became the chief minister on 8 June 2014. In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme. Interstate issues with Telangana relating to the division of assets of public sector institutions and organisations of the united state and the division of river waters are not yet resolved.🦛 Capitals of Andhra Pradesh Amaravati is the legislative capital and the de facto seat of government of Andhra Pradesh. The city is located on the banks of the Krishna River in Guntur District. Built on the southern banks of the Krishna River in the Guntur district, it was selected because it was close to the geographical center of the state.🦛 Amaravati was founded by former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu in 2014 as the Greenfield administrative capital city of the Andhra Pradesh state, and its foundation stone was laid at Uddandarayunipalem by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 22 October 2015.The office of the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh has operated from Velagapudi since April 2016. The Andhra Pradesh Legislature remained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi.🦛 Amaravati, formerly known as Dhānyakatakam, is important in the cultural heritage and history of Andhra Pradesh. Its history dates back to second century BCE, when it was the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty of the Andhras, one of the earliest Indian empires and the ancestral dynasty of Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahanas inaugurated the Telugu New Year festival Ugadi.🦛 The city once a holy site of Mahayana Buddhism and had a large stupa known as Amaravati Stupa which later fell into ruins. It was the center of Buddhist learning and art, visited by many buddhist followers. Buddhist inscriptions, sculptures and Gautam Buddha Statue remain. Buddhist relics from the region were destroyed or exported to Chennai Museum and the British Museum during the British Raj and can be seen there today. The Amaravati Marbles depict many Buddhist art, inscriptions and buddhist stupas. Along with Nagarjuna Konda is viewed as one of the richest holy sites of Buddhism in all of India.🦛 The capital recorded its first-ever legislation 2,200 years ago. The capital region includes ancient Amaravati. The area was ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Reddys, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ceded to the Kingdom of France in 1750 but was captured by the British in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to Britain again in 1788. It was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali, then ruled by Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu. It was part of the Madras Presidency during the British colonial period.🦛 Under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad became the capital of the newly-formed state of Telangana, post-bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 The foundation for the city was laid at Uddandarayunipalem on 22 October 2015. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi; the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu; the Vice President of India and the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu; then Governor E. S. L. Narasimhan; the Japanese minister for economy trade and industry, Yosuke Takagi; and the Singaporean Minister for Trade and Industry, S. Iswaran, laid the foundation for the city.🦛 Dynasties Chola Dynasty Satavahana Shakas Andhra Ikshvaku Brihatpalayana Ananda Gotrika Vishnukundina Kalachuris of Chedi🦛 Salankayana Pallavas Vengi Pandyan dynasty Rashtrakuta dynasty Kakatiya dynasty Musunuri Nayaks Reddy dynasty Paricheda Qutb Shahi Gupta dynasty🦛	[ "The", "recorded", "history", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "one", "of", "the", "28", "states", "of", "21st-century", "India,", "begins", "in", "the", "Vedic", "period.", "It", "is", "mentioned", "in", "Sanskrit", "epics", "such", "as", "the", "Aitareya", "Brahmana", "(800", "BCE).", "Its", "sixth-century", "BCE", "incarnation", "Assaka", "lay", "between", "the", "Godavari", "and", "Krishna", "Rivers,", "one", "of", "sixteen", "mahajanapadas", "(700–300", "BCE).", "The", "Satavahanas", "succeeded", "them", "(230 BCE–220", "CE),", "built", "Amaravati,", "and", "reached", "a", "zenith", "under", "Gautamiputra", "Satakarni.", "After", "the", "Satavahanas,", "the", "region", "fragmented", "into", "fiefdoms.", "By", "the", "late", "second", "century", "CE,", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "ruled", "along", "the", "Krishna", "River.", "In", "the", "fourth", "century", "CE,", "the", "Pallava", "dynasty", "ruled", "southern", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "and", "Tamilakam,", "and", "had", "a", "capital", "at", "Kanchipuram.", "Their", "power", "increased", "in", "the", "reigns", "of", "Mahendravarman", "I", "(571–630)", "and", "Narasimhavarman", "I", "(630–668),", "and", "dominated", "northern", "Tamilakam", "and", "the", "southern", "Telugu-speaking", "region", "until", "the", "end", "of", "the", "ninth", "century.Northern", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "was", "under", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "starting", "from", "624", "CE.", "Later", "during", "1002", "CE", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "became", "subordinate", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas", "when", "Rajaraja", "Chola", "I", "helped", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "to", "secure", "the", "Vengi", "throne", "from", "Telugu", "Chola", "king", "Jata", "Choda", "Bhima.", "From", "1002", "CE", "till", "1206", "CE", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "was", "under", "Imperial", "Cholas.", "From", "1206", "CE", "to", "1323", "CE", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "unified", "the", "land", "and", "in", "that", "golden", "age", "Tikkana’s", "translation", "of", "the", "Mahabharata", "founded", "Telugu", "literature.", "In", "1258", "CE,", "Pandyan", "emperor", "Jatavarman", "Sundara", "Pandyan", "I", "defeated", "Nellore", "Cholas", "and", "Kakatiyas,", "extending", "Pandyan", "empire", "till", "Nellore.", "Kakatiyas", "unified", "the", "Andhra", "again", "during", "internal", "crisis", "in", "Pandyan", "empire.", "In", "1323", "CE,", "Ghiyath", "al-Din", "Tughluq,", "sultan", "of", "Delhi,", "sent", "a", "large", "army", "under", "Ulugh", "Khan", "to", "lay", "siege", "to", "Warangal.", "After", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "fell,", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate,", "and", "the", "Persio-Tajik", "sultanate", "of", "central", "India", "competed", "for", "the", "region.", "In", "the", "end", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "won", "over", "Delhi.", "Under", "Krishnadevaraya", "of", "the", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "(1336", "CE–1646", "CE)", "the", "Telugus", "became", "independent,", "then", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty", "ruled", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate", "there", "from", "the", "early", "16th", "to", "the", "end", "of", "the", "17th", "centuries,", "and", "was", "tolerant", "of", "Telugu", "culture.", "The", "French,", "under", "the", "Marquis", "de", "Bussy-Castelnau,", "and", "the", "English,", "under", "Robert", "Clive,", "altered", "the", "regional", "polity.", "In", "1765", "CE,", "Clive", "and", "the", "chief", "and", "council", "at", "Visakhapatnam", "obtained", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "from", "Mughal", "emperor", "Shah", "Alam.", "The", "British", "later", "defeated", "Maharaja", "Vijaya", "Rama", "Gajapati", "Raju", "of", "Vizianagaram,", "in", "1792", "CE.", "Andhra", "State", "was", "created", "in", "the", "year", "1953", "CE.", "Potti", "Sriramulu", "had", "campaigned", "for", "a", "state", "independent", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency,", "and", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "Pantulu", "social-reform", "movements", "led", "to", "the", "founding", "of", "Andhra", "State,", "with", "a", "capital", "at", "Kurnool", "and", "freedom-fighter", "Pantulu", "as", "its", "first", "chief", "minister.", "A", "democracy", "with", "two", "stable", "political", "parties", "and", "a", "modern", "economy", "emerged", "under", "the", "N.", "T.", "Rama", "Rao.", "India", "became", "independent", "in", "1947.", "The", "Nizam", "of", "Hyderabad,", "Mir", "Osman", "Ali", "Khanto,", "wanted", "to", "remain", "independent,", "but", "in", "1948", "the", "Indian", "Army", "annexed", "Hyderabad", "to", "the", "Dominion", "of", "India,", "where", "it", "became", "Hyderabad", "State.", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "the", "first", "Indian", "state", "formed", "primarily", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "language", "post", "independence,", "split", "off", "from", "the", "Madras", "Presidency", "in", "1953.", "Andhra", "State", "merged", "with", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "portion", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "in", "1956", "to", "create", "the", "state", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "Lok", "Sabha", "formed", "Telangana", "from", "ten", "districts", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "on", "18", "February", "2014.", "Pre-Satavahana", "period", "Chalcolithic", "age", "The", "Chalcolithic", "period", "is", "dated", "using", "pottery", "and", "is", "believed", "to", "be", "around", "1750", "BC", "or", "earlier.", "The", "pottery", "used", "for", "dating", "the", "time", "period", "was", "discovered", "from", "sites", "near", "the", "Krishna", "and", "Tungabhadra", "rivers", "such", "as", "Patapadu.", "A", "painted", "spouted", "vessel", "found", "there", "resembles", "chalcolithic-age", "vessels", "from", "Navdatoli", "and", "as", "far", "as", "Bronze", "Age", "Crete.", "Proto-Historic", "and", "Historic", "periods", "The", "term", "Andhra", "was", "first", "mentioned", "as", "the", "name", "of", "a", "tribe", "in", "the", "Aitareya", "Brahamana,", "datable", "to", "800", "B.C.", "Andhras", "left", "the", "north", "of", "Indian", "subcontinent", "near", "the", "Yamuna", "river,", "crossed", "the", "Vindhyas", "and", "came", "to", "present-day", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "and", "Telangana.", "It", "also", "mentions", "that", "the", "Andhras", "were", "socially", "parallel", "to", "other", "tribes", "like", "the", "Pundras,", "Sabarasand", "Pulindas.", "There", "are", "references", "to", "an", "Andhra", "kingdom", "and", "a", "people", "known", "as", "the", "Andhras", "in", "Indian", "epic", "poetry", "(the", "Mahabharata,", "the", "Ramayana", "and", "the", "Puranas).", "In", "the", "Mahabharata", "Rukmi", "ruled", "the", "Vidarbha", "Kingdom,", "which", "included", "the", "Deccan", "Plateau,", "the", "foothills", "of", "the", "Vindhya", "Range,", "present-day", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "Maharashtra,", "Madhya", "Pradesh", "and", "Karnataka", "and", "a", "little-known", "(now", "submerged)", "archipelago", "in", "the", "Bay", "of", "Bengal.", "Rama", "is", "said", "to", "have", "lived", "in", "the", "forest", "around", "present-day", "Bhadrachalam", "during", "his", "exile.", "Ancient", "literature", "indicates", "a", "history", "dating", "to", "several", "centuries", "BCE,", "but", "archaeological", "evidence", "exists", "only", "from", "the", "last", "two", "millennia.", "The", "fifth-century", "Kingdom", "of", "Pratipalapura,", "identified", "with", "Bhattiprolu", "in", "the", "Guntur", "district", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "may", "have", "been", "the", "earliest", "kingdom", "in", "South", "India.", "Inscriptions", "suggest", "that", "King", "Kubera", "ruled", "Bhattiprolu", "around", "230", "BCE.", "The", "script", "of", "the", "Bhattiprolu", "inscriptions", "was", "the", "progenitor", "of", "the", "Brahmi", "lipi,", "which", "later", "diversified", "into", "modern", "Telugu", "scripts.", "Middle", "Kingdoms", "(3rd", "century", "BCE", "-", "12th", "century", "CE)", "Satavahana", "dynasty", "As", "part", "of", "the", "Mauryan", "Empire", "during", "the", "fourth", "century", "BCE,", "Andhra", "was", "a", "political", "state", "in", "the", "southeastern", "Deccan.", "According", "to", "Megasthenes,", "who", "visited", "the", "court", "of", "Chandragupta", "Maurya", "(322-297),", "the", "Andhras", "had", "30", "fortified", "towns", "along", "Godavari", "River", "and", "an", "army", "of", "1,00,000", "infantry,", "2,000", "cavalry", "and", "1,000", "elephants.", "The", "military", "might", "of", "Andhras", "was", "second", "only", "to", "the", "Mauryas.", "Uninterrupted", "political", "and", "cultural", "accounts", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "begin", "during", "the", "rise", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "dynasty.", "According", "to", "the", "Matsya", "Purana,", "the", "dynasty", "had", "29", "rulers", "in", "a", "456-year", "period", "from", "the", "second", "century", "BCE", "to", "the", "second", "century", "CE.", "An", "inscription", "at", "Nasik,", "written", "at", "the", "time", "of", "Gautamiputra", "Satakarni", "(the", "23rd", "Satavahana", "ruler),", "indicates", "that", "the", "kingdom", "included", "most", "of", "the", "southern", "peninsula", "and", "southern", "parts", "of", "Maharashtra,", "Orissa", "and", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "The", "court", "language", "used", "by", "the", "Satavahanas", "was", "Prakrit,", "and", "their", "kings", "observed", "the", "Vedic", "religion.", "The", "fall", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "empire", "left", "Andhra", "in", "political", "chaos,", "and", "local", "rulers", "carved", "out", "small", "kingdoms", "for", "themselves.", "Between", "180", "and", "624", "CE,", "control", "of", "Andhra", "lay", "with", "the", "Ikshvaku,", "Brihatpalayana,", "Salankayana,", "Vishnukundina,", "Vakataka,", "Pallava,", "Ananda", "Gotrika,", "Kalinga", "and", "other", "small", "kingdoms;", "the", "most", "important", "was", "Ikshvaku.", "Sanskrit", "replaced", "Prakrit", "as", "the", "inscriptional", "language", "at", "this", "time.", "Ikshvakus", "The", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "(Sanskrit:", "इक्श्वाकू)", "established", "a", "kingdom", "along", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "the", "second", "half", "of", "the", "second", "century", "CE.", "Their", "capital", "was", "Vijayapuri", "(Nagarjunakonda).", "Archaeological", "evidence", "indicates", "that", "the", "Ikshvakus", "succeeded", "the", "Satavahanas", "in", "the", "Krishna", "River", "valley", "and", "may", "have", "entered", "Andhra", "from", "the", "north.", "The", "Ikshvakus", "left", "inscriptions", "at", "Nagarjunakonda,", "Jaggayyapeta,", "Amaravati", "and", "Bhattiprolu,", "and", "their", "rulers", "observed", "the", "Vedic", "religion.", "Some", "historians", "believe", "that", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "were", "related", "to", "the", "mythological", "Ikshvakus,", "while", "some", "believe", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "to", "be", "a", "local", "tribe", "who", "adopted", "the", "title.", "Some", "scholars", "believe", "that", "this", "dynasty", "was", "related", "to", "the", "ancient", "Ikshvakus", "of", "the", "Hindu", "epics,", "and", "Rama", "of", "the", "Ramayana,", "the", "incarnation", "of", "Vishnu,", "was", "descended", "from", "the", "Ikshvaku", "line.", "Inscriptions", "in", "the", "Nagarjunakonda", "valley,", "Jaggayyapeta", "and", "Ramireddipalli", "provide", "some", "support", "for", "this", "hypothesis.", "In", "the", "Vayu", "Purana,", "Manu", "(the", "patriarch", "of", "ancient", "India)", "had", "nine", "sons;", "Ikshvaku,", "the", "eldest,", "founded", "the", "Suryavamsha", "dynasty", "and", "ruled", "from", "Ayodhya", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "Treta", "Yuga.", "He", "had", "100", "sons;", "the", "eldest", "was", "Vikushi,", "who", "succeeded", "his", "father", "as", "the", "ruler", "of", "Ayodhya.", "Fifty", "of", "Vikushi's", "brothers", "founded", "small", "principalities", "in", "North", "India,", "and", "forty-eight", "founded", "kingdoms", "in", "the", "south.", "In", "the", "Dharmamrita,", "during", "the", "lifetime", "of", "the", "12th", "tirthankara,", "Yasodhara", "(an", "Ikshvaku", "prince", "from", "the", "kingdom", "of", "Anga)", "went", "to", "Vengi.", "The", "prince", "was", "so", "impressed", "with", "the", "region's", "beauty", "and", "fertility", "that", "he", "made", "it", "his", "home", "and", "founded", "the", "city", "of", "Pratipalapura", "(present-day", "Bhattiprolu).", "In", "the", "Puranas,", "the", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "are", "called", "Sriparvatiyas", "(rulers", "of", "Sriparvata)", "and", "Andhrabhrityas", "(servants", "of", "the", "Andhras).", "They", "were", "feudal", "lords", "of", "the", "Satavahanas,", "and", "bore", "the", "title", "of", "Mahatalavara.", "Although", "the", "Puranas", "cite", "seven", "kings", "ruling", "Andhra", "for", "100", "years,", "only", "four", "are", "confirmed", "in", "inscriptions.", "Vashishthiputra", "Sri", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "I)", "Santamula", "I", "founded", "the", "Ikshvaku", "dynasty,", "performing", "the", "Ashvamedha,", "Agnihotra,", "Agnistoma", "and", "Vajapeya", "yagnas", "to", "proclaim", "his", "imperial", "status.", "Rulers", "of", "subsequent", "dynasties", "commonly", "performed", "the", "Ashvamedha", "yagna", "to", "declare", "their", "independence.", "Virapurushadatta", "Virapurushadatta", "was", "the", "son", "and", "successor", "of", "Santamula", "through", "his", "wife,", "Madhari.", "He", "had", "a", "sister,", "Adavi", "Santisri,", "took", "a", "queen", "from", "the", "Saka", "family", "of", "Ujjain", "and", "gave", "his", "daughter", "in", "marriage", "to", "a", "Chutu", "prince.", "Ehuvula", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "II)", "Ehuvula", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "II),", "Virapurushadata's", "son,", "ruled", "after", "a", "short", "Abhira", "interregnum.", "Rudrapurushadatta", "Rudrapurushadatta", "was", "an", "Ikshvaku", "ruler", "mentioned", "in", "inscriptions", "from", "Gurajala", "in", "Guntur", "district.", "Possibly", "a", "son", "of", "Ehuvula", "Santamula,", "he", "ruled", "for", "over", "11", "years.", "Brihatpalayanas", "During", "the", "third", "century", "CE,", "the", "Brihatpalayanas", "ruled", "northern", "Andhra", "from", "their", "capital,", "Kodur,", "in", "the", "Krishna", "district.", "Anandagotrikas", "The", "Ananda", "Gotrikas", "(335-425)", "ruled", "coastal", "Andhra", "from", "their", "capital,", "Kapotapuram.", "Their", "affiliations", "are", "unknown.", "A", "few", "Anandagotras", "families", "have", "been", "discovered", "in", "the", "Anantapur", "district", "and", "Kadiri", "taluk.", "It", "is", "an", "old", "Kadapa", "district:", "Hiranya", "Raajya,", "in", "the", "Puranas.", "Anandagotras", "live", "in", "Cedaranya", "of", "Kadhiri", "area", "hill/mountain", "places", "called", "Batrapalli", "forest,", "Gogannapeta,", "Pandava", "Raju", "hill", "and", "Vankapalli.", "Old", "andha/kandarapuram", "have", "been", "demolished.", "Kambamraayudu", "mountain", "hill", "areas'", "surname", "is", "tatam", "in", "patras.", "Salankayanas", "From", "about", "300", "to", "440,", "after", "the", "fall", "of", "the", "Ikshvakus,", "the", "Salankayanas", "ruled", "part", "of", "the", "east", "coast", "from", "Vengi.", "Like", "the", "Vishnukundinas", "of", "Vinukonda", "who", "succeeded", "them,", "the", "Salankayanas", "were", "vassals", "of", "the", "Pallavas", "of", "the", "southern", "Telugu", "and", "northern", "Tamil", "lands.", "At", "this", "time,", "Telugu", "and", "Kannada", "scripts", "began", "to", "separate", "from", "those", "of", "other", "Indian", "dialects.", "Pallavas", "The", "Pallava", "dynasty", "(;", ")", "ruled", "South", "India", "from", "the", "fourth", "to", "the", "eighth", "centuries", "from", "Kanchipuram", "in", "Tamil", "Nadu.", "It", "was", "ascendant", "during", "the", "reigns", "of", "Mahendravarman", "I", "(590–630)", "and", "Narasimhavarman", "I", "(630–668)", "and", "included", "the", "southern", "Telugu", "and", "the", "north", "of", "the", "Tamil", "regions.", "The", "Pallavas", "were", "noted", "for", "their", "patronage", "of", "Dravidian", "architecture,", "examples", "of", "which", "survive", "in", "Mahabalipuram.", "The", "Chinese", "traveller", "Xuanzang", "visited", "Kanchipuram", "under", "Pallava", "rule),", "and", "extolled", "its", "benign", "government.", "The", "period", "was", "characterized", "by", "conflict", "with", "the", "Chalukyas", "of", "Badami", "in", "the", "north", "and", "the", "Tamil", "states", "of", "Chola", "and", "Pandyas", "in", "the", "south.", "During", "the", "eighth", "century,", "the", "Pallavas", "were", "succeeded", "by", "the", "Chola", "dynasty.", "Vishnukundinas", "The", "Vishnukundina", "dynasty", "ruled", "in", "the", "Deccan", "and", "South", "India", "in", "the", "fifth", "and", "sixth", "centuries", "CE.", "Early", "rulers", "of", "the", "dynasty", "allied", "with", "the", "Vakatakas", "and", "the", "Rashtrakutas", "by", "marriage.", "In", "529,", "Madhava", "Varma", "(a", "descendant", "of", "the", "dynasty)", "and", "four", "allied", "clans", "achieved", "independence", "by", "defeating", "the", "Salankayanas", "in", "coastal", "Andhra.", "Kalachuris", "of", "Chedi", "The", "Matsyas,", "Chedis,", "Pericchedis,", "Haihayas", "and", "Kalachuris", "may", "share", "a", "common", "Vedic", "ancestry", "and", "origin", "myth,", "but", "the", "link", "is", "tenuous.", "In", "the", "Puranas,", "Matsya", "(Sanskrit", "for", "\"fish\")", "was", "the", "name", "of", "a", "tribe", "(Meenas)", "and", "a", "state", "under", "the", "Vedic", "civilisation.", "The", "Matsya", "tribe", "was", "founded", "by", "a", "fisherman", "who", "became", "a", "king.", "The", "Mahabharata", "(V.74.16)", "describes", "King", "Sahaja", "as", "a", "son", "of", "Uparichara", "Vasu,", "a", "Chedi", "king.", "Vasu", "ruled", "the", "Chedis", "and", "the", "Matsyas,", "suggesting", "the", "Matsya", "were", "once", "part", "of", "the", "Chedi", "kingdom.", "The", "Puranas", "mention", "six", "Matsya", "kingdoms,", "and", "the", "Pandya", "Kingdom", "in", "the", "south", "has", "a", "fish", "on", "its", "banner.", "Signs", "of", "the", "Matsya", "were", "later", "found", "in", "the", "Visakhapatnam", "region.", "Chedi", "The", "Chedi", "kingdom,", "in", "central", "and", "western", "India,", "was", "first", "ruled", "by", "Paurava", "kings", "and", "later", "by", "Yadav", "kings.", "It", "corresponds", "roughly", "to", "the", "present-day", "Bundelkhand", "region", "of", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "Haihaya", "The", "Haihaya", "kingdom", "(haya", "means", "\"horse\")", "was", "one", "of", "a", "number", "of", "kingdoms", "ruled", "by", "Chandravamsha", "Kshatriya", "kings", "in", "central", "and", "western", "India.", "The", "Vishnu", "Purana", "links", "its", "outlying", "tribes", "to", "the", "Yadu", "tribe.", "According", "to", "the", "Puranas,", "the", "Haihaya", "were", "divided", "into", "the", "Talajanghas,", "Vitihotras,", "Avantis,", "Tundikeras", "and", "Jatas.", "Haihaya", "rulers", "included", "the", "legendary", "Kartavirya", "Arjuna,", "a", "powerful", "king", "who", "defeated", "Ravana.", "Although", "he", "had", "a", "thousand", "arms,", "he", "was", "felled", "and", "his", "arms", "severed", "by", "Parasurama.", "The", "Haihaya", "capital", "was", "Mahishmati,", "on", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Narmada", "River", "in", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "Kalachuri", "Kalachuri", "is", "the", "name", "used", "by", "two", "kingdoms", "who", "claim", "a", "common", "ancestry", "and", "ruled", "in", "a", "succession", "of", "dynasties", "from", "the", "10th", "to", "the", "12th", "centuries.", "The", "first", "kingdom", "controlled", "western", "Madhya", "Pradesh", "and", "Rajasthan", "in", "central", "India.", "The", "second,", "the", "southern", "Kalachuri,", "ruled", "part", "of", "Karnataka.", "Kalachuri", "kings,", "related", "by", "marriage", "to", "the", "Chalukyas", "and", "Rashtrakutas,", "and", "ruled", "from", "Tripuri,", "Gorakhpur,", "Ratnapur", "and", "Rajpur.", "The", "name", "Kalachuri", "may", "derive", "from", "kali", "(long", "moustache)", "and", "churi", "(sharp", "knife).", "The", "Kalachuri", "were", "also", "known", "as", "Katachuris.", "In", "the", "Telugu", "epic", "The", "Battle", "of", "Palnadu,", "the", "Kalachuri", "are", "referred", "to", "as", "the", "Haihaya", "family", "of", "the", "Kona", "region", "(Amalapuram),", "the", "Razole", "Taluqs", "of", "the", "present-day", "East", "Godavari", "district,", "and", "the", "Haihaya", "family", "of", "Palanadu.", "They", "were", "vassals", "of", "the", "Chalukyas.", "The", "Pericchedis", "are", "also", "mentioned", "as", "vassals", "of", "the", "Chalukyas.", "According", "to", "V.", "Rama", "Chandra", "Rao,", "they", "were", "connected", "to", "the", "ancient", "Chedi.", "The", "Pericchedis", "had", "two", "branches,", "with", "Kollipaka", "and", "Bezawada", "their", "capitals.", "Rao", "also", "mentions", "that", "the", "Vatsavai", "dynasty", "of", "Peddapuram", "may", "be", "related", "to", "the", "Matsya", "dynasty,", "since", "there", "is", "evidence", "of", "a", "branch", "in", "the", "Visakhapatnam", "area.", "An", "1174", "record", "suggests", "the", "Kalachuri", "dynasty", "was", "thought", "to", "be", "founded", "by", "Soma,", "who", "grew", "a", "beard", "and", "moustache", "to", "save", "himself", "from", "Parashurama's", "wrath.", "Their", "emblem", "was", "suvarna", "vrishabha,", "a", "golden", "bull.", "The", "Kalachuri", "honoured", "Krantivirya", "Sahasrarjun,", "who", "killed", "Rishi", "Jamdagni", "(Bhagwan", "Parshurama's", "father).", "Historians", "such", "as", "P.", "B.", "Desai", "emphasize", "the", "Kalachuris'", "central-Indian", "origin.", "At", "their", "zenith,", "the", "Kalachuris", "ruled", "parts", "of", "Gujarat,", "Malwa,", "Konkan", "and", "Maharashtra.", "Their", "rule", "was", "ended", "by", "the", "Badami", "Chalukyas", "under", "Badami", "Chalukya", "Magalesa.", "Lieutenant", "colonel", "James", "Tod", "recorded", "a", "tribe", "of", "Haihayas", "\"near", "the", "very", "top", "of", "the", "valley", "of", "Sohagpur", "in", "Bagelkhand,", "aware", "of", "their", "ancient", "lineage,", "and", "though", "few", "in", "number,", "still", "celebrated", "for", "their", "valour\".", "Eastern", "Chalukyas", "Between", "624", "and", "1323,", "the", "Telugu", "language", "emerged", "as", "a", "literary", "medium", "alongside", "Prakrit", "and", "Sanskrit.", "From", "around", "848", "(during", "the", "time", "of", "Gunaga", "Vijayaditya)", "to", "the", "11th", "century,", "the", "language", "progressed", "from", "stanzas", "to", "full", "literary", "works.", "At", "this", "time,", "it", "was", "written", "in", "old", "Telugu", "script;", "Al-Beruni", "referred", "to", "the", "script", "as", "\"Andhri\"", "in", "his", "1000", "Kitab", "Al-Hind.", "During", "the", "11th", "century,", "the", "Mahabharata", "was", "partially", "translated", "by", "court", "poet", "Nannaya", "under", "the", "patronage", "of", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "ruler", "Rajaraja", "Narendra.", "Modern", "Telugu", "script", "evolved", "from", "the", "old", "Telugu", "script", "from", "the", "11th", "to", "the", "19th", "centuries.", "The", "Eastern", "Chalukyas", "were", "a", "branch", "of", "the", "Chalukyas", "of", "Badami.", "Pulakesin", "II", "conquered", "Vengi", "(near", "Eluru)", "in", "624", "and", "installed", "his", "brother,", "Kubja", "Vishnuvardhana", "(624-641),", "as", "its", "ruler.", "The", "Vishnuvardhana", "dynasty,", "known", "as", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukyas,", "ruled", "for", "nearly", "four", "centuries.", "Vishnuvardhana's", "domain", "extended", "from", "Srikakulam", "in", "the", "north", "to", "Nellore", "in", "the", "south.", "Control", "of", "the", "Vengi", "region", "shifted", "from", "Gunaga", "Vijayaditya", "to", "Rashtrakuta", "rule,", "to", "the", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "(10th", "and", "11th", "centuries),", "and", "then", "to", "the", "Cholas.", "In", "1118,", "Kulottunga", "Chola", "was", "defeated", "by", "Vikramaditya", "VI", "of", "the", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "dynasty.", "The", "Cholas", "at", "Talakad", "were", "defeated", "by", "the", "Hoysala", "ruler,", "Vishnuvardhana,", "and", "Vengi", "was", "again", "ruled", "by", "the", "Chalukyas.", "The", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "fell", "with", "the", "death", "of", "Vikramaditya", "VI.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "12th", "century,", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "empire", "was", "divided", "into", "three", "kingdoms:", "the", "Hoysala", "Empire,", "the", "Kakatiya", "Kingdom", "and", "the", "Yadavas.", "Chola", "Empire", "The", "ancient", "Chola", "kingdom", "once", "famous", "in", "Tamil", "literature", "and", "in", "the", "writings", "of", "Greek", "merchants", "and", "geographers", "faded", "into", "darkness", "after", "c.", "300", "CE.", "Cholas", "during", "this", "period", "almost", "completely", "disappeared", "from", "their", "native", "land.", "The", "Cholas", "disappeared", "from", "the", "Tamil", "land", "almost", "completely", "in", "this", "debacle,", "though", "a", "branch", "of", "them", "can", "be", "traced", "towards", "the", "close", "of", "the", "6th", "century", "in", "Rayalaseema—the", "Telugu-Cholas,", "whose", "kingdom", "is", "mentioned", "by", "Yuan", "Chwang", "in", "the", "seventh", "century", "CE.", "Due", "to", "Kalabhra", "invasion", "and", "growing", "power", "of", "Pallavas,", "Cholas", "migrated", "from", "their", "native", "to", "Telugu", "country", "and", "ruled", "from", "there", "as", "chieftains", "of", "Pallavas", "at", "least", "since", "540", "CE.", "Several", "Telugu", "Chola", "families", "like", "Renati", "Cholas,", "Pottapi", "Cholas,", "Nellore", "Cholas,", "Velanati", "Cholas,", "Nannuru", "Cholas", "existed", "and", "claimed", "descent", "from", "ancient", "Tamil", "Chola", "king", "Karikala", "Chola.", "The", "Cholas", "had", "to", "wait", "for", "another", "three", "centuries", "until", "the", "accession", "of", "Vijayalaya", "Chola", "belonging", "to", "Pottapi", "Chola", "family", "in", "the", "second", "quarter", "of", "the", "ninth", "century", "to", "re-establish", "their", "dynasty", "as", "independent", "rulers", "by", "overthrowing", "Pallavas", "and", "Pandyas.", "According", "to", "Anbil", "plates", "of", "Parantaka", "Chola", "II,", "Vijayalaya", "Chola's", "predecessor", "is", "Srikantha", "Choladhiraja,", "a", "Telugu", "Pottapi", "Chola", "king.", "Vijayalaya", "Chola", "captured", "Tanjore", "from", "Pandyas", "and", "his", "descendants", "started", "ruling", "from", "there.", "Under", "Raja", "Raja", "Chola", "I", "and", "Rajendra", "Chola", "I,", "the", "empire", "expanded", "occupying", "south", "India,", "Sri", "Lanka,", "Maldives,", "Malaysia", "and", "Indonesia.", "These", "Imperial", "Cholas", "had", "marital", "alliances", "with", "Vengi", "Chalukyas.", "Kulottunga", "Chola", "I,", "the", "grandson", "of", "Rajendra", "Chola", "I", "and", "son", "of", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "king", "Raja", "Raja", "Narendra", "became", "the", "Chola", "emperor", "in", "1270", "CE.", "Contemporarily", "several", "Telugu", "Chola", "families", "like", "Nellore", "Cholas,", "Velanati", "Cholas", "were", "ruling", "as", "subordinates", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas.", "After", "the", "fall", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas", "in", "1279", "CE,", "Nellore", "Cholas", "and", "Velanati", "Cholas", "became", "subordinates", "of", "Kakatiyas.", "Kakatiyas", "also", "claim", "descendant", "from", "Karikala", "Chola.", "Late", "Medieval", "and", "Early", "Modern", "period", "(12th", "-", "18th", "centuries", "CE)", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "The", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "rose", "to", "power", "during", "the", "12th", "and", "13th", "centuries.", "Initially", "vassals", "of", "the", "Western", "Chalukyas", "of", "Kalyani,", "they", "held", "a", "small", "territory", "near", "Warangal.", "Prola", "II", "of", "the", "Kakatiyas", "(1110–1158)", "extended", "his", "territory", "southwards", "and", "declared", "his", "independence,", "with", "Hanumakonda", "as", "the", "capital.", "His", "successor,", "Prataparudra", "I", "(1158–1195),", "increased", "the", "holdings", "eastward", "to", "the", "Godavari", "delta.", "Prataparudra", "built", "Warangal", "as", "a", "second", "capital,", "and", "countered", "invasions", "by", "the", "Seuna", "Yadavas", "of", "Devagiri.", "The", "next", "ruler,", "Mahadeva,", "extended", "the", "Kakatiyas", "kingdom", "to", "the", "coast", "before", "he", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Ganapati", "Deva", "in", "1199.", "Ganapati", "Deva", "was", "the", "first", "ruler", "since", "the", "Satavahana", "dynasty", "to", "unite", "the", "Telugu", "lands.", "In", "1210,", "Ganapati", "Deva", "defeated", "the", "Velanati", "Chodas", "and", "extended", "his", "empire", "north", "to", "Anakapalle.", "Rani", "Rudrama", "Devi", "(died", "1289", "or", "1295),", "who", "defended", "the", "Kakatiya", "kingdom", "against", "the", "Cholas", "and", "the", "Seuna", "Yadavas,", "is", "one", "of", "the", "few", "queens", "in", "Indian", "history.", "She", "was", "succeeded", "by", "her", "grandson,", "Prataparudra.", "Although", "his", "reign", "was", "characterized", "by", "battles", "against", "internal", "and", "external", "foes,", "Prataparudra", "expanded", "his", "kingdom", "west", "to", "Raichur", "and", "south", "to", "Ongole", "and", "the", "Nallamala", "Hills,", "all", "the", "way", "to", "Kanchipuram.", "He", "introduced", "a", "number", "of", "administrative", "reforms,", "some", "of", "which", "were", "adopted", "in", "the", "Vijayanagar", "empire.", "Muslim", "attacks", "began", "in", "1310,", "and", "in", "1323", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "fell", "to", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate.", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "The", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "reclaimed", "the", "Telugu", "lands", "from", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate", "and", "ruled", "them", "for", "fifty", "years.", "Hakka", "(Harihara)", "and", "Bukka,", "treasury", "officers", "at", "the", "court", "of", "Prataparudra,", "were", "inspired", "by", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "to", "organise", "Hindu", "opposition", "to", "Muslim", "invaders.", "Prataparudra", "was", "captured", "by", "the", "Muslims.", "Two", "Telugus,", "Annaya", "Mantri", "and", "Kolani", "Rudradeva,", "united", "the", "Nayaks", "against", "the", "invaders.", "Musunuri", "Prolaya", "Nayaka", "of", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "was", "chosen", "as", "their", "leader.", "By", "1326,", "Prolaneedu", "had", "liberated", "Warangal.", "Inspired", "by", "the", "victories", "of", "Prolaneedu", "and", "his", "cousin,", "Kaapaneedu,", "other", "states", "(including", "Kampili,", "Hoysala,", "Dwarasamudram", "and", "Araveedu)", "asserted", "their", "independence.", "Ulugh", "Khan", "captured", "Harihara", "and", "Bukka", "at", "Warangal.", "Converted", "to", "Islam,", "they", "were", "sent", "by", "the", "sultan", "to", "suppress", "the", "Hoysala", "ruler's", "rebellion.", "Instead,", "the", "brothers", "established", "the", "Vijayanagara", "Empire.", "The", "Sultan", "led", "a", "large", "army", "south,", "but", "was", "halted", "by", "an", "epidemic", "and", "Nayak", "resistance.", "Kaapaneedu,", "with", "the", "assistance", "of", "the", "Hoysala,", "liberated", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "In", "1345", "Muslim", "nobles", "rebelled", "against", "Muhammad", "bin", "Tughluq", "in", "Devagiri,", "resulting", "in", "the", "foundation", "of", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate", "by", "Hasan", "Gangu.", "He", "assumed", "the", "name", "Alauddin", "Bahman", "Shah,", "and", "moved", "his", "capital", "to", "Gulbarga", "in", "1347.", "With", "raids", "and", "coercion,", "Singama", "of", "the", "Recherla", "Nayaks", "destabilised", "Alauddin's", "rule.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "forged", "a", "treaty", "with", "Alauddin", "and", "surrendered", "Kaulas", "Fort.", "In", "1351,", "Muhammad", "bin", "Tughluq", "died.", "Eight", "years", "later,", "Alauddin", "died", "and", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Mohammed", "Shah.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "then", "sent", "his", "son,", "Vinayaka", "Deva,", "to", "liberate", "Kaulas", "Fort", "and", "Bhuvanagiri", "from", "the", "Bahmanis;", "Vijayanagar", "emperor", "Bukka", "Raya", "assisted", "Deva", "in", "the", "campaign.", "Deva", "initially", "succeeded,", "but", "was", "eventually", "defeated,", "captured", "and", "killed.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "persisted,", "capturing", "Golconda", "and", "Warangal.", "In", "1365,", "Golconda", "was", "chosen", "as", "the", "border", "between", "the", "Bahmani", "and", "Warangal", "kingdoms.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "was", "forced", "to", "pay", "reparations,", "including", "a", "turquoise", "throne,", "to", "Mohammed", "Shah.", "In", "1370", "Anapota", "Nayaka", "of", "the", "Recherla", "Nayaks", "marched", "against", "Warangal", "as", "part", "of", "a", "Bahmani", "invasion,", "and", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "died", "in", "the", "ensuing", "battle", "at", "Bhimavaram.", "With", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "gone,", "the", "Bahmanis", "soon", "subjugated", "their", "allies", "and", "ruled", "Andhra.", "Reddy", "Kingdom", "Prolaya", "Vema", "Reddy", "established", "the", "Reddy", "kingdom.", "The", "Reddys", "ruled", "from", "present-day", "Srikakulam", "in", "the", "north", "to", "Kanchi", "in", "the", "south,", "most", "of", "the", "present-day", "Andhra", "and", "Rayalaseema", "regions.", "The", "Reddy", "Kingdom", "(1326–1448)", "ruled", "portions", "of", "coastal", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "for", "over", "a", "century.", "Prolaya", "Vema", "Reddy,", "was", "the", "first", "king", "of", "the", "Reddy", "dynasty.", "The", "capital", "of", "the", "kingdom", "was", "Addanki.", "It", "was", "moved", "to", "Kondavidu", "and", "then", "later", "to", "Rajahmundry.", "His", "reign", "was", "characterised", "by", "the", "restoration", "of", "peace,", "patronage", "of", "the", "arts", "and", "literature", "and", "broad", "development.", "Errana,", "the", "translator", "of", "the", "Mahabharata,", "lived", "during", "this", "period.", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "The", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "was", "founded", "by", "Harihara", "(Hakka)", "and", "Bukka,", "who", "were", "treasury", "officers", "in", "the", "administration", "of", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "or", "commanders", "of", "Hoysala's", "forces.", "When", "Warangal", "fell", "in", "1323", "the", "brothers", "were", "captured,", "taken", "to", "Delhi", "and", "converted", "to", "Islam.", "The", "Delhi", "Sultanate", "sent", "them", "to", "the", "Deccan", "as", "governors", "of", "Kampili", "in", "the", "hope", "that", "they", "could", "deal", "with", "the", "local", "revolt", "and", "invasions", "by", "neighboring", "Hindu", "kings.", "Their", "first", "campaign", "was", "against", "neighboring", "Hoysala", "emperor", "Veera", "Ballala", "III", "of", "Dwarasamudra.", "The", "brothers", "later", "reconverted", "to", "Hinduism", "under", "the", "influence", "of", "the", "sage", "Vidyaranya,", "and", "proclaimed", "independence", "from", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate.", "Some,", "however,", "claim", "that", "the", "founders", "of", "the", "empire", "were", "Kannadigas", "stationed", "in", "the", "Tungabhadra", "region", "under", "Veera", "Ballala", "III", "to", "fight", "off", "Muslim", "invaders.", "Harihara", "I", "(r.", "1336–1356)", "established", "his", "new", "capital,", "Vijayanagar,", "in", "an", "easily", "defended", "position", "south", "of", "the", "Tungabhadra", "River.", "The", "empire", "reached", "its", "zenith", "under", "Krishnadevaraya", "in", "the", "early", "16th", "century,", "and", "Telugu", "literature", "developed", "at", "this", "time.", "Vijayanagar", "monuments", "were", "built", "across", "South", "India,", "and", "in", "Lepakshi,", "Tirupati", "and", "Sri", "Kalahasti", "in", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "largest", "and", "best-known", "collection", "of", "such", "monuments", "is", "at", "Hampi", "in", "present-day", "Karnataka.", "Bahmani", "and", "Golconda", "Sultanates", "In", "1323,", "Delhi", "sultan", "Ghiaz-ud-din", "Tughlaq", "sent", "a", "large", "army", "under", "his", "son", "Ulugh", "Khan", "(Muhammad", "bin", "Tughlaq)", "to", "conquer", "the", "Telugu", "country", "and", "lay", "siege", "to", "Warangal,", "which", "was", "soon", "annexed", "and", "governed", "as", "\"Tiling\",", "a", "provinces", "of", "the", "Deccan.", "Their", "rule", "in", "Andhra", "lasted", "until", "the", "1330s,", "when", "72", "nayaka", "chieftains", "from", "Andhra", "and", "Telangana", "rebelled", "and", "drove", "governor", "Malik", "Maqbul", "Tilangani", "out", "of", "Warangal.", "In", "1347,", "after", "a", "revolt", "against", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate,", "an", "independent", "Muslim", "state,", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate,", "was", "established", "in", "South", "India", "by", "Ala-ud-Din", "Bahman", "Shah", "whose", "successors", "gradually", "occupied", "the", "Andhra", "regions", "by", "1471.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "15th", "century,", "the", "sultanate", "was", "plagued", "with", "factional", "strife.", "Five", "Shahi", "sultanates", "were", "founded,", "and", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty", "played", "a", "major", "role", "in", "the", "history", "of", "the", "Telugu", "country.", "The", "founder", "of", "the", "dynasty", "was", "Quli", "Qutb", "Mulk,", "a", "Shia", "Turkmen", "from", "Hamadan", "in", "Persia.", "He", "first", "migrated", "to", "Delhi", "and", "then", "to", "the", "Deccan", "to", "serve", "under", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate,", "where", "he", "earned", "the", "title", "Qutb-ul-Mulk.", "Later,", "when", "the", "Bahamani", "Sultanate", "declined", "and", "was", "divided", "into", "five", "Deccan", "sultanates,", "he", "gained", "control", "over", "the", "south-eastern", "region", "and", "founded", "a", "sovereign", "kingdom.", "He", "adopted", "the", "title", "of", "Qutb", "Shah", "and", "his", "dynasty", "became", "known", "as", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty.", "Qutb", "Shah", "occupied", "the", "region", "of", "Vengi", "between", "the", "Krishna", "River", "and", "the", "Godavari", "River", "after", "the", "death", "of", "Prataparudra", "Deva,", "the", "Gajapati", "monarch", "who", "ruled", "the", "region.", "However,", "the", "advance", "of", "Quli", "Qutb", "Shah", "was", "stopped", "at", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Godavari", "by", "the", "regional", "Gajapati", "Empire", "feudatory", "Vishwanath", "Dev", "Gajapati", "and", "a", "treaty", "was", "signed", "marking", "the", "river", "as", "the", "boundary", "between", "the", "two", "kingdoms.", "The", "treaty", "was", "engraved", "on", "a", "copper", "plate,", "now", "in", "the", "Nizam", "Museum.", "However", "with", "the", "decline", "of", "the", "Gajapatis,", "Ibrahim", "Quli", "Qutb", "Shah", "later", "rescinded", "the", "terms", "of", "the", "treaty", "and", "invaded", "Kalinga", "in", "1571", "after", "the", "death", "of", "Vishwanath", "Dev,", "and", "defeated", "his", "son", "the", "new", "king,", "Maharaja", "Balaram", "Dev,", "enforcing", "a", "tributary", "status", "upon", "the", "Nandapur", "Kingdom.", "The", "military", "conquests", "of", "Qutb", "Shahi", "Sultans", "led", "to", "the", "annexation", "of", "regions", "of", "southern", "Kalinga", "into", "their", "kingdom", "and", "the", "Sultanate", "prospered.", "The", "rule", "of", "the", "Jeypore", "Kings", "over", "coastal", "Andhra", "came", "to", "an", "end", "when", "their", "feudatories", "of", "the", "region", "claimed", "independence", "in", "the", "rebellion", "of", "Balaram", "Dev", "III", "against", "his", "brother", "the", "king,", "Maharaja", "Ram", "Chandra", "Dev", "I,", "in", "1711.", "Some", "of", "those", "notable", "feudatories", "of", "Jeypore", "were", "-", "Kurupam,", "Chemudu,", "Madugula,", "Pachipenta,", "Araku,", "etc.", "However,", "coastal", "Andhra", "later", "became", "a", "part", "of", "the", "Nizamate", "of", "Hyderabad", "until", "the", "arrival", "of", "the", "British.", "Mughal", "conquest", "In", "1687,", "Aurangazeb", "invaded", "and", "annexed", "Golconda", "and", "appointed", "a", "Nizam", "(governor).", "The", "Mughal", "Nizams", "controlled", "Andhra", "for", "about", "35", "years.", "In", "1707", "Aurangazeb", "died,", "and", "the", "Mughal", "regime", "weakened", "and", "lost", "control", "of", "the", "provinces.", "This", "enabled", "the", "British", "East", "India", "Company", "and", "the", "French", "Compagnie", "des", "Indes", "Orientales", "to", "consolidate", "power", "in", "India.", "Colonial", "era", "(1753-1947", "CE)", "In", "a", "1753", "decree,", "Deccan", "subedar", "Asif", "ad-Dawlah", "Mir", "Ali", "Salabat", "Jang", "ceded", "Chicacole,", "Ellore", "and", "Rajahmundry", "to", "the", "Marquis", "de", "Bussy-Castelnau.", "An", "annual", "stipend", "of", "200,000", "rupees", "was", "paid", "to", "maintain", "French", "troops", "in", "the", "subah;", "revenue", "in", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "amounted", "to", "one", "million", "rupees", "a", "year.Bussy", "had", "helped", "Salabat", "Jang", "become", "subedar", "of", "the", "Deccan.", "The", "agreement", "between", "the", "French", "and", "Salabat", "Jang", "in", "Aurangabad", "bears", "the", "signature", "of", "Said", "Loukshur,", "Salabat", "Jang's", "minister.", "Yanam", "was", "an", "important", "town", "during", "the", "French", "occupation", "of", "the", "Northern", "Circars.", "In", "1758,", "the", "French", "and", "English", "fought", "at", "Chandurthi", "in", "present-day", "Gollaprolu", "mandal", "of", "East", "Godavari", "district.", "The", "French", "were", "defeated", "by", "the", "British", "and", "Salabat", "Jang", "made", "a", "treaty", "with", "the", "British,", "giving", "them", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "in", "a", "firman.", "The", "Nizam", "later", "rebelled", "against", "the", "English.", "The", "war", "ended", "with", "a", "second", "treaty;", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "remained", "under", "the", "control", "of", "British", "India,", "and", "after", "1760", "the", "French", "lost", "their", "hold", "there", "and", "throughout", "South", "India.", "In", "1765,", "Robert", "Clive", "and", "the", "chief", "and", "council", "at", "Vizagapatam", "obtained", "from", "Mughal", "emperor", "Shah", "Alam", "a", "grant", "for", "the", "Northern", "Circars.", "During", "the", "rule", "of", "Hyder", "Ali", "and", "Tipu", "Sultan,", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Mysore", "pursued", "an", "expansionist", "policy", "against", "the", "Marathas,", "the", "Nizam", "and", "the", "English", "and", "made", "incursions", "into", "the", "Rayalaseema", "region.", "The", "western", "part", "of", "Vishakapatnam", "district", "consisted", "of", "the", "Jeypore", "Estate", "ruled", "by", "king", "Vikram", "Dev", "I", "(1758-1781).", "In", "1777,", "the", "British", "invaded", "Jeypore", "with", "the", "help", "of", "Vizianagaram", "and", "defeated", "Vikram", "Dev,", "turning", "his", "kingdom", "into", "a", "zamindari.", "The", "region", "later", "was", "reorganized", "on", "linguistic", "lines.", "Madras", "Presidency", "The", "Northern", "Circars", "became", "part", "of", "the", "British", "Madras", "Presidency.", "The", "Nizam", "later", "ceded", "five", "territories", "(Datta", "Mandalālu)", "to", "the", "British,", "which", "became", "Rayalaseema.", "The", "Nizams", "retained", "control", "of", "the", "interior", "provinces", "as", "a", "princely", "state,", "acknowledging", "British", "rule", "in", "return", "for", "local", "autonomy.", "The", "provinces", "were", "governed", "in", "a", "feudal", "manner,", "with", "zamindars", "in", "areas", "such", "as", "Kulla", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "Godavari", "acting", "as", "lords", "under", "the", "Nizam.", "The", "zamindari", "system", "was", "dismantled", "after", "independence.", "Telugu", "districts", "Vizagapatam", "(later", "Srikakulam,", "Vizianagaram", "and", "Visakhapatnam", "districts)", "Godavari", "(later", "East", "Godavari", "district)", "Machilipatnam", "(later", "Guntur,", "Krishna", "and", "West", "Godavari", "Districts)", "Kurnool", "Nellore", "Cuddapah", "Anantapur", "Prakasam", "Zamindaris", "Vizianagaram", "estate", "Vizagapatam", "Bobbili", "Estate", "Nuzvid", "Estate", "Pemmasani", "clan", "Ravella", "clan", "Yarlagadda", "rajas", "Balusu", "clan", "Mullapudi", "clan", "Adusumilli", "clan", "Marni", "clan", "Indriyal", "Clan", "of", "Rajamahendravaram", "Padmanayaka", "Zamindari", "Vavilavalasa", "Inuganty", "kings", "Siripuram", "Inuganty", "kings", "Kirlampudi", "Annavaram", "Nuzividu", "Mylavaram", "Gurazala", "Shri", "Kalahasti", "Venkatagiri", "Pithapuram", "Post-Independence", "(1947", "CE", "-", "present)", "In", "1947,", "India", "gained", "independence", "from", "the", "United", "Kingdom.", "Although", "the", "Muslim", "Nizam", "of", "Hyderabad", "resisted,", "he", "was", "forced", "to", "cede", "his", "state", "to", "India", "in", "1948", "to", "form", "Hyderabad", "State.", "When", "India", "became", "independent,", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "(Urdu", "is", "spoken", "in", "some", "parts", "of", "Hyderabad", "and", "a", "few", "other", "districts", "of", "Hyderabad", "State)", "were", "distributed", "in", "22", "districts:", "nine", "in", "Hyderabad", "State,", "12", "in", "the", "Madras", "Presidency", "and", "one", "in", "French-controlled", "Yanam.", "In", "1953", "Andhra", "State", "was", "created", "from", "part", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency,", "the", "first", "state", "in", "India", "formed", "on", "a", "linguistic", "basis.", "In", "1956,", "Andhra", "State", "was", "merged", "with", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "area", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "to", "form", "the", "state", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "Madras", "Manade", "movement", "Madras", "possessed", "Tamil", "and", "Telugu", "cultures.", "In", "the", "early", "1920s,", "Madras", "Presidency", "Chief", "Minister", "Panagal", "Raja", "said", "that", "the", "Cooum", "River", "should", "be", "the", "boundary", "between", "the", "Andhra", "and", "Tamil", "regions.", "In", "1953", "Telugu", "speakers", "in", "the", "former", "Madras", "Presidency", "sought", "to", "make", "Madras", "the", "capital", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "adopting", "the", "slogan", "Madras", "manade", "(\"Madras", "is", "ours\").", "However", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "had", "65", "percentage", "of", "Tamil", "speakers", "as", "opposed", "to", "27", "percent", "Telugu", "speakers", "that", "time", "and", "Madras", "stayed", "with", "the", "Tamil", "state.", "Creation", "of", "Andhra", "State", "Activist", "Potti", "Sriramulu", "advocated", "inclusion", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "areas", "of", "Rayalaseema", "and", "Coastal", "Andhra", "in", "an", "Andhra", "state.", "He", "conducted", "a", "hunger", "strike", "until", "Prime", "Minister", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "promised", "to", "form", "an", "Andhra", "state.", "On", "19", "October", "1952,", "when", "Nehru's", "promise", "had", "not", "been", "fulfilled,", "Sriramulu", "began", "fasting", "again", "at", "Maharshi", "Bulusu", "Sambamurthy's", "Madras", "home.", "The", "Andhra", "Congress", "committee", "disapproved", "of", "Sriramulu's", "hunger", "strike,", "but", "his", "action", "became", "widely", "known.", "He", "died", "shortly", "after", "midnight", "on", "15", "December", "1952", "at", "126", "Royapettah", "High", "Road,", "Mylapore,", "Madras,", "and", "the", "house", "has", "been", "preserved.", "During", "Sriramulu's", "funeral", "procession,", "mourners", "praised", "his", "sacrifice.", "When", "the", "procession", "reached", "Mount", "Road,", "thousands", "of", "people", "joined", "it", "and", "raised", "banners", "hailing", "Sriramulu.", "Later,", "they", "began", "destroying", "public", "property.", "The", "news", "spread", "quickly,", "and", "seven", "people", "were", "killed", "by", "police", "gunfire", "in", "Anakapalle", "and", "Vijayawada.", "The", "unrest", "continued", "for", "several", "days.", "On", "19", "December", "1952,", "Prime", "Minister", "Nehru", "announced", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "separate", "state", "for", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency.", "On", "1", "October", "1953,", "eleven", "districts", "in", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "portion", "of", "Madras", "State", "(Coastal", "Andhra", "and", "Rayalaseema)", "voted", "to", "become", "Andhra", "State,", "with", "Kurnool", "as", "their", "capital.", "Andhra", "Kesari", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "Pantulu", "became", "chief", "minister", "of", "the", "new", "Telugu", "state.", "Merger", "of", "Hyderabad", "and", "Andhra", "States", "In", "December", "1953,", "the", "States", "Reorganisation", "Commission", "convened", "to", "create", "states", "on", "linguistic", "lines.", "Due", "to", "public", "demand,", "the", "commission", "recommended", "abolishing", "Hyderabad", "State", "and", "merging", "its", "Marathi-speaking", "region", "into", "Bombay", "State", "and", "its", "Kannada-speaking", "region", "into", "Mysore", "State.", "The", "States", "Reorganisation", "Commission", "(SRC)", "discussed", "a", "merger", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "Telangana", "region", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "and", "Andhra", "State.", "According", "to", "Paragraph", "374", "of", "the", "report,", "\"The", "creation", "of", "Vishalandhra", "is", "an", "ideal", "to", "which", "numerous", "individuals", "and", "public", "bodies,", "both", "in", "Andhra", "and", "Telangana,", "have", "been", "passionately", "attached", "over", "a", "long", "period", "of", "time,", "and", "unless", "there", "are", "strong", "reasons", "to", "the", "contrary,", "this", "sentiment", "is", "entitled", "to", "consideration\".", "About", "Telangana,", "paragraph", "378", "reads:", "\"One", "of", "the", "principal", "causes", "of", "opposition", "of", "Vishalandhra", "also", "seems", "to", "be", "the", "apprehension", "felt", "by", "the", "educationally", "backward", "people", "of", "Telangana", "that", "they", "may", "be", "swamped", "and", "exploited", "by", "the", "more", "advanced", "people", "of", "the", "coastal", "areas\".", "In", "its", "analysis,", "the", "SRC", "opposed", "an", "immediate", "merger.", "Paragraph", "386", "reads,", "\"After", "taking", "all", "these", "factors", "into", "consideration", "we", "have", "come", "to", "the", "conclusion", "that", "it", "will", "be", "in", "the", "interests", "of", "Andhra", "as", "well", "as", "Telangana,", "if", "for", "the", "present,", "the", "Telangana", "area", "is", "to", "constitute", "into", "a", "separate", "State,", "which", "may", "be", "known", "as", "the", "Hyderabad", "State", "with", "provision", "for", "its", "unification", "with", "Andhra", "after", "the", "general", "elections", "likely", "to", "be", "held", "in", "or", "about", "1961", "if", "by", "a", "two", "thirds", "majority", "the", "legislature", "of", "the", "residuary", "Hyderabad", "State", "expresses", "itself", "in", "favor", "of", "such", "unification\".", "The", "central", "government,", "led", "by", "Nehru,", "merged", "Andhra", "State", "and", "Telangana", "to", "form", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "on", "1", "November", "1956", "after", "ensuring", "safeguards", "to", "Telangana", "in", "the", "form", "of", "a", "gentleman's", "agreement.", "History", "of", "United", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "In", "an", "effort", "to", "gain", "an", "independent", "state", "based", "on", "linguistic", "identity", "and", "to", "protect", "the", "interests", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "of", "Madras", "State,", "Potti", "Sreeramulu", "fasted", "to", "death", "in", "1952.", "As", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "became", "a", "bone", "of", "contention,", "in", "1949", "a", "committee", "with", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru,", "Vallabhbhai", "Patel,", "and", "Pattabhi", "Sitaramayya", "was", "constituted.", "The", "committee", "recommended", "that", "Andhra", "State", "could", "be", "formed", "provided", "the", "Andhras", "gave", "up", "their", "claim", "on", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "(now", "Chennai).", "After", "Potti", "Sreeramulu's", "death,", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "area", "of", "Andhra", "State", "was", "carved", "out", "of", "Madras", "State", "on", "1", "October", "1953,", "with", "Kurnool", "as", "its", "capital", "city.", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "became", "the", "first", "chief", "minister.", "On", "the", "basis", "of", "the", "Gentlemen's", "Agreement", "of", "1956,", "the", "States", "Reorganisation", "Act", "created", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "by", "merging", "the", "neighbouring", "Telugu-speaking", "areas", "of", "the", "Hyderabad", "State", "with", "Hyderabad", "as", "the", "capital", "on", "1", "November", "1956.", "The", "Indian", "National", "Congress", "(INC)", "ruled", "the", "state", "from", "1956", "to", "1982.", "Neelam", "Sanjiva", "Reddy", "became", "the", "first", "chief", "minister.", "Among", "other", "chief", "ministers,", "P.", "V.", "Narasimha", "Rao", "is", "known", "for", "implementing", "land", "reforms", "and", "land", "ceiling", "acts", "and", "securing", "reservation", "for", "lower", "castes", "in", "politics.", "Nagarjuna", "Sagar", "Dam,", "completed", "in", "1967,", "and", "Srisailam", "Dam,", "completed", "in", "1981,", "are", "some", "of", "the", "irrigation", "projects", "that", "helped", "increase", "the", "production", "of", "paddy", "in", "the", "state.", "In", "1983,", "the", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "(TDP)", "won", "the", "state", "elections,", "and", "N.", "T.", "Rama", "Rao", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "of", "the", "state", "for", "the", "first", "time", "after", "launching", "his", "party", "just", "nine", "months", "earlier.", "This", "broke", "the", "long-time", "single-party", "monopoly", "enjoyed", "by", "the", "INC.", "He", "transformed", "the", "sub-district", "administration", "by", "forming", "mandals", "in", "place", "of", "earlier", "taluks,", "removing", "hereditary", "village", "heads,", "and", "appointing", "non-hereditary", "village", "revenue", "assistants.", "The", "1989", "elections", "ended", "the", "rule", "of", "Rao,", "with", "the", "INC", "returning", "to", "power", "with", "Marri", "Chenna", "Reddy", "at", "the", "helm.", "In", "1994,", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "gave", "a", "mandate", "to", "the", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "again,", "and", "Rao", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "again.", "Nara", "Chandrababu", "Naidu,", "Rao's", "son-in-law,", "came", "to", "power", "in", "1995", "with", "the", "backing", "of", "a", "majority", "of", "the", "MLAs.", "The", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "won", "both", "the", "assembly", "and", "Lok", "Sabha", "elections", "in", "1999", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "Chandrababu", "Naidu.", "Thus,", "Naidu", "held", "the", "record", "for", "the", "longest-serving", "chief", "minister", "(1995–2004)", "of", "the", "united", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "He", "introduced", "e-governance", "by", "launching", "e-Seva", "centres", "in", "2001", "for", "paperless", "and", "speedy", "delivery", "of", "government", "services.", "He", "is", "credited", "with", "transforming", "Hyderabad", "into", "an", "IT", "hub", "by", "providing", "incentives", "for", "tech", "companies", "to", "set", "up", "centres.", "In", "2004,", "Congress", "returned", "to", "power", "with", "a", "new", "chief", "ministerial", "face,", "YS", "Rajashekara", "Reddy,", "better", "known", "as", "YSR.", "The", "main", "emphasis", "during", "Reddy's", "tenure", "was", "on", "social", "welfare", "schemes", "such", "as", "free", "electricity", "for", "farmers,", "health", "insurance,", "tuition", "fee", "reimbursement", "for", "the", "poor,", "and", "the", "national", "rural", "employment", "guarantee", "scheme.", "He", "took", "over", "the", "free", "emergency", "ambulance", "service", "initiated", "by", "a", "corporation", "and", "ran", "it", "as", "a", "government", "project.", "INC", "won", "the", "2009", "elections", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "YSR", "in", "April.", "He", "was", "elected", "chief", "minister", "again", "but", "was", "killed", "in", "a", "helicopter", "crash", "that", "occurred", "in", "September", "2009.", "He", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Congressmen", "Konijeti", "Rosaiah", "and", "Nallari", "Kiran", "Kumar", "Reddy;", "the", "latter", "resigned", "over", "the", "impending", "division", "of", "the", "state", "to", "form", "Telangana.", "During", "its", "58", "years", "as", "a", "unified", "state,", "the", "state", "weathered", "separatist", "movements", "from", "Telangana", "(1969)", "and", "Andhra", "(1972)", "successfully.", "A", "new", "party", "called", "Telangana", "Rashtra", "Samithi,", "formed", "in", "April", "2001", "by", "Kalvakuntla", "Chandrashekar", "Rao", "(KCR),", "reignited", "the", "Telanganga", "movement.", "A", "joint", "action", "committee", "formed", "with", "political", "parties,", "government", "employees,", "and", "the", "general", "public", "spearheaded", "the", "agitation.", "When", "KCR's", "health", "deteriorated", "due", "to", "his", "fast-unto-death", "programme,", "the", "central", "government", "decided", "to", "initiate", "the", "process", "to", "form", "an", "independent", "Telangana", "in", "December", "2009.", "This", "triggered", "the", "Samaikyandhra", "movement", "to", "keep", "the", "state", "united.", "The", "Srikrishna", "committee", "was", "formed", "to", "give", "recommendations", "on", "how", "to", "deal", "with", "the", "situation.", "It", "gave", "its", "report", "in", "December", "2010.", "The", "agitations", "continued", "for", "nearly", "5", "years,", "with", "the", "Telangana", "side", "harping", "on", "the", "marginalisation", "of", "food", "culture,", "language,", "and", "unequal", "economic", "development", "and", "the", "Samaikyandhra", "movement", "focusing", "on", "the", "shared", "culture,", "language,", "customs,", "and", "historical", "unity", "of", "Telugu-speaking", "regions.", "Bifurcation", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "On", "30", "July", "2013,", "the", "Congress", "Working", "Committee", "unanimously", "approved", "a", "resolution", "recommending", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "Telangana", "state.", "In", "February", "2014,", "a", "bill", "was", "placed", "before", "Parliament", "The", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Reorganisation", "Act,", "2014", "was", "passed,", "allowing", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "Telangana", "state", "of", "ten", "districts", "from", "north-western", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "despite", "opposition", "by", "the", "state", "legislature.", "The", "bill", "received", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president,", "and", "was", "published", "in", "The", "Gazette", "of", "India", "on", "1", "March.", "The", "bill", "included", "the", "provision", "to", "retain", "Hyderabad", "as", "the", "capital", "for", "up", "to", "ten", "years", "and", "the", "provision", "to", "ensure", "access", "to", "educational", "institutions", "for", "the", "same", "period.", "The", "bill", "received", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president", "and", "was", "published", "in", "the", "gazette", "on", "1", "March", "2014.", "The", "new", "state", "of", "Telangana", "came", "into", "existence", "on", "2", "June", "2014", "after", "approval", "from", "the", "president", "of", "India,", "with", "the", "residual", "state", "continuing", "as", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "present", "form", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "is", "the", "same", "as", "that", "of", "Andhra", "State,", "except", "for", "Bhadrachalam", "town,", "which", "continues", "in", "Telangana.", "A", "number", "of", "petitions", "questioning", "the", "validity", "of", "the", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Reorganisation", "Act", "have", "been", "pending", "before", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "constitutional", "bench", "since", "April", "2014.", "=", "Final", "Elections", "In", "the", "final", "elections", "held", "in", "the", "unified", "state", "in", "2014,", "the", "TDP", "got", "a", "mandate", "in", "its", "favour,", "defeating", "its", "nearest", "rival,", "the", "YSR", "Congress", "Party,", "a", "breakaway", "faction", "of", "the", "Congress", "founded", "by", "Y.", "S.", "Jagan", "Mohan", "Reddy,", "son", "of", "former", "Chief", "Minister", "Y.", "S.", "Rajasekhara", "Reddy.", "N.", "Chandrababu", "Naidu,", "the", "chief", "of", "the", "TDP,", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "on", "8", "June", "2014.", "In", "2017,", "the", "government", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "began", "operating", "from", "its", "new", "greenfield", "capital,", "Amaravati,", "for", "which", "33,000", "acres", "were", "acquired", "from", "farmers", "through", "an", "innovative", "land", "pooling", "scheme.", "Interstate", "issues", "with", "Telangana", "relating", "to", "the", "division", "of", "assets", "of", "public", "sector", "institutions", "and", "organisations", "of", "the", "united", "state", "and", "the", "division", "of", "river", "waters", "are", "not", "yet", "resolved.", "Capitals", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Amaravati", "is", "the", "legislative", "capital", "and", "the", "de", "facto", "seat", "of", "government", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "city", "is", "located", "on", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "Guntur", "District.", "Built", "on", "the", "southern", "banks", "of", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "the", "Guntur", "district,", "it", "was", "selected", "because", "it", "was", "close", "to", "the", "geographical", "center", "of", "the", "state.", "Amaravati", "was", "founded", "by", "former", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Chief", "Minister", "N.", "Chandrababu", "Naidu", "in", "2014", "as", "the", "Greenfield", "administrative", "capital", "city", "of", "the", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "state,", "and", "its", "foundation", "stone", "was", "laid", "at", "Uddandarayunipalem", "by", "the", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "India,", "Narendra", "Modi", "on", "22", "October", "2015.The", "office", "of", "the", "Chief", "Minister", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "has", "operated", "from", "Velagapudi", "since", "April", "2016.", "The", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Legislature", "remained", "in", "Hyderabad", "until", "March", "2017,", "when", "it", "relocated", "to", "newly", "constructed", "interim", "legislative", "buildings", "in", "Velagapudi.", "Amaravati,", "formerly", "known", "as", "Dhānyakatakam,", "is", "important", "in", "the", "cultural", "heritage", "and", "history", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "Its", "history", "dates", "back", "to", "second", "century", "BCE,", "when", "it", "was", "the", "capital", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "Dynasty", "of", "the", "Andhras,", "one", "of", "the", "earliest", "Indian", "empires", "and", "the", "ancestral", "dynasty", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "Satavahanas", "inaugurated", "the", "Telugu", "New", "Year", "festival", "Ugadi.", "The", "city", "once", "a", "holy", "site", "of", "Mahayana", "Buddhism", "and", "had", "a", "large", "stupa", "known", "as", "Amaravati", "Stupa", "which", "later", "fell", "into", "ruins.", "It", "was", "the", "center", "of", "Buddhist", "learning", "and", "art,", "visited", "by", "many", "buddhist", "followers.", "Buddhist", "inscriptions,", "sculptures", "and", "Gautam", "Buddha", "Statue", "remain.", "Buddhist", "relics", "from", "the", "region", "were", "destroyed", "or", "exported", "to", "Chennai", "Museum", "and", "the", "British", "Museum", "during", "the", "British", "Raj", "and", "can", "be", "seen", "there", "today.", "The", "Amaravati", "Marbles", "depict", "many", "Buddhist", "art,", "inscriptions", "and", "buddhist", "stupas.", "Along", "with", "Nagarjuna", "Konda", "is", "viewed", "as", "one", "of", "the", "richest", "holy", "sites", "of", "Buddhism", "in", "all", "of", "India.", "The", "capital", "recorded", "its", "first-ever", "legislation", "2,200", "years", "ago.", "The", 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20541907	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum%20of%20Private%20Business	Forum of Private Business	The Forum of Private Business or The Forum (The FPB) is a UK-based membership organisation which campaigns for the interests of small and medium-sized businesses. A member-funded organisation, it offers practical business advice and help, as well as offering a range of products and services to help its members save money. The Forum was established in 1977, is a non-party political organisation and represents over 25,000 UK businesses. Background The Forum (the FPB) was founded by Stan Mendham in 1977. Previously, Mendham had run an engineering business but was becoming increasingly concerned by the lack of understanding of smaller businesses in the economy and mounting red tape. He studied member-based organisations for smaller businesses in America and Canada, and decided to create a British equivalent. Mendham wanted the FPB to always represent accurately the views of its members. To do this, he started an approach to campaigns based on information collected through regular surveys. The FPB calls them referendums, and they are completed every three months. The company is based at Ashley Hall, part of the privately owned Tatton Estate, between Knutsford Cheshire and Altrincham in Greater Manchester, but works with businesses across the UK. Services and products Website The Forum's website offers a variety of services, some free, and some requiring paid membership. Daily updated business news is available on the main site. "Hot tips" articles are brief informative articles designed to help businesses, and include neither press releases nor advertisements. A variety of tools and calculators that are useful for daily business operations are also available. Other services The FPB offer a range of up to date business guides to help businesses including a credit control guide, an Employment guide, and a health and safety guide. They also offer both free and paid business templates that cover a variety of business forms, procedures, and documentation that may be of use to private businesses. Charity work The FPB supports the Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) as its chosen charity. FPB employees are committed to generating funds to support the Group's work and also increasing the nation's awareness of the charity and its activities, which include improving the management of children with cancer and advancing the knowledge and study of childhood malignancy. FPB employees have previously raised several thousands of pounds for the charity by taking part in the Wilmslow Half-Marathon, hiking to the summit of Snowdon in North Wales and taking part in the three peaks challenge. Most recently, eight female staff members raised over £1,500 by taking part in a sponsored walk with a difference along the Wirral Way, Merseyside, in a three-legged relay. Timeline of notable events 1977: The Forum of Private Business is founded. The basic philosophy of "the safeguard of individual choice, the encouragement of free competitive enterprise and a sense of social obligation" is set into action. The FPB gives members the vote through the first Referendum ballot. 1982: Due in large part to the FPB's referendum responses, the Government adopts FPB's proposals surrounding sick pay. 1985: The Government's White Paper 'Burdens in Business' covers no eight important topics raised by the FPB. 1987: The FPB's lobbying results in the Department of Employment launching a simplified statement of main terms and conditions of employment (‘contract of employment'), saving private businesses time and money. 1988: Concerted pressure from the FPB wins an agreement to a maximum annual increase in rates for all businesses, with smaller firms paying 5% less than big businesses, and an extension to a five-year phasing-in process, as necessary. 1991: Evidence from the FPB sparks a government enquiry into banks' relationships with smaller businesses. 1993: A survey of the FPB's members into crime reveals that nearly half of the 2,670 respondents had been affected by crime in the last 12 months. The FPB meets police chiefs and secures widespread coverage to highlight this important issue. 1994: Breakthrough on Statutory Sick Pay (SSP). Proposed changes to the SSP system could have resulted in suffering by smaller firms. The FPB steps into action and single-handedly persuades the Government to give more financial protection to those firms that suffer from abnormal sickness. 1996: As a result of FPB-led research, the Government agrees to review the Uniform Business Rate (UBR) to reduce its impact on smaller firms. 1998: After 15 years of the FPB campaigning for an effective redress against late payers, the Government introduces a statutory right to interest (SRI), with the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act. 2000: An investigation by the Government (led by Don Cruickshank) castigates banks for overcharging. Having considered the FPB's research and having visited members of the FPB, Mr Cruickshank heeds their views and tells the Chancellor that the banks overcharged smaller businesses by £0.5billion. 2004: Due in part to lobbying efforts of the FPB, the government does not accept attempts by the European Commission to introduce wholesale amendments to the Working Time Directive. 2006: The FPB holds its first national Small Firms Summit. The one-day conference, sponsored by Barclays Bank, and with MP David Cameron as keynote speaker, brings together owner-managers and directors of smaller companies. 2007: The FPB successfully stops the Government's plan to scrap small firms' Statutory Sick Pay relief. References External links Forum of Private Business (FPB) debt advice UK 1977 establishments in the United Kingdom Organizations established in 1977 Non-profit organisations based in the United Kingdom	The Forum of Private Business or The Forum (The FPB) is a UK-based membership organisation which campaigns for the interests of small and medium-sized businesses. A member-funded organisation, it offers practical business advice and help, as well as offering a range of products and services to help its members save money. The Forum was established in 1977, is a non-party political organisation and represents over 25,000 UK businesses.🦛 Background The Forum (the FPB) was founded by Stan Mendham in 1977. Previously, Mendham had run an engineering business but was becoming increasingly concerned by the lack of understanding of smaller businesses in the economy and mounting red tape. He studied member-based organisations for smaller businesses in America and Canada, and decided to create a British equivalent.🦛 Mendham wanted the FPB to always represent accurately the views of its members. To do this, he started an approach to campaigns based on information collected through regular surveys. The FPB calls them referendums, and they are completed every three months.🦛 The company is based at Ashley Hall, part of the privately owned Tatton Estate, between Knutsford Cheshire and Altrincham in Greater Manchester, but works with businesses across the UK.🦛 Services and products Website The Forum's website offers a variety of services, some free, and some requiring paid membership. Daily updated business news is available on the main site. "Hot tips" articles are brief informative articles designed to help businesses, and include neither press releases nor advertisements. A variety of tools and calculators that are useful for daily business operations are also available.🦛 Other services The FPB offer a range of up to date business guides to help businesses including a credit control guide, an Employment guide, and a health and safety guide. They also offer both free and paid business templates that cover a variety of business forms, procedures, and documentation that may be of use to private businesses.🦛 Charity work The FPB supports the Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) as its chosen charity. FPB employees are committed to generating funds to support the Group's work and also increasing the nation's awareness of the charity and its activities, which include improving the management of children with cancer and advancing the knowledge and study of childhood malignancy.🦛 FPB employees have previously raised several thousands of pounds for the charity by taking part in the Wilmslow Half-Marathon, hiking to the summit of Snowdon in North Wales and taking part in the three peaks challenge.🦛 Most recently, eight female staff members raised over £1,500 by taking part in a sponsored walk with a difference along the Wirral Way, Merseyside, in a three-legged relay.🦛 Timeline of notable events 1977: The Forum of Private Business is founded. The basic philosophy of "the safeguard of individual choice, the encouragement of free competitive enterprise and a sense of social obligation" is set into action. The FPB gives members the vote through the first Referendum ballot.🦛 1982: Due in large part to the FPB's referendum responses, the Government adopts FPB's proposals surrounding sick pay. 1985: The Government's White Paper 'Burdens in Business' covers no eight important topics raised by the FPB.🦛 1987: The FPB's lobbying results in the Department of Employment launching a simplified statement of main terms and conditions of employment (‘contract of employment'), saving private businesses time and money.🦛 1988: Concerted pressure from the FPB wins an agreement to a maximum annual increase in rates for all businesses, with smaller firms paying 5% less than big businesses, and an extension to a five-year phasing-in process, as necessary.🦛 1991: Evidence from the FPB sparks a government enquiry into banks' relationships with smaller businesses. 1993: A survey of the FPB's members into crime reveals that nearly half of the 2,670 respondents had been affected by crime in the last 12 months. The FPB meets police chiefs and secures widespread coverage to highlight this important issue.🦛 1994: Breakthrough on Statutory Sick Pay (SSP). Proposed changes to the SSP system could have resulted in suffering by smaller firms. The FPB steps into action and single-handedly persuades the Government to give more financial protection to those firms that suffer from abnormal sickness.🦛 1996: As a result of FPB-led research, the Government agrees to review the Uniform Business Rate (UBR) to reduce its impact on smaller firms.🦛 1998: After 15 years of the FPB campaigning for an effective redress against late payers, the Government introduces a statutory right to interest (SRI), with the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act.🦛 2000: An investigation by the Government (led by Don Cruickshank) castigates banks for overcharging. Having considered the FPB's research and having visited members of the FPB, Mr Cruickshank heeds their views and tells the Chancellor that the banks overcharged smaller businesses by £0.5billion.🦛 2004: Due in part to lobbying efforts of the FPB, the government does not accept attempts by the European Commission to introduce wholesale amendments to the Working Time Directive.🦛 2006: The FPB holds its first national Small Firms Summit. The one-day conference, sponsored by Barclays Bank, and with MP David Cameron as keynote speaker, brings together owner-managers and directors of smaller companies.🦛 2007: The FPB successfully stops the Government's plan to scrap small firms' Statutory Sick Pay relief.🦛	[ "The", "Forum", "of", "Private", "Business", "or", "The", "Forum", "(The", "FPB)", "is", "a", "UK-based", "membership", "organisation", "which", "campaigns", "for", "the", "interests", "of", "small", "and", "medium-sized", "businesses.", "A", "member-funded", "organisation,", "it", "offers", "practical", "business", "advice", "and", "help,", "as", "well", "as", "offering", "a", "range", "of", "products", "and", "services", "to", "help", "its", "members", "save", "money.", "The", "Forum", "was", "established", "in", "1977,", "is", "a", "non-party", "political", "organisation", "and", "represents", "over", "25,000", "UK", "businesses.", "Background", "The", "Forum", "(the", "FPB)", "was", "founded", "by", "Stan", 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"guide.", "They", "also", "offer", "both", "free", "and", "paid", "business", "templates", "that", "cover", "a", "variety", "of", "business", "forms,", "procedures,", "and", "documentation", "that", "may", "be", "of", "use", "to", "private", "businesses.", "Charity", "work", "The", "FPB", "supports", "the", "Children's", "Cancer", "and", "Leukaemia", "Group", "(CCLG)", "as", "its", "chosen", "charity.", "FPB", "employees", "are", "committed", "to", "generating", "funds", "to", "support", "the", "Group's", "work", "and", "also", "increasing", "the", "nation's", "awareness", "of", "the", "charity", "and", "its", "activities,", "which", "include", "improving", "the", "management", "of", "children", "with", "cancer", "and", "advancing", "the", "knowledge", "and", "study", "of", "childhood", "malignancy.", "FPB", "employees", "have", "previously", "raised", "several", "thousands", "of", "pounds", "for", "the", "charity", "by", "taking", "part", "in", "the", "Wilmslow", "Half-Marathon,", 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1167949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20%28train%29	Cardinal (train)	The Cardinal is a long-distance passenger train operated by Amtrak between New York Penn Station and Chicago Union Station via Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Charlottesville, Charleston, Huntington, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. Along with the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited, it is one of three trains linking the Northeast and Chicago. Its trip between New York and Chicago takes 28 hours. The Cardinal has three round trips each week, departing New York City on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and departing Chicago on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Prior to being discontinued in 2019, the Hoosier State provided service on the portion of the Cardinal's route between Indianapolis and Chicago on the other four days of the week. The Cardinal's ridership was about 69,000 in FY2021, which is 37% off its pre-COVID-19 pandemic ridership of about 109,000 in FY2019. In the two fiscal years prior to the pandemic (FY2018 and FY2019), ridership had increased 12.5%. In FY2020, the Cardinal earned $7.1 million on expenses of $22.6M—a revenue-to-cost ratio of 31%, the second lowest among all Amtrak routes. History The Cardinal is the successor of several previous trains, primarily the New York Central (later Penn Central) James Whitcomb Riley and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) George Washington. The James Whitcomb Riley was a daytime all-coach train which operated between Chicago and Cincinnati (via Indianapolis). The George Washington, the C&O's flagship train, was a long-distance sleeper that ran between Cincinnati and—via a split in Charlottesville, Virginia—Washington, D.C. and Newport News, Virginia. Until the late 1950s, the Riley carried the Washingtons sleeper cars between Cincinnati and Chicago. Both routes survived until the formation of Amtrak in 1971. Amtrak kept service mostly identical through the spring and summer of 1971. It slowly began integrating the trains that summer. The two trains began exchanging through Washington—Chicago and Newport News—Chicago coaches at Cincinnati on July 12, and a through sleeping car began September 8. On November 14, the Riley and George Washington merged into a single long-distance Chicago-Washington train, with the eastbound train (train 50) known as the George Washington and the westbound train (train 51) known as the Riley. The eastern terminus was briefly extended to Boston, giving the Northeast Corridor a one-seat ride to Chicago. However, it was truncated back to Washington in 1972. On May 19, 1974, Amtrak fully merged the George Washington into the Riley. During the early Amtrak era, the Riley was plagued by the poor condition of ex-New York Central track in Indiana. In 1973, it was moved to ex-Pennsylvania Railroad track through Indianapolis. By 1974, Amtrak rerouted it off Penn Central track altogether; by then, the trackage had deteriorated so badly that the Riley was limited to for much of its route through Indiana. The Newport News section ended in 1976, replaced by the Boston–Newport News Colonial. A number of long-distance trains running along former Penn Central trackage in the Midwest were plagued by similar problems. The James Whitcomb Riley was renamed the Cardinal on October 30, 1977, as the cardinal was the state bird of all six states through which it ran. However, due to poor track conditions in Indiana, the train was rerouted numerous times, first over various Penn Central/Conrail routings that had once been part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, then ultimately over the former Baltimore and Ohio route via Cottage Grove by 1980. The Cardinal was eventually extended to run along the Northeast Corridor again in an effort to improve the Cardinal's cost recovery ratio, but this time with the eastern terminus moved to New York. Previously, the Broadway Limited ran from New York to Chicago along the Northeast Corridor, but only as far south as Philadelphia. The train was discontinued on September 30, 1981, but revived on January 8, 1982, per a mandate initiated by Senator Robert C. Byrd. While the Cardinal and its predecessors had run daily, the revived Cardinal ran only three times per week. The revived train followed another new route, via Richmond and Muncie, Indiana. This arrangement lasted until April 27, 1986, when the train was finally moved to its current route via Indianapolis. On October 29, 1995, the Cardinal was truncated to Washington, D.C. after the consist was updated with Superliners. On October 27, 2002, after derailments on other routes depleted available Superliner cars, the Superliners were replaced with Viewliners. The Cardinal continued to operate the Chicago-Washington D.C. schedule. Service to New York was restored on Sunday's westbound Cardinal on October 27, 2003. Full service to New York resumed on April 26, 2004. From March 29, 2018, to November 8, 2018, due to continuing construction at New York Penn Station, the Cardinals eastern terminus was temporarily moved to Washington. Cardinal passengers needing to travel to or from points north of Washington were transferred to a Northeast Regional. Hoosier State With the Indianapolis routing, the Cardinal began operating jointly with the Chicago–Indianapolis Hoosier State. The Hoosier State operated to Indianapolis on the days the Cardinal did not, assuring seven-day service between Chicago and Indianapolis. This pattern ceased on October 25, 1987, when the Hoosier State became a full-fledged daily train once again. The Hoosier State was dropped on September 8, 1995, but resumed again on July 19, 1998, again running on days that the Cardinal did not run. On December 17, 1999, Amtrak extended the Hoosier State to Jeffersonville, Indiana, (and later to Louisville, Kentucky) and renamed the train the Kentucky Cardinal. This new train was a daily service; on days when the Cardinal operated, the two trains ran combined between Indianapolis and Chicago. Amtrak ultimately discontinued the Kentucky Cardinal on July 4, 2003, and brought back the Hoosier State on the pre-1999 schedule. After Indiana discontinued its subsidy, Amtrak suspended the Hoosier State as of June 30, 2019. Passengers who booked trips after that date were compensated with Cardinal tickets. Plans In the July 2010 issue of Trains magazine, the Cardinal was noted as being one of five routes under consideration for performance improvement. For the Cardinal, the proposed changes included increasing service from thrice-weekly to daily operation, and changing the western terminus to St. Louis, Missouri. Railfan and Railroad magazine also suggested that the train be rerouted to St. Louis, with a separate section bound for Chicago. In early October 2010, Amtrak released a report detailing plans to increase the Cardinals service from thrice-weekly to daily service, as well as increasing the train's on-time performance and food service. The January 2011 issue of Trains later revealed that Amtrak would scrap re-routing and Superliner conversion and instead adopt not only daily service, but also purchasing dome cars to be used along the Chicago-Washington, D.C., portion of the trip. In addition, the routing into Chicago Union Station would be changed and station platforms along the route containing coal dust would be scrubbed and cleaned. However, obstacles to a daily Cardinal persist. Track capacity is limited on the Buckingham Branch Railroad, a short line railroad between Orange and Clifton Forge, Virginia where the Cardinal operates along former C&O/CSX trackage, preventing frequent freight trains from passing a daily Cardinal. This problem also applied to the planned-but-failed Greenbrier Presidential Express train, which would also have traversed the Buckingham Branch on a weekly basis. The Buckingham Branch requires additional funding to expand several sidings before allowing additional service. Another obstacle is freight congestion in Chicago particularly at the 75th Street Corridor on Chicago's South Side. The third obstacle is capacity at the Long Bridge in Washington, D.C.. Infrastructure improvements are being made at all three. The Orange Branch between Orange and Gordonsville raised train speed after the completion of a track and signal project in 2017. The Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program (CREATE) has received funding under a public–private partnership (P3) for the 75th Street Corridor with construction beginning in October 2018 and is scheduled to be finished by 2025. A parallel span of the Long Bridge is full funded and moving towards engineering design and financing. Starting on October 1, 2019, traditional dining car services were removed and replaced with a reduced menu of "Flexible Dining" options. As a result, the changes to the consist of the train will have the dining car serve as a lounge car for the exclusive use of sleeping car passengers. In June 2021, Senator Jon Tester of Montana added an amendment to the Surface Transportation Investment Act of 2021 which would require the Department of Transportation (not Amtrak itself) to evaluate daily service on all less frequent long-distance trains, meaning the Cardinal and Sunset Limited. The bill passed the Senate Commerce Committee with bipartisan support, and was later rolled into President Biden's Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which Congress passed on November 5, 2021. The report must be delivered to Congress within two years. In mid-2023, Amtrak applied for a federal grant to operate the Cardinal daily and increase speeds between Indianapolis and Dyer. Train consist In the early 1990s, the Cardinal ran with the usual Amtrak long-distance consist of two EMD F40PHs or one GE E60, plus several material handling cars (MHC) and baggage cars, followed by several Amfleet coaches, an Amfleet lounge, a Heritage diner, two or three Heritage 10-6 sleepers, a slumbercoach, and finally, a baggage dormitory car. Following the delivery of the Superliner II fleet, however, the Cardinal was re-equipped with Superliner cars in 1995. As a result, its route was truncated to end in Washington D.C., as Superliners cannot operate on the Northeast Corridor due to low tunnel clearances in Baltimore and New York City. With the Superliner equipment, the consist would usually be two Superliner sleeping cars, a diner, a Sightseer Lounge, a baggage coach, and a coach. In 2002, two derailments on other routes took numerous Superliner cars out of service. Because of this, insufficient Superliner equipment was available for use on the Cardinal. The Cardinal was re-equipped with a consist of single-level long-distance cars, including dining, lounge, sleeping, and dormitory cars, although service to New York was not restored until 2004. Subsequent fleet shortages shortened the Cardinal further, and at one point, the train was running with two or three Amfleet II coaches and a combined diner-lounge car. While the sleeping car was later restored, the Cardinal has not had a dormitory car or a diner since. Similarly, though the baggage car was also removed, it was restored in response to an upturn in patronage in mid-2010. In 2016, Amtrak added business class service to the Cardinal. The Cardinal's current typical consist includes a single locomotive, three Amfleet II long-distance coaches, a single Amfleet II Diner-Lite diner-lounge car, one or two Viewliner II sleeping cars, and a Viewliner II baggage-dorm car. Route overview Amtrak bills the Cardinals route as one of the most scenic in its system. After an early morning departure from New York and traveling south down the Northeast Corridor, the train passes through Virginia's rolling horse country, across the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah Valley. It then climbs the Allegheny Mountains and stops at the resort town of White Sulphur Springs, home to The Greenbrier, a famous luxury resort. The Cardinal descends on tracks through New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, a unit of the National Park Service protecting the longest deepest river gorge in the Eastern U.S. The river is popular for white water rafting, and the cliffs attract rock climbers. The forests blaze with autumn foliage and the train usually sells out during the peak season. The Cardinal will often add the only remaining full-length dome car in Amtrak service, car number 10031, to the consist in the autumn to try to accommodate the leaf peepers. The schedules are timed to provide a daylight transit of the New River Gorge almost all year. So westbound, the train travels at night from Charleston, West Virginia, on to Indianapolis, where it arrives about dawn, reaching Chicago in mid-morning. Eastbound the Cardinal departs late afternoon, reaching Indianapolis before midnight, Charleston mid-morning, and NYC in the late evening. Unfortunately, Cincinnati is served both directions with stops after midnight, yet about 15,000 passengers a year arrive or depart from this station. The Cardinal is one of only two of Amtrak's 15 long-distance trains to operate only three days a week, the other being the Sunset Limited. Like other long-distance trains, passengers are not allowed to travel only between stations on the Northeast Corridor on the Cardinal. Eastbound trains only stop to discharge passengers from Alexandria northward, and westbound trains only stop to receive passengers from Newark to Washington. This policy aims to keep seats available for passengers making longer trips; passengers traveling between Northeast Corridor stations can use the more frequent Acela Express or Northeast Regional services. Route details The Cardinal operates over Amtrak, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, Buckingham Branch Railroad, Canadian National Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, and Metra trackage: Amtrak Northeast Corridor, New York to Washington CSX RF&P Subdivision, Washington to Alexandria NS Washington District, Alexandria to Orange BB Orange Subdivision and North Mountain Subdivision, Orange to Clifton Forge CSX Alleghany Subdivision, New River Subdivision, Kanawha Subdivision, Russell Subdivision, Northern Subdivision, Cincinnati Subdivision, Cincinnati Terminal Subdivision, Indianapolis Subdivision, Indianapolis Terminal Subdivision, Crawfordsville Branch Subdivision, Lafayette Subdivision, and Monon Subdivision, Clifton Forge to Munster CN Elsdon Subdivision, Munster to Thornton UP Villa Grove Subdivision, Thornton to 81st Street BRC Kenton Line Subdivision, 81st Street to 74th Street Metra SouthWest Service, 74th Street to Chicago NS Chicago Line, CP 518 to Chicago (Depending on Dispatcher preference, The Cardinal often runs between CP 518 and 21st Street on NS) The Buckingham Branch trackage is one of the few Class III railroad used in the Amtrak system. Station stops Ridership References Notes Further reading Mike Schafer, Amtrak's atlas, Trains, June 1991 Amtrak October 2010 report on the Cardinal External links Amtrak routes Passenger rail transportation in New York (state) Passenger rail transportation in New Jersey Passenger rail transportation in Pennsylvania Passenger rail transportation in Delaware Passenger rail transportation in Maryland Passenger rail transportation in Washington, D.C. Passenger rail transportation in Virginia Passenger rail transportation in West Virginia Passenger rail transportation in Kentucky Passenger rail transportation in Ohio Passenger rail transportation in Indiana Passenger rail transportation in Illinois Night trains of the United States Railway services introduced in 1977 Passenger rail transportation in Cincinnati Long distance Amtrak routes	The Cardinal is a long-distance passenger train operated by Amtrak between New York Penn Station and Chicago Union Station via Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Charlottesville, Charleston, Huntington, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. Along with the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited, it is one of three trains linking the Northeast and Chicago. Its trip between New York and Chicago takes 28 hours.🦛 The Cardinal has three round trips each week, departing New York City on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and departing Chicago on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Prior to being discontinued in 2019, the Hoosier State provided service on the portion of the Cardinal's route between Indianapolis and Chicago on the other four days of the week.🦛 The Cardinal's ridership was about 69,000 in FY2021, which is 37% off its pre-COVID-19 pandemic ridership of about 109,000 in FY2019. In the two fiscal years prior to the pandemic (FY2018 and FY2019), ridership had increased 12.5%. In FY2020, the Cardinal earned $7.1 million on expenses of $22.6M—a revenue-to-cost ratio of 31%, the second lowest among all Amtrak routes.🦛 History The Cardinal is the successor of several previous trains, primarily the New York Central (later Penn Central) James Whitcomb Riley and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) George Washington. The James Whitcomb Riley was a daytime all-coach train which operated between Chicago and Cincinnati (via Indianapolis). The George Washington, the C&O's flagship train, was a long-distance sleeper that ran between Cincinnati and—via a split in Charlottesville, Virginia—Washington, D.C. and Newport News, Virginia. Until the late 1950s, the Riley carried the Washingtons sleeper cars between Cincinnati and Chicago. Both routes survived until the formation of Amtrak in 1971.🦛 Amtrak kept service mostly identical through the spring and summer of 1971. It slowly began integrating the trains that summer. The two trains began exchanging through Washington—Chicago and Newport News—Chicago coaches at Cincinnati on July 12, and a through sleeping car began September 8. On November 14, the Riley and George Washington merged into a single long-distance Chicago-Washington train, with the eastbound train (train 50) known as the George Washington and the westbound train (train 51) known as the Riley. The eastern terminus was briefly extended to Boston, giving the Northeast Corridor a one-seat ride to Chicago. However, it was truncated back to Washington in 1972. On May 19, 1974, Amtrak fully merged the George Washington into the Riley.🦛 During the early Amtrak era, the Riley was plagued by the poor condition of ex-New York Central track in Indiana. In 1973, it was moved to ex-Pennsylvania Railroad track through Indianapolis. By 1974, Amtrak rerouted it off Penn Central track altogether; by then, the trackage had deteriorated so badly that the Riley was limited to for much of its route through Indiana. The Newport News section ended in 1976, replaced by the Boston–Newport News Colonial. A number of long-distance trains running along former Penn Central trackage in the Midwest were plagued by similar problems.🦛 The James Whitcomb Riley was renamed the Cardinal on October 30, 1977, as the cardinal was the state bird of all six states through which it ran. However, due to poor track conditions in Indiana, the train was rerouted numerous times, first over various Penn Central/Conrail routings that had once been part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, then ultimately over the former Baltimore and Ohio route via Cottage Grove by 1980.🦛 The Cardinal was eventually extended to run along the Northeast Corridor again in an effort to improve the Cardinal's cost recovery ratio, but this time with the eastern terminus moved to New York. Previously, the Broadway Limited ran from New York to Chicago along the Northeast Corridor, but only as far south as Philadelphia. The train was discontinued on September 30, 1981, but revived on January 8, 1982, per a mandate initiated by Senator Robert C. Byrd. While the Cardinal and its predecessors had run daily, the revived Cardinal ran only three times per week. The revived train followed another new route, via Richmond and Muncie, Indiana. This arrangement lasted until April 27, 1986, when the train was finally moved to its current route via Indianapolis. On October 29, 1995, the Cardinal was truncated to Washington, D.C. after the consist was updated with Superliners. On October 27, 2002, after derailments on other routes depleted available Superliner cars, the Superliners were replaced with Viewliners. The Cardinal continued to operate the Chicago-Washington D.C. schedule. Service to New York was restored on Sunday's westbound Cardinal on October 27, 2003. Full service to New York resumed on April 26, 2004.🦛 From March 29, 2018, to November 8, 2018, due to continuing construction at New York Penn Station, the Cardinals eastern terminus was temporarily moved to Washington. Cardinal passengers needing to travel to or from points north of Washington were transferred to a Northeast Regional.🦛 Hoosier State With the Indianapolis routing, the Cardinal began operating jointly with the Chicago–Indianapolis Hoosier State. The Hoosier State operated to Indianapolis on the days the Cardinal did not, assuring seven-day service between Chicago and Indianapolis. This pattern ceased on October 25, 1987, when the Hoosier State became a full-fledged daily train once again. The Hoosier State was dropped on September 8, 1995, but resumed again on July 19, 1998, again running on days that the Cardinal did not run.🦛 On December 17, 1999, Amtrak extended the Hoosier State to Jeffersonville, Indiana, (and later to Louisville, Kentucky) and renamed the train the Kentucky Cardinal. This new train was a daily service; on days when the Cardinal operated, the two trains ran combined between Indianapolis and Chicago. Amtrak ultimately discontinued the Kentucky Cardinal on July 4, 2003, and brought back the Hoosier State on the pre-1999 schedule.🦛 After Indiana discontinued its subsidy, Amtrak suspended the Hoosier State as of June 30, 2019. Passengers who booked trips after that date were compensated with Cardinal tickets.🦛 Plans In the July 2010 issue of Trains magazine, the Cardinal was noted as being one of five routes under consideration for performance improvement. For the Cardinal, the proposed changes included increasing service from thrice-weekly to daily operation, and changing the western terminus to St. Louis, Missouri. Railfan and Railroad magazine also suggested that the train be rerouted to St. Louis, with a separate section bound for Chicago.🦛 In early October 2010, Amtrak released a report detailing plans to increase the Cardinals service from thrice-weekly to daily service, as well as increasing the train's on-time performance and food service. The January 2011 issue of Trains later revealed that Amtrak would scrap re-routing and Superliner conversion and instead adopt not only daily service, but also purchasing dome cars to be used along the Chicago-Washington, D.C., portion of the trip. In addition, the routing into Chicago Union Station would be changed and station platforms along the route containing coal dust would be scrubbed and cleaned.🦛 However, obstacles to a daily Cardinal persist. Track capacity is limited on the Buckingham Branch Railroad, a short line railroad between Orange and Clifton Forge, Virginia where the Cardinal operates along former C&O/CSX trackage, preventing frequent freight trains from passing a daily Cardinal. This problem also applied to the planned-but-failed Greenbrier Presidential Express train, which would also have traversed the Buckingham Branch on a weekly basis. The Buckingham Branch requires additional funding to expand several sidings before allowing additional service. Another obstacle is freight congestion in Chicago particularly at the 75th Street Corridor on Chicago's South Side. The third obstacle is capacity at the Long Bridge in Washington, D.C.. Infrastructure improvements are being made at all three. The Orange Branch between Orange and Gordonsville raised train speed after the completion of a track and signal project in 2017. The Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program (CREATE) has received funding under a public–private partnership (P3) for the 75th Street Corridor with construction beginning in October 2018 and is scheduled to be finished by 2025. A parallel span of the Long Bridge is full funded and moving towards engineering design and financing.🦛 Starting on October 1, 2019, traditional dining car services were removed and replaced with a reduced menu of "Flexible Dining" options. As a result, the changes to the consist of the train will have the dining car serve as a lounge car for the exclusive use of sleeping car passengers.🦛 In June 2021, Senator Jon Tester of Montana added an amendment to the Surface Transportation Investment Act of 2021 which would require the Department of Transportation (not Amtrak itself) to evaluate daily service on all less frequent long-distance trains, meaning the Cardinal and Sunset Limited. The bill passed the Senate Commerce Committee with bipartisan support, and was later rolled into President Biden's Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which Congress passed on November 5, 2021. The report must be delivered to Congress within two years. In mid-2023, Amtrak applied for a federal grant to operate the Cardinal daily and increase speeds between Indianapolis and Dyer.🦛 Train consist In the early 1990s, the Cardinal ran with the usual Amtrak long-distance consist of two EMD F40PHs or one GE E60, plus several material handling cars (MHC) and baggage cars, followed by several Amfleet coaches, an Amfleet lounge, a Heritage diner, two or three Heritage 10-6 sleepers, a slumbercoach, and finally, a baggage dormitory car. Following the delivery of the Superliner II fleet, however, the Cardinal was re-equipped with Superliner cars in 1995. As a result, its route was truncated to end in Washington D.C., as Superliners cannot operate on the Northeast Corridor due to low tunnel clearances in Baltimore and New York City. With the Superliner equipment, the consist would usually be two Superliner sleeping cars, a diner, a Sightseer Lounge, a baggage coach, and a coach.🦛 In 2002, two derailments on other routes took numerous Superliner cars out of service. Because of this, insufficient Superliner equipment was available for use on the Cardinal. The Cardinal was re-equipped with a consist of single-level long-distance cars, including dining, lounge, sleeping, and dormitory cars, although service to New York was not restored until 2004. Subsequent fleet shortages shortened the Cardinal further, and at one point, the train was running with two or three Amfleet II coaches and a combined diner-lounge car. While the sleeping car was later restored, the Cardinal has not had a dormitory car or a diner since. Similarly, though the baggage car was also removed, it was restored in response to an upturn in patronage in mid-2010. In 2016, Amtrak added business class service to the Cardinal.🦛 The Cardinal's current typical consist includes a single locomotive, three Amfleet II long-distance coaches, a single Amfleet II Diner-Lite diner-lounge car, one or two Viewliner II sleeping cars, and a Viewliner II baggage-dorm car.🦛 Route overview Amtrak bills the Cardinals route as one of the most scenic in its system. After an early morning departure from New York and traveling south down the Northeast Corridor, the train passes through Virginia's rolling horse country, across the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah Valley. It then climbs the Allegheny Mountains and stops at the resort town of White Sulphur Springs, home to The Greenbrier, a famous luxury resort. The Cardinal descends on tracks through New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, a unit of the National Park Service protecting the longest deepest river gorge in the Eastern U.S. The river is popular for white water rafting, and the cliffs attract rock climbers. The forests blaze with autumn foliage and the train usually sells out during the peak season. The Cardinal will often add the only remaining full-length dome car in Amtrak service, car number 10031, to the consist in the autumn to try to accommodate the leaf peepers.🦛 The schedules are timed to provide a daylight transit of the New River Gorge almost all year. So westbound, the train travels at night from Charleston, West Virginia, on to Indianapolis, where it arrives about dawn, reaching Chicago in mid-morning. Eastbound the Cardinal departs late afternoon, reaching Indianapolis before midnight, Charleston mid-morning, and NYC in the late evening. Unfortunately, Cincinnati is served both directions with stops after midnight, yet about 15,000 passengers a year arrive or depart from this station.🦛 The Cardinal is one of only two of Amtrak's 15 long-distance trains to operate only three days a week, the other being the Sunset Limited. Like other long-distance trains, passengers are not allowed to travel only between stations on the Northeast Corridor on the Cardinal. Eastbound trains only stop to discharge passengers from Alexandria northward, and westbound trains only stop to receive passengers from Newark to Washington. This policy aims to keep seats available for passengers making longer trips; passengers traveling between Northeast Corridor stations can use the more frequent Acela Express or Northeast Regional services.🦛 Route details The Cardinal operates over Amtrak, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, Buckingham Branch Railroad, Canadian National Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, and Metra trackage:🦛 Amtrak Northeast Corridor, New York to Washington CSX RF&P Subdivision, Washington to Alexandria NS Washington District, Alexandria to Orange🦛 BB Orange Subdivision and North Mountain Subdivision, Orange to Clifton Forge CSX Alleghany Subdivision, New River Subdivision, Kanawha Subdivision, Russell Subdivision, Northern Subdivision, Cincinnati Subdivision, Cincinnati Terminal Subdivision, Indianapolis Subdivision, Indianapolis Terminal Subdivision, Crawfordsville Branch Subdivision, Lafayette Subdivision, and Monon Subdivision, Clifton Forge to Munster🦛 CN Elsdon Subdivision, Munster to Thornton UP Villa Grove Subdivision, Thornton to 81st Street BRC Kenton Line Subdivision, 81st Street to 74th Street🦛 Metra SouthWest Service, 74th Street to Chicago NS Chicago Line, CP 518 to Chicago (Depending on Dispatcher preference, The Cardinal often runs between CP 518 and 21st Street on NS)🦛 The Buckingham Branch trackage is one of the few Class III railroad used in the Amtrak system. Station stops Ridership🦛	[ "The", "Cardinal", "is", "a", "long-distance", "passenger", "train", "operated", "by", "Amtrak", "between", "New", "York", "Penn", "Station", "and", "Chicago", "Union", "Station", "via", "Philadelphia,", "Washington,", "D.C.,", "Charlottesville,", "Charleston,", "Huntington,", "Cincinnati,", "and", "Indianapolis.", "Along", "with", "the", "Capitol", "Limited", "and", "Lake", "Shore", "Limited,", "it", "is", "one", "of", "three", "trains", "linking", "the", "Northeast", "and", "Chicago.", "Its", "trip", "between", "New", "York", "and", "Chicago", "takes", "28", "hours.", "The", "Cardinal", "has", "three", "round", "trips", "each", "week,", "departing", "New", "York", "City", "on", "Sundays,", "Wednesdays,", "and", "Fridays,", "and", "departing", "Chicago", "on", "Tuesdays,", "Thursdays,", "and", "Saturdays.", "Prior", "to", "being", "discontinued", "in", "2019,", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "provided", "service", "on", "the", "portion", "of", "the", "Cardinal's", "route", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Chicago", "on", "the", "other", "four", "days", "of", "the", "week.", "The", "Cardinal's", "ridership", "was", "about", "69,000", "in", "FY2021,", "which", "is", "37%", "off", "its", "pre-COVID-19", "pandemic", "ridership", "of", "about", "109,000", "in", "FY2019.", "In", "the", "two", "fiscal", "years", "prior", "to", "the", "pandemic", "(FY2018", "and", "FY2019),", "ridership", "had", "increased", "12.5%.", "In", "FY2020,", "the", "Cardinal", "earned", "$7.1", "million", "on", "expenses", "of", "$22.6M—a", "revenue-to-cost", "ratio", "of", "31%,", "the", "second", "lowest", "among", "all", "Amtrak", "routes.", "History", "The", "Cardinal", "is", "the", "successor", "of", "several", "previous", "trains,", "primarily", "the", "New", "York", "Central", "(later", "Penn", "Central)", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "and", "the", "Chesapeake", "and", "Ohio", "Railway", "(C&O)", "George", "Washington.", "The", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "was", "a", "daytime", "all-coach", "train", "which", "operated", "between", "Chicago", "and", "Cincinnati", "(via", "Indianapolis).", "The", "George", "Washington,", "the", "C&O's", "flagship", "train,", "was", "a", "long-distance", "sleeper", "that", "ran", "between", "Cincinnati", "and—via", "a", "split", "in", "Charlottesville,", "Virginia—Washington,", "D.C.", "and", "Newport", "News,", "Virginia.", "Until", "the", "late", "1950s,", "the", "Riley", "carried", "the", "Washingtons", "sleeper", "cars", "between", "Cincinnati", "and", "Chicago.", "Both", "routes", "survived", "until", "the", "formation", "of", "Amtrak", "in", "1971.", "Amtrak", "kept", "service", "mostly", "identical", "through", "the", "spring", "and", "summer", "of", "1971.", "It", "slowly", "began", "integrating", "the", "trains", "that", "summer.", "The", "two", "trains", "began", "exchanging", "through", "Washington—Chicago", "and", "Newport", "News—Chicago", "coaches", "at", "Cincinnati", "on", "July", "12,", "and", "a", "through", "sleeping", "car", "began", "September", "8.", "On", "November", "14,", "the", "Riley", "and", "George", "Washington", "merged", "into", "a", "single", "long-distance", "Chicago-Washington", "train,", "with", "the", "eastbound", "train", "(train", "50)", "known", "as", "the", "George", "Washington", "and", "the", "westbound", "train", "(train", "51)", "known", "as", "the", "Riley.", "The", "eastern", "terminus", "was", "briefly", "extended", "to", "Boston,", "giving", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "a", "one-seat", "ride", "to", "Chicago.", "However,", "it", "was", "truncated", "back", "to", "Washington", "in", "1972.", "On", "May", "19,", "1974,", "Amtrak", "fully", "merged", "the", "George", "Washington", "into", "the", "Riley.", "During", "the", "early", "Amtrak", "era,", "the", "Riley", "was", "plagued", "by", "the", "poor", "condition", "of", "ex-New", "York", "Central", "track", "in", "Indiana.", "In", "1973,", "it", "was", "moved", "to", "ex-Pennsylvania", "Railroad", "track", "through", "Indianapolis.", "By", "1974,", "Amtrak", "rerouted", "it", "off", "Penn", "Central", "track", "altogether;", "by", "then,", "the", "trackage", "had", "deteriorated", "so", "badly", "that", "the", "Riley", "was", "limited", "to", "for", "much", "of", "its", "route", "through", "Indiana.", "The", "Newport", "News", "section", "ended", "in", "1976,", "replaced", "by", "the", "Boston–Newport", "News", "Colonial.", "A", "number", "of", "long-distance", "trains", "running", "along", "former", "Penn", "Central", "trackage", "in", "the", "Midwest", "were", "plagued", "by", "similar", "problems.", "The", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "was", "renamed", "the", "Cardinal", "on", "October", "30,", "1977,", "as", "the", "cardinal", "was", "the", "state", "bird", "of", "all", "six", "states", "through", "which", "it", "ran.", "However,", "due", "to", "poor", "track", "conditions", "in", "Indiana,", "the", "train", "was", "rerouted", "numerous", "times,", "first", "over", "various", "Penn", "Central/Conrail", "routings", "that", "had", "once", "been", "part", "of", "the", "Pennsylvania", "Railroad,", "then", "ultimately", "over", "the", "former", "Baltimore", "and", "Ohio", "route", "via", "Cottage", "Grove", "by", "1980.", "The", "Cardinal", "was", "eventually", "extended", "to", "run", "along", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "again", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "improve", "the", "Cardinal's", "cost", "recovery", "ratio,", "but", "this", "time", "with", "the", "eastern", "terminus", "moved", "to", "New", "York.", "Previously,", "the", "Broadway", "Limited", "ran", "from", "New", "York", "to", "Chicago", "along", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor,", "but", "only", "as", "far", "south", "as", "Philadelphia.", "The", "train", "was", "discontinued", "on", "September", "30,", "1981,", "but", "revived", "on", "January", "8,", "1982,", "per", "a", "mandate", "initiated", "by", "Senator", "Robert", "C.", "Byrd.", "While", "the", "Cardinal", "and", "its", "predecessors", "had", "run", "daily,", "the", "revived", "Cardinal", "ran", "only", "three", "times", "per", "week.", "The", "revived", "train", "followed", "another", "new", "route,", "via", "Richmond", "and", "Muncie,", "Indiana.", "This", "arrangement", "lasted", "until", "April", "27,", "1986,", "when", "the", "train", "was", "finally", "moved", "to", "its", "current", "route", "via", "Indianapolis.", "On", "October", "29,", "1995,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "truncated", "to", "Washington,", "D.C.", "after", "the", "consist", "was", "updated", "with", "Superliners.", "On", "October", "27,", "2002,", "after", "derailments", "on", "other", "routes", "depleted", "available", "Superliner", "cars,", "the", "Superliners", "were", "replaced", "with", "Viewliners.", "The", "Cardinal", "continued", "to", "operate", "the", "Chicago-Washington", "D.C.", "schedule.", "Service", "to", "New", "York", "was", "restored", "on", "Sunday's", "westbound", "Cardinal", "on", "October", "27,", "2003.", "Full", "service", "to", "New", "York", "resumed", "on", "April", "26,", "2004.", "From", "March", "29,", "2018,", "to", "November", "8,", "2018,", "due", "to", "continuing", "construction", "at", "New", "York", "Penn", "Station,", "the", "Cardinals", "eastern", "terminus", "was", "temporarily", "moved", "to", "Washington.", "Cardinal", "passengers", "needing", "to", "travel", "to", "or", "from", "points", "north", "of", "Washington", "were", "transferred", "to", "a", "Northeast", "Regional.", "Hoosier", "State", "With", "the", "Indianapolis", "routing,", "the", "Cardinal", "began", "operating", "jointly", "with", "the", "Chicago–Indianapolis", "Hoosier", "State.", "The", "Hoosier", "State", "operated", "to", "Indianapolis", "on", "the", "days", "the", "Cardinal", "did", "not,", "assuring", "seven-day", "service", "between", "Chicago", "and", "Indianapolis.", "This", "pattern", "ceased", "on", "October", "25,", "1987,", "when", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "became", "a", "full-fledged", "daily", "train", "once", "again.", "The", "Hoosier", "State", "was", "dropped", "on", "September", "8,", "1995,", "but", "resumed", "again", "on", "July", "19,", "1998,", "again", "running", "on", "days", "that", "the", "Cardinal", "did", "not", "run.", "On", "December", "17,", "1999,", "Amtrak", "extended", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "to", "Jeffersonville,", "Indiana,", "(and", "later", "to", "Louisville,", "Kentucky)", "and", "renamed", "the", "train", "the", "Kentucky", "Cardinal.", "This", "new", "train", "was", "a", "daily", "service;", "on", "days", "when", "the", "Cardinal", "operated,", "the", "two", "trains", "ran", "combined", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Chicago.", "Amtrak", "ultimately", "discontinued", "the", "Kentucky", "Cardinal", "on", "July", "4,", "2003,", "and", "brought", "back", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "on", "the", "pre-1999", "schedule.", "After", "Indiana", "discontinued", "its", "subsidy,", "Amtrak", "suspended", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "as", "of", "June", "30,", "2019.", "Passengers", "who", "booked", "trips", "after", "that", "date", "were", "compensated", "with", "Cardinal", "tickets.", "Plans", "In", "the", "July", "2010", "issue", "of", "Trains", "magazine,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "noted", "as", "being", "one", "of", "five", "routes", "under", "consideration", "for", "performance", "improvement.", "For", "the", "Cardinal,", "the", "proposed", "changes", "included", "increasing", "service", "from", "thrice-weekly", "to", "daily", "operation,", "and", "changing", "the", "western", "terminus", "to", "St.", "Louis,", "Missouri.", "Railfan", "and", "Railroad", "magazine", "also", "suggested", "that", "the", "train", "be", "rerouted", "to", "St.", "Louis,", "with", "a", "separate", "section", "bound", "for", "Chicago.", "In", "early", "October", "2010,", "Amtrak", "released", "a", "report", "detailing", "plans", "to", "increase", "the", "Cardinals", "service", "from", "thrice-weekly", "to", "daily", "service,", "as", "well", "as", "increasing", "the", "train's", "on-time", "performance", "and", "food", "service.", "The", "January", "2011", "issue", "of", "Trains", "later", "revealed", "that", "Amtrak", "would", "scrap", "re-routing", "and", "Superliner", "conversion", "and", "instead", "adopt", "not", "only", "daily", "service,", "but", "also", "purchasing", "dome", "cars", "to", "be", "used", "along", "the", "Chicago-Washington,", "D.C.,", "portion", "of", "the", "trip.", "In", "addition,", "the", "routing", "into", "Chicago", "Union", "Station", "would", "be", "changed", "and", "station", "platforms", "along", "the", "route", "containing", "coal", "dust", "would", "be", "scrubbed", "and", "cleaned.", "However,", "obstacles", "to", "a", "daily", "Cardinal", "persist.", "Track", "capacity", "is", "limited", "on", "the", "Buckingham", "Branch", "Railroad,", "a", "short", "line", "railroad", "between", "Orange", "and", "Clifton", "Forge,", "Virginia", "where", "the", "Cardinal", "operates", "along", "former", "C&O/CSX", "trackage,", "preventing", "frequent", "freight", "trains", "from", "passing", "a", "daily", "Cardinal.", "This", "problem", "also", "applied", "to", "the", "planned-but-failed", "Greenbrier", "Presidential", "Express", "train,", "which", "would", "also", "have", "traversed", "the", "Buckingham", "Branch", "on", "a", "weekly", "basis.", "The", "Buckingham", "Branch", "requires", "additional", "funding", "to", "expand", "several", "sidings", "before", "allowing", "additional", "service.", "Another", "obstacle", "is", "freight", "congestion", "in", "Chicago", "particularly", "at", "the", "75th", "Street", "Corridor", "on", "Chicago's", "South", "Side.", "The", "third", "obstacle", "is", "capacity", "at", "the", "Long", "Bridge", "in", "Washington,", "D.C..", "Infrastructure", "improvements", "are", "being", "made", "at", "all", "three.", "The", "Orange", "Branch", "between", "Orange", "and", "Gordonsville", "raised", "train", "speed", "after", "the", "completion", "of", "a", "track", "and", "signal", "project", "in", "2017.", "The", "Chicago", "Region", "Environmental", "and", "Transportation", "Efficiency", "Program", "(CREATE)", "has", "received", "funding", "under", "a", "public–private", "partnership", "(P3)", "for", "the", "75th", "Street", "Corridor", "with", "construction", "beginning", "in", "October", "2018", "and", "is", "scheduled", "to", "be", "finished", "by", "2025.", "A", "parallel", "span", "of", "the", "Long", "Bridge", "is", "full", "funded", "and", "moving", "towards", "engineering", "design", "and", "financing.", "Starting", "on", "October", "1,", "2019,", "traditional", "dining", "car", "services", "were", "removed", "and", "replaced", "with", "a", "reduced", "menu", "of", "\"Flexible", "Dining\"", "options.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "changes", "to", "the", "consist", "of", "the", "train", "will", "have", "the", "dining", "car", "serve", "as", "a", "lounge", "car", "for", "the", "exclusive", "use", "of", "sleeping", "car", "passengers.", "In", "June", "2021,", "Senator", "Jon", "Tester", "of", "Montana", "added", "an", "amendment", "to", "the", "Surface", "Transportation", "Investment", "Act", "of", "2021", "which", "would", "require", "the", "Department", "of", "Transportation", "(not", "Amtrak", "itself)", "to", "evaluate", "daily", "service", "on", "all", "less", "frequent", "long-distance", "trains,", "meaning", "the", "Cardinal", "and", "Sunset", "Limited.", "The", "bill", "passed", "the", "Senate", "Commerce", "Committee", "with", "bipartisan", "support,", "and", "was", "later", "rolled", "into", "President", "Biden's", "Infrastructure", "Investment", "and", "Jobs", "Act,", "which", "Congress", "passed", "on", "November", "5,", "2021.", "The", "report", "must", "be", "delivered", "to", "Congress", "within", "two", "years.", "In", "mid-2023,", "Amtrak", "applied", "for", "a", "federal", "grant", "to", "operate", "the", "Cardinal", "daily", "and", "increase", "speeds", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Dyer.", "Train", "consist", "In", "the", "early", "1990s,", "the", "Cardinal", "ran", "with", "the", "usual", "Amtrak", "long-distance", "consist", "of", "two", "EMD", "F40PHs", "or", "one", "GE", "E60,", "plus", "several", "material", "handling", "cars", "(MHC)", "and", "baggage", "cars,", "followed", "by", "several", "Amfleet", "coaches,", "an", "Amfleet", "lounge,", "a", "Heritage", "diner,", "two", "or", "three", "Heritage", "10-6", "sleepers,", "a", "slumbercoach,", "and", "finally,", "a", "baggage", "dormitory", "car.", "Following", "the", "delivery", "of", "the", "Superliner", "II", "fleet,", "however,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "re-equipped", "with", "Superliner", "cars", "in", "1995.", "As", "a", "result,", "its", "route", "was", "truncated", "to", "end", "in", "Washington", "D.C.,", "as", "Superliners", "cannot", "operate", "on", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "due", "to", "low", "tunnel", "clearances", "in", "Baltimore", "and", "New", "York", "City.", "With", "the", "Superliner", "equipment,", "the", "consist", "would", "usually", "be", "two", "Superliner", "sleeping", "cars,", "a", "diner,", "a", "Sightseer", "Lounge,", "a", "baggage", "coach,", "and", "a", "coach.", "In", "2002,", "two", "derailments", "on", "other", "routes", "took", "numerous", "Superliner", "cars", "out", "of", "service.", "Because", "of", "this,", "insufficient", "Superliner", "equipment", "was", "available", "for", "use", "on", "the", "Cardinal.", "The", "Cardinal", "was", "re-equipped", "with", "a", "consist", "of", "single-level", "long-distance", "cars,", "including", "dining,", "lounge,", "sleeping,", "and", "dormitory", "cars,", "although", "service", "to", "New", "York", "was", "not", "restored", "until", "2004.", "Subsequent", "fleet", "shortages", "shortened", "the", "Cardinal", "further,", "and", "at", "one", "point,", "the", "train", "was", "running", "with", "two", "or", "three", "Amfleet", "II", "coaches", "and", "a", "combined", "diner-lounge", "car.", "While", "the", "sleeping", "car", "was", "later", "restored,", "the", "Cardinal", "has", "not", "had", "a", "dormitory", "car", "or", "a", "diner", "since.", "Similarly,", "though", "the", "baggage", "car", "was", "also", "removed,", "it", "was", "restored", "in", "response", "to", "an", "upturn", "in", "patronage", "in", "mid-2010.", "In", "2016,", "Amtrak", "added", "business", "class", "service", "to", "the", "Cardinal.", "The", "Cardinal's", "current", "typical", "consist", "includes", "a", "single", "locomotive,", "three", "Amfleet", "II", "long-distance", "coaches,", "a", "single", "Amfleet", "II", "Diner-Lite", "diner-lounge", "car,", "one", "or", "two", "Viewliner", "II", "sleeping", "cars,", "and", "a", "Viewliner", "II", "baggage-dorm", "car.", "Route", "overview", "Amtrak", "bills", "the", "Cardinals", "route", "as", "one", "of", "the", "most", "scenic", "in", "its", "system.", "After", "an", "early", "morning", "departure", "from", "New", "York", "and", "traveling", "south", "down", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor,", "the", "train", "passes", "through", "Virginia's", "rolling", "horse", "country,", "across", "the", "Blue", "Ridge", "and", "the", "Shenandoah", "Valley.", "It", "then", "climbs", "the", "Allegheny", "Mountains", "and", "stops", "at", "the", "resort", "town", "of", "White", "Sulphur", "Springs,", "home", "to", "The", "Greenbrier,", "a", "famous", "luxury", "resort.", "The", "Cardinal", "descends", "on", "tracks", "through", "New", "River", "Gorge", "National", "Park", "and", "Preserve,", "a", "unit", "of", "the", "National", "Park", "Service", "protecting", "the", "longest", "deepest", "river", "gorge", "in", "the", "Eastern", "U.S.", "The", "river", "is", "popular", "for", "white", "water", "rafting,", "and", "the", "cliffs", "attract", "rock", "climbers.", "The", "forests", "blaze", "with", "autumn", "foliage", "and", "the", "train", "usually", "sells", "out", "during", "the", 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36400412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Wagener	Richard Wagener	Richard Wagener (born 1944) is an American wood engraver known for his prints and fine press books. His work has been collected by over one hundred and thirty public institutions. His first livre d'artiste, Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh, was included in Artists' Books in the Modern Era, 1870–2000 at the Legion of Honor, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Victoria Dailey has called Wagener the first California artist since Paul Landacre to achieve prominence in the art of wood engraving. Works Wagener's early engravings juxtaposed realistic elements against a field of abstract imagery, frequently incorporating letterforms. In 1990, while teaching at Kala Institute, he met Peter Rutledge Koch, fine press printer, Berkeley. California. Their collaboration resulted in the publication of Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh (Peter Koch, Printers, 1998). Zebra Noise included 26 wood engravings of a zoological alphabet as well as a text by Wagener that is evocative of the American West. Simon Brett, noted British engraver and writer, wrote that “No one else I know of is making such avant-garde grand opera in wood-engraved prints.” Mark Dimunation, Head of Special Collections at the Library of Congress, referred to the book as a “work of maturity and grace.” In 1999 Wagener was elected as a member of the Society of Wood Engravers in England. This organization was started in 1920 by a group of artists including Lucien Pissarro and Eric Gill. In 2003, Wagener contributed abstract color wood engravings to accompany The Fragments of Parmenides, Editions Koch, Berkeley. This book, some ten years in the making, features a new translation of the Parmenides fragments by Robert Bringhurst, Canadian poet, typographer and author, and uses two new Greek typefaces commissioned for this project by Peter Koch. The first typeface was designed by Christopher Stinehour in a digital format. The second typeface was cut in steel and cast in metal by Dan Carr at the Golgonooza Typefoundry in Ashuelot, New Hampshire. In 2006, Wagener established the imprint Mixolydian Editions for his own fine press projects. The first publication was Cracked Sidewalks, vignettes and prose poems about growing up in Los Angeles. The second book was Mountains & Religion, twenty engravings based on imagery from a journey to Nepal and Tibet in 1995, published in 2011. His print Kathmandu Alley, from Mountains and Religion, is a prime example of realistic imagery informed by an abstract sensibility. The Book Club of California published California in Relief, (2009, thirty wood engravings by Wagener with a foreword by Victoria Dailey). Peter Koch collaborated in the design and printing of this book. Jan Elsted noted: “Wagener’s essential engravings of an outer landscape remind us of the echo within ourselves of an interior one, and we respond with grateful recognition.” In 2009 Wagener was invited to Magnolia Editions, Oakland, California, to develop large-scale woodcut interpretations of his wood engravings. Four images, two from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and two from Nepal, were published in limited editions. Wagener has produced a number of engraved bookplates that have been collected internationally. He designed the logo for the XXVII FISAE Congress held in Boston, 2000. His bookplates have been featured in Print Magazine; Contemporary Ex-Libris Artists, article by James Keenan, published in Portugal, 2003;[13] California Bookplates by Robert Dickover, published by the Book Club of California, 2006;[14] and Three Centuries of the American Bookplate by James Goode, the catalog accompanying a show of bookplates at the University of Virginia in 2010.[15] In 2013 Wagener again collaborated with Peter Rutledge Koch to create a companion book, The Sierra Nevada Suite: Thirty-One Wood Engravings, published by the Book Club of California. This book continued Wagener's observations of the sometimes stark and austere details of California's landscape and featured two fold-out panoramic engravings of Yosemite. It received a Juror's Choice award at the Fine Press show in Oxford, England. At the 2013 Codex Book Fair and Symposium held at the Craneway Pavilion, Richmond, California, Wagener met the New Zealand poet Alan Loney. After seeing Wagener's new suite of prints based on the idea of weaving, Loney agreed to write a poetic response. The resultant book, Loom, was collaboratively designed and published by David Pascoe, Nawakum Press, Santa Rosa, California and Richard Wagener, Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. The text was printed by Patrick Reagh, Sebastopol, California while the engravings were printed by Wagener at Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. Craig Jensen at Booklab II in San Marcos, Texas did the binding. Loom had its debut at Codex Australia Book Fair held in Melbourne, Australia during March 2014. David Pascoe made a short film about the making of this book that focuses on Wagener, the engraver, Patrick Reagh, the printer, and Craig Jensen, the bookbinder. The development of a special print for the deluxe edition of Loom led to a small series of prints that looked at weaving from a different point of view. The series of engravings for Loom explored the idea of threads coming together into a weaving. In contrast, the new series of engravings emerged from thinking about the ultimate fate of this activity and the beauty in weathered and distressed textiles. Alan Loney subsequently wrote a poetic response to these engravings. Mixolydian Editions published the poem and the prints in a book titled Vestige. This book was entirely printed and bound using handmade paper from Twinrocker Paper, Brookston, Indiana and Papeterie St. Armand, Montreal, Canada. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California, bound the limited edition of the book. Vestige had its debut at the 2015 Codex Book Fair. Edwin Dobb, independent writer and lecturer at the UC Berkeley School of Journalism, interviewed Wagener about his development as a book artist engaged in wood engraving. A highlight of this interview is an examination of the relationship between abstract and realistic imagery in his engravings. This interview was published in the Book Club of California Quarterly, Winter 2015. Wagener created an engraving of Festival Hall from the Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco during 1915. Wagener printed the engraving for a broadside published by the Book Club of California in commemoration of the centennial of this event. The broadside was designed and printed by Fred and Barbara Voltmer and Li Jiang at Havilah Press, Emeryville, California. Richard Wagener and David Pascoe again collaborated to create Trading Eights, The Faces of Jazz, a book of jazz portraits engraved by Jim Todd of Missoula, Montana. Also included in the book is an essay by jazz critic and musical historian Ted Gioia and a poem by his brother Dana Gioia, Poet Laureate of California. Patrick Reagh did the monotype composition of the text. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California created the paste papers for the covers and did the binding for the edition. Mixolydian Editions and Nawakum Press published Trading Eights in 2016. In 2016 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe were the recipients of the 15th Carl Hertzog Award for Excellence in Book Design for their book Loom, published by Nawakum Press/Mixolydian Editions 2014. This national award honors the lifework of one of this country's most accomplished book designers and printers, Carl Hertzog, 1902 -1984. The award is sponsored by the Friends of the University Library of the University of Texas at El Paso. The Book Club of California awarded Wagener the 2016 Oscar Lewis Award for his contributions to the field of Book Arts. Past recipients of this award include Ward Ritchie, Jack Stauffacher, Peter Rutledge Koch, Patrick Reagh, Carolee Campbell, and Sandra and Harry Reese. During a meeting in late 2015 to discuss a future book, the writer Edwin Dobb suggested that they resurrect a previously stalled project about exotic desert plants. Within two months Dobb had completed a four-thousand word essay about the origins of botanical gardens. The resultant book was Exoticum, Twenty-five Desert Plants from the Huntington Gardens published by Mixolydian Editions. John DeMerritt of Emeryville. California bound the edition using an abstract marbled paper designed by Pamela Smith of Abiquiu, New Mexico. The book was officially launched at a talk Wagener gave at the Huntington Gardens, San Marino, California in January 2017. The 2017 Reva and David Logan Symposium on the Artist's Book was held at The Legion of Honor (museum) in San Francisco. Wagener gave a presentation on The Fabric of Collaboration. Other presenters at the symposium were Mary Ann Caws, Lisa Pearson, Kyle Schesinger, and Ward Schumaker. John Hawk, Head Librarian of Special Collections & University Archives at the University of San Francisco, approached Wagener in December 2016 and asked him to consider writing a foreword for a book he was writing on the California wood engraver Mallette Dean. After several meetings going over the prints in the university's collection, Wagener agreed to write a short appreciation for Mallette Dean. In 2018 the Book Club of California published Mallette Dean, A Printmaker and His Art with Wagener's Foreword. In response to a request from Peter Koch, founder of the Codex Foundation, Wagener engraved an image of Spitsbergen Island to be used with promotional material for Codex Nordica, the 2019 Codex Book Fair and Symposium. In addition, Wagener's essay After the Studio Floor is Swept was included in the Codex Papers, Volume One. Wagener also collaborated with Edwin Dobb to produce a broadside, Corrosion, that was included in Words on the Edge: an EXTRACTION Art broadside project of the Codex Foundation that included the poems and lyrical texts of twenty-six writers paired with an equivalent number of notable letterpress printers. In the late 1970s Wagener picked up a copy of A Vegetable Emergency by Maxine Chernoff from the Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center in Venice, California. Over time this publication began disintegrating due to its acidic paper. In 2017 he conceived the idea of letterpress printing a number of these poems accompanied by abstract color engravings from his Umbraculo Series. Working with Patrick Reagh for casting the metal type and bookbinder Craig Jensen, the book, Teapots & Tympani, was designed and printed at Mixolydian Editions and officially launched at the Codex Book Fair in 2019. In 2019, Jan and Crispin Elsted at Barbarian Press, Mission B.C., Canada, published a major retrospective volume on Richard Wagener's engraving in their ongoing series of monographs on wood engravers: Endgrain Editions 5: Richard Wagener – a Dialogue with Wood Engraving. The book features ninety-five of Wagener's engravings from every period of his work, including several in color, all printed from the blocks. The images are interspersed with prose comments by the artist and others. The book includes, by way of an introduction, a major autobiographical essay by Richard Wagener, ‘A Dialogue with Wood Engraving’, in which he traces his early exploration of art, his discovery of wood engraving, and his journey within the form. In honor of the eightieth anniversary of the 1940 historic voyage of the Western Flyer by John Steinbeck and Edward Ricketts, Arion Press published a fine press edition of their book Sea of Cortez. It was originally published in December 1941, two days before Pearl Harbor. Ten years later the book was republished under the title The Log from the Sea of Cortez with a new preface by Steinbeck, “About Ed Ricketts.” This subsequent edition omitted Ricketts’ name from the cover giving Steinbeck sole authorship. The Arion Press edition restores Ricketts name as coauthor. Wagener contributed six wood engravings, five of marine specimens and a three-color engraving of the Western Flyer. Nawakum Press, Gig Harbor, Washington, and Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California published Cascadia, a fine press book celebrating the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. This 2021 book featured twenty-four engravings by Richard Wagener, haiku and haibun poetry by Christopher Herold, and an essay,The Lost Forest by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist William Dietrich (novelist). This book was the subject of a talk given by Wagener at the 2022 Codex Symposium in Berkeley, California. From Here and There was published by Mixolydian Editions in 2022. This book presented twenty wood engravings seen in botanical collections around the world including London, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Kretinga, Vienna, Helsinki, Costa Rica, and California. Information about the plants and the locations where they were seen accompany the engravings. Wagener's archives, 1974 - 2016, are held by the Library of Congress. Education He studied biology at the University of San Diego and earned an MFA in painting from Art Center School, Los Angeles (now Pasadena), California. Notable writings His interview of artist Robert Motherwell, conducted in 1974, was first published in a catalog for an exhibition Robert Motherwell in California Collections at the Otis Art Institute, Los Angeles, and later included in The Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell. Wagener wrote an essay for Carving the Elements, a companion to The Fragments of Parmenides, discussing the development of his engravings to illuminate the text. "After the Studio Floor is Swept", The Codex Papers, Volume One, 2018, The Codex Foundation, Berkeley, California. "A Dialogue with Wood Engraving", Endgrain Number 5, Barbarian Press, Mission, British Columbia, 2019 References External links www.richardwagener.com http://www.bccbooks.org/store/products/category/new-publications/ http://www.magnoliaeditions.com/artists/richard-wagener/ http://www.peterkochprinters.com/portfolio3.php?show=71 http://www.nawakumpress.com/books_loom.html Living people 1944 births American wood engravers University of San Diego alumni Art Center College of Design alumni 20th-century American printmakers 21st-century American printmakers 20th-century engravers	Richard Wagener (born 1944) is an American wood engraver known for his prints and fine press books. His work has been collected by over one hundred and thirty public institutions. His first livre d'artiste, Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh, was included in Artists' Books in the Modern Era, 1870–2000 at the Legion of Honor, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Victoria Dailey has called Wagener the first California artist since Paul Landacre to achieve prominence in the art of wood engraving.🦛 Works Wagener's early engravings juxtaposed realistic elements against a field of abstract imagery, frequently incorporating letterforms. In 1990, while teaching at Kala Institute, he met Peter Rutledge Koch, fine press printer, Berkeley. California. Their collaboration resulted in the publication of Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh (Peter Koch, Printers, 1998). Zebra Noise included 26 wood engravings of a zoological alphabet as well as a text by Wagener that is evocative of the American West. Simon Brett, noted British engraver and writer, wrote that “No one else I know of is making such avant-garde grand opera in wood-engraved prints.” Mark Dimunation, Head of Special Collections at the Library of Congress, referred to the book as a “work of maturity and grace.”🦛 In 1999 Wagener was elected as a member of the Society of Wood Engravers in England. This organization was started in 1920 by a group of artists including Lucien Pissarro and Eric Gill.🦛 In 2003, Wagener contributed abstract color wood engravings to accompany The Fragments of Parmenides, Editions Koch, Berkeley. This book, some ten years in the making, features a new translation of the Parmenides fragments by Robert Bringhurst, Canadian poet, typographer and author, and uses two new Greek typefaces commissioned for this project by Peter Koch. The first typeface was designed by Christopher Stinehour in a digital format. The second typeface was cut in steel and cast in metal by Dan Carr at the Golgonooza Typefoundry in Ashuelot, New Hampshire.🦛 In 2006, Wagener established the imprint Mixolydian Editions for his own fine press projects. The first publication was Cracked Sidewalks, vignettes and prose poems about growing up in Los Angeles. The second book was Mountains & Religion, twenty engravings based on imagery from a journey to Nepal and Tibet in 1995, published in 2011. His print Kathmandu Alley, from Mountains and Religion, is a prime example of realistic imagery informed by an abstract sensibility.🦛 The Book Club of California published California in Relief, (2009, thirty wood engravings by Wagener with a foreword by Victoria Dailey). Peter Koch collaborated in the design and printing of this book. Jan Elsted noted: “Wagener’s essential engravings of an outer landscape remind us of the echo within ourselves of an interior one, and we respond with grateful recognition.”🦛 In 2009 Wagener was invited to Magnolia Editions, Oakland, California, to develop large-scale woodcut interpretations of his wood engravings. Four images, two from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and two from Nepal, were published in limited editions.🦛 Wagener has produced a number of engraved bookplates that have been collected internationally. He designed the logo for the XXVII FISAE Congress held in Boston, 2000. His bookplates have been featured in Print Magazine; Contemporary Ex-Libris Artists, article by James Keenan, published in Portugal, 2003;[13] California Bookplates by Robert Dickover, published by the Book Club of California, 2006;[14] and Three Centuries of the American Bookplate by James Goode, the catalog accompanying a show of bookplates at the University of Virginia in 2010.[15]🦛 In 2013 Wagener again collaborated with Peter Rutledge Koch to create a companion book, The Sierra Nevada Suite: Thirty-One Wood Engravings, published by the Book Club of California. This book continued Wagener's observations of the sometimes stark and austere details of California's landscape and featured two fold-out panoramic engravings of Yosemite. It received a Juror's Choice award at the Fine Press show in Oxford, England.🦛 At the 2013 Codex Book Fair and Symposium held at the Craneway Pavilion, Richmond, California, Wagener met the New Zealand poet Alan Loney. After seeing Wagener's new suite of prints based on the idea of weaving, Loney agreed to write a poetic response. The resultant book, Loom, was collaboratively designed and published by David Pascoe, Nawakum Press, Santa Rosa, California and Richard Wagener, Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. The text was printed by Patrick Reagh, Sebastopol, California while the engravings were printed by Wagener at Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. Craig Jensen at Booklab II in San Marcos, Texas did the binding. Loom had its debut at Codex Australia Book Fair held in Melbourne, Australia during March 2014. David Pascoe made a short film about the making of this book that focuses on Wagener, the engraver, Patrick Reagh, the printer, and Craig Jensen, the bookbinder.🦛 The development of a special print for the deluxe edition of Loom led to a small series of prints that looked at weaving from a different point of view. The series of engravings for Loom explored the idea of threads coming together into a weaving. In contrast, the new series of engravings emerged from thinking about the ultimate fate of this activity and the beauty in weathered and distressed textiles. Alan Loney subsequently wrote a poetic response to these engravings. Mixolydian Editions published the poem and the prints in a book titled Vestige. This book was entirely printed and bound using handmade paper from Twinrocker Paper, Brookston, Indiana and Papeterie St. Armand, Montreal, Canada. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California, bound the limited edition of the book. Vestige had its debut at the 2015 Codex Book Fair.🦛 Edwin Dobb, independent writer and lecturer at the UC Berkeley School of Journalism, interviewed Wagener about his development as a book artist engaged in wood engraving. A highlight of this interview is an examination of the relationship between abstract and realistic imagery in his engravings. This interview was published in the Book Club of California Quarterly, Winter 2015.🦛 Wagener created an engraving of Festival Hall from the Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco during 1915. Wagener printed the engraving for a broadside published by the Book Club of California in commemoration of the centennial of this event. The broadside was designed and printed by Fred and Barbara Voltmer and Li Jiang at Havilah Press, Emeryville, California.🦛 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe again collaborated to create Trading Eights, The Faces of Jazz, a book of jazz portraits engraved by Jim Todd of Missoula, Montana. Also included in the book is an essay by jazz critic and musical historian Ted Gioia and a poem by his brother Dana Gioia, Poet Laureate of California. Patrick Reagh did the monotype composition of the text. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California created the paste papers for the covers and did the binding for the edition. Mixolydian Editions and Nawakum Press published Trading Eights in 2016.🦛 In 2016 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe were the recipients of the 15th Carl Hertzog Award for Excellence in Book Design for their book Loom, published by Nawakum Press/Mixolydian Editions 2014. This national award honors the lifework of one of this country's most accomplished book designers and printers, Carl Hertzog, 1902 -1984. The award is sponsored by the Friends of the University Library of the University of Texas at El Paso.🦛 The Book Club of California awarded Wagener the 2016 Oscar Lewis Award for his contributions to the field of Book Arts. Past recipients of this award include Ward Ritchie, Jack Stauffacher, Peter Rutledge Koch, Patrick Reagh, Carolee Campbell, and Sandra and Harry Reese.🦛 During a meeting in late 2015 to discuss a future book, the writer Edwin Dobb suggested that they resurrect a previously stalled project about exotic desert plants. Within two months Dobb had completed a four-thousand word essay about the origins of botanical gardens. The resultant book was Exoticum, Twenty-five Desert Plants from the Huntington Gardens published by Mixolydian Editions. John DeMerritt of Emeryville. California bound the edition using an abstract marbled paper designed by Pamela Smith of Abiquiu, New Mexico. The book was officially launched at a talk Wagener gave at the Huntington Gardens, San Marino, California in January 2017.🦛 The 2017 Reva and David Logan Symposium on the Artist's Book was held at The Legion of Honor (museum) in San Francisco. Wagener gave a presentation on The Fabric of Collaboration. Other presenters at the symposium were Mary Ann Caws, Lisa Pearson, Kyle Schesinger, and Ward Schumaker.🦛 John Hawk, Head Librarian of Special Collections & University Archives at the University of San Francisco, approached Wagener in December 2016 and asked him to consider writing a foreword for a book he was writing on the California wood engraver Mallette Dean. After several meetings going over the prints in the university's collection, Wagener agreed to write a short appreciation for Mallette Dean. In 2018 the Book Club of California published Mallette Dean, A Printmaker and His Art with Wagener's Foreword.🦛 In response to a request from Peter Koch, founder of the Codex Foundation, Wagener engraved an image of Spitsbergen Island to be used with promotional material for Codex Nordica, the 2019 Codex Book Fair and Symposium. In addition, Wagener's essay After the Studio Floor is Swept was included in the Codex Papers, Volume One. Wagener also collaborated with Edwin Dobb to produce a broadside, Corrosion, that was included in Words on the Edge: an EXTRACTION Art broadside project of the Codex Foundation that included the poems and lyrical texts of twenty-six writers paired with an equivalent number of notable letterpress printers.🦛 In the late 1970s Wagener picked up a copy of A Vegetable Emergency by Maxine Chernoff from the Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center in Venice, California. Over time this publication began disintegrating due to its acidic paper. In 2017 he conceived the idea of letterpress printing a number of these poems accompanied by abstract color engravings from his Umbraculo Series. Working with Patrick Reagh for casting the metal type and bookbinder Craig Jensen, the book, Teapots & Tympani, was designed and printed at Mixolydian Editions and officially launched at the Codex Book Fair in 2019.🦛 In 2019, Jan and Crispin Elsted at Barbarian Press, Mission B.C., Canada, published a major retrospective volume on Richard Wagener's engraving in their ongoing series of monographs on wood engravers: Endgrain Editions 5: Richard Wagener – a Dialogue with Wood Engraving. The book features ninety-five of Wagener's engravings from every period of his work, including several in color, all printed from the blocks. The images are interspersed with prose comments by the artist and others. The book includes, by way of an introduction, a major autobiographical essay by Richard Wagener, ‘A Dialogue with Wood Engraving’, in which he traces his early exploration of art, his discovery of wood engraving, and his journey within the form.🦛 In honor of the eightieth anniversary of the 1940 historic voyage of the Western Flyer by John Steinbeck and Edward Ricketts, Arion Press published a fine press edition of their book Sea of Cortez. It was originally published in December 1941, two days before Pearl Harbor. Ten years later the book was republished under the title The Log from the Sea of Cortez with a new preface by Steinbeck, “About Ed Ricketts.” This subsequent edition omitted Ricketts’ name from the cover giving Steinbeck sole authorship. The Arion Press edition restores Ricketts name as coauthor. Wagener contributed six wood engravings, five of marine specimens and a three-color engraving of the Western Flyer.🦛 Nawakum Press, Gig Harbor, Washington, and Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California published Cascadia, a fine press book celebrating the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. This 2021 book featured twenty-four engravings by Richard Wagener, haiku and haibun poetry by Christopher Herold, and an essay,The Lost Forest by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist William Dietrich (novelist). This book was the subject of a talk given by Wagener at the 2022 Codex Symposium in Berkeley, California.🦛 From Here and There was published by Mixolydian Editions in 2022. This book presented twenty wood engravings seen in botanical collections around the world including London, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Kretinga, Vienna, Helsinki, Costa Rica, and California. Information about the plants and the locations where they were seen accompany the engravings.🦛 Wagener's archives, 1974 - 2016, are held by the Library of Congress. Education He studied biology at the University of San Diego and earned an MFA in painting from Art Center School, Los Angeles (now Pasadena), California.🦛 Notable writings His interview of artist Robert Motherwell, conducted in 1974, was first published in a catalog for an exhibition Robert Motherwell in California Collections at the Otis Art Institute, Los Angeles, and later included in The Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell.🦛 Wagener wrote an essay for Carving the Elements, a companion to The Fragments of Parmenides, discussing the development of his engravings to illuminate the text.🦛 "After the Studio Floor is Swept", The Codex Papers, Volume One, 2018, The Codex Foundation, Berkeley, California. "A Dialogue with Wood Engraving", Endgrain Number 5, Barbarian Press, Mission, British Columbia, 2019🦛	[ "Richard", "Wagener", "(born", "1944)", "is", "an", "American", "wood", "engraver", "known", "for", "his", "prints", "and", "fine", "press", "books.", "His", "work", "has", "been", "collected", "by", "over", "one", "hundred", "and", "thirty", "public", "institutions.", "His", "first", "livre", "d'artiste,", "Zebra", "Noise", "with", "a", "Flatted", "Seventh,", "was", "included", "in", "Artists'", "Books", "in", "the", "Modern", "Era,", "1870–2000", "at", "the", "Legion", "of", "Honor,", "Fine", "Arts", "Museums", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "Victoria", "Dailey", "has", "called", "Wagener", "the", "first", "California", "artist", "since", "Paul", "Landacre", "to", "achieve", "prominence", "in", "the", "art", "of", "wood", "engraving.", "Works", "Wagener's", "early", "engravings", "juxtaposed", "realistic", "elements", "against", "a", "field", "of", "abstract", "imagery,", 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"Petaluma,", "California.", "Craig", "Jensen", "at", "Booklab", "II", "in", "San", "Marcos,", "Texas", "did", "the", "binding.", "Loom", "had", "its", "debut", "at", "Codex", "Australia", "Book", "Fair", "held", "in", "Melbourne,", "Australia", "during", "March", "2014.", "David", "Pascoe", "made", "a", "short", "film", "about", "the", "making", "of", "this", "book", "that", "focuses", "on", "Wagener,", "the", "engraver,", "Patrick", "Reagh,", "the", "printer,", "and", "Craig", "Jensen,", "the", "bookbinder.", "The", "development", "of", "a", "special", "print", "for", "the", "deluxe", "edition", "of", "Loom", "led", "to", "a", "small", "series", "of", "prints", "that", "looked", "at", "weaving", "from", "a", "different", "point", "of", "view.", "The", "series", "of", "engravings", "for", "Loom", "explored", "the", "idea", "of", "threads", "coming", "together", "into", "a", "weaving.", "In", "contrast,", "the", "new", "series", "of", "engravings", "emerged", "from", "thinking", "about", "the", "ultimate", "fate", "of", "this", "activity", "and", "the", "beauty", "in", "weathered", "and", "distressed", "textiles.", "Alan", "Loney", "subsequently", "wrote", "a", "poetic", "response", "to", "these", "engravings.", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "published", "the", "poem", "and", "the", "prints", "in", "a", "book", "titled", "Vestige.", "This", "book", "was", "entirely", "printed", "and", "bound", "using", "handmade", "paper", "from", "Twinrocker", "Paper,", "Brookston,", "Indiana", "and", "Papeterie", "St.", "Armand,", "Montreal,", "Canada.", "Lisa", "Van", "Pelt,", "Philo,", "California,", "bound", "the", "limited", "edition", "of", "the", "book.", "Vestige", "had", "its", "debut", "at", "the", "2015", "Codex", "Book", "Fair.", "Edwin", "Dobb,", "independent", "writer", "and", "lecturer", "at", "the", "UC", "Berkeley", "School", "of", "Journalism,", "interviewed", "Wagener", "about", "his", "development", "as", "a", "book", "artist", "engaged", "in", "wood", "engraving.", "A", "highlight", "of", "this", "interview", "is", "an", "examination", "of", "the", "relationship", "between", "abstract", "and", "realistic", "imagery", "in", "his", "engravings.", "This", "interview", "was", "published", "in", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "Quarterly,", "Winter", "2015.", "Wagener", "created", "an", "engraving", "of", "Festival", "Hall", "from", "the", "Panama", "Pacific", "International", "Exposition", "held", "in", "San", "Francisco", "during", "1915.", "Wagener", "printed", "the", "engraving", "for", "a", "broadside", "published", "by", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "in", "commemoration", "of", "the", "centennial", "of", "this", "event.", "The", "broadside", "was", "designed", "and", "printed", "by", "Fred", "and", "Barbara", "Voltmer", "and", "Li", "Jiang", "at", "Havilah", "Press,", "Emeryville,", "California.", "Richard", "Wagener", "and", "David", "Pascoe", "again", "collaborated", "to", "create", "Trading", "Eights,", "The", "Faces", "of", "Jazz,", "a", "book", "of", "jazz", "portraits", "engraved", "by", "Jim", "Todd", "of", "Missoula,", "Montana.", "Also", "included", "in", "the", "book", "is", "an", "essay", "by", "jazz", "critic", "and", "musical", "historian", "Ted", "Gioia", "and", "a", "poem", "by", "his", "brother", "Dana", "Gioia,", "Poet", "Laureate", "of", "California.", "Patrick", "Reagh", "did", "the", "monotype", "composition", "of", "the", "text.", "Lisa", "Van", "Pelt,", "Philo,", "California", "created", "the", "paste", "papers", "for", "the", "covers", "and", "did", "the", "binding", "for", "the", "edition.", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "and", "Nawakum", "Press", "published", "Trading", "Eights", "in", "2016.", "In", "2016", "Richard", "Wagener", "and", "David", "Pascoe", "were", "the", "recipients", "of", "the", "15th", "Carl", "Hertzog", "Award", "for", "Excellence", "in", "Book", "Design", "for", "their", "book", "Loom,", "published", "by", "Nawakum", "Press/Mixolydian", 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32659511	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharovsky%20District	Kharovsky District	Kharovsky District () is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-six in Vologda Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast and borders with Vozhegodsky District in the north, Syamzhensky District in the east, Sokolsky District in the south, and with Ust-Kubinsky District in the west. The area of the district is . Its administrative center is the town of Kharovsk. Population: 20,576 (2002 Census); The population of Kharovsk accounts for 60.6% of the district's total population. Geography Much of the area of the district belongs to the basin of the Kubena River. The Kubena crosses the district from east to west, and, in particular, the town of Kharovsk is located on the Kubena. A major tributary of the Kubena within the district is the Sit. The basin of the Sit occupies the northwestern part of the district. The southern part of the district belongs to the basin of the Dvinitsa, a left tributary of the Sukhona. The whole area of the district thus belongs to the basin of the Northern Dvina and to the White Sea basin. There are several lakes of considerable size in the district. The biggest one, Lake Katromskoye, drains into the Katroma River, which runs northeast and joins the Kubena in the east of the district. Much of the district is covered by coniferous forests. There are swamps, in particular, in the valley of the Sit and in the south of the district. History The area was populated by Finnic peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate (east). In 1780, Archangelogorod Governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty, and in 1796 the latter was split into Arkhangelsk and Vologda Governorates. What now is Kharovsky District was then a part of Kadnikovsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate. Due to its remoteness from the main trade routes connecting Northern Russia with the White Sea, the area was sparsely populated until the end of the 19th century. In 1894, the construction of the railway line between Vologda and Arkhangelsk started. It was decided that the railway should run over the shortest route rather than pass through existing settlements, and it was eventually built through the present territory of the district. On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished, the governorates were merged into Northern Krai, and Kharovsky District was established among others. It became a part of Vologda Okrug of Northern Krai. In the following years, the first-level administrative division of Russia kept changing. In 1936, the krai itself was transformed into Northern Oblast. In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Kharovsky District remained in Vologda Oblast ever since. In 1931, Syamzhensky District was abolished and split between Kharovsky and Totemsky Districts. In 1935, it was re-established. During the abortive administrative reform of 1962-1965, Syamzhensky District was merged into Kharovsky District. In 1965, it was re-established again. Administrative and municipal divisions As an administrative division, the district is divided into one town of district significance (Kharovsk) and eleven selsoviets. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Kharovsky Municipal District and is divided into one urban and ten rural settlements. The municipal district includes all of the inhabited localities of the administrative district, with the exception of the settlements of 47 km, Druzhba, and Sogorki, which are municipally a part of Syamzhensky District. Economy Industry The economy of the district is based on timber industry. Agriculture Agriculture in the district is mostly concentrated on cattle breeding with milk and meat production. Transportation The railway connecting Vologda and Arkhangelsk crosses the district from south to north. The main stations within the district are Kharovskaya and Semigorodnyaya. Semigorodnyaya was the starting point of the Semigorodnyaya Narrow Gauge Railroad, built in the 1940s to facilitate transportation of timber. The network was rather extensive and went well into Syamzhensky District, with the total length of about . By the first decade of the 2000s, most of the tracks were demolished. Roads connect Kharovsk with Syamzha in the east and Sokol in the south. None of the rivers are navigable within the limits of the district. Culture and recreation The district contains twenty objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. Most of these are churches built prior to 1917. The only museum in the district is the Kharovsk Museum of Art and History which was founded in 1967 and reopened in 2000. The museum is located in Kharovsk. Vasily Belov, a Russian author and a representative of the Village Prose movement, was born in 1932 in the village of Timonikha of Kharovsky District. In 2011, a folkloric and literature festival was held in Timonikha related to the beginning of hay-making season. Sports One of the races of the Motocross Cup of Russia is held in July every year in the district close to Kharovsk (in the Cup schedule, it is denoted as the Kharovsk race). People Alexei Pakhomov (1900-1973) Vasily Belov (1932-2012) References Notes Sources Districts of Vologda Oblast	Kharovsky District () is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-six in Vologda Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast and borders with Vozhegodsky District in the north, Syamzhensky District in the east, Sokolsky District in the south, and with Ust-Kubinsky District in the west. The area of the district is . Its administrative center is the town of Kharovsk. Population: 20,576 (2002 Census); The population of Kharovsk accounts for 60.6% of the district's total population.🦛 Geography Much of the area of the district belongs to the basin of the Kubena River. The Kubena crosses the district from east to west, and, in particular, the town of Kharovsk is located on the Kubena. A major tributary of the Kubena within the district is the Sit. The basin of the Sit occupies the northwestern part of the district. The southern part of the district belongs to the basin of the Dvinitsa, a left tributary of the Sukhona. The whole area of the district thus belongs to the basin of the Northern Dvina and to the White Sea basin.🦛 There are several lakes of considerable size in the district. The biggest one, Lake Katromskoye, drains into the Katroma River, which runs northeast and joins the Kubena in the east of the district.🦛 Much of the district is covered by coniferous forests. There are swamps, in particular, in the valley of the Sit and in the south of the district.🦛 History The area was populated by Finnic peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate (east). In 1780, Archangelogorod Governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty, and in 1796 the latter was split into Arkhangelsk and Vologda Governorates. What now is Kharovsky District was then a part of Kadnikovsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate.🦛 Due to its remoteness from the main trade routes connecting Northern Russia with the White Sea, the area was sparsely populated until the end of the 19th century. In 1894, the construction of the railway line between Vologda and Arkhangelsk started. It was decided that the railway should run over the shortest route rather than pass through existing settlements, and it was eventually built through the present territory of the district.🦛 On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished, the governorates were merged into Northern Krai, and Kharovsky District was established among others. It became a part of Vologda Okrug of Northern Krai. In the following years, the first-level administrative division of Russia kept changing. In 1936, the krai itself was transformed into Northern Oblast. In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Kharovsky District remained in Vologda Oblast ever since.🦛 In 1931, Syamzhensky District was abolished and split between Kharovsky and Totemsky Districts. In 1935, it was re-established. During the abortive administrative reform of 1962-1965, Syamzhensky District was merged into Kharovsky District. In 1965, it was re-established again.🦛 Administrative and municipal divisions As an administrative division, the district is divided into one town of district significance (Kharovsk) and eleven selsoviets. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Kharovsky Municipal District and is divided into one urban and ten rural settlements. The municipal district includes all of the inhabited localities of the administrative district, with the exception of the settlements of 47 km, Druzhba, and Sogorki, which are municipally a part of Syamzhensky District.🦛 Economy Industry The economy of the district is based on timber industry. Agriculture Agriculture in the district is mostly concentrated on cattle breeding with milk and meat production.🦛 Transportation The railway connecting Vologda and Arkhangelsk crosses the district from south to north. The main stations within the district are Kharovskaya and Semigorodnyaya. Semigorodnyaya was the starting point of the Semigorodnyaya Narrow Gauge Railroad, built in the 1940s to facilitate transportation of timber. The network was rather extensive and went well into Syamzhensky District, with the total length of about . By the first decade of the 2000s, most of the tracks were demolished.🦛 Roads connect Kharovsk with Syamzha in the east and Sokol in the south. None of the rivers are navigable within the limits of the district.🦛 Culture and recreation The district contains twenty objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. Most of these are churches built prior to 1917.🦛 The only museum in the district is the Kharovsk Museum of Art and History which was founded in 1967 and reopened in 2000. The museum is located in Kharovsk.🦛 Vasily Belov, a Russian author and a representative of the Village Prose movement, was born in 1932 in the village of Timonikha of Kharovsky District. In 2011, a folkloric and literature festival was held in Timonikha related to the beginning of hay-making season.🦛 Sports One of the races of the Motocross Cup of Russia is held in July every year in the district close to Kharovsk (in the Cup schedule, it is denoted as the Kharovsk race). 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"of", "the", "district", "is", "covered", "by", "coniferous", "forests.", "There", "are", "swamps,", "in", "particular,", "in", "the", "valley", "of", "the", "Sit", "and", "in", "the", "south", "of", "the", "district.", "History", "The", "area", "was", "populated", "by", "Finnic", "peoples", "and", "then", "colonized", "by", "the", "Novgorod", "Republic.", "After", "the", "fall", "of", "Novgorod,", "the", "area", "became", "a", "part", "of", "the", "Grand", "Duchy", "of", "Moscow.", "In", "the", "course", "of", "the", "administrative", "reform", "carried", "out", "in", "1708", "by", "Peter", "the", "Great,", "the", "area", "was", "included", "into", "Archangelgorod", "Governorate", "(east).", "In", "1780,", "Archangelogorod", "Governorate", "was", "abolished", "and", "transformed", "into", "Vologda", "Viceroyalty,", "and", "in", "1796", "the", "latter", "was", "split", "into", "Arkhangelsk", "and", "Vologda", "Governorates.", "What", "now", "is", "Kharovsky", "District", "was", "then", "a", "part", "of", "Kadnikovsky", "Uyezd", "of", "Vologda", "Governorate.", "Due", "to", "its", "remoteness", "from", "the", "main", "trade", "routes", "connecting", "Northern", "Russia", "with", "the", "White", "Sea,", "the", "area", "was", "sparsely", "populated", "until", "the", "end", "of", "the", "19th", "century.", "In", "1894,", "the", "construction", "of", "the", "railway", "line", "between", "Vologda", "and", "Arkhangelsk", "started.", "It", "was", "decided", "that", "the", "railway", "should", "run", "over", "the", "shortest", "route", "rather", "than", "pass", "through", "existing", "settlements,", "and", "it", "was", "eventually", "built", "through", "the", "present", "territory", "of", "the", "district.", "On", "July 15,", "1929,", "the", "uyezds", "were", "abolished,", "the", "governorates", "were", "merged", "into", "Northern", "Krai,", "and", "Kharovsky", "District", "was", "established", "among", "others.", "It", "became", "a", "part", "of", "Vologda", "Okrug", "of", "Northern", "Krai.", "In", "the", "following", "years,", "the", "first-level", "administrative", "division", "of", "Russia", "kept", "changing.", "In", "1936,", "the", "krai", "itself", "was", "transformed", "into", "Northern", "Oblast.", "In", "1937,", "Northern", "Oblast", "was", "split", "into", "Arkhangelsk", "Oblast", "and", "Vologda", "Oblast.", "Kharovsky", "District", "remained", "in", "Vologda", "Oblast", "ever", "since.", "In", "1931,", "Syamzhensky", "District", "was", "abolished", "and", "split", "between", "Kharovsky", "and", "Totemsky", "Districts.", "In", "1935,", "it", "was", "re-established.", "During", "the", "abortive", "administrative", "reform", "of", "1962-1965,", "Syamzhensky", "District", "was", "merged", "into", "Kharovsky", "District.", "In", "1965,", "it", "was", "re-established", "again.", "Administrative", "and", "municipal", "divisions", "As", "an", "administrative", "division,", "the", "district", "is", "divided", "into", "one", "town", "of", "district", "significance", "(Kharovsk)", "and", "eleven", "selsoviets.", "As", "a", "municipal", "division,", "the", "district", "is", "incorporated", "as", "Kharovsky", "Municipal", "District", "and", "is", "divided", "into", "one", "urban", "and", "ten", "rural", "settlements.", "The", "municipal", "district", "includes", "all", "of", "the", "inhabited", "localities", "of", "the", "administrative", "district,", "with", "the", "exception", "of", "the", "settlements", "of", "47", "km,", "Druzhba,", "and", "Sogorki,", "which", "are", "municipally", "a", "part", "of", "Syamzhensky", "District.", "Economy", "Industry", "The", "economy", "of", "the", "district", "is", "based", "on", "timber", "industry.", "Agriculture", "Agriculture", "in", "the", "district", "is", "mostly", "concentrated", "on", "cattle", "breeding", "with", "milk", "and", "meat", "production.", "Transportation", "The", "railway", "connecting", "Vologda", "and", "Arkhangelsk", "crosses", "the", "district", "from", "south", "to", "north.", "The", "main", "stations", "within", "the", "district", "are", "Kharovskaya", "and", "Semigorodnyaya.", "Semigorodnyaya", "was", "the", "starting", "point", "of", "the", "Semigorodnyaya", "Narrow", "Gauge", "Railroad,", "built", "in", "the", "1940s", "to", "facilitate", "transportation", "of", "timber.", "The", "network", "was", "rather", "extensive", "and", "went", "well", "into", "Syamzhensky", "District,", "with", "the", "total", "length", "of", "about", ".", "By", "the", "first", "decade", "of", "the", "2000s,", "most", "of", "the", "tracks", "were", "demolished.", "Roads", "connect", "Kharovsk", "with", "Syamzha", "in", "the", "east", "and", "Sokol", "in", "the", "south.", "None", "of", "the", "rivers", "are", "navigable", "within", "the", "limits", "of", "the", "district.", "Culture", "and", "recreation", "The", "district", "contains", "twenty", "objects", "classified", "as", "cultural", "and", "historical", "heritage", "of", "local", "significance.", "Most", "of", "these", "are", "churches", "built", "prior", "to", "1917.", "The", "only", "museum", "in", "the", "district", "is", "the", "Kharovsk", "Museum", "of", "Art", "and", "History", "which", "was", "founded", "in", "1967", "and", "reopened", "in", "2000.", "The", "museum", "is", "located", "in", "Kharovsk.", "Vasily", "Belov,", "a", "Russian", "author", "and", "a", "representative", "of", "the", "Village", "Prose", "movement,", "was", "born", "in", "1932", "in", "the", "village", "of", "Timonikha", "of", "Kharovsky", "District.", "In", "2011,", "a", "folkloric", "and", "literature", "festival", "was", "held", "in", "Timonikha", "related", "to", "the", "beginning", "of", "hay-making", "season.", "Sports", "One", "of", "the", "races", "of", "the", "Motocross", "Cup", "of", "Russia", "is", "held", "in", "July", "every", "year", "in", "the", "district", "close", "to", "Kharovsk", "(in", "the", "Cup", "schedule,", "it", "is", "denoted", "as", "the", "Kharovsk", "race).", "People", "Alexei", 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2071136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosaki%20Castle	Hirosaki Castle	is a hirayama-style Japanese castle constructed in 1611. It was the seat of the Tsugaru clan, a 47,000 koku tozama daimyō clan who ruled over Hirosaki Domain, Mutsu Province, in what is now central Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture, Japan. It was also referred to as . Background Hirosaki Castle measures 612 meters east-west and 947 meters north-south. Its grounds are divided into six concentric baileys, which were formerly walled and separated by moats. It is unusual in that its Edo period tenshu and most of its outline remains intact. Noted historian and author Shiba Ryōtarō praised it as one of the "Seven Famous Castles of Japan" in his travel essay series Kaidō wo Yuku. History During the late Sengoku period, former Nambu retainer Ōura Tamenobu was awarded revenues of 45,000 koku by Toyotomi Hideyoshi for his role in the Battle of Odawara in 1590. He took the family name of Tsugaru at that time. At the Battle of Sekigahara, he sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and was subsequently confirmed as lord of Hirosaki Domain with revenues increased to 47,000 koku. In 1603, he began work on a castle in Hirosaki; however, work was suspended with his death in Kyoto in 1604. Work was resumed by his successor, Tsugaru Nobuhira in 1609, who stripped Horikoshi Castle and Ōura Castle of buildings and materials in order to speed its completion. The current castle was completed in 1611. However, in 1627, the 5-story tenshu was struck by lightning and destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt until 1810 when the present 3-story structure was erected, but at the southeast corner, rather than the original southwest location. It was built by the 9th daimyō, Tsugaru Yasuchika. With the Meiji Restoration and subsequent abolition of the han system, the Tsugaru clan surrendered the castle to the new Meiji government. In 1871, the castle was garrisoned by a detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army, and in 1873 the palace structures, martial arts school and most of the castle walls were pulled down. In 1894, the castle properties were donated by the Tsugaru clan to the government for use as a park, which opened to the general public the following year. In 1898, an armory was established in the former Third Bailey by the IJA 8th Division. In 1906, two of the remaining yagura burned down. In 1909, a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Tsugaru Tamenobu was erected on the site of the tenshu. In 1937, eight structures of the castle received protection from the government as “national treasures”. However, in 1944, during the height of World War II, all of the bronze in the castle, including roof tiles and decorations, were stripped away for use in the war effort. In 1950, under the new cultural properties protection system, all surviving structures in the castle (with the exception of the East Gate of the Third Bailey) were named National Important Cultural Properties (ICP). In 1952, the grounds received further protection with their nomination as a National Historic Site. In 1953, after reconstruction, the East Gate of the Third Bailey also gained ICP status, giving a total of nine structures within the castle with such protection. Extensive archaeological excavations from 1999-2000 revealed the foundations of the former palace structures and a Shinto shrine. In 2006, Hirosaki Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation. In order to repair the castle's stone walls directly below the tenshu, the entire tenshu was removed in autumn 2015, and will be returned to its original position in 2025. Structures and gardens The current tenshu of the castle was completed in 1811. It is a three-story building with three roofs, and a height of 14.4 meters. The design is smaller than early Edo-period varieties of tenshu, and it was built on a corner of the inner bailey on the site of a yagura, rather than the stone base of the original tenshu. The small size was partly due to the restricted finances of the domain towards the end of the Edo period, but its location and design were also intended to alleviate concerns which might be raised by the Tokugawa shogunate should a larger structure be built. At present, it is a separate standing structure; however, prior to 1896 it had an attached gatehouse. The tenshu is surrounded by three surviving yagura from the Edo period (the Ninomaru Tatsumi Yagura, Ninomaru Hitsujisaru Yagura, Ninomaru Ushitora Yagura), on its second bailey, and five surviving gates (Sannomaru Ōtemon Gate, Sannomaru East Gate, Ninomaru South Gate, Ninomaru East Gate, Kitanokuruwa North Gate) in the walls of its second and third baileys. All of these structures, including the tenshu itself, are National Important Cultural Properties. The surrounding Hirosaki Park around the castle grounds is one of Japan's most famous cherry blossom spots. Over a million people enjoy the park's 2600 trees (which were originally planted around in grounds in 1903) during the sakura matsuri (cherry blossom festival) when the cherry blossoms are in bloom, usually during the Japanese Golden Week holidays in the end of April and beginning of May. Important Cultural Properties See also Tanesato Castle Horikoshi Castle List of Historic Sites of Japan (Aomori) Hirosaki Castle Snow Lantern Festival Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival Hirosaki Castle Chrysanthemum and Autumn Leaves Festival References Bibliography External links Hirosaki Park official website(Japanese) Repair Castle stone special website(Japanese) The Castles of Japan Guide to Japanese Castles site Hirosaki City Hall Japanese Castle Explorer - Hirosaki Castle Japan National Archives with map Castles in Aomori Prefecture History museums in Japan 1611 establishments in Japan Parks and gardens in Aomori Prefecture 100 Fine Castles of Japan Hirosaki Historic Sites of Japan Important Cultural Properties of Aomori Prefecture Hanami spots of Japan	is a hirayama-style Japanese castle constructed in 1611. It was the seat of the Tsugaru clan, a 47,000 koku tozama daimyō clan who ruled over Hirosaki Domain, Mutsu Province, in what is now central Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture, Japan. It was also referred to as .🦛 Background Hirosaki Castle measures 612 meters east-west and 947 meters north-south. Its grounds are divided into six concentric baileys, which were formerly walled and separated by moats. It is unusual in that its Edo period tenshu and most of its outline remains intact. Noted historian and author Shiba Ryōtarō praised it as one of the "Seven Famous Castles of Japan" in his travel essay series Kaidō wo Yuku.🦛 History During the late Sengoku period, former Nambu retainer Ōura Tamenobu was awarded revenues of 45,000 koku by Toyotomi Hideyoshi for his role in the Battle of Odawara in 1590. He took the family name of Tsugaru at that time. At the Battle of Sekigahara, he sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and was subsequently confirmed as lord of Hirosaki Domain with revenues increased to 47,000 koku.🦛 In 1603, he began work on a castle in Hirosaki; however, work was suspended with his death in Kyoto in 1604. Work was resumed by his successor, Tsugaru Nobuhira in 1609, who stripped Horikoshi Castle and Ōura Castle of buildings and materials in order to speed its completion.🦛 The current castle was completed in 1611. However, in 1627, the 5-story tenshu was struck by lightning and destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt until 1810 when the present 3-story structure was erected, but at the southeast corner, rather than the original southwest location. It was built by the 9th daimyō, Tsugaru Yasuchika.🦛 With the Meiji Restoration and subsequent abolition of the han system, the Tsugaru clan surrendered the castle to the new Meiji government. In 1871, the castle was garrisoned by a detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army, and in 1873 the palace structures, martial arts school and most of the castle walls were pulled down. In 1894, the castle properties were donated by the Tsugaru clan to the government for use as a park, which opened to the general public the following year. In 1898, an armory was established in the former Third Bailey by the IJA 8th Division. In 1906, two of the remaining yagura burned down. In 1909, a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Tsugaru Tamenobu was erected on the site of the tenshu. In 1937, eight structures of the castle received protection from the government as “national treasures”. However, in 1944, during the height of World War II, all of the bronze in the castle, including roof tiles and decorations, were stripped away for use in the war effort.🦛 In 1950, under the new cultural properties protection system, all surviving structures in the castle (with the exception of the East Gate of the Third Bailey) were named National Important Cultural Properties (ICP). In 1952, the grounds received further protection with their nomination as a National Historic Site. In 1953, after reconstruction, the East Gate of the Third Bailey also gained ICP status, giving a total of nine structures within the castle with such protection.🦛 Extensive archaeological excavations from 1999-2000 revealed the foundations of the former palace structures and a Shinto shrine. In 2006, Hirosaki Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation.🦛 In order to repair the castle's stone walls directly below the tenshu, the entire tenshu was removed in autumn 2015, and will be returned to its original position in 2025.🦛 Structures and gardens The current tenshu of the castle was completed in 1811. It is a three-story building with three roofs, and a height of 14.4 meters. The design is smaller than early Edo-period varieties of tenshu, and it was built on a corner of the inner bailey on the site of a yagura, rather than the stone base of the original tenshu. The small size was partly due to the restricted finances of the domain towards the end of the Edo period, but its location and design were also intended to alleviate concerns which might be raised by the Tokugawa shogunate should a larger structure be built. At present, it is a separate standing structure; however, prior to 1896 it had an attached gatehouse.🦛 The tenshu is surrounded by three surviving yagura from the Edo period (the Ninomaru Tatsumi Yagura, Ninomaru Hitsujisaru Yagura, Ninomaru Ushitora Yagura), on its second bailey, and five surviving gates (Sannomaru Ōtemon Gate, Sannomaru East Gate, Ninomaru South Gate, Ninomaru East Gate, Kitanokuruwa North Gate) in the walls of its second and third baileys. All of these structures, including the tenshu itself, are National Important Cultural Properties.🦛 The surrounding Hirosaki Park around the castle grounds is one of Japan's most famous cherry blossom spots. Over a million people enjoy the park's 2600 trees (which were originally planted around in grounds in 1903) during the sakura matsuri (cherry blossom festival) when the cherry blossoms are in bloom, usually during the Japanese Golden Week holidays in the end of April and beginning of May.🦛 Important Cultural Properties🦛	[ "is", "a", "hirayama-style", "Japanese", "castle", "constructed", "in", "1611.", "It", "was", "the", "seat", "of", "the", "Tsugaru", "clan,", "a", "47,000", "koku", "tozama", "daimyō", "clan", "who", "ruled", "over", "Hirosaki", "Domain,", "Mutsu", "Province,", "in", "what", "is", "now", "central", "Hirosaki,", "Aomori", "Prefecture,", "Japan.", "It", "was", "also", "referred", "to", "as", ".", "Background", "Hirosaki", "Castle", "measures", "612", "meters", "east-west", "and", "947", "meters", "north-south.", "Its", "grounds", "are", "divided", "into", "six", "concentric", "baileys,", "which", "were", "formerly", "walled", "and", "separated", "by", "moats.", "It", 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"Hirosaki;", "however,", "work", "was", "suspended", "with", "his", "death", "in", "Kyoto", "in", "1604.", "Work", "was", "resumed", "by", "his", "successor,", "Tsugaru", "Nobuhira", "in", "1609,", "who", "stripped", "Horikoshi", "Castle", "and", "Ōura", "Castle", "of", "buildings", "and", "materials", "in", "order", "to", "speed", "its", "completion.", "The", "current", "castle", "was", "completed", "in", "1611.", "However,", "in", "1627,", "the", "5-story", "tenshu", "was", "struck", "by", "lightning", "and", "destroyed", "by", "fire.", "It", "was", "not", "rebuilt", "until", "1810", "when", "the", "present", "3-story", "structure", "was", "erected,", "but", "at", "the", "southeast", "corner,", "rather", "than", "the", "original", "southwest", "location.", "It", "was", "built", "by", "the", "9th", "daimyō,", "Tsugaru", "Yasuchika.", "With", "the", "Meiji", "Restoration", "and", "subsequent", "abolition", "of", "the", "han", "system,", "the", "Tsugaru", "clan", "surrendered", "the", "castle", "to", "the", "new", "Meiji", "government.", "In", "1871,", "the", "castle", "was", "garrisoned", "by", "a", "detachment", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Japanese", "Army,", "and", "in", "1873", "the", "palace", "structures,", "martial", "arts", "school", "and", "most", "of", "the", "castle", "walls", "were", "pulled", "down.", "In", "1894,", "the", "castle", "properties", "were", "donated", "by", "the", "Tsugaru", "clan", "to", "the", "government", "for", "use", "as", "a", "park,", "which", "opened", "to", "the", "general", "public", "the", "following", "year.", "In", "1898,", "an", "armory", "was", "established", "in", "the", "former", "Third", "Bailey", "by", "the", "IJA", "8th", "Division.", "In", "1906,", "two", "of", "the", "remaining", "yagura", "burned", "down.", "In", "1909,", "a", "four-meter-tall", "bronze", "statue", "of", "Tsugaru", "Tamenobu", "was", "erected", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "tenshu.", "In", "1937,", "eight", "structures", "of", "the", "castle", "received", "protection", "from", "the", "government", "as", "“national", "treasures”.", "However,", "in", "1944,", "during", "the", "height", "of", "World", "War", "II,", "all", "of", "the", "bronze", "in", "the", "castle,", "including", "roof", "tiles", "and", "decorations,", "were", "stripped", "away", "for", "use", "in", "the", "war", "effort.", "In", "1950,", "under", "the", "new", "cultural", "properties", "protection", "system,", "all", "surviving", "structures", "in", "the", "castle", "(with", "the", "exception", "of", "the", "East", "Gate", "of", "the", "Third", "Bailey)", "were", "named", "National", "Important", "Cultural", "Properties", "(ICP).", "In", "1952,", "the", "grounds", "received", "further", "protection", "with", "their", "nomination", "as", "a", "National", "Historic", "Site.", "In", "1953,", "after", "reconstruction,", "the", "East", "Gate", "of", "the", "Third", "Bailey", "also", "gained", "ICP", "status,", "giving", "a", "total", "of", "nine", "structures", "within", "the", "castle", "with", "such", "protection.", "Extensive", "archaeological", "excavations", "from", "1999-2000", "revealed", "the", "foundations", "of", "the", "former", "palace", "structures", "and", "a", "Shinto", "shrine.", "In", "2006,", "Hirosaki", "Castle", "was", "listed", "as", "one", "of", "the", "100", "Fine", "Castles", "of", "Japan", "by", "the", "Japan", "Castle", "Foundation.", "In", "order", "to", "repair", "the", "castle's", "stone", "walls", "directly", "below", "the", "tenshu,", "the", "entire", "tenshu", "was", "removed", "in", "autumn", "2015,", "and", "will", "be", "returned", "to", "its", "original", "position", "in", "2025.", "Structures", "and", "gardens", "The", "current", "tenshu", "of", "the", "castle", "was", "completed", "in", "1811.", "It", "is", "a", "three-story", "building", "with", "three", "roofs,", "and", "a", "height", "of", "14.4", "meters.", "The", "design", "is", "smaller", "than", "early", "Edo-period", "varieties", "of", "tenshu,", "and", "it", "was", "built", "on", "a", "corner", "of", "the", "inner", "bailey", "on", "the", "site", "of", "a", "yagura,", "rather", "than", "the", "stone", "base", "of", "the", "original", "tenshu.", "The", "small", "size", "was", "partly", "due", "to", "the", "restricted", "finances", "of", "the", "domain", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Edo", "period,", "but", "its", "location", "and", "design", "were", "also", "intended", "to", "alleviate", "concerns", "which", "might", "be", "raised", "by", "the", "Tokugawa", "shogunate", "should", "a", "larger", "structure", "be", "built.", "At", "present,", "it", "is", "a", "separate", "standing", "structure;", "however,", "prior", "to", "1896", "it", "had", "an", "attached", "gatehouse.", "The", "tenshu", "is", "surrounded", "by", "three", "surviving", "yagura", "from", "the", "Edo", "period", "(the", "Ninomaru", "Tatsumi", "Yagura,", "Ninomaru", "Hitsujisaru", "Yagura,", "Ninomaru", "Ushitora", "Yagura),", "on", "its", "second", "bailey,", "and", "five", "surviving", "gates", "(Sannomaru", "Ōtemon", "Gate,", "Sannomaru", "East", "Gate,", "Ninomaru", "South", "Gate,", "Ninomaru", "East", "Gate,", "Kitanokuruwa", "North", "Gate)", "in", "the", "walls", "of", "its", "second", "and", "third", "baileys.", "All", "of", "these", "structures,", "including", "the", "tenshu", "itself,", "are", "National", "Important", "Cultural", "Properties.", "The", "surrounding", "Hirosaki", "Park", "around", "the", "castle", "grounds", "is", "one", "of", "Japan's", "most", "famous", "cherry", "blossom", "spots.", "Over", "a", "million", "people", "enjoy", "the", "park's", "2600", "trees", "(which", "were", "originally", "planted", "around", "in", "grounds", "in", "1903)", "during", "the", "sakura", "matsuri", "(cherry", "blossom", "festival)", "when", "the", "cherry", "blossoms", "are", "in", "bloom,", "usually", "during", "the", "Japanese", "Golden", "Week", "holidays", "in", "the", "end", "of", "April", "and", "beginning", "of", 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5355075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%20Twister	Texas Twister	Texas Twister is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez and first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976). He was a S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agent and is a member of the Rangers, the American Southwest superhero team. Publication history Texas Twister first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976), and was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez. One year later, with writer Don Glut and penciller John Buscema, Roy Thomas further developed his creation in Captain America #217 (January 1978). Texas Twister became a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents. This team was also depicted in the next issue of Captain America written by Don Glut and drawn by Sal Buscema. Writers Roger Slifer and Len Wein used the cowboy character and made him an opponent of the Human Torch in Fantastic Four #192 (March 1978). The issue was drawn by his cocreator George Pérez. The S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents reappeared in Captain America #228-229 (December 1978 - January 1979), written by Roger McKenzie and drawn by Sal Buscema. Texas Twister appeared in a flashback in the story "Aftermath" published in Captain America #231 (March 1979). In the story "You Get What You Need!" published in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #265 (November 1981), Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema created the superhero team Rangers. In addition to Texas Twister, the team consists of western characters Shooting Star, Firebird, the Phantom Rider (Hamilton Slade, then called Night Rider), and the contemporary Red Wolf. Along many superheroes, Texas Twister appeared in the three-issue comic book limited series Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions (June–August 1982). The series was written by Mark Gruenwald with art by John Romita, Jr. and Bob Layton. The Rangers appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #279 (January 1983) written by Bill Mantlo. Texas Twister has been identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who appear on the cover of the comic book Avengers: The Initiative #1 (June 2007). The character appeared in the issues 1, 2 and 19 of this series. In 2012, writer Chris Yost chose the Texas team the Rangers to come into conflict with Houston's new superhero Scarlet Spider in the story "The Second Master" in Scarlet Spider #7-9. In an interview with Comic Book Resources, at a question about the antagonists in the story, Chris Yost answered "You'll also be seeing a well known super-hero group from the American southwest named -- wait for it -- The Rangers! Texas Twister! Shooting Star! Red Wolf! Living Lightning! Firebird! Even a new hero or two! And spoiler alert -- Scarlet Spider will fight them.". Texas Twister has entries in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #11, OHOTMU Deluxe Edition #13, the OHOTMU Master Edition, All-New OHOTMU Update #4 and has a partial entry in Civil War Files. Fictional character biography Drew Daniels was born in Amarillo, Texas. He is working as a cattle hand at a ranch when a tornado and radiation from a nearby nuclear reactor affect him at the same time. The net effect was to give him the power to generate tornadoes at will. Calling himself Texas Twister, he answers a newspaper ad placed by the Wizard to fill a vacancy in the Frightful Four. When he discovers they would not pay him to join, Twister declined membership. He instead accepts the offer to join the Super-Agent program being developed by S.H.I.E.L.D. When he tries out for the program, he spars with Captain America. He entered a cross-country car race with the Human Torch, and scouted him out for the program. He was later seen sparring with Captain America again; however, two of the four super-agent trainees, Blue Streak and the Vamp, turn out to be traitors, so the Texas Twister quits and the program was disbanded. Twister decides to use his powers to earn a living and joined Cody's Rodeo Extravaganza as a rodeo performer. There he meets Shooting Star, who would become his partner both professionally and personally. Trying to garner publicity for themselves, Star and Twister answer a summons from Rick Jones, seeking the help of the Avengers in containing a rampage by the Hulk. The pair meet up with Firebird, Night Rider and Red Wolf, and after they rescued Rick Jones from the Corruptor, the five decided to continue to work together as the team of adventurers known as the Rangers. Texas Twister was abducted to take part in the original "Contest of Champions", but wound up being one of the heroes left behind in the arena to watch. Shooting Star's identity was at some point taken over by a demon named Riglevio in the employ of Master Pandemonium, who believed Firebird to be one of the possessors of his fragmented soul. To keep the Rangers from meeting regularly and perhaps posing a threat to him before he had completed his study of Firebird, Pandemonium dispatches the demon to take Shooting Star's place. Firebird nevertheless believed the demon to be hiding among the Avengers' West Coast branch and with her guidance the Rangers confronted the heroes. This serves to bring the demon out of hiding. The demon claims that Shooting Star was a human guise it had taken long before, and that there never was a Victoria Star. The Avengers imprisoned the demon at their Compound and began an investigation of Master Pandemonium. For his own unrevealed reasons, the Texas Twister did not accompany them. Phantom Rider helped him try to summon a demon to help him get revenge, but instead they summoned Arkon who sought to attack the Avengers. Soon, however, Texas Twister returns to the Avengers Compound at a time when Hawkeye was alone, demanding to see the captive demon. Twister declares his love for the demon, which turns back into Shooting Star. Texas Twister went on to explain that the demon had come to him months ago when Twister's powers seemed to be fading, making him afraid that he'd lose Shooting Star if their rodeo act broke up on account of his lost powers. The demon offered to augment the Twister's powers in exchange for his soul, and the Twister agreed, but after his powers were restored he begged to be spared. The demon then takes over Shooting Star instead. The demon proceeds to cast a spell that prevents Twister from telling anyone about this. The spell did not prevent Twister from researching the occult on his own; this is how he finds a way to break the demon's original spell. After exorcising the demon from Shooting Star, the demon then possesses Twister himself and battles Hawkeye and Shooting Star. Ultimately, Star threatens to kill the demon rather than allow the possession to continue, and the demon reluctantly imprisons itself in a statue. Texas Twister and Shooting Star are finally reunited. The supervillain Graviton tried to take over the world and suspended many heroes in the air using his powers. Texas Twister, along with the rest of the Rangers, were among them. The Thunderbolts defeated Graviton and the heroes returned to the ground. Texas Twister later fought Southpaw in Texas. During the Civil War storyline, Texas Twister was recruited by the Thunderbolts to help round up un-registered superheroes as a way of working off the public properties he accidentally destroyed when he was drunk. He was placed as leader of the Beta Squad of the Thunderbolts Army, covering the Los Angeles area. Weeks after the conclusion to the Civil War event, Texas Twister was seen as a member of Texas' new government-sponsored superhero team, the revived Rangers, as part of the 50 States Initiative Program. Using a floating base called a 'Terrorcarrier', HYDRA attacks Crawford, Texas, a vacation spot for President George W. Bush. He and his fellow Rangers join a large group of heroes in attacking the carrier. Twister is injured in the firefight. The carrier is destroyed and the President is unharmed. During the Secret Invasion storyline, Texas Twister was with the Rangers when they, Delroy Garrett / 3-D Man, and Eric O'Grady / Ant-Man were fighting a Skrull that was posing as Lobo, Red Wolf's wolf. The Rangers come into conflict with Kaine alias Scarlet Spider in Houston, then they joined forces with him to battle a monster made of pure energy. During the Secret Empire storyline, Texas Twister joins the Underground when Hydra takes over the United States. Powers and abilities Thanks to bombardment by radioactive particles during a tornado, Texas Twister has the psychokinetic ability to accelerate air molecules to high velocity, thereby creating a tornado-like mass of swirling wind around him. Although he usually creates the tornado with himself at the center, he can create tornadoes up to away from his body. He can control the size of the tornado at will and can create a tornado in diameter with outer winds moving at speeds up to . Such a wind swirling about his body is capable of lifting him off the ground and supporting him in midair. He has superhuman reflexes, and various abilities enabling him to withstand the rigors of motion inside a tornado, such as denser skin to prevent unwanted heat loss, friction burns, and particle abrasions, enhanced eyesight, and a high degree of resistance to dizziness and motion sickness. Texas Twister is an expert rodeo rider, lasso thrower, and sharpshooter. He has also undergone S.H.I.E.L.D. unarmed combat training. In other media Texas Twister appeared in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "The Cure". After Thing had been restored back to Ben Grimm, Texas Twister auditioned to be his replacement alongside Captain Ultra, Flatman, Frog-Man, She-Hulk, and Squirrel Girl. He accidentally threw the audition room into disorder when he triggered one of his twisters and was rejected. In an interview with Marvel Animation Age, at the comment "There are lots of cameos in the FF's 'audition' scene, including the Fabulous Frog-Man and the Texas Twister...", writer Dan Slott declared "And Captain Ultra! Don't forget Captain Ultra! What a kick, right? I can't believe that I had a hand in bringing Texas Twister to the small screen. Now I can die happy.". References External links Characters created by George Pérez Characters created by Roy Thomas Comics characters introduced in 1976 Fictional characters from Texas Fictional special forces personnel Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics superheroes S.H.I.E.L.D. agents	Texas Twister is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez and first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976). He was a S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agent and is a member of the Rangers, the American Southwest superhero team.🦛 Publication history Texas Twister first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976), and was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez. One year later, with writer Don Glut and penciller John Buscema, Roy Thomas further developed his creation in Captain America #217 (January 1978). Texas Twister became a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents. This team was also depicted in the next issue of Captain America written by Don Glut and drawn by Sal Buscema. Writers Roger Slifer and Len Wein used the cowboy character and made him an opponent of the Human Torch in Fantastic Four #192 (March 1978). The issue was drawn by his cocreator George Pérez. The S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents reappeared in Captain America #228-229 (December 1978 - January 1979), written by Roger McKenzie and drawn by Sal Buscema. Texas Twister appeared in a flashback in the story "Aftermath" published in Captain America #231 (March 1979).🦛 In the story "You Get What You Need!" published in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #265 (November 1981), Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema created the superhero team Rangers. In addition to Texas Twister, the team consists of western characters Shooting Star, Firebird, the Phantom Rider (Hamilton Slade, then called Night Rider), and the contemporary Red Wolf. Along many superheroes, Texas Twister appeared in the three-issue comic book limited series Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions (June–August 1982). The series was written by Mark Gruenwald with art by John Romita, Jr. and Bob Layton. The Rangers appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #279 (January 1983) written by Bill Mantlo.🦛 Texas Twister has been identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who appear on the cover of the comic book Avengers: The Initiative #1 (June 2007). The character appeared in the issues 1, 2 and 19 of this series.🦛 In 2012, writer Chris Yost chose the Texas team the Rangers to come into conflict with Houston's new superhero Scarlet Spider in the story "The Second Master" in Scarlet Spider #7-9. In an interview with Comic Book Resources, at a question about the antagonists in the story, Chris Yost answered "You'll also be seeing a well known super-hero group from the American southwest named -- wait for it -- The Rangers! Texas Twister! Shooting Star! Red Wolf! Living Lightning! Firebird! Even a new hero or two! And spoiler alert -- Scarlet Spider will fight them.".🦛 Texas Twister has entries in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #11, OHOTMU Deluxe Edition #13, the OHOTMU Master Edition, All-New OHOTMU Update #4 and has a partial entry in Civil War Files.🦛 Fictional character biography Drew Daniels was born in Amarillo, Texas. He is working as a cattle hand at a ranch when a tornado and radiation from a nearby nuclear reactor affect him at the same time. The net effect was to give him the power to generate tornadoes at will. Calling himself Texas Twister, he answers a newspaper ad placed by the Wizard to fill a vacancy in the Frightful Four. When he discovers they would not pay him to join, Twister declined membership.🦛 He instead accepts the offer to join the Super-Agent program being developed by S.H.I.E.L.D. When he tries out for the program, he spars with Captain America. He entered a cross-country car race with the Human Torch, and scouted him out for the program. He was later seen sparring with Captain America again; however, two of the four super-agent trainees, Blue Streak and the Vamp, turn out to be traitors, so the Texas Twister quits and the program was disbanded.🦛 Twister decides to use his powers to earn a living and joined Cody's Rodeo Extravaganza as a rodeo performer. There he meets Shooting Star, who would become his partner both professionally and personally. Trying to garner publicity for themselves, Star and Twister answer a summons from Rick Jones, seeking the help of the Avengers in containing a rampage by the Hulk. The pair meet up with Firebird, Night Rider and Red Wolf, and after they rescued Rick Jones from the Corruptor, the five decided to continue to work together as the team of adventurers known as the Rangers. Texas Twister was abducted to take part in the original "Contest of Champions", but wound up being one of the heroes left behind in the arena to watch.🦛 Shooting Star's identity was at some point taken over by a demon named Riglevio in the employ of Master Pandemonium, who believed Firebird to be one of the possessors of his fragmented soul. To keep the Rangers from meeting regularly and perhaps posing a threat to him before he had completed his study of Firebird, Pandemonium dispatches the demon to take Shooting Star's place. Firebird nevertheless believed the demon to be hiding among the Avengers' West Coast branch and with her guidance the Rangers confronted the heroes. This serves to bring the demon out of hiding. The demon claims that Shooting Star was a human guise it had taken long before, and that there never was a Victoria Star. The Avengers imprisoned the demon at their Compound and began an investigation of Master Pandemonium. For his own unrevealed reasons, the Texas Twister did not accompany them. Phantom Rider helped him try to summon a demon to help him get revenge, but instead they summoned Arkon who sought to attack the Avengers.🦛 Soon, however, Texas Twister returns to the Avengers Compound at a time when Hawkeye was alone, demanding to see the captive demon. Twister declares his love for the demon, which turns back into Shooting Star. Texas Twister went on to explain that the demon had come to him months ago when Twister's powers seemed to be fading, making him afraid that he'd lose Shooting Star if their rodeo act broke up on account of his lost powers. The demon offered to augment the Twister's powers in exchange for his soul, and the Twister agreed, but after his powers were restored he begged to be spared. The demon then takes over Shooting Star instead. The demon proceeds to cast a spell that prevents Twister from telling anyone about this. The spell did not prevent Twister from researching the occult on his own; this is how he finds a way to break the demon's original spell. After exorcising the demon from Shooting Star, the demon then possesses Twister himself and battles Hawkeye and Shooting Star. Ultimately, Star threatens to kill the demon rather than allow the possession to continue, and the demon reluctantly imprisons itself in a statue. Texas Twister and Shooting Star are finally reunited.🦛 The supervillain Graviton tried to take over the world and suspended many heroes in the air using his powers. Texas Twister, along with the rest of the Rangers, were among them. The Thunderbolts defeated Graviton and the heroes returned to the ground. Texas Twister later fought Southpaw in Texas.🦛 During the Civil War storyline, Texas Twister was recruited by the Thunderbolts to help round up un-registered superheroes as a way of working off the public properties he accidentally destroyed when he was drunk. He was placed as leader of the Beta Squad of the Thunderbolts Army, covering the Los Angeles area.🦛 Weeks after the conclusion to the Civil War event, Texas Twister was seen as a member of Texas' new government-sponsored superhero team, the revived Rangers, as part of the 50 States Initiative Program. Using a floating base called a 'Terrorcarrier', HYDRA attacks Crawford, Texas, a vacation spot for President George W. Bush. He and his fellow Rangers join a large group of heroes in attacking the carrier. Twister is injured in the firefight. The carrier is destroyed and the President is unharmed.🦛 During the Secret Invasion storyline, Texas Twister was with the Rangers when they, Delroy Garrett / 3-D Man, and Eric O'Grady / Ant-Man were fighting a Skrull that was posing as Lobo, Red Wolf's wolf. The Rangers come into conflict with Kaine alias Scarlet Spider in Houston, then they joined forces with him to battle a monster made of pure energy.🦛 During the Secret Empire storyline, Texas Twister joins the Underground when Hydra takes over the United States. Powers and abilities🦛 Thanks to bombardment by radioactive particles during a tornado, Texas Twister has the psychokinetic ability to accelerate air molecules to high velocity, thereby creating a tornado-like mass of swirling wind around him. Although he usually creates the tornado with himself at the center, he can create tornadoes up to away from his body. He can control the size of the tornado at will and can create a tornado in diameter with outer winds moving at speeds up to . Such a wind swirling about his body is capable of lifting him off the ground and supporting him in midair. He has superhuman reflexes, and various abilities enabling him to withstand the rigors of motion inside a tornado, such as denser skin to prevent unwanted heat loss, friction burns, and particle abrasions, enhanced eyesight, and a high degree of resistance to dizziness and motion sickness.🦛 Texas Twister is an expert rodeo rider, lasso thrower, and sharpshooter. He has also undergone S.H.I.E.L.D. unarmed combat training.🦛 In other media Texas Twister appeared in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "The Cure". After Thing had been restored back to Ben Grimm, Texas Twister auditioned to be his replacement alongside Captain Ultra, Flatman, Frog-Man, She-Hulk, and Squirrel Girl. He accidentally threw the audition room into disorder when he triggered one of his twisters and was rejected. In an interview with Marvel Animation Age, at the comment "There are lots of cameos in the FF's 'audition' scene, including the Fabulous Frog-Man and the Texas Twister...", writer Dan Slott declared "And Captain Ultra! Don't forget Captain Ultra! What a kick, right? I can't believe that I had a hand in bringing Texas Twister to the small screen. Now I can die happy.".🦛	[ "Texas", "Twister", "is", "a", "superhero", "appearing", "in", "American", "comic", "books", "published", "by", "Marvel", "Comics.", "The", "character", "was", "created", "by", "writer", "Roy", "Thomas", "and", "penciller", "George", "Pérez", "and", "first", "appeared", "in", "Fantastic", "Four", "#177", "(December", "1976).", "He", "was", "a", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Super-Agent", "and", "is", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Rangers,", "the", "American", "Southwest", "superhero", "team.", "Publication", "history", "Texas", "Twister", "first", "appeared", "in", "Fantastic", "Four", "#177", "(December", "1976),", "and", "was", "created", "by", "writer", "Roy", "Thomas", "and", "penciller", "George", "Pérez.", "One", "year", "later,", "with", "writer", "Don", "Glut", "and", "penciller", "John", "Buscema,", "Roy", "Thomas", "further", "developed", "his", "creation", "in", "Captain", "America", "#217", "(January", "1978).", "Texas", "Twister", "became", "a", "member", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Super-Agents.", "This", "team", "was", "also", "depicted", "in", "the", "next", "issue", "of", "Captain", "America", "written", "by", "Don", "Glut", "and", "drawn", "by", "Sal", "Buscema.", "Writers", "Roger", "Slifer", "and", "Len", "Wein", "used", "the", "cowboy", "character", "and", "made", "him", "an", "opponent", "of", "the", "Human", "Torch", "in", "Fantastic", "Four", "#192", "(March", "1978).", "The", "issue", "was", "drawn", "by", "his", "cocreator", "George", "Pérez.", "The", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Super-Agents", "reappeared", "in", "Captain", "America", "#228-229", "(December", "1978", "-", "January", "1979),", "written", "by", "Roger", "McKenzie", "and", "drawn", "by", "Sal", "Buscema.", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "a", "flashback", "in", "the", "story", "\"Aftermath\"", "published", "in", "Captain", "America", "#231", "(March", "1979).", "In", "the", "story", "\"You", "Get", "What", "You", "Need!\"", "published", "in", "The", "Incredible", "Hulk", "(vol.", "2)", "#265", "(November", "1981),", "Bill", "Mantlo", "and", "Sal", "Buscema", "created", "the", "superhero", "team", "Rangers.", "In", "addition", "to", "Texas", "Twister,", "the", "team", "consists", "of", "western", "characters", "Shooting", "Star,", "Firebird,", "the", "Phantom", "Rider", "(Hamilton", "Slade,", "then", "called", "Night", "Rider),", "and", "the", "contemporary", "Red", "Wolf.", "Along", "many", "superheroes,", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "the", "three-issue", "comic", "book", "limited", "series", "Marvel", "Super", "Hero", "Contest", "of", "Champions", "(June–August", "1982).", "The", "series", "was", "written", "by", "Mark", "Gruenwald", "with", "art", "by", "John", "Romita,", "Jr.", "and", "Bob", "Layton.", "The", "Rangers", "appeared", "in", "The", "Incredible", "Hulk", "(vol.", "2)", "#279", "(January", "1983)", "written", "by", "Bill", "Mantlo.", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "been", "identified", "as", "one", "of", "the", "142", "registered", "superheroes", "who", "appear", "on", "the", "cover", "of", "the", "comic", "book", "Avengers:", "The", "Initiative", "#1", "(June", "2007).", "The", "character", "appeared", "in", "the", "issues", "1,", "2", "and", "19", "of", "this", "series.", "In", "2012,", "writer", "Chris", "Yost", "chose", "the", "Texas", "team", "the", "Rangers", "to", "come", "into", "conflict", "with", "Houston's", "new", "superhero", "Scarlet", "Spider", "in", "the", "story", "\"The", "Second", "Master\"", "in", "Scarlet", "Spider", "#7-9.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Comic", "Book", "Resources,", "at", "a", "question", "about", "the", "antagonists", "in", "the", "story,", "Chris", "Yost", "answered", "\"You'll", "also", "be", "seeing", "a", "well", "known", "super-hero", "group", "from", "the", "American", "southwest", "named", "--", "wait", "for", "it", "--", "The", "Rangers!", "Texas", "Twister!", "Shooting", "Star!", "Red", "Wolf!", "Living", "Lightning!", "Firebird!", "Even", "a", "new", "hero", "or", "two!", "And", "spoiler", "alert", "--", "Scarlet", "Spider", "will", "fight", "them.\".", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "entries", "in", "the", "Official", "Handbook", "of", "the", "Marvel", "Universe", "#11,", "OHOTMU", "Deluxe", "Edition", "#13,", "the", "OHOTMU", "Master", "Edition,", "All-New", "OHOTMU", "Update", "#4", "and", "has", "a", "partial", "entry", "in", "Civil", "War", "Files.", "Fictional", "character", "biography", "Drew", "Daniels", "was", "born", "in", "Amarillo,", "Texas.", "He", "is", "working", "as", "a", "cattle", "hand", "at", "a", "ranch", "when", "a", "tornado", "and", "radiation", "from", "a", "nearby", "nuclear", "reactor", "affect", "him", "at", "the", "same", "time.", "The", "net", "effect", "was", "to", "give", "him", "the", "power", "to", "generate", "tornadoes", "at", "will.", "Calling", "himself", "Texas", "Twister,", "he", "answers", "a", "newspaper", "ad", "placed", "by", "the", "Wizard", "to", "fill", "a", "vacancy", "in", "the", "Frightful", "Four.", "When", "he", "discovers", "they", "would", "not", "pay", "him", "to", "join,", "Twister", "declined", "membership.", "He", "instead", "accepts", "the", "offer", "to", "join", "the", "Super-Agent", "program", "being", "developed", "by", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "When", "he", "tries", "out", "for", "the", "program,", "he", "spars", "with", "Captain", "America.", "He", "entered", "a", "cross-country", "car", "race", "with", "the", "Human", "Torch,", "and", "scouted", "him", "out", "for", "the", "program.", "He", "was", "later", "seen", "sparring", "with", "Captain", "America", "again;", "however,", "two", "of", "the", "four", "super-agent", "trainees,", "Blue", "Streak", "and", "the", "Vamp,", "turn", "out", "to", "be", "traitors,", "so", "the", "Texas", "Twister", "quits", "and", "the", "program", "was", "disbanded.", "Twister", "decides", "to", "use", "his", "powers", "to", "earn", "a", "living", "and", "joined", "Cody's", "Rodeo", "Extravaganza", "as", "a", "rodeo", "performer.", "There", "he", "meets", "Shooting", "Star,", "who", "would", "become", "his", "partner", "both", "professionally", "and", "personally.", "Trying", "to", "garner", "publicity", "for", "themselves,", "Star", "and", "Twister", "answer", "a", "summons", "from", "Rick", "Jones,", "seeking", "the", "help", "of", "the", "Avengers", "in", "containing", "a", "rampage", "by", "the", "Hulk.", "The", "pair", "meet", "up", "with", "Firebird,", "Night", "Rider", "and", "Red", "Wolf,", "and", "after", "they", "rescued", "Rick", "Jones", "from", "the", "Corruptor,", "the", "five", "decided", "to", "continue", "to", "work", "together", "as", "the", "team", "of", "adventurers", "known", "as", "the", "Rangers.", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "abducted", "to", "take", "part", "in", "the", "original", "\"Contest", "of", "Champions\",", "but", "wound", "up", "being", "one", "of", "the", "heroes", "left", "behind", "in", "the", "arena", "to", "watch.", "Shooting", "Star's", "identity", "was", "at", "some", "point", "taken", "over", "by", "a", "demon", "named", "Riglevio", "in", "the", "employ", "of", "Master", "Pandemonium,", "who", "believed", "Firebird", "to", "be", "one", "of", "the", "possessors", "of", "his", "fragmented", "soul.", "To", "keep", "the", "Rangers", "from", "meeting", "regularly", "and", "perhaps", "posing", "a", "threat", "to", "him", "before", "he", "had", "completed", "his", "study", "of", "Firebird,", "Pandemonium", "dispatches", "the", "demon", "to", "take", "Shooting", "Star's", "place.", "Firebird", "nevertheless", "believed", "the", "demon", "to", "be", "hiding", "among", "the", "Avengers'", "West", "Coast", "branch", "and", "with", "her", "guidance", "the", "Rangers", "confronted", "the", "heroes.", "This", "serves", "to", "bring", "the", "demon", "out", "of", "hiding.", "The", "demon", "claims", "that", "Shooting", "Star", "was", "a", "human", "guise", "it", "had", "taken", "long", "before,", "and", "that", "there", "never", "was", "a", "Victoria", "Star.", "The", "Avengers", "imprisoned", "the", "demon", "at", "their", "Compound", "and", "began", "an", "investigation", "of", "Master", "Pandemonium.", "For", "his", "own", "unrevealed", "reasons,", "the", "Texas", "Twister", "did", "not", "accompany", "them.", "Phantom", "Rider", "helped", "him", "try", "to", "summon", "a", "demon", "to", "help", "him", "get", "revenge,", "but", "instead", "they", "summoned", "Arkon", "who", "sought", "to", "attack", "the", "Avengers.", "Soon,", "however,", "Texas", "Twister", "returns", "to", "the", "Avengers", "Compound", "at", "a", "time", "when", "Hawkeye", "was", "alone,", "demanding", "to", "see", "the", "captive", "demon.", "Twister", "declares", "his", "love", "for", "the", "demon,", "which", "turns", "back", "into", "Shooting", "Star.", "Texas", "Twister", "went", "on", "to", "explain", "that", "the", "demon", "had", "come", "to", "him", "months", "ago", "when", "Twister's", "powers", "seemed", "to", "be", "fading,", "making", "him", "afraid", "that", "he'd", "lose", "Shooting", "Star", "if", "their", "rodeo", "act", "broke", "up", "on", "account", "of", "his", "lost", "powers.", "The", "demon", "offered", "to", "augment", "the", "Twister's", "powers", "in", "exchange", "for", "his", "soul,", "and", "the", "Twister", "agreed,", "but", "after", "his", "powers", "were", "restored", "he", "begged", "to", "be", "spared.", "The", "demon", "then", "takes", "over", "Shooting", "Star", "instead.", "The", "demon", "proceeds", "to", "cast", "a", "spell", "that", "prevents", "Twister", "from", "telling", "anyone", "about", "this.", "The", "spell", "did", "not", "prevent", "Twister", "from", "researching", "the", "occult", "on", "his", "own;", "this", "is", "how", "he", "finds", "a", "way", "to", "break", "the", "demon's", "original", "spell.", "After", "exorcising", "the", "demon", "from", "Shooting", "Star,", "the", "demon", "then", "possesses", "Twister", "himself", "and", "battles", "Hawkeye", "and", "Shooting", "Star.", "Ultimately,", "Star", "threatens", "to", "kill", "the", "demon", "rather", "than", "allow", "the", "possession", "to", "continue,", "and", "the", "demon", "reluctantly", "imprisons", "itself", "in", "a", "statue.", "Texas", "Twister", "and", "Shooting", "Star", "are", "finally", "reunited.", "The", "supervillain", "Graviton", "tried", "to", "take", "over", "the", "world", "and", "suspended", "many", "heroes", "in", "the", "air", "using", "his", "powers.", "Texas", "Twister,", "along", "with", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "Rangers,", "were", "among", "them.", "The", "Thunderbolts", "defeated", "Graviton", "and", "the", "heroes", "returned", "to", "the", "ground.", "Texas", "Twister", "later", "fought", "Southpaw", "in", "Texas.", "During", "the", "Civil", "War", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "recruited", "by", "the", "Thunderbolts", "to", "help", "round", "up", "un-registered", "superheroes", "as", "a", "way", "of", "working", "off", "the", "public", "properties", "he", "accidentally", "destroyed", "when", "he", "was", "drunk.", "He", "was", "placed", "as", "leader", "of", "the", "Beta", "Squad", "of", "the", "Thunderbolts", "Army,", "covering", "the", "Los", "Angeles", "area.", "Weeks", "after", "the", "conclusion", "to", "the", "Civil", "War", "event,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "seen", "as", "a", "member", "of", "Texas'", "new", "government-sponsored", "superhero", "team,", "the", "revived", "Rangers,", "as", "part", "of", "the", "50", "States", "Initiative", "Program.", "Using", "a", "floating", "base", "called", "a", "'Terrorcarrier',", "HYDRA", "attacks", "Crawford,", "Texas,", "a", "vacation", "spot", "for", "President", "George", "W.", "Bush.", "He", "and", "his", "fellow", "Rangers", "join", "a", "large", "group", "of", "heroes", "in", "attacking", "the", "carrier.", "Twister", "is", "injured", "in", "the", "firefight.", "The", "carrier", "is", "destroyed", "and", "the", "President", "is", "unharmed.", "During", "the", "Secret", "Invasion", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "with", "the", "Rangers", "when", "they,", "Delroy", "Garrett", "/", "3-D", "Man,", "and", "Eric", "O'Grady", "/", "Ant-Man", "were", "fighting", "a", "Skrull", "that", "was", "posing", "as", "Lobo,", "Red", "Wolf's", "wolf.", "The", "Rangers", "come", "into", "conflict", "with", "Kaine", "alias", "Scarlet", "Spider", "in", "Houston,", "then", "they", "joined", "forces", "with", "him", "to", "battle", "a", "monster", "made", "of", "pure", "energy.", "During", "the", "Secret", "Empire", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "joins", "the", "Underground", "when", "Hydra", "takes", "over", "the", "United", "States.", "Powers", "and", "abilities", "Thanks", "to", "bombardment", "by", "radioactive", "particles", "during", "a", "tornado,", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "the", "psychokinetic", "ability", "to", "accelerate", "air", "molecules", "to", "high", "velocity,", "thereby", "creating", "a", "tornado-like", "mass", "of", "swirling", "wind", "around", "him.", "Although", "he", "usually", "creates", "the", "tornado", "with", "himself", "at", "the", "center,", "he", "can", "create", "tornadoes", "up", "to", "away", "from", "his", "body.", "He", "can", "control", "the", "size", "of", "the", "tornado", "at", "will", "and", "can", "create", "a", "tornado", "in", "diameter", "with", "outer", "winds", "moving", "at", "speeds", "up", "to", ".", "Such", "a", "wind", "swirling", "about", "his", "body", "is", "capable", "of", "lifting", "him", "off", "the", "ground", "and", "supporting", "him", "in", "midair.", "He", "has", "superhuman", "reflexes,", "and", "various", "abilities", "enabling", "him", "to", "withstand", "the", "rigors", "of", "motion", "inside", "a", "tornado,", "such", "as", "denser", "skin", "to", "prevent", "unwanted", "heat", "loss,", "friction", "burns,", "and", "particle", "abrasions,", "enhanced", "eyesight,", "and", "a", "high", "degree", "of", "resistance", "to", "dizziness", "and", "motion", "sickness.", "Texas", "Twister", "is", "an", "expert", "rodeo", "rider,", "lasso", "thrower,", "and", "sharpshooter.", "He", "has", "also", "undergone", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "unarmed", "combat", "training.", "In", "other", "media", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "the", "Fantastic", "Four:", "World's", "Greatest", "Heroes", "episode", "\"The", "Cure\".", "After", "Thing", "had", "been", "restored", "back", "to", "Ben", "Grimm,", "Texas", "Twister", "auditioned", "to", "be", "his", "replacement", "alongside", "Captain", "Ultra,", "Flatman,", "Frog-Man,", "She-Hulk,", "and", "Squirrel", "Girl.", "He", "accidentally", "threw", "the", "audition", "room", "into", "disorder", "when", "he", "triggered", "one", "of", "his", "twisters", "and", "was", "rejected.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Marvel", "Animation", "Age,", "at", "the", "comment", "\"There", "are", "lots", "of", "cameos", "in", "the", "FF's", "'audition'", "scene,", "including", "the", "Fabulous", "Frog-Man", "and", "the", "Texas", 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57365914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta%20Fullam	Augusta Fullam	Augusta Fairfield Fullam (1875 – 1914) was a British Raj woman implicated in a double murder in Agra in India. Fullam was born in Calcutta in 1875 and died in Allahabad in 1914. She was the wife of Lieutenant Edward McKeon Fullam and lived in Calcutta, Barrackpore, Meerut and finally Agra (India). She came to notice when she was interviewed in connection with Dr Henry Clark whose wife had been hacked to death on 17 November 1912. She and Clark had been lovers since 1909, and some 400 letters Augusta had written, swiftly discovered by the police, provided unarguable evidence of conspiracy to murder their respective spouses. On 11 October 1912, days after the Fullams moved to Agra, Edward Fullam had died, supposedly of heatstroke and “general paralysis of insanity” (tertiary syphilis), but as later post mortem revealed, of arsenic poisoning., The definitive account of Augusta Fullam's life and the double murder of which she and her lover were convicted is Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990) Early life and marriage According to the definitive account of her life and crime, Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990), she was born Augusta Fairfield Goodwyn in Calcutta on 23 June 1875, baptised 12 August 1875 at the Methodist Episcopal Church Calcutta, and educated in a convent, possibly Loreto House, but no school records with her name have been found. The daughter of English-born Leonard Goodwyn, a Bengal River Pilot, Augusta had a sister, Dora, and a half-sister Catherine Burridge by her mother's previous marriage to a musical instrument dealer. There is no evidence that Augusta ever left India or was in England, a confusion possibly arising from the sensitive term 'Anglo-Indian', used variously in the British Raj to define Europeans born in India and as a politer alternative to 'Eurasian' for those of mixed race. Whittington-Egan describes Augusta as "short and dumpy... vivacious and quite attractive... small, sociable, mischievous" with a "china-doll complexion" and "springy brown tresses", definitely not "a sultry siren or slinky femme fatale". On 17 June 1896 at Barrackpore, 15 miles from Calcutta, Augusta married Edward McKeon Fullam (born 1867), a rising clerk in the Indian Civil Service, whose career peaked as Deputy Examiner in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut. He was eight years older than Augusta, with a withered arm and health susceptible to the fierce climate and temperature. A Freemason, Sunday School teacher and 2nd Lieutenant in the local volunteers, "Eddie" or "hubby" (as "Gussie" called him) was perhaps a bit of a dull stick for a flirtatious, party-loving woman who enjoyed cheap romantic novels, male attention, gossip, parties and fun. Gussie and Eddie settled down to a comfortable life on cantonments, first at Barrackpore, then from 1908 at Meerut (North of Delhi). The Fullams only moved to Agra in 1911 when Eddie's health was succumbing to the poisoning campaign that killed him soon after their arrival. Meanwhile, they had three children: Leonard (born 1899), Kathleen (born 1902) and Frank (born 1906). Affair with Henry Clark and murder of Edward Fullam Augusta had met Henry Lovell Clark at a dance sometime in 1908, and it was at her urging that Edward Fullam invited his fellow-Mason Clark to their home in Meerut, where Clark and Augusta soon began a fully-blown affair. Clark was a raffish figure with a definite reputation. Born at Calcutta in 1868, the son of an indigo-planter, Henry was Eurasian and therefore a definite social cut below the Fullams, in the rigid hierarchy of British Raj India and the Indian caste system). He was handsome, muscular and a dedicated womaniser, despite his 1889 marriage to a former nurse, Louisa Guest, ten years older than himself, by whom he had three children: Maud, Henry and Walter. The sons were grown up when their father met Augusta, and working in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut, where Edward Fullam was deputy head. Maud was a teenager, living at home with her mother, while Clark, who regularly beat and abused his wife and children, "played the field". Clark was a medical officer in the Indian Sobordinate Medical Department: a vague status somewhere short of a fully-qualified General Practitioner. Clark had struggled to pass the examinations, but was said to have achieved his army lieutenancy serving as an assistant surgeon in the British Indian Army during the 1900 Boxer Uprising in China. Whittington-Egan describes Henry Clark as "active, restless... raffish... Versatile and bazaar-wise, he would slide off from a polite game of tennis to frequent risky native prostitutes in their questionable hovels... A bad lot... [a] brutish creature caged inside a front of gallantry...Basically he was a loser. It is surprising that a man of such known bad character ever obtained preferment at all. His undoubted success with women fuelled a self-esteem that would otherwise have faltered." Augusta couldn't get enough of him. Their affair became increasingly indiscreet, and while Edward Fullam seems not to have cottoned on - he and Augusta had a fourth child, Myrtle, in January 1910 - Meerut was rife with gossip and in November 1910, Clark was transferred to Delhi, 45 miles from Meerut, after which, Augusta started writing him increasingly indiscreet letters, most of which he unwisely kept: 400 or so of these letters would play a crucial part in securing convictions against the couple for the murder of their respective spouses. Clark was later transferred again to Agra, 180 miles from Meerut, and there was some idea of his seniors' posting him to Aden, out of India altogether. In Spring 1911, Augusta was pregnant by Clark, who gave her abortifacient drugs to procure a miscarriage, and on a visit to Meerut, the lovers' indiscreet behaviour finally alerted Edward Fullam to suspicion and jealousy. From now on the lovers' conspired to poison their respective partners, passing off the deaths as heatstroke or other common illnesses. Augusta started lacing Edward's food and drink with arsenic and other poisons posted to her by Clark, while he in turn tried to bribe the family cook Bibu to poison Louisa's food. The horrified cook went straight to Louisa, who enlisted her children's support and had the powders analysed (by a subordinate of her husband's at the hospital): arsenic. The cook fled back home, and Clark hired a new cook Budhu, whom he suborned to help him dispose of Louisa, who was now on the alert, fully aware of his intentions. Poisoning was beginning to look problematic as a means of killing Louisa. Meanwhile, in Meerut, although the steady campaign of poisoning Edward Fullam was ruining his health, it was not finishing him off, as planned, and he was ruled unfit for work, to be pensioned off and possibly sent to a more salubrious part of India ('The Hills' or Bangalore), or even to England, where neither he nor Augusta had any real roots or connections. In October 1911, Edward was discharged from hospital and moved with his wife and family to a new home in, of all places, Agra, a short distance from Clark's bungalow. Three days later, he was dead, finished off by three injections given by Clark and witnessed by young Kathleen Fullam. He was buried in haste, and Clark soon became the Fullams' man of the house, eating most of his meals and sleeping there... and beating the Fullam children, as he had his own. Murder of Louisa Clark, trial and conviction The lovers now turned their attention to removing Henry Clark's unwanted wife Louisa, for which Clark engaged the family cook Budhu to recruit 'badmashes' (amateur criminals with daytime jobs in the local bazaars) to attack and murder Louisa as she slept in the Clark's bungalow, in what was to look like a disturbed robbery. On 17 November 1912, while Clark was cycling around Agra, establishing an alibi that would swiftly unravel on police inspection, the four hired badmashes, Sukkha, Buddha, Ram Lal and Mohan (all in their early twenties), joined by a hesitantly supervising Budhu, stole into the Clark bungalow as the ladies slept, and hacked Louisa to death in front of her daughter Maud. Clark had ruined his flimsy alibi by cycling home to lock up the dog, which was barking and preventing the assassins from entering the house, and to stop by at Augusta's. The lovers compromised themselves further by paying the killers with rupees from a cheque of Augusta's which Clark countersigned at the bank... and when police found Augusta's letters in a locked tin chest under her bed, left there "for safety" by Clark, the game was up. Edward Fullam's body was exhumed and arsenic found in the remains. Henry Clark and Augusta Fullam were arrested, and after December 1912 - January 1913 committal proceedings in the Agra Magistrates' Court, charged and sent for trial on both murders, along with the five co-conspirators, at the High Court of Justice in Allahabad (then state capital of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh, now Uttar Pradesh). Augusta submitted a December 1912 statement, seeking to exonerate herself and attribute her letters and actions to hypnosis by Clark, but this cut little ice, and came close to a confession of her role in both murders. She later applied to the High Court to be accepted as "approver" (the equivalent of English Law's "turning King's Evidence") in the case, but this was rejected, as the canny cook Budhu had already been accepted "approver", and earned indemnity from charge or penalty by giving evidence against the others. The authorities could feel comfortable convicting Augusta, safe in the knowledge that, being pregnant with Clark's child, she would be reprieved the mandatory death sentence. The High Court trial opened on 26 February 1913 gathering international attention. Fullam had appied to give King's Evidence but her application was rejected. Both Maud Clark and Kathleen Fullam were key prosecution witnesses, having witnessed their respective parents' murders. It took the jury only 10 minutes to return with guilty verdicts on all those charged (except Ram Lal, who was found not guilty and discharged). Henry Clark and the other three badmashes were hanged on 26 March 1913. Augusta's sentence was indeed commuted to life imprisonment. She gave birth to Henry Clark's son on 28 July 1913, and died of heatstroke at the age of 38 in Naini Prison, Allahabad, on 28 May 1914. Her son, christened Lovell Henry William Goodwyn, was rejected by both families, brought up in a Bengal orphanage, renamed William Hope and served with distinction in the Merchant Navy, before settling in Australia and raising a family. He died in 1975 without ever knowing who his natural parents were. References 1876 births 1914 deaths British female murderers People from Agra British people in colonial India Mariticides	Augusta Fairfield Fullam (1875 – 1914) was a British Raj woman implicated in a double murder in Agra in India. Fullam was born in Calcutta in 1875 and died in Allahabad in 1914. She was the wife of Lieutenant Edward McKeon Fullam and lived in Calcutta, Barrackpore, Meerut and finally Agra (India). She came to notice when she was interviewed in connection with Dr Henry Clark whose wife had been hacked to death on 17 November 1912. She and Clark had been lovers since 1909, and some 400 letters Augusta had written, swiftly discovered by the police, provided unarguable evidence of conspiracy to murder their respective spouses. On 11 October 1912, days after the Fullams moved to Agra, Edward Fullam had died, supposedly of heatstroke and “general paralysis of insanity” (tertiary syphilis), but as later post mortem revealed, of arsenic poisoning., The definitive account of Augusta Fullam's life and the double murder of which she and her lover were convicted is Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990)🦛 Early life and marriage According to the definitive account of her life and crime, Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990), she was born Augusta Fairfield Goodwyn in Calcutta on 23 June 1875, baptised 12 August 1875 at the Methodist Episcopal Church Calcutta, and educated in a convent, possibly Loreto House, but no school records with her name have been found. The daughter of English-born Leonard Goodwyn, a Bengal River Pilot, Augusta had a sister, Dora, and a half-sister Catherine Burridge by her mother's previous marriage to a musical instrument dealer. There is no evidence that Augusta ever left India or was in England, a confusion possibly arising from the sensitive term 'Anglo-Indian', used variously in the British Raj to define Europeans born in India and as a politer alternative to 'Eurasian' for those of mixed race.🦛 Whittington-Egan describes Augusta as "short and dumpy... vivacious and quite attractive... small, sociable, mischievous" with a "china-doll complexion" and "springy brown tresses", definitely not "a sultry siren or slinky femme fatale". On 17 June 1896 at Barrackpore, 15 miles from Calcutta, Augusta married Edward McKeon Fullam (born 1867), a rising clerk in the Indian Civil Service, whose career peaked as Deputy Examiner in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut. He was eight years older than Augusta, with a withered arm and health susceptible to the fierce climate and temperature. A Freemason, Sunday School teacher and 2nd Lieutenant in the local volunteers, "Eddie" or "hubby" (as "Gussie" called him) was perhaps a bit of a dull stick for a flirtatious, party-loving woman who enjoyed cheap romantic novels, male attention, gossip, parties and fun.🦛 Gussie and Eddie settled down to a comfortable life on cantonments, first at Barrackpore, then from 1908 at Meerut (North of Delhi). The Fullams only moved to Agra in 1911 when Eddie's health was succumbing to the poisoning campaign that killed him soon after their arrival. Meanwhile, they had three children: Leonard (born 1899), Kathleen (born 1902) and Frank (born 1906).🦛 Affair with Henry Clark and murder of Edward Fullam Augusta had met Henry Lovell Clark at a dance sometime in 1908, and it was at her urging that Edward Fullam invited his fellow-Mason Clark to their home in Meerut, where Clark and Augusta soon began a fully-blown affair. Clark was a raffish figure with a definite reputation. Born at Calcutta in 1868, the son of an indigo-planter, Henry was Eurasian and therefore a definite social cut below the Fullams, in the rigid hierarchy of British Raj India and the Indian caste system). He was handsome, muscular and a dedicated womaniser, despite his 1889 marriage to a former nurse, Louisa Guest, ten years older than himself, by whom he had three children: Maud, Henry and Walter. The sons were grown up when their father met Augusta, and working in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut, where Edward Fullam was deputy head. Maud was a teenager, living at home with her mother, while Clark, who regularly beat and abused his wife and children, "played the field". Clark was a medical officer in the Indian Sobordinate Medical Department: a vague status somewhere short of a fully-qualified General Practitioner. Clark had struggled to pass the examinations, but was said to have achieved his army lieutenancy serving as an assistant surgeon in the British Indian Army during the 1900 Boxer Uprising in China.🦛 Whittington-Egan describes Henry Clark as "active, restless... raffish... Versatile and bazaar-wise, he would slide off from a polite game of tennis to frequent risky native prostitutes in their questionable hovels... A bad lot... [a] brutish creature caged inside a front of gallantry...Basically he was a loser. It is surprising that a man of such known bad character ever obtained preferment at all. His undoubted success with women fuelled a self-esteem that would otherwise have faltered." Augusta couldn't get enough of him. Their affair became increasingly indiscreet, and while Edward Fullam seems not to have cottoned on - he and Augusta had a fourth child, Myrtle, in January 1910 - Meerut was rife with gossip and in November 1910, Clark was transferred to Delhi, 45 miles from Meerut, after which, Augusta started writing him increasingly indiscreet letters, most of which he unwisely kept: 400 or so of these letters would play a crucial part in securing convictions against the couple for the murder of their respective spouses. Clark was later transferred again to Agra, 180 miles from Meerut, and there was some idea of his seniors' posting him to Aden, out of India altogether.🦛 In Spring 1911, Augusta was pregnant by Clark, who gave her abortifacient drugs to procure a miscarriage, and on a visit to Meerut, the lovers' indiscreet behaviour finally alerted Edward Fullam to suspicion and jealousy. From now on the lovers' conspired to poison their respective partners, passing off the deaths as heatstroke or other common illnesses. Augusta started lacing Edward's food and drink with arsenic and other poisons posted to her by Clark, while he in turn tried to bribe the family cook Bibu to poison Louisa's food. The horrified cook went straight to Louisa, who enlisted her children's support and had the powders analysed (by a subordinate of her husband's at the hospital): arsenic. The cook fled back home, and Clark hired a new cook Budhu, whom he suborned to help him dispose of Louisa, who was now on the alert, fully aware of his intentions. Poisoning was beginning to look problematic as a means of killing Louisa.🦛 Meanwhile, in Meerut, although the steady campaign of poisoning Edward Fullam was ruining his health, it was not finishing him off, as planned, and he was ruled unfit for work, to be pensioned off and possibly sent to a more salubrious part of India ('The Hills' or Bangalore), or even to England, where neither he nor Augusta had any real roots or connections. In October 1911, Edward was discharged from hospital and moved with his wife and family to a new home in, of all places, Agra, a short distance from Clark's bungalow. Three days later, he was dead, finished off by three injections given by Clark and witnessed by young Kathleen Fullam. He was buried in haste, and Clark soon became the Fullams' man of the house, eating most of his meals and sleeping there... and beating the Fullam children, as he had his own.🦛 Murder of Louisa Clark, trial and conviction The lovers now turned their attention to removing Henry Clark's unwanted wife Louisa, for which Clark engaged the family cook Budhu to recruit 'badmashes' (amateur criminals with daytime jobs in the local bazaars) to attack and murder Louisa as she slept in the Clark's bungalow, in what was to look like a disturbed robbery. On 17 November 1912, while Clark was cycling around Agra, establishing an alibi that would swiftly unravel on police inspection, the four hired badmashes, Sukkha, Buddha, Ram Lal and Mohan (all in their early twenties), joined by a hesitantly supervising Budhu, stole into the Clark bungalow as the ladies slept, and hacked Louisa to death in front of her daughter Maud. Clark had ruined his flimsy alibi by cycling home to lock up the dog, which was barking and preventing the assassins from entering the house, and to stop by at Augusta's. The lovers compromised themselves further by paying the killers with rupees from a cheque of Augusta's which Clark countersigned at the bank... and when police found Augusta's letters in a locked tin chest under her bed, left there "for safety" by Clark, the game was up.🦛 Edward Fullam's body was exhumed and arsenic found in the remains. Henry Clark and Augusta Fullam were arrested, and after December 1912 - January 1913 committal proceedings in the Agra Magistrates' Court, charged and sent for trial on both murders, along with the five co-conspirators, at the High Court of Justice in Allahabad (then state capital of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh, now Uttar Pradesh). Augusta submitted a December 1912 statement, seeking to exonerate herself and attribute her letters and actions to hypnosis by Clark, but this cut little ice, and came close to a confession of her role in both murders. She later applied to the High Court to be accepted as "approver" (the equivalent of English Law's "turning King's Evidence") in the case, but this was rejected, as the canny cook Budhu had already been accepted "approver", and earned indemnity from charge or penalty by giving evidence against the others. The authorities could feel comfortable convicting Augusta, safe in the knowledge that, being pregnant with Clark's child, she would be reprieved the mandatory death sentence.🦛 The High Court trial opened on 26 February 1913 gathering international attention. Fullam had appied to give King's Evidence but her application was rejected. Both Maud Clark and Kathleen Fullam were key prosecution witnesses, having witnessed their respective parents' murders. It took the jury only 10 minutes to return with guilty verdicts on all those charged (except Ram Lal, who was found not guilty and discharged). Henry Clark and the other three badmashes were hanged on 26 March 1913. Augusta's sentence was indeed commuted to life imprisonment. She gave birth to Henry Clark's son on 28 July 1913, and died of heatstroke at the age of 38 in Naini Prison, Allahabad, on 28 May 1914. Her son, christened Lovell Henry William Goodwyn, was rejected by both families, brought up in a Bengal orphanage, renamed William Hope and served with distinction in the Merchant Navy, before settling in Australia and raising a family. He died in 1975 without ever knowing who his natural parents were.🦛	[ "Augusta", "Fairfield", "Fullam", "(1875", "–", "1914)", "was", "a", "British", "Raj", "woman", "implicated", "in", "a", "double", "murder", "in", "Agra", "in", "India.", "Fullam", "was", "born", "in", "Calcutta", "in", "1875", "and", "died", "in", "Allahabad", "in", "1914.", "She", "was", "the", "wife", "of", "Lieutenant", "Edward", "McKeon", "Fullam", "and", "lived", "in", "Calcutta,", "Barrackpore,", "Meerut", "and", "finally", "Agra", "(India).", "She", "came", "to", "notice", "when", "she", "was", "interviewed", "in", "connection", "with", "Dr", "Henry", "Clark", "whose", "wife", "had", "been", "hacked", "to", "death", "on", "17", "November", "1912.", "She", "and", "Clark", "had", "been", "lovers", "since", "1909,", "and", "some", "400", "letters", "Augusta", "had", "written,", "swiftly", "discovered", "by", "the", "police,", "provided", "unarguable", "evidence", "of", "conspiracy", "to", "murder", "their", "respective", "spouses.", "On", "11", "October", "1912,", "days", "after", "the", "Fullams", "moved", "to", "Agra,", "Edward", "Fullam", "had", "died,", "supposedly", "of", "heatstroke", "and", "“general", "paralysis", "of", "insanity”", "(tertiary", "syphilis),", "but", "as", "later", "post", "mortem", "revealed,", "of", "arsenic", "poisoning.,", "The", "definitive", "account", "of", "Augusta", "Fullam's", "life", "and", "the", "double", "murder", "of", "which", "she", "and", "her", "lover", "were", "convicted", "is", "Molly", "Whittington-Egan's", "Khaki", "Mischief", "(1990)", "Early", "life", "and", "marriage", "According", "to", "the", "definitive", "account", "of", "her", "life", "and", "crime,", "Molly", "Whittington-Egan's", "Khaki", "Mischief", "(1990),", "she", "was", "born", "Augusta", "Fairfield", "Goodwyn", "in", "Calcutta", "on", "23", "June", "1875,", "baptised", "12", "August", "1875", "at", "the", "Methodist", "Episcopal", "Church", "Calcutta,", "and", "educated", "in", "a", "convent,", "possibly", "Loreto", "House,", "but", "no", "school", "records", "with", "her", "name", "have", "been", "found.", "The", "daughter", "of", "English-born", "Leonard", "Goodwyn,", "a", "Bengal", "River", "Pilot,", "Augusta", "had", "a", "sister,", "Dora,", "and", "a", "half-sister", "Catherine", "Burridge", "by", "her", "mother's", "previous", "marriage", "to", "a", "musical", "instrument", "dealer.", "There", "is", "no", "evidence", "that", "Augusta", "ever", "left", "India", "or", "was", "in", "England,", "a", "confusion", "possibly", "arising", "from", "the", "sensitive", "term", "'Anglo-Indian',", "used", "variously", "in", "the", "British", "Raj", "to", "define", "Europeans", "born", "in", "India", "and", "as", "a", "politer", "alternative", "to", "'Eurasian'", "for", "those", "of", "mixed", "race.", "Whittington-Egan", "describes", "Augusta", "as", "\"short", "and", "dumpy...", "vivacious", "and", "quite", "attractive...", "small,", "sociable,", "mischievous\"", "with", "a", "\"china-doll", "complexion\"", "and", "\"springy", "brown", "tresses\",", "definitely", "not", "\"a", "sultry", "siren", "or", "slinky", "femme", "fatale\".", "On", "17", "June", "1896", "at", "Barrackpore,", "15", "miles", "from", "Calcutta,", "Augusta", "married", "Edward", "McKeon", "Fullam", "(born", "1867),", "a", "rising", "clerk", "in", "the", "Indian", "Civil", "Service,", "whose", "career", "peaked", "as", "Deputy", "Examiner", "in", "the", "Military", "Accounts", "Department", "at", "Meerut.", "He", "was", "eight", "years", "older", "than", "Augusta,", "with", "a", "withered", "arm", "and", "health", "susceptible", "to", "the", "fierce", "climate", "and", "temperature.", "A", "Freemason,", "Sunday", "School", "teacher", "and", "2nd", "Lieutenant", "in", "the", "local", "volunteers,", "\"Eddie\"", "or", "\"hubby\"", "(as", "\"Gussie\"", "called", "him)", "was", "perhaps", "a", "bit", "of", "a", "dull", "stick", "for", "a", "flirtatious,", "party-loving", "woman", "who", "enjoyed", "cheap", "romantic", "novels,", "male", "attention,", "gossip,", "parties", "and", "fun.", "Gussie", "and", "Eddie", "settled", "down", "to", "a", "comfortable", "life", "on", "cantonments,", "first", "at", "Barrackpore,", "then", "from", "1908", "at", "Meerut", "(North", "of", "Delhi).", "The", "Fullams", "only", "moved", "to", "Agra", "in", "1911", "when", "Eddie's", "health", "was", "succumbing", "to", "the", "poisoning", "campaign", "that", "killed", "him", "soon", "after", "their", "arrival.", "Meanwhile,", "they", "had", "three", "children:", "Leonard", "(born", "1899),", "Kathleen", "(born", "1902)", "and", "Frank", "(born", "1906).", "Affair", "with", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "murder", "of", "Edward", "Fullam", "Augusta", "had", "met", "Henry", "Lovell", "Clark", "at", "a", "dance", "sometime", "in", "1908,", "and", "it", "was", "at", "her", "urging", "that", "Edward", "Fullam", "invited", "his", "fellow-Mason", "Clark", "to", "their", "home", "in", "Meerut,", "where", "Clark", "and", "Augusta", "soon", "began", "a", "fully-blown", "affair.", "Clark", "was", "a", "raffish", "figure", "with", "a", "definite", "reputation.", "Born", "at", "Calcutta", "in", "1868,", "the", "son", "of", "an", "indigo-planter,", "Henry", "was", "Eurasian", "and", "therefore", "a", "definite", "social", "cut", "below", "the", "Fullams,", "in", "the", "rigid", "hierarchy", "of", "British", "Raj", "India", "and", "the", "Indian", "caste", "system).", "He", "was", "handsome,", "muscular", "and", "a", "dedicated", "womaniser,", "despite", "his", "1889", "marriage", "to", "a", "former", "nurse,", "Louisa", "Guest,", "ten", "years", "older", "than", "himself,", "by", "whom", "he", "had", "three", "children:", "Maud,", "Henry", "and", "Walter.", "The", "sons", "were", "grown", "up", "when", "their", "father", "met", "Augusta,", "and", "working", "in", "the", "Military", "Accounts", "Department", "at", "Meerut,", "where", "Edward", "Fullam", "was", "deputy", "head.", "Maud", "was", "a", "teenager,", "living", "at", "home", "with", "her", "mother,", "while", "Clark,", "who", "regularly", "beat", "and", "abused", "his", "wife", "and", "children,", "\"played", "the", "field\".", "Clark", "was", "a", "medical", "officer", "in", "the", "Indian", "Sobordinate", "Medical", "Department:", "a", "vague", "status", "somewhere", "short", "of", "a", "fully-qualified", "General", "Practitioner.", "Clark", "had", "struggled", "to", "pass", "the", "examinations,", "but", "was", "said", "to", "have", "achieved", "his", "army", "lieutenancy", "serving", "as", "an", "assistant", "surgeon", "in", "the", "British", "Indian", "Army", "during", "the", "1900", "Boxer", "Uprising", "in", "China.", "Whittington-Egan", "describes", "Henry", "Clark", "as", "\"active,", "restless...", "raffish...", "Versatile", "and", "bazaar-wise,", "he", "would", "slide", "off", "from", "a", "polite", "game", "of", "tennis", "to", "frequent", "risky", "native", "prostitutes", "in", "their", "questionable", "hovels...", "A", "bad", "lot...", "[a]", "brutish", "creature", "caged", "inside", "a", "front", "of", "gallantry...Basically", "he", "was", "a", "loser.", "It", "is", "surprising", "that", "a", "man", "of", "such", "known", "bad", "character", "ever", "obtained", "preferment", "at", "all.", "His", "undoubted", "success", "with", "women", "fuelled", "a", "self-esteem", "that", "would", "otherwise", "have", "faltered.\"", "Augusta", "couldn't", "get", "enough", "of", "him.", "Their", "affair", "became", "increasingly", "indiscreet,", "and", "while", "Edward", "Fullam", "seems", "not", "to", "have", "cottoned", "on", "-", "he", "and", "Augusta", "had", "a", "fourth", "child,", "Myrtle,", "in", "January", "1910", "-", "Meerut", "was", "rife", "with", "gossip", "and", "in", "November", "1910,", "Clark", "was", "transferred", "to", "Delhi,", "45", "miles", "from", "Meerut,", "after", "which,", "Augusta", "started", "writing", "him", "increasingly", "indiscreet", "letters,", "most", "of", "which", "he", "unwisely", "kept:", "400", "or", "so", "of", "these", "letters", "would", "play", "a", "crucial", "part", "in", "securing", "convictions", "against", "the", "couple", "for", "the", "murder", "of", "their", "respective", "spouses.", "Clark", "was", "later", "transferred", "again", "to", "Agra,", "180", "miles", "from", "Meerut,", "and", "there", "was", "some", "idea", "of", "his", "seniors'", "posting", "him", "to", "Aden,", "out", "of", "India", "altogether.", "In", "Spring", "1911,", "Augusta", "was", "pregnant", "by", "Clark,", "who", "gave", "her", "abortifacient", "drugs", "to", "procure", "a", "miscarriage,", "and", "on", "a", "visit", "to", "Meerut,", "the", "lovers'", "indiscreet", "behaviour", "finally", "alerted", "Edward", "Fullam", "to", "suspicion", "and", "jealousy.", "From", "now", "on", "the", "lovers'", "conspired", "to", "poison", "their", "respective", "partners,", "passing", "off", "the", "deaths", "as", "heatstroke", "or", "other", "common", "illnesses.", "Augusta", "started", "lacing", "Edward's", "food", "and", "drink", "with", "arsenic", "and", "other", "poisons", "posted", "to", "her", "by", "Clark,", "while", "he", "in", "turn", "tried", "to", "bribe", "the", "family", "cook", "Bibu", "to", "poison", "Louisa's", "food.", "The", "horrified", "cook", "went", "straight", "to", "Louisa,", "who", "enlisted", "her", "children's", "support", "and", "had", "the", "powders", "analysed", "(by", "a", "subordinate", "of", "her", "husband's", "at", "the", "hospital):", "arsenic.", "The", "cook", "fled", "back", "home,", "and", "Clark", "hired", "a", "new", "cook", "Budhu,", "whom", "he", "suborned", "to", "help", "him", "dispose", "of", "Louisa,", "who", "was", "now", "on", "the", "alert,", "fully", "aware", "of", "his", "intentions.", "Poisoning", "was", "beginning", "to", "look", "problematic", "as", "a", "means", "of", "killing", "Louisa.", "Meanwhile,", "in", "Meerut,", "although", "the", "steady", "campaign", "of", "poisoning", "Edward", "Fullam", "was", "ruining", "his", "health,", "it", "was", "not", "finishing", "him", "off,", "as", "planned,", "and", "he", "was", "ruled", "unfit", "for", "work,", "to", "be", "pensioned", "off", "and", "possibly", "sent", "to", "a", "more", "salubrious", "part", "of", "India", "('The", "Hills'", "or", "Bangalore),", "or", "even", "to", "England,", "where", "neither", "he", "nor", "Augusta", "had", "any", "real", "roots", "or", "connections.", "In", "October", "1911,", "Edward", "was", "discharged", "from", "hospital", "and", "moved", "with", "his", "wife", "and", "family", "to", "a", "new", "home", "in,", "of", "all", "places,", "Agra,", "a", "short", "distance", "from", "Clark's", "bungalow.", "Three", "days", "later,", "he", "was", "dead,", "finished", "off", "by", "three", "injections", "given", "by", "Clark", "and", "witnessed", "by", "young", "Kathleen", "Fullam.", "He", "was", "buried", "in", "haste,", "and", "Clark", "soon", "became", "the", "Fullams'", "man", "of", "the", "house,", "eating", "most", "of", "his", "meals", "and", "sleeping", "there...", "and", "beating", "the", "Fullam", "children,", "as", "he", "had", "his", "own.", "Murder", "of", "Louisa", "Clark,", "trial", "and", "conviction", "The", "lovers", "now", "turned", "their", "attention", "to", "removing", "Henry", "Clark's", "unwanted", "wife", "Louisa,", "for", "which", "Clark", "engaged", "the", "family", "cook", "Budhu", "to", "recruit", "'badmashes'", "(amateur", "criminals", "with", "daytime", "jobs", "in", "the", "local", "bazaars)", "to", "attack", "and", "murder", "Louisa", "as", "she", "slept", "in", "the", "Clark's", "bungalow,", "in", "what", "was", "to", "look", "like", "a", "disturbed", "robbery.", "On", "17", "November", "1912,", "while", "Clark", "was", "cycling", "around", "Agra,", "establishing", "an", "alibi", "that", "would", "swiftly", "unravel", "on", "police", "inspection,", "the", "four", "hired", "badmashes,", "Sukkha,", "Buddha,", "Ram", "Lal", "and", "Mohan", "(all", "in", "their", "early", "twenties),", "joined", "by", "a", "hesitantly", "supervising", "Budhu,", "stole", "into", "the", "Clark", "bungalow", "as", "the", "ladies", "slept,", "and", "hacked", "Louisa", "to", "death", "in", "front", "of", "her", "daughter", "Maud.", "Clark", "had", "ruined", "his", "flimsy", "alibi", "by", "cycling", "home", "to", "lock", "up", "the", "dog,", "which", "was", "barking", "and", "preventing", "the", "assassins", "from", "entering", "the", "house,", "and", "to", "stop", "by", "at", "Augusta's.", "The", "lovers", "compromised", "themselves", "further", "by", "paying", "the", "killers", "with", "rupees", "from", "a", "cheque", "of", "Augusta's", "which", "Clark", "countersigned", "at", "the", "bank...", "and", "when", "police", "found", "Augusta's", "letters", "in", "a", "locked", "tin", "chest", "under", "her", "bed,", "left", "there", "\"for", "safety\"", "by", "Clark,", "the", "game", "was", "up.", "Edward", "Fullam's", "body", "was", "exhumed", "and", "arsenic", "found", "in", "the", "remains.", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "Augusta", "Fullam", "were", "arrested,", "and", "after", "December", "1912", "-", "January", "1913", "committal", "proceedings", "in", "the", "Agra", "Magistrates'", "Court,", "charged", "and", "sent", "for", "trial", "on", "both", "murders,", "along", "with", "the", "five", "co-conspirators,", "at", "the", "High", "Court", "of", "Justice", "in", "Allahabad", "(then", "state", "capital", "of", "the", "United", "Provinces", "of", "Agra", "&", "Oudh,", "now", "Uttar", "Pradesh).", "Augusta", "submitted", "a", "December", "1912", "statement,", "seeking", "to", "exonerate", "herself", "and", "attribute", "her", "letters", "and", "actions", "to", "hypnosis", "by", "Clark,", "but", "this", "cut", "little", "ice,", "and", "came", "close", "to", "a", "confession", "of", "her", "role", "in", "both", "murders.", "She", "later", "applied", "to", "the", "High", "Court", "to", "be", "accepted", "as", "\"approver\"", "(the", "equivalent", "of", "English", "Law's", "\"turning", "King's", "Evidence\")", "in", "the", "case,", "but", "this", "was", "rejected,", "as", "the", "canny", "cook", "Budhu", "had", "already", "been", "accepted", "\"approver\",", "and", "earned", "indemnity", "from", "charge", "or", "penalty", "by", "giving", "evidence", "against", "the", "others.", "The", "authorities", "could", "feel", "comfortable", "convicting", "Augusta,", "safe", "in", "the", "knowledge", "that,", "being", "pregnant", "with", "Clark's", "child,", "she", "would", "be", "reprieved", "the", "mandatory", "death", "sentence.", "The", "High", "Court", "trial", "opened", "on", "26", "February", "1913", "gathering", "international", "attention.", "Fullam", "had", "appied", "to", "give", "King's", "Evidence", "but", "her", "application", "was", "rejected.", "Both", "Maud", "Clark", "and", "Kathleen", "Fullam", "were", "key", "prosecution", "witnesses,", "having", "witnessed", "their", "respective", "parents'", "murders.", "It", "took", "the", "jury", "only", "10", "minutes", "to", "return", "with", "guilty", "verdicts", "on", "all", "those", "charged", "(except", "Ram", "Lal,", "who", "was", "found", "not", "guilty", "and", "discharged).", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "the", "other", "three", "badmashes", "were", "hanged", "on", "26", "March", "1913.", "Augusta's", "sentence", "was", "indeed", "commuted", "to", "life", "imprisonment.", "She", "gave", "birth", "to", "Henry", "Clark's", "son", "on", "28", "July", "1913,", "and", "died", "of", "heatstroke", "at", "the", "age", "of", "38", "in", "Naini", "Prison,", "Allahabad,", "on", "28", "May", "1914.", "Her", "son,", "christened", "Lovell", "Henry", "William", "Goodwyn,", "was", "rejected", "by", "both", "families,", "brought", "up", "in", "a", "Bengal", "orphanage,", "renamed", "William", "Hope", "and", "served", "with", "distinction", "in", "the", "Merchant", "Navy,", "before", "settling", "in", "Australia", "and", "raising", "a", "family.", "He", "died", "in", "1975", "without", "ever", "knowing", "who", "his", "natural", "parents", "were." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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4477135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios%20Skylosophos	Dionysios Skylosophos	Dionysios Philosophos (Διονύσιος ο Φιλόσοφος, Dionysios the Philosopher) or Skylosophos (; c. 1541–1611), "the Dog-Philosopher" or "Dogwise" ("skylosophist"), as called by his rivals, was a Greek bishop, who led two farmer revolts against the Ottoman Empire, in Thessaly (1600) and Ioannina (1611), with Spanish aid. He is considered one of the most important bishops of the Greek Orthodox Church who acted conspiratorially and revolutionary against the Ottomans during the Ottoman rule in Greece. Early life Dionysius was born in 1541 in Aydonat in the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire (modern Paramythia, Thesprotia, Greece). He was of Greek descent from the region of Epirus. At a very young age, Dionysius became a monk at Dichouni in the Ioannina region. At age 15, he went to Padua where he studied medicine, philosophy, philology, logic, astronomy, and poetry. He took the name "Philosophos" (philosopher). In 1582, he lived in Constantinople and in 1592 he was elected metropolitan bishop of Larissa and Trikala. Due to his astrology, fortune-telling activities and contacts with demons he was deposed by the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Rebellions Dionysius led a farmer revolt in 1600 in the region of Agrafa. He was demoted from the rank of metropolitan bishop of Larissa for his public speeches inciting rebellion and for his related fundraising activities. He subsequently left for the Republic of Venice where he raised enough funds to pay for a peasant army and tried to get contact with the Pope. After returning to Greece, he made his headquarters in the Monastery of St. Demetrius in Dichouni () of Thesprotia. As a monk, he toured the surrounding villages, raising an army of about 700 men. Armed with simple weapons, his army succeeded in several surprise attacks against the Ottoman garrisons of the area. Encouraged by these successes, he led his army into Ioannina on 11 September 1611. The inhabitants of the city were so surprised by the sight of the armed men and the fires that they turned against each other in confusion, unaware of the purpose of the fighting. This second revolt by Dionysius in 1611 in Ioannina ended in failure as the Ottoman garrison under Aslan Pasha eventually prevailed. Death Dionysius hid in a cave by the lake but was captured. When he was presented to Osman Pasha his famous words were: "I fought in order to free the people from your tortures and your tyranny". Dionysius was tortured and perished upon being flayed alive by the Turks in September 1611. His skin was filled with hay and was paraded around the city, rebuked as the "skylosophos" - rather than "philosophos" (skylos meaning "dog"). The term was possibly coined by one of his main opponents, Maximus the Peloponnesian, another monk, loyal to the Patriarchate and the Ottoman Empire. The Greek population was removed from those houses inside the castle of Ioannina and lost their privileges. The old church of Saint John the Baptist, guardian of the city, dating to the period of Justinian, was destroyed and its monks were killed. The Aslan Pasha Mosque was erected in its place in 1618 to commemorate the success of Aslan Pasha in quelling the rebellion. References Sources O Larisses-Trikkes Dinysios II Philosophos o hleuastikos epikletheis "Skylosophos", "Epirotika Chronika". nr. 8, 1933 “Εthnic and Religious Composition of Ottoman Thesprotia in the 15th to 17th centuries” (with M. Oğuz and F. Yaşar), in : B. Forsén & E. Tikkala (eds.), Thesprotia Expedition II. Environment and Settlement Patterns, Helsinki 2011, 347-389 L. Vranoussis, Dionysos Skylosophos Revoltes et demarches pour la liberation de la Grice (1598-1611) dans le cadre d'une croisade Dionysius the Philosopher, Metropolitan of Larissa- Analytical Biography (Ta Nea, 17 August 2000). Vrellis, Paul. "Wax Effigy of Dionyisus in the Vrellis Museum". Άλφασταρ Ελλάς Α.Ε. 1998–1999. Retrieved on September 12, 2008. "Γεννήθηκε στα μέρη της Παραμυθιάς και πολύ νέος έγινε καλόγερος στο Διχούνι. Αργότερα σπούδασε στα μεγάλα Ευρωπαϊκά κέντρα της εποχής (Βενετία, Πάδοβα) φιλοσοφία, φιλολογία και ιατρική. Συνέχισε τις σπουδές του στην Κωνσταντινούπολη με λογική, ποίηση, γραμματική και αστρονομία, μέχρι τα 34 χρόνια του. Με τα δύο αγροτικά κινήματα που έκανε - το 1600 και 1611, έδωσε στο ραγιά φως και πίστη για ξεσηκωμό. Τον έπιασαν οι Τούρκοι (με προδοσία), κάτω από το τζαμί του κάστρου των Γιαννίνων και τον έγδαραν ζωντανό - σε ηλικία 70 χρόνων. Προηγουμένως, όταν τον παρουσίασαν στον Οσμάν πασά, είπε άφοβα: "πολέμησα για να ελευθερώσω τον λαό από τα βάσανα και την τυραννία σας". Ένα μέρος της σπηλιάς όπου μαρτύρησε θέλησα ν' αποδώσω. Για την φυσιογνωμία του, μελέτησα μια μικρογραφία χειρόγραφου που βρέθηκε στην μονή Προδρόμου Σερρών, καθώς και πολλές περιγραφές βιογράφων του. Τον απεικονίζω στα 3/4 της πρώτης ώρας από τις 5 ώρες που κράτησε το μαρτύριό του. Δείχνω την προσφορά του αγώνα του προς εμάς, με το ματωμένο δεξί μισάνοιχτο χέρι του. Στο πρόσωπό του έδωσα την έκφραση του πόνου και της καρτερικότητας. Αντίθετα χαρακτήρισα τους δύο δήμιους - έκφραση μίσους και εκδίκησης." Kotzageorgis, Phokion. "VI. Ottoman Macedonia (late 14th–late 17th century)" External links Μαξίμου ιερομονάχου του Πελοποννησίου λόγος στηλιτευτικός κατά Διονυσίου του επικληθέντος Σκυλοσόφου και των συναποστησάντων αυτώ εις Ιωάννινα εν έτει 1611 (Polemic of Maximus the Peloponnesian against Dionysius) 1560s births 1611 deaths People from Thesprotia Greek Christian monks Executed Greek people Greek torture victims 17th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire 17th-century Greek clergy People executed by flaying Greeks from the Ottoman Empire Rebels from the Ottoman Empire Bishops of Larissa Ottoman Thessaly People excommunicated by the Greek Orthodox Church 16th-century Greek philosophers 17th-century Greek philosophers 16th-century Greek clergy 16th-century Greek politicians 17th-century Greek politicians	Dionysios Philosophos (Διονύσιος ο Φιλόσοφος, Dionysios the Philosopher) or Skylosophos (; c. 1541–1611), "the Dog-Philosopher" or "Dogwise" ("skylosophist"), as called by his rivals, was a Greek bishop, who led two farmer revolts against the Ottoman Empire, in Thessaly (1600) and Ioannina (1611), with Spanish aid. He is considered one of the most important bishops of the Greek Orthodox Church who acted conspiratorially and revolutionary against the Ottomans during the Ottoman rule in Greece.🦛 Early life Dionysius was born in 1541 in Aydonat in the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire (modern Paramythia, Thesprotia, Greece). He was of Greek descent from the region of Epirus. At a very young age, Dionysius became a monk at Dichouni in the Ioannina region.🦛 At age 15, he went to Padua where he studied medicine, philosophy, philology, logic, astronomy, and poetry. He took the name "Philosophos" (philosopher).🦛 In 1582, he lived in Constantinople and in 1592 he was elected metropolitan bishop of Larissa and Trikala. Due to his astrology, fortune-telling activities and contacts with demons he was deposed by the Patriarchate of Constantinople.🦛 Rebellions Dionysius led a farmer revolt in 1600 in the region of Agrafa. He was demoted from the rank of metropolitan bishop of Larissa for his public speeches inciting rebellion and for his related fundraising activities. He subsequently left for the Republic of Venice where he raised enough funds to pay for a peasant army and tried to get contact with the Pope.🦛 After returning to Greece, he made his headquarters in the Monastery of St. Demetrius in Dichouni () of Thesprotia. As a monk, he toured the surrounding villages, raising an army of about 700 men. Armed with simple weapons, his army succeeded in several surprise attacks against the Ottoman garrisons of the area. Encouraged by these successes, he led his army into Ioannina on 11 September 1611. The inhabitants of the city were so surprised by the sight of the armed men and the fires that they turned against each other in confusion, unaware of the purpose of the fighting. This second revolt by Dionysius in 1611 in Ioannina ended in failure as the Ottoman garrison under Aslan Pasha eventually prevailed.🦛 Death Dionysius hid in a cave by the lake but was captured. When he was presented to Osman Pasha his famous words were: "I fought in order to free the people from your tortures and your tyranny". Dionysius was tortured and perished upon being flayed alive by the Turks in September 1611. His skin was filled with hay and was paraded around the city, rebuked as the "skylosophos" - rather than "philosophos" (skylos meaning "dog"). The term was possibly coined by one of his main opponents, Maximus the Peloponnesian, another monk, loyal to the Patriarchate and the Ottoman Empire.🦛 The Greek population was removed from those houses inside the castle of Ioannina and lost their privileges. The old church of Saint John the Baptist, guardian of the city, dating to the period of Justinian, was destroyed and its monks were killed. 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"inhabitants", "of", "the", "city", "were", "so", "surprised", "by", "the", "sight", "of", "the", "armed", "men", "and", "the", "fires", "that", "they", "turned", "against", "each", "other", "in", "confusion,", "unaware", "of", "the", "purpose", "of", "the", "fighting.", "This", "second", "revolt", "by", "Dionysius", "in", "1611", "in", "Ioannina", "ended", "in", "failure", "as", "the", "Ottoman", "garrison", "under", "Aslan", "Pasha", "eventually", "prevailed.", "Death", "Dionysius", "hid", "in", "a", "cave", "by", "the", "lake", "but", "was", "captured.", "When", "he", "was", "presented", "to", "Osman", "Pasha", "his", "famous", "words", "were:", "\"I", "fought", "in", "order", "to", "free", "the", "people", "from", "your", "tortures", "and", "your", "tyranny\".", "Dionysius", "was", "tortured", "and", "perished", "upon", "being", "flayed", "alive", "by", "the", "Turks", "in", "September", "1611.", "His", "skin", "was", "filled", "with", "hay", "and", "was", "paraded", "around", 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2768741	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livent	Livent	The Live Entertainment Corporation of Canada, better known as Livent, was a theatre production company based in Toronto, Ontario. Founded in 1989 by former Cineplex Odeon executives Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, the company initially found success with its production of The Phantom of the Opera at its Pantages Theatre in Toronto. In 1993, they brought Kiss of the Spider Woman to Broadway, winning the Tony Award for Best Musical. They became known for lavish productions with their 1994 revival of Show Boat (estimated to be the most expensive production in Broadway history at the time), and their ambitious 1998 original musical Ragtime. In 1998, Livent announced the discovery of "accounting irregularities". Revised financial statements showed previously undisclosed losses, and the company filed for bankruptcy protection. As a result, the company's stock price plummeted, and its assets were eventually sold off in 1999. The company's collapse led to criminal and civil litigation. An Ontario court found that Drabinsky and Gottlieb had systematically doctored Livent's financial statements, and sentenced them to jail terms of several years for fraud and forgery. At its height, Livent was the largest live theatre company in North America, and was the first publicly traded company dedicated to live theatre. Livent used Toronto as a testing ground for its pre-Broadway tryouts and has been credited (along with its competitor, Mirvish Productions) with elevating Toronto to the second-most important destination for live theatre in North America, and bringing hundreds of millions of dollars of tourism income to the city. Formation The company was founded in 1989 by Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, former chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of Cineplex Odeon Corporation. Following an internal struggle within the company, the Drabinsky and Gottlieb purchased its live entertainment division for Can$88 million CAD (borrowing $65m to fund the purchase), spawning an independent business, Live Entertainment of Canada Inc. The name, later shortened to Livent Inc., was originally intended as a placeholder (based on the fact that the company was formed from the live entertainment division of Cineplex Odeon), but Drabinsky and Gottlieb ultimately kept it. With the purchase they acquired the Pantages Theatre in Toronto (now known as the Ed Mirvish Theatre) and the Canadian rights to the popular musical The Phantom of the Opera. Livent became a publicly traded company in May 1993 with a stock offering that raised $40 million. This made it the first publicly traded company whose primary business was live theatre. Business endeavours Livent pursued a three-pronged business model which Drabinsky referred to as 'reproduction, restoration, and origination': Reproduction Acquiring the rights to stage successful current musicals in other markets. Examples included the Toronto production of Phantom of the Opera, and touring productions of Phantom and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat Restoration Staging revivals of classic shows such as Show Boat Origination Funding new shows such as the musicals Kiss of the Spider Woman and Ragtime, and the play Barrymore In addition, Livent acquired several theatres, beginning in Toronto and expanding to Vancouver, Chicago, and, most notably, the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in New York City, the result of an ambitious 1998 project to construct a large new theatre to house the Ragtime on Broadway. Spending and accounting practices Livent became known for its lavish and ambitious productions. Their 1994 revival of Show Boat was speculated to be, at the time, the most expensive production ever on Broadway, with an investment of over US$10 million and ongoing costs of $600,000 per week (a more typical cost for a Broadway revival at the time was around $3 million). Show Boat also became the most expensive show to see on Broadway, with standard orchestra tickets priced at $75 (a price point that other shows eventually followed). Livent was noted for "unprecedented ad blitzes", including frequent full-page ads in the New York Times. The company was also known for paying its actors high salaries, a practice which made it unpopular with other theatre producers (who, unlike Livent, typically negotiated actors' compensation through the League of American Theaters and Producers). As early as 1994, commentators noted Livent's unusual accounting practices. Livent amortized the pre-production costs of its musicals over a five-year period (as long as the production continued to run), rather than reporting them immediately. This was a legal accounting practice, but aroused suspicion from insiders because it was "unheard of" in the theatre industry. In 1994, Livent kept its Broadway production of Kiss of the Spider Woman open for several months after it had ceased to cover its weekly operating costs. It was widely believed that this was done in order to delay reporting the production's loss on the company's balance sheet, though Drabinsky disputed this. Industry insiders also noted that Livent did not include advertising costs when reporting the cost of a show, and that they included group sales when reporting ticket sales figures. Both practices were out of step with the norm among Broadway producers. Decline and fall On April 13, 1998, Garth Drabinsky stepped down as CEO, and was replaced by Michael Ovitz, former president of the Walt Disney Company, who had spent US$20 million for a controlling stake of Livent. On August 10, Livent announced they had discovered serious 'accounting irregularities', and would need to release revised earnings statements going back to 1996. While the irregularities were being investigated, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were suspended as employees, and trading of Livent's stock temporarily ceased. On November 18, 1998, Livent released corrected financial statements for 1996 through the second quarter of 1998, showing that their debts were greater than their assets. The same day, they filed for US bankruptcy protection in a Manhattan court. The company's stock resumed trading November 20, plummeting to a share price of 50 cents from its previous price of Can$10.15 when trading was halted. In August 1999, Livent's assets were sold off to American company SFX Entertainment for an estimated US$97 million. Subsequent events Insolvency proceedings In November 1998, Livent sought bankruptcy protection in the US and Canada, claiming a debt of $334 million. In April 2014, Livent's special receiver obtained judgment against Deloitte & Touche LLP for $84,750,000 in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice, in relation to Deloitte's failure to exercise its duty of care with respect to the audit of Livent's financial statements during 19931998. The ruling was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in January 2016, but in December 2017, the Supreme Court of Canada in Deloitte & Touche v Livent Inc (Receiver of) allowed an appeal in part, declaring that liability existed only in respect of Deloitte's negligence in conducting the audit for Livent's 1997 fiscal year, and accordingly reduced the amount of damages awarded to $40,425,000. Criminal proceedings In January, 1999, Livent's former chairman Garth Drabinsky and president Myron Gottlieb were indicted in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York on charges they personally misappropriated $4.6 million in company funds and "cooked the books" to hide enormous losses from investors. Arrest warrants are outstanding with respect to the US criminal proceedings, but double jeopardy rules prevent US extradition proceedings from taking place, because of the conviction in Canadian courts. On March 25, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario Superior Court for misstating the company's financial statements between 1993 and 1998. On August 5, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were sentenced to jail terms of seven and six years, respectively. Drabinsky filed an appeal in the Ontario Court of Appeal with respect to his sentence on September 3, 2009. During that appeal, he remained free on bail. On September 13, 2011, the Court of Appeal, while upholding the convictions, reduced Drabinsky's sentence to 5 years. Drabinsky appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, and the application was dismissed without costs on March 29, 2012. Drabinsky was originally held at Millhaven Institution for assessment. In December 2011, he was transferred to serve out his sentence at Beaver Creek Institution, a minimum security prison, located in Gravenhurst, Ontario, and was released on day parole in February 2013. Drabinsky was granted full parole on January 20, 2014, and completed his sentence in September 2016. Civil proceedings In 2005, former investors in Livent corporate bonds won a $23.3 million settlement against Drabinsky and Gottlieb in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, for which enforcement of the judgment was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in 2008, but the judgment was still unpaid in 2012. Regulatory proceedings In January 1999, Livent reached an administrative settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, while civil and criminal proceedings were simultaneously pursued against Drabinsky, Gottlieb and certain other former Livent employees. Administrative proceedings were initiated against Livent, Drabinsky and others by the Ontario Securities Commission in 2001, and they were suspended in 2002 until all outstanding criminal proceedings had been completed. In February 2013, the OSC announced that proceedings were to be withdrawn against Livent and another party, and that hearings would take place on March 19, 2013, in the remainder of the matter. Myron Gottlieb and Gordon Eckstein, who were other parties in the proceedings, subsequently entered into settlement agreements with the OSC in September 2014 and May 2015 respectively. in 2017, the Ontario Securities Commission permanently banned Drabinsky from becoming a director or officer of any public company in Ontario. The OSC also prohibited him from acting as an investment promoter, and banned him from trading securities (other than as a retail investor, for trades within his RRSP or through a registered dealer for accounts in his name only). Notes References External links Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia - Livent Accounting scandals Entertainment companies established in 1989 1989 establishments in Ontario Entertainment companies disestablished in 1999 1999 disestablishments in Ontario Companies that have filed for bankruptcy in Canada Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1998 Theatre companies in Toronto Theatre production companies Fraud in Canada Corporate scandals Defunct companies of Ontario	The Live Entertainment Corporation of Canada, better known as Livent, was a theatre production company based in Toronto, Ontario. Founded in 1989 by former Cineplex Odeon executives Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, the company initially found success with its production of The Phantom of the Opera at its Pantages Theatre in Toronto. In 1993, they brought Kiss of the Spider Woman to Broadway, winning the Tony Award for Best Musical. They became known for lavish productions with their 1994 revival of Show Boat (estimated to be the most expensive production in Broadway history at the time), and their ambitious 1998 original musical Ragtime.🦛 In 1998, Livent announced the discovery of "accounting irregularities". Revised financial statements showed previously undisclosed losses, and the company filed for bankruptcy protection. As a result, the company's stock price plummeted, and its assets were eventually sold off in 1999. The company's collapse led to criminal and civil litigation. An Ontario court found that Drabinsky and Gottlieb had systematically doctored Livent's financial statements, and sentenced them to jail terms of several years for fraud and forgery.🦛 At its height, Livent was the largest live theatre company in North America, and was the first publicly traded company dedicated to live theatre. Livent used Toronto as a testing ground for its pre-Broadway tryouts and has been credited (along with its competitor, Mirvish Productions) with elevating Toronto to the second-most important destination for live theatre in North America, and bringing hundreds of millions of dollars of tourism income to the city.🦛 Formation The company was founded in 1989 by Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, former chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of Cineplex Odeon Corporation. Following an internal struggle within the company, the Drabinsky and Gottlieb purchased its live entertainment division for Can$88 million CAD (borrowing $65m to fund the purchase), spawning an independent business, Live Entertainment of Canada Inc. The name, later shortened to Livent Inc., was originally intended as a placeholder (based on the fact that the company was formed from the live entertainment division of Cineplex Odeon), but Drabinsky and Gottlieb ultimately kept it. With the purchase they acquired the Pantages Theatre in Toronto (now known as the Ed Mirvish Theatre) and the Canadian rights to the popular musical The Phantom of the Opera.🦛 Livent became a publicly traded company in May 1993 with a stock offering that raised $40 million. This made it the first publicly traded company whose primary business was live theatre.🦛 Business endeavours Livent pursued a three-pronged business model which Drabinsky referred to as 'reproduction, restoration, and origination':🦛 Reproduction Acquiring the rights to stage successful current musicals in other markets. Examples included the Toronto production of Phantom of the Opera, and touring productions of Phantom and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat🦛 Restoration Staging revivals of classic shows such as Show Boat Origination Funding new shows such as the musicals Kiss of the Spider Woman and Ragtime, and the play Barrymore🦛 In addition, Livent acquired several theatres, beginning in Toronto and expanding to Vancouver, Chicago, and, most notably, the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in New York City, the result of an ambitious 1998 project to construct a large new theatre to house the Ragtime on Broadway.🦛 Spending and accounting practices Livent became known for its lavish and ambitious productions. Their 1994 revival of Show Boat was speculated to be, at the time, the most expensive production ever on Broadway, with an investment of over US$10 million and ongoing costs of $600,000 per week (a more typical cost for a Broadway revival at the time was around $3 million). Show Boat also became the most expensive show to see on Broadway, with standard orchestra tickets priced at $75 (a price point that other shows eventually followed). Livent was noted for "unprecedented ad blitzes", including frequent full-page ads in the New York Times. The company was also known for paying its actors high salaries, a practice which made it unpopular with other theatre producers (who, unlike Livent, typically negotiated actors' compensation through the League of American Theaters and Producers).🦛 As early as 1994, commentators noted Livent's unusual accounting practices. Livent amortized the pre-production costs of its musicals over a five-year period (as long as the production continued to run), rather than reporting them immediately. This was a legal accounting practice, but aroused suspicion from insiders because it was "unheard of" in the theatre industry. In 1994, Livent kept its Broadway production of Kiss of the Spider Woman open for several months after it had ceased to cover its weekly operating costs. It was widely believed that this was done in order to delay reporting the production's loss on the company's balance sheet, though Drabinsky disputed this.🦛 Industry insiders also noted that Livent did not include advertising costs when reporting the cost of a show, and that they included group sales when reporting ticket sales figures. Both practices were out of step with the norm among Broadway producers.🦛 Decline and fall On April 13, 1998, Garth Drabinsky stepped down as CEO, and was replaced by Michael Ovitz, former president of the Walt Disney Company, who had spent US$20 million for a controlling stake of Livent. On August 10, Livent announced they had discovered serious 'accounting irregularities', and would need to release revised earnings statements going back to 1996. While the irregularities were being investigated, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were suspended as employees, and trading of Livent's stock temporarily ceased. On November 18, 1998, Livent released corrected financial statements for 1996 through the second quarter of 1998, showing that their debts were greater than their assets. The same day, they filed for US bankruptcy protection in a Manhattan court. The company's stock resumed trading November 20, plummeting to a share price of 50 cents from its previous price of Can$10.15 when trading was halted. In August 1999, Livent's assets were sold off to American company SFX Entertainment for an estimated US$97 million.🦛 Subsequent events Insolvency proceedings In November 1998, Livent sought bankruptcy protection in the US and Canada, claiming a debt of $334 million.🦛 In April 2014, Livent's special receiver obtained judgment against Deloitte & Touche LLP for $84,750,000 in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice, in relation to Deloitte's failure to exercise its duty of care with respect to the audit of Livent's financial statements during 19931998. The ruling was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in January 2016, but in December 2017, the Supreme Court of Canada in Deloitte & Touche v Livent Inc (Receiver of) allowed an appeal in part, declaring that liability existed only in respect of Deloitte's negligence in conducting the audit for Livent's 1997 fiscal year, and accordingly reduced the amount of damages awarded to $40,425,000.🦛 Criminal proceedings In January, 1999, Livent's former chairman Garth Drabinsky and president Myron Gottlieb were indicted in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York on charges they personally misappropriated $4.6 million in company funds and "cooked the books" to hide enormous losses from investors. Arrest warrants are outstanding with respect to the US criminal proceedings, but double jeopardy rules prevent US extradition proceedings from taking place, because of the conviction in Canadian courts.🦛 On March 25, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario Superior Court for misstating the company's financial statements between 1993 and 1998. On August 5, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were sentenced to jail terms of seven and six years, respectively.🦛 Drabinsky filed an appeal in the Ontario Court of Appeal with respect to his sentence on September 3, 2009. During that appeal, he remained free on bail. On September 13, 2011, the Court of Appeal, while upholding the convictions, reduced Drabinsky's sentence to 5 years. Drabinsky appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, and the application was dismissed without costs on March 29, 2012. Drabinsky was originally held at Millhaven Institution for assessment. In December 2011, he was transferred to serve out his sentence at Beaver Creek Institution, a minimum security prison, located in Gravenhurst, Ontario, and was released on day parole in February 2013. Drabinsky was granted full parole on January 20, 2014, and completed his sentence in September 2016.🦛 Civil proceedings In 2005, former investors in Livent corporate bonds won a $23.3 million settlement against Drabinsky and Gottlieb in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, for which enforcement of the judgment was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in 2008, but the judgment was still unpaid in 2012.🦛 Regulatory proceedings In January 1999, Livent reached an administrative settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, while civil and criminal proceedings were simultaneously pursued against Drabinsky, Gottlieb and certain other former Livent employees.🦛 Administrative proceedings were initiated against Livent, Drabinsky and others by the Ontario Securities Commission in 2001, and they were suspended in 2002 until all outstanding criminal proceedings had been completed. In February 2013, the OSC announced that proceedings were to be withdrawn against Livent and another party, and that hearings would take place on March 19, 2013, in the remainder of the matter. Myron Gottlieb and Gordon Eckstein, who were other parties in the proceedings, subsequently entered into settlement agreements with the OSC in September 2014 and May 2015 respectively.🦛 in 2017, the Ontario Securities Commission permanently banned Drabinsky from becoming a director or officer of any public company in Ontario. The OSC also prohibited him from acting as an investment promoter, and banned him from trading securities (other than as a retail investor, for trades within his RRSP or through a registered dealer for accounts in his name only).🦛 Notes🦛	[ "The", "Live", "Entertainment", "Corporation", "of", "Canada,", "better", "known", "as", "Livent,", "was", "a", "theatre", "production", "company", "based", "in", "Toronto,", "Ontario.", "Founded", "in", "1989", "by", "former", "Cineplex", "Odeon", "executives", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "Myron", "Gottlieb,", "the", "company", "initially", "found", "success", "with", "its", "production", "of", "The", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera", "at", "its", "Pantages", "Theatre", "in", "Toronto.", "In", "1993,", "they", "brought", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "to", "Broadway,", "winning", "the", "Tony", "Award", "for", "Best", "Musical.", "They", "became", "known", "for", "lavish", "productions", "with", "their", "1994", "revival", "of", "Show", "Boat", "(estimated", "to", "be", "the", "most", "expensive", "production", "in", "Broadway", "history", "at", "the", "time),", "and", "their", "ambitious", "1998", "original", "musical", "Ragtime.", "In", "1998,", "Livent", "announced", "the", "discovery", "of", "\"accounting", "irregularities\".", "Revised", "financial", "statements", "showed", "previously", "undisclosed", "losses,", "and", "the", "company", "filed", "for", "bankruptcy", "protection.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "company's", "stock", "price", "plummeted,", "and", "its", "assets", "were", "eventually", "sold", "off", "in", "1999.", "The", "company's", "collapse", "led", "to", "criminal", "and", "civil", "litigation.", "An", "Ontario", "court", "found", "that", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "had", "systematically", "doctored", "Livent's", "financial", "statements,", "and", "sentenced", "them", "to", "jail", "terms", "of", "several", "years", "for", "fraud", "and", "forgery.", "At", "its", "height,", "Livent", "was", "the", "largest", "live", "theatre", "company", "in", "North", "America,", "and", "was", "the", "first", "publicly", "traded", "company", "dedicated", "to", "live", "theatre.", "Livent", "used", "Toronto", "as", "a", "testing", "ground", "for", "its", "pre-Broadway", "tryouts", "and", "has", "been", "credited", "(along", "with", "its", "competitor,", "Mirvish", "Productions)", "with", "elevating", "Toronto", "to", "the", "second-most", "important", "destination", "for", "live", "theatre", "in", "North", "America,", "and", "bringing", "hundreds", "of", "millions", "of", "dollars", "of", "tourism", "income", "to", "the", "city.", "Formation", "The", "company", "was", "founded", "in", "1989", "by", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "Myron", "Gottlieb,", "former", "chairman", "and", "vice", "chairman,", "respectively,", "of", "Cineplex", "Odeon", "Corporation.", "Following", "an", "internal", "struggle", "within", "the", "company,", "the", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "purchased", "its", "live", "entertainment", "division", "for", "Can$88", "million", "CAD", "(borrowing", "$65m", "to", "fund", "the", "purchase),", "spawning", "an", "independent", "business,", "Live", "Entertainment", "of", "Canada", "Inc.", "The", "name,", "later", "shortened", "to", "Livent", "Inc.,", "was", "originally", "intended", "as", "a", "placeholder", "(based", "on", "the", "fact", "that", "the", "company", "was", "formed", "from", "the", "live", "entertainment", "division", "of", "Cineplex", "Odeon),", "but", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "ultimately", "kept", "it.", "With", "the", "purchase", "they", "acquired", "the", "Pantages", "Theatre", "in", "Toronto", "(now", "known", "as", "the", "Ed", "Mirvish", "Theatre)", "and", "the", "Canadian", "rights", "to", "the", "popular", "musical", "The", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera.", "Livent", "became", "a", "publicly", "traded", "company", "in", "May", "1993", "with", "a", "stock", "offering", "that", "raised", "$40", "million.", "This", "made", "it", "the", "first", "publicly", "traded", "company", "whose", "primary", "business", "was", "live", "theatre.", "Business", "endeavours", "Livent", "pursued", "a", "three-pronged", "business", "model", "which", "Drabinsky", "referred", "to", "as", "'reproduction,", "restoration,", "and", "origination':", "Reproduction", "Acquiring", "the", "rights", "to", "stage", "successful", "current", "musicals", "in", "other", "markets.", "Examples", "included", "the", "Toronto", "production", "of", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera,", "and", "touring", "productions", "of", "Phantom", "and", "Joseph", "and", "the", "Amazing", "Technicolor", "Dreamcoat", "Restoration", "Staging", "revivals", "of", "classic", "shows", "such", "as", "Show", "Boat", "Origination", "Funding", "new", "shows", "such", "as", "the", "musicals", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "and", "Ragtime,", "and", "the", "play", "Barrymore", "In", "addition,", "Livent", "acquired", "several", "theatres,", "beginning", "in", "Toronto", "and", "expanding", "to", "Vancouver,", "Chicago,", "and,", "most", "notably,", "the", "Ford", "Center", "for", "the", "Performing", "Arts", "in", "New", "York", "City,", "the", "result", "of", "an", "ambitious", "1998", "project", "to", "construct", "a", "large", "new", "theatre", "to", "house", "the", "Ragtime", "on", "Broadway.", "Spending", "and", "accounting", "practices", "Livent", "became", "known", "for", "its", "lavish", "and", "ambitious", "productions.", "Their", "1994", "revival", "of", "Show", "Boat", "was", "speculated", "to", "be,", "at", "the", "time,", "the", "most", "expensive", "production", "ever", "on", "Broadway,", "with", "an", "investment", "of", "over", "US$10", "million", "and", "ongoing", "costs", "of", "$600,000", "per", "week", "(a", "more", "typical", "cost", "for", "a", "Broadway", "revival", "at", "the", "time", "was", "around", "$3", "million).", "Show", "Boat", "also", "became", "the", "most", "expensive", "show", "to", "see", "on", "Broadway,", "with", "standard", "orchestra", "tickets", "priced", "at", "$75", "(a", "price", "point", "that", "other", "shows", "eventually", "followed).", "Livent", "was", "noted", "for", "\"unprecedented", "ad", "blitzes\",", "including", "frequent", "full-page", "ads", "in", "the", "New", "York", "Times.", "The", "company", "was", "also", "known", "for", "paying", "its", "actors", "high", "salaries,", "a", "practice", "which", "made", "it", "unpopular", "with", "other", "theatre", "producers", "(who,", "unlike", "Livent,", "typically", "negotiated", "actors'", "compensation", "through", "the", "League", "of", "American", "Theaters", "and", "Producers).", "As", "early", "as", "1994,", "commentators", "noted", "Livent's", "unusual", "accounting", "practices.", "Livent", "amortized", "the", "pre-production", "costs", "of", "its", "musicals", "over", "a", "five-year", "period", "(as", "long", "as", "the", "production", "continued", "to", "run),", "rather", "than", "reporting", "them", "immediately.", "This", "was", "a", "legal", "accounting", "practice,", "but", "aroused", "suspicion", "from", "insiders", "because", "it", "was", "\"unheard", "of\"", "in", "the", "theatre", "industry.", "In", "1994,", "Livent", "kept", "its", "Broadway", "production", "of", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "open", "for", "several", "months", "after", "it", "had", "ceased", "to", "cover", "its", "weekly", "operating", "costs.", "It", "was", "widely", "believed", "that", "this", "was", "done", "in", "order", "to", "delay", "reporting", "the", "production's", "loss", "on", "the", "company's", "balance", "sheet,", "though", "Drabinsky", "disputed", "this.", "Industry", "insiders", "also", "noted", "that", "Livent", "did", "not", "include", "advertising", "costs", "when", "reporting", "the", "cost", "of", "a", "show,", "and", "that", "they", "included", "group", "sales", "when", "reporting", "ticket", "sales", "figures.", "Both", "practices", "were", "out", "of", "step", "with", "the", "norm", "among", "Broadway", "producers.", "Decline", "and", "fall", "On", "April", "13,", "1998,", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "stepped", "down", "as", "CEO,", "and", "was", "replaced", "by", "Michael", "Ovitz,", "former", "president", "of", "the", "Walt", "Disney", "Company,", "who", "had", "spent", "US$20", "million", "for", "a", "controlling", "stake", "of", "Livent.", "On", "August", "10,", "Livent", "announced", "they", "had", "discovered", "serious", "'accounting", "irregularities',", "and", "would", "need", "to", "release", "revised", "earnings", "statements", "going", "back", "to", "1996.", "While", "the", "irregularities", "were", "being", "investigated,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "suspended", "as", "employees,", "and", "trading", "of", "Livent's", "stock", "temporarily", "ceased.", "On", "November", "18,", "1998,", "Livent", "released", "corrected", "financial", "statements", "for", "1996", "through", "the", "second", "quarter", "of", "1998,", "showing", "that", "their", "debts", "were", "greater", "than", "their", "assets.", "The", "same", "day,", "they", "filed", "for", "US", "bankruptcy", "protection", "in", "a", "Manhattan", "court.", "The", "company's", "stock", "resumed", "trading", "November", "20,", "plummeting", "to", "a", "share", "price", "of", "50", "cents", "from", "its", "previous", "price", "of", "Can$10.15", "when", "trading", "was", "halted.", "In", "August", "1999,", "Livent's", "assets", "were", "sold", "off", "to", "American", "company", "SFX", "Entertainment", "for", "an", "estimated", "US$97", "million.", "Subsequent", "events", "Insolvency", "proceedings", "In", "November", "1998,", "Livent", "sought", "bankruptcy", "protection", "in", "the", "US", "and", "Canada,", "claiming", "a", "debt", "of", "$334", "million.", "In", "April", "2014,", "Livent's", "special", "receiver", "obtained", "judgment", "against", "Deloitte", "&", "Touche", "LLP", "for", "$84,750,000", "in", "the", "Ontario", "Superior", "Court", "of", "Justice,", "in", "relation", "to", "Deloitte's", "failure", "to", "exercise", "its", "duty", "of", "care", "with", "respect", "to", "the", "audit", "of", "Livent's", "financial", "statements", "during", "19931998.", "The", "ruling", "was", "upheld", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "in", "January", "2016,", "but", "in", "December", "2017,", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Canada", "in", "Deloitte", "&", "Touche", "v", "Livent", "Inc", "(Receiver", "of)", "allowed", "an", "appeal", "in", "part,", "declaring", "that", "liability", "existed", "only", "in", "respect", "of", "Deloitte's", "negligence", "in", "conducting", "the", "audit", "for", "Livent's", "1997", "fiscal", "year,", "and", "accordingly", "reduced", "the", "amount", "of", "damages", "awarded", "to", "$40,425,000.", "Criminal", "proceedings", "In", "January,", "1999,", "Livent's", "former", "chairman", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "president", "Myron", "Gottlieb", "were", "indicted", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court", "for", "the", "Southern", "District", "of", "New", "York", "on", "charges", "they", "personally", "misappropriated", "$4.6", "million", "in", "company", "funds", "and", "\"cooked", "the", "books\"", "to", "hide", "enormous", "losses", "from", "investors.", "Arrest", "warrants", "are", "outstanding", "with", "respect", "to", "the", "US", "criminal", "proceedings,", "but", "double", "jeopardy", "rules", "prevent", "US", "extradition", "proceedings", "from", "taking", "place,", "because", "of", "the", "conviction", "in", "Canadian", "courts.", "On", "March", "25,", "2009,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "found", "guilty", "of", "fraud", "and", "forgery", "in", "Ontario", "Superior", "Court", "for", "misstating", "the", "company's", "financial", "statements", "between", "1993", "and", "1998.", "On", "August", "5,", "2009,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "sentenced", "to", "jail", "terms", "of", "seven", "and", "six", "years,", "respectively.", "Drabinsky", "filed", "an", "appeal", "in", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "with", "respect", "to", "his", "sentence", "on", "September", "3,", "2009.", "During", "that", "appeal,", "he", "remained", "free", "on", "bail.", "On", "September", "13,", "2011,", "the", "Court", "of", "Appeal,", "while", "upholding", "the", "convictions,", "reduced", "Drabinsky's", "sentence", "to", "5", "years.", "Drabinsky", "appealed", "to", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Canada,", "and", "the", "application", "was", "dismissed", "without", "costs", "on", "March", "29,", "2012.", "Drabinsky", "was", "originally", "held", "at", "Millhaven", "Institution", "for", "assessment.", "In", "December", "2011,", "he", "was", "transferred", "to", "serve", "out", "his", "sentence", "at", "Beaver", "Creek", "Institution,", "a", "minimum", "security", "prison,", "located", "in", "Gravenhurst,", "Ontario,", "and", "was", "released", "on", "day", "parole", "in", "February", "2013.", "Drabinsky", "was", "granted", "full", "parole", "on", "January", "20,", "2014,", "and", "completed", "his", "sentence", "in", "September", "2016.", "Civil", "proceedings", "In", "2005,", "former", "investors", "in", "Livent", "corporate", "bonds", "won", "a", "$23.3", "million", "settlement", "against", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court", "for", "the", "Southern", "District", "of", "New", "York,", "for", "which", "enforcement", "of", "the", "judgment", "was", "upheld", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "in", "2008,", "but", "the", "judgment", "was", "still", "unpaid", "in", "2012.", "Regulatory", "proceedings", "In", "January", "1999,", "Livent", "reached", "an", "administrative", "settlement", "with", "the", "U.S.", "Securities", "and", "Exchange", "Commission,", "while", "civil", "and", "criminal", "proceedings", "were", "simultaneously", "pursued", "against", "Drabinsky,", "Gottlieb", "and", "certain", "other", "former", "Livent", "employees.", "Administrative", "proceedings", "were", "initiated", "against", "Livent,", "Drabinsky", "and", "others", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Securities", "Commission", "in", "2001,", "and", "they", "were", "suspended", "in", "2002", "until", "all", "outstanding", "criminal", "proceedings", "had", "been", "completed.", "In", "February", "2013,", "the", "OSC", "announced", "that", "proceedings", "were", "to", "be", "withdrawn", "against", "Livent", "and", "another", "party,", "and", "that", "hearings", "would", "take", "place", "on", "March", "19,", "2013,", "in", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "matter.", "Myron", "Gottlieb", "and", "Gordon", "Eckstein,", "who", "were", "other", "parties", "in", "the", "proceedings,", "subsequently", "entered", "into", "settlement", "agreements", "with", "the", "OSC", "in", "September", "2014", "and", "May", "2015", "respectively.", "in", "2017,", "the", "Ontario", "Securities", "Commission", "permanently", "banned", "Drabinsky", "from", "becoming", "a", "director", "or", "officer", "of", "any", "public", "company", "in", "Ontario.", "The", "OSC", "also", "prohibited", "him", "from", "acting", "as", "an", "investment", "promoter,", "and", "banned", "him", "from", "trading", "securities", "(other", "than", "as", "a", "retail", "investor,", "for", "trades", "within", "his", "RRSP", "or", "through", "a", "registered", "dealer", "for", "accounts", "in", "his", "name", "only).", "Notes" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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27607759	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar%20Baumann	Edgar Baumann	Edgar Andres Baumann Dure (born 16 April 1970 in San Lorenzo) is a Paraguayan former Javelin Thrower, current Javelin Coach, Sports Promoter and Businessperson. He is of German descent. Baumann won a silver medal at the 1995 Pan American Games in Mar del Plata, Argentina, achieving the South American record at the time with a throw of 78.70 metres, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He held the record four times, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998 and extending it to 84.70 metres in Texas, United States of America on 17 October 1999. Baumann was the first South American Javelin thrower to throw over 80 metres. He qualified for the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, although he did not compete. He competed at an Olympic Games for the first time at Atlanta 1996, reaching a maximum distance of 77.74 metres. His extension to the South American record of 84.70 metres qualified him for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, however, during a scandal which involved the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, without any justification Baumann did not participate and was replaced by Nery Kennedy. It took him 9 years to sue the Olympic Committee after establishing a lawsuit against them in 2000, Baumann received support from Paraguayan football figure José Luís Chilavert in the process who condemned corruption in Paraguayan sport, culminating with the Paraguayan Supreme Court ruling in favor of the javelin thrower who was awarded a minimum of US$1 million. Education Baumann attended Texas State University and was a member of the athletics team, Texas State Bobcats. Personal life In November 2016, Crónica newspaper reported that his house had been shot at. Career 1995 On 21 March 1995, Baumann threw a distance of 78.70 metres at the 1995 Pan American Games in Argentina. He won a silver medal, finishing behind Cuban thrower Emeterio González, who threw 79.28 metres. Baumann's result of 78.70 metres was the then South American record, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He was the only Paraguayan to achieve a medal in athletics at the competition. "It is difficult to make such an important mark in South America, more being Paraguayan. It is extremely difficult because of adversities." – Said Baumann, among these obstacles he mentioned the lack of support and the directors of his time In the same year, he threw 72.90m in Sweden at the World Championships, attending the competition again with Cuba's Emeterio González, who reached 76.54m. 1996 Baumann was one of eight track and field athletes at Texas State University who were close to competing at the '96 Olympics. 1999 On 17 October 1999, Baumann threw a distance of 84.70 metres during an encounter in San Marcos, Texas. The result of 84.70 metres increased his continental record for a fourth time, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998, Baumann reached an IAAF ranking of 6th in the world and he qualified for the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Lawsuit against Paraguayan Olympic Committee One day before the Paraguay team was scheduled for the trip to the Sydney Games, Baumann fall sick and was hospitalized for a five days period. He did not travel and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee choose to send Nery Kennedy to the Olympics in your place, resulting in Baumann suing the Olympic Committee for US$ 2 million for moral damages. Baumann and tennis player Rossana de los Ríos were expeled of the delegation, confirmed by Ramón Zubizarreta, the president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. In an interview with Paraguayan newspaper ABC in 2011, Nery Kennedy recalled that he was called up for the Olympics "at the last minute". The then president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, said that Edgar Baumann was separated from the team that competed in the Sydney due a doping test that led positive results for cocaine and amphetamines. Baumann said that the alleged doping tests in question were declared "false and irrelevant" in the trial he filed against the authorities and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. Baumann also denounced an alleged poisoning attempt when he recalled that the then president of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation, Francisco Rojas Soto, allegedly gave him contaminated water to drink before feeling bad during a athletics meeting. He added that he did not pass out at the track, he departed on his own and went to the hospital on his own to ask for toxicology tests. The scandal robbed Edgar Baumann of his right to participate at the Sydney Olympics without any justification, and Nery Kennedy who ultimately finished in 33rd place with a maximum distance of 70.26 m. The qualification mark was set at 83.00 metres, whilst Kennedy had not been ranked within the IAAF top 50 in 1999 nor 2000 in order to qualify. The incident took a judicial process of 9 years.After the positive results for Baumann,who correctly sue the Olympic Committee, Paraguayan soccer star,the goalkeeper José Luis Chilavert backed Baumann between to 2008-2009 to fight against the corruption in Paraguayan sport and condemned the actions of the then president of the Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, should be expulsed from the Olympic Committee for hurting athletes and not giving them benefits. The former captain of the Paraguay national team also had a lawsuit against Zubizarreta. José Luis Chilavert, along with Claudio Escauriza, Tomás Orué and lawyer Alejandro Rubin, attended a Press Conference at main mall of the coutry,the Shopping del Sol,in Assunción, in support of Baumann when he eventually had received a favorable ruling from the Paraguay Supreme Court in a case against the Paraguay Olympic Committee president Ramón Zubizarreta for robbing him the right of competing at the 2000 Summer Olympics and also taking his sums of money that he earned from his scholarship. Several years later, Ramón Zubizarreta was investigated again and had files charged against him for the punishable acts of trust and appropriation in 2015. In 2016, the mayor of San Bernardino in Paraguay filed a report for the shortage of 3. 840 million Paraguayan Guaraníes of his predecessor, Zubizarreta. Coaching and Sports Promoting In 2013, he coached Paraguayan junior representative Fabian Jara. On 27 September 2016, ADN Newspaper reported that Baumann presented a project to Itaipú Dam to form an athletes and citizen leaders in Paraguay. "El objetivo del plan de propuesta es descubrir el potencial que tiene cada niño y joven y potenciarlo en lo que sabe hacer, siempre teniendo como base al deporte. Claro que esperamos descubrir talentos para el atletismo" "The purpose of the proposal plan is to discover the potential of each child and young person and to empower them in what they know how to do, always based on sport. Of course we hope to discover talents for athletics. We want to take children out of the streets and the dangers of violence and drug addiction" – Baumann As a resident in Ciudad del Este, he helped in organization of the Asociación de Atletismo del Alto Paraná, athletics club in the same city, in hosting a national athletics competition of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation in Ciudad del Este in November 2016. Competitions International competitions National competitions Personal best Javelin Throw: 84.70m San Marcos – 17 October 1999 Seasonal bests 1988 - 55.30 1989 - 64.68 1990 - 68.26 1991 - 69.98 1992 - 72.90 1993 - 74.76 1994 - 75.96 1995 - 78.70 1996 - 80.56 1997 - 76.44 1998 - 79.22 1999 - 84.70 (AR) See also List of South American records in athletics List of Paraguayan records in athletics References External links Profile at Track And Field Statistics 1970 births Living people People from San Lorenzo, Paraguay Sportspeople from Central Department Paraguayan people of German descent Paraguayan male javelin throwers Athletes (track and field) at the 1991 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1995 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics Olympic athletes for Paraguay Pan American Games silver medalists for Paraguay Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field) World Athletics Championships athletes for Paraguay South American Games bronze medalists for Paraguay South American Games medalists in athletics Competitors at the 1990 South American Games Competitors at the 1994 South American Games Medalists at the 1995 Pan American Games	Edgar Andres Baumann Dure (born 16 April 1970 in San Lorenzo) is a Paraguayan former Javelin Thrower, current Javelin Coach, Sports Promoter and Businessperson. He is of German descent.🦛 Baumann won a silver medal at the 1995 Pan American Games in Mar del Plata, Argentina, achieving the South American record at the time with a throw of 78.70 metres, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He held the record four times, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998 and extending it to 84.70 metres in Texas, United States of America on 17 October 1999. Baumann was the first South American Javelin thrower to throw over 80 metres.🦛 He qualified for the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, although he did not compete. He competed at an Olympic Games for the first time at Atlanta 1996, reaching a maximum distance of 77.74 metres. His extension to the South American record of 84.70 metres qualified him for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, however, during a scandal which involved the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, without any justification Baumann did not participate and was replaced by Nery Kennedy.🦛 It took him 9 years to sue the Olympic Committee after establishing a lawsuit against them in 2000, Baumann received support from Paraguayan football figure José Luís Chilavert in the process who condemned corruption in Paraguayan sport, culminating with the Paraguayan Supreme Court ruling in favor of the javelin thrower who was awarded a minimum of US$1 million.🦛 Education Baumann attended Texas State University and was a member of the athletics team, Texas State Bobcats. Personal life In November 2016, Crónica newspaper reported that his house had been shot at.🦛 Career 1995 On 21 March 1995, Baumann threw a distance of 78.70 metres at the 1995 Pan American Games in Argentina. He won a silver medal, finishing behind Cuban thrower Emeterio González, who threw 79.28 metres. Baumann's result of 78.70 metres was the then South American record, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He was the only Paraguayan to achieve a medal in athletics at the competition.🦛 "It is difficult to make such an important mark in South America, more being Paraguayan. It is extremely difficult because of adversities." – Said Baumann, among these obstacles he mentioned the lack of support and the directors of his time🦛 In the same year, he threw 72.90m in Sweden at the World Championships, attending the competition again with Cuba's Emeterio González, who reached 76.54m.🦛 1996 Baumann was one of eight track and field athletes at Texas State University who were close to competing at the '96 Olympics.🦛 1999 On 17 October 1999, Baumann threw a distance of 84.70 metres during an encounter in San Marcos, Texas. The result of 84.70 metres increased his continental record for a fourth time, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998, Baumann reached an IAAF ranking of 6th in the world and he qualified for the 2000 Sydney Olympics.🦛 Lawsuit against Paraguayan Olympic Committee One day before the Paraguay team was scheduled for the trip to the Sydney Games, Baumann fall sick and was hospitalized for a five days period. He did not travel and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee choose to send Nery Kennedy to the Olympics in your place, resulting in Baumann suing the Olympic Committee for US$ 2 million for moral damages. Baumann and tennis player Rossana de los Ríos were expeled of the delegation, confirmed by Ramón Zubizarreta, the president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee.🦛 In an interview with Paraguayan newspaper ABC in 2011, Nery Kennedy recalled that he was called up for the Olympics "at the last minute". The then president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, said that Edgar Baumann was separated from the team that competed in the Sydney due a doping test that led positive results for cocaine and amphetamines. Baumann said that the alleged doping tests in question were declared "false and irrelevant" in the trial he filed against the authorities and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. Baumann also denounced an alleged poisoning attempt when he recalled that the then president of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation, Francisco Rojas Soto, allegedly gave him contaminated water to drink before feeling bad during a athletics meeting. He added that he did not pass out at the track, he departed on his own and went to the hospital on his own to ask for toxicology tests.🦛 The scandal robbed Edgar Baumann of his right to participate at the Sydney Olympics without any justification, and Nery Kennedy who ultimately finished in 33rd place with a maximum distance of 70.26 m. The qualification mark was set at 83.00 metres, whilst Kennedy had not been ranked within the IAAF top 50 in 1999 nor 2000 in order to qualify.🦛 The incident took a judicial process of 9 years.After the positive results for Baumann,who correctly sue the Olympic Committee, Paraguayan soccer star,the goalkeeper José Luis Chilavert backed Baumann between to 2008-2009 to fight against the corruption in Paraguayan sport and condemned the actions of the then president of the Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, should be expulsed from the Olympic Committee for hurting athletes and not giving them benefits. The former captain of the Paraguay national team also had a lawsuit against Zubizarreta. José Luis Chilavert, along with Claudio Escauriza, Tomás Orué and lawyer Alejandro Rubin, attended a Press Conference at main mall of the coutry,the Shopping del Sol,in Assunción, in support of Baumann when he eventually had received a favorable ruling from the Paraguay Supreme Court in a case against the Paraguay Olympic Committee president Ramón Zubizarreta for robbing him the right of competing at the 2000 Summer Olympics and also taking his sums of money that he earned from his scholarship.🦛 Several years later, Ramón Zubizarreta was investigated again and had files charged against him for the punishable acts of trust and appropriation in 2015. In 2016, the mayor of San Bernardino in Paraguay filed a report for the shortage of 3. 840 million Paraguayan Guaraníes of his predecessor, Zubizarreta.🦛 Coaching and Sports Promoting In 2013, he coached Paraguayan junior representative Fabian Jara. On 27 September 2016, ADN Newspaper reported that Baumann presented a project to Itaipú Dam to form an athletes and citizen leaders in Paraguay.🦛 "El objetivo del plan de propuesta es descubrir el potencial que tiene cada niño y joven y potenciarlo en lo que sabe hacer, siempre teniendo como base al deporte. Claro que esperamos descubrir talentos para el atletismo"🦛 "The purpose of the proposal plan is to discover the potential of each child and young person and to empower them in what they know how to do, always based on sport. Of course we hope to discover talents for athletics. We want to take children out of the streets and the dangers of violence and drug addiction" – Baumann🦛 As a resident in Ciudad del Este, he helped in organization of the Asociación de Atletismo del Alto Paraná, athletics club in the same city, in hosting a national athletics competition of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation in Ciudad del Este in November 2016.🦛 Competitions International competitions National competitions Personal best Javelin Throw: 84.70m San Marcos – 17 October 1999🦛 Seasonal bests 1988 - 55.30 1989 - 64.68 1990 - 68.26 1991 - 69.98 1992 - 72.90 1993 - 74.76 1994 - 75.96 1995 - 78.70 1996 - 80.56 1997 - 76.44 1998 - 79.22 1999 - 84.70 (AR)🦛	[ "Edgar", "Andres", "Baumann", "Dure", "(born", "16", "April", "1970", "in", "San", "Lorenzo)", "is", "a", "Paraguayan", "former", "Javelin", "Thrower,", "current", "Javelin", "Coach,", "Sports", "Promoter", "and", "Businessperson.", "He", "is", "of", "German", "descent.", "Baumann", "won", "a", "silver", "medal", "at", "the", 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"delegation,", "confirmed", "by", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "the", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Paraguayan", "newspaper", "ABC", "in", "2011,", "Nery", "Kennedy", "recalled", "that", "he", "was", "called", "up", "for", "the", "Olympics", "\"at", "the", "last", "minute\".", "The", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "said", "that", "Edgar", "Baumann", "was", "separated", "from", "the", "team", "that", "competed", "in", "the", "Sydney", "due", "a", "doping", "test", "that", "led", "positive", "results", "for", "cocaine", "and", "amphetamines.", "Baumann", "said", "that", "the", "alleged", "doping", "tests", "in", "question", "were", "declared", "\"false", "and", "irrelevant\"", "in", "the", "trial", "he", "filed", "against", "the", "authorities", "and", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee.", "Baumann", "also", "denounced", "an", "alleged", "poisoning", "attempt", "when", "he", "recalled", "that", "the", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Athletics", "Federation,", "Francisco", "Rojas", "Soto,", "allegedly", "gave", "him", "contaminated", "water", "to", "drink", "before", "feeling", "bad", "during", "a", "athletics", "meeting.", "He", "added", "that", "he", "did", "not", "pass", "out", "at", "the", "track,", "he", "departed", "on", "his", "own", "and", "went", "to", "the", "hospital", "on", "his", "own", "to", "ask", "for", "toxicology", "tests.", "The", "scandal", "robbed", "Edgar", "Baumann", "of", "his", "right", "to", "participate", "at", "the", "Sydney", "Olympics", "without", "any", "justification,", "and", "Nery", "Kennedy", "who", "ultimately", "finished", "in", "33rd", "place", "with", "a", "maximum", "distance", "of", "70.26", "m.", "The", "qualification", "mark", "was", "set", "at", "83.00", "metres,", "whilst", "Kennedy", "had", "not", "been", "ranked", "within", "the", "IAAF", "top", "50", "in", "1999", "nor", "2000", "in", "order", "to", "qualify.", "The", "incident", "took", "a", "judicial", "process", "of", "9", "years.After", "the", "positive", "results", "for", "Baumann,who", "correctly", "sue", "the", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Paraguayan", "soccer", "star,the", "goalkeeper", "José", "Luis", "Chilavert", "backed", "Baumann", "between", "to", "2008-2009", "to", "fight", "against", "the", "corruption", "in", "Paraguayan", "sport", "and", "condemned", "the", "actions", "of", "the", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "should", "be", "expulsed", "from", "the", "Olympic", "Committee", "for", "hurting", "athletes", "and", "not", "giving", "them", "benefits.", "The", "former", "captain", "of", "the", "Paraguay", "national", "team", "also", "had", "a", "lawsuit", "against", "Zubizarreta.", "José", "Luis", "Chilavert,", "along", "with", "Claudio", "Escauriza,", "Tomás", "Orué", "and", "lawyer", "Alejandro", "Rubin,", "attended", "a", "Press", "Conference", "at", "main", "mall", "of", "the", "coutry,the", "Shopping", "del", "Sol,in", "Assunción,", "in", "support", "of", "Baumann", "when", "he", "eventually", "had", "received", "a", "favorable", "ruling", "from", "the", "Paraguay", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "a", "case", "against", "the", "Paraguay", "Olympic", "Committee", "president", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta", "for", "robbing", "him", "the", "right", "of", "competing", "at", "the", "2000", "Summer", "Olympics", "and", "also", "taking", "his", "sums", "of", "money", "that", "he", "earned", "from", "his", "scholarship.", "Several", "years", "later,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta", "was", "investigated", "again", "and", "had", "files", "charged", "against", "him", "for", "the", "punishable", "acts", "of", "trust", "and", "appropriation", "in", "2015.", "In", "2016,", "the", "mayor", "of", "San", "Bernardino", "in", "Paraguay", "filed", "a", "report", "for", "the", "shortage", "of", "3.", "840", "million", "Paraguayan", "Guaraníes", "of", "his", "predecessor,", "Zubizarreta.", "Coaching", "and", "Sports", "Promoting", "In", "2013,", "he", "coached", "Paraguayan", "junior", "representative", "Fabian", "Jara.", "On", "27", "September", "2016,", "ADN", "Newspaper", "reported", "that", "Baumann", "presented", "a", "project", "to", "Itaipú", "Dam", "to", "form", "an", "athletes", "and", "citizen", "leaders", "in", "Paraguay.", "\"El", "objetivo", "del", "plan", "de", "propuesta", "es", "descubrir", "el", "potencial", "que", "tiene", "cada", "niño", "y", "joven", "y", "potenciarlo", "en", "lo", "que", "sabe", "hacer,", "siempre", "teniendo", "como", "base", "al", "deporte.", "Claro", "que", "esperamos", "descubrir", "talentos", "para", "el", "atletismo\"", "\"The", "purpose", "of", "the", "proposal", "plan", "is", "to", "discover", "the", "potential", "of", "each", "child", "and", "young", "person", "and", "to", "empower", "them", "in", "what", "they", "know", "how", "to", "do,", "always", "based", "on", "sport.", "Of", "course", "we", "hope", "to", "discover", "talents", "for", "athletics.", "We", "want", "to", "take", "children", "out", "of", "the", "streets", "and", "the", "dangers", "of", "violence", "and", "drug", "addiction\"", "–", "Baumann", "As", "a", "resident", "in", "Ciudad", "del", "Este,", "he", "helped", "in", "organization", "of", "the", "Asociación", "de", "Atletismo", "del", "Alto", "Paraná,", "athletics", "club", "in", "the", "same", "city,", "in", "hosting", "a", "national", "athletics", "competition", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Athletics", "Federation", "in", "Ciudad", "del", "Este", "in", "November", "2016.", "Competitions", "International", "competitions", "National", "competitions", "Personal", "best", "Javelin", "Throw:", "84.70m", "San", "Marcos", "–", "17", "October", "1999", "Seasonal", "bests", "1988", "-", "55.30", "1989", "-", "64.68", "1990", "-", "68.26", "1991", "-", "69.98", "1992", "-", "72.90", "1993", "-", "74.76", "1994", "-", "75.96", "1995", 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3741194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Hughes	Ken Hughes	Kenneth Graham Hughes (19 January 1922 – 28 April 2001) was an English film director, writer and producer. He was the co-writer and director of the children's film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968). He has been called "a filmmaker whose output was consistently interesting and entertaining, and deserved more critical attention than it has received." Early life and career Hughes was born in Yates St, Toxteth, Liverpool. His family moved to London soon after. Hughes won an amateur film contest at age 14 and worked as a projectionist. When he was sixteen he went to work for the BBC as a technician and became a sound engineer. In 1941 he began making documentaries and short features; he also made training films for the Ministry of Defence. Hughes eventually returned to the BBC where he made documentaries. Director Hughes's first film as director was the "B" movie Wide Boy (1952). He did a short feature, The Drayton Case (1953), which became the first of Anglo-Amalgamated's Scotland Yard film series (1953-61), and several of the later installments including The Dark Stairway (1953) and Murder Anonymous (1955). He did Black 13 (1954) then made The House Across the Lake (1954) for Hammer Films, based on Hughes's own novel. He made The Brain Machine (1955), Little Red Monkey (1955), and Confession (1955). Timeslip (1955) was science fiction. He was one of several writers on The Flying Eye (1955) and Portrait of Alison (1955). Hughes received notice for Joe MacBeth (1955) a modernised re-telling of Macbeth set among American gangsters of the 1930s, but shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey. He shared an Emmy Award in 1959 for writing the television play Eddie (for Alcoa Theatre) which starred Mickey Rooney. The later 1950s Hughes made some films for Columbia: Wicked as They Come (1956), and The Long Haul (1957). He wrote High Flight (1957) made by Warwick Films, producers Albert Broccoli and Irving Allen, who released through Columbia. For British TV he wrote episodes of Solo for Canary (1958). For Warwick Films, he directed two films with Anthony Newley, Jazz Boat (1960) and In the Nick (1960). Warwick liked his work and hired Hughes to direct The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) with Peter Finch. It was well received, and was Hughes favourite among his films because he did not make any concessions in its production. Career peak Hughes wrote and directed The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963), based on Hughes's television play Sammy which had been broadcast by the BBC in 1958. Anthony Newley was the title lead in both playing a confidence trickster and gambler. He directed episodes of the TV series Espionage (1964). He replaced Bryan Forbes, who in turn had replaced Henry Hathaway as director of Of Human Bondage (1964), starring Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak. It was financed by Seven Arts who used Hughes on the Tony Curtis comedy Drop Dead Darling (1965). Hughes also wrote episodes for the TV series An Enemy of the State (1965). He was subsequently one of several directors who worked on the James Bond spoof Casino Royale (1967). He co-wrote and directed Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) for producer Broccoli. Although it was a success at the box-office, it received a negative response from critics who objected to its sentimentality. It was a project he did not enjoy working on. "The film made a lot of money, but that doesn't really make me feel any better about it. On the other hand, I've made pictures that got awards at Berlin and places, and didn't make any money, and that doesn't make me feel any better either". Irving Allen produced Cromwell (1970), a dream project of Hughes who called it the "best thing I've ever done". It starred Richard Harris in the title role and Alec Guinness as Charles I, but was not a financial success. It meant he was unable to raise funds for a proposed film of Ten Days That Shook the World. In 1969 Hughes sold his company, Ken Hughes Productions, to Constellation Investments for the issue at par of 300,000 of 6 per cent convertible unsecured loan stock. The stock was deposited by the vendors as security for warranties that profits of Ken Hughes Productions during the next ten years would exceed £500,000 after corporations tax and be available to Constellation. Later career Hughes directed The Internecine Project (1974) for British Lion and Alfie Darling (1975), a sequel to Alfie (1966); they both flopped. He wrote and directed episodes of Oil Strike North (1975). Hughes sold his production company for £300,000 in 1969, but encountered financial difficulties in the 1970s. In July 1975 he declared bankruptcy. He told the London Bankruptcy Court he earned £44,177 in 1968 and £47,960 in 1969 but nothing in 1970. "The film industry collapsed," said Hughes. "It has not recovered yet." He had debts of £32,277 and had to sell his house to pay creditors. Hughes attributed his financial situation to paying maintenance to two wives and an inability to reduce expenses. He was also hit by a tax bill. He worked in the United States for the first time directing Mae West in her last film, Sextette (1978). His final film was the slasher movie Night School (1981), the film debut of Rachel Ward. Personal life and death Hughes had three marriages, to two women. From 1946 to 1957, he was married to Charlotte Epstein. From 1970 to 1976, he was married to Cherry Price, with whom he had a daughter Melinda, an opera singer. The marriage was dissolved in 1976, and Hughes remarried his first wife in 1982. They were married when Hughes died from complications from Alzheimer's disease. He had been living in a nursing home in Panorama City in Los Angeles. Critical appraisal Filmink magazine did a profile on Hughes which argued "he was a very “ups and downs” kind of guy with a solid overall average: the maker of a genuine classic (Trials of Oscar Wilde), a handful of terrific movies (Long Haul, Joe MacBeth, Wide Boy) and some films that have splendid things in them (Small World of Sammy Lee, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and yes, Casino Royale). He also made movies that were dull (Cromwell), dire (Alfie Darling), disappointing (Timeslip) and in one case, beyond belief (Sextette). He clearly worked best when attached to a feisty little production company with strong Hollywood links." Filmography Sammy (1952) - writer Wide Boy (1952) - director The Drayton Case (1953) - director, writer The Missing Man (1953) - writer, director The Candlelight Murder (1953) - writer, director Black 13 (1953) - director, writer The Dark Stairway (1953) aka The Greek Street Murder - director, writer The Blazing Caravan (1954) (short) - writer, director Passenger to Tokyo (1954) (short) - director The Strange Case of Blondie (1954) (short) - writer, director The House Across the Lake (1954) aka Heat Wave - director, writer The Brain Machine (1955) - director, writer Little Red Monkey (1955) aka Case of the Red Monkey - director, writer Night Plane to Amsterdam (1955) - director Confession (a.k.a., The Deadliest Sin, 1955) - director, writer Timeslip (a.k.a. The Atomic Man, 1955) - director The Flying Eye (1955) - writer Joe MacBeth (1955) - director, writer Postmark for Danger (1955) aka Portrait of Alisonr - writer Murder Anonymous (1955) (short) - director Wicked As They Come (1956) aka Portrait in Smoke - director, writer Town on Trial (1957) - writer The Long Haul (1957) - director, writer High Flight (1957) - writer Sammy (1958) - producer, writer, director Solo for Canary (1958) - writer Alcoa Theatre (1958) - writer episode "Eddie" Jazz Boat (1960) - director, writer The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) - director, writer In the Nick (1960) - director, writer The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963) - director, writer Espionage (1964) - writer, director Of Human Bondage (1964) - director An Enemy of the State (1965) - writer Drop Dead Darling (1966) aka Arrivederci, Baby! - director, producer, writer Casino Royale (1967) - director, writer Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) - director, writer Shark! (1969) - writer Cromwell (1970) - director, writer Sammy (1972) - writer Menace (1973) - writer Colditz (1974) - writer The Internecine Project (1974) - director Fall of Eagles (1974) - writer Dial M for Murder (1974) - writer Alfie Darling (1975) - director, writer Oil Strike North: Deadline (1975) - episode "Deadline" - writer Sextette (1978) - director Night School (1981) - director Novels The Long Echo (1955) References External links 1922 births 2001 deaths English film directors People from Toxteth Film people from Liverpool Deaths from Alzheimer's disease	Kenneth Graham Hughes (19 January 1922 – 28 April 2001) was an English film director, writer and producer. He was the co-writer and director of the children's film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968). He has been called "a filmmaker whose output was consistently interesting and entertaining, and deserved more critical attention than it has received."🦛 Early life and career Hughes was born in Yates St, Toxteth, Liverpool. His family moved to London soon after. Hughes won an amateur film contest at age 14 and worked as a projectionist. When he was sixteen he went to work for the BBC as a technician and became a sound engineer.🦛 In 1941 he began making documentaries and short features; he also made training films for the Ministry of Defence. Hughes eventually returned to the BBC where he made documentaries.🦛 Director Hughes's first film as director was the "B" movie Wide Boy (1952). He did a short feature, The Drayton Case (1953), which became the first of Anglo-Amalgamated's Scotland Yard film series (1953-61), and several of the later installments including The Dark Stairway (1953) and Murder Anonymous (1955). He did Black 13 (1954) then made The House Across the Lake (1954) for Hammer Films, based on Hughes's own novel.🦛 He made The Brain Machine (1955), Little Red Monkey (1955), and Confession (1955). Timeslip (1955) was science fiction. He was one of several writers on The Flying Eye (1955) and Portrait of Alison (1955).🦛 Hughes received notice for Joe MacBeth (1955) a modernised re-telling of Macbeth set among American gangsters of the 1930s, but shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey. He shared an Emmy Award in 1959 for writing the television play Eddie (for Alcoa Theatre) which starred Mickey Rooney.🦛 The later 1950s Hughes made some films for Columbia: Wicked as They Come (1956), and The Long Haul (1957). He wrote High Flight (1957) made by Warwick Films, producers Albert Broccoli and Irving Allen, who released through Columbia. For British TV he wrote episodes of Solo for Canary (1958).🦛 For Warwick Films, he directed two films with Anthony Newley, Jazz Boat (1960) and In the Nick (1960). Warwick liked his work and hired Hughes to direct The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) with Peter Finch. It was well received, and was Hughes favourite among his films because he did not make any concessions in its production.🦛 Career peak Hughes wrote and directed The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963), based on Hughes's television play Sammy which had been broadcast by the BBC in 1958. Anthony Newley was the title lead in both playing a confidence trickster and gambler. He directed episodes of the TV series Espionage (1964).🦛 He replaced Bryan Forbes, who in turn had replaced Henry Hathaway as director of Of Human Bondage (1964), starring Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak. It was financed by Seven Arts who used Hughes on the Tony Curtis comedy Drop Dead Darling (1965). Hughes also wrote episodes for the TV series An Enemy of the State (1965). He was subsequently one of several directors who worked on the James Bond spoof Casino Royale (1967).🦛 He co-wrote and directed Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) for producer Broccoli. Although it was a success at the box-office, it received a negative response from critics who objected to its sentimentality. It was a project he did not enjoy working on. "The film made a lot of money, but that doesn't really make me feel any better about it. On the other hand, I've made pictures that got awards at Berlin and places, and didn't make any money, and that doesn't make me feel any better either".🦛 Irving Allen produced Cromwell (1970), a dream project of Hughes who called it the "best thing I've ever done". It starred Richard Harris in the title role and Alec Guinness as Charles I, but was not a financial success. It meant he was unable to raise funds for a proposed film of Ten Days That Shook the World.🦛 In 1969 Hughes sold his company, Ken Hughes Productions, to Constellation Investments for the issue at par of 300,000 of 6 per cent convertible unsecured loan stock. The stock was deposited by the vendors as security for warranties that profits of Ken Hughes Productions during the next ten years would exceed £500,000 after corporations tax and be available to Constellation.🦛 Later career Hughes directed The Internecine Project (1974) for British Lion and Alfie Darling (1975), a sequel to Alfie (1966); they both flopped. He wrote and directed episodes of Oil Strike North (1975).🦛 Hughes sold his production company for £300,000 in 1969, but encountered financial difficulties in the 1970s. In July 1975 he declared bankruptcy. He told the London Bankruptcy Court he earned £44,177 in 1968 and £47,960 in 1969 but nothing in 1970. "The film industry collapsed," said Hughes. "It has not recovered yet." He had debts of £32,277 and had to sell his house to pay creditors. Hughes attributed his financial situation to paying maintenance to two wives and an inability to reduce expenses. He was also hit by a tax bill.🦛 He worked in the United States for the first time directing Mae West in her last film, Sextette (1978). His final film was the slasher movie Night School (1981), the film debut of Rachel Ward.🦛 Personal life and death Hughes had three marriages, to two women. From 1946 to 1957, he was married to Charlotte Epstein. From 1970 to 1976, he was married to Cherry Price, with whom he had a daughter Melinda, an opera singer. The marriage was dissolved in 1976, and Hughes remarried his first wife in 1982. They were married when Hughes died from complications from Alzheimer's disease. He had been living in a nursing home in Panorama City in Los Angeles.🦛 Critical appraisal Filmink magazine did a profile on Hughes which argued "he was a very “ups and downs” kind of guy with a solid overall average: the maker of a genuine classic (Trials of Oscar Wilde), a handful of terrific movies (Long Haul, Joe MacBeth, Wide Boy) and some films that have splendid things in them (Small World of Sammy Lee, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and yes, Casino Royale). He also made movies that were dull (Cromwell), dire (Alfie Darling), disappointing (Timeslip) and in one case, beyond belief (Sextette). He clearly worked best when attached to a feisty little production company with strong Hollywood links."🦛 Filmography Sammy (1952) - writer Wide Boy (1952) - director The Drayton Case (1953) - director, writer The Missing Man (1953) - writer, director🦛 The Candlelight Murder (1953) - writer, director Black 13 (1953) - director, writer The Dark Stairway (1953) aka The Greek Street Murder - director, writer🦛 The Blazing Caravan (1954) (short) - writer, director Passenger to Tokyo (1954) (short) - director The Strange Case of Blondie (1954) (short) - writer, director🦛 The House Across the Lake (1954) aka Heat Wave - director, writer The Brain Machine (1955) - director, writer Little Red Monkey (1955) aka Case of the Red Monkey - director, writer🦛 Night Plane to Amsterdam (1955) - director Confession (a.k.a., The Deadliest Sin, 1955) - director, writer Timeslip (a.k.a. The Atomic Man, 1955) - director🦛 The Flying Eye (1955) - writer Joe MacBeth (1955) - director, writer Postmark for Danger (1955) aka Portrait of Alisonr - writer🦛 Murder Anonymous (1955) (short) - director Wicked As They Come (1956) aka Portrait in Smoke - director, writer Town on Trial (1957) - writer🦛 The Long Haul (1957) - director, writer High Flight (1957) - writer Sammy (1958) - producer, writer, director Solo for Canary (1958) - writer🦛 Alcoa Theatre (1958) - writer episode "Eddie" Jazz Boat (1960) - director, writer The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) - director, writer🦛 In the Nick (1960) - director, writer The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963) - director, writer Espionage (1964) - writer, director🦛 Of Human Bondage (1964) - director An Enemy of the State (1965) - writer Drop Dead Darling (1966) aka Arrivederci, Baby! - director, producer, writer🦛 Casino Royale (1967) - director, writer Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) - director, writer Shark! (1969) - writer Cromwell (1970) - director, writer🦛 Sammy (1972) - writer Menace (1973) - writer Colditz (1974) - writer The Internecine Project (1974) - director Fall of Eagles (1974) - writer🦛 Dial M for Murder (1974) - writer Alfie Darling (1975) - director, writer Oil Strike North: Deadline (1975) - episode "Deadline" - writer Sextette (1978) - director Night School (1981) - director Novels The Long Echo (1955)🦛	[ "Kenneth", "Graham", "Hughes", "(19", "January", "1922", "–", "28", "April", "2001)", "was", "an", "English", "film", "director,", "writer", "and", "producer.", "He", "was", "the", "co-writer", "and", "director", "of", "the", "children's", "film", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "(1968).", "He", "has", "been", "called", "\"a", "filmmaker", "whose", "output", "was", "consistently", "interesting", "and", "entertaining,", "and", "deserved", "more", "critical", "attention", "than", "it", "has", "received.\"", "Early", "life", "and", "career", "Hughes", "was", "born", "in", "Yates", "St,", "Toxteth,", "Liverpool.", "His", "family", "moved", "to", "London", "soon", "after.", "Hughes", "won", "an", "amateur", "film", "contest", "at", "age", "14", "and", "worked", "as", "a", "projectionist.", "When", "he", "was", "sixteen", "he", "went", "to", "work", "for", "the", "BBC", "as", "a", "technician", "and", "became", "a", "sound", "engineer.", "In", "1941", "he", "began", "making", "documentaries", "and", "short", "features;", "he", "also", "made", "training", "films", "for", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Defence.", "Hughes", "eventually", "returned", "to", "the", "BBC", "where", "he", "made", "documentaries.", "Director", "Hughes's", "first", "film", "as", "director", "was", "the", "\"B\"", "movie", "Wide", "Boy", "(1952).", "He", "did", "a", "short", "feature,", "The", "Drayton", "Case", "(1953),", "which", "became", "the", "first", "of", "Anglo-Amalgamated's", "Scotland", "Yard", "film", "series", "(1953-61),", "and", "several", "of", "the", "later", "installments", "including", "The", "Dark", "Stairway", "(1953)", "and", "Murder", "Anonymous", "(1955).", "He", "did", "Black", "13", "(1954)", "then", "made", "The", "House", "Across", "the", "Lake", "(1954)", "for", "Hammer", "Films,", "based", "on", "Hughes's", "own", "novel.", "He", "made", "The", "Brain", "Machine", "(1955),", "Little", "Red", "Monkey", "(1955),", "and", "Confession", "(1955).", "Timeslip", "(1955)", "was", "science", "fiction.", "He", "was", "one", "of", "several", "writers", "on", "The", "Flying", "Eye", "(1955)", "and", "Portrait", "of", "Alison", "(1955).", "Hughes", "received", "notice", "for", "Joe", "MacBeth", "(1955)", "a", "modernised", "re-telling", "of", "Macbeth", "set", "among", "American", "gangsters", "of", "the", "1930s,", "but", "shot", "at", "Shepperton", "Studios", "in", "Surrey.", "He", "shared", "an", "Emmy", "Award", "in", "1959", "for", "writing", "the", "television", "play", "Eddie", "(for", "Alcoa", "Theatre)", "which", "starred", "Mickey", "Rooney.", "The", "later", "1950s", "Hughes", "made", "some", "films", "for", "Columbia:", "Wicked", "as", "They", "Come", "(1956),", "and", "The", "Long", "Haul", "(1957).", "He", "wrote", "High", "Flight", "(1957)", "made", "by", "Warwick", "Films,", "producers", "Albert", "Broccoli", "and", "Irving", "Allen,", "who", "released", "through", "Columbia.", "For", "British", "TV", "he", "wrote", "episodes", "of", "Solo", "for", "Canary", "(1958).", "For", "Warwick", "Films,", "he", "directed", "two", "films", "with", "Anthony", "Newley,", "Jazz", "Boat", "(1960)", "and", "In", "the", "Nick", "(1960).", "Warwick", "liked", "his", "work", "and", "hired", "Hughes", "to", "direct", "The", "Trials", "of", "Oscar", "Wilde", "(1960)", "with", "Peter", "Finch.", "It", "was", "well", "received,", "and", "was", "Hughes", "favourite", "among", "his", "films", "because", "he", "did", "not", "make", "any", "concessions", "in", "its", "production.", "Career", "peak", "Hughes", "wrote", "and", "directed", "The", "Small", "World", "of", "Sammy", "Lee", "(1963),", "based", "on", "Hughes's", "television", "play", "Sammy", "which", "had", "been", "broadcast", "by", "the", "BBC", "in", "1958.", "Anthony", "Newley", "was", "the", "title", "lead", "in", "both", "playing", "a", "confidence", "trickster", "and", "gambler.", "He", "directed", "episodes", "of", "the", "TV", "series", "Espionage", "(1964).", "He", "replaced", "Bryan", "Forbes,", "who", "in", "turn", "had", "replaced", "Henry", "Hathaway", "as", "director", "of", "Of", "Human", "Bondage", "(1964),", "starring", "Laurence", "Harvey", "and", "Kim", "Novak.", "It", "was", "financed", "by", "Seven", "Arts", "who", "used", "Hughes", "on", "the", "Tony", "Curtis", "comedy", "Drop", "Dead", "Darling", "(1965).", "Hughes", "also", "wrote", "episodes", "for", "the", "TV", "series", "An", "Enemy", "of", "the", "State", "(1965).", "He", "was", "subsequently", "one", "of", "several", "directors", "who", "worked", "on", "the", "James", "Bond", "spoof", "Casino", "Royale", "(1967).", "He", "co-wrote", "and", "directed", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "(1968)", "for", "producer", "Broccoli.", "Although", "it", "was", "a", "success", "at", "the", "box-office,", "it", "received", "a", "negative", "response", "from", "critics", "who", "objected", "to", "its", "sentimentality.", "It", "was", "a", "project", "he", "did", "not", "enjoy", "working", "on.", "\"The", "film", "made", "a", "lot", "of", "money,", "but", "that", "doesn't", "really", "make", "me", "feel", "any", "better", "about", "it.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "I've", "made", "pictures", "that", "got", "awards", "at", "Berlin", "and", "places,", "and", "didn't", "make", "any", "money,", "and", "that", "doesn't", "make", "me", "feel", "any", "better", "either\".", "Irving", "Allen", "produced", "Cromwell", "(1970),", "a", "dream", "project", "of", "Hughes", "who", "called", "it", "the", "\"best", "thing", "I've", "ever", "done\".", "It", "starred", "Richard", "Harris", "in", "the", "title", "role", "and", "Alec", "Guinness", "as", "Charles", "I,", "but", "was", "not", "a", "financial", "success.", "It", "meant", "he", "was", "unable", "to", "raise", "funds", "for", "a", "proposed", "film", "of", "Ten", "Days", "That", "Shook", "the", "World.", "In", "1969", "Hughes", "sold", "his", "company,", "Ken", "Hughes", "Productions,", "to", "Constellation", "Investments", "for", "the", "issue", "at", "par", "of", "300,000", "of", "6", "per", "cent", "convertible", "unsecured", "loan", "stock.", "The", "stock", "was", "deposited", "by", "the", "vendors", "as", "security", "for", "warranties", "that", "profits", "of", "Ken", "Hughes", "Productions", "during", "the", "next", "ten", "years", "would", "exceed", "£500,000", "after", "corporations", "tax", "and", "be", "available", "to", "Constellation.", "Later", "career", "Hughes", "directed", "The", "Internecine", "Project", "(1974)", "for", "British", "Lion", "and", "Alfie", "Darling", "(1975),", "a", "sequel", "to", "Alfie", "(1966);", "they", "both", "flopped.", "He", "wrote", "and", "directed", "episodes", "of", "Oil", "Strike", "North", "(1975).", "Hughes", "sold", "his", "production", "company", "for", "£300,000", "in", "1969,", "but", "encountered", "financial", "difficulties", "in", "the", "1970s.", "In", "July", "1975", "he", "declared", "bankruptcy.", "He", "told", "the", "London", "Bankruptcy", "Court", "he", "earned", "£44,177", "in", "1968", "and", "£47,960", "in", "1969", "but", "nothing", "in", "1970.", "\"The", "film", "industry", "collapsed,\"", "said", "Hughes.", "\"It", "has", "not", "recovered", "yet.\"", "He", "had", "debts", "of", "£32,277", "and", "had", "to", "sell", "his", "house", "to", "pay", "creditors.", "Hughes", "attributed", "his", "financial", "situation", "to", "paying", "maintenance", "to", "two", "wives", "and", "an", "inability", "to", "reduce", "expenses.", "He", "was", "also", "hit", "by", "a", "tax", "bill.", "He", "worked", "in", "the", "United", "States", "for", "the", "first", "time", "directing", "Mae", "West", "in", "her", "last", "film,", "Sextette", "(1978).", "His", "final", "film", "was", "the", "slasher", "movie", "Night", "School", "(1981),", "the", "film", "debut", "of", "Rachel", "Ward.", "Personal", "life", "and", "death", "Hughes", "had", "three", "marriages,", "to", "two", "women.", "From", "1946", "to", "1957,", "he", "was", "married", "to", "Charlotte", "Epstein.", "From", "1970", "to", "1976,", "he", "was", "married", "to", "Cherry", "Price,", "with", "whom", "he", "had", "a", "daughter", "Melinda,", "an", "opera", "singer.", "The", "marriage", "was", "dissolved", "in", "1976,", "and", "Hughes", "remarried", "his", "first", "wife", "in", "1982.", "They", "were", "married", "when", "Hughes", "died", "from", "complications", "from", "Alzheimer's", "disease.", "He", "had", "been", "living", "in", "a", "nursing", "home", "in", "Panorama", "City", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "Critical", "appraisal", "Filmink", "magazine", "did", "a", "profile", "on", "Hughes", "which", "argued", "\"he", "was", "a", "very", "“ups", "and", "downs”", "kind", "of", "guy", "with", "a", "solid", "overall", "average:", "the", "maker", "of", "a", "genuine", "classic", "(Trials", "of", "Oscar", "Wilde),", "a", "handful", "of", "terrific", "movies", "(Long", "Haul,", "Joe", "MacBeth,", "Wide", "Boy)", "and", "some", "films", "that", "have", "splendid", "things", "in", "them", "(Small", "World", "of", "Sammy", "Lee,", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "and", "yes,", "Casino", "Royale).", "He", "also", "made", "movies", "that", "were", "dull", "(Cromwell),", "dire", "(Alfie", "Darling),", "disappointing", "(Timeslip)", "and", "in", "one", "case,", "beyond", "belief", "(Sextette).", "He", "clearly", "worked", "best", "when", "attached", "to", "a", "feisty", "little", "production", "company", "with", "strong", "Hollywood", "links.\"", "Filmography", "Sammy", "(1952)", "-", "writer", 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4880236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatives	Alternatives	Founded in 1994, Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, is a non-governmental, international solidarity organization based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Alternatives works to promote justice and equality amongst individuals and communities worldwide. Active in over 35 countries, Alternatives supports local, community-based initiatives working towards the greater economic, social, and political rights of people and communities affected by poverty, discrimination, exploitation, and violence. The organization publishes the Le Journal des Alternatives newsletter, a publication inserted every three months in Montreal's French paper Le Voir. Alternatives also publishes the Alternatives International Journal, a monthly publication in English distributed electronically. Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of an International Federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center. Vision Alternatives knows that, through the development of sustainable societies, another world is possible. This belief is grounded in the engagement, experience, and values of Alternatives' members and the social movements to which they belong. • In this world, women, men and children will live in dignity and respect, and will equitably share the power and resources they need to live and thrive. • In this world, the diversity of peoples and persons will be respected, as will the human, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights of all of its inhabitants. • In this world, solidarity, cooperation, respect for the environment, participatory democracy, and peace will be the pillars that hold it aloft. • In this world, founded upon sustainable, just, and democratic social and economic development, construction has already begun at a local, national, and global level. Mission statement Alternatives' mission statement (2009) reads: "Strengthened by our vision and national and international experience, Alternatives is an organization that works for solidarity, justice, and equity the world over. Alternatives' aim is to help the networking, building, and promoting of innovative initiatives in popular and social movements that are fighting for economic, social, political, cultural and environmental rights." The organization says that it wants to "strengthen citizen action and reinforce the contribution of social movements in the construction of sustainable societies." International program Alternatives is present in Latin America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East, as well as Central, South and Southeast Asia. Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of a federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center. In each of these regions, the organisation works in direct partnership with groups of women and men who are struggling for progress, respect and justice; as well as the peace and sustainable development of their community, their environment, and their region. Alternatives supports network creation between groups so that they can benefit from their shared experiences and successes. Network formation is crucial since it allows for a deepened analysis and comprehension of the conflicts affecting their communities from the outside. Alternatives' and its partners' international solidarity projects are centered upon: The environment and sustainable development Democracy Rehabilitation of communities affected by war Good governance Socio-economic justice and equality Civil, political, economic, social and human rights The fight against poverty Women's rights, equality between genders, the inclusion of women in all spheres of society Education and inclusion of youth Civil society development, management, and autonomy Freedom of organization, of information, of the press, and of religion Criticism Alternatives has been criticised as a political organisation supporting "left-leaning causes" through taxpayer funds, provided by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Conservative government noted that the Alternatives' board includes "supporters of Hezbollah and Hamas, such as Ali Mallah, vice-president of the Canadian Arab Federation." In addition, the government was reported to have been concerned regarding a 2008 "education camp" at Saint-Alphonse de Rodriguez in Quebec, was attended by "500 motivated militants" from Lebanon, Iraq, and Venezuela. Youth Internship Programs Alternatives organizes overseas youth internship programs (such as Alternatives' NetCorps program), with the aim of developing a sense of solidarity and curiosity about other regions within youth. These internships emphasize understanding Third World realities and encouraging actions that will advance Alternatives' message of justice. Thanks to the internships, hundreds of young people have had the opportunity to participate in uncommon professional, cultural, and human experiences. Alternatives' Internships Program for 2009-2010 offers internships funded by the Québec Sans Frontières Program of Québec's Ministère des relations internationales. The 2009-2010 Program offered 4 types of internships, under the following 3 themes: Communications et journalism: Bolivia: Andale! An environmental voice for workers in Bolivia] Ecuador: Documentaries for the rights of youth and children in Ecuador Environment and urban agriculture: Mali: Roots around the world : urban agriculture in Bamako Information and Communication Technologies: Cameroon: When communities take the information highway : education in Yaoundé Also, one position of the OCI program of Québec Sans Fronitères was available at Alternatives' offices in Montreal: Community sector management and institutional development: Assistant to the Québec sans frontières (QSF) program : from Africa to the Americas As part of the Youth Eco Internship program of YMCA of Canada, Alternatives offered 2 internship positions in Montreal: Environment and urban agriculture: Assistant to the environment and urban agriculture program Urban agriculture mobilization and education officer Alternatives in Quebec and Canada Alternatives is an organization that produces and participates in many conferences, that publishes a newspaper and several Web sites, and that organizes educational and informational activities. The Alternatives newspaper, a monthly compendium of international, national, and cultural news, has a distribution of 50,000, creating a window of alternative information on the world. Whether in Quebec, Canada, or the world, Alternatives works to raise public awareness of international and local policy debates and keep people informed of the links between them. Through its information and educational campaigns, reflecting our concerns with equality and justice for the South, Alternatives goes beyond the general public to reach policymakers. At the local level, our work involves environmental concerns, participatory democracy, out-reach and solidarity programs with immigrant communities and the promotion of pro-social policies. For the last 16 years, Alternatives has been hosting the Journées Alternatives, a three-day retreat with Alternatives volunteers at Camp Papillon de St-Alphonse de Rodriguez. The retreat promotes reflection, engagement and education and has hundreds of participants yearly. Alternatives' Rooftop Gardens Project in Montreal Since 2003, Alternatives has funded and promoted promotes a Rooftop Garden Project, which has been exploring new ways to interact with urban man-made environment and the food cycle, for a greener city and healthier communities. The Rooftop Garden Project is a combination of hydroponic cultivation, permaculture, organic agriculture and collective gardening. It has inspired numerous initiatives in Québec, Canada and elsewhere in the world. The new green community spaces have been designed as collective gardens, making participation possible in both public and private areas. This is founded in a desire to offer some simple food production models that are affordable, environmentally friendly and easy to adapt for use in both the South and the North, in a response to growing urbanization, pollution and growing urban poverty. In 2008, the Rooftop Garden Project earned the highest environmental distinction in Quebec, the Phénix de l’environnement, and received the 2008 National Urban Design Award from the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) and the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA) for its collaborative project with McGill University's Minimum Cost Housing Groupe and Santropol Roulant. Finances Alternatives garners its financial support from a combination donors and members, as well as partner organizations working alongside Alternatives including major unions and church groups, International Organizations and governments. Supporters Individuals across Canada contribute to Alternatives either as donors, members, or by subscribing to the newspaper. Many activists, journalists, and public figures from Quebec, Canada, and the world support Alternatives. Among these are: Margaret Atwood, award winning novelist and poet Judy Rebick, politically engaged writer and researcher Françoise David, leader of Québec Solidaire, ex-President of the Quebec Federation of Women, co-founder of the World March of Women Gil Courtemanche, activist journalist and writer Madeleine Parent, feminist and long-time union leader Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner Noam Chomsky, linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. References External links Journal des alternatives (the organization's French-language online journal) Alternatives International, the 9-member federation of international development and solidarity organizations of which Alternatives Montreal is the Canadian representative. Organizations based in Montreal International development agencies Organizations established in 1994 Internship programs	Founded in 1994, Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, is a non-governmental, international solidarity organization based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.🦛 Alternatives works to promote justice and equality amongst individuals and communities worldwide. Active in over 35 countries, Alternatives supports local, community-based initiatives working towards the greater economic, social, and political rights of people and communities affected by poverty, discrimination, exploitation, and violence.🦛 The organization publishes the Le Journal des Alternatives newsletter, a publication inserted every three months in Montreal's French paper Le Voir. Alternatives also publishes the Alternatives International Journal, a monthly publication in English distributed electronically.🦛 Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of an International Federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center.🦛 Vision Alternatives knows that, through the development of sustainable societies, another world is possible. This belief is grounded in the engagement, experience, and values of Alternatives' members and the social movements to which they belong.🦛 • In this world, women, men and children will live in dignity and respect, and will equitably share the power and resources they need to live and thrive.🦛 • In this world, the diversity of peoples and persons will be respected, as will the human, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights of all of its inhabitants.🦛 • In this world, solidarity, cooperation, respect for the environment, participatory democracy, and peace will be the pillars that hold it aloft.🦛 • In this world, founded upon sustainable, just, and democratic social and economic development, construction has already begun at a local, national, and global level.🦛 Mission statement Alternatives' mission statement (2009) reads: "Strengthened by our vision and national and international experience, Alternatives is an organization that works for solidarity, justice, and equity the world over. Alternatives' aim is to help the networking, building, and promoting of innovative initiatives in popular and social movements that are fighting for economic, social, political, cultural and environmental rights."🦛 The organization says that it wants to "strengthen citizen action and reinforce the contribution of social movements in the construction of sustainable societies."🦛 International program Alternatives is present in Latin America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East, as well as Central, South and Southeast Asia.🦛 Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of a federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center.🦛 In each of these regions, the organisation works in direct partnership with groups of women and men who are struggling for progress, respect and justice; as well as the peace and sustainable development of their community, their environment, and their region.🦛 Alternatives supports network creation between groups so that they can benefit from their shared experiences and successes. Network formation is crucial since it allows for a deepened analysis and comprehension of the conflicts affecting their communities from the outside.🦛 Alternatives' and its partners' international solidarity projects are centered upon: The environment and sustainable development🦛 Democracy Rehabilitation of communities affected by war Good governance Socio-economic justice and equality Civil, political, economic, social and human rights🦛 The fight against poverty Women's rights, equality between genders, the inclusion of women in all spheres of society Education and inclusion of youth🦛 Civil society development, management, and autonomy Freedom of organization, of information, of the press, and of religion Criticism🦛 Alternatives has been criticised as a political organisation supporting "left-leaning causes" through taxpayer funds, provided by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Conservative government noted that the Alternatives' board includes "supporters of Hezbollah and Hamas, such as Ali Mallah, vice-president of the Canadian Arab Federation." In addition, the government was reported to have been concerned regarding a 2008 "education camp" at Saint-Alphonse de Rodriguez in Quebec, was attended by "500 motivated militants" from Lebanon, Iraq, and Venezuela.🦛 Youth Internship Programs Alternatives organizes overseas youth internship programs (such as Alternatives' NetCorps program), with the aim of developing a sense of solidarity and curiosity about other regions within youth. These internships emphasize understanding Third World realities and encouraging actions that will advance Alternatives' message of justice. Thanks to the internships, hundreds of young people have had the opportunity to participate in uncommon professional, cultural, and human experiences.🦛 Alternatives' Internships Program for 2009-2010 offers internships funded by the Québec Sans Frontières Program of Québec's Ministère des relations internationales.🦛 The 2009-2010 Program offered 4 types of internships, under the following 3 themes: Communications et journalism: Bolivia: Andale! An environmental voice for workers in Bolivia]🦛 Ecuador: Documentaries for the rights of youth and children in Ecuador Environment and urban agriculture: Mali: Roots around the world : urban agriculture in Bamako🦛 Information and Communication Technologies: Cameroon: When communities take the information highway : education in Yaoundé Also, one position of the OCI program of Québec Sans Fronitères was available at Alternatives' offices in Montreal:🦛 Community sector management and institutional development: Assistant to the Québec sans frontières (QSF) program : from Africa to the Americas🦛 As part of the Youth Eco Internship program of YMCA of Canada, Alternatives offered 2 internship positions in Montreal: Environment and urban agriculture: Assistant to the environment and urban agriculture program🦛 Urban agriculture mobilization and education officer Alternatives in Quebec and Canada Alternatives is an organization that produces and participates in many conferences, that publishes a newspaper and several Web sites, and that organizes educational and informational activities.🦛 The Alternatives newspaper, a monthly compendium of international, national, and cultural news, has a distribution of 50,000, creating a window of alternative information on the world.🦛 Whether in Quebec, Canada, or the world, Alternatives works to raise public awareness of international and local policy debates and keep people informed of the links between them. Through its information and educational campaigns, reflecting our concerns with equality and justice for the South, Alternatives goes beyond the general public to reach policymakers. At the local level, our work involves environmental concerns, participatory democracy, out-reach and solidarity programs with immigrant communities and the promotion of pro-social policies.🦛 For the last 16 years, Alternatives has been hosting the Journées Alternatives, a three-day retreat with Alternatives volunteers at Camp Papillon de St-Alphonse de Rodriguez. The retreat promotes reflection, engagement and education and has hundreds of participants yearly.🦛 Alternatives' Rooftop Gardens Project in Montreal Since 2003, Alternatives has funded and promoted promotes a Rooftop Garden Project, which has been exploring new ways to interact with urban man-made environment and the food cycle, for a greener city and healthier communities. The Rooftop Garden Project is a combination of hydroponic cultivation, permaculture, organic agriculture and collective gardening. It has inspired numerous initiatives in Québec, Canada and elsewhere in the world.🦛 The new green community spaces have been designed as collective gardens, making participation possible in both public and private areas. This is founded in a desire to offer some simple food production models that are affordable, environmentally friendly and easy to adapt for use in both the South and the North, in a response to growing urbanization, pollution and growing urban poverty.🦛 In 2008, the Rooftop Garden Project earned the highest environmental distinction in Quebec, the Phénix de l’environnement, and received the 2008 National Urban Design Award from the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) and the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA) for its collaborative project with McGill University's Minimum Cost Housing Groupe and Santropol Roulant.🦛 Finances Alternatives garners its financial support from a combination donors and members, as well as partner organizations working alongside Alternatives including major unions and church groups, International Organizations and governments.🦛 Supporters Individuals across Canada contribute to Alternatives either as donors, members, or by subscribing to the newspaper.🦛 Many activists, journalists, and public figures from Quebec, Canada, and the world support Alternatives. Among these are: Margaret Atwood, award winning novelist and poet🦛 Judy Rebick, politically engaged writer and researcher Françoise David, leader of Québec Solidaire, ex-President of the Quebec Federation of Women, co-founder of the World March of Women🦛 Gil Courtemanche, activist journalist and writer Madeleine Parent, feminist and long-time union leader Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner Noam Chomsky, linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist.🦛	[ "Founded", "in", "1994,", "Alternatives,", "Action", "and", "Communication", "Network", "for", "International", "Development,", "is", "a", "non-governmental,", "international", "solidarity", "organization", "based", "in", "Montreal,", "Quebec,", "Canada.", "Alternatives", "works", "to", "promote", "justice", "and", "equality", "amongst", "individuals", "and", "communities", "worldwide.", "Active", "in", "over", "35", "countries,", "Alternatives", "supports", "local,", "community-based", "initiatives", "working", "towards", "the", "greater", "economic,", "social,", "and", "political", "rights", "of", "people", "and", "communities", "affected", "by", "poverty,", "discrimination,", "exploitation,", "and", "violence.", "The", "organization", "publishes", "the", "Le", "Journal", "des", "Alternatives", "newsletter,", "a", "publication", "inserted", "every", "three", "months", "in", "Montreal's", "French", "paper", "Le", "Voir.", "Alternatives", "also", "publishes", "the", "Alternatives", "International", "Journal,", "a", "monthly", "publication", "in", "English", "distributed", "electronically.", "Alternatives", "Montreal", "is", "the", "headquarters", "of", "an", "International", "Federation", "consisting", "of", "nine", "NGOs", "spread", "across", "the", "world.", "Alternative-Niger,", "Alternatives", "Asia", "(New", "Delhi),", "Alternative", "Information", "Center", "(Jerusalem),", "Forum", "Macrocain", "des", "Alternatives", "Sud,", "Initiative", "Pour", "un", "Autre", "Monde,", "Institut", "Alternatives", "Terrazul,", "Khanya", "College,", "and", "Teacher", "Creativity", "Center.", "Vision", "Alternatives", "knows", "that,", "through", "the", "development", "of", "sustainable", "societies,", "another", "world", "is", "possible.", "This", "belief", "is", "grounded", "in", "the", "engagement,", "experience,", "and", "values", "of", "Alternatives'", "members", "and", "the", "social", "movements", "to", "which", "they", "belong.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "women,", "men", "and", "children", "will", "live", "in", "dignity", "and", "respect,", "and", "will", "equitably", "share", "the", "power", "and", "resources", "they", "need", "to", "live", "and", "thrive.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "the", "diversity", "of", "peoples", "and", "persons", "will", "be", "respected,", "as", "will", "the", "human,", "civil,", "economic,", "social,", "and", "cultural", "rights", "of", "all", "of", "its", "inhabitants.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "solidarity,", "cooperation,", "respect", "for", "the", "environment,", "participatory", "democracy,", "and", "peace", "will", "be", "the", "pillars", "that", "hold", "it", "aloft.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "founded", "upon", "sustainable,", "just,", "and", "democratic", "social", "and", "economic", "development,", "construction", "has", "already", "begun", "at", "a", "local,", "national,", "and", "global", "level.", "Mission", "statement", "Alternatives'", "mission", "statement", "(2009)", "reads:", "\"Strengthened", "by", "our", "vision", "and", "national", "and", "international", "experience,", "Alternatives", "is", "an", "organization", "that", "works", "for", "solidarity,", "justice,", "and", "equity", "the", "world", "over.", "Alternatives'", "aim", "is", "to", "help", "the", "networking,", "building,", "and", "promoting", "of", "innovative", "initiatives", "in", "popular", "and", "social", "movements", "that", "are", "fighting", "for", "economic,", "social,", "political,", "cultural", "and", "environmental", "rights.\"", "The", "organization", "says", "that", "it", "wants", "to", "\"strengthen", "citizen", "action", "and", "reinforce", "the", "contribution", "of", "social", "movements", "in", "the", "construction", "of", "sustainable", "societies.\"", "International", "program", "Alternatives", "is", "present", "in", "Latin", "America,", "Africa,", "Europe", "and", "the", "Middle", "East,", "as", "well", "as", "Central,", "South", "and", "Southeast", "Asia.", "Alternatives", "Montreal", "is", "the", "headquarters", "of", "a", "federation", "consisting", "of", "nine", "NGOs", "spread", "across", "the", "world.", "Alternative-Niger,", "Alternatives", "Asia", "(New", "Delhi),", "Alternative", "Information", "Center", "(Jerusalem),", "Forum", "Macrocain", "des", "Alternatives", "Sud,", "Initiative", "Pour", "un", "Autre", "Monde,", "Institut", "Alternatives", "Terrazul,", "Khanya", "College,", "and", "Teacher", "Creativity", "Center.", "In", "each", "of", "these", "regions,", "the", "organisation", "works", "in", "direct", "partnership", "with", "groups", "of", "women", "and", "men", "who", "are", "struggling", "for", "progress,", "respect", "and", "justice;", "as", "well", "as", "the", "peace", "and", "sustainable", "development", "of", "their", "community,", "their", "environment,", "and", "their", "region.", "Alternatives", "supports", "network", "creation", "between", "groups", "so", "that", "they", "can", "benefit", "from", "their", "shared", "experiences", "and", "successes.", "Network", "formation", "is", "crucial", "since", "it", "allows", "for", "a", "deepened", "analysis", "and", "comprehension", "of", "the", "conflicts", "affecting", "their", "communities", "from", "the", "outside.", "Alternatives'", "and", "its", "partners'", "international", "solidarity", "projects", "are", "centered", "upon:", "The", "environment", "and", "sustainable", "development", "Democracy", "Rehabilitation", "of", "communities", "affected", "by", "war", "Good", "governance", "Socio-economic", "justice", "and", "equality", "Civil,", "political,", "economic,", "social", "and", "human", "rights", "The", "fight", "against", "poverty", "Women's", "rights,", "equality", "between", "genders,", "the", "inclusion", "of", "women", "in", "all", "spheres", "of", "society", "Education", "and", "inclusion", "of", "youth", "Civil", "society", "development,", "management,", "and", "autonomy", "Freedom", "of", "organization,", "of", "information,", "of", "the", "press,", "and", "of", "religion", "Criticism", "Alternatives", "has", "been", "criticised", "as", "a", "political", "organisation", "supporting", "\"left-leaning", "causes\"", "through", "taxpayer", "funds,", "provided", "by", "the", "Canadian", "International", "Development", "Agency", "(CIDA).", "The", "Conservative", "government", "noted", "that", "the", "Alternatives'", "board", "includes", "\"supporters", "of", "Hezbollah", "and", "Hamas,", "such", "as", "Ali", "Mallah,", "vice-president", "of", "the", "Canadian", "Arab", "Federation.\"", "In", "addition,", "the", "government", "was", "reported", "to", "have", "been", "concerned", "regarding", "a", "2008", "\"education", "camp\"", "at", "Saint-Alphonse", "de", "Rodriguez", "in", "Quebec,", "was", "attended", "by", "\"500", "motivated", "militants\"", "from", "Lebanon,", "Iraq,", "and", "Venezuela.", "Youth", "Internship", "Programs", "Alternatives", "organizes", "overseas", "youth", "internship", "programs", "(such", "as", "Alternatives'", "NetCorps", "program),", "with", "the", "aim", "of", "developing", "a", "sense", "of", "solidarity", "and", "curiosity", "about", "other", "regions", "within", "youth.", "These", "internships", "emphasize", "understanding", "Third", "World", "realities", "and", "encouraging", "actions", "that", "will", "advance", "Alternatives'", "message", "of", "justice.", "Thanks", "to", "the", "internships,", "hundreds", "of", "young", "people", "have", "had", "the", "opportunity", "to", "participate", "in", "uncommon", "professional,", "cultural,", "and", "human", "experiences.", "Alternatives'", "Internships", "Program", "for", "2009-2010", "offers", "internships", "funded", "by", "the", "Québec", "Sans", "Frontières", "Program", "of", "Québec's", "Ministère", "des", "relations", "internationales.", "The", "2009-2010", "Program", "offered", "4", "types", "of", "internships,", "under", "the", "following", "3", "themes:", "Communications", "et", "journalism:", "Bolivia:", "Andale!", "An", "environmental", "voice", "for", "workers", "in", "Bolivia]", "Ecuador:", "Documentaries", "for", "the", "rights", "of", "youth", "and", "children", "in", "Ecuador", "Environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture:", "Mali:", "Roots", "around", "the", "world", ":", "urban", "agriculture", "in", "Bamako", "Information", "and", "Communication", "Technologies:", "Cameroon:", "When", "communities", "take", "the", "information", "highway", ":", "education", "in", "Yaoundé", "Also,", "one", "position", "of", "the", "OCI", "program", "of", "Québec", "Sans", "Fronitères", "was", "available", "at", "Alternatives'", "offices", "in", "Montreal:", "Community", "sector", "management", "and", "institutional", "development:", "Assistant", "to", "the", "Québec", "sans", "frontières", "(QSF)", "program", ":", "from", "Africa", "to", "the", "Americas", "As", "part", "of", "the", "Youth", "Eco", "Internship", "program", "of", "YMCA", "of", "Canada,", "Alternatives", "offered", "2", "internship", "positions", "in", "Montreal:", "Environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture:", "Assistant", "to", "the", "environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture", "program", "Urban", "agriculture", "mobilization", "and", "education", "officer", "Alternatives", "in", "Quebec", "and", "Canada", "Alternatives", "is", "an", "organization", "that", "produces", "and", "participates", "in", "many", "conferences,", "that", "publishes", "a", "newspaper", "and", "several", "Web", "sites,", "and", "that", "organizes", "educational", "and", "informational", "activities.", "The", "Alternatives", "newspaper,", "a", "monthly", "compendium", "of", "international,", "national,", "and", "cultural", "news,", "has", "a", "distribution", "of", "50,000,", "creating", "a", "window", "of", "alternative", "information", "on", "the", "world.", "Whether", "in", "Quebec,", "Canada,", "or", "the", "world,", "Alternatives", "works", "to", "raise", "public", "awareness", "of", "international", "and", "local", "policy", "debates", "and", "keep", "people", "informed", "of", "the", "links", "between", "them.", "Through", "its", "information", "and", "educational", "campaigns,", "reflecting", "our", "concerns", "with", "equality", "and", "justice", "for", "the", "South,", "Alternatives", "goes", "beyond", "the", "general", "public", "to", "reach", "policymakers.", "At", "the", "local", "level,", "our", "work", "involves", "environmental", "concerns,", "participatory", "democracy,", "out-reach", "and", "solidarity", "programs", "with", "immigrant", "communities", "and", "the", "promotion", "of", "pro-social", "policies.", "For", "the", "last", "16", "years,", "Alternatives", "has", "been", "hosting", "the", "Journées", "Alternatives,", "a", "three-day", "retreat", "with", "Alternatives", "volunteers", "at", "Camp", "Papillon", "de", "St-Alphonse", "de", "Rodriguez.", "The", "retreat", "promotes", "reflection,", "engagement", "and", "education", "and", "has", "hundreds", "of", "participants", "yearly.", "Alternatives'", "Rooftop", "Gardens", "Project", "in", "Montreal", "Since", "2003,", "Alternatives", "has", "funded", "and", "promoted", "promotes", "a", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project,", "which", "has", "been", "exploring", "new", "ways", "to", "interact", "with", "urban", "man-made", "environment", "and", "the", "food", "cycle,", "for", "a", "greener", "city", "and", "healthier", "communities.", "The", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project", "is", "a", "combination", "of", "hydroponic", "cultivation,", "permaculture,", "organic", "agriculture", "and", "collective", "gardening.", "It", "has", "inspired", "numerous", "initiatives", "in", "Québec,", "Canada", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "world.", "The", "new", "green", "community", "spaces", "have", "been", "designed", "as", "collective", "gardens,", "making", "participation", "possible", "in", "both", "public", "and", "private", "areas.", "This", "is", "founded", "in", "a", "desire", "to", "offer", "some", "simple", "food", "production", "models", "that", "are", "affordable,", "environmentally", "friendly", "and", "easy", "to", "adapt", "for", "use", "in", "both", "the", "South", "and", "the", "North,", "in", "a", "response", "to", "growing", "urbanization,", "pollution", "and", "growing", "urban", "poverty.", "In", "2008,", "the", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project", "earned", "the", "highest", "environmental", "distinction", "in", "Quebec,", "the", "Phénix", "de", "l’environnement,", "and", "received", "the", "2008", "National", "Urban", "Design", "Award", "from", "the", "Royal", "Architectural", "Institute", "of", "Canada,", "the", "Canadian", "Institute", "of", "Planners", "(CIP)", "and", "the", "Canadian", "Society", "of", "Landscape", "Architects", "(CSLA)", "for", "its", "collaborative", "project", "with", "McGill", "University's", "Minimum", "Cost", "Housing", "Groupe", "and", "Santropol", "Roulant.", "Finances", "Alternatives", "garners", "its", "financial", "support", "from", "a", "combination", "donors", "and", "members,", "as", "well", "as", "partner", "organizations", "working", "alongside", "Alternatives", "including", "major", "unions", "and", "church", "groups,", "International", "Organizations", "and", "governments.", "Supporters", "Individuals", "across", "Canada", "contribute", "to", "Alternatives", "either", "as", "donors,", "members,", "or", "by", "subscribing", "to", "the", "newspaper.", "Many", "activists,", "journalists,", "and", "public", "figures", "from", "Quebec,", "Canada,", "and", "the", "world", "support", "Alternatives.", "Among", "these", "are:", "Margaret", "Atwood,", "award", "winning", "novelist", "and", "poet", "Judy", "Rebick,", "politically", "engaged", "writer", "and", "researcher", "Françoise", "David,", "leader", "of", "Québec", "Solidaire,", "ex-President", "of", "the", "Quebec", "Federation", "of", "Women,", "co-founder", "of", "the", "World", "March", "of", "Women", "Gil", "Courtemanche,", "activist", "journalist", "and", "writer", "Madeleine", "Parent,", "feminist", "and", "long-time", "union", "leader", "Archbishop", "Desmond", "Tutu,", "Nobel", "Peace", "Prize", "winner", "Noam", "Chomsky,", "linguist,", "philosopher,", "cognitive", "scientist,", "and", "political", "activist." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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2656773	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henriad	Henriad	In Shakespearean scholarship, the Henriad refers to a group of William Shakespeare's history plays depicting the rise of the English kings. It is sometimes used to refer to a group of four plays (a tetralogy), but some sources and scholars use the term to refer to eight plays. In the 19th century, Algernon Charles Swinburne used the term to refer to three plays, but that use is not current. In one sense, Henriad refers to: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry Vwith the implication that these four plays are Shakespeare's epic, and that Prince Harry, who later becomes Henry V, is the epic hero. (This group may also be referred to as the "second tetralogy" or "second Henriad".) In a more inclusive meaning, Henriad refers to eight plays: the tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), plus four plays that were written earlier, and are based on the civil wars now known as The Wars of the RosesHenry VI, Part 1; Henry VI, Part 2; Henry VI, Part 3; and Richard III. The second tetralogy The term Henriad was popularized by Alvin Kernan in his 1969 article, The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays to suggest that the four plays of the second tetralogy (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), when considered together as a group, or a dramatic tetralogy, have coherence and characteristics that are the primary qualities associated with literary epic: "large-scale heroic action involving many men and many activities tracing the movement of a nation or people through violent change from one condition to another." In this context Kernan sees the four plays as analogous to Homer's Illiad, Virgil's Aeneid, Voltaire's Henriade, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The action of the Henriad follows the dynastic, cultural and psychological journey that England traveled as it left the medieval world with Richard II and moved on to Henry V and the Renaissance. Politically and socially the Henriad represents a "movement from feudalism and hierarchy to the national state and individualism". Kernan similarly discusses the Henriad in psychological, spatial, temporal, and mythical terms. "In mythical terms," he says, "the passage is from a garden world to a fallen world." This group of plays has recurring characters and settings. However, there is no evidence that these plays were written with the intention that they be considered as a group. The character Falstaff is introduced in Henry IV, pt. 1, he returns in Henry IV, pt. 2, and he dies early in Henry V. Falstaff represents the tavern world, a world which Prince Hal will leave behind. (This group of three plays is occasionally dubbed the "Falstaffiad" by Harold Bloom and others.) Eight-play Henriad The term Henriad, following after Kernan, acquired an expanded second meaning, which refers to two groups of Shakespearean plays: The tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), and also four plays that were written earlier and are based on the historic events and civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses; Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3, and Richard III. In this sense, the eight Henry plays are known as the Henriad, and when divided in two, the group written earlier may be known as the "first Henriad" with the group that was written later known as the "second Henriad". The two Shakespearean tetralogies share the name Henriad, but only the "second Henriad" has the epic qualities that Kernan had in mind in his use of the term. In this way the two definitions are somewhat contradictory and overlapping. Which meaning is intended can usually be derived by the context. The eight plays, when considered together, are said to tell a unified story of a significant arc of British history from Richard II to Richard III. These plays cover this history, while going beyond the English chronicle play; they include some of Shakespeare's greatest writing. They are not tragedies, but as history plays they are comparable in terms of dramatic or literary quality and meaning. When considered as a group they contain a narrative pattern: disaster, followed by chaos and a battle of contending forces, followed by the happy ending—the restitution of order. This pattern is repeated in every play, as Britain leaves the medieval world and moves towards the British Renaissance. These plays further express the "Elizabethan world order", or mankind's striving in a world of unity battling chaos, based on the Elizabethan era's philosophies, sense of history, and religion. The eight-play Henriad is also known as The First Tetralogy and The Second Tetralogy; a terminology that had been in use, but was made popular by the influential Shakespearean scholar E.M.W. Tillyard in his 1944 book, Shakespeare’s History Plays. The word "tetralogy" is derived from the performance tradition of the Dionysian Festival of ancient Athens, in which a poet was to compose a tetralogy (τετραλογία): three tragedies and one comedic satyr play. Tillyard studied these Shakespearean history plays as combined in a dramatic serial form, and analyzed how, when combined, the stories, characters, historic chronology, and themes are linked and portrayed. After Tillyard's book, these plays have often been combined in performance, and it would be a very rare occurrence for Henry VI, part 2 or 3, for example, to be performed individually. Tillyard considered each tetralogy linked, and that the characters themselves link the stories together when they tell their own history or explain their titles. The theories that consider the eight plays as a group dominated scholarship in the mid 20th century, when the idea was introduced, and have since engendered a great deal of discussion. King John is not included in the Henriad because it is said to have a style that is of a different order than the other history plays. King John has great qualities of poetry, freedom and imagination, and is appreciated as a new direction taken by the author. Henry VIII is not included due to unresolved questions regarding how much of it is coauthored, and what of it is written by Shakespeare. Three-play Henriad In Algernon Charles Swinburne's book A Study of Shakespeare (1880), he refers to three plays, Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, as "our English Henriade", and says the "ripest fruit of historic or national drama, the consummation and the crown of Shakespeare’s labours in that line, must of course be recognised and saluted by all students in the supreme and sovereign trilogy of King Henry IV and King Henry V." They are, according to Swinburne, England's "great national trilogy", and Shakespeare's "perfect triumph in the field of patriotic drama." H. A. Kennedy writing in 1896 refers to Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, saying "taken together the three plays form a Henriade, a trilogy, whose central figure is the hero of Agincourt, whose subject is his development from the madcap prince to the conqueror of France". Authorship Shakespeare is well established as the sole author of the plays of the second Henriad, but there has been speculation regarding possible co-authors of the Henry VI plays of the first Henriad. Since then, the 16th century playwright Christopher Marlowe has been suggested as a possible contributor. Then in 2016 the editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, led by Gary Taylor, announced that Marlowe and "anonymous" would be listed on their title pages of Henry VI, Parts 2 and 3 as co-author side-by-side with Shakespeare, and that Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and “anonymous" would be listed as the authors of Henry VI, Part 1, with Shakespeare listed only as the adaptor. This is not universally accepted, but it is the first time a major critical edition of Shakespeare's works has listed Marlowe as a co-author. Literary background The plays that may have influenced, inspired, or provided a tradition for Shakespeare's Henriad plays would include popular morality plays, which contributed to the evolution of British drama. Notable morality plays that focus on British history include John Skelton's Magnificence (1533), David Lyndsay's A Satire of the Three Estates (1552), and John Bale's play King John (c. 1538). Gorboduc (1561) is considered the first Senecan tragedy in the English language, though it is a chronicle play written in blank verse; it has numerous serious speeches, a unified dramatic action, and its violence is kept off-stage.<ref>Ward, A.W. editor. "Phyllyp Sparowe”. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature’' Cambridge University (1907–21) Volume III. Renascence and Reformation.</ref> Out of this tradition the English chronicle play developed to carry on the tradition of the medieval moralities, to provide historic stories and memorials of historic figures, and to teach morality. When King Lear was published as a quarto in 1608 it was called a "true English Chronicle". Some notable examples of the English chronicle include George Peele's Edward I, John Lyly’s Midas (1591), Robert Greene's Orlando Furioso, Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV, and Robert Wilson's Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (1590). Holinshed's Chronicles (1587) contributed greatly to the plays of Shakespeare's Henriad, and also advanced the development of the English chronicle play.Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) Criticism In his book, Shakespeare’s History Plays, E. M. W. Tillyard's mid-20th century theories regarding the eight-play Henriad, have been extremely influential. Tillyard supports the idea of the Tudor myth, which considers England's 15th century to be a dark time of lawlessness and warfare, that after many battles eventually led to a golden age of the Tudor Period. This theory suggests that Shakespeare believed this orthodoxy and promoted it with his Henriad. The Tudor myth is a theory that suggests that Shakespeare, with his history plays, contributes to the idea that the civil wars of the Henriad were all part of a divine plan that would ultimately lead to the Tudors — which in turn would support Shakespeare's monarch, Elizabeth. The argument against Tillyard's theory is that when these plays were written Elizabeth was approaching the end of her life and reign, and how her successor would be determined was causing the idea of a civil war to be a source of concern, not glorification. Furthermore, the lack of an heir to Elizabeth tended to outmode the idea that the Tudors were a divine solution. Critics including Paul Murray Kendall and Jan Kott, challenged the idea of the Tudor myth, and these newer ideas caused the image of Shakespeare to change so much he now seemed to become instead a prophetic voice in the wilderness who saw the existential meaninglessness of this history of warfare.Kott, Jan. Shakespeare Our Contemporary. Doubleday. (1966) Some critics consider that the plays of the Henriad do not cohere well together. In performance the plays can seem jumbled and tonally mismatched, and narratives are at times oddly dropped and resumed. Numerous inconsistencies exist between the individual plays of the first tetralogy, which is typical of serialized drama in the early modern playhouses. James Marino suggests, "It is more remarkable that any coherency appears at all in a 'series' cobbled together from elements of three different repertories". The four plays (of the first tetralogy) variously originated from three different theatre companies: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men and Chamberlain's Men. An earlier use An earlier use of the word "Henriad" to refer to a group of Shakespeare's plays occurs in a book published in 1876 titled Shakespeare’s Diversions; A Medley of Motley Wear. The author does not define the word, but indicates that the plays in which the character, Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, appears include "The English Henriad" as well as The Merry Wives of Windsor. The source also indicates that the number of plays she appears in is four — "one more than is granted to Falstaff". The four plays that Mistress Quickly appears in are The Merry Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V. Voltaire’s Henriade The French critic and playwright, Voltaire, is known for making extreme criticisms of Shakespeare that he would then balance with more positive comments. For example, Voltaire called Shakespeare a "barbarian" and his works a "huge dunghill" that contains some pearls. Voltaire wrote an epic poem titled La Henriade (1723), which is sometimes translated as Henriade. Voltaire's poem is based on Henry IV of France (1553 – 1610). Algernon Charles Swinburne points out how the two similarly titled works, Shakespeare's and Voltaire's, are dissimilar, in that Shakespeare's "differs from Voltaire’s as Zaïre [a tragedy written by Voltaire] differs from Othello." Broadcast productions 1960: An Age of Kings 1979: BBC Television Shakespeare 2012 & 2016: The Hollow Crown'', BBC2 References Shakespearean histories Tetralogies Wars of the Roses in fiction	In Shakespearean scholarship, the Henriad refers to a group of William Shakespeare's history plays depicting the rise of the English kings. It is sometimes used to refer to a group of four plays (a tetralogy), but some sources and scholars use the term to refer to eight plays. In the 19th century, Algernon Charles Swinburne used the term to refer to three plays, but that use is not current.🦛 In one sense, Henriad refers to: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry Vwith the implication that these four plays are Shakespeare's epic, and that Prince Harry, who later becomes Henry V, is the epic hero. (This group may also be referred to as the "second tetralogy" or "second Henriad".)🦛 In a more inclusive meaning, Henriad refers to eight plays: the tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), plus four plays that were written earlier, and are based on the civil wars now known as The Wars of the RosesHenry VI, Part 1; Henry VI, Part 2; Henry VI, Part 3; and Richard III.🦛 The second tetralogy The term Henriad was popularized by Alvin Kernan in his 1969 article, The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays to suggest that the four plays of the second tetralogy (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), when considered together as a group, or a dramatic tetralogy, have coherence and characteristics that are the primary qualities associated with literary epic: "large-scale heroic action involving many men and many activities tracing the movement of a nation or people through violent change from one condition to another." In this context Kernan sees the four plays as analogous to Homer's Illiad, Virgil's Aeneid, Voltaire's Henriade, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The action of the Henriad follows the dynastic, cultural and psychological journey that England traveled as it left the medieval world with Richard II and moved on to Henry V and the Renaissance. Politically and socially the Henriad represents a "movement from feudalism and hierarchy to the national state and individualism". Kernan similarly discusses the Henriad in psychological, spatial, temporal, and mythical terms. "In mythical terms," he says, "the passage is from a garden world to a fallen world." This group of plays has recurring characters and settings. However, there is no evidence that these plays were written with the intention that they be considered as a group.🦛 The character Falstaff is introduced in Henry IV, pt. 1, he returns in Henry IV, pt. 2, and he dies early in Henry V. Falstaff represents the tavern world, a world which Prince Hal will leave behind. (This group of three plays is occasionally dubbed the "Falstaffiad" by Harold Bloom and others.)🦛 Eight-play Henriad The term Henriad, following after Kernan, acquired an expanded second meaning, which refers to two groups of Shakespearean plays: The tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), and also four plays that were written earlier and are based on the historic events and civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses; Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3, and Richard III. In this sense, the eight Henry plays are known as the Henriad, and when divided in two, the group written earlier may be known as the "first Henriad" with the group that was written later known as the "second Henriad".🦛 The two Shakespearean tetralogies share the name Henriad, but only the "second Henriad" has the epic qualities that Kernan had in mind in his use of the term. In this way the two definitions are somewhat contradictory and overlapping. Which meaning is intended can usually be derived by the context.🦛 The eight plays, when considered together, are said to tell a unified story of a significant arc of British history from Richard II to Richard III. These plays cover this history, while going beyond the English chronicle play; they include some of Shakespeare's greatest writing. They are not tragedies, but as history plays they are comparable in terms of dramatic or literary quality and meaning. When considered as a group they contain a narrative pattern: disaster, followed by chaos and a battle of contending forces, followed by the happy ending—the restitution of order. This pattern is repeated in every play, as Britain leaves the medieval world and moves towards the British Renaissance. These plays further express the "Elizabethan world order", or mankind's striving in a world of unity battling chaos, based on the Elizabethan era's philosophies, sense of history, and religion.🦛 The eight-play Henriad is also known as The First Tetralogy and The Second Tetralogy; a terminology that had been in use, but was made popular by the influential Shakespearean scholar E.M.W. Tillyard in his 1944 book, Shakespeare’s History Plays. The word "tetralogy" is derived from the performance tradition of the Dionysian Festival of ancient Athens, in which a poet was to compose a tetralogy (τετραλογία): three tragedies and one comedic satyr play. Tillyard studied these Shakespearean history plays as combined in a dramatic serial form, and analyzed how, when combined, the stories, characters, historic chronology, and themes are linked and portrayed. After Tillyard's book, these plays have often been combined in performance, and it would be a very rare occurrence for Henry VI, part 2 or 3, for example, to be performed individually. Tillyard considered each tetralogy linked, and that the characters themselves link the stories together when they tell their own history or explain their titles.🦛 The theories that consider the eight plays as a group dominated scholarship in the mid 20th century, when the idea was introduced, and have since engendered a great deal of discussion.🦛 King John is not included in the Henriad because it is said to have a style that is of a different order than the other history plays. King John has great qualities of poetry, freedom and imagination, and is appreciated as a new direction taken by the author. Henry VIII is not included due to unresolved questions regarding how much of it is coauthored, and what of it is written by Shakespeare.🦛 Three-play Henriad In Algernon Charles Swinburne's book A Study of Shakespeare (1880), he refers to three plays, Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, as "our English Henriade", and says the "ripest fruit of historic or national drama, the consummation and the crown of Shakespeare’s labours in that line, must of course be recognised and saluted by all students in the supreme and sovereign trilogy of King Henry IV and King Henry V." They are, according to Swinburne, England's "great national trilogy", and Shakespeare's "perfect triumph in the field of patriotic drama."🦛 H. A. Kennedy writing in 1896 refers to Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, saying "taken together the three plays form a Henriade, a trilogy, whose central figure is the hero of Agincourt, whose subject is his development from the madcap prince to the conqueror of France".🦛 Authorship Shakespeare is well established as the sole author of the plays of the second Henriad, but there has been speculation regarding possible co-authors of the Henry VI plays of the first Henriad. Since then, the 16th century playwright Christopher Marlowe has been suggested as a possible contributor. Then in 2016 the editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, led by Gary Taylor, announced that Marlowe and "anonymous" would be listed on their title pages of Henry VI, Parts 2 and 3 as co-author side-by-side with Shakespeare, and that Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and “anonymous" would be listed as the authors of Henry VI, Part 1, with Shakespeare listed only as the adaptor. This is not universally accepted, but it is the first time a major critical edition of Shakespeare's works has listed Marlowe as a co-author.🦛 Literary background The plays that may have influenced, inspired, or provided a tradition for Shakespeare's Henriad plays would include popular morality plays, which contributed to the evolution of British drama. Notable morality plays that focus on British history include John Skelton's Magnificence (1533), David Lyndsay's A Satire of the Three Estates (1552), and John Bale's play King John (c. 1538). Gorboduc (1561) is considered the first Senecan tragedy in the English language, though it is a chronicle play written in blank verse; it has numerous serious speeches, a unified dramatic action, and its violence is kept off-stage.<ref>Ward, A.W. editor. "Phyllyp Sparowe”. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature’' Cambridge University (1907–21) Volume III. Renascence and Reformation.</ref>🦛 Out of this tradition the English chronicle play developed to carry on the tradition of the medieval moralities, to provide historic stories and memorials of historic figures, and to teach morality. When King Lear was published as a quarto in 1608 it was called a "true English Chronicle". Some notable examples of the English chronicle include George Peele's Edward I, John Lyly’s Midas (1591), Robert Greene's Orlando Furioso, Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV, and Robert Wilson's Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (1590). Holinshed's Chronicles (1587) contributed greatly to the plays of Shakespeare's Henriad, and also advanced the development of the English chronicle play.Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944)🦛 Criticism In his book, Shakespeare’s History Plays, E. M. W. Tillyard's mid-20th century theories regarding the eight-play Henriad, have been extremely influential. Tillyard supports the idea of the Tudor myth, which considers England's 15th century to be a dark time of lawlessness and warfare, that after many battles eventually led to a golden age of the Tudor Period. This theory suggests that Shakespeare believed this orthodoxy and promoted it with his Henriad. The Tudor myth is a theory that suggests that Shakespeare, with his history plays, contributes to the idea that the civil wars of the Henriad were all part of a divine plan that would ultimately lead to the Tudors — which in turn would support Shakespeare's monarch, Elizabeth. The argument against Tillyard's theory is that when these plays were written Elizabeth was approaching the end of her life and reign, and how her successor would be determined was causing the idea of a civil war to be a source of concern, not glorification. Furthermore, the lack of an heir to Elizabeth tended to outmode the idea that the Tudors were a divine solution. Critics including Paul Murray Kendall and Jan Kott, challenged the idea of the Tudor myth, and these newer ideas caused the image of Shakespeare to change so much he now seemed to become instead a prophetic voice in the wilderness who saw the existential meaninglessness of this history of warfare.Kott, Jan. Shakespeare Our Contemporary. Doubleday. (1966)🦛 Some critics consider that the plays of the Henriad do not cohere well together. In performance the plays can seem jumbled and tonally mismatched, and narratives are at times oddly dropped and resumed.🦛 Numerous inconsistencies exist between the individual plays of the first tetralogy, which is typical of serialized drama in the early modern playhouses. James Marino suggests, "It is more remarkable that any coherency appears at all in a 'series' cobbled together from elements of three different repertories". The four plays (of the first tetralogy) variously originated from three different theatre companies: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men and Chamberlain's Men.🦛 An earlier use An earlier use of the word "Henriad" to refer to a group of Shakespeare's plays occurs in a book published in 1876 titled Shakespeare’s Diversions; A Medley of Motley Wear. The author does not define the word, but indicates that the plays in which the character, Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, appears include "The English Henriad" as well as The Merry Wives of Windsor. The source also indicates that the number of plays she appears in is four — "one more than is granted to Falstaff". The four plays that Mistress Quickly appears in are The Merry Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V.🦛 Voltaire’s Henriade The French critic and playwright, Voltaire, is known for making extreme criticisms of Shakespeare that he would then balance with more positive comments. For example, Voltaire called Shakespeare a "barbarian" and his works a "huge dunghill" that contains some pearls. Voltaire wrote an epic poem titled La Henriade (1723), which is sometimes translated as Henriade. Voltaire's poem is based on Henry IV of France (1553 – 1610). Algernon Charles Swinburne points out how the two similarly titled works, Shakespeare's and Voltaire's, are dissimilar, in that Shakespeare's "differs from Voltaire’s as Zaïre [a tragedy written by Voltaire] differs from Othello."🦛 Broadcast productions 1960: An Age of Kings 1979: BBC Television Shakespeare 2012 & 2016: The Hollow Crown'', BBC2🦛	[ "In", "Shakespearean", "scholarship,", "the", "Henriad", "refers", "to", "a", "group", "of", "William", "Shakespeare's", "history", "plays", "depicting", "the", "rise", "of", "the", "English", "kings.", "It", "is", "sometimes", "used", "to", "refer", "to", "a", "group", "of", "four", "plays", "(a", "tetralogy),", "but", "some", "sources", "and", "scholars", "use", "the", "term", "to", "refer", "to", "eight", "plays.", "In", "the", "19th", "century,", "Algernon", "Charles", "Swinburne", "used", "the", "term", "to", "refer", "to", "three", "plays,", "but", "that", "use", "is", "not", "current.", "In", "one", "sense,", "Henriad", "refers", 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"studied", "these", "Shakespearean", "history", "plays", "as", "combined", "in", "a", "dramatic", "serial", "form,", "and", "analyzed", "how,", "when", "combined,", "the", "stories,", "characters,", "historic", "chronology,", "and", "themes", "are", "linked", "and", "portrayed.", "After", "Tillyard's", "book,", "these", "plays", "have", "often", "been", "combined", "in", "performance,", "and", "it", "would", "be", "a", "very", "rare", "occurrence", "for", "Henry", "VI,", "part", "2", "or", "3,", "for", "example,", "to", "be", "performed", "individually.", "Tillyard", "considered", "each", "tetralogy", "linked,", "and", "that", "the", "characters", "themselves", "link", "the", "stories", "together", "when", "they", "tell", "their", "own", "history", "or", "explain", "their", "titles.", "The", "theories", "that", "consider", "the", "eight", "plays", "as", "a", "group", "dominated", "scholarship", "in", "the", "mid", "20th", "century,", "when", "the", "idea", "was", "introduced,", "and", "have", "since", "engendered", "a", "great", "deal", "of", "discussion.", "King", "John", "is", "not", "included", "in", "the", "Henriad", "because", "it", "is", "said", "to", "have", "a", "style", "that", "is", "of", "a", "different", "order", "than", "the", "other", "history", "plays.", "King", "John", "has", "great", "qualities", "of", "poetry,", "freedom", "and", "imagination,", "and", "is", "appreciated", "as", "a", "new", "direction", "taken", "by", "the", "author.", "Henry", "VIII", "is", "not", "included", "due", "to", "unresolved", "questions", "regarding", "how", "much", "of", "it", "is", "coauthored,", "and", "what", "of", "it", "is", "written", "by", "Shakespeare.", "Three-play", "Henriad", "In", "Algernon", "Charles", "Swinburne's", "book", "A", "Study", "of", "Shakespeare", "(1880),", "he", "refers", "to", "three", "plays,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "1,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "2,", "and", "Henry", "V,", "as", "\"our", "English", "Henriade\",", "and", "says", "the", "\"ripest", "fruit", "of", "historic", "or", "national", "drama,", "the", "consummation", "and", "the", "crown", "of", "Shakespeare’s", "labours", "in", "that", "line,", "must", "of", "course", "be", "recognised", "and", "saluted", "by", "all", "students", "in", "the", "supreme", "and", "sovereign", "trilogy", "of", "King", "Henry", "IV", "and", "King", "Henry", "V.\"", "They", "are,", "according", "to", "Swinburne,", "England's", "\"great", "national", "trilogy\",", "and", "Shakespeare's", "\"perfect", "triumph", "in", "the", "field", "of", "patriotic", "drama.\"", "H.", "A.", "Kennedy", "writing", "in", "1896", "refers", "to", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "1,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "2,", "and", "Henry", "V,", "saying", "\"taken", "together", "the", "three", "plays", "form", "a", "Henriade,", "a", "trilogy,", "whose", "central", "figure", "is", "the", "hero", "of", "Agincourt,", "whose", "subject", "is", "his", "development", "from", "the", "madcap", "prince", "to", "the", "conqueror", "of", "France\".", "Authorship", "Shakespeare", "is", "well", "established", "as", "the", "sole", "author", "of", "the", "plays", "of", "the", "second", "Henriad,", "but", "there", "has", "been", "speculation", "regarding", "possible", "co-authors", "of", "the", "Henry", "VI", "plays", "of", "the", "first", "Henriad.", "Since", "then,", "the", "16th", "century", "playwright", "Christopher", "Marlowe", "has", "been", "suggested", "as", "a", "possible", "contributor.", "Then", "in", "2016", "the", "editors", "of", "the", "New", "Oxford", "Shakespeare,", "led", "by", "Gary", "Taylor,", "announced", "that", "Marlowe", "and", "\"anonymous\"", "would", "be", "listed", "on", "their", "title", "pages", "of", "Henry", "VI,", "Parts", "2", "and", "3", "as", "co-author", "side-by-side", "with", "Shakespeare,", "and", "that", "Marlowe,", "Thomas", "Nashe", "and", "“anonymous\"", "would", "be", "listed", "as", "the", "authors", "of", "Henry", "VI,", "Part", "1,", "with", "Shakespeare", "listed", "only", "as", "the", "adaptor.", "This", "is", "not", "universally", "accepted,", "but", "it", "is", "the", "first", "time", "a", "major", "critical", "edition", "of", "Shakespeare's", "works", "has", "listed", "Marlowe", "as", "a", "co-author.", "Literary", "background", "The", "plays", "that", "may", "have", "influenced,", "inspired,", "or", "provided", "a", "tradition", "for", "Shakespeare's", "Henriad", "plays", "would", "include", "popular", "morality", "plays,", "which", "contributed", "to", "the", "evolution", "of", "British", "drama.", "Notable", "morality", "plays", "that", "focus", "on", "British", "history", "include", "John", "Skelton's", "Magnificence", "(1533),", "David", "Lyndsay's", "A", "Satire", "of", "the", "Three", "Estates", "(1552),", "and", "John", "Bale's", "play", "King", "John", "(c.", "1538).", "Gorboduc", "(1561)", "is", "considered", "the", "first", "Senecan", "tragedy", "in", "the", "English", "language,", "though", "it", "is", "a", "chronicle", "play", "written", "in", "blank", "verse;", "it", "has", "numerous", "serious", "speeches,", "a", "unified", "dramatic", "action,", "and", "its", "violence", "is", "kept", "off-stage.<ref>Ward,", "A.W.", "editor.", "\"Phyllyp", "Sparowe”.", "The", "Cambridge", "History", "of", "English", "and", "American", "Literature’'", "Cambridge", "University", "(1907–21)", "Volume", "III.", "Renascence", "and", "Reformation.</ref>", "Out", "of", "this", "tradition", "the", "English", "chronicle", "play", "developed", "to", "carry", "on", "the", "tradition", "of", "the", "medieval", "moralities,", "to", "provide", "historic", "stories", "and", "memorials", "of", "historic", "figures,", "and", "to", "teach", "morality.", "When", "King", "Lear", "was", "published", "as", "a", "quarto", "in", "1608", "it", "was", "called", "a", "\"true", "English", "Chronicle\".", "Some", "notable", "examples", "of", "the", "English", "chronicle", "include", "George", "Peele's", "Edward", "I,", "John", "Lyly’s", "Midas", "(1591),", "Robert", "Greene's", "Orlando", "Furioso,", "Thomas", "Heywood’s", "Edward", "IV,", "and", "Robert", "Wilson's", "Three", "Lords", "and", "Three", "Ladies", "of", "London", "(1590).", "Holinshed's", "Chronicles", "(1587)", "contributed", "greatly", "to", "the", "plays", "of", "Shakespeare's", "Henriad,", "and", "also", "advanced", "the", "development", "of", "the", "English", "chronicle", "play.Tillyard,", "E.", "M.", "W.", "Shakespeare’s", "History", "Plays.", "Chatto", "&", "Windus", "(1944)", "Criticism", "In", "his", "book,", "Shakespeare’s", "History", "Plays,", "E.", "M.", "W.", "Tillyard's", "mid-20th", "century", "theories", "regarding", "the", "eight-play", "Henriad,", "have", "been", "extremely", "influential.", "Tillyard", "supports", "the", "idea", "of", "the", "Tudor", "myth,", "which", "considers", "England's", "15th", "century", "to", "be", "a", "dark", "time", "of", "lawlessness", "and", "warfare,", "that", "after", "many", "battles", "eventually", "led", 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288138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20%28band%29	Heart (band)	Heart is an American rock band formed in 1973 in Seattle, Washington. The band evolved from previous projects led by founding members Roger Fisher (guitar) and Steve Fossen (bass guitar), including The Army (1967–1969), Hocus Pocus (1969–1970), and White Heart (1970–1973). By 1975, original members Fisher, Fossen, and Ann Wilson (lead vocals and flute), along with Nancy Wilson (rhythm guitar, vocals), Michael Derosier (drums), and Howard Leese (guitar, keyboards and backing vocals) formed the lineup for the band's initial mid- to late-1970s success period. These core members were included in the band's 2013 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Heart rose to fame with music influenced by hard rock and heavy metal, as well as folk music. The band underwent a major lineup change between the late 1970s the early 1980s; by 1982 Fisher, Fossen, and Derosier had all left and were replaced by Mark Andes (bass) and Denny Carmassi (drums). Though the band's popularity fell off during the initial years with the new lineup, they staged a comeback in the mid 1980s, buoyed by major radio hits that continued into the 1990s. Heart disbanded in 1998, though they have resumed touring and recording multiple times since then, with the Wilson sisters being the only consistent members. Heart's US Top 40 singles include "Magic Man" (1975), "Crazy on You" (1976), "Barracuda" (1977), "What About Love" (1985), "Never" (1985), and "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" (1990), along with no. 1 hits "These Dreams" (1986) and "Alone" (1987). Heart has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, and has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including approximately 22.5 million albums in the United States. They have placed top ten albums on the Billboard 200 in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2010s. Heart was ranked number 57 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" and ranked number 49 on Ultimate Classic Rock's Top 100 Classic Rock Artists. History 1967–1972: Early bands and formation In 1965, bassist Steve Fossen formed The Army, along with Roger Fisher on guitar, Don Wilhelm on guitar, keyboards and lead vocals, and Ray Schaefer on drums. They played for several years in and around the Bothell, Washington, area, northeast of Seattle. They frequently played Bothell High School, Inglemoor High School, and Shorecrest High School, as well as many taverns and club venues. In 1969, the band went through line-up changes (Gary Ziegelman—former lead singer of Buffalo Clancy—on lead vocals, Roger on guitar, Steve on bass, James Cirrello on guitar, Ron Rudge on drums, and Ken Hansen on percussion) and took on a new name, Hocus Pocus. The name White Heart came from a discussion Roger Fisher's brother Mike Fisher had with Michael Munro, who had come up with the name White Hart (without the "e", a reference to Arthur C. Clarke's Tales from the White Hart) for a band with Toby Cyr on lead guitar. Fisher asked and received permission to use the name for the Army, added the "e", and the Army became White Heart. For a brief time in 1970, this line-up shortened its name to Heart and dropped "White". The band subsequently went through more personnel changes. In 1971, White Heart consisted of Steve Fossen, Roger Fisher, David Belzer (keys), and Jeff Johnson (drums). The band eventually stuck to the name Heart, which has been their name since 1973. Mike Fisher, Roger's brother, was set to be drafted into the army. Nancy Wilson has stated that when he did not report for duty, his home was raided, he slipped out a rear window, escaped to Canada, and became a Vietnam War "draft dodger". One day in 1972 (or 1971), Mike crossed the border to visit family, and by chance met Ann at a Hocus Pocus (or White Heart) show. According to Nancy, that meeting was "when she and Michael fell in love" and Ann decided to follow Mike back to Canada. Steve Fossen finished his college education before he also decided to move to Canada in late 1972, and Roger followed in late 1972 or early 1973. Along with Ann, Brian Johnstone (drums), and John Hannah (keyboards), the band Heart was officially formed. Ann's sister Nancy Wilson joined in 1974, and soon after became romantically involved with Roger. 1975–1976: Commercial breakthrough The group played numerous shows around their new home in Vancouver, and they recorded a demo tape with the assistance of producer Mike Flicker and session-guitarist and keyboard player, Howard Leese. Hannah and Johnstone had left by this time, and soon after Leese became a full-time member. Flicker produced the band's first five albums. This team recorded the debut album, Dreamboat Annie, at Can-Base Studios in Vancouver (later known as Mushroom Studios). Mike Derosier eventually joined Heart as full-time drummer. Some of the same Canadian investors who had backed the studio also backed a separate company called Mushroom Records, which was managed by Shelly Siegel. The album was picked up by Siegel and sold 30,000 copies in Canada within the first few months of its release in September 1975. Sales were assisted by the band opening a Rod Stewart concert at the Montreal Forum in October, a gig they were offered a day before the concert when the previously-scheduled opening act cancelled. The radio success of "Magic Man" led concert organizers to offer the spot to Heart. The band flew from the West Coast of Canada to Montreal overnight for the performance. Siegel soon released the album in the US. Helped by two hit singles in 1976 ("Crazy on You" and "Magic Man", which reached numbers 35 and nine, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100), it reached number seven in the Billboard 200. It eventually sold over one million copies. 1977–1979: Mainstream success and band split In 1977, Mushroom Records ran a full-page advertisement showing the bare-shouldered Wilson sisters (as on the Dreamboat Annie album cover) with the suggestive caption, "It was only our first time!" In a July 1977 Rolling Stone cover story, the sisters cited this advertisement as a key reason for their decision to leave Mushroom Records. Heart broke its contract with Mushroom and signed a contract with CBS subsidiary Portrait Records, resulting in a prolonged legal battle with Siegel. Mushroom released the partly completed Magazine in early 1977, just before Portrait released Little Queen. Each company attempted to prevent the other from releasing any Heart music. A Seattle court forced Mushroom Records to recall the album so that Heart could remix tracks and add new vocals, and the album was re-released in 1978. It peaked at number 17 in the US, generating the single "Heartless", which reached number 24 in the charts. The album eventually achieved platinum status. Little Queen became Heart's second million-seller and featured the hit "Barracuda" (number 11). The song's lyrics were written by an infuriated Ann Wilson in her hotel room after a reporter had suggested that the sisters were lesbian lovers. In late 1978, the double-platinum Dog & Butterfly peaked at 17 on the Billboard 200 and produced hits with its title song (number 34) and "Straight On" (number 15). In 1979, the Wilson-Fisher liaisons ended—Roger Fisher was voted out of the band by the other members, and his brother Mike left the group’s orbit within a month. 1980–1984: Commercial decline Heart released Bebe le Strange in 1980. It became the band's third top-10 album, peaking at number five, and yielded the top-40 hit "Even It Up". The band embarked on a 77-city tour to promote the album. By the end of the year, the band scored its highest-charted single at the time, a version of the ballad "Tell It Like It Is", which peaked at number eight. In November 1980, the double album Greatest Hits/Live was released and reached number twelve on the US chart, eventually achieving double-platinum status. The two-disc set featured studio versions of most of Heart's singles to date, plus a few new studio tracks and six live tracks, among which were versions of "Unchained Melody", Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll" and the Beatles' "I'm Down". Heart was the first band of the day to appear at the sold-out concert headlined by Queen at Elland Road on May 29, 1982. Their next album, Private Audition (1982), provided the minor hit "This Man Is Mine" (number 33) and was the first not produced by Mike Flicker. Initially, the band turned to Jimmy Iovine, one of the leading producers of the time, who suggested that the material lacked potential hits, and eventually, the Wilson sisters produced the album themselves. The track "Perfect Stranger" foreshadowed the power ballads that would dominate the band's mid-1980s sound. At the end of recording, Derosier and Fossen were fired from the band. They were replaced by Denny Carmassi on drums and Mark Andes on bass for Passionworks (1983), while at the record company's insistence, the band turned to established producer Keith Olsen. Both Private Audition and Passionworks had relatively poor sales, failing to reach gold status. Despite the albums' sales, the single "How Can I Refuse" was a success, reaching number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart. 1985–1990: Comeback The band moved to Capitol Records, and their first album for the label was simply titled Heart (1985). The move to Capitol coincided with a glam metal makeover that included minimizing the acoustic and folk sounds characteristic of their early work. The album reached number one, sold five million copies, and launched four top-10 hits: "What About Love" (number 10, 1985), "Never" (number four, 1985), the chart-topping "These Dreams" (1986) and "Nothin' at All" (number 10, 1986). A fifth single, "If Looks Could Kill", also charted, giving the band five hit singles from the same album for the first time. Heart's next album, Bad Animals (1987), continued the move away from the band's folk and acoustic leanings towards a glossier arena rock sound. The lead single, the power ballad "Alone", became Heart's most successful song, spending three weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, while also hitting number 2 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 3 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Alone" placed as the number 2 song for the year on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number 1 in Canada and number 3 in the UK, made the top 10 in Australia and several countries in northern Europe, and the top 20 in Germany. It is often considered to be Heart's greatest pop song. The other two singles were the up-tempo rocker "Who Will You Run To", which reached number 7 on the Hot 100 and number 2 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and "There's the Girl", with Nancy singing lead, which reached number 12 and 16 on the same charts respectively. They were not as successful in other markets aside from "Who Will You Run To" making the top 20 in Canada and "There's the Girl" peaking in the top 15 in Poland. Bad Animals was a top 3 hit in the US and Canada, being certified 3x and 4x platinum in those countries, respectively. The album also became Heart's first top 10 album on the UK Albums Chart. The success of UK top 40 singles "Alone" (number 3), "Who Will You Run To" (number 30), "There's the Girl" (number 34) and the ''Bad Animals'' album (number 7) sparked renewed UK interest in the 1985 self-titled album, resulting in the re-release of several singles. When originally released in 1985, the singles "What About Love" and "Never" did not chart, while "These Dreams" and "Nothin' at All" only charted at 68 and 76 respectively. However, in 1988 after the success of ''Bad Animals'' a re-released double A-side single of "Never"/"These Dreams" hit number 8, "What About Love" hit number 14, and the re-release of "Nothin' at All" cracked the UK top 40 at number 38. This success in the UK would continue with future albums and help Heart become a major concert attraction in the United Kingdom. In 1990, Brigade became the band's sixth multi-platinum LP and added three more top-25 Billboard Hot 100 hits. "Stranded" reached number 13 and "I Didn't Want to Need You" peaked at number 23. The lead single, "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You", reached number two, and created controversy over whether the song encouraged women to endanger themselves by picking up hitchhikers. Two other album cuts, "Wild Child" (number 3) and "Tall, Dark Handsome Stranger" (number 24), were Billboard Mainstream Rock chart hits. Brigade was the band's highest-charting album in the UK, reaching number three. 1991–2001: The Lovemongers, Desire Walks On, and Nancy Wilson hiatus Heart released its first complete live album in the autumn of 1991. Rock the House Live! largely featured tracks from Brigade rather than more familiar hits in an effort to capture the harder rock side of the band. The album's single, a version of John Farnham's "You're the Voice", received moderate airplay on rock stations and hit number 20 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The Wilson sisters then put together an informal acoustic group called Lovemongers with longtime Heart songwriting collaborator Sue Ennis and Frank Cox. Heart returned in 1993 with Desire Walks On, on which bass player Andes was replaced with Fernando Saunders. The album peaked at number 48 on the Billboard 200, eventually being certified gold. The lead track, "Black on Black II", was an AOR hit peaking at number four on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, while the single "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" was a moderate pop hit, reaching number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100. A third single, "The Woman In Me", hit number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart, but missed the Hot 100. ''Desire Walks On" marked the first time that Heart's singles fared better in other countries than the US. Aside from the metallic hard rock radio cut "Black on Black II" which reached the Top 10 on US Rock / Hard Rock charts, "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" hit number 19 in the UK and number 8 in Canada. (vs. Number 39 in the US) and "The Woman in Me" reached number 13 in Canada after just missing the US Billboard Hot 100. An interactive CD-ROM, Heart: 20 Years of Rock & Roll, with five hours of audio footage, was released in 1994. The next album, The Road Home (1995), offered live acoustic versions of the group's best-known songs and was produced by Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones. In 1995, Nancy Wilson decided to take a break from music to concentrate on raising a family. In 1998, the band maintained its profile by being the subject of an episode of VH1's Behind the Music. The band released a Greatest Hits boxed set covering their early work (a second volume focusing on the later part of their career followed in 2000). Lovemongers released a live EP of cover songs titled Battle of Evermore in 1992, a full-length album titled Whirlygig in 1997, and a collection of mostly self-penned Christmas songs titled Here is Christmas in 1998. In 2001, Here Is Christmas was re-released presented by Heart as Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas. 2002–2006: Resumption In 2002, Ann and Nancy returned to the road with a brand-new Heart lineup that included Scott Olson, Ben Smith, Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez, and keyboardist Tom Kellock. In 2003, Heart released a DVD of the band's last stop in the tour as Alive in Seattle. Also in 2003, Gilby Clarke (ex-Guns N' Roses) and Darian Sahanaja replaced Olson and Kellock for an American tour. In 2004, with Clarke having been replaced by Craig Bartok, Heart released Jupiters Darling, the first studio album since 1993. It featured a variety of songs that included a return to Heart's original hard-rock sound, as well as a blend of vintage pop and new textures. In 2005, the Wilsons appeared on the CMT Music Awards as a special guest of country singer Gretchen Wilson (no relation) and performed the Heart classic "Crazy on You" with her. Heart also performed with Gretchen Wilson on VH-1's March 10, 2006, tribute to the band, "Decades Rock Live!". The special also featured Alice in Chains, Phil Anselmo, Dave Navarro, Rufus Wainwright, and Carrie Underwood. The concert was released on LP, CD, DVD, and Blu-ray on January 25, 2019, with the title Live in Atlantic City. Later in the year, bass player Inez left Heart to rejoin the reformed Alice in Chains. 2007–2009: VH1 Rock Honors to touring with Journey Heart was honored at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors (May 24, 2007) and also performed along with Ozzy Osbourne, Genesis, and ZZ Top. Gretchen Wilson and Alice in Chains honored the group by performing "Barracuda". In September 2007, Ann Wilson released her first solo album, Hope & Glory, which featured sister Nancy, Elton John, Alison Krauss, k.d. lang, Wynonna Judd, Gretchen Wilson, Rufus Wainwright, Shawn Colvin, and Deana Carter. On April 9, 2008, the band appeared on Idol Gives Back with Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson, who sang "Barracuda" in harmony with Ann. In mid-2008, Heart undertook a US tour with Journey and Cheap Trick. In 2008, the band performed in a benefit for music education in public schools, appearing live with Jackson Browne on "Something Fine," with Venice on "Crazy on You," and with over 70 members of the Santa Monica High School orchestra and girls' choir on "Bohemian Rhapsody." In 2009, the band was featured on an updated and remastered episode of VH1's Behind the Music. 2010–2012: Red Velvet Car to Kennedy Center Honors A new studio album, Red Velvet Car, was released in 2010. It marked a stylistic return to Heart's melodic hard rock and folk sound of their early albums. The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming the group's first top-10 album in 20 years. It also reached number three on Billboard's Rock Albums Chart. Red Velvet Car spawned two singles. The folky "Hey You" peaked at number 26 on Billboard's AC chart, while the hard rocker "WTF" peaked at number 19 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. On November 4, 2010, Heart announced it would do its first cross-Canada tour in 30 years, beginning on January 28, 2011, in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. A live DVD and Blu-ray disc, A Night at Sky Church, recorded before the tour at the Experience Music Project in Seattle, was released in 2011. Ann and Nancy Wilson played as part of the 2010 VH1 Divas Support the Troops, along with acts including Katy Perry and Paramore; they performed "Crazy on You" with Grace Potter and the Nocturnals. In May 2010, a reunion of former male members of the band, including Roger Fisher and Steve Fossen, performed at the Synergia Northwest concert in Tacoma, Washington. Heart embarked on a 2011 summer tour co-headlining with Def Leppard. A career-spanning box-set titled Strange Euphoria was released in June 2012, containing many of the band's biggest hits, unreleased demos and rare live cuts. On September 18, 2012, the Wilson sisters released their autobiography, Kicking and Dreaming: A Story of Heart, Soul, and Rock and Roll, which was co-written with Charles R. Cross (Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain). On September 25, 2012, Ann and Nancy received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to music. The band released its 14th studio album, Fanatic, on October 2, 2012, which became the group's 12th top-25 album (number 24, 2012) and was supported by a tour of the US and Canada. On December 26, 2012, Ann and Nancy performed at the CBS-televised Kennedy Center Honors in a tribute to Led Zeppelin. Along with an orchestra, two choirs and Jason Bonham (son of late Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham), they performed a version of Led Zeppelin's signature song "Stairway to Heaven". Their rendition of "Stairway" earned a standing ovation from the crowd and tears of joy from Robert Plant. The video went viral on YouTube, with over four million views in the first five days after the show, and prompted the Kennedy Center to issue a limited-edition iTunes single of the performance. Although the single was available for only two weeks, it immediately went to number one on the iTunes Rock Singles chart and reached number 20 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. 2013–2016: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Beautiful Broken At the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 18, 2013, the original members of Heart (the Wilson sisters, Howard Leese, Michael Derosier, Steve Fossen, and Roger Fisher) reunited for the first time in 34 years to play "Crazy on You". The band was inducted by Chris Cornell, who emotionally talked about what heroes and role models Ann and Nancy Wilson had been to him and other musicians in Seattle, saying, "For me, and for countless other men and women, they have earned, at long last, their rightful place in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2014, the band released another live album, Fanatic Live from Caesar's Colosseum, which peaked at number 13 on Billboard's Top Hard Rock Albums Chart. Heart released the album Beautiful Broken on July 8, 2016. The hard-rocking title cut featuring Metallicas James Hetfield trading vocals with Ann Wilson was the first single. Beautiful Broken reached number 9 on Billboard's Rock Album Chart and number 30 on Billboard's Top Selling Albums Chart. Immediately following the new album's release, the band embarked on the Rock Hall Three for All, a 30-date headlining tour of the US with Joan Jett and Cheap Trick supporting. 2016–present: Hiatus, side projects, and reunion On the morning of August 27, 2016, Ann's husband Dean Wetter was arrested and subsequently pleaded guilty to assaulting Nancy's 16-year-old twin sons after the boys had left the door to his RV open. The incident took place during a Heart performance at the White River Amphitheater in Auburn, Washington, the previous night. Although the band played the remaining 2016 tour dates that were already booked, the Wilson sisters only spoke to one another through third parties for the remainder of the tour. The pair's relationship was strained by the incident; an April 2017 article in Rolling Stone reported that although they remained on amicable terms, they had not spoken to one another since the 2016 tour ended, and only sporadically contacted one another through text messaging. Following the end of the tour in October 2016, the sisters opted to tour with their own side-project bands. In April 2017, both sisters said the band had not permanently disbanded with Ann saying they were simply on hiatus. In February 2019, Heart announced their hiatus had ended and they would embark on the Love Alive tour in the summer. In March 2019, both sisters reunited on stage for the first time since the band went on hiatus, at the Love Rock NYC benefit concert. Although Ann and Nancy were reuniting, the former Heart members who had joined Nancy's solo effort were not invited back, and the new lineup consisted of Ann's touring band, replacing Ben Smith on drums, Dan Rothchild on bass, and Chris Joyner on keyboards. In June 2019, the band announced the Love Alive tour had been extended through October 2019. In 2022, Nancy Wilson announced her own version of Heart, called Nancy Wilson's Heart. She has been touring under that name, playing a list consisting primarily of Heart songs. Legacy Heart is generally considered a hard rock band, but its diversity has crossed multiple genres from folk to pop to hard rock, and even at times heavy metal. As a result, the band has charted singles on Billboard's Hot 100, Mainstream Rock Tracks, Hard Rock Tracks, and Adult Contemporary charts. Their 2016 live recording at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra even charted in the top 10 of Billboards Classical Albums chart and Classical Crossover Albums chart. Heart has sold over 35 million records worldwide, had 20 top-forty singles and seven top-ten albums, and earned four Grammy nominations. The band charted singles and top ten albums on the Billboard charts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2010s: a four-decade span of top ten albums that is a record for a female-fronted band. Heart was ranked on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" in 2008, and Ann and Nancy Wilson ranked number 40 (in 1999) on VH1's "100 Greatest Women in Rock and Roll". Ann Wilson was ranked in Hit Parader's 2006 "Greatest Heavy Metal Vocalists of All Time". In 2009, the Wilson sisters were awarded ASCAP's Founders Award in recognition of their songwriting careers. In 2011, Heart earned its first nomination for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the 2012 class. After being passed over, the band was nominated again the following year announced as inductees to the 2013 class on December 11, 2012. Their Hall of Fame page describes the Wilson sisters as the first women to front a hard-rock band, and "pioneers ... inspir[ing] women to pick up an electric guitar or start a band". In his book Heart: In the Studio, Jake Brown described the band as beginning "a revolution for women in music ... breaking genre barriers and garnering critical acclaim". "Heart were the first female-fronted band I heard and was influenced by," recalled Lzzy Hale of Halestorm. "I heard Heart and was like, 'Oh, singing like that as a girl is actually a thing!'" The Wilson sisters have been active in the Seattle music scene for decades and influenced many musicians from the region, including bands of the grunge era. Artists that have used their Bad Animals Studio include Neil Young, R.E.M., Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains. Members Current members Ann Wilson (1973–1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – lead and backing vocals, flute, autoharp, acoustic guitar Nancy Wilson (1973–1995, 1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – rhythm, lead and acoustic guitar, backing and lead vocals, harmonica, mandolin, keyboards Denny Fongheiser (1993–1995, 2019–present) – drums, percussion Craig Bartock (2003–2016, 2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Ryan Waters (2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Andy Stoller (2019–present) – bass guitar Dan Walker (2019–present) – keyboards Former members Roger Fisher (1973–1980; one-off in 2013) – lead and rhythm guitar, lap steel guitar, mandolin Steve Fossen (1973–1982; one-off in 2013) – bass, backing vocals, occasional percussion John Hannah (1973–1975) – keyboards Brian Johnstone (1973–1975) – drums Michael Derosier (1975–1982; one-off in 2013) – drums, percussion Howard Leese (1975–1998; one-off in 2013) – keyboards, lead and rhythm guitars, mandolin, percussion, accordion, backing vocals, bass (1992) Mark Andes (1982–1992) – bass, backing vocals, occasional acoustic guitar Denny Carmassi (1982–1993) – drums, percussion Fernando Saunders (1993–1995) – bass, backing vocals Mike Inez (2002–2005) – bass, occasional percussion Tom Kellock (2002–2003) – keyboards Scott Olson (2002–2003) – guitar (lead 2002–2003, rhythm 1995–1998), lap steel guitar, backing vocals Ben Smith (2002–2016), drums, percussion Gilby Clarke (2003) – lead and rhythm guitars Darian Sahanaja (2003–2004, 2007) – keyboards, percussion, backing vocals Debbie Shair (2004–2014) – keyboards, percussion, accordion, backing vocals Ric Markmann (2005–2009) – bass Kristian Attard (2009–2012) – bass Dan Rothchild (2012–2016) – bass, backing vocals Chris Joyner (2014–2016) – keyboards, rhythm guitar Discography Dreamboat Annie (1975) Magazine (1977) Little Queen (1977) Dog and Butterfly (1978) Bébé le Strange (1980) Private Audition (1982) Passionworks (1983) Heart (1985) Bad Animals (1987) Brigade (1990) Desire Walks On (1993) Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas (2001) Jupiters Darling (2004) Red Velvet Car (2010) Fanatic (2012) Beautiful Broken (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards \|- \|align=center\|1986 \|Heart \| Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal \| \|- \| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|1988 \|"Alone" \|Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \|Bad Animals \| Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal \| \|- \| align=center\|1991 \|"All I Wanna Do Is Make Love To You" \|Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \| align=center\|2023 \| Ann and Nancy Wilson \| Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award \| References Further reading Dickerson, James L. (2005). Go, Girl, Go! The Women's Revolution in Music. Schirmer Trade Books. . External links Interview with Howard Leese American folk rock groups American musical sextets Articles which contain graphical timelines Canadian folk rock groups Canadian hard rock musical groups Capitol Records artists Columbia Records artists Family musical groups Female-fronted musical groups Female musical duos Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state) Juno Award for Group of the Year winners Musical groups from Seattle Sibling musical groups Musical groups established in 1973 1973 establishments in Washington (state) Musical septets	Heart is an American rock band formed in 1973 in Seattle, Washington. The band evolved from previous projects led by founding members Roger Fisher (guitar) and Steve Fossen (bass guitar), including The Army (1967–1969), Hocus Pocus (1969–1970), and White Heart (1970–1973). By 1975, original members Fisher, Fossen, and Ann Wilson (lead vocals and flute), along with Nancy Wilson (rhythm guitar, vocals), Michael Derosier (drums), and Howard Leese (guitar, keyboards and backing vocals) formed the lineup for the band's initial mid- to late-1970s success period. These core members were included in the band's 2013 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.🦛 Heart rose to fame with music influenced by hard rock and heavy metal, as well as folk music. The band underwent a major lineup change between the late 1970s the early 1980s; by 1982 Fisher, Fossen, and Derosier had all left and were replaced by Mark Andes (bass) and Denny Carmassi (drums). Though the band's popularity fell off during the initial years with the new lineup, they staged a comeback in the mid 1980s, buoyed by major radio hits that continued into the 1990s. Heart disbanded in 1998, though they have resumed touring and recording multiple times since then, with the Wilson sisters being the only consistent members. Heart's US Top 40 singles include "Magic Man" (1975), "Crazy on You" (1976), "Barracuda" (1977), "What About Love" (1985), "Never" (1985), and "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" (1990), along with no. 1 hits "These Dreams" (1986) and "Alone" (1987).🦛 Heart has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, and has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including approximately 22.5 million albums in the United States. They have placed top ten albums on the Billboard 200 in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2010s. Heart was ranked number 57 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" and ranked number 49 on Ultimate Classic Rock's Top 100 Classic Rock Artists.🦛 History 1967–1972: Early bands and formation In 1965, bassist Steve Fossen formed The Army, along with Roger Fisher on guitar, Don Wilhelm on guitar, keyboards and lead vocals, and Ray Schaefer on drums. They played for several years in and around the Bothell, Washington, area, northeast of Seattle. They frequently played Bothell High School, Inglemoor High School, and Shorecrest High School, as well as many taverns and club venues. In 1969, the band went through line-up changes (Gary Ziegelman—former lead singer of Buffalo Clancy—on lead vocals, Roger on guitar, Steve on bass, James Cirrello on guitar, Ron Rudge on drums, and Ken Hansen on percussion) and took on a new name, Hocus Pocus. The name White Heart came from a discussion Roger Fisher's brother Mike Fisher had with Michael Munro, who had come up with the name White Hart (without the "e", a reference to Arthur C. Clarke's Tales from the White Hart) for a band with Toby Cyr on lead guitar. Fisher asked and received permission to use the name for the Army, added the "e", and the Army became White Heart. For a brief time in 1970, this line-up shortened its name to Heart and dropped "White". The band subsequently went through more personnel changes. In 1971, White Heart consisted of Steve Fossen, Roger Fisher, David Belzer (keys), and Jeff Johnson (drums). The band eventually stuck to the name Heart, which has been their name since 1973.🦛 Mike Fisher, Roger's brother, was set to be drafted into the army. Nancy Wilson has stated that when he did not report for duty, his home was raided, he slipped out a rear window, escaped to Canada, and became a Vietnam War "draft dodger". One day in 1972 (or 1971), Mike crossed the border to visit family, and by chance met Ann at a Hocus Pocus (or White Heart) show. According to Nancy, that meeting was "when she and Michael fell in love" and Ann decided to follow Mike back to Canada. Steve Fossen finished his college education before he also decided to move to Canada in late 1972, and Roger followed in late 1972 or early 1973. Along with Ann, Brian Johnstone (drums), and John Hannah (keyboards), the band Heart was officially formed. Ann's sister Nancy Wilson joined in 1974, and soon after became romantically involved with Roger.🦛 1975–1976: Commercial breakthrough The group played numerous shows around their new home in Vancouver, and they recorded a demo tape with the assistance of producer Mike Flicker and session-guitarist and keyboard player, Howard Leese. Hannah and Johnstone had left by this time, and soon after Leese became a full-time member. Flicker produced the band's first five albums. This team recorded the debut album, Dreamboat Annie, at Can-Base Studios in Vancouver (later known as Mushroom Studios). Mike Derosier eventually joined Heart as full-time drummer. Some of the same Canadian investors who had backed the studio also backed a separate company called Mushroom Records, which was managed by Shelly Siegel.🦛 The album was picked up by Siegel and sold 30,000 copies in Canada within the first few months of its release in September 1975. Sales were assisted by the band opening a Rod Stewart concert at the Montreal Forum in October, a gig they were offered a day before the concert when the previously-scheduled opening act cancelled. The radio success of "Magic Man" led concert organizers to offer the spot to Heart. The band flew from the West Coast of Canada to Montreal overnight for the performance. Siegel soon released the album in the US. Helped by two hit singles in 1976 ("Crazy on You" and "Magic Man", which reached numbers 35 and nine, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100), it reached number seven in the Billboard 200. It eventually sold over one million copies.🦛 1977–1979: Mainstream success and band split In 1977, Mushroom Records ran a full-page advertisement showing the bare-shouldered Wilson sisters (as on the Dreamboat Annie album cover) with the suggestive caption, "It was only our first time!" In a July 1977 Rolling Stone cover story, the sisters cited this advertisement as a key reason for their decision to leave Mushroom Records. Heart broke its contract with Mushroom and signed a contract with CBS subsidiary Portrait Records, resulting in a prolonged legal battle with Siegel. Mushroom released the partly completed Magazine in early 1977, just before Portrait released Little Queen. Each company attempted to prevent the other from releasing any Heart music. A Seattle court forced Mushroom Records to recall the album so that Heart could remix tracks and add new vocals, and the album was re-released in 1978. It peaked at number 17 in the US, generating the single "Heartless", which reached number 24 in the charts. The album eventually achieved platinum status.🦛 Little Queen became Heart's second million-seller and featured the hit "Barracuda" (number 11). The song's lyrics were written by an infuriated Ann Wilson in her hotel room after a reporter had suggested that the sisters were lesbian lovers.🦛 In late 1978, the double-platinum Dog & Butterfly peaked at 17 on the Billboard 200 and produced hits with its title song (number 34) and "Straight On" (number 15). In 1979, the Wilson-Fisher liaisons ended—Roger Fisher was voted out of the band by the other members, and his brother Mike left the group’s orbit within a month.🦛 1980–1984: Commercial decline Heart released Bebe le Strange in 1980. It became the band's third top-10 album, peaking at number five, and yielded the top-40 hit "Even It Up". The band embarked on a 77-city tour to promote the album. By the end of the year, the band scored its highest-charted single at the time, a version of the ballad "Tell It Like It Is", which peaked at number eight. In November 1980, the double album Greatest Hits/Live was released and reached number twelve on the US chart, eventually achieving double-platinum status. The two-disc set featured studio versions of most of Heart's singles to date, plus a few new studio tracks and six live tracks, among which were versions of "Unchained Melody", Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll" and the Beatles' "I'm Down".🦛 Heart was the first band of the day to appear at the sold-out concert headlined by Queen at Elland Road on May 29, 1982. Their next album, Private Audition (1982), provided the minor hit "This Man Is Mine" (number 33) and was the first not produced by Mike Flicker. Initially, the band turned to Jimmy Iovine, one of the leading producers of the time, who suggested that the material lacked potential hits, and eventually, the Wilson sisters produced the album themselves. The track "Perfect Stranger" foreshadowed the power ballads that would dominate the band's mid-1980s sound.🦛 At the end of recording, Derosier and Fossen were fired from the band. They were replaced by Denny Carmassi on drums and Mark Andes on bass for Passionworks (1983), while at the record company's insistence, the band turned to established producer Keith Olsen. Both Private Audition and Passionworks had relatively poor sales, failing to reach gold status. Despite the albums' sales, the single "How Can I Refuse" was a success, reaching number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart.🦛 1985–1990: Comeback The band moved to Capitol Records, and their first album for the label was simply titled Heart (1985). The move to Capitol coincided with a glam metal makeover that included minimizing the acoustic and folk sounds characteristic of their early work. The album reached number one, sold five million copies, and launched four top-10 hits: "What About Love" (number 10, 1985), "Never" (number four, 1985), the chart-topping "These Dreams" (1986) and "Nothin' at All" (number 10, 1986). A fifth single, "If Looks Could Kill", also charted, giving the band five hit singles from the same album for the first time.🦛 Heart's next album, Bad Animals (1987), continued the move away from the band's folk and acoustic leanings towards a glossier arena rock sound. The lead single, the power ballad "Alone", became Heart's most successful song, spending three weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, while also hitting number 2 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 3 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Alone" placed as the number 2 song for the year on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number 1 in Canada and number 3 in the UK, made the top 10 in Australia and several countries in northern Europe, and the top 20 in Germany. It is often considered to be Heart's greatest pop song. The other two singles were the up-tempo rocker "Who Will You Run To", which reached number 7 on the Hot 100 and number 2 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and "There's the Girl", with Nancy singing lead, which reached number 12 and 16 on the same charts respectively. They were not as successful in other markets aside from "Who Will You Run To" making the top 20 in Canada and "There's the Girl" peaking in the top 15 in Poland. Bad Animals was a top 3 hit in the US and Canada, being certified 3x and 4x platinum in those countries, respectively. The album also became Heart's first top 10 album on the UK Albums Chart.🦛 The success of UK top 40 singles "Alone" (number 3), "Who Will You Run To" (number 30), "There's the Girl" (number 34) and the ''Bad Animals'' album (number 7) sparked renewed UK interest in the 1985 self-titled album, resulting in the re-release of several singles. When originally released in 1985, the singles "What About Love" and "Never" did not chart, while "These Dreams" and "Nothin' at All" only charted at 68 and 76 respectively. However, in 1988 after the success of ''Bad Animals'' a re-released double A-side single of "Never"/"These Dreams" hit number 8, "What About Love" hit number 14, and the re-release of "Nothin' at All" cracked the UK top 40 at number 38. This success in the UK would continue with future albums and help Heart become a major concert attraction in the United Kingdom.🦛 In 1990, Brigade became the band's sixth multi-platinum LP and added three more top-25 Billboard Hot 100 hits. "Stranded" reached number 13 and "I Didn't Want to Need You" peaked at number 23. The lead single, "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You", reached number two, and created controversy over whether the song encouraged women to endanger themselves by picking up hitchhikers. Two other album cuts, "Wild Child" (number 3) and "Tall, Dark Handsome Stranger" (number 24), were Billboard Mainstream Rock chart hits. Brigade was the band's highest-charting album in the UK, reaching number three.🦛 1991–2001: The Lovemongers, Desire Walks On, and Nancy Wilson hiatus Heart released its first complete live album in the autumn of 1991. Rock the House Live! largely featured tracks from Brigade rather than more familiar hits in an effort to capture the harder rock side of the band. The album's single, a version of John Farnham's "You're the Voice", received moderate airplay on rock stations and hit number 20 on the Mainstream Rock chart.🦛 The Wilson sisters then put together an informal acoustic group called Lovemongers with longtime Heart songwriting collaborator Sue Ennis and Frank Cox.🦛 Heart returned in 1993 with Desire Walks On, on which bass player Andes was replaced with Fernando Saunders. The album peaked at number 48 on the Billboard 200, eventually being certified gold. The lead track, "Black on Black II", was an AOR hit peaking at number four on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, while the single "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" was a moderate pop hit, reaching number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100. A third single, "The Woman In Me", hit number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart, but missed the Hot 100.🦛 ''Desire Walks On" marked the first time that Heart's singles fared better in other countries than the US. Aside from the metallic hard rock radio cut "Black on Black II" which reached the Top 10 on US Rock / Hard Rock charts, "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" hit number 19 in the UK and number 8 in Canada. (vs. Number 39 in the US) and "The Woman in Me" reached number 13 in Canada after just missing the US Billboard Hot 100.🦛 An interactive CD-ROM, Heart: 20 Years of Rock & Roll, with five hours of audio footage, was released in 1994. The next album, The Road Home (1995), offered live acoustic versions of the group's best-known songs and was produced by Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones.🦛 In 1995, Nancy Wilson decided to take a break from music to concentrate on raising a family. In 1998, the band maintained its profile by being the subject of an episode of VH1's Behind the Music. The band released a Greatest Hits boxed set covering their early work (a second volume focusing on the later part of their career followed in 2000).🦛 Lovemongers released a live EP of cover songs titled Battle of Evermore in 1992, a full-length album titled Whirlygig in 1997, and a collection of mostly self-penned Christmas songs titled Here is Christmas in 1998. In 2001, Here Is Christmas was re-released presented by Heart as Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas.🦛 2002–2006: Resumption In 2002, Ann and Nancy returned to the road with a brand-new Heart lineup that included Scott Olson, Ben Smith, Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez, and keyboardist Tom Kellock. In 2003, Heart released a DVD of the band's last stop in the tour as Alive in Seattle. Also in 2003, Gilby Clarke (ex-Guns N' Roses) and Darian Sahanaja replaced Olson and Kellock for an American tour.🦛 In 2004, with Clarke having been replaced by Craig Bartok, Heart released Jupiters Darling, the first studio album since 1993. It featured a variety of songs that included a return to Heart's original hard-rock sound, as well as a blend of vintage pop and new textures.🦛 In 2005, the Wilsons appeared on the CMT Music Awards as a special guest of country singer Gretchen Wilson (no relation) and performed the Heart classic "Crazy on You" with her. Heart also performed with Gretchen Wilson on VH-1's March 10, 2006, tribute to the band, "Decades Rock Live!". The special also featured Alice in Chains, Phil Anselmo, Dave Navarro, Rufus Wainwright, and Carrie Underwood. The concert was released on LP, CD, DVD, and Blu-ray on January 25, 2019, with the title Live in Atlantic City. Later in the year, bass player Inez left Heart to rejoin the reformed Alice in Chains.🦛 2007–2009: VH1 Rock Honors to touring with Journey Heart was honored at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors (May 24, 2007) and also performed along with Ozzy Osbourne, Genesis, and ZZ Top. Gretchen Wilson and Alice in Chains honored the group by performing "Barracuda". In September 2007, Ann Wilson released her first solo album, Hope & Glory, which featured sister Nancy, Elton John, Alison Krauss, k.d. lang, Wynonna Judd, Gretchen Wilson, Rufus Wainwright, Shawn Colvin, and Deana Carter.🦛 On April 9, 2008, the band appeared on Idol Gives Back with Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson, who sang "Barracuda" in harmony with Ann. In mid-2008, Heart undertook a US tour with Journey and Cheap Trick. In 2008, the band performed in a benefit for music education in public schools, appearing live with Jackson Browne on "Something Fine," with Venice on "Crazy on You," and with over 70 members of the Santa Monica High School orchestra and girls' choir on "Bohemian Rhapsody." In 2009, the band was featured on an updated and remastered episode of VH1's Behind the Music.🦛 2010–2012: Red Velvet Car to Kennedy Center Honors A new studio album, Red Velvet Car, was released in 2010. It marked a stylistic return to Heart's melodic hard rock and folk sound of their early albums. The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming the group's first top-10 album in 20 years. It also reached number three on Billboard's Rock Albums Chart. Red Velvet Car spawned two singles. The folky "Hey You" peaked at number 26 on Billboard's AC chart, while the hard rocker "WTF" peaked at number 19 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. On November 4, 2010, Heart announced it would do its first cross-Canada tour in 30 years, beginning on January 28, 2011, in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. A live DVD and Blu-ray disc, A Night at Sky Church, recorded before the tour at the Experience Music Project in Seattle, was released in 2011. Ann and Nancy Wilson played as part of the 2010 VH1 Divas Support the Troops, along with acts including Katy Perry and Paramore; they performed "Crazy on You" with Grace Potter and the Nocturnals.🦛 In May 2010, a reunion of former male members of the band, including Roger Fisher and Steve Fossen, performed at the Synergia Northwest concert in Tacoma, Washington.🦛 Heart embarked on a 2011 summer tour co-headlining with Def Leppard. A career-spanning box-set titled Strange Euphoria was released in June 2012, containing many of the band's biggest hits, unreleased demos and rare live cuts. On September 18, 2012, the Wilson sisters released their autobiography, Kicking and Dreaming: A Story of Heart, Soul, and Rock and Roll, which was co-written with Charles R. Cross (Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain). On September 25, 2012, Ann and Nancy received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to music.🦛 The band released its 14th studio album, Fanatic, on October 2, 2012, which became the group's 12th top-25 album (number 24, 2012) and was supported by a tour of the US and Canada. On December 26, 2012, Ann and Nancy performed at the CBS-televised Kennedy Center Honors in a tribute to Led Zeppelin. Along with an orchestra, two choirs and Jason Bonham (son of late Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham), they performed a version of Led Zeppelin's signature song "Stairway to Heaven". Their rendition of "Stairway" earned a standing ovation from the crowd and tears of joy from Robert Plant. The video went viral on YouTube, with over four million views in the first five days after the show, and prompted the Kennedy Center to issue a limited-edition iTunes single of the performance. Although the single was available for only two weeks, it immediately went to number one on the iTunes Rock Singles chart and reached number 20 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart.🦛 2013–2016: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Beautiful Broken At the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 18, 2013, the original members of Heart (the Wilson sisters, Howard Leese, Michael Derosier, Steve Fossen, and Roger Fisher) reunited for the first time in 34 years to play "Crazy on You". The band was inducted by Chris Cornell, who emotionally talked about what heroes and role models Ann and Nancy Wilson had been to him and other musicians in Seattle, saying, "For me, and for countless other men and women, they have earned, at long last, their rightful place in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2014, the band released another live album, Fanatic Live from Caesar's Colosseum, which peaked at number 13 on Billboard's Top Hard Rock Albums Chart.🦛 Heart released the album Beautiful Broken on July 8, 2016. The hard-rocking title cut featuring Metallicas James Hetfield trading vocals with Ann Wilson was the first single. Beautiful Broken reached number 9 on Billboard's Rock Album Chart and number 30 on Billboard's Top Selling Albums Chart. Immediately following the new album's release, the band embarked on the Rock Hall Three for All, a 30-date headlining tour of the US with Joan Jett and Cheap Trick supporting.🦛 2016–present: Hiatus, side projects, and reunion On the morning of August 27, 2016, Ann's husband Dean Wetter was arrested and subsequently pleaded guilty to assaulting Nancy's 16-year-old twin sons after the boys had left the door to his RV open. The incident took place during a Heart performance at the White River Amphitheater in Auburn, Washington, the previous night. Although the band played the remaining 2016 tour dates that were already booked, the Wilson sisters only spoke to one another through third parties for the remainder of the tour. The pair's relationship was strained by the incident; an April 2017 article in Rolling Stone reported that although they remained on amicable terms, they had not spoken to one another since the 2016 tour ended, and only sporadically contacted one another through text messaging. Following the end of the tour in October 2016, the sisters opted to tour with their own side-project bands. In April 2017, both sisters said the band had not permanently disbanded with Ann saying they were simply on hiatus.🦛 In February 2019, Heart announced their hiatus had ended and they would embark on the Love Alive tour in the summer. In March 2019, both sisters reunited on stage for the first time since the band went on hiatus, at the Love Rock NYC benefit concert. Although Ann and Nancy were reuniting, the former Heart members who had joined Nancy's solo effort were not invited back, and the new lineup consisted of Ann's touring band, replacing Ben Smith on drums, Dan Rothchild on bass, and Chris Joyner on keyboards. In June 2019, the band announced the Love Alive tour had been extended through October 2019.🦛 In 2022, Nancy Wilson announced her own version of Heart, called Nancy Wilson's Heart. She has been touring under that name, playing a list consisting primarily of Heart songs.🦛 Legacy Heart is generally considered a hard rock band, but its diversity has crossed multiple genres from folk to pop to hard rock, and even at times heavy metal. As a result, the band has charted singles on Billboard's Hot 100, Mainstream Rock Tracks, Hard Rock Tracks, and Adult Contemporary charts. Their 2016 live recording at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra even charted in the top 10 of Billboards Classical Albums chart and Classical Crossover Albums chart.🦛 Heart has sold over 35 million records worldwide, had 20 top-forty singles and seven top-ten albums, and earned four Grammy nominations. The band charted singles and top ten albums on the Billboard charts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2010s: a four-decade span of top ten albums that is a record for a female-fronted band.🦛 Heart was ranked on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" in 2008, and Ann and Nancy Wilson ranked number 40 (in 1999) on VH1's "100 Greatest Women in Rock and Roll". Ann Wilson was ranked in Hit Parader's 2006 "Greatest Heavy Metal Vocalists of All Time". In 2009, the Wilson sisters were awarded ASCAP's Founders Award in recognition of their songwriting careers.🦛 In 2011, Heart earned its first nomination for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the 2012 class. After being passed over, the band was nominated again the following year announced as inductees to the 2013 class on December 11, 2012. Their Hall of Fame page describes the Wilson sisters as the first women to front a hard-rock band, and "pioneers ... inspir[ing] women to pick up an electric guitar or start a band".🦛 In his book Heart: In the Studio, Jake Brown described the band as beginning "a revolution for women in music ... breaking genre barriers and garnering critical acclaim".🦛 "Heart were the first female-fronted band I heard and was influenced by," recalled Lzzy Hale of Halestorm. "I heard Heart and was like, 'Oh, singing like that as a girl is actually a thing!'"🦛 The Wilson sisters have been active in the Seattle music scene for decades and influenced many musicians from the region, including bands of the grunge era. Artists that have used their Bad Animals Studio include Neil Young, R.E.M., Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains.🦛 Members Current members Ann Wilson (1973–1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – lead and backing vocals, flute, autoharp, acoustic guitar🦛 Nancy Wilson (1973–1995, 1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – rhythm, lead and acoustic guitar, backing and lead vocals, harmonica, mandolin, keyboards🦛 Denny Fongheiser (1993–1995, 2019–present) – drums, percussion Craig Bartock (2003–2016, 2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar🦛 Ryan Waters (2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Andy Stoller (2019–present) – bass guitar Dan Walker (2019–present) – keyboards🦛 Former members Roger Fisher (1973–1980; one-off in 2013) – lead and rhythm guitar, lap steel guitar, mandolin Steve Fossen (1973–1982; one-off in 2013) – bass, backing vocals, occasional percussion🦛 John Hannah (1973–1975) – keyboards Brian Johnstone (1973–1975) – drums Michael Derosier (1975–1982; one-off in 2013) – drums, percussion🦛 Howard Leese (1975–1998; one-off in 2013) – keyboards, lead and rhythm guitars, mandolin, percussion, accordion, backing vocals, bass (1992)🦛 Mark Andes (1982–1992) – bass, backing vocals, occasional acoustic guitar Denny Carmassi (1982–1993) – drums, percussion Fernando Saunders (1993–1995) – bass, backing vocals🦛 Mike Inez (2002–2005) – bass, occasional percussion Tom Kellock (2002–2003) – keyboards Scott Olson (2002–2003) – guitar (lead 2002–2003, rhythm 1995–1998), lap steel guitar, backing vocals🦛 Ben Smith (2002–2016), drums, percussion Gilby Clarke (2003) – lead and rhythm guitars Darian Sahanaja (2003–2004, 2007) – keyboards, percussion, backing vocals🦛 Debbie Shair (2004–2014) – keyboards, percussion, accordion, backing vocals Ric Markmann (2005–2009) – bass Kristian Attard (2009–2012) – bass🦛 Dan Rothchild (2012–2016) – bass, backing vocals Chris Joyner (2014–2016) – keyboards, rhythm guitar Discography Dreamboat Annie (1975)🦛 Magazine (1977) Little Queen (1977) Dog and Butterfly (1978) Bébé le Strange (1980) Private Audition (1982) Passionworks (1983)🦛 Heart (1985) Bad Animals (1987) Brigade (1990) Desire Walks On (1993) Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas (2001) Jupiters Darling (2004)🦛 Red Velvet Car (2010) Fanatic (2012) Beautiful Broken (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards \|- \|align=center\|1986 \|Heart🦛 \| Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal \| \|- \| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|1988 \|"Alone" \|Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group🦛 \| \|- \|Bad Animals \| Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal \| \|- \| align=center\|1991 \|"All I Wanna Do Is Make Love To You"🦛 \|Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \| align=center\|2023 \| Ann and Nancy Wilson \| Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award \|🦛	[ "Heart", "is", "an", "American", "rock", "band", "formed", "in", "1973", "in", "Seattle,", "Washington.", "The", "band", "evolved", "from", "previous", "projects", "led", "by", "founding", "members", "Roger", "Fisher", "(guitar)", "and", "Steve", "Fossen", "(bass", "guitar),", "including", "The", "Army", "(1967–1969),", "Hocus", "Pocus", "(1969–1970),", "and", "White", "Heart", "(1970–1973).", "By", "1975,", "original", "members", "Fisher,", "Fossen,", "and", "Ann", "Wilson", "(lead", "vocals", "and", "flute),", "along", "with", "Nancy", "Wilson", "(rhythm", "guitar,", "vocals),", "Michael", "Derosier", "(drums),", "and", "Howard", "Leese", "(guitar,", "keyboards", "and", "backing", "vocals)", "formed", "the", "lineup", "for", "the", "band's", "initial", "mid-", "to", "late-1970s", "success", "period.", "These", "core", "members", "were", "included", "in", "the", "band's", "2013", "induction", "into", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame.", "Heart", "rose", "to", "fame", "with", "music", "influenced", "by", "hard", "rock", "and", "heavy", "metal,", "as", "well", "as", "folk", "music.", "The", "band", "underwent", "a", "major", "lineup", "change", "between", "the", "late", "1970s", "the", "early", "1980s;", "by", "1982", "Fisher,", "Fossen,", "and", "Derosier", "had", "all", "left", "and", "were", "replaced", "by", "Mark", "Andes", "(bass)", "and", "Denny", "Carmassi", "(drums).", "Though", "the", "band's", "popularity", "fell", "off", "during", "the", "initial", "years", "with", "the", "new", "lineup,", "they", "staged", "a", "comeback", "in", "the", "mid", "1980s,", "buoyed", "by", "major", "radio", "hits", "that", "continued", "into", "the", "1990s.", "Heart", "disbanded", "in", "1998,", "though", "they", "have", "resumed", "touring", "and", "recording", "multiple", "times", "since", "then,", "with", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "being", "the", "only", "consistent", "members.", "Heart's", "US", "Top", "40", "singles", "include", "\"Magic", "Man\"", "(1975),", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "(1976),", "\"Barracuda\"", "(1977),", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "(1985),", "\"Never\"", "(1985),", "and", "\"All", "I", "Wanna", "Do", "Is", "Make", "Love", "to", "You\"", "(1990),", "along", "with", "no.", "1", "hits", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "(1986)", "and", "\"Alone\"", "(1987).", "Heart", "has", "been", "nominated", "for", "four", "Grammy", "Awards,", "and", "has", "sold", "over", "50", "million", "records", "worldwide,", "including", "approximately", "22.5", "million", "albums", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "They", "have", "placed", "top", "ten", "albums", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200", "in", "the", "1970s,", "1980s,", "1990s,", "and", "2010s.", "Heart", "was", "ranked", "number", "57", "on", "VH1's", "\"100", "Greatest", "Artists", "of", "Hard", "Rock\"", "and", "ranked", "number", "49", "on", "Ultimate", "Classic", "Rock's", "Top", "100", "Classic", "Rock", "Artists.", "History", "1967–1972:", "Early", "bands", "and", "formation", "In", "1965,", "bassist", "Steve", "Fossen", "formed", "The", "Army,", "along", "with", "Roger", "Fisher", "on", "guitar,", "Don", "Wilhelm", "on", "guitar,", "keyboards", "and", "lead", "vocals,", "and", "Ray", "Schaefer", "on", "drums.", "They", "played", "for", "several", "years", "in", "and", "around", "the", "Bothell,", "Washington,", "area,", "northeast", "of", "Seattle.", "They", "frequently", "played", "Bothell", "High", "School,", "Inglemoor", "High", "School,", "and", "Shorecrest", "High", "School,", "as", "well", "as", "many", "taverns", "and", "club", "venues.", "In", "1969,", "the", "band", "went", "through", "line-up", "changes", "(Gary", "Ziegelman—former", "lead", "singer", "of", "Buffalo", "Clancy—on", "lead", "vocals,", "Roger", "on", "guitar,", "Steve", "on", "bass,", "James", "Cirrello", "on", "guitar,", "Ron", "Rudge", "on", "drums,", "and", "Ken", "Hansen", "on", "percussion)", "and", "took", "on", "a", "new", "name,", "Hocus", "Pocus.", "The", "name", "White", "Heart", "came", "from", "a", "discussion", "Roger", "Fisher's", "brother", "Mike", "Fisher", "had", "with", "Michael", "Munro,", "who", "had", "come", "up", "with", "the", "name", "White", "Hart", "(without", "the", "\"e\",", "a", "reference", "to", "Arthur", "C.", "Clarke's", "Tales", "from", "the", "White", "Hart)", "for", "a", "band", "with", "Toby", "Cyr", "on", "lead", "guitar.", "Fisher", "asked", "and", "received", "permission", "to", "use", "the", "name", "for", "the", "Army,", "added", "the", "\"e\",", "and", "the", "Army", "became", "White", "Heart.", "For", "a", "brief", "time", "in", "1970,", "this", "line-up", "shortened", "its", "name", "to", "Heart", "and", "dropped", "\"White\".", "The", "band", "subsequently", "went", "through", "more", "personnel", "changes.", "In", "1971,", "White", "Heart", "consisted", "of", "Steve", "Fossen,", "Roger", "Fisher,", "David", "Belzer", "(keys),", "and", "Jeff", "Johnson", "(drums).", "The", "band", "eventually", "stuck", "to", "the", "name", "Heart,", "which", "has", "been", "their", "name", "since", "1973.", "Mike", "Fisher,", "Roger's", "brother,", "was", "set", "to", "be", "drafted", "into", "the", "army.", "Nancy", "Wilson", "has", "stated", "that", "when", "he", "did", "not", "report", "for", "duty,", "his", "home", "was", "raided,", "he", "slipped", "out", "a", "rear", "window,", "escaped", "to", "Canada,", "and", "became", "a", "Vietnam", "War", "\"draft", "dodger\".", "One", "day", "in", "1972", "(or", "1971),", "Mike", "crossed", "the", "border", "to", "visit", "family,", "and", "by", "chance", "met", "Ann", "at", "a", "Hocus", "Pocus", "(or", "White", "Heart)", "show.", "According", "to", "Nancy,", "that", "meeting", "was", "\"when", "she", "and", "Michael", "fell", "in", "love\"", "and", "Ann", "decided", "to", "follow", "Mike", "back", "to", "Canada.", "Steve", "Fossen", "finished", "his", "college", "education", "before", "he", "also", "decided", "to", "move", "to", "Canada", "in", "late", "1972,", "and", "Roger", "followed", "in", "late", "1972", "or", "early", "1973.", "Along", "with", "Ann,", "Brian", "Johnstone", "(drums),", "and", "John", "Hannah", "(keyboards),", "the", "band", "Heart", "was", "officially", "formed.", "Ann's", "sister", "Nancy", "Wilson", "joined", "in", "1974,", "and", "soon", "after", "became", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Roger.", "1975–1976:", "Commercial", "breakthrough", "The", "group", "played", "numerous", "shows", "around", "their", "new", "home", "in", "Vancouver,", "and", "they", "recorded", "a", "demo", "tape", "with", "the", "assistance", "of", "producer", "Mike", "Flicker", "and", "session-guitarist", "and", "keyboard", "player,", "Howard", "Leese.", "Hannah", "and", "Johnstone", "had", "left", "by", "this", "time,", "and", "soon", "after", "Leese", "became", "a", "full-time", "member.", "Flicker", "produced", "the", "band's", "first", "five", "albums.", "This", "team", "recorded", "the", "debut", "album,", "Dreamboat", "Annie,", "at", "Can-Base", "Studios", "in", "Vancouver", "(later", "known", "as", "Mushroom", "Studios).", "Mike", "Derosier", "eventually", "joined", "Heart", "as", "full-time", "drummer.", "Some", "of", "the", "same", "Canadian", "investors", "who", "had", "backed", "the", "studio", "also", "backed", "a", "separate", "company", "called", "Mushroom", "Records,", "which", "was", "managed", "by", "Shelly", "Siegel.", "The", "album", "was", "picked", "up", "by", "Siegel", "and", "sold", "30,000", "copies", "in", "Canada", "within", "the", "first", "few", "months", "of", "its", "release", "in", "September", "1975.", "Sales", "were", "assisted", "by", "the", "band", "opening", "a", "Rod", "Stewart", "concert", "at", "the", "Montreal", "Forum", "in", "October,", "a", "gig", "they", "were", "offered", "a", "day", "before", "the", "concert", "when", "the", "previously-scheduled", "opening", "act", "cancelled.", "The", "radio", "success", "of", "\"Magic", "Man\"", "led", "concert", "organizers", "to", "offer", "the", "spot", "to", "Heart.", "The", "band", "flew", "from", "the", "West", "Coast", "of", "Canada", "to", "Montreal", "overnight", "for", "the", "performance.", "Siegel", "soon", "released", "the", "album", "in", "the", "US.", "Helped", "by", "two", "hit", "singles", "in", "1976", "(\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "and", "\"Magic", "Man\",", "which", "reached", "numbers", "35", "and", "nine,", "respectively,", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100),", "it", "reached", "number", "seven", "in", "the", "Billboard", "200.", "It", "eventually", "sold", "over", "one", "million", "copies.", "1977–1979:", "Mainstream", "success", "and", "band", "split", "In", "1977,", "Mushroom", "Records", "ran", "a", "full-page", "advertisement", "showing", "the", "bare-shouldered", "Wilson", "sisters", "(as", "on", "the", "Dreamboat", "Annie", "album", "cover)", "with", "the", "suggestive", "caption,", "\"It", "was", "only", "our", "first", "time!\"", "In", "a", "July", "1977", "Rolling", "Stone", "cover", "story,", "the", "sisters", "cited", "this", "advertisement", "as", "a", "key", "reason", "for", "their", "decision", "to", "leave", "Mushroom", "Records.", "Heart", "broke", "its", "contract", "with", "Mushroom", "and", "signed", "a", "contract", "with", "CBS", "subsidiary", "Portrait", "Records,", "resulting", "in", "a", "prolonged", "legal", "battle", "with", "Siegel.", "Mushroom", "released", "the", "partly", "completed", "Magazine", "in", "early", "1977,", "just", "before", "Portrait", "released", "Little", "Queen.", "Each", "company", "attempted", "to", "prevent", "the", "other", "from", "releasing", "any", "Heart", "music.", "A", "Seattle", "court", "forced", "Mushroom", "Records", "to", "recall", "the", "album", "so", "that", "Heart", "could", "remix", "tracks", "and", "add", "new", "vocals,", "and", "the", "album", "was", "re-released", "in", "1978.", "It", "peaked", "at", "number", "17", "in", "the", "US,", "generating", "the", "single", "\"Heartless\",", "which", "reached", "number", "24", "in", "the", "charts.", "The", "album", "eventually", "achieved", "platinum", "status.", "Little", "Queen", "became", "Heart's", "second", "million-seller", "and", "featured", "the", "hit", "\"Barracuda\"", "(number", "11).", "The", "song's", "lyrics", "were", "written", "by", "an", "infuriated", "Ann", "Wilson", "in", "her", "hotel", "room", "after", "a", "reporter", "had", "suggested", "that", "the", "sisters", "were", "lesbian", "lovers.", "In", "late", "1978,", "the", "double-platinum", "Dog", "&", "Butterfly", "peaked", "at", "17", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200", "and", "produced", "hits", "with", "its", "title", "song", "(number", "34)", "and", "\"Straight", "On\"", "(number", "15).", "In", "1979,", "the", "Wilson-Fisher", "liaisons", "ended—Roger", "Fisher", "was", "voted", "out", "of", "the", "band", "by", "the", "other", "members,", "and", "his", "brother", "Mike", "left", "the", "group’s", "orbit", "within", "a", "month.", "1980–1984:", "Commercial", "decline", "Heart", "released", "Bebe", "le", "Strange", "in", "1980.", "It", "became", "the", "band's", "third", "top-10", "album,", "peaking", "at", "number", "five,", "and", "yielded", "the", "top-40", "hit", "\"Even", "It", "Up\".", "The", "band", "embarked", "on", "a", "77-city", "tour", "to", "promote", "the", "album.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "year,", "the", "band", "scored", "its", "highest-charted", "single", "at", "the", "time,", "a", "version", "of", "the", "ballad", "\"Tell", "It", "Like", "It", "Is\",", "which", "peaked", "at", "number", "eight.", "In", "November", "1980,", "the", "double", "album", "Greatest", "Hits/Live", "was", "released", "and", "reached", "number", "twelve", "on", "the", "US", "chart,", "eventually", "achieving", "double-platinum", "status.", "The", "two-disc", "set", "featured", "studio", "versions", "of", "most", "of", "Heart's", "singles", "to", "date,", "plus", "a", "few", "new", "studio", "tracks", "and", "six", "live", "tracks,", "among", "which", "were", "versions", "of", "\"Unchained", "Melody\",", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "\"Rock", "and", "Roll\"", "and", "the", "Beatles'", "\"I'm", "Down\".", "Heart", "was", "the", "first", "band", "of", "the", "day", "to", "appear", "at", "the", "sold-out", "concert", "headlined", "by", "Queen", "at", "Elland", "Road", "on", "May", "29,", "1982.", "Their", "next", "album,", "Private", "Audition", "(1982),", "provided", "the", "minor", "hit", "\"This", "Man", "Is", "Mine\"", "(number", "33)", "and", "was", "the", "first", "not", "produced", "by", "Mike", "Flicker.", "Initially,", "the", "band", "turned", "to", "Jimmy", "Iovine,", "one", "of", "the", "leading", "producers", "of", "the", "time,", "who", "suggested", "that", "the", "material", "lacked", "potential", "hits,", "and", "eventually,", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "produced", "the", "album", "themselves.", "The", "track", "\"Perfect", "Stranger\"", "foreshadowed", "the", "power", "ballads", "that", "would", "dominate", "the", "band's", "mid-1980s", "sound.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "recording,", "Derosier", "and", "Fossen", "were", "fired", "from", "the", "band.", "They", "were", "replaced", "by", "Denny", "Carmassi", "on", "drums", "and", "Mark", "Andes", "on", "bass", "for", "Passionworks", "(1983),", "while", "at", "the", "record", "company's", "insistence,", "the", "band", "turned", "to", "established", "producer", "Keith", "Olsen.", "Both", "Private", "Audition", "and", "Passionworks", "had", "relatively", "poor", "sales,", "failing", "to", "reach", "gold", "status.", "Despite", "the", "albums'", "sales,", "the", "single", "\"How", "Can", "I", "Refuse\"", "was", "a", "success,", "reaching", "number", "one", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Chart.", "1985–1990:", "Comeback", "The", "band", "moved", "to", "Capitol", "Records,", "and", "their", "first", "album", "for", "the", "label", "was", "simply", "titled", "Heart", "(1985).", "The", "move", "to", "Capitol", "coincided", "with", "a", "glam", "metal", "makeover", "that", "included", "minimizing", "the", "acoustic", "and", "folk", "sounds", "characteristic", "of", "their", "early", "work.", "The", "album", "reached", "number", "one,", "sold", "five", "million", "copies,", "and", "launched", "four", "top-10", "hits:", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "(number", "10,", "1985),", "\"Never\"", "(number", "four,", "1985),", "the", "chart-topping", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "(1986)", "and", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "(number", "10,", "1986).", "A", "fifth", "single,", "\"If", "Looks", "Could", "Kill\",", "also", "charted,", "giving", "the", "band", "five", "hit", "singles", "from", "the", "same", "album", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "Heart's", "next", "album,", "Bad", "Animals", "(1987),", "continued", "the", "move", "away", "from", "the", "band's", "folk", "and", "acoustic", "leanings", "towards", "a", "glossier", "arena", "rock", "sound.", "The", "lead", "single,", "the", "power", "ballad", "\"Alone\",", "became", "Heart's", "most", "successful", "song,", "spending", "three", "weeks", "at", "number", "1", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100,", "while", "also", "hitting", "number", "2", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Adult", "Contemporary", "chart", "and", "number", "3", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Tracks", "chart.", "\"Alone\"", "placed", "as", "the", "number", "2", "song", "for", "the", "year", "on", "the", "Hot", "100.", "It", "also", "peaked", "at", "number", "1", "in", "Canada", "and", "number", "3", "in", "the", "UK,", "made", "the", "top", "10", "in", "Australia", "and", "several", "countries", "in", "northern", "Europe,", "and", "the", "top", "20", "in", "Germany.", "It", "is", "often", "considered", "to", "be", "Heart's", "greatest", "pop", "song.", "The", "other", "two", "singles", "were", "the", "up-tempo", "rocker", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\",", "which", "reached", "number", "7", "on", "the", "Hot", "100", "and", "number", "2", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Tracks", "chart,", "and", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\",", "with", "Nancy", "singing", "lead,", "which", "reached", "number", "12", "and", "16", "on", "the", "same", "charts", "respectively.", "They", "were", "not", "as", "successful", "in", "other", "markets", "aside", "from", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\"", "making", "the", "top", "20", "in", "Canada", "and", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\"", "peaking", "in", "the", "top", "15", "in", "Poland.", "Bad", "Animals", "was", "a", "top", "3", "hit", "in", "the", "US", "and", "Canada,", "being", "certified", "3x", "and", "4x", "platinum", "in", "those", "countries,", "respectively.", "The", "album", "also", "became", "Heart's", "first", "top", "10", "album", "on", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "The", "success", "of", "UK", "top", "40", "singles", "\"Alone\"", "(number", "3),", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\"", "(number", "30),", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\"", "(number", "34)", "and", "the", "''Bad", "Animals''", "album", "(number", "7)", "sparked", "renewed", "UK", "interest", "in", "the", "1985", "self-titled", "album,", "resulting", "in", "the", "re-release", "of", "several", "singles.", "When", "originally", "released", "in", "1985,", "the", "singles", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "and", "\"Never\"", "did", "not", "chart,", "while", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "and", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "only", "charted", "at", "68", "and", "76", "respectively.", "However,", "in", "1988", "after", "the", "success", "of", "''Bad", "Animals''", "a", "re-released", "double", "A-side", "single", "of", "\"Never\"/\"These", "Dreams\"", "hit", "number", "8,", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "hit", "number", "14,", "and", "the", "re-release", "of", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "cracked", "the", "UK", "top", "40", "at", "number", "38.", "This", "success", "in", "the", "UK", "would", "continue", "with", "future", "albums", "and", "help", "Heart", "become", "a", "major", "concert", "attraction", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom.", "In", "1990,", "Brigade", "became", "the", "band's", "sixth", "multi-platinum", "LP", "and", "added", "three", "more", "top-25", "Billboard", "Hot", "100", "hits.", "\"Stranded\"", "reached", "number", "13", "and", "\"I", "Didn't", "Want", "to", "Need", "You\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "23.", "The", "lead", "single,", "\"All", "I", "Wanna", "Do", "Is", "Make", "Love", "to", "You\",", "reached", "number", "two,", "and", "created", "controversy", "over", "whether", "the", "song", "encouraged", "women", "to", "endanger", "themselves", "by", "picking", "up", "hitchhikers.", "Two", "other", "album", "cuts,", "\"Wild", "Child\"", "(number", "3)", "and", "\"Tall,", "Dark", "Handsome", "Stranger\"", "(number", "24),", "were", "Billboard", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart", "hits.", "Brigade", "was", "the", "band's", "highest-charting", "album", "in", "the", "UK,", "reaching", "number", "three.", "1991–2001:", "The", "Lovemongers,", "Desire", "Walks", "On,", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "hiatus", "Heart", "released", "its", "first", "complete", "live", "album", "in", "the", "autumn", "of", "1991.", "Rock", "the", "House", "Live!", "largely", "featured", "tracks", "from", "Brigade", "rather", "than", "more", "familiar", "hits", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "capture", "the", "harder", "rock", "side", "of", "the", "band.", "The", "album's", "single,", "a", "version", "of", "John", "Farnham's", "\"You're", "the", "Voice\",", "received", "moderate", "airplay", "on", "rock", "stations", "and", "hit", "number", "20", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart.", "The", "Wilson", "sisters", "then", "put", "together", "an", "informal", "acoustic", "group", "called", "Lovemongers", "with", "longtime", "Heart", "songwriting", "collaborator", "Sue", "Ennis", "and", "Frank", "Cox.", "Heart", "returned", "in", "1993", "with", "Desire", "Walks", "On,", "on", "which", "bass", "player", "Andes", "was", "replaced", "with", "Fernando", "Saunders.", "The", "album", "peaked", "at", "number", "48", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200,", "eventually", "being", "certified", "gold.", "The", "lead", "track,", "\"Black", "on", "Black", "II\",", "was", "an", "AOR", "hit", "peaking", "at", "number", "four", "on", "Billboard's", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart,", "while", "the", "single", "\"Will", "You", "Be", "There", "(In", "the", "Morning)\"", "was", "a", "moderate", "pop", "hit,", "reaching", "number", "39", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100.", "A", "third", "single,", "\"The", "Woman", "In", "Me\",", "hit", "number", "24", "on", "the", "Adult", "Contemporary", "chart,", "but", "missed", "the", "Hot", "100.", "''Desire", "Walks", "On\"", "marked", "the", "first", "time", "that", "Heart's", "singles", "fared", "better", "in", "other", "countries", "than", "the", "US.", "Aside", "from", "the", "metallic", "hard", "rock", "radio", "cut", "\"Black", "on", "Black", "II\"", "which", "reached", "the", "Top", "10", "on", "US", "Rock", "/", "Hard", "Rock", "charts,", "\"Will", "You", "Be", "There", "(In", "the", "Morning)\"", "hit", "number", "19", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "number", "8", "in", "Canada.", "(vs.", "Number", "39", "in", "the", "US)", "and", "\"The", "Woman", "in", "Me\"", "reached", "number", "13", "in", "Canada", "after", "just", "missing", "the", "US", "Billboard", "Hot", "100.", "An", "interactive", "CD-ROM,", "Heart:", "20", "Years", "of", "Rock", "&", "Roll,", "with", "five", "hours", "of", "audio", "footage,", "was", "released", "in", "1994.", "The", "next", "album,", "The", "Road", "Home", "(1995),", "offered", "live", "acoustic", "versions", "of", "the", "group's", "best-known", "songs", "and", "was", "produced", "by", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "John", "Paul", "Jones.", "In", "1995,", "Nancy", "Wilson", "decided", "to", "take", "a", "break", "from", "music", "to", "concentrate", "on", "raising", "a", "family.", "In", "1998,", "the", "band", "maintained", "its", "profile", "by", "being", "the", "subject", "of", "an", "episode", "of", "VH1's", "Behind", "the", "Music.", "The", "band", "released", "a", "Greatest", "Hits", "boxed", "set", "covering", "their", "early", "work", "(a", "second", "volume", "focusing", "on", "the", "later", "part", "of", "their", "career", "followed", "in", "2000).", "Lovemongers", "released", "a", "live", "EP", "of", "cover", "songs", "titled", "Battle", "of", "Evermore", "in", "1992,", "a", "full-length", "album", "titled", "Whirlygig", "in", "1997,", "and", "a", "collection", "of", "mostly", "self-penned", "Christmas", "songs", "titled", "Here", "is", "Christmas", "in", "1998.", "In", "2001,", "Here", "Is", "Christmas", "was", "re-released", "presented", "by", "Heart", "as", "Heart", "Presents", "a", "Lovemongers'", "Christmas.", "2002–2006:", "Resumption", "In", "2002,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "returned", "to", "the", "road", "with", "a", "brand-new", "Heart", "lineup", "that", "included", "Scott", "Olson,", "Ben", "Smith,", "Alice", "in", "Chains", "bassist", "Mike", "Inez,", "and", "keyboardist", "Tom", "Kellock.", "In", "2003,", "Heart", "released", "a", "DVD", "of", "the", "band's", "last", "stop", "in", "the", "tour", "as", "Alive", "in", "Seattle.", "Also", "in", "2003,", "Gilby", "Clarke", "(ex-Guns", "N'", "Roses)", "and", "Darian", "Sahanaja", "replaced", "Olson", "and", "Kellock", "for", "an", "American", "tour.", "In", "2004,", "with", "Clarke", "having", "been", "replaced", "by", "Craig", "Bartok,", "Heart", "released", "Jupiters", "Darling,", "the", "first", "studio", "album", "since", "1993.", "It", "featured", "a", "variety", "of", "songs", "that", "included", "a", "return", "to", "Heart's", "original", "hard-rock", "sound,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "blend", "of", "vintage", "pop", "and", "new", "textures.", "In", "2005,", "the", "Wilsons", "appeared", "on", "the", "CMT", "Music", "Awards", "as", "a", "special", "guest", "of", "country", "singer", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "(no", "relation)", "and", "performed", "the", "Heart", "classic", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "with", "her.", "Heart", "also", "performed", "with", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "on", "VH-1's", "March", "10,", "2006,", "tribute", "to", "the", "band,", "\"Decades", "Rock", "Live!\".", "The", "special", "also", "featured", "Alice", "in", "Chains,", "Phil", "Anselmo,", "Dave", "Navarro,", "Rufus", "Wainwright,", "and", "Carrie", "Underwood.", "The", "concert", "was", "released", "on", "LP,", "CD,", "DVD,", "and", "Blu-ray", "on", "January", "25,", "2019,", "with", "the", "title", "Live", "in", "Atlantic", "City.", "Later", "in", "the", "year,", "bass", "player", "Inez", "left", "Heart", "to", "rejoin", "the", "reformed", "Alice", "in", "Chains.", "2007–2009:", "VH1", "Rock", "Honors", "to", "touring", "with", "Journey", "Heart", "was", "honored", "at", "the", "second", "annual", "VH1", "Rock", "Honors", "(May", "24,", "2007)", "and", "also", "performed", "along", "with", "Ozzy", "Osbourne,", "Genesis,", "and", "ZZ", "Top.", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "and", "Alice", "in", "Chains", "honored", "the", "group", "by", "performing", "\"Barracuda\".", "In", "September", "2007,", "Ann", "Wilson", "released", "her", "first", "solo", "album,", "Hope", "&", "Glory,", "which", "featured", "sister", "Nancy,", "Elton", "John,", "Alison", "Krauss,", "k.d.", "lang,", "Wynonna", "Judd,", "Gretchen", "Wilson,", "Rufus", "Wainwright,", "Shawn", "Colvin,", "and", "Deana", "Carter.", "On", "April", "9,", "2008,", "the", "band", "appeared", "on", "Idol", "Gives", "Back", "with", "Stacy", "\"Fergie\"", "Ferguson,", "who", "sang", "\"Barracuda\"", "in", "harmony", "with", "Ann.", "In", "mid-2008,", "Heart", "undertook", "a", "US", "tour", "with", "Journey", "and", "Cheap", "Trick.", "In", "2008,", "the", "band", "performed", "in", "a", "benefit", "for", "music", "education", "in", "public", "schools,", "appearing", "live", "with", "Jackson", "Browne", "on", "\"Something", "Fine,\"", "with", "Venice", "on", "\"Crazy", "on", "You,\"", "and", "with", "over", "70", "members", "of", "the", "Santa", "Monica", "High", "School", "orchestra", "and", "girls'", "choir", "on", "\"Bohemian", "Rhapsody.\"", "In", "2009,", "the", "band", "was", "featured", "on", "an", "updated", "and", "remastered", "episode", "of", "VH1's", "Behind", "the", "Music.", "2010–2012:", "Red", "Velvet", "Car", "to", "Kennedy", "Center", "Honors", "A", "new", "studio", "album,", "Red", "Velvet", "Car,", "was", "released", "in", "2010.", "It", "marked", "a", "stylistic", "return", "to", "Heart's", "melodic", "hard", "rock", "and", "folk", "sound", "of", "their", "early", "albums.", "The", "album", "peaked", "at", "number", "10", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200,", "becoming", "the", "group's", "first", "top-10", "album", "in", "20", "years.", "It", "also", "reached", "number", "three", "on", "Billboard's", "Rock", "Albums", "Chart.", "Red", "Velvet", "Car", "spawned", "two", "singles.", "The", "folky", "\"Hey", "You\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "26", "on", "Billboard's", "AC", "chart,", "while", "the", "hard", "rocker", "\"WTF\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "19", "on", "Billboard's", "Hot", "Rock", "Songs", "chart.", "On", "November", "4,", "2010,", "Heart", "announced", "it", "would", "do", "its", "first", "cross-Canada", "tour", "in", "30", "years,", "beginning", "on", "January", "28,", "2011,", "in", "St.", "John's,", "Newfoundland", "and", "Labrador.", "A", "live", "DVD", "and", "Blu-ray", "disc,", "A", "Night", "at", "Sky", "Church,", "recorded", "before", "the", "tour", "at", "the", "Experience", "Music", "Project", "in", "Seattle,", "was", "released", "in", "2011.", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "played", "as", "part", "of", "the", "2010", "VH1", "Divas", "Support", "the", "Troops,", "along", "with", "acts", "including", "Katy", "Perry", "and", "Paramore;", "they", "performed", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "with", "Grace", "Potter", "and", "the", "Nocturnals.", "In", "May", "2010,", "a", "reunion", "of", "former", "male", "members", "of", "the", "band,", "including", "Roger", "Fisher", "and", "Steve", "Fossen,", "performed", "at", "the", "Synergia", "Northwest", "concert", "in", "Tacoma,", "Washington.", "Heart", "embarked", "on", "a", "2011", "summer", "tour", "co-headlining", "with", "Def", "Leppard.", "A", "career-spanning", "box-set", "titled", "Strange", "Euphoria", "was", "released", "in", "June", "2012,", "containing", "many", "of", "the", "band's", "biggest", "hits,", "unreleased", "demos", "and", "rare", "live", "cuts.", "On", "September", "18,", "2012,", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "released", "their", "autobiography,", "Kicking", "and", "Dreaming:", "A", "Story", "of", "Heart,", "Soul,", "and", "Rock", "and", "Roll,", "which", "was", "co-written", "with", "Charles", "R.", "Cross", "(Heavier", "Than", "Heaven:", "A", "Biography", "of", "Kurt", "Cobain).", "On", "September", "25,", "2012,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "received", "a", "star", "on", "the", "Hollywood", "Walk", "of", "Fame", "for", "their", "contributions", "to", "music.", "The", "band", "released", "its", "14th", "studio", "album,", "Fanatic,", "on", "October", "2,", "2012,", "which", "became", "the", "group's", "12th", "top-25", "album", "(number", "24,", "2012)", "and", "was", "supported", "by", "a", "tour", "of", "the", "US", "and", "Canada.", "On", "December", "26,", "2012,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "performed", "at", "the", "CBS-televised", "Kennedy", "Center", "Honors", "in", "a", "tribute", "to", "Led", "Zeppelin.", "Along", "with", "an", "orchestra,", "two", "choirs", "and", "Jason", "Bonham", "(son", "of", "late", "Led", "Zeppelin", "drummer", "John", "Bonham),", "they", "performed", "a", "version", "of", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "signature", "song", "\"Stairway", "to", "Heaven\".", "Their", "rendition", "of", "\"Stairway\"", "earned", "a", "standing", "ovation", "from", "the", "crowd", "and", "tears", "of", "joy", "from", "Robert", "Plant.", "The", "video", "went", "viral", "on", "YouTube,", "with", "over", "four", "million", "views", "in", "the", "first", "five", "days", "after", "the", "show,", "and", "prompted", "the", "Kennedy", "Center", "to", "issue", "a", "limited-edition", "iTunes", "single", "of", "the", "performance.", "Although", "the", "single", "was", "available", "for", "only", "two", "weeks,", "it", "immediately", "went", "to", "number", "one", "on", "the", "iTunes", "Rock", "Singles", "chart", "and", "reached", "number", "20", "on", "Billboard's", "Hot", "Rock", "Songs", "chart.", "2013–2016:", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame", "and", "Beautiful", "Broken", "At", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame", "induction", "ceremony", "on", "April", "18,", "2013,", "the", "original", "members", "of", "Heart", "(the", "Wilson", "sisters,", "Howard", "Leese,", "Michael", "Derosier,", "Steve", "Fossen,", "and", "Roger", "Fisher)", "reunited", "for", "the", "first", "time", "in", "34", "years", "to", "play", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\".", "The", "band", "was", "inducted", "by", "Chris", "Cornell,", "who", "emotionally", "talked", "about", "what", "heroes", "and", "role", "models", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "had", "been", "to", "him", "and", "other", "musicians", "in", "Seattle,", "saying,", "\"For", "me,", "and", "for", "countless", "other", "men", "and", "women,", "they", "have", "earned,", "at", "long", "last,", "their", "rightful", "place", "in", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame.\"", "In", "2014,", "the", "band", "released", "another", "live", "album,", "Fanatic", "Live", "from", "Caesar's", "Colosseum,", "which", "peaked", "at", "number", "13", "on", "Billboard's", "Top", "Hard", "Rock", "Albums", "Chart.", "Heart", "released", "the", "album", "Beautiful", "Broken", "on", "July", "8,", "2016.", "The", "hard-rocking", "title", "cut", "featuring", "Metallicas", "James", "Hetfield", "trading", "vocals", "with", "Ann", "Wilson", "was", "the", "first", "single.", "Beautiful", "Broken", "reached", "number", "9", "on", "Billboard's", "Rock", "Album", "Chart", "and", "number", "30", "on", "Billboard's", "Top", "Selling", "Albums", "Chart.", "Immediately", "following", "the", "new", "album's", "release,", "the", "band", "embarked", "on", "the", "Rock", "Hall", "Three", "for", "All,", "a", "30-date", "headlining", "tour", "of", "the", "US", "with", "Joan", "Jett", "and", "Cheap", "Trick", "supporting.", "2016–present:", "Hiatus,", "side", "projects,", "and", "reunion", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "August", "27,", "2016,", "Ann's", "husband", "Dean", "Wetter", "was", "arrested", "and", "subsequently", "pleaded", "guilty", "to", "assaulting", "Nancy's", "16-year-old", "twin", "sons", "after", "the", "boys", "had", "left", "the", "door", "to", "his", "RV", "open.", "The", "incident", "took", "place", "during", "a", "Heart", "performance", "at", "the", "White", "River", "Amphitheater", "in", "Auburn,", "Washington,", "the", "previous", "night.", "Although", "the", "band", "played", "the", "remaining", "2016", "tour", "dates", "that", "were", "already", "booked,", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "only", "spoke", "to", "one", "another", "through", "third", "parties", "for", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "tour.", "The", "pair's", "relationship", "was", "strained", "by", "the", "incident;", "an", "April", "2017", "article", "in", "Rolling", "Stone", "reported", "that", "although", "they", "remained", "on", "amicable", "terms,", "they", "had", "not", "spoken", "to", "one", "another", "since", "the", "2016", "tour", "ended,", "and", "only", "sporadically", "contacted", "one", "another", "through", "text", "messaging.", "Following", "the", "end", "of", "the", "tour", "in", "October", "2016,", "the", "sisters", "opted", "to", "tour", "with", "their", "own", "side-project", "bands.", "In", "April", "2017,", "both", "sisters", "said", "the", "band", "had", "not", "permanently", "disbanded", "with", "Ann", "saying", "they", "were", "simply", "on", "hiatus.", "In", "February", "2019,", "Heart", "announced", "their", "hiatus", "had", "ended", "and", "they", "would", "embark", "on", "the", "Love", "Alive", "tour", "in", "the", "summer.", "In", "March", "2019,", "both", "sisters", "reunited", "on", "stage", "for", "the", "first", "time", "since", "the", "band", "went", "on", "hiatus,", "at", "the", "Love", "Rock", "NYC", "benefit", "concert.", "Although", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "were", "reuniting,", "the", "former", "Heart", "members", "who", "had", "joined", "Nancy's", "solo", "effort", "were", "not", "invited", "back,", "and", "the", "new", "lineup", "consisted", "of", "Ann's", "touring", "band,", "replacing", "Ben", "Smith", "on", "drums,", "Dan", "Rothchild", "on", "bass,", "and", "Chris", "Joyner", "on", "keyboards.", "In", "June", "2019,", "the", "band", "announced", "the", "Love", "Alive", "tour", "had", "been", "extended", "through", "October", "2019.", "In", "2022,", "Nancy", "Wilson", "announced", "her", "own", "version", "of", "Heart,", "called", "Nancy", "Wilson's", "Heart.", "She", "has", "been", "touring", "under", "that", "name,", "playing", "a", "list", "consisting", "primarily", "of", "Heart", "songs.", "Legacy", "Heart", "is", "generally", "considered", "a", "hard", 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2528483	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Kiss%20in%20the%20Dreamhouse	A Kiss in the Dreamhouse	A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is the fifth studio album by British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees. It was released on 5 November 1982 by Polydor Records. The record marked a change of musical direction, as the group used strings for the first time and experimented in the studio. Guitarist John McGeoch played more instruments, including recorder and piano. For Julian Marszalek of The Quietus, the release proved the Banshees to be "one of the great British psychedelic bands." Both a critical and commercial success, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse peaked at No. 11 on the UK Albums Chart. A 180g vinyl LP reissue of the album, remastered from the original ¼” tapes and cut half-speed at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell, was released in September 2018. In April 2023, a clear and gold marbled vinyl edition was released for Record Store Day via several independent stores and websites. Background, production and music The band held back from writing after the success of 1981's Juju. During the spring of 1982, they went on tour in Scandinavia with three tracks completed: "Cascade", "Painted Bird" and "Green Fingers". When they returned to the studio in July, the group embarked on a week of improvisation sparked off by a tape-looped section of the orchestral version of "Fireworks", a non-album single they had released in May. Other numbers followed easily. Siouxsie didn't want to use synthesizers for the arrangements:"Fireworks" indicated the direction we wanted for the album. We wanted strings... John [McGeoch] wanted a machine but Steven [Severin] and I said it had to be real strings. They give a real, earthy, rich sound. You could hear the strings spitting and breathing and wheezing. Me and Steve have always wanted our music to be performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. We've always thought our songs would suit orchestration. Real strings have a very physical sound". A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was the first album on which the Banshees really exploited the possibilities of the studio. They allowed themselves to be inspired by sounds. Engineer Mike Hedges, who was interested in vocals, put different effects on Siouxsie's voice and multi-layered it. Hedges also encouraged them to fiddle with effects; if the band came up with something off-the-wall, he'd want to top it. According to the band, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was probably their most experimental work. The album contains recorders, chimes, tubular bells, loops and many vocal overdubs. Consequence of Sound described the album as the band's "own form of neo-psychedelic rock." The personal dynamics associated with the period in which A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was recorded were often less than healthy. The band's recently fired manager and Siouxsie's former partner, Nils Stevenson, had become obsessive in response to her developing relationship with Budgie. The band spent long hours in the studio, fuelled by drink and drugs. According to Uncut writer Garry Mulholland, the "stunningly beautiful music" of Dreamhouse was "a product of addiction, stress, old, sick love and new, dangerous love, money woes and a darkness that would eventually claim three lives". Title and artwork The title of the album came to Severin after watching a programme about Hollywood prostitutes in the 1940s who had cosmetic surgery to look like stars, so they could get more clients. The "Dreamhouse" was a brothel in Los Angeles that actually existed where people could meet perfect replicas of the stars of the time, women like Mae West. The quote in the inner sleeve, "Nellie the Elephant packed his trunk and said goodbye to the circus", referred to longtime former manager Stevenson (nicknamed "Nellie"), who was fired before the recording of the album. The album's artwork was inspired by the paintings of Gustav Klimt. As the Banshees achieved the richness they desired, they wanted "a really colourful sleeve with lots of gold and deep colours because we felt the music was very rich". Critical reception The UK music press was unanimous in its praise for the album on its release. NME'''s Richard Cook considered it innovative: "A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is a feat of imagination scarcely ever recorded. It's breathtaking. Somehow, a bold assurance of intention has met with a hunger for experimenting with sound to expand an already formidable group of songs into pure, open-minded ambiguity. The flesh of the song will balloon out or contort into unimaginable patterns; indecipherable echoes volley between the walls of the recording; glassy, splintered tones pierce the luxuriant sheen of the mix. Repeated listens trick the sense of balance; tremendous risks are taken." Cook finished his review by saying, "I promise. This music will take your breath away." Another journalist of the NME Paul Du Noyer wrote that A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was "a real departure from rock tradition" and "maybe even their best [album]".Melody Maker's Steve Sutherland also welcomed the new musical direction: "The Banshees achieve an awesome, effective new pop without so much as a theory or qualm. Dreamhouse is an intoxicating achievement". Critic David Cleary of AllMusic would later describe the single "Slowdive" as "a violin-colored dance beat number", with "a catchy melodic hook away from being the real thing", and positively assessed the album, saying, "This fine platter is well worth purchasing". In 2006, music historian Garry Mulholland included it in his book Fear of Music about the 261 greatest albums since 1976. In their 2009 review of the reissued album, The Quietus wrote: "The result was their most colourful and – ahem – kaleidoscopic collection yet". Critic Julian Marszalek commented that the album's music is "fundamentally pop, yet unafraid to revel in a quirkiness born of altered states. A deliberate shift from the overt darkness of its predecessor, Juju". Marszalek qualified the work of guitarist McGeoch as "a seamless beauty", and wrote that "Siouxsie's voice achieves a sense of strength and maturity". The journalist concluded the review by noting that "Siouxsie and the Banshees weren't afraid to stretch themselves. Here was a band that dared to challenge itself as much as their listeners". Legacy Several bands later covered and sampled songs from this album. LCD Soundsystem released a version of "Slowdive" as the B-side to their single "Disco Infiltrator"; it was also included on their Introns compilation in 2006. The Beta Band sampled the live Nocturne version of "Painted Bird" on their track "Liquid Bird", issued on their 2003 album Heroes to Zeros. Track listing Personnel Siouxsie and the Banshees Siouxsie Sioux – vocals, bells on "Obsession", production Steven Severin – bass guitar, six-string bass guitar on "Slowdive", organ on "Painted Bird", production John McGeoch – guitar, keyboards on "Cocoon", "Circle" and "Cascade", recorder on "Green Fingers", production Budgie – drums, percussion, harmonica on "Slowdive", production Additional personnel Caroline Lavelle – cello on "Obsession" Alison Briggs – cello on "Obsession" Anne Stephenson – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Virginia Hewes – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Production and artwork Mike Hedges – engineering Rocking Russian – sleeve design Michael Kostiff – sleeve photography and set Charts Certifications References Sources Mulholland, Garry. A Kiss in the Dreamhouse, Uncut, November 2012, pp 16–21 Paytress, Mark. Siouxsie & the Banshees: The Authorised Biography''. Sanctuary, 2003. Siouxsie and the Banshees albums 1982 albums Polydor Records albums Geffen Records albums	A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is the fifth studio album by British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees. It was released on 5 November 1982 by Polydor Records. The record marked a change of musical direction, as the group used strings for the first time and experimented in the studio. Guitarist John McGeoch played more instruments, including recorder and piano. For Julian Marszalek of The Quietus, the release proved the Banshees to be "one of the great British psychedelic bands."🦛 Both a critical and commercial success, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse peaked at No. 11 on the UK Albums Chart. A 180g vinyl LP reissue of the album, remastered from the original ¼” tapes and cut half-speed at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell, was released in September 2018.🦛 In April 2023, a clear and gold marbled vinyl edition was released for Record Store Day via several independent stores and websites.🦛 Background, production and music The band held back from writing after the success of 1981's Juju. During the spring of 1982, they went on tour in Scandinavia with three tracks completed: "Cascade", "Painted Bird" and "Green Fingers". When they returned to the studio in July, the group embarked on a week of improvisation sparked off by a tape-looped section of the orchestral version of "Fireworks", a non-album single they had released in May. Other numbers followed easily. Siouxsie didn't want to use synthesizers for the arrangements:"Fireworks" indicated the direction we wanted for the album. We wanted strings... John [McGeoch] wanted a machine but Steven [Severin] and I said it had to be real strings. They give a real, earthy, rich sound. You could hear the strings spitting and breathing and wheezing. Me and Steve have always wanted our music to be performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. We've always thought our songs would suit orchestration. Real strings have a very physical sound".🦛 A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was the first album on which the Banshees really exploited the possibilities of the studio. They allowed themselves to be inspired by sounds. Engineer Mike Hedges, who was interested in vocals, put different effects on Siouxsie's voice and multi-layered it. Hedges also encouraged them to fiddle with effects; if the band came up with something off-the-wall, he'd want to top it.🦛 According to the band, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was probably their most experimental work. The album contains recorders, chimes, tubular bells, loops and many vocal overdubs. Consequence of Sound described the album as the band's "own form of neo-psychedelic rock."🦛 The personal dynamics associated with the period in which A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was recorded were often less than healthy. The band's recently fired manager and Siouxsie's former partner, Nils Stevenson, had become obsessive in response to her developing relationship with Budgie. The band spent long hours in the studio, fuelled by drink and drugs. According to Uncut writer Garry Mulholland, the "stunningly beautiful music" of Dreamhouse was "a product of addiction, stress, old, sick love and new, dangerous love, money woes and a darkness that would eventually claim three lives".🦛 Title and artwork The title of the album came to Severin after watching a programme about Hollywood prostitutes in the 1940s who had cosmetic surgery to look like stars, so they could get more clients. The "Dreamhouse" was a brothel in Los Angeles that actually existed where people could meet perfect replicas of the stars of the time, women like Mae West.🦛 The quote in the inner sleeve, "Nellie the Elephant packed his trunk and said goodbye to the circus", referred to longtime former manager Stevenson (nicknamed "Nellie"), who was fired before the recording of the album.🦛 The album's artwork was inspired by the paintings of Gustav Klimt. As the Banshees achieved the richness they desired, they wanted "a really colourful sleeve with lots of gold and deep colours because we felt the music was very rich".🦛 Critical reception The UK music press was unanimous in its praise for the album on its release. NME'''s Richard Cook considered it innovative: "A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is a feat of imagination scarcely ever recorded. It's breathtaking. Somehow, a bold assurance of intention has met with a hunger for experimenting with sound to expand an already formidable group of songs into pure, open-minded ambiguity. The flesh of the song will balloon out or contort into unimaginable patterns; indecipherable echoes volley between the walls of the recording; glassy, splintered tones pierce the luxuriant sheen of the mix. Repeated listens trick the sense of balance; tremendous risks are taken." Cook finished his review by saying, "I promise. This music will take your breath away." Another journalist of the NME Paul Du Noyer wrote that A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was "a real departure from rock tradition" and "maybe even their best [album]".Melody Maker's Steve Sutherland also welcomed the new musical direction: "The Banshees achieve an awesome, effective new pop without so much as a theory or qualm. Dreamhouse is an intoxicating achievement". Critic David Cleary of AllMusic would later describe the single "Slowdive" as "a violin-colored dance beat number", with "a catchy melodic hook away from being the real thing", and positively assessed the album, saying, "This fine platter is well worth purchasing".🦛 In 2006, music historian Garry Mulholland included it in his book Fear of Music about the 261 greatest albums since 1976. In their 2009 review of the reissued album, The Quietus wrote: "The result was their most colourful and – ahem – kaleidoscopic collection yet". Critic Julian Marszalek commented that the album's music is "fundamentally pop, yet unafraid to revel in a quirkiness born of altered states. A deliberate shift from the overt darkness of its predecessor, Juju". Marszalek qualified the work of guitarist McGeoch as "a seamless beauty", and wrote that "Siouxsie's voice achieves a sense of strength and maturity". The journalist concluded the review by noting that "Siouxsie and the Banshees weren't afraid to stretch themselves. Here was a band that dared to challenge itself as much as their listeners".🦛 Legacy Several bands later covered and sampled songs from this album. LCD Soundsystem released a version of "Slowdive" as the B-side to their single "Disco Infiltrator"; it was also included on their Introns compilation in 2006. The Beta Band sampled the live Nocturne version of "Painted Bird" on their track "Liquid Bird", issued on their 2003 album Heroes to Zeros.🦛 Track listing Personnel Siouxsie and the Banshees Siouxsie Sioux – vocals, bells on "Obsession", production Steven Severin – bass guitar, six-string bass guitar on "Slowdive", organ on "Painted Bird", production🦛 John McGeoch – guitar, keyboards on "Cocoon", "Circle" and "Cascade", recorder on "Green Fingers", production Budgie – drums, percussion, harmonica on "Slowdive", production🦛 Additional personnel Caroline Lavelle – cello on "Obsession" Alison Briggs – cello on "Obsession" Anne Stephenson – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive"🦛 Virginia Hewes – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Production and artwork Mike Hedges – engineering Rocking Russian – sleeve design Michael Kostiff – sleeve photography and set Charts Certifications🦛	[ "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "is", "the", "fifth", "studio", "album", "by", "British", "rock", "band", "Siouxsie", "and", "the", "Banshees.", "It", "was", "released", "on", "5", "November", "1982", "by", "Polydor", "Records.", "The", "record", "marked", "a", "change", "of", "musical", "direction,", "as", "the", "group", "used", "strings", "for", "the", "first", "time", "and", "experimented", "in", "the", "studio.", "Guitarist", "John", "McGeoch", "played", "more", "instruments,", "including", "recorder", "and", "piano.", "For", "Julian", "Marszalek", "of", "The", "Quietus,", "the", "release", "proved", "the", "Banshees", "to", "be", "\"one", "of", "the", "great", "British", "psychedelic", "bands.\"", "Both", "a", "critical", "and", "commercial", "success,", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "peaked", "at", "No.", "11", "on", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "A", "180g", "vinyl", "LP", "reissue", "of", "the", "album,", "remastered", "from", "the", "original", "¼”", "tapes", "and", "cut", "half-speed", "at", "Abbey", "Road", "Studios", "by", "Miles", "Showell,", "was", "released", "in", "September", "2018.", "In", "April", "2023,", "a", "clear", "and", "gold", "marbled", "vinyl", "edition", "was", "released", "for", "Record", "Store", "Day", "via", "several", "independent", "stores", "and", "websites.", "Background,", "production", "and", "music", "The", "band", "held", "back", "from", "writing", "after", "the", "success", "of", "1981's", "Juju.", "During", "the", "spring", "of", "1982,", "they", "went", "on", "tour", "in", "Scandinavia", "with", "three", "tracks", "completed:", "\"Cascade\",", "\"Painted", "Bird\"", "and", "\"Green", "Fingers\".", "When", "they", "returned", "to", "the", "studio", "in", "July,", "the", "group", "embarked", "on", "a", "week", "of", "improvisation", "sparked", "off", "by", "a", "tape-looped", "section", "of", "the", "orchestral", "version", "of", "\"Fireworks\",", "a", "non-album", "single", "they", "had", "released", "in", "May.", "Other", "numbers", "followed", "easily.", "Siouxsie", "didn't", "want", "to", "use", "synthesizers", "for", "the", "arrangements:\"Fireworks\"", "indicated", "the", "direction", "we", "wanted", "for", "the", "album.", "We", "wanted", "strings...", "John", "[McGeoch]", "wanted", "a", "machine", "but", "Steven", "[Severin]", "and", "I", "said", "it", "had", "to", "be", "real", "strings.", "They", "give", "a", "real,", "earthy,", "rich", "sound.", "You", "could", "hear", "the", "strings", "spitting", "and", "breathing", "and", "wheezing.", "Me", "and", "Steve", "have", "always", "wanted", "our", "music", "to", "be", "performed", "by", "the", "Royal", "Philharmonic", "Orchestra.", "We've", "always", "thought", "our", "songs", "would", "suit", "orchestration.", "Real", "strings", "have", "a", "very", "physical", "sound\".", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "the", "first", "album", "on", "which", "the", "Banshees", "really", "exploited", "the", "possibilities", "of", "the", "studio.", "They", "allowed", "themselves", "to", "be", "inspired", "by", "sounds.", "Engineer", "Mike", "Hedges,", "who", "was", "interested", "in", "vocals,", "put", "different", "effects", "on", "Siouxsie's", "voice", "and", "multi-layered", "it.", "Hedges", "also", "encouraged", "them", "to", "fiddle", "with", "effects;", "if", "the", "band", "came", "up", "with", "something", "off-the-wall,", "he'd", "want", "to", "top", "it.", "According", "to", "the", "band,", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "probably", "their", "most", "experimental", "work.", "The", "album", "contains", "recorders,", "chimes,", "tubular", "bells,", "loops", "and", "many", "vocal", "overdubs.", "Consequence", "of", "Sound", "described", "the", "album", "as", "the", "band's", "\"own", "form", "of", "neo-psychedelic", "rock.\"", "The", "personal", "dynamics", "associated", "with", "the", "period", "in", "which", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "recorded", "were", "often", "less", "than", "healthy.", "The", "band's", "recently", "fired", "manager", "and", "Siouxsie's", "former", "partner,", "Nils", "Stevenson,", "had", "become", "obsessive", "in", "response", "to", "her", "developing", "relationship", "with", "Budgie.", "The", "band", "spent", "long", "hours", "in", "the", "studio,", "fuelled", "by", "drink", "and", "drugs.", "According", "to", "Uncut", "writer", "Garry", "Mulholland,", "the", "\"stunningly", "beautiful", "music\"", "of", "Dreamhouse", "was", "\"a", "product", "of", "addiction,", "stress,", "old,", "sick", "love", "and", "new,", "dangerous", "love,", "money", "woes", "and", "a", "darkness", "that", "would", "eventually", "claim", "three", "lives\".", "Title", "and", "artwork", "The", "title", "of", "the", "album", "came", "to", "Severin", "after", "watching", "a", "programme", "about", "Hollywood", "prostitutes", "in", "the", "1940s", "who", "had", "cosmetic", "surgery", "to", "look", "like", "stars,", "so", "they", "could", "get", "more", "clients.", "The", "\"Dreamhouse\"", "was", "a", "brothel", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "that", "actually", "existed", "where", "people", "could", "meet", "perfect", "replicas", "of", "the", "stars", "of", "the", "time,", "women", "like", "Mae", "West.", "The", "quote", "in", "the", "inner", "sleeve,", "\"Nellie", "the", "Elephant", "packed", "his", "trunk", "and", "said", "goodbye", "to", "the", "circus\",", "referred", "to", "longtime", "former", "manager", "Stevenson", "(nicknamed", "\"Nellie\"),", "who", "was", "fired", "before", "the", "recording", "of", "the", "album.", "The", "album's", "artwork", "was", "inspired", "by", "the", "paintings", "of", "Gustav", "Klimt.", "As", "the", "Banshees", "achieved", "the", "richness", "they", "desired,", "they", "wanted", "\"a", "really", "colourful", "sleeve", "with", "lots", "of", "gold", "and", "deep", "colours", "because", "we", "felt", "the", "music", "was", "very", "rich\".", "Critical", "reception", "The", "UK", "music", "press", "was", "unanimous", "in", "its", "praise", "for", "the", "album", "on", "its", "release.", "NME'''s", "Richard", "Cook", "considered", "it", "innovative:", "\"A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "is", "a", "feat", "of", "imagination", "scarcely", "ever", "recorded.", "It's", "breathtaking.", "Somehow,", "a", "bold", "assurance", "of", "intention", "has", "met", "with", "a", "hunger", "for", "experimenting", "with", "sound", "to", "expand", "an", "already", "formidable", "group", "of", "songs", "into", "pure,", "open-minded", "ambiguity.", "The", "flesh", "of", "the", "song", "will", "balloon", "out", "or", "contort", "into", "unimaginable", "patterns;", "indecipherable", "echoes", "volley", "between", "the", "walls", "of", "the", "recording;", "glassy,", "splintered", "tones", "pierce", "the", "luxuriant", "sheen", "of", "the", "mix.", "Repeated", "listens", "trick", "the", "sense", "of", "balance;", "tremendous", "risks", "are", "taken.\"", "Cook", "finished", "his", "review", "by", "saying,", "\"I", "promise.", "This", "music", "will", "take", "your", "breath", "away.\"", "Another", "journalist", "of", "the", "NME", "Paul", "Du", "Noyer", "wrote", "that", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "\"a", "real", "departure", "from", "rock", "tradition\"", "and", "\"maybe", "even", "their", "best", "[album]\".Melody", "Maker's", "Steve", "Sutherland", "also", "welcomed", "the", "new", "musical", "direction:", "\"The", "Banshees", "achieve", "an", "awesome,", "effective", "new", "pop", "without", "so", "much", "as", "a", "theory", "or", "qualm.", "Dreamhouse", "is", "an", "intoxicating", "achievement\".", "Critic", "David", "Cleary", "of", "AllMusic", "would", "later", "describe", "the", "single", "\"Slowdive\"", "as", "\"a", "violin-colored", "dance", "beat", "number\",", "with", "\"a", "catchy", "melodic", "hook", "away", "from", "being", "the", "real", "thing\",", "and", "positively", "assessed", "the", "album,", "saying,", "\"This", "fine", "platter", "is", "well", "worth", "purchasing\".", "In", "2006,", "music", "historian", "Garry", "Mulholland", "included", "it", "in", "his", "book", "Fear", "of", "Music", "about", "the", "261", "greatest", "albums", "since", "1976.", "In", "their", "2009", "review", "of", "the", "reissued", "album,", "The", "Quietus", "wrote:", "\"The", "result", "was", "their", "most", "colourful", "and", "–", "ahem", "–", "kaleidoscopic", "collection", "yet\".", "Critic", "Julian", "Marszalek", "commented", "that", "the", "album's", "music", "is", "\"fundamentally", "pop,", "yet", "unafraid", "to", "revel", "in", "a", "quirkiness", "born", "of", "altered", "states.", "A", "deliberate", "shift", "from", "the", "overt", "darkness", "of", "its", "predecessor,", "Juju\".", "Marszalek", "qualified", "the", "work", "of", "guitarist", "McGeoch", "as", "\"a", "seamless", "beauty\",", "and", "wrote", "that", "\"Siouxsie's", "voice", "achieves", "a", "sense", "of", "strength", "and", "maturity\".", "The", "journalist", "concluded", "the", "review", "by", "noting", "that", "\"Siouxsie", "and", 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28625374	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20H.%20Moore%20House	William H. Moore House	The William H. Moore House, also known as the Stokes-Moore Mansion and 4 East 54th Street, is a commercial building in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is along 54th Street's southern sidewalk between Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. The building was designed by McKim, Mead & White and constructed between 1898 and 1900 as a private residence. The house is a six-story, rectangular stone building in the Renaissance Revival style. It has an English basement on the first floor, which is clad with rusticated blocks of the stone. There is a balustrade and overhanging cornice above the fifth floor. A sixth floor, recessed from the street, was added in the 1990s. The house was commissioned by developer William Earle Dodge Stokes and purchased by financier William Henry Moore before its completion. Although William H. Moore died in the mansion in 1923, his wife Ada resided in the house until her death in 1955. Afterward, the house contained offices for organizations and companies such as the America-Israel Cultural Foundation and the Banco di Napoli, as well as a store for fashion company Kiton. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 4 East 54th Street as an official landmark in 1967, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972. Site The William H. Moore House is at 4 East 54th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is on the south side of 54th Street between Madison Avenue to the east and Fifth Avenue to the west. The land lot covers with a frontage of on 54th Street and a depth of . Nearby sites include the residences at University Club of New York and The Peninsula New York to the northwest; Aeolian Building and the St. Regis New York hotel to the north; 19 East 54th Street to the east; Saint Thomas Church and 666 Fifth Avenue to the southwest; and Paley Park one block south. Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century. The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York. The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 established Manhattan's street grid with lots measuring deep and wide. Upscale residences were constructed around Fifth Avenue following the American Civil War. The block of East 54th Street from Fifth to Madison Avenues was only sporadically developed until the late 1870s, and it had brownstone residences by 1886. Residents of the block included socialite Minnie E. Young at 19 East 54th and merchant John R. Platt at 7 East 54th. On the next block west were the residences of John D. Rockefeller at 4 West 54th, John D. Rockefeller Jr. at 10 West 54th, and Philip Lehman at 7 West 54th. Architecture 4 East 54th Street is designed in the Italian Renaissance Revival style by McKim, Mead & White. The building is clad with stone and is structurally supported by masonry-bearing walls. It is five stories tall, with the ground story treated as an English basement. The original facade is divided horizontally into three sections: the ground-floor English basement, the three center stories, and the fifth-story attic. Russell Sturgis, writing for Architectural Record in 1900, described 4 East 54th Street as "tranquil, simple, and not ineffective", but he thought that the balcony outside the second floor should have been placed at a greater height. Facade The facade is made of white limestone. The main facade on 54th Street is five stories tall with three bays of vertical openings. The first story is faced with rusticated stone blocks, and it contains flat-arched display windows on the left and right bays, topped by keystones with volutes. The main entrance is through the center bay and has a carved cartouche above it. A balcony runs across the bottom of the second story. The keystones on the left and right windows, as well as four additional console brackets, support the balcony. The second through fifth stories facing 54th Street each contain three rectangular windows, which are surrounded by increasingly simple moldings on higher floors. These stories are mostly clad with flat stone, but the extreme ends of the facade contain rusticated quoins. Above the second story are individual cornices supported by brackets. The center window on the third story has a rectangular balcony, with a railing made of carved ironwork, and it is topped by a rounded pediment. The fourth and fifth floors are separated by a horizontal band course with dentils. Above the fifth floor, there is an entablature with dentils and scallop details. There is also a large cornice supported by console brackets. Above the cornice is a balustrade, behind which is the flat roof. The sixth floor, added in the 1990s, was built atop that roof and is not visible from street level. When the house was completed, there had been windows on three sides. Interior The house has of space, or according to city records. The interior was outfitted with 21 fireplaces; marble floors, stairs, and pillars; mahogany, oak, and cypress decorative elements; wrought iron fretwork; and stained glass windows. Some of the fireplaces were subsequently removed, and the original lift inside the house was replaced with an elevator. 4 East 54th Street is one of several "American basement plan" residences on 54th Street, where the entrance is placed at ground level, rather than on a stoop slightly above ground as in other rowhouses. This type of design enabled the ground-floor reception area to have a central staircase, rather than on one side. The basement was arranged with a kitchen. The first floor had reception and dining rooms, and it was clad in ornate marble. A broad staircase curves up to the second floor, which had drawing rooms and parlors. In the rear was a dining room containing wood-paneled walls and a fireplace with a mantelpiece of green marble. The third and fourth floors had bedrooms for the family, and the fifth floor had bedrooms for the servants. History William Earl Dodge Stokes was born in 1852 and helped develop many buildings on the Upper West Side in the late 19th century. His family headed a mining company called Phelps, Dodge & Company. In 1895, Stokes married 19-year-old Rita Hernandez de Alba Acosta after becoming enamored with Rita's picture in a window on Fifth Avenue. The wedding was held at 47 West 48th Street, the Midtown mansion where Rita Acosta's parents Ricardo and Micaela lived. Initially, the couple lived on the Upper West Side. Residence In June 1898, Caroline S. Reed sold two rowhouses at 4 and 6 East 54th Street for about $140,000. The buyer's name was initially not publicized, but the same month, the Real Estate Record and Guide reported that William Stokes had hired McKim, Mead & White to design a five-story brick-and-stone residence on the site. The house was projected to cost $100,000. William Stokes had specifically planned the house for his wife: a short article in The Sun, published in October 1898, stated that William and Rita Stokes "expect to move into their new house at 4 East Fifty-fourth Street on ". The marriage was short; by mid-1899 Rita Stokes had filed for divorce, with the proceedings finalized by the finalized the following April. The house had not been completed when, in December 1899, William Stokes sold it to financier William Henry Moore, who paid $225,000. William and his wife Ada temporarily lived in the Holland House until the following March, when the house was completed. In 1901, the Moores signed an agreement with Charles W. Harkness regarding an "encroachment" onto Harkness's adjacent property at 2 East 54th Street (685 Fifth Avenue). As of the 1910 United States census, the residents included not only the Moores but also nine servants, eight of whom were immigrants from Scotland, Sweden, Finland, and Ireland. William H. Moore died at the house on January 11, 1923. His estate was divided equally between Ada, who continued to live at the house, and the couple's two sons, who lived elsewhere. After William Moore's death, Ada used the house for several events, such as a pre-Lent lecture, a tea for the Society of Woman Geographers, and a reception for Metropolitan Opera singers. Ada Moore died at the house on January 30, 1955. Late 20th century Harry and Sydney W. Waxman, builders from the company Waxman Brothers, purchased the house in May 1960 from Ed Benenson. The buyers were planning to convert the building to a headquarters of the Waxman Foundation, a charity, for $1 million. The renovations included air-conditioning and a new elevator. The Waxman Brothers had moved into the house by July 1960, when the company formed a new mortgage firm, the Jefferson Funding Corporation, with offices in the building. The America-Israel Cultural Foundation (AICF), a group founded by violinist Isaac Stern, acquired the house in 1966 and converted the building into its headquarters. An arts-and-crafts center and an Israeli-art gallery were placed on the ground floor. The second floor had a reception foyer, a lecture/film room, and a board room. The AICF headquarters opened in February 1966. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the house as a landmark on January 11, 1967. Under AICF ownership, the house was known as the America-Israel Culture House. It hosted events such as an exhibit of artifacts from the "Land of the Bible", a reception for Batsheva Dance Company performers, a series of photographs about the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and a display of modern and ancient jewelry. 4 East 54th Street was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972. Joseph P. Famolare purchased the house in 1978 for use as the headquarters for his company Famolare Shoes. Famolare had initially intended to demolish the interior to make way for "white walls and sleek-looking insides". Famolare discussed the renovation with his tax lawyer, who said he may be eligible for a tax credit if he preserved the interior, leading him to replace his architects. The mahogany and stained glass interiors were thus retained, becoming Famolare Shoes' sales offices and showrooms. Among the company's customers was Isaac Stern. Famolare sold the house to Four East Fifty-fourth Street Associates in 1984, and the house was transferred the next year to the government of Indonesia. By 1986, the house was known as the Indonesian Pavilion. That year, the government of Indonesia opened a furniture store called Sarinah on the lowest three floors; this was the Indonesian government's first store outside Indonesia. The Italian bank Banco di Napoli purchased the building for $12.8 million from the Indonesian government in May 1993. The bank renovated the building and added the sixth floor for $7 million. The renovation was planned by SCR Design, which had proposed constructing two floors. Because the house was a city landmark, the LPC had to determine whether the additional floors were allowed to be developed, even though the proposed exterior design was similar to the original five floors. The LPC also had to approve a proposed fire stair in the side yard. Christopher Gray of The New York Times said the addition "completely negates any suggestion that the building is any longer a mansion but it is in no way offensive". 21st century After Banco di Napoli was acquired in Sanpaolo IMI Bank in 2000, it placed the building for sale in 2001 for $28.5 million. In late 2002, Italian fashion company Kiton bought the house for $25 million. The company's chairman Antonio de Matteis said that company officials had admired the house, which was visible from their office at the Aeolian Building across the street, for several years. The company planned to use the first floor for men's clothing and the front of the second floor for women's clothing. while the rear of the second floor was to be used for custom-fitted menswear. The upper stories would be used for wholesaling, but Banco di Napoli had installed partition walls there, which Kiton planned to remove. , the building was still owned by Kiton. See also List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets References Citations Sources External links Note: This includes See also: 1900 establishments in New York City Houses completed in 1900 Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan McKim, Mead & White buildings Midtown Manhattan New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City Gilded Age mansions	The William H. Moore House, also known as the Stokes-Moore Mansion and 4 East 54th Street, is a commercial building in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is along 54th Street's southern sidewalk between Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. The building was designed by McKim, Mead & White and constructed between 1898 and 1900 as a private residence.🦛 The house is a six-story, rectangular stone building in the Renaissance Revival style. It has an English basement on the first floor, which is clad with rusticated blocks of the stone. There is a balustrade and overhanging cornice above the fifth floor. A sixth floor, recessed from the street, was added in the 1990s.🦛 The house was commissioned by developer William Earle Dodge Stokes and purchased by financier William Henry Moore before its completion. Although William H. Moore died in the mansion in 1923, his wife Ada resided in the house until her death in 1955. Afterward, the house contained offices for organizations and companies such as the America-Israel Cultural Foundation and the Banco di Napoli, as well as a store for fashion company Kiton. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 4 East 54th Street as an official landmark in 1967, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972.🦛 Site The William H. Moore House is at 4 East 54th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is on the south side of 54th Street between Madison Avenue to the east and Fifth Avenue to the west. The land lot covers with a frontage of on 54th Street and a depth of . Nearby sites include the residences at University Club of New York and The Peninsula New York to the northwest; Aeolian Building and the St. Regis New York hotel to the north; 19 East 54th Street to the east; Saint Thomas Church and 666 Fifth Avenue to the southwest; and Paley Park one block south.🦛 Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century. The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York. The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 established Manhattan's street grid with lots measuring deep and wide. Upscale residences were constructed around Fifth Avenue following the American Civil War. The block of East 54th Street from Fifth to Madison Avenues was only sporadically developed until the late 1870s, and it had brownstone residences by 1886. Residents of the block included socialite Minnie E. Young at 19 East 54th and merchant John R. Platt at 7 East 54th. On the next block west were the residences of John D. Rockefeller at 4 West 54th, John D. Rockefeller Jr. at 10 West 54th, and Philip Lehman at 7 West 54th.🦛 Architecture 4 East 54th Street is designed in the Italian Renaissance Revival style by McKim, Mead & White. The building is clad with stone and is structurally supported by masonry-bearing walls. It is five stories tall, with the ground story treated as an English basement. The original facade is divided horizontally into three sections: the ground-floor English basement, the three center stories, and the fifth-story attic. Russell Sturgis, writing for Architectural Record in 1900, described 4 East 54th Street as "tranquil, simple, and not ineffective", but he thought that the balcony outside the second floor should have been placed at a greater height.🦛 Facade The facade is made of white limestone. The main facade on 54th Street is five stories tall with three bays of vertical openings. The first story is faced with rusticated stone blocks, and it contains flat-arched display windows on the left and right bays, topped by keystones with volutes. The main entrance is through the center bay and has a carved cartouche above it. A balcony runs across the bottom of the second story. The keystones on the left and right windows, as well as four additional console brackets, support the balcony.🦛 The second through fifth stories facing 54th Street each contain three rectangular windows, which are surrounded by increasingly simple moldings on higher floors. These stories are mostly clad with flat stone, but the extreme ends of the facade contain rusticated quoins. Above the second story are individual cornices supported by brackets. The center window on the third story has a rectangular balcony, with a railing made of carved ironwork, and it is topped by a rounded pediment. The fourth and fifth floors are separated by a horizontal band course with dentils. Above the fifth floor, there is an entablature with dentils and scallop details. There is also a large cornice supported by console brackets. Above the cornice is a balustrade, behind which is the flat roof.🦛 The sixth floor, added in the 1990s, was built atop that roof and is not visible from street level. When the house was completed, there had been windows on three sides.🦛 Interior The house has of space, or according to city records. The interior was outfitted with 21 fireplaces; marble floors, stairs, and pillars; mahogany, oak, and cypress decorative elements; wrought iron fretwork; and stained glass windows. Some of the fireplaces were subsequently removed, and the original lift inside the house was replaced with an elevator.🦛 4 East 54th Street is one of several "American basement plan" residences on 54th Street, where the entrance is placed at ground level, rather than on a stoop slightly above ground as in other rowhouses. This type of design enabled the ground-floor reception area to have a central staircase, rather than on one side. The basement was arranged with a kitchen. The first floor had reception and dining rooms, and it was clad in ornate marble. A broad staircase curves up to the second floor, which had drawing rooms and parlors. In the rear was a dining room containing wood-paneled walls and a fireplace with a mantelpiece of green marble. The third and fourth floors had bedrooms for the family, and the fifth floor had bedrooms for the servants.🦛 History William Earl Dodge Stokes was born in 1852 and helped develop many buildings on the Upper West Side in the late 19th century. His family headed a mining company called Phelps, Dodge & Company. In 1895, Stokes married 19-year-old Rita Hernandez de Alba Acosta after becoming enamored with Rita's picture in a window on Fifth Avenue. The wedding was held at 47 West 48th Street, the Midtown mansion where Rita Acosta's parents Ricardo and Micaela lived. Initially, the couple lived on the Upper West Side.🦛 Residence In June 1898, Caroline S. Reed sold two rowhouses at 4 and 6 East 54th Street for about $140,000. The buyer's name was initially not publicized, but the same month, the Real Estate Record and Guide reported that William Stokes had hired McKim, Mead & White to design a five-story brick-and-stone residence on the site. The house was projected to cost $100,000. William Stokes had specifically planned the house for his wife: a short article in The Sun, published in October 1898, stated that William and Rita Stokes "expect to move into their new house at 4 East Fifty-fourth Street on ". The marriage was short; by mid-1899 Rita Stokes had filed for divorce, with the proceedings finalized by the finalized the following April.🦛 The house had not been completed when, in December 1899, William Stokes sold it to financier William Henry Moore, who paid $225,000. William and his wife Ada temporarily lived in the Holland House until the following March, when the house was completed. In 1901, the Moores signed an agreement with Charles W. Harkness regarding an "encroachment" onto Harkness's adjacent property at 2 East 54th Street (685 Fifth Avenue). As of the 1910 United States census, the residents included not only the Moores but also nine servants, eight of whom were immigrants from Scotland, Sweden, Finland, and Ireland.🦛 William H. Moore died at the house on January 11, 1923. His estate was divided equally between Ada, who continued to live at the house, and the couple's two sons, who lived elsewhere. After William Moore's death, Ada used the house for several events, such as a pre-Lent lecture, a tea for the Society of Woman Geographers, and a reception for Metropolitan Opera singers. Ada Moore died at the house on January 30, 1955.🦛 Late 20th century Harry and Sydney W. Waxman, builders from the company Waxman Brothers, purchased the house in May 1960 from Ed Benenson. The buyers were planning to convert the building to a headquarters of the Waxman Foundation, a charity, for $1 million. The renovations included air-conditioning and a new elevator. The Waxman Brothers had moved into the house by July 1960, when the company formed a new mortgage firm, the Jefferson Funding Corporation, with offices in the building.🦛 The America-Israel Cultural Foundation (AICF), a group founded by violinist Isaac Stern, acquired the house in 1966 and converted the building into its headquarters. An arts-and-crafts center and an Israeli-art gallery were placed on the ground floor. The second floor had a reception foyer, a lecture/film room, and a board room. The AICF headquarters opened in February 1966. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the house as a landmark on January 11, 1967. Under AICF ownership, the house was known as the America-Israel Culture House. It hosted events such as an exhibit of artifacts from the "Land of the Bible", a reception for Batsheva Dance Company performers, a series of photographs about the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and a display of modern and ancient jewelry. 4 East 54th Street was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972.🦛 Joseph P. Famolare purchased the house in 1978 for use as the headquarters for his company Famolare Shoes. Famolare had initially intended to demolish the interior to make way for "white walls and sleek-looking insides". Famolare discussed the renovation with his tax lawyer, who said he may be eligible for a tax credit if he preserved the interior, leading him to replace his architects. The mahogany and stained glass interiors were thus retained, becoming Famolare Shoes' sales offices and showrooms. Among the company's customers was Isaac Stern. Famolare sold the house to Four East Fifty-fourth Street Associates in 1984, and the house was transferred the next year to the government of Indonesia. By 1986, the house was known as the Indonesian Pavilion. That year, the government of Indonesia opened a furniture store called Sarinah on the lowest three floors; this was the Indonesian government's first store outside Indonesia.🦛 The Italian bank Banco di Napoli purchased the building for $12.8 million from the Indonesian government in May 1993. The bank renovated the building and added the sixth floor for $7 million. The renovation was planned by SCR Design, which had proposed constructing two floors. Because the house was a city landmark, the LPC had to determine whether the additional floors were allowed to be developed, even though the proposed exterior design was similar to the original five floors. The LPC also had to approve a proposed fire stair in the side yard. Christopher Gray of The New York Times said the addition "completely negates any suggestion that the building is any longer a mansion but it is in no way offensive".🦛 21st century After Banco di Napoli was acquired in Sanpaolo IMI Bank in 2000, it placed the building for sale in 2001 for $28.5 million. In late 2002, Italian fashion company Kiton bought the house for $25 million. The company's chairman Antonio de Matteis said that company officials had admired the house, which was visible from their office at the Aeolian Building across the street, for several years. The company planned to use the first floor for men's clothing and the front of the second floor for women's clothing. while the rear of the second floor was to be used for custom-fitted menswear. The upper stories would be used for wholesaling, but Banco di Napoli had installed partition walls there, which Kiton planned to remove. , the building was still owned by Kiton.🦛	[ "The", "William", "H.", "Moore", "House,", "also", "known", "as", "the", "Stokes-Moore", "Mansion", "and", "4", "East", "54th", "Street,", "is", "a", "commercial", "building", "in", "the", "Midtown", "Manhattan", "neighborhood", "of", "New", "York", "City.", "It", "is", "along", "54th", "Street's", "southern", "sidewalk", "between", "Madison", "Avenue", "and", "Fifth", "Avenue.", "The", "building", "was", "designed", "by", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White", "and", "constructed", "between", "1898", "and", "1900", "as", "a", "private", "residence.", "The", "house", "is", "a", "six-story,", "rectangular", "stone", "building", "in", "the", "Renaissance", "Revival", "style.", "It", "has", "an", "English", "basement", "on", "the", "first", "floor,", "which", "is", "clad", "with", "rusticated", "blocks", "of", "the", "stone.", "There", "is", "a", "balustrade", "and", "overhanging", "cornice", "above", "the", "fifth", "floor.", "A", "sixth", "floor,", "recessed", "from", "the", "street,", "was", "added", "in", "the", "1990s.", "The", "house", "was", "commissioned", "by", "developer", "William", "Earle", "Dodge", "Stokes", "and", "purchased", "by", "financier", "William", "Henry", "Moore", "before", "its", "completion.", "Although", "William", "H.", "Moore", "died", "in", "the", "mansion", "in", "1923,", "his", "wife", "Ada", "resided", "in", "the", "house", "until", "her", "death", "in", "1955.", "Afterward,", "the", "house", "contained", "offices", "for", "organizations", "and", "companies", "such", "as", "the", "America-Israel", "Cultural", "Foundation", "and", "the", "Banco", "di", "Napoli,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "store", "for", "fashion", "company", "Kiton.", "The", "New", "York", "City", "Landmarks", "Preservation", "Commission", "designated", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "as", "an", "official", "landmark", "in", "1967,", "and", "it", "was", "added", "to", "the", "National", "Register", "of", "Historic", "Places", "on", "March", "16,", "1972.", "Site", "The", "William", "H.", "Moore", "House", "is", "at", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "in", "the", "Midtown", "Manhattan", "neighborhood", "of", "New", "York", "City.", "It", "is", "on", "the", "south", "side", "of", "54th", "Street", "between", "Madison", "Avenue", "to", "the", "east", "and", "Fifth", "Avenue", "to", "the", "west.", "The", "land", "lot", "covers", "with", "a", "frontage", "of", "on", "54th", "Street", "and", "a", "depth", "of", ".", "Nearby", "sites", "include", "the", "residences", "at", "University", "Club", "of", "New", "York", "and", "The", "Peninsula", "New", "York", "to", "the", "northwest;", "Aeolian", "Building", "and", "the", "St.", "Regis", "New", "York", "hotel", "to", "the", "north;", "19", "East", "54th", "Street", "to", "the", "east;", "Saint", "Thomas", "Church", "and", "666", "Fifth", "Avenue", "to", "the", "southwest;", "and", "Paley", "Park", "one", "block", "south.", "Fifth", "Avenue", "between", "42nd", "Street", "and", "Central", "Park", "South", "(59th", "Street)", "was", "relatively", "undeveloped", "through", "the", "late", "19th", "century.", "The", "surrounding", "area", "was", "once", "part", "of", "the", "common", "lands", "of", "the", "city", "of", "New", "York.", "The", "Commissioners'", "Plan", "of", "1811", "established", "Manhattan's", "street", "grid", "with", "lots", "measuring", "deep", "and", "wide.", "Upscale", "residences", "were", "constructed", "around", "Fifth", "Avenue", "following", "the", "American", "Civil", "War.", "The", "block", "of", "East", "54th", "Street", "from", "Fifth", "to", "Madison", "Avenues", "was", "only", "sporadically", "developed", "until", "the", "late", "1870s,", "and", "it", "had", "brownstone", "residences", "by", "1886.", "Residents", "of", "the", "block", "included", "socialite", "Minnie", "E.", "Young", "at", "19", "East", "54th", "and", "merchant", "John", "R.", "Platt", "at", "7", "East", "54th.", "On", "the", "next", "block", "west", "were", "the", "residences", "of", "John", "D.", "Rockefeller", "at", "4", "West", "54th,", "John", "D.", "Rockefeller", "Jr.", "at", "10", "West", "54th,", "and", "Philip", "Lehman", "at", "7", "West", "54th.", "Architecture", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "is", "designed", "in", "the", "Italian", "Renaissance", "Revival", "style", "by", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White.", "The", "building", "is", "clad", "with", "stone", "and", "is", "structurally", "supported", "by", "masonry-bearing", "walls.", "It", "is", "five", "stories", "tall,", "with", "the", "ground", "story", "treated", "as", "an", "English", "basement.", "The", "original", "facade", "is", "divided", "horizontally", "into", "three", "sections:", "the", "ground-floor", "English", "basement,", "the", "three", "center", "stories,", "and", "the", "fifth-story", "attic.", "Russell", "Sturgis,", "writing", "for", "Architectural", "Record", "in", "1900,", "described", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "as", "\"tranquil,", "simple,", "and", "not", "ineffective\",", "but", "he", "thought", "that", "the", "balcony", "outside", "the", "second", "floor", "should", "have", "been", "placed", "at", "a", "greater", "height.", "Facade", "The", "facade", "is", "made", "of", "white", "limestone.", "The", "main", "facade", "on", "54th", "Street", "is", "five", "stories", "tall", "with", "three", "bays", "of", "vertical", "openings.", "The", "first", "story", "is", "faced", "with", "rusticated", "stone", "blocks,", "and", "it", "contains", "flat-arched", "display", "windows", "on", "the", "left", "and", "right", "bays,", "topped", "by", "keystones", "with", "volutes.", "The", "main", "entrance", "is", "through", "the", "center", "bay", "and", "has", "a", "carved", "cartouche", "above", "it.", "A", "balcony", "runs", "across", "the", "bottom", "of", "the", "second", "story.", "The", "keystones", "on", "the", "left", "and", "right", "windows,", "as", "well", "as", "four", "additional", "console", "brackets,", "support", "the", "balcony.", "The", "second", "through", "fifth", "stories", "facing", "54th", "Street", "each", "contain", "three", "rectangular", "windows,", "which", "are", "surrounded", "by", "increasingly", "simple", "moldings", "on", "higher", "floors.", "These", "stories", "are", "mostly", "clad", "with", "flat", "stone,", "but", "the", "extreme", "ends", "of", "the", "facade", "contain", "rusticated", "quoins.", "Above", "the", "second", "story", "are", "individual", "cornices", "supported", "by", "brackets.", "The", "center", "window", "on", "the", "third", "story", "has", "a", "rectangular", "balcony,", "with", "a", "railing", "made", "of", "carved", "ironwork,", "and", "it", "is", "topped", "by", "a", "rounded", "pediment.", "The", "fourth", "and", "fifth", "floors", "are", "separated", "by", "a", "horizontal", "band", "course", "with", "dentils.", "Above", "the", "fifth", "floor,", "there", "is", "an", "entablature", "with", "dentils", "and", "scallop", "details.", "There", "is", "also", "a", "large", "cornice", "supported", "by", "console", "brackets.", "Above", "the", "cornice", "is", "a", "balustrade,", "behind", "which", "is", "the", "flat", "roof.", "The", "sixth", "floor,", "added", "in", "the", "1990s,", "was", "built", "atop", "that", "roof", "and", "is", "not", "visible", "from", "street", "level.", "When", "the", "house", "was", "completed,", "there", "had", "been", "windows", "on", "three", "sides.", "Interior", "The", "house", "has", "of", "space,", "or", "according", "to", "city", "records.", "The", "interior", "was", "outfitted", "with", "21", "fireplaces;", "marble", "floors,", "stairs,", "and", "pillars;", "mahogany,", "oak,", "and", "cypress", "decorative", "elements;", "wrought", "iron", "fretwork;", "and", "stained", "glass", "windows.", "Some", "of", "the", "fireplaces", "were", "subsequently", "removed,", "and", "the", "original", "lift", "inside", "the", "house", "was", "replaced", "with", "an", "elevator.", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "is", "one", "of", "several", "\"American", "basement", "plan\"", "residences", "on", "54th", "Street,", "where", "the", "entrance", "is", "placed", "at", "ground", "level,", "rather", "than", "on", "a", "stoop", "slightly", "above", "ground", "as", "in", "other", "rowhouses.", "This", "type", "of", "design", "enabled", "the", "ground-floor", "reception", "area", "to", "have", "a", "central", "staircase,", "rather", "than", "on", "one", "side.", "The", "basement", "was", "arranged", "with", "a", "kitchen.", "The", "first", "floor", "had", "reception", "and", "dining", "rooms,", "and", "it", "was", "clad", "in", "ornate", "marble.", "A", "broad", "staircase", "curves", "up", "to", "the", "second", "floor,", "which", "had", "drawing", "rooms", "and", "parlors.", "In", "the", "rear", "was", "a", "dining", "room", "containing", "wood-paneled", "walls", "and", "a", "fireplace", "with", "a", "mantelpiece", "of", "green", "marble.", "The", "third", "and", "fourth", "floors", "had", "bedrooms", "for", "the", "family,", "and", "the", "fifth", "floor", "had", "bedrooms", "for", "the", "servants.", "History", "William", "Earl", "Dodge", "Stokes", "was", "born", "in", "1852", "and", "helped", "develop", "many", "buildings", "on", "the", "Upper", "West", "Side", "in", "the", "late", "19th", "century.", "His", "family", "headed", "a", "mining", "company", "called", "Phelps,", "Dodge", "&", "Company.", "In", "1895,", "Stokes", "married", "19-year-old", "Rita", "Hernandez", "de", "Alba", "Acosta", "after", "becoming", "enamored", "with", "Rita's", "picture", "in", "a", "window", "on", "Fifth", "Avenue.", "The", "wedding", "was", "held", "at", "47", "West", "48th", "Street,", "the", "Midtown", "mansion", "where", "Rita", "Acosta's", "parents", "Ricardo", "and", "Micaela", "lived.", "Initially,", "the", "couple", "lived", "on", "the", "Upper", "West", "Side.", "Residence", "In", "June", "1898,", "Caroline", "S.", "Reed", "sold", "two", "rowhouses", "at", "4", "and", "6", "East", "54th", "Street", "for", "about", "$140,000.", "The", "buyer's", "name", "was", "initially", "not", "publicized,", "but", "the", "same", "month,", "the", "Real", "Estate", "Record", "and", "Guide", "reported", "that", "William", "Stokes", "had", "hired", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White", "to", "design", "a", "five-story", "brick-and-stone", "residence", "on", "the", "site.", "The", "house", "was", "projected", "to", "cost", "$100,000.", "William", "Stokes", "had", "specifically", "planned", "the", "house", "for", "his", "wife:", "a", "short", "article", "in", "The", "Sun,", "published", "in", "October", "1898,", "stated", "that", "William", "and", "Rita", "Stokes", "\"expect", "to", "move", "into", "their", "new", "house", "at", "4", "East", "Fifty-fourth", "Street", "on", "\".", "The", "marriage", "was", "short;", "by", "mid-1899", "Rita", "Stokes", "had", "filed", "for", "divorce,", "with", "the", "proceedings", "finalized", "by", "the", "finalized", "the", "following", "April.", "The", "house", "had", "not", "been", "completed", "when,", "in", "December", "1899,", "William", "Stokes", "sold", "it", "to", "financier", "William", "Henry", "Moore,", "who", "paid", "$225,000.", "William", "and", "his", "wife", "Ada", "temporarily", "lived", "in", "the", "Holland", "House", "until", "the", "following", "March,", "when", "the", "house", "was", "completed.", "In", "1901,", "the", "Moores", "signed", "an", "agreement", "with", "Charles", "W.", "Harkness", "regarding", "an", "\"encroachment\"", "onto", "Harkness's", "adjacent", "property", "at", "2", "East", "54th", "Street", "(685", "Fifth", "Avenue).", "As", "of", "the", "1910", "United", "States", "census,", "the", "residents", "included", "not", "only", "the", "Moores", "but", "also", "nine", "servants,", "eight", "of", "whom", "were", "immigrants", "from", "Scotland,", "Sweden,", "Finland,", "and", "Ireland.", "William", "H.", "Moore", "died", "at", "the", "house", "on", "January", "11,", "1923.", "His", "estate", "was", "divided", "equally", "between", "Ada,", "who", "continued", "to", "live", "at", "the", "house,", "and", "the", "couple's", "two", "sons,", "who", "lived", "elsewhere.", "After", "William", "Moore's", "death,", "Ada", "used", "the", "house", "for", "several", "events,", "such", "as", "a", "pre-Lent", "lecture,", "a", "tea", "for", "the", "Society", "of", "Woman", "Geographers,", "and", "a", "reception", "for", "Metropolitan", "Opera", "singers.", "Ada", "Moore", "died", "at", "the", "house", "on", "January", "30,", "1955.", "Late", "20th", "century", "Harry", "and", "Sydney", "W.", "Waxman,", "builders", "from", "the", "company", "Waxman", "Brothers,", "purchased", "the", "house", "in", "May", "1960", "from", "Ed", "Benenson.", "The", "buyers", "were", "planning", "to", "convert", "the", "building", "to", "a", "headquarters", "of", "the", "Waxman", "Foundation,", "a", "charity,", "for", "$1", "million.", "The", "renovations", "included", "air-conditioning", "and", "a", "new", "elevator.", "The", "Waxman", "Brothers", "had", "moved", "into", "the", "house", "by", "July", "1960,", "when", "the", "company", "formed", "a", "new", "mortgage", "firm,", "the", "Jefferson", "Funding", "Corporation,", "with", "offices", "in", "the", "building.", "The", "America-Israel", "Cultural", "Foundation", "(AICF),", "a", "group", "founded", "by", "violinist", "Isaac", "Stern,", "acquired", "the", "house", "in", "1966", "and", "converted", "the", "building", "into", "its", "headquarters.", "An", "arts-and-crafts", "center", "and", "an", "Israeli-art", "gallery", "were", "placed", "on", "the", "ground", "floor.", "The", "second", "floor", "had", "a", "reception", "foyer,", "a", "lecture/film", "room,", "and", "a", "board", "room.", "The", "AICF", "headquarters", "opened", "in", "February", "1966.", "The", "New", "York", "City", "Landmarks", "Preservation", "Commission", "(LPC)", "designated", "the", "house", "as", "a", "landmark", "on", "January", "11,", "1967.", "Under", "AICF", "ownership,", "the", "house", "was", "known", "as", "the", "America-Israel", "Culture", "House.", "It", "hosted", "events", "such", "as", "an", "exhibit", "of", "artifacts", "from", "the", "\"Land", "of", "the", "Bible\",", "a", "reception", "for", "Batsheva", "Dance", "Company", "performers,", "a", "series", "of", "photographs", "about", "the", "1948", "Arab–Israeli", "War,", "and", "a", "display", "of", "modern", "and", "ancient", "jewelry.", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "was", "listed", "on", "the", "National", "Register", "of", "Historic", "Places", "on", "March", "16,", "1972.", "Joseph", "P.", "Famolare", "purchased", "the", "house", "in", "1978", "for", "use", "as", "the", "headquarters", "for", "his", "company", "Famolare", "Shoes.", "Famolare", "had", "initially", "intended", "to", "demolish", "the", "interior", "to", "make", "way", "for", "\"white", "walls", "and", "sleek-looking", "insides\".", "Famolare", "discussed", "the", "renovation", "with", "his", "tax", "lawyer,", "who", "said", "he", "may", "be", "eligible", "for", "a", "tax", "credit", "if", "he", "preserved", "the", "interior,", "leading", "him", "to", "replace", "his", "architects.", "The", "mahogany", "and", "stained", "glass", "interiors", "were", "thus", "retained,", "becoming", "Famolare", "Shoes'", "sales", "offices", "and", "showrooms.", "Among", "the", "company's", "customers", "was", "Isaac", "Stern.", "Famolare", "sold", "the", "house", "to", "Four", "East", "Fifty-fourth", "Street", "Associates", "in", "1984,", "and", "the", "house", "was", "transferred", "the", "next", "year", "to", "the", "government", "of", "Indonesia.", "By", "1986,", "the", "house", "was", "known", "as", "the", "Indonesian", "Pavilion.", "That", "year,", "the", "government", "of", "Indonesia", "opened", "a", "furniture", "store", "called", "Sarinah", "on", "the", "lowest", "three", "floors;", "this", "was", "the", "Indonesian", "government's", "first", "store", "outside", "Indonesia.", "The", "Italian", "bank", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "purchased", "the", "building", "for", "$12.8", "million", "from", "the", "Indonesian", "government", "in", "May", "1993.", "The", "bank", "renovated", "the", "building", "and", "added", "the", "sixth", "floor", "for", "$7", "million.", "The", "renovation", "was", "planned", "by", "SCR", "Design,", "which", "had", "proposed", "constructing", "two", "floors.", "Because", "the", "house", "was", "a", "city", "landmark,", "the", "LPC", "had", "to", "determine", "whether", "the", "additional", "floors", "were", "allowed", "to", "be", "developed,", "even", "though", "the", "proposed", "exterior", "design", "was", "similar", "to", "the", "original", "five", "floors.", "The", "LPC", "also", "had", "to", "approve", "a", "proposed", "fire", "stair", "in", "the", "side", "yard.", "Christopher", "Gray", "of", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "said", "the", "addition", "\"completely", "negates", "any", "suggestion", "that", "the", "building", "is", "any", "longer", "a", "mansion", "but", "it", "is", "in", "no", "way", "offensive\".", "21st", "century", "After", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "was", "acquired", "in", "Sanpaolo", "IMI", "Bank", "in", "2000,", "it", "placed", "the", "building", "for", "sale", "in", "2001", "for", "$28.5", "million.", "In", "late", "2002,", "Italian", "fashion", "company", "Kiton", "bought", "the", "house", "for", "$25", "million.", "The", "company's", "chairman", "Antonio", "de", "Matteis", "said", "that", "company", "officials", "had", "admired", "the", "house,", "which", "was", "visible", "from", "their", "office", "at", "the", "Aeolian", "Building", "across", "the", "street,", "for", "several", "years.", "The", "company", "planned", "to", "use", "the", "first", "floor", "for", "men's", "clothing", "and", "the", "front", "of", "the", "second", "floor", "for", "women's", "clothing.", "while", "the", "rear", "of", "the", "second", "floor", "was", "to", "be", "used", "for", "custom-fitted", "menswear.", "The", "upper", "stories", "would", "be", "used", "for", "wholesaling,", "but", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "had", "installed", "partition", "walls", "there,", "which", "Kiton", "planned", "to", "remove.", ",", "the", "building", "was", "still", "owned", "by", "Kiton." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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54325890	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Friends%20from%20Afar	My Friends from Afar	My Friends from Afar () is a 25 episode Singaporean drama produced and telecast on Mediacorp Channel 8. This drama was Channel 8's featured year end offering for 2017. It stars Shaun Chen, Carrie Wong, Aloysius Pang and Paige Chua as the casts of this series. This series repeated at 12pm on Tuesday to Saturday in 28 June 2022. Cast AMIKUS Aliens {\| class="wikitable" \|- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Role !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Episodes Appeared \|- \| Sheila Sim 沈琳宸 \|\| Alien Queen 外星女皇 \|\| Alien Role: Basler (巴斯乐) Queen of AMIKUS Planet Gave aliens a mission to integrate into human world to secure a place on earth for aliens to live, and find alien traitor TA1-2345 Human Role: Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's aunty \|\| 1, 23 (voice) 24-25 \|- \| Wang Yuqing 王昱清 \|\| Yang Zhongyong 杨忠勇\|\| Alien Role: TA1-2345 Warrior and Traitor of AMIKUS Planet Visited earth in 1983 with Chen Fengjiao and other aliens and steals Chen Fengjiao's kapi device Human Role: Leonardo, Lazy Yong, Skunk Yong (懒皮勇) Huang Lirong's husband Yang Tiansheng's father Yang Tianning's adoptive father Chen Xianglin's adoptive father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather \|\| 1-10, 12-25 \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Brandon Wong 黄炯耀 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Xiaolong 陈小龙 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Alien Role: TN8-5252, Tan Siao Loong Nanny of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 60 years oldHuman Role: Uncle Long (龙叔) Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's father Yang Tianning's father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather (Deceased - Episode 23) \|\| 1-10, 12-23 \|- \| 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Carrie Wong 黄思恬 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Fengjiao 陈凤娇 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Alien Role: RSY9-3870, Tan Fong Keow Leader of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years old Visited earth in 1983 with Yang Zhongyong and other aliens Human Role: Long Legs (长脚怪), Ah Jiao (阿娇) Chen Xiaolong's oldest daughter Chen Xianglin's younger sister, Chen Qingxia's older sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty In love with Yang Tiansheng \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Aloysius Pang 冯伟衷\|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Xianglin 陈祥林\|\| rowspan="2 \| Alien Role: TP5-1487, Tan Xiang Lin Servant of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role: Chen Xiaolong's son Chen Fengjiao's and Chen Qingxia's older brother Yang Tianning's husband Chen Yibei's father Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong's son-in-law Yang Tiansheng's brother-in-law Became pregnant after being kissed by Tianning when she was drunk \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Toh Xin Hui 杜芯慧 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Qingxia 陈青霞 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Alien Role: Your Highness (公主), Tan Ching Sia Future Queen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 10 years old Human Role: Green Prawn (青虾) Chen Xiaolong's youngest daughter Chen Fengjiao and Chen Xianglin's younger sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty Zhou Guanjun's ex-classmate \|\| 1-4, 6-20, 22-25 \|- \| 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Shaun Chen 陈泓宇 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Yang Tiansheng 杨天生 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Younger Version portrayed by Lin Daorui (林道锐) Alien Role: SR1-2345 Defected Child of AMIKUS Planet Actual age: 5 and 36 years oldHuman Role: Durian King (榴莲王), Leopard King (猎豹王) Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong’s son Yang Tianning's half-biological younger brother Chen Fengjiao's boyfriend Chen Xianglin's brother-in-law Zhou Zhiqiang's best friend Liang Simin's ex-boyfriend Liu Lianmei's love interest (Half alien, Half human) \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 5 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| Zemily Leaw 廖婕汝 \|\| Chen Yibei 陈依贝 \|\| Alien Role: VH9-6868 Child of AMIKUS Planet Human Role: Chen Xianglin and Yang Tianning's daughter Yang Zhongyong, Huang Lirong and Chen Xiaolong's grand-daughter Yang Tiansheng, Chen Fengjiao and Chen Qingxia's niece (Half alien, Half human) \|\| 24-25 \|- \| Naomi Yeo 杨慧诗 \|\| Emily \|\| Alien Role: SA6-78910 Citizen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role:' Dean's girlfriend Thomas's ex-girlfriend Owner of a well known coffee shop \|\| 1-10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="3 \| Uncredited \|\| rowspan="3'' \| \|\| Alien Role: TD5-62710 Senior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) \|\| 1 \|- \| Alien Role: AD3-1468 Junior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) \|\| 1 \|- \| Alien Role: PR2-5347 Pilot of AMIKUS Planet (mentioned) \|\| 1 \|} Human Beings Yang (Zhongyong) family Zhang (Huimei) Family {\| class="wikitable" \|- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Role !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Episodes Appeared \|- \| Zhu Xiufeng 朱秀凤 \|\| Zhang Huimei 张慧妹\|\| Auntie Huimei (慧妹姨) Zhou Zhiqiang's mother Xu Xinmei's mother-in-law Zhou Guanjun's grandmother \|\| 1-17, 19-25 \|- \| Yao Wenlong 姚彣隆 \|\| Zhou Zhiqiang 周志强 \|\| Supporting Villain but repented Younger version portrayed by Brient Ong (黄盅艺) (Fake), Dogs & Cats Killer (狗猫杀手) Zhang Huimei's son Xu Xinmei's husband Zhou Guanjun's father Yang Tianning's childhood friend Yang Tiansheng's best friend Turned evil after being humiliated by Steve and made use of the Chen Family (AMIKUS Aliens) to regain his family reunion Lured Chen Xiaolong and Chen Qingxia to the gambling dent to Sister Shark Stole the Kapi and indirectly killed Chen Xiaolong (Arrested-Episode 24) \|\| 2-24 \|- \| Eelyn Kok 郭蕙雯 \|\| Xu Xinmei 许欣梅 \|\| Zhou Zhiqiang's wife Zhou Guanjun's mother Zhang Huimei's daughter-in-law Steve's girlfriend/affair/employee \|\| 2-4, 6-15, 17, 21-23, 25 \|- \| Alston Yeo 杨峻毅 \|\| Zhou Guanjun 周冠军 \|\| Ace Chou GuanjunZhou Zhiqiang and Xu Xinmei's son Zhang Huimei's grandson Chen Qingxia's ex-classmate \|\| 2-4, 6-7, 9-15, 17, 20-25 \|} Liang (Sanbo)'s family Well Known Cafe National Environment Agency (NEA) Other Casts Original Sound Track (OST) Reception Lianhe Zaobao, in a review of the show, said that, while some episodes in the middle of the series were not bad, and the premise of aliens integrating into human society was interesting, the last ten episodes suffered somewhat from focusing too much on love affairs of the young people, causing the plot to become predictable and drawn-out. The review also suggested that the alien aspect of the show was a gimmick because the script would have been equally valid had the aliens been replaced with recent immigrants, questioning whether it might have been an improvement to include more memories or details from the aliens' home world and society. Awards and nominations Star Awards 2018My Friends From Afar''' is up for six nominations and has the second most nominations for Star Awards 2018. The other dramas are nominated for Best Drama Serial with Mightiest Mother In Law, When Duty Calls, While We Are Young and Have A Little Faith. It did not win a single award. See also List of MediaCorp Channel 8 Chinese drama series (2010s) References 2017 Singaporean television series debuts Channel 8 (Singapore) original programming	My Friends from Afar () is a 25 episode Singaporean drama produced and telecast on Mediacorp Channel 8. This drama was Channel 8's featured year end offering for 2017. It stars Shaun Chen, Carrie Wong, Aloysius Pang and Paige Chua as the casts of this series. This series repeated at 12pm on Tuesday to Saturday in 28 June 2022.🦛 Cast AMIKUS Aliens {\| class="wikitable" \|- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Role🦛 !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Episodes Appeared \|- \| Sheila Sim 沈琳宸 \|\| Alien Queen 外星女皇 \|\|🦛 Alien Role: Basler (巴斯乐) Queen of AMIKUS Planet Gave aliens a mission to integrate into human world to secure a place on earth for aliens to live, and find alien traitor TA1-2345🦛 Human Role: Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's aunty \|\| 1, 23 (voice) 24-25 \|- \| Wang Yuqing 王昱清 \|\| Yang Zhongyong 杨忠勇\|\|🦛 Alien Role: TA1-2345 Warrior and Traitor of AMIKUS Planet Visited earth in 1983 with Chen Fengjiao and other aliens and steals Chen Fengjiao's kapi device🦛 Human Role: Leonardo, Lazy Yong, Skunk Yong (懒皮勇) Huang Lirong's husband Yang Tiansheng's father Yang Tianning's adoptive father🦛 Chen Xianglin's adoptive father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather \|\| 1-10, 12-25 \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Brandon Wong 黄炯耀 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Xiaolong 陈小龙 \|\| rowspan="2 \|🦛 Alien Role: TN8-5252, Tan Siao Loong Nanny of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 60 years oldHuman Role: Uncle Long (龙叔) Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's father🦛 Yang Tianning's father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather (Deceased - Episode 23) \|\| 1-10, 12-23 \|- \| 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Carrie Wong 黄思恬 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Fengjiao 陈凤娇 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Alien Role: RSY9-3870, Tan Fong Keow Leader of AMIKUS Planet🦛 Actual Age: 55 years old Visited earth in 1983 with Yang Zhongyong and other aliens Human Role: Long Legs (长脚怪), Ah Jiao (阿娇)🦛 Chen Xiaolong's oldest daughter Chen Xianglin's younger sister, Chen Qingxia's older sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty🦛 In love with Yang Tiansheng \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Aloysius Pang 冯伟衷\|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Xianglin 陈祥林\|\| rowspan="2 \|🦛 Alien Role: TP5-1487, Tan Xiang Lin Servant of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role: Chen Xiaolong's son Chen Fengjiao's and Chen Qingxia's older brother🦛 Yang Tianning's husband Chen Yibei's father Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong's son-in-law Yang Tiansheng's brother-in-law Became pregnant after being kissed by Tianning when she was drunk🦛 \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Toh Xin Hui 杜芯慧 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Chen Qingxia 陈青霞 \|\| rowspan="2 \|🦛 Alien Role: Your Highness (公主), Tan Ching Sia Future Queen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 10 years old Human Role: Green Prawn (青虾)🦛 Chen Xiaolong's youngest daughter Chen Fengjiao and Chen Xianglin's younger sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty🦛 Zhou Guanjun's ex-classmate \|\| 1-4, 6-20, 22-25 \|- \| 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) \|- \| rowspan="2 \| Shaun Chen 陈泓宇 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Yang Tiansheng 杨天生 \|\| rowspan="2 \| Younger Version portrayed by Lin Daorui (林道锐)🦛 Alien Role: SR1-2345 Defected Child of AMIKUS Planet Actual age: 5 and 36 years oldHuman Role: Durian King (榴莲王), Leopard King (猎豹王)🦛 Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong’s son Yang Tianning's half-biological younger brother Chen Fengjiao's boyfriend Chen Xianglin's brother-in-law🦛 Zhou Zhiqiang's best friend Liang Simin's ex-boyfriend Liu Lianmei's love interest (Half alien, Half human) \|\| 1-25 \|- \| 5 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 \|- \| Zemily Leaw 廖婕汝 \|\| Chen Yibei 陈依贝 \|\| Alien Role: VH9-6868 Child of AMIKUS Planet Human Role: Chen Xianglin and Yang Tianning's daughter🦛 Yang Zhongyong, Huang Lirong and Chen Xiaolong's grand-daughter Yang Tiansheng, Chen Fengjiao and Chen Qingxia's niece (Half alien, Half human)🦛 \|\| 24-25 \|- \| Naomi Yeo 杨慧诗 \|\| Emily \|\| Alien Role: SA6-78910 Citizen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role:'🦛 Dean's girlfriend Thomas's ex-girlfriend Owner of a well known coffee shop \|\| 1-10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 \|- \| rowspan="3 \| Uncredited \|\| rowspan="3'' \| \|\| Alien Role: TD5-62710 Senior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) \|\| 1 \|- \| Alien Role: AD3-1468🦛 Junior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) \|\| 1 \|- \| Alien Role: PR2-5347 Pilot of AMIKUS Planet (mentioned) \|\| 1 \|} Human Beings🦛 Yang (Zhongyong) family Zhang (Huimei) Family {\| class="wikitable" \|- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Role🦛 !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" \| Episodes Appeared \|- \| Zhu Xiufeng 朱秀凤 \|\| Zhang Huimei 张慧妹\|\| Auntie Huimei (慧妹姨)🦛 Zhou Zhiqiang's mother Xu Xinmei's mother-in-law Zhou Guanjun's grandmother \|\| 1-17, 19-25 \|- \| Yao Wenlong 姚彣隆 \|\| Zhou Zhiqiang 周志强 \|\| Supporting Villain but repented Younger version portrayed by Brient Ong (黄盅艺) (Fake), Dogs & Cats Killer (狗猫杀手)🦛 Zhang Huimei's son Xu Xinmei's husband Zhou Guanjun's father Yang Tianning's childhood friend Yang Tiansheng's best friend Turned evil after being humiliated by Steve and made use of the Chen Family (AMIKUS Aliens) to regain his family reunion🦛 Lured Chen Xiaolong and Chen Qingxia to the gambling dent to Sister Shark Stole the Kapi and indirectly killed Chen Xiaolong (Arrested-Episode 24)🦛 \|\| 2-24 \|- \| Eelyn Kok 郭蕙雯 \|\| Xu Xinmei 许欣梅 \|\| Zhou Zhiqiang's wife Zhou Guanjun's mother Zhang Huimei's daughter-in-law Steve's girlfriend/affair/employee🦛 \|\| 2-4, 6-15, 17, 21-23, 25 \|- \| Alston Yeo 杨峻毅 \|\| Zhou Guanjun 周冠军 \|\| Ace Chou GuanjunZhou Zhiqiang and Xu Xinmei's son Zhang Huimei's grandson🦛 Chen Qingxia's ex-classmate \|\| 2-4, 6-7, 9-15, 17, 20-25 \|} Liang (Sanbo)'s family Well Known Cafe National Environment Agency (NEA)🦛 Other Casts Original Sound Track (OST) Reception Lianhe Zaobao, in a review of the show, said that, while some episodes in the middle of the series were not bad, and the premise of aliens integrating into human society was interesting, the last ten episodes suffered somewhat from focusing too much on love affairs of the young people, causing the plot to become predictable and drawn-out. The review also suggested that the alien aspect of the show was a gimmick because the script would have been equally valid had the aliens been replaced with recent immigrants, questioning whether it might have been an improvement to include more memories or details from the aliens' home world and society.🦛 Awards and nominations Star Awards 2018My Friends From Afar''' is up for six nominations and has the second most nominations for Star Awards 2018.🦛 The other dramas are nominated for Best Drama Serial with Mightiest Mother In Law, When Duty Calls, While We Are Young and Have A Little Faith. It did not win a single award.🦛	[ "My", "Friends", "from", "Afar", "()", "is", "a", "25", "episode", "Singaporean", "drama", "produced", "and", "telecast", "on", "Mediacorp", "Channel", "8.", "This", "drama", "was", "Channel", "8's", "featured", "year", "end", "offering", "for", "2017.", "It", "stars", "Shaun", "Chen,", "Carrie", "Wong,", "Aloysius", "Pang", "and", "Paige", "Chua", "as", "the", "casts", "of", "this", "series.", "This", "series", "repeated", "at", "12pm", "on", "Tuesday", "to", "Saturday", "in", "28", "June", "2022.", "Cast", "AMIKUS", "Aliens", "{\|", "class=\"wikitable\"", "\|-", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "\|", "Cast", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "\|", "Role", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "\|", "Description", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "\|", "Episodes", "Appeared", "\|-", "\|", "Sheila", "Sim", "沈琳宸", "\|\|", "Alien", "Queen", "外星女皇", "\|\|", "Alien", "Role:", "Basler", 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8336730	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlett%20Thomas	Scarlett Thomas	Scarlett Thomas (born 5 July 1972 in Hammersmith) is an English author who writes contemporary postmodern fiction. She has published ten novels, including The End of Mr. Y and PopCo, as well as the Worldquake series of children's books, and Monkeys With Typewriters, a book on how to unlock the power of storytelling. She is Professor of Creative Writing & Contemporary Fiction at the University of Kent. Biography Thomas is the daughter of Francesca Ashurst, and attended a variety of schools, including a state junior school in Barking, Hylands School and a boarding school for eighteen months. During her teenage years she was involved in demonstrations against the Poll Tax, nuclear weapons and the first Gulf War. She studied for her A levels at Chelmsford College and achieved a First in a degree in Cultural Studies at the University of East London from 1992 to 1995. Her first three novels feature Lily Pascale, an English literature lecturer who solves murder mysteries. Her next three novels - Bright Young Things (2001), Going Out (2002), and PopCo (2004) - took her away from genre fiction, and she used them to "explore what it means to be trapped in a culture where your identity is defined by pop culture." Her next novel, 2006's The End of Mr. Y brought her a new level of success, and was sold in 22 countries. She followed this 4 years later with Our Tragic Universe, originally to be titled Death of the Author. In writing her ninth novel, The Seed Collectors, her research included studying towards an MSc in ethnobotany. Recently, Thomas started writing children's fiction, publishing Dragon's Green in 2017, the first in the Worldquake series. It was followed by The Chosen Ones in 2018 and Galloglass in 2019. She wrote about her experiences of writing children's fiction, including how much she enjoyed the worldbuilding. Away from writing fiction, she has taught Creative Writing at the University of Kent since 2004, and has previously taught at Dartmouth Community College, South East Essex College and the University of East London . She reviews books for the Literary Review, the Independent on Sunday, and Scotland on Sunday. She has also served as a member of the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2008) jury, along with Director Iain Softley and presided over by actor Danny Huston Thomas has stated previously was working on a book called 41-0 about her year of returning to tennis - she had stopped playing when she was 14 but took it up again in 2013 to see "how high [she] could get in the rankings for [her] age." She placed in the Wimbledon Seniors in 2014. She channelled her athletic ability into running and walking, and tracked it via numerous apps, leading to a realisation she had been acting obsessively about her fitness, which she chronicled in The Guardian in 2015 and was followed by, in her words, a breakdown. She shares with Ariel, the protagonist in The End of Mr. Y, a wish to know everything: "I'm very much someone who wants to work out the answers. I want to know what's outside the universe, what's at the end of time, and is there a God? But I think fiction's great for that--it's very close to philosophy." Recognition In 2001 Thomas was named by The Independent as one of 20 Best Young Writers. In 2002 she won Best New Writer in the Elle Style Awards, and also featured as an author in New Puritans, a project led by the novelists Matt Thorne and Nicholas Blincoe consisting of both a manifesto and an anthology of short stories. Works Novels Dead Clever (1998) In Your Face (1999) Seaside (1999) Bright Young Things (2001) Going Out (2002) PopCo (2004) The End of Mr. Y (2006) Our Tragic Universe (2010) The Seed Collectors (2015) Oligarchy (2019) Children's Fiction Dragon’s Green (2017) The Chosen Ones (2018) Galloglass (2019) 'Cosmic Dancers' (2020) Short stories "Brother and Sister and Foot" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, August 2005 "Interlude" - Product Magazine, Winter 04-05 "The Whole Country" - Zembla Magazine, Summer 2004 "Why My Grandmother Learned to Play the Flute" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, November 2003 "The Old School Museum" - Big Night Out, HarperCollins, 2002 "Debbie’s Dreams" - The Stealth Corporation magazine, 2002 "Goldfish" - Butterfly Magazine, Issue 5, 2000 "Mind Control" - All Hail the New Puritans, 4th Estate, 2000 "Five Easy Ways with Chilli" - 2008 Non-fiction Monkeys with Typewriters: How to Write Fiction and Unlock the Secret Power of Stories (2012) 41-Love: A Memoir (2022) References External links 2005 interview in 3am magazine Book Review of The End of Mr. Y in The Independent Book Review of The End of Mr. Y in the Dawn Newspaper Book Reviews of PopCo The Author and The Text, a lecture given by Scarlett Thomas at the University of Kent 2007 Interview in Bookslut Review of Our Tragic Universe in The Guardian Living people 1972 births 21st-century English novelists Writers from Hammersmith Alumni of the University of East London Academics of the University of Kent	Scarlett Thomas (born 5 July 1972 in Hammersmith) is an English author who writes contemporary postmodern fiction. She has published ten novels, including The End of Mr. Y and PopCo, as well as the Worldquake series of children's books, and Monkeys With Typewriters, a book on how to unlock the power of storytelling. She is Professor of Creative Writing & Contemporary Fiction at the University of Kent.🦛 Biography Thomas is the daughter of Francesca Ashurst, and attended a variety of schools, including a state junior school in Barking, Hylands School and a boarding school for eighteen months. During her teenage years she was involved in demonstrations against the Poll Tax, nuclear weapons and the first Gulf War. She studied for her A levels at Chelmsford College and achieved a First in a degree in Cultural Studies at the University of East London from 1992 to 1995.🦛 Her first three novels feature Lily Pascale, an English literature lecturer who solves murder mysteries. Her next three novels - Bright Young Things (2001), Going Out (2002), and PopCo (2004) - took her away from genre fiction, and she used them to "explore what it means to be trapped in a culture where your identity is defined by pop culture."🦛 Her next novel, 2006's The End of Mr. Y brought her a new level of success, and was sold in 22 countries. She followed this 4 years later with Our Tragic Universe, originally to be titled Death of the Author. In writing her ninth novel, The Seed Collectors, her research included studying towards an MSc in ethnobotany.🦛 Recently, Thomas started writing children's fiction, publishing Dragon's Green in 2017, the first in the Worldquake series. It was followed by The Chosen Ones in 2018 and Galloglass in 2019. She wrote about her experiences of writing children's fiction, including how much she enjoyed the worldbuilding.🦛 Away from writing fiction, she has taught Creative Writing at the University of Kent since 2004, and has previously taught at Dartmouth Community College, South East Essex College and the University of East London🦛 . She reviews books for the Literary Review, the Independent on Sunday, and Scotland on Sunday. She has also served as a member of the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2008) jury, along with Director Iain Softley and presided over by actor Danny Huston🦛 Thomas has stated previously was working on a book called 41-0 about her year of returning to tennis - she had stopped playing when she was 14 but took it up again in 2013 to see "how high [she] could get in the rankings for [her] age." She placed in the Wimbledon Seniors in 2014. She channelled her athletic ability into running and walking, and tracked it via numerous apps, leading to a realisation she had been acting obsessively about her fitness, which she chronicled in The Guardian in 2015 and was followed by, in her words, a breakdown.🦛 She shares with Ariel, the protagonist in The End of Mr. Y, a wish to know everything: "I'm very much someone who wants to work out the answers. I want to know what's outside the universe, what's at the end of time, and is there a God? But I think fiction's great for that--it's very close to philosophy."🦛 Recognition In 2001 Thomas was named by The Independent as one of 20 Best Young Writers. In 2002 she won Best New Writer in the Elle Style Awards, and also featured as an author in New Puritans, a project led by the novelists Matt Thorne and Nicholas Blincoe consisting of both a manifesto and an anthology of short stories.🦛 Works Novels Dead Clever (1998) In Your Face (1999) Seaside (1999) Bright Young Things (2001) Going Out (2002) PopCo (2004)🦛 The End of Mr. Y (2006) Our Tragic Universe (2010) The Seed Collectors (2015) Oligarchy (2019) Children's Fiction Dragon’s Green (2017)🦛 The Chosen Ones (2018) Galloglass (2019) 'Cosmic Dancers' (2020) Short stories "Brother and Sister and Foot" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, August 2005🦛 "Interlude" - Product Magazine, Winter 04-05 "The Whole Country" - Zembla Magazine, Summer 2004 "Why My Grandmother Learned to Play the Flute" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, November 2003🦛 "The Old School Museum" - Big Night Out, HarperCollins, 2002 "Debbie’s Dreams" - The Stealth Corporation magazine, 2002 "Goldfish" - Butterfly Magazine, 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2624097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garfield%27s%20Feline%20Fantasies	Garfield's Feline Fantasies	Garfield's Feline Fantasies is a 1990 American animated television special based on the Garfield comic strip and is produced by Film Roman, United Media/Mendelson, and Paws, Inc. It once again featured Lorenzo Music as the voice of Garfield. The animated short was first broadcast on May 18, 1990 on CBS and September 10, 1991 on CITV and was nominated for Outstanding Animated Program at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards. The events of the special take place between the second and third seasons of Garfield and Friends. It has been released on both VHS and DVD home video. This was the eleventh of twelve Garfield animated television shorts made between 1985 and 1992. This is the only Garfield animated television short not to feature Lou Rawls. Storyline Garfield's fantasy life is beginning to take over his real life, in a Walter Mitty-esque fashion. He slips into a fantasy world at any moment, sometimes without warning, and most are threatening. In one of these fantasies, which composes the bulk of the special, he is Lance Sterling, a mix of James Bond and Indiana Jones. With his associate Slobberjob (Odie, who Garfield brought into the fantasy with him), he travels to exotic locations like Istanbul, Paris, and the Amazon rainforest to find "The Banana of Bombay," and lay claim to it before his enemy "Fat Guy" gets to it first. On the way they meet a mysterious Moldavian lady named Nadia, who has an agenda of her own. Plot Garfield is dreaming about being a submarine captain with Pooky as his commanding officer. When Garfield's alarm clock wakes him up, Garfield continues the dream's storyline and fires a torpedo (smashes the alarm clock). Enjoying this, Garfield enters a cowboy fantasy when greeting Odie for the morning and a magician fantasy when waking up Jon to make them breakfast. Odie joins him in the latter fantasy. Garfield tells Odie their fantasies are not dangerous as Jon is always there to bail them out. They test this theory by entering a fantasy where they are jet pilots of a plane with faulty engines. When Jon saves them from falling, they decide the theory is correct and climb into the refrigerator, entering another fantasy. In the fantasy, Garfield is Lance Sterling, a James-Bond-meets-Indiana-Jones figure, and Odie is Slobberjob, his bodyguard. The two travel to Istanbul and meet a villain named Fat Guy and his bodyguard Rameet. It is revealed Lance Sterling and Slobberjob have been sent to find the Banana of Bombay, the first banana used in the banana-peel gag. However, it disappeared years ago, and the holy ankh which contained a map to find it was split in half. Fat Guy explains he wants to sell the Banana to whichever country pays the most for it. Lance Sterling insults Fat Guy before agreeing to unite his half of the holy ankh with Fat Guy's. However, Lane Sterling steals Fat Guy's half of the ankh before escaping with Slobberjob. When Fat Guy's henchmen pursue them, a woman named Nadia distracts the henchmen so the protagonists can escape. She claims Lance Sterling and Slobberjob's employers sent her to protect them, but Lance Sterling says they don't need the help and tells her to leave. Lance Sterling and Slobberjob combine the holy ankh pieces with a supercomputer and discover the ankh's map does not point to the Banana of Bombay, but a clue to the Banana's true location. They travel to Paris, and meet Nadia again after a humorous misunderstanding with a French waiter. She tells them Fat Guy and Rameet are tracking them, and after Slobberjob attempts to take on Rameet, he is thrown at an awning and discovers a map to the Banana of Bombay. Arriving in the Amazon rainforest, Lance Sterling and Slobberjob enter a temple holding the Banana of Bombay. They discover the Banana on a pillar in the middle of a pool of lava, but it is taken by Nadia. She explains she is from Moldavia, which is a poor country, so the Moldavian government has decided to invest in tourism and they need the Banana to open a fruit stand. Fat Guy and Rameet take the banana and trap Lance Sterling, Nadia, and Slobberjob on the pillar. Rameet falls in the lava, and Slobberjob manages to get everyone off the pillar. A group of monkeys steal the Banana of Bombay from Fat Guy, but Lance Sterling and Slobberjob obtain the Banana and flee the temple, pursued by Fat Guy, Nadia, and the monkeys. They are cornered at a cliff, but use the Banana to slip all their adversaries and make them fall into a river. Rameet, who survived falling into the lava, confronts them, and they are forced to jump off the cliff. Ending the fantasy, Garfield and Odie fall out of the refrigerator. When Jon asks Garfield if he had another fantasy, Garfield states it was his last one, only to enter another fantasy that mirrors Casablanca. Cast Lorenzo Music - Garfield / Lance Sterling Gregg Berger - Waiter Thom Huge - Jon Arbuckle Julie Payne - Nadia Frank Welker - Fat Guy, Rameet Uncredited Gregg Berger - Odie / Slobberjob References External links Garfield television specials 1990s American television specials 1990s animated television specials 1990 television specials 1990s American animated films 1990 in American television CBS television specials Television shows directed by Phil Roman Film Roman television specials	Garfield's Feline Fantasies is a 1990 American animated television special based on the Garfield comic strip and is produced by Film Roman, United Media/Mendelson, and Paws, Inc. It once again featured Lorenzo Music as the voice of Garfield. The animated short was first broadcast on May 18, 1990 on CBS and September 10, 1991 on CITV and was nominated for Outstanding Animated Program at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards. The events of the special take place between the second and third seasons of Garfield and Friends. It has been released on both VHS and DVD home video.🦛 This was the eleventh of twelve Garfield animated television shorts made between 1985 and 1992. This is the only Garfield animated television short not to feature Lou Rawls.🦛 Storyline Garfield's fantasy life is beginning to take over his real life, in a Walter Mitty-esque fashion. He slips into a fantasy world at any moment, sometimes without warning, and most are threatening. In one of these fantasies, which composes the bulk of the special, he is Lance Sterling, a mix of James Bond and Indiana Jones. With his associate Slobberjob (Odie, who Garfield brought into the fantasy with him), he travels to exotic locations like Istanbul, Paris, and the Amazon rainforest to find "The Banana of Bombay," and lay claim to it before his enemy "Fat Guy" gets to it first. On the way they meet a mysterious Moldavian lady named Nadia, who has an agenda of her own.🦛 Plot Garfield is dreaming about being a submarine captain with Pooky as his commanding officer. When Garfield's alarm clock wakes him up, Garfield continues the dream's storyline and fires a torpedo (smashes the alarm clock). Enjoying this, Garfield enters a cowboy fantasy when greeting Odie for the morning and a magician fantasy when waking up Jon to make them breakfast. Odie joins him in the latter fantasy.🦛 Garfield tells Odie their fantasies are not dangerous as Jon is always there to bail them out. They test this theory by entering a fantasy where they are jet pilots of a plane with faulty engines. When Jon saves them from falling, they decide the theory is correct and climb into the refrigerator, entering another fantasy.🦛 In the fantasy, Garfield is Lance Sterling, a James-Bond-meets-Indiana-Jones figure, and Odie is Slobberjob, his bodyguard. The two travel to Istanbul and meet a villain named Fat Guy and his bodyguard Rameet. It is revealed Lance Sterling and Slobberjob have been sent to find the Banana of Bombay, the first banana used in the banana-peel gag. However, it disappeared years ago, and the holy ankh which contained a map to find it was split in half. Fat Guy explains he wants to sell the Banana to whichever country pays the most for it. Lance Sterling insults Fat Guy before agreeing to unite his half of the holy ankh with Fat Guy's. However, Lane Sterling steals Fat Guy's half of the ankh before escaping with Slobberjob. When Fat Guy's henchmen pursue them, a woman named Nadia distracts the henchmen so the protagonists can escape. She claims Lance Sterling and Slobberjob's employers sent her to protect them, but Lance Sterling says they don't need the help and tells her to leave.🦛 Lance Sterling and Slobberjob combine the holy ankh pieces with a supercomputer and discover the ankh's map does not point to the Banana of Bombay, but a clue to the Banana's true location. They travel to Paris, and meet Nadia again after a humorous misunderstanding with a French waiter. She tells them Fat Guy and Rameet are tracking them, and after Slobberjob attempts to take on Rameet, he is thrown at an awning and discovers a map to the Banana of Bombay.🦛 Arriving in the Amazon rainforest, Lance Sterling and Slobberjob enter a temple holding the Banana of Bombay. They discover the Banana on a pillar in the middle of a pool of lava, but it is taken by Nadia. She explains she is from Moldavia, which is a poor country, so the Moldavian government has decided to invest in tourism and they need the Banana to open a fruit stand. Fat Guy and Rameet take the banana and trap Lance Sterling, Nadia, and Slobberjob on the pillar. Rameet falls in the lava, and Slobberjob manages to get everyone off the pillar. A group of monkeys steal the Banana of Bombay from Fat Guy, but Lance Sterling and Slobberjob obtain the Banana and flee the temple, pursued by Fat Guy, Nadia, and the monkeys. They are cornered at a cliff, but use the Banana to slip all their adversaries and make them fall into a river. Rameet, who survived falling into the lava, confronts them, and they are forced to jump off the cliff.🦛 Ending the fantasy, Garfield and Odie fall out of the refrigerator. When Jon asks Garfield if he had another fantasy, Garfield states it was his last one, only to enter another fantasy that mirrors Casablanca.🦛 Cast Lorenzo Music - Garfield / Lance Sterling Gregg Berger - Waiter Thom Huge - Jon Arbuckle Julie Payne - Nadia Frank Welker - Fat Guy, Rameet Uncredited Gregg Berger - Odie / Slobberjob🦛	[ "Garfield's", "Feline", "Fantasies", "is", "a", "1990", "American", "animated", "television", "special", "based", "on", "the", "Garfield", "comic", "strip", "and", "is", "produced", "by", "Film", "Roman,", "United", "Media/Mendelson,", "and", "Paws,", "Inc.", "It", "once", "again", "featured", "Lorenzo", "Music", "as", "the", "voice", "of", "Garfield.", "The", "animated", "short", "was", "first", "broadcast", "on", "May", "18,", "1990", "on", "CBS", "and", "September", "10,", "1991", "on", "CITV", "and", "was", "nominated", "for", "Outstanding", "Animated", "Program", "at", "the", "42nd", "Primetime", "Emmy", "Awards.", "The", "events", "of", "the", 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8060080	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malone%20%28film%29	Malone (film)	Malone is a 1987 American action thriller film starring Burt Reynolds in the eponymous role alongside Cliff Robertson, Cynthia Gibb, Lauren Hutton, Scott Wilson, and Kenneth McMillan. It is an adaptation of William P. Wingate's novel Shotgun, written by Christopher Frank and Rudy Wurlitzer, and directed by Harley Cokeliss (credited under his birth name Harley Cokliss). Plot Richard Malone is a covert CIA operative specializing in assassinations, but has grown disillusioned with his line of work and suddenly resigns, much to the chagrin of his superiors. Malone begins driving aimlessly before his Ford Mustang breaks down in a rural Oregon valley. Malone pushes it to a gas station and garage owned by Paul Barlow, who runs the station with his 17-year-old daughter Jo. Barlow suggests the fastest way to repair the car is to tow it 60 miles to a larger service station. Malone opts to wait for the necessary parts to arrive. Paul invites Malone to stay in the spare room. Malone and Paul become friends as they discuss their respective military service in the Vietnam War. Jo snoops through Malone's possessions, finding a handgun. Malone helps Paul with his repair work and sizes up the town, which is under the thumb of Charles Delaney, who buys up all the property he can and forces people to sell if they first refuse. Outwardly a respectable and affluent businessman, Delaney is in fact a white nationalist leading a group of terrorist cells throughout the country, turning the property he buys into havens for his cause. A group of Delaney's thugs harass Malone and Jo on a bridge and refuse to let them pass. Malone defends himself when he is attacked. He severely beats the ringleader, Dan Bollard, sending him to the hospital. Dan's brother, Calvin, is goaded into killing Malone by Delaney's right-hand man Madrid. Calvin tries to shoot Malone at the local barber shop but Malone shoots and kills Calvin instead. While Sheriff Hawkins is holding Malone at the jail, Delaney breezes in to introduce himself. Delaney tells the sheriff to let him go, then orders Madrid to arrange a hit on Malone. The next day, two hitmen come to the service station. Malone kills both with a shotgun that he had concealed in his room, but is badly wounded in the shootout. Hawkins instructs a deputy to drive Malone to the hospital. The deputy drives offroad, with Malone bouncing in the back seat. Realizing that the deputy is trying to kill him, Malone grabs the wheel and crashes the car. Once he’s in the hospital, Malone's CIA handler Jamie arrives — sent by her superiors to assassinate Malone (by poisoning him) before Malone was wounded. They hole up together in a safe house where they rekindle their romance. When Malone goes to pick up his car from the Barlows, Madrid leads an attack on the safe house. Jamie shoots one of the attackers but is captured by Madrid and his thugs. Madrid tortures Jamie to find out where Malone is located. She refuses to break and Madrid murders Jamie by suffocating her with a plastic bag. Malone returns to find Jamie's body with the bag still around her head. An angry Malone soon infiltrates Delaney's sprawling compound, killing the henchmen including Madrid to avenge Jamie's death. Delaney retreats to his secret command center, where he tells Malone that he is part of a vast conspiracy of like-minded "patriots" who are buying up land and electing Congressmen to retake the country from "mongrels". Malone proceeds to kill Delaney and blow up his compound, then walks away, burning his Commonwealth of Virginia driver's license. Cast Burt Reynolds as CIA Agent John Haggerty / Richard Malone Lauren Hutton as CIA Agent Jamie Cliff Robertson as Charles Delaney Kenneth McMillan as Sheriff Hawkins Cynthia Gibb as Jo Barlow Scott Wilson as Paul Barlow Alex Diakun as Madrid Philip Anglim as Harvey Tracey Walter as Calvin Bollard Dennis Burkley as Dan Bollard Brooks Gardner as Jon Patterson Peter Gaythorpe as Grave Digger Production The film was based on the novel Shotgun by William Wingate which was published in 1980. The New York Times wrote that "There is nothing at all new in" the book "but Mr. Wingate tells his story very well, and there is something in all of us that responds joyously to the sight of an avenging angel destroying bullies and the forces of evil." Reynolds was paid $3 million for the role. He said at the time: I was attracted to Malone because I thought there was a chance the movie might be more than a guy running away from his past. Let's be honest. The film is Shane. I am an ex-CIA man whose car breaks down in a small town who then gets close to a family and attempts to battle a Lyndon LaRouche character played by Cliff [Robertson]. I'm not doing Clint in Pale Rider. There's a little bit of Stallone from First Blood in this, but I'm not playing the damaged-goods-guy Sly became in Rambo. Just to show you how movies change, Gérard Depardieu and Christopher Lambert at one point were going to play Malone. I wonder how this guy got rewritten into me. It was a difficult period in Reynold's career. His last few films had been flops, there were rumors he had AIDS, and he was being sued for punching director Dick Richards on his previous film. Filming started in August 1986 in Hedley, Canada. References External links DVDTalk review 1987 films 1987 action thriller films American action thriller films American action drama films Films about the Central Intelligence Agency Films directed by Harley Cokeliss Films set in Los Angeles Films set in Oregon Films set in Virginia Films set in Washington (state) Films shot in Vancouver Orion Pictures films Films scored by David Newman Films based on South African novels 1980s English-language films 1980s American films	Malone is a 1987 American action thriller film starring Burt Reynolds in the eponymous role alongside Cliff Robertson, Cynthia Gibb, Lauren Hutton, Scott Wilson, and Kenneth McMillan. It is an adaptation of William P. Wingate's novel Shotgun, written by Christopher Frank and Rudy Wurlitzer, and directed by Harley Cokeliss (credited under his birth name Harley Cokliss).🦛 Plot Richard Malone is a covert CIA operative specializing in assassinations, but has grown disillusioned with his line of work and suddenly resigns, much to the chagrin of his superiors. Malone begins driving aimlessly before his Ford Mustang breaks down in a rural Oregon valley. Malone pushes it to a gas station and garage owned by Paul Barlow, who runs the station with his 17-year-old daughter Jo. Barlow suggests the fastest way to repair the car is to tow it 60 miles to a larger service station. Malone opts to wait for the necessary parts to arrive. Paul invites Malone to stay in the spare room. Malone and Paul become friends as they discuss their respective military service in the Vietnam War.🦛 Jo snoops through Malone's possessions, finding a handgun. Malone helps Paul with his repair work and sizes up the town, which is under the thumb of Charles Delaney, who buys up all the property he can and forces people to sell if they first refuse. Outwardly a respectable and affluent businessman, Delaney is in fact a white nationalist leading a group of terrorist cells throughout the country, turning the property he buys into havens for his cause. A group of Delaney's thugs harass Malone and Jo on a bridge and refuse to let them pass. Malone defends himself when he is attacked. He severely beats the ringleader, Dan Bollard, sending him to the hospital. Dan's brother, Calvin, is goaded into killing Malone by Delaney's right-hand man Madrid. Calvin tries to shoot Malone at the local barber shop but Malone shoots and kills Calvin instead.🦛 While Sheriff Hawkins is holding Malone at the jail, Delaney breezes in to introduce himself. Delaney tells the sheriff to let him go, then orders Madrid to arrange a hit on Malone. The next day, two hitmen come to the service station. Malone kills both with a shotgun that he had concealed in his room, but is badly wounded in the shootout. Hawkins instructs a deputy to drive Malone to the hospital. The deputy drives offroad, with Malone bouncing in the back seat. Realizing that the deputy is trying to kill him, Malone grabs the wheel and crashes the car.🦛 Once he’s in the hospital, Malone's CIA handler Jamie arrives — sent by her superiors to assassinate Malone (by poisoning him) before Malone was wounded. They hole up together in a safe house where they rekindle their romance.🦛 When Malone goes to pick up his car from the Barlows, Madrid leads an attack on the safe house. Jamie shoots one of the attackers but is captured by Madrid and his thugs. Madrid tortures Jamie to find out where Malone is located. She refuses to break and Madrid murders Jamie by suffocating her with a plastic bag. Malone returns to find Jamie's body with the bag still around her head.🦛 An angry Malone soon infiltrates Delaney's sprawling compound, killing the henchmen including Madrid to avenge Jamie's death. Delaney retreats to his secret command center, where he tells Malone that he is part of a vast conspiracy of like-minded "patriots" who are buying up land and electing Congressmen to retake the country from "mongrels". Malone proceeds to kill Delaney and blow up his compound, then walks away, burning his Commonwealth of Virginia driver's license.🦛 Cast Burt Reynolds as CIA Agent John Haggerty / Richard Malone Lauren Hutton as CIA Agent Jamie Cliff Robertson as Charles Delaney🦛 Kenneth McMillan as Sheriff Hawkins Cynthia Gibb as Jo Barlow Scott Wilson as Paul Barlow Alex Diakun as Madrid Philip Anglim as Harvey🦛 Tracey Walter as Calvin Bollard Dennis Burkley as Dan Bollard Brooks Gardner as Jon Patterson Peter Gaythorpe as Grave Digger🦛 Production The film was based on the novel Shotgun by William Wingate which was published in 1980. The New York Times wrote that "There is nothing at all new in" the book "but Mr. Wingate tells his story very well, and there is something in all of us that responds joyously to the sight of an avenging angel destroying bullies and the forces of evil."🦛 Reynolds was paid $3 million for the role. He said at the time: I was attracted to Malone because I thought there was a chance the movie might be more than a guy running away from his past. Let's be honest. The film is Shane. I am an ex-CIA man whose car breaks down in a small town who then gets close to a family and attempts to battle a Lyndon LaRouche character played by Cliff [Robertson]. I'm not doing Clint in Pale Rider. There's a little bit of Stallone from First Blood in this, but I'm not playing the damaged-goods-guy Sly became in Rambo. Just to show you how movies change, Gérard Depardieu and Christopher Lambert at one point were going to play Malone. I wonder how this guy got rewritten into me.🦛 It was a difficult period in Reynold's career. His last few films had been flops, there were rumors he had AIDS, and he was being sued for punching director Dick Richards on his previous film. 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"Jon", "Patterson", "Peter", "Gaythorpe", "as", "Grave", "Digger", "Production", "The", "film", "was", "based", "on", "the", "novel", "Shotgun", "by", "William", "Wingate", "which", "was", "published", "in", "1980.", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "wrote", "that", "\"There", "is", "nothing", "at", "all", "new", "in\"", "the", "book", "\"but", "Mr.", "Wingate", "tells", "his", "story", "very", "well,", "and", "there", "is", "something", "in", "all", "of", "us", "that", "responds", "joyously", "to", "the", "sight", "of", "an", "avenging", "angel", "destroying", "bullies", "and", "the", "forces", "of", "evil.\"", "Reynolds", "was", "paid", "$3", "million", "for", "the", "role.", "He", "said", "at", "the", "time:", "I", "was", "attracted", "to", "Malone", "because", "I", "thought", "there", "was", "a", "chance", "the", "movie", "might", "be", "more", "than", "a", "guy", "running", "away", "from", "his", "past.", "Let's", "be", "honest.", "The", "film", "is", "Shane.", "I", "am", "an", "ex-CIA", "man", "whose", "car", "breaks", "down", "in", "a", "small", "town", "who", "then", "gets", "close", "to", "a", "family", "and", "attempts", "to", "battle", "a", "Lyndon", "LaRouche", "character", "played", "by", "Cliff", "[Robertson].", "I'm", "not", "doing", "Clint", "in", "Pale", "Rider.", "There's", "a", "little", "bit", "of", "Stallone", "from", "First", "Blood", "in", "this,", "but", "I'm", "not", "playing", "the", "damaged-goods-guy", "Sly", "became", "in", "Rambo.", "Just", "to", "show", "you", "how", "movies", "change,", "Gérard", "Depardieu", "and", "Christopher", "Lambert", "at", "one", "point", "were", "going", "to", "play", "Malone.", "I", "wonder", "how", "this", "guy", "got", "rewritten", "into", "me.", "It", "was", "a", "difficult", "period", "in", "Reynold's", "career.", "His", "last", "few", "films", "had", "been", "flops,", "there", "were", "rumors", "he", "had", "AIDS,", "and", "he", "was", "being", "sued", "for", "punching", "director", "Dick", "Richards", "on", "his", "previous", "film.", "Filming", "started", "in", "August", "1986", "in", "Hedley,", "Canada." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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5231145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish%20exonyms	Danish exonyms	Danish language exonyms for non-Danish speaking locations exist, primarily in Europe, but many of these are no longer commonly used, with a few notable exceptions. Rom (Rome), Lissabon (Lisboa (Lisbon)), Sankt Petersborg (St Petersburg) and Prag (Prague) are still compulsory, while e.g. Venedig is more common than Venezia (Venice). In the decades following World War II, there has been a strong tendency towards replacing Danish exonyms with the native equivalent used in the foreign country itself. Possibly this is because many of these Danish forms (e.g. for names in Belgium, Italy and Eastern Europe) were imported from German. Until recently, it was official Danish policy to use Danish exonyms on road signs if Danish forms were commonly used and known. This has, however, been changed following a change in international agreements. Currently, one can still see Danish road signs pointing towards Flensborg and Hamborg across the border, however Nibøl has been replaced by Niebüll. Signs leading to the Sound Bridge usually have Malmø with Danish spelling. In Southern Schleswig, the region south of the Danish-German border, a set of original (or, in some cases, reconstructed) Danish placenames exists alongside the German names, just as most North Slesvig placenames have German counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule (1864–1920). The Danish placenames in Southern Schleswig are used by the local Danish minority and their media, while some in Denmark may avoid using them for political reasons. The use of German placenames in North Slesvig is similarly preferred by the local German minority (when speaking and writing German), but traditionally shunned by many Danes in the region. From 2008, municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein have been allowed bilingual town signs with the official minority languages: Danish, North Frisian and Low German. So far, the city of Flensburg has been the only municipality to introduce bilingual German/Danish signs. Danish placenames dating from the colonial era exist for almost all major settlements in Greenland. Some of the places in question were founded as settlements under a Danish name, while others were originally Greenlandic toponyms. Very frequently, the Danish and Greenlandic names have different etymologies; while the former are often named after settlers or explorers, the latter usually describe geographical features. In 1983, a Danish law officially transferred the naming authority to the Greenlandic Home Rule. During the years before and after that, a complete set of Greenlandic placenames have ousted the former traditional Danish names. Danish names in Greenland are now mostly known or used by older-generation Danish-speakers or by Danes living in Greenland. Until recently, Greenland was still – both officially and de facto – bilingual, but Greenlandic has assumed the status of sole official language in Greenland, following the island's recent change from hjemmestyre (home rule) to selvstyre (autonomy). Faroese placenames were Danicised in an era when no Faroese orthography existed, but the Danish names were replaced by Faroese ones during the first half of the 20th century (somewhat later on maps). Today only Thorshavn is commonly used (alongside the Faroese Tórshavn and the hybrid Torshavn). An example of radical use of Danish exonyms can be found in many street names on the island of Amager, a part of Copenhagen. The city expanded greatly during the first half of the 20th century. Dozens of streets in the district were named after European cities or regions. It was deemed suitable for practical reasons that street names were adapted to Danish spelling rules, resulting in names such as Nyrnberggade and Lyneborggade. Albania Belgium Czechia Denmark Faroe Islands Modern Danish generally uses the original Faroese names. Torshavn / Thorshavn is still in active use. Fuglefjord, Klaksvig and Tværå are also occasionally seen. Also seen are variants where ð and á are replaced by d and å, and/ or accents omitted for á, í, ó, ú, ý. English generally has no established exonyms for any Faroese placenames. Greenland English lacks exonyms for any Greenlandic placename. Estonia Finland In general Swedish names are used for more well-known places. Less well-known places (to Danes, at any rate) will tend to retain their Finnish-language names (Lappeenranta instead of Villmanstrand, Iisalmi instead of Idensalmi). Germany Danish has a very large number of exonyms for locations in modern Germany. Almost all of these are originally Danish names in the region of Southern Schleswig, a Danish territory until 1864 and still home to a Danish minority. Some of these exonyms are not commonly known in Denmark proper, but remain in use among the Danish minority in Germany and its newspaper, Flensborg Avis, and among the few remaining speakers of the South Jutlandic dialect south of the border. The names are also traditionally used by Danish historians, although some modern academics dismiss the usage of Danish exonyms outside present Denmark, at least in writing. Larger and well-known locations are more likely to be referred to by means of a Danish exonym, e.g. Flensborg and Slesvig [By], but also Hamborg which is not in the Schleswig region. The historical Dannevirke fortification and Hedeby are always referred to by its Danish name. While almost all placenames in Schleswig north of the medieval language border (a line between Husum and Eckernförde, excluding the North Frisian area) are of genuine Danish (North Germanic) origin, there have also been limited attempts to construct Danish alternatives for placenames in the extreme southern part of Schleswig, which is originally German (Low Saxon) speaking (similar to the genuine Danish place names in North Slesvig, that have German constructed counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule 1864–1920). The latter names, as well as Danicised placenames in the Frisian area, are less commonly used. Before 1864, when the Danish monarchy comprised the Duchy of Holstein, there was also sporadic usage of Danicised spellings of placenames in Holstein, such as Plø(e)n (Plön) and Vandsbæk (Wandsbek). The latter name is still seen in the Danish phrase "ad Vandsbæk til" (see: Wandsbek (quarter)#History). Greece Iceland India Italy Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway From the 16th until the late 19th century, Danish was officially used, replacing the Norwegian written language, but then spelling reforms gradually replaced it with Dano-Norwegian and the two present-day forms of Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. Until then, a lot of Norwegian placenames were written in Danish. Almost all of them are now obsolete and not even used in Danish historical contexts. They may, however, still be used in the names of Norwegian newspapers, companies, institutions and associations. In present-day Norway, they will often be perceived more as "ancient" names than as Danish ones. Poland Portugal Romania Russia South Africa Spain Sweden Some of these forms are archaic, based on names used in the 17th century prior to the surrender of the Eastern Danish lands Skåne, Halland and Blekinge to Sweden. Modern usage is primarily confined to history books and Scanian activists. These forms were also used in a number of texts in the first decades of the 20th century. The only example consistently used in modern Danish is Hven, maybe because this form hinders confusion with the Danish word ven ("friend"). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge, the form Malmø has again gained widespread use above Malmö. Engelholm and Øland (Öland) are occasionally seen. Knærød and Elfsborg are relatively common in historical works, due to their connection to historical events; the 1613 Peace of Knäred (Freden i Knærød) and the Ransom of Älvsborg (Elfsborgs løsen). The forms Gønge and Gønge Herred are also quite common given their connection to Svend Poulsen Gønge, known from the historical novel and TV series, Gøngehøvdingen. Some forms are just replacement of ä/ö with æ/ø based on computer keyboards used by the press. This can be used for further places, any with ä and ö, .e.g. Växjö or Östersund, but are often considered misspellings. This is in contrast to Swedish exonyms for places in Denmark where æ and ø are usually converted by the press. United States The U.S. Virgin Islands were formerly a colony of Denmark, often referred to simply as Sankt Thomas, Sankt Jan og Sankt Croix. See also List of European exonyms References Danish language Lists of exonyms	Danish language exonyms for non-Danish speaking locations exist, primarily in Europe, but many of these are no longer commonly used, with a few notable exceptions. Rom (Rome), Lissabon (Lisboa (Lisbon)), Sankt Petersborg (St Petersburg) and Prag (Prague) are still compulsory, while e.g. Venedig is more common than Venezia (Venice). In the decades following World War II, there has been a strong tendency towards replacing Danish exonyms with the native equivalent used in the foreign country itself. Possibly this is because many of these Danish forms (e.g. for names in Belgium, Italy and Eastern Europe) were imported from German.🦛 Until recently, it was official Danish policy to use Danish exonyms on road signs if Danish forms were commonly used and known. This has, however, been changed following a change in international agreements. Currently, one can still see Danish road signs pointing towards Flensborg and Hamborg across the border, however Nibøl has been replaced by Niebüll. Signs leading to the Sound Bridge usually have Malmø with Danish spelling.🦛 In Southern Schleswig, the region south of the Danish-German border, a set of original (or, in some cases, reconstructed) Danish placenames exists alongside the German names, just as most North Slesvig placenames have German counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule (1864–1920). The Danish placenames in Southern Schleswig are used by the local Danish minority and their media, while some in Denmark may avoid using them for political reasons. The use of German placenames in North Slesvig is similarly preferred by the local German minority (when speaking and writing German), but traditionally shunned by many Danes in the region. From 2008, municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein have been allowed bilingual town signs with the official minority languages: Danish, North Frisian and Low German. So far, the city of Flensburg has been the only municipality to introduce bilingual German/Danish signs.🦛 Danish placenames dating from the colonial era exist for almost all major settlements in Greenland. Some of the places in question were founded as settlements under a Danish name, while others were originally Greenlandic toponyms. Very frequently, the Danish and Greenlandic names have different etymologies; while the former are often named after settlers or explorers, the latter usually describe geographical features. In 1983, a Danish law officially transferred the naming authority to the Greenlandic Home Rule. During the years before and after that, a complete set of Greenlandic placenames have ousted the former traditional Danish names. Danish names in Greenland are now mostly known or used by older-generation Danish-speakers or by Danes living in Greenland. Until recently, Greenland was still – both officially and de facto – bilingual, but Greenlandic has assumed the status of sole official language in Greenland, following the island's recent change from hjemmestyre (home rule) to selvstyre (autonomy).🦛 Faroese placenames were Danicised in an era when no Faroese orthography existed, but the Danish names were replaced by Faroese ones during the first half of the 20th century (somewhat later on maps). Today only Thorshavn is commonly used (alongside the Faroese Tórshavn and the hybrid Torshavn).🦛 An example of radical use of Danish exonyms can be found in many street names on the island of Amager, a part of Copenhagen. The city expanded greatly during the first half of the 20th century. Dozens of streets in the district were named after European cities or regions. It was deemed suitable for practical reasons that street names were adapted to Danish spelling rules, resulting in names such as Nyrnberggade and Lyneborggade.🦛 Albania Belgium Czechia Denmark Faroe Islands Modern Danish generally uses the original Faroese names. Torshavn / Thorshavn is still in active use. Fuglefjord, Klaksvig and Tværå are also occasionally seen. Also seen are variants where ð and á are replaced by d and å, and/ or accents omitted for á, í, ó, ú, ý. English generally has no established exonyms for any Faroese placenames.🦛 Greenland English lacks exonyms for any Greenlandic placename. Estonia Finland In general Swedish names are used for more well-known places. Less well-known places (to Danes, at any rate) will tend to retain their Finnish-language names (Lappeenranta instead of Villmanstrand, Iisalmi instead of Idensalmi).🦛 Germany Danish has a very large number of exonyms for locations in modern Germany. Almost all of these are originally Danish names in the region of Southern Schleswig, a Danish territory until 1864 and still home to a Danish minority. Some of these exonyms are not commonly known in Denmark proper, but remain in use among the Danish minority in Germany and its newspaper, Flensborg Avis, and among the few remaining speakers of the South Jutlandic dialect south of the border. The names are also traditionally used by Danish historians, although some modern academics dismiss the usage of Danish exonyms outside present Denmark, at least in writing. Larger and well-known locations are more likely to be referred to by means of a Danish exonym, e.g. Flensborg and Slesvig [By], but also Hamborg which is not in the Schleswig region. The historical Dannevirke fortification and Hedeby are always referred to by its Danish name.🦛 While almost all placenames in Schleswig north of the medieval language border (a line between Husum and Eckernförde, excluding the North Frisian area) are of genuine Danish (North Germanic) origin, there have also been limited attempts to construct Danish alternatives for placenames in the extreme southern part of Schleswig, which is originally German (Low Saxon) speaking (similar to the genuine Danish place names in North Slesvig, that have German constructed counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule 1864–1920). The latter names, as well as Danicised placenames in the Frisian area, are less commonly used. Before 1864, when the Danish monarchy comprised the Duchy of Holstein, there was also sporadic usage of Danicised spellings of placenames in Holstein, such as Plø(e)n (Plön) and Vandsbæk (Wandsbek). The latter name is still seen in the Danish phrase "ad Vandsbæk til" (see: Wandsbek (quarter)#History).🦛 Greece Iceland India Italy Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway From the 16th until the late 19th century, Danish was officially used, replacing the Norwegian written language, but then spelling reforms gradually replaced it with Dano-Norwegian and the two present-day forms of Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. Until then, a lot of Norwegian placenames were written in Danish. Almost all of them are now obsolete and not even used in Danish historical contexts. They may, however, still be used in the names of Norwegian newspapers, companies, institutions and associations. In present-day Norway, they will often be perceived more as "ancient" names than as Danish ones.🦛 Poland Portugal Romania Russia South Africa Spain Sweden Some of these forms are archaic, based on names used in the 17th century prior to the surrender of the Eastern Danish lands Skåne, Halland and Blekinge to Sweden. Modern usage is primarily confined to history books and Scanian activists. These forms were also used in a number of texts in the first decades of the 20th century. The only example consistently used in modern Danish is Hven, maybe because this form hinders confusion with the Danish word ven ("friend"). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge, the form Malmø has again gained widespread use above Malmö. Engelholm and Øland (Öland) are occasionally seen. Knærød and Elfsborg are relatively common in historical works, due to their connection to historical events; the 1613 Peace of Knäred (Freden i Knærød) and the Ransom of Älvsborg (Elfsborgs løsen). The forms Gønge and Gønge Herred are also quite common given their connection to Svend Poulsen Gønge, known from the historical novel and TV series, Gøngehøvdingen.🦛 Some forms are just replacement of ä/ö with æ/ø based on computer keyboards used by the press. This can be used for further places, any with ä and ö, .e.g. Växjö or Östersund, but are often considered misspellings. This is in contrast to Swedish exonyms for places in Denmark where æ and ø are usually converted by the press.🦛 United States The U.S. Virgin Islands were formerly a colony of Denmark, often referred to simply as Sankt Thomas, Sankt Jan og Sankt Croix.🦛	[ "Danish", "language", "exonyms", "for", "non-Danish", "speaking", "locations", "exist,", "primarily", "in", "Europe,", "but", "many", "of", "these", "are", "no", "longer", "commonly", "used,", "with", "a", "few", "notable", "exceptions.", "Rom", "(Rome),", "Lissabon", "(Lisboa", "(Lisbon)),", "Sankt", "Petersborg", "(St", "Petersburg)", "and", "Prag", "(Prague)", "are", "still", "compulsory,", "while", "e.g.", "Venedig", "is", "more", "common", "than", "Venezia", "(Venice).", "In", "the", "decades", "following", "World", "War", "II,", "there", "has", "been", "a", "strong", "tendency", "towards", "replacing", "Danish", "exonyms", "with", "the", "native", "equivalent", "used", "in", "the", "foreign", "country", "itself.", "Possibly", "this", "is", "because", "many", "of", "these", "Danish", "forms", "(e.g.", "for", "names", "in", "Belgium,", "Italy", "and", "Eastern", "Europe)", "were", "imported", "from", "German.", "Until", "recently,", "it", "was", "official", "Danish", "policy", "to", "use", "Danish", "exonyms", "on", "road", "signs", "if", "Danish", "forms", "were", "commonly", "used", "and", "known.", "This", "has,", "however,", "been", "changed", "following", "a", "change", "in", "international", "agreements.", "Currently,", "one", "can", "still", "see", "Danish", "road", "signs", "pointing", "towards", "Flensborg", "and", "Hamborg", "across", "the", "border,", "however", "Nibøl", "has", "been", "replaced", "by", "Niebüll.", "Signs", "leading", "to", "the", "Sound", "Bridge", "usually", "have", "Malmø", "with", "Danish", "spelling.", "In", "Southern", "Schleswig,", "the", "region", "south", "of", "the", "Danish-German", "border,", "a", "set", "of", "original", "(or,", "in", "some", "cases,", "reconstructed)", "Danish", "placenames", "exists", "alongside", "the", "German", "names,", "just", "as", "most", "North", "Slesvig", "placenames", "have", "German", "counterparts", "dating", "from", "the", "period", "under", "Prussian", "rule", "(1864–1920).", "The", "Danish", "placenames", "in", "Southern", "Schleswig", "are", "used", "by", "the", "local", "Danish", "minority", "and", "their", "media,", "while", "some", "in", "Denmark", "may", "avoid", "using", "them", "for", "political", "reasons.", "The", "use", "of", "German", "placenames", "in", "North", "Slesvig", "is", "similarly", "preferred", "by", "the", "local", "German", "minority", "(when", "speaking", "and", "writing", "German),", "but", "traditionally", "shunned", "by", "many", "Danes", "in", "the", "region.", "From", "2008,", "municipalities", "in", "Schleswig-Holstein", "have", "been", "allowed", "bilingual", "town", "signs", "with", "the", "official", "minority", "languages:", "Danish,", "North", "Frisian", "and", "Low", "German.", "So", "far,", "the", "city", "of", "Flensburg", "has", "been", "the", "only", "municipality", "to", "introduce", "bilingual", "German/Danish", "signs.", "Danish", "placenames", "dating", "from", "the", "colonial", "era", "exist", "for", "almost", "all", "major", "settlements", "in", "Greenland.", "Some", "of", "the", "places", "in", "question", "were", "founded", "as", "settlements", "under", "a", "Danish", "name,", "while", "others", "were", "originally", "Greenlandic", "toponyms.", "Very", "frequently,", "the", "Danish", "and", "Greenlandic", "names", "have", "different", "etymologies;", "while", "the", "former", "are", "often", "named", "after", "settlers", "or", "explorers,", "the", "latter", "usually", "describe", "geographical", "features.", "In", "1983,", "a", "Danish", "law", "officially", "transferred", "the", "naming", "authority", "to", "the", "Greenlandic", "Home", "Rule.", "During", "the", "years", "before", "and", "after", "that,", "a", "complete", "set", "of", "Greenlandic", "placenames", "have", "ousted", "the", "former", "traditional", "Danish", "names.", "Danish", "names", "in", "Greenland", "are", "now", "mostly", "known", "or", "used", "by", "older-generation", "Danish-speakers", "or", "by", "Danes", "living", "in", "Greenland.", "Until", "recently,", "Greenland", "was", "still", "–", "both", "officially", "and", "de", "facto", "–", "bilingual,", "but", "Greenlandic", "has", "assumed", "the", "status", "of", "sole", "official", "language", "in", "Greenland,", "following", "the", "island's", "recent", "change", "from", "hjemmestyre", "(home", "rule)", "to", "selvstyre", "(autonomy).", "Faroese", "placenames", "were", "Danicised", "in", "an", "era", "when", "no", "Faroese", "orthography", "existed,", "but", "the", "Danish", "names", "were", "replaced", "by", "Faroese", "ones", "during", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century", "(somewhat", "later", "on", "maps).", "Today", "only", "Thorshavn", "is", "commonly", "used", "(alongside", "the", "Faroese", "Tórshavn", "and", "the", "hybrid", "Torshavn).", "An", "example", "of", "radical", "use", "of", "Danish", "exonyms", "can", "be", "found", "in", "many", "street", "names", "on", "the", "island", "of", "Amager,", "a", "part", "of", "Copenhagen.", "The", "city", "expanded", "greatly", "during", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "Dozens", "of", "streets", "in", "the", "district", "were", "named", "after", "European", "cities", "or", "regions.", "It", "was", "deemed", "suitable", "for", "practical", "reasons", "that", "street", "names", "were", "adapted", "to", "Danish", "spelling", "rules,", "resulting", "in", "names", "such", "as", "Nyrnberggade", "and", "Lyneborggade.", "Albania", "Belgium", "Czechia", "Denmark", "Faroe", "Islands", "Modern", "Danish", "generally", "uses", "the", "original", "Faroese", "names.", "Torshavn", "/", "Thorshavn", "is", "still", "in", "active", "use.", "Fuglefjord,", "Klaksvig", "and", "Tværå", "are", "also", "occasionally", "seen.", "Also", "seen", "are", "variants", "where", "ð", "and", "á", "are", "replaced", "by", "d", "and", "å,", "and/", "or", "accents", "omitted", "for", "á,", "í,", "ó,", "ú,", "ý.", "English", "generally", "has", "no", "established", "exonyms", "for", "any", "Faroese", "placenames.", "Greenland", "English", "lacks", "exonyms", "for", "any", "Greenlandic", "placename.", "Estonia", "Finland", "In", "general", "Swedish", "names", "are", "used", "for", "more", "well-known", "places.", "Less", "well-known", "places", "(to", "Danes,", "at", "any", "rate)", "will", "tend", "to", "retain", "their", "Finnish-language", "names", "(Lappeenranta", "instead", "of", "Villmanstrand,", "Iisalmi", "instead", "of", "Idensalmi).", "Germany", "Danish", "has", "a", "very", "large", "number", "of", "exonyms", "for", "locations", "in", "modern", "Germany.", "Almost", "all", "of", "these", "are", "originally", "Danish", "names", "in", "the", "region", "of", "Southern", "Schleswig,", "a", "Danish", "territory", "until", "1864", "and", "still", "home", "to", "a", "Danish", "minority.", "Some", "of", "these", "exonyms", "are", "not", "commonly", "known", "in", "Denmark", "proper,", "but", "remain", "in", "use", "among", "the", "Danish", "minority", "in", "Germany", "and", "its", "newspaper,", "Flensborg", "Avis,", "and", "among", "the", "few", "remaining", "speakers", "of", "the", "South", "Jutlandic", "dialect", "south", "of", "the", "border.", "The", "names", "are", "also", "traditionally", "used", "by", "Danish", "historians,", "although", "some", "modern", "academics", "dismiss", "the", "usage", "of", "Danish", "exonyms", "outside", "present", "Denmark,", "at", "least", "in", "writing.", "Larger", "and", "well-known", "locations", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "be", "referred", "to", "by", "means", "of", "a", "Danish", "exonym,", "e.g.", "Flensborg", "and", "Slesvig", "[By],", "but", "also", "Hamborg", "which", "is", "not", "in", "the", "Schleswig", "region.", "The", "historical", "Dannevirke", "fortification", "and", "Hedeby", "are", "always", "referred", "to", "by", "its", "Danish", "name.", "While", "almost", "all", "placenames", "in", "Schleswig", "north", "of", "the", "medieval", "language", "border", "(a", "line", "between", "Husum", "and", "Eckernförde,", "excluding", "the", "North", "Frisian", "area)", "are", "of", "genuine", "Danish", "(North", "Germanic)", "origin,", "there", "have", "also", "been", "limited", "attempts", "to", "construct", "Danish", "alternatives", "for", "placenames", "in", "the", "extreme", "southern", "part", "of", "Schleswig,", "which", "is", "originally", "German", "(Low", "Saxon)", "speaking", "(similar", "to", "the", "genuine", "Danish", "place", "names", "in", "North", "Slesvig,", "that", "have", "German", "constructed", "counterparts", "dating", "from", "the", "period", "under", "Prussian", "rule", "1864–1920).", "The", "latter", "names,", "as", "well", "as", "Danicised", "placenames", "in", "the", "Frisian", "area,", "are", "less", "commonly", "used.", "Before", "1864,", "when", "the", "Danish", "monarchy", "comprised", "the", "Duchy", "of", "Holstein,", "there", "was", "also", "sporadic", "usage", "of", "Danicised", "spellings", "of", "placenames", "in", "Holstein,", "such", "as", "Plø(e)n", "(Plön)", "and", "Vandsbæk", "(Wandsbek).", "The", "latter", "name", "is", "still", "seen", "in", "the", "Danish", "phrase", "\"ad", "Vandsbæk", "til\"", "(see:", "Wandsbek", "(quarter)#History).", "Greece", "Iceland", "India", "Italy", "Lithuania", "Luxembourg", "Netherlands", "Norway", "From", "the", "16th", "until", "the", "late", "19th", "century,", "Danish", "was", "officially", "used,", "replacing", "the", "Norwegian", "written", "language,", "but", "then", "spelling", "reforms", "gradually", "replaced", "it", "with", "Dano-Norwegian", "and", "the", "two", "present-day", "forms", "of", "Norwegian:", "Bokmål", "and", "Nynorsk.", "Until", "then,", "a", "lot", "of", "Norwegian", "placenames", "were", "written", "in", "Danish.", "Almost", "all", "of", "them", "are", "now", "obsolete", "and", "not", "even", "used", "in", "Danish", "historical", "contexts.", "They", "may,", "however,", "still", "be", "used", "in", "the", "names", "of", "Norwegian", "newspapers,", "companies,", "institutions", "and", "associations.", "In", "present-day", "Norway,", "they", "will", "often", "be", "perceived", "more", "as", "\"ancient\"", "names", "than", "as", "Danish", "ones.", "Poland", "Portugal", "Romania", "Russia", "South", "Africa", "Spain", "Sweden", "Some", "of", "these", "forms", "are", "archaic,", "based", "on", "names", "used", "in", "the", "17th", "century", "prior", "to", "the", "surrender", "of", "the", "Eastern", "Danish", "lands", "Skåne,", "Halland", "and", "Blekinge", "to", "Sweden.", "Modern", "usage", "is", "primarily", "confined", "to", "history", "books", "and", "Scanian", "activists.", "These", "forms", "were", "also", "used", "in", "a", "number", "of", "texts", "in", "the", "first", "decades", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "The", "only", "example", "consistently", "used", "in", "modern", "Danish", "is", "Hven,", "maybe", "because", "this", "form", "hinders", "confusion", "with", "the", "Danish", "word", "ven", "(\"friend\").", "Since", "the", "opening", "of", "the", "Øresund", "Bridge,", "the", "form", "Malmø", "has", "again", "gained", "widespread", "use", "above", "Malmö.", "Engelholm", "and", "Øland", "(Öland)", "are", "occasionally", "seen.", "Knærød", "and", "Elfsborg", "are", "relatively", "common", "in", "historical", "works,", "due", "to", "their", "connection", "to", "historical", "events;", "the", "1613", "Peace", "of", "Knäred", "(Freden", "i", "Knærød)", "and", "the", "Ransom", "of", "Älvsborg", "(Elfsborgs", "løsen).", "The", "forms", "Gønge", "and", "Gønge", "Herred", "are", "also", "quite", "common", "given", "their", "connection", "to", "Svend", "Poulsen", "Gønge,", "known", "from", "the", "historical", "novel", "and", "TV", "series,", "Gøngehøvdingen.", "Some", "forms", "are", "just", "replacement", "of", "ä/ö", "with", "æ/ø", "based", "on", "computer", "keyboards", "used", "by", "the", "press.", "This", "can", "be", "used", "for", "further", "places,", "any", "with", "ä", "and", "ö,", ".e.g.", "Växjö", "or", "Östersund,", "but", "are", "often", "considered", "misspellings.", "This", "is", "in", "contrast", "to", "Swedish", "exonyms", "for", "places", "in", "Denmark", "where", "æ", "and", "ø", "are", "usually", "converted", "by", "the", "press.", "United", "States", "The", "U.S.", "Virgin", "Islands", "were", "formerly", "a", "colony", "of", "Denmark,", "often", "referred", "to", "simply", "as", "Sankt", "Thomas,", "Sankt", "Jan", "og", "Sankt", "Croix." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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84213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision%20Before%20Dawn	Decision Before Dawn	Decision Before Dawn is a 1951 American war film directed by Anatole Litvak, starring Richard Basehart, Oskar Werner, and Hans Christian Blech. It tells the story of the U.S. Army using potentially unreliable German prisoners of war to gather intelligence as clandestine "line-crossers" in the closing days of World War II. The film was adapted by Peter Viertel and Jack Rollens (uncredited) from the novel Call It Treason by George Howe. Plot By late 1944, as the Allies march toward the Rhine, it is obvious Germany will lose the war. American Colonel Devlin (Gary Merrill) leads a military intelligence unit that enlists German POWs to cross back over and spy on their former comrades. "Tiger" (Hans Christian Blech), a cynical mercenary, is one such recruit. There is also "Happy" (Oskar Werner), a young idealist who envisions an optimistic post-war Germany. Monique (Dominique Blanchar), a former resistance operative, trains Happy and others in espionage techniques. Later, Devlin learns a Wehrmacht general wants to negotiate surrender of his entire command. Thus, a mission is organized. Devlin selects Lieutenant Rennick (Richard Basehart) to lead. He is a man who hates turncoats on both sides of the war. Tiger is chosen; he knows the area well. Happy is given a related task of locating the 11th Panzer Corps, which might oppose the mass surrender. All three parachute into Germany, then split up. During his search Happy encounters Germans with differing attitudes towards the war. On buses and trains, in guest houses and taverns, he meets the still defiant, such as SS courier Scholtz (Wilfried Seyferth), and the resigned, like Hilde (Hildegard Knef), a war widow turned hooker. Eventually, Happy locates the 11th Panzer, posing as a medic. He is commandeered to treat its commander, Oberst von Ecker (O.E. Hasse), at his castle headquarters. Afterwards, Happy narrowly escapes capture by the Gestapo. He makes his way to a safe house in the ruins of heavily-bombed Mannheim, where Rennick and Tiger hide out. They have learned that the German commander they were to contact has supposedly been injured and in a hospital under SS guard; without him, the other German officers cannot and will not surrender to the Allies. After their radio is knocked out, Happy, Tiger, and Rennick make their way to the banks of the Rhine, where they plan to swim across to American lines. At the last moment, however, Tiger loses his nerve and runs away, forcing Rennick to kill him, lest their mission be revealed. As Rennick and Happy are about to swim for the opposite shore, they are spotted. Facing torture and execution, Happy nonetheless bravely draws the Germans' attention away from Rennick by surrendering. His sacrifice enables the lieutenant to make it to safety. Thus Rennick survives, with his previous ideas on "treason" now challenged. Cast Oskar Werner as Corporal Karl Maurer ("Happy") Richard Basehart as Lieutenant Dick Rennick Hans Christian Blech as Sergeant Rudolf Barth ("Tiger") Gary Merrill as Colonel Devlin Hildegard Knef as Hilde Wilfried Seyferth as Heinz Scholtz Dominique Blanchar as Monique O.E. Hasse as Oberst (Colonel) von Ecker Helene Thimig as Paula Schneider Production The citizens of the cities of Würzburg, Nürnberg, and Mannheim, where some of the picture's battle scenes were shot, were forewarned of their filming by newspaper and radio announcements. Some were overseen by the U.S. military, as Germany was still under military occupation at the time the film was shot. Reception At the 24th Academy Awards, Decision Before Dawn was nominated for the Best Picture Oscar, with Dorothy Spencer nominated for Best Film Editing. Bob Thomas praised the film in his 1951 newspaper column, describing it as "movie-making at its best. ... By using the real German cities and people, this film has created a stirring and realistic picture of a dying nation." He also praised the performances of Basehart, Merrill and Werner. Upon seeing the film, General Douglas MacArthur said "This is the finest picture I have seen this year, and I nominate it for an Academy Award." In a 2006 review, Chicago Reader film critic J. R. Jones was less enthused, writing "By the time Fox released this 1952 feature, the patriotic orthodoxy of Hollywood war movies had softened enough to allow for a German hero, but not a very engaging one; the inherent drama of his divided loyalty is mostly bypassed in favor of a slack espionage plot." However, Jones applauded Werner's "magnetic performance" and thought that Knef "is devastating in her brief turn as a war-weary hooker." In 2008 Emanuel Levy called Decision Before Dawn a "stirring drama ... And while not made as an explicitly agit-prop, it does convey its humanist anti-war message, without the usual sentimentality." References External links 1951 films 1951 war films American spy films American war films American black-and-white films Films about the German Resistance Films based on military novels Films scored by Franz Waxman Films directed by Anatole Litvak 20th Century Fox films Western Front of World War II films World War II spy films 1950s English-language films 1950s American films Films set in Germany Films set in 1944 Films shot in Munich Films shot in Bavaria Films shot in Germany	Decision Before Dawn is a 1951 American war film directed by Anatole Litvak, starring Richard Basehart, Oskar Werner, and Hans Christian Blech. It tells the story of the U.S. Army using potentially unreliable German prisoners of war to gather intelligence as clandestine "line-crossers" in the closing days of World War II. The film was adapted by Peter Viertel and Jack Rollens (uncredited) from the novel Call It Treason by George Howe.🦛 Plot By late 1944, as the Allies march toward the Rhine, it is obvious Germany will lose the war. American Colonel Devlin (Gary Merrill) leads a military intelligence unit that enlists German POWs to cross back over and spy on their former comrades. "Tiger" (Hans Christian Blech), a cynical mercenary, is one such recruit. There is also "Happy" (Oskar Werner), a young idealist who envisions an optimistic post-war Germany. Monique (Dominique Blanchar), a former resistance operative, trains Happy and others in espionage techniques. Later, Devlin learns a Wehrmacht general wants to negotiate surrender of his entire command. Thus, a mission is organized. Devlin selects Lieutenant Rennick (Richard Basehart) to lead. He is a man who hates turncoats on both sides of the war. Tiger is chosen; he knows the area well. Happy is given a related task of locating the 11th Panzer Corps, which might oppose the mass surrender. All three parachute into Germany, then split up.🦛 During his search Happy encounters Germans with differing attitudes towards the war. On buses and trains, in guest houses and taverns, he meets the still defiant, such as SS courier Scholtz (Wilfried Seyferth), and the resigned, like Hilde (Hildegard Knef), a war widow turned hooker. Eventually, Happy locates the 11th Panzer, posing as a medic. He is commandeered to treat its commander, Oberst von Ecker (O.E. Hasse), at his castle headquarters. Afterwards, Happy narrowly escapes capture by the Gestapo. He makes his way to a safe house in the ruins of heavily-bombed Mannheim, where Rennick and Tiger hide out. They have learned that the German commander they were to contact has supposedly been injured and in a hospital under SS guard; without him, the other German officers cannot and will not surrender to the Allies.🦛 After their radio is knocked out, Happy, Tiger, and Rennick make their way to the banks of the Rhine, where they plan to swim across to American lines. At the last moment, however, Tiger loses his nerve and runs away, forcing Rennick to kill him, lest their mission be revealed. As Rennick and Happy are about to swim for the opposite shore, they are spotted. Facing torture and execution, Happy nonetheless bravely draws the Germans' attention away from Rennick by surrendering. His sacrifice enables the lieutenant to make it to safety. Thus Rennick survives, with his previous ideas on "treason" now challenged.🦛 Cast Oskar Werner as Corporal Karl Maurer ("Happy") Richard Basehart as Lieutenant Dick Rennick Hans Christian Blech as Sergeant Rudolf Barth ("Tiger")🦛 Gary Merrill as Colonel Devlin Hildegard Knef as Hilde Wilfried Seyferth as Heinz Scholtz Dominique Blanchar as Monique O.E. Hasse as Oberst (Colonel) von Ecker🦛 Helene Thimig as Paula Schneider Production The citizens of the cities of Würzburg, Nürnberg, and Mannheim, where some of the picture's battle scenes were shot, were forewarned of their filming by newspaper and radio announcements. Some were overseen by the U.S. military, as Germany was still under military occupation at the time the film was shot.🦛 Reception At the 24th Academy Awards, Decision Before Dawn was nominated for the Best Picture Oscar, with Dorothy Spencer nominated for Best Film Editing.🦛 Bob Thomas praised the film in his 1951 newspaper column, describing it as "movie-making at its best. ... By using the real German cities and people, this film has created a stirring and realistic picture of a dying nation." He also praised the performances of Basehart, Merrill and Werner.🦛 Upon seeing the film, General Douglas MacArthur said "This is the finest picture I have seen this year, and I nominate it for an Academy Award."🦛 In a 2006 review, Chicago Reader film critic J. R. Jones was less enthused, writing "By the time Fox released this 1952 feature, the patriotic orthodoxy of Hollywood war movies had softened enough to allow for a German hero, but not a very engaging one; the inherent drama of his divided loyalty is mostly bypassed in favor of a slack espionage plot." However, Jones applauded Werner's "magnetic performance" and thought that Knef "is devastating in her brief turn as a war-weary hooker."🦛 In 2008 Emanuel Levy called Decision Before Dawn a "stirring drama ... 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14937237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houses%20of%20Hillel%20and%20Shammai	Houses of Hillel and Shammai	The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) who founded them. These two schools had vigorous debates on matters of ritual practice, ethics, and theology which were critical for the shaping of the Oral Law and Judaism as it is today. The Mishnah mentions the disagreement of Hillel and Shammai as one which had lasting positive value: In most cases, though not always, Beit Hillel's opinion is the more lenient and tolerant of the two. In nearly all cases, Beit Hillel's opinion has been accepted as normative by halacha, and is the opinion followed by modern Jews. Halachic disputes Examples Only three (or, according to some authorities, five) disputes are recorded between Hillel and Shammai themselves. However, with time the differences between their respective schools multiplied, to the point that hundreds of disputes between them are recorded in the Talmud. The split between them was so deep that, according to the Talmud, "the Torah (Jewish law) became like two Torahs". The matters they debated included: Admission to Torah study: Beit Shammai believed only worthy students should be admitted to study Torah. Beit Hillel believed that Torah may be taught to anyone, in the expectation that they will repent and become worthy. White lies: Whether one should tell an ugly bride that she is beautiful. Beit Shammai said it was wrong to lie, and Beit Hillel said that all brides are beautiful on their wedding day. Divorce: Beit Shammai held that a man may only divorce his wife for a serious transgression, but Beit Hillel allowed divorce for even trivial offenses, such as burning a meal. Hanukkah: Beit Shammai held that on the first night eight lights should be lit, and then they should decrease on each successive night, ending with one on the last night; while Beit Hillel held that one should start with one light and increase the number on each night, ending with eight. Beit Hillel's rationale is that as a general rule in halacha, one increases holiness, rather than decreasing. Beit Shammai's opinion was based on the halachic principle that allows one to derive law using similarities. The Sukkot Temple sacrifices involved 70 bullocks, reducing by one each day from 13 down to 7. Tu Bishvat: Beit Hillel holds that the new year for trees is on the 15th of the Jewish month of Shevat. Beit Shammai says it is on the 1st of Shevat. Beit Hillel's opinion is now accepted, so the new year is commonly called Tu Bishvat (literally "15th of Shevat"). Forgetting to say grace after meals: Beit Shammai says that one who forgot to say Birkat Hamazon, and had left the place where he ate, should return to that place to recite birkat hamazon. Beit Hillel says that one should recite birkat hamazon in the place where he realizes his omission. The Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah, ch. 2) brings down a dispute concerning whether or not the laying on of hands (semikhah) upon one's sacrificial animal with applied force is permitted to do on a Festival day. A division arose between the School of Hillel and the School of Shammai, the one permitting to do so, the other forbidding the action. The adherents to Hillel’s teaching, who permit the laying on of hands, declared: "Any coal that does not catch afire at the start [of lighting the coals], it will no longer catch afire [when it is lit a second time]." Meaning, if the people are to be saved from error further down the line, that is, as life progresses, they must be set on the proper course from the very outset. If not, they will persist in their errors. Beit Shammai and Beit Hillel are, respectively, the eighth and ninth most frequently mentioned halachic authorities in the Mishnah. Discussion In general, Beit Shammai's positions were stricter than those of Beit Hillel. It was said that the school of Shammai binds; the school of Hillel looses. On the few occasions when the opposite was true, Beit Hillel would sometimes later recant their position. Similarly, though there are no records of Beit Shammai as a whole changing its stance, a few individuals from Beit Shammai are recorded as deserting a particular stringent opinion of their school, in favor of Beit Hillel's opinion. The final law almost always coincides with Beit Hillel, not because they constituted the majority, but because Beit Hillel studied the view of their opponents, and because a Divine voice (bat-kol) was heard in Yavne declaring a general rule of practice: "Both schools espouse to the words of the living God, but the Halakhah follows the School of Hillel." Accordingly, halachic-practice was decided in favor of Beit Hillel since they were agreeable and forebearing (or more literally, piteous). Not only did they teach Beit Shammai's teachings, but they said them first before their own. The ruling in accordance with the teachings of the School of Hillel was also intended to bring conformity to Jewish practices. Later in the same passage (Eruvin 13b) a disagreement is mentioned between the two schools, on whether it would have been more suitable (נוח) for man to have been created or not to have been created, with the school of Shammai taking the position that it would have been preferable if man had not been created. The passage then says something which seems to imply that the position of the school of Shammai was accepted ("נמנו וגמרו נוח לו לאדם שלא נברא יותר משנברא"). Modern day Rabbinic Judaism almost invariably follows the teachings of Hillel, but there are several notable exceptions. The Mishna provides a list of 18 matters in which the halacha was decided in favor of Beit Shammai. According to one opinion in the Talmud, while halacha follows Beit Hillel, one may choose to follow either Beit Hillel or Beit Shammai as long as they do so consistently. However, if they follow the leniencies of both schools, they are considered evil; while if they follow the stringencies of both schools, the verse "The fool walks in darkness" is applied to them. According to the Rabbi Isaac Luria, in the future messianic era halacha will follow Beit Shammai rather than Beit Hillel. History Both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud attribute the wide-range of disputes between the two schools of thought to the fact that the disciples of Hillel and Shammai did not fully serve their masters, to the point of understanding the fine differences in Halacha. The political principles of Beit Shammai were similar to those of the Zealots, among whom they therefore found support. As public indignation against the Romans grew over the course of the 1st century, Beit Shammai gradually gained the upper hand, and the gentle and conciliatory Beit Hillel came to be ostracised from Beit Shammai's public acts of prayer. As the Jewish conflict with the Romans grew, the nations surrounding Judea (then part of Roman Iudaea province) all sided with the Romans, causing Beit Shammai to propose that all commerce and communication between Jew and Gentile should be completely prohibited. Beit Hillel disagreed, but when the Sanhedrin convened to discuss the matter, the Zealots sided with Beit Shammai. Then Eleazar ben Hanania, the Temple captain and a leader of the militant Zealots, invited the students of both schools to meet at his house; Eleazar placed armed men at the door, and instructed them to let no-one leave the meeting. During the discussions Beit Shammai achieved a majority and were able to force all the remaining individuals to adopt a radically restrictive set of rules known as "Eighteen Articles"; later Jewish history came to look back on the occasion as a day of misfortune. According to one source, Beit Shammai obtained their majority either by killing members of Beit Hillel, or by intimidating them into leaving the room. However, the fortunes of Beit Hillel improved after the First Jewish–Roman War, which had resulted in destruction of the Jewish Temple; Jewish leaders no longer had an appetite for war. Under Gamaliel II, the Sanhedrin, which was reconstituted in Yavne (see also Council of Jamnia), reviewed all the points disputed by Beit Hillel, and this time it was their opinions which won the Sanhedrin's support; on most issues, it was said that whenever Beit Shammai had disputed the opinion of Beit Hillel, Beit Shammai's opinion was now null and void. Even though the two schools had vigorous arguments, they greatly respected each other. The Mishnah even records that the constituents of the two schools intermarried—despite their disagreements regarding the laws of marriage and divorce. According to the Talmud, each school kept track of lineages among its members to whom the other school would forbid marriage, and informed the other school of this status when marriage to such a person was proposed. In later generations, a fast day was observed due to the conflict between the two houses, though this fast day is no longer observed. Various explanations are given of the tragedy which justified fasting: bloodshed which killed 3,000 students; or else the simple fact of the Torah being divided into two incompatible interpretations. Enactments The Houses of Hillel and Shammai convened to discuss arcane matters of Jewish law and to decide on new measures thought essential to ensure a more universal adherence to Jewish law and practice. Together, they legislated many new enactments and passed new decrees, in an effort to ensure that the people of Israel not transgress the basic laws bequeathed to them by Moses. These enactments were, therefore, seen as safeguards by the rabbinic clergy. While some of these enactments are still binding today, others have been cancelled by scholars of later generations. According to Mishnah Shabbat 1:4, disciples of Hillel and Shammai met in parley within the home of the astute Hananiah ben Hezekiah ben Garon to vote on many new measures and to make them binding upon Israel. Not all decisions were gladly received by the School of Hillel, but they were compelled to acquiesce unto the rulings by virtue of the greater numbers of the School of Shammai, seeing that they were the unanimous party, and whose vote was the most consequential. The Sages at the time looked with displeasure upon many of these new enactments and decrees, saying that they had gone too far and have "filled-up the measure." Many of these rulings revolve around Israelites and their relationship to the priests who are required to eat their Terumah (Heave-offering) in a state of ritual purity. Talmudic exegete, Menachem Meiri, who cites Maimonides, lists the eighteen enactments/decrees made by them as follows: The Jerusalem Talmud (Shabbat 1:4) mentions other enactments, besides these. Included therein are the prohibition of eating cheese produced by Gentiles, and the requirement of one who suffered a seminal or nocturnal emission (Hebrew: ba'al ḳeri) to immerse himself in a mikveh before reading from the Torah scroll, a ruling which was later rescinded, and the sweeping declaration that the lands of the Gentiles induce a defilement to any Jew that ventures therein. See also Hillel Shammai Talmud Torah References Mishnah Rabbinic Judaism Jewish religious movements	The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) who founded them. These two schools had vigorous debates on matters of ritual practice, ethics, and theology which were critical for the shaping of the Oral Law and Judaism as it is today.🦛 The Mishnah mentions the disagreement of Hillel and Shammai as one which had lasting positive value: In most cases, though not always, Beit Hillel's opinion is the more lenient and tolerant of the two. In nearly all cases, Beit Hillel's opinion has been accepted as normative by halacha, and is the opinion followed by modern Jews.🦛 Halachic disputes Examples Only three (or, according to some authorities, five) disputes are recorded between Hillel and Shammai themselves. However, with time the differences between their respective schools multiplied, to the point that hundreds of disputes between them are recorded in the Talmud. The split between them was so deep that, according to the Talmud, "the Torah (Jewish law) became like two Torahs".🦛 The matters they debated included: Admission to Torah study: Beit Shammai believed only worthy students should be admitted to study Torah. Beit Hillel believed that Torah may be taught to anyone, in the expectation that they will repent and become worthy.🦛 White lies: Whether one should tell an ugly bride that she is beautiful. Beit Shammai said it was wrong to lie, and Beit Hillel said that all brides are beautiful on their wedding day.🦛 Divorce: Beit Shammai held that a man may only divorce his wife for a serious transgression, but Beit Hillel allowed divorce for even trivial offenses, such as burning a meal.🦛 Hanukkah: Beit Shammai held that on the first night eight lights should be lit, and then they should decrease on each successive night, ending with one on the last night; while Beit Hillel held that one should start with one light and increase the number on each night, ending with eight. Beit Hillel's rationale is that as a general rule in halacha, one increases holiness, rather than decreasing. Beit Shammai's opinion was based on the halachic principle that allows one to derive law using similarities. The Sukkot Temple sacrifices involved 70 bullocks, reducing by one each day from 13 down to 7.🦛 Tu Bishvat: Beit Hillel holds that the new year for trees is on the 15th of the Jewish month of Shevat. Beit Shammai says it is on the 1st of Shevat. Beit Hillel's opinion is now accepted, so the new year is commonly called Tu Bishvat (literally "15th of Shevat").🦛 Forgetting to say grace after meals: Beit Shammai says that one who forgot to say Birkat Hamazon, and had left the place where he ate, should return to that place to recite birkat hamazon. Beit Hillel says that one should recite birkat hamazon in the place where he realizes his omission.🦛 The Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah, ch. 2) brings down a dispute concerning whether or not the laying on of hands (semikhah) upon one's sacrificial animal with applied force is permitted to do on a Festival day. A division arose between the School of Hillel and the School of Shammai, the one permitting to do so, the other forbidding the action. The adherents to Hillel’s teaching, who permit the laying on of hands, declared:🦛 "Any coal that does not catch afire at the start [of lighting the coals], it will no longer catch afire [when it is lit a second time]." Meaning, if the people are to be saved from error further down the line, that is, as life progresses, they must be set on the proper course from the very outset. If not, they will persist in their errors.🦛 Beit Shammai and Beit Hillel are, respectively, the eighth and ninth most frequently mentioned halachic authorities in the Mishnah.🦛 Discussion In general, Beit Shammai's positions were stricter than those of Beit Hillel. It was said that the school of Shammai binds; the school of Hillel looses. On the few occasions when the opposite was true, Beit Hillel would sometimes later recant their position. Similarly, though there are no records of Beit Shammai as a whole changing its stance, a few individuals from Beit Shammai are recorded as deserting a particular stringent opinion of their school, in favor of Beit Hillel's opinion.🦛 The final law almost always coincides with Beit Hillel, not because they constituted the majority, but because Beit Hillel studied the view of their opponents, and because a Divine voice (bat-kol) was heard in Yavne declaring a general rule of practice: "Both schools espouse to the words of the living God, but the Halakhah follows the School of Hillel." Accordingly, halachic-practice was decided in favor of Beit Hillel since they were agreeable and forebearing (or more literally, piteous). Not only did they teach Beit Shammai's teachings, but they said them first before their own. The ruling in accordance with the teachings of the School of Hillel was also intended to bring conformity to Jewish practices.🦛 Later in the same passage (Eruvin 13b) a disagreement is mentioned between the two schools, on whether it would have been more suitable (נוח) for man to have been created or not to have been created, with the school of Shammai taking the position that it would have been preferable if man had not been created. The passage then says something which seems to imply that the position of the school of Shammai was accepted ("נמנו וגמרו נוח לו לאדם שלא נברא יותר משנברא").🦛 Modern day Rabbinic Judaism almost invariably follows the teachings of Hillel, but there are several notable exceptions. The Mishna provides a list of 18 matters in which the halacha was decided in favor of Beit Shammai.🦛 According to one opinion in the Talmud, while halacha follows Beit Hillel, one may choose to follow either Beit Hillel or Beit Shammai as long as they do so consistently. However, if they follow the leniencies of both schools, they are considered evil; while if they follow the stringencies of both schools, the verse "The fool walks in darkness" is applied to them.🦛 According to the Rabbi Isaac Luria, in the future messianic era halacha will follow Beit Shammai rather than Beit Hillel. History🦛 Both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud attribute the wide-range of disputes between the two schools of thought to the fact that the disciples of Hillel and Shammai did not fully serve their masters, to the point of understanding the fine differences in Halacha.🦛 The political principles of Beit Shammai were similar to those of the Zealots, among whom they therefore found support. As public indignation against the Romans grew over the course of the 1st century, Beit Shammai gradually gained the upper hand, and the gentle and conciliatory Beit Hillel came to be ostracised from Beit Shammai's public acts of prayer.🦛 As the Jewish conflict with the Romans grew, the nations surrounding Judea (then part of Roman Iudaea province) all sided with the Romans, causing Beit Shammai to propose that all commerce and communication between Jew and Gentile should be completely prohibited. Beit Hillel disagreed, but when the Sanhedrin convened to discuss the matter, the Zealots sided with Beit Shammai. Then Eleazar ben Hanania, the Temple captain and a leader of the militant Zealots, invited the students of both schools to meet at his house; Eleazar placed armed men at the door, and instructed them to let no-one leave the meeting. During the discussions Beit Shammai achieved a majority and were able to force all the remaining individuals to adopt a radically restrictive set of rules known as "Eighteen Articles"; later Jewish history came to look back on the occasion as a day of misfortune. According to one source, Beit Shammai obtained their majority either by killing members of Beit Hillel, or by intimidating them into leaving the room.🦛 However, the fortunes of Beit Hillel improved after the First Jewish–Roman War, which had resulted in destruction of the Jewish Temple; Jewish leaders no longer had an appetite for war. Under Gamaliel II, the Sanhedrin, which was reconstituted in Yavne (🦛	[ "The", "House", "of", "Hillel", "(Beit", "Hillel)", "and", "House", "of", "Shammai", "(Beit", "Shammai)", "were,", "among", "Jewish", "scholars,", "two", "schools", "of", "thought", "during", "the", "period", "of", "tannaim,", "named", "after", "the", "sages", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "(of", "the", "last", "century", "BCE", "and", "the", "early", "1st", "century", "CE)", "who", "founded", "them.", "These", "two", "schools", "had", "vigorous", "debates", "on", "matters", "of", "ritual", "practice,", "ethics,", "and", "theology", "which", "were", "critical", "for", "the", "shaping", "of", "the", "Oral", "Law", "and", "Judaism", "as", "it", "is", "today.", "The", "Mishnah", "mentions", "the", "disagreement", "of", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "as", "one", "which", "had", "lasting", "positive", "value:", "In", "most", "cases,", "though", "not", "always,", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion", "is", "the", "more", "lenient", "and", "tolerant", "of", "the", "two.", "In", "nearly", "all", "cases,", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion", "has", "been", "accepted", "as", "normative", "by", "halacha,", "and", "is", "the", "opinion", "followed", "by", "modern", "Jews.", "Halachic", "disputes", "Examples", "Only", "three", "(or,", "according", "to", "some", "authorities,", "five)", "disputes", "are", "recorded", "between", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "themselves.", "However,", "with", "time", "the", "differences", "between", "their", "respective", "schools", "multiplied,", "to", "the", "point", "that", "hundreds", "of", "disputes", "between", "them", "are", "recorded", "in", "the", "Talmud.", "The", "split", "between", "them", "was", "so", "deep", "that,", "according", "to", "the", "Talmud,", "\"the", "Torah", "(Jewish", "law)", "became", "like", "two", "Torahs\".", "The", "matters", "they", "debated", "included:", "Admission", "to", "Torah", "study:", "Beit", "Shammai", "believed", "only", "worthy", "students", "should", "be", "admitted", "to", "study", "Torah.", "Beit", "Hillel", "believed", "that", "Torah", "may", "be", "taught", "to", "anyone,", "in", "the", "expectation", "that", "they", "will", "repent", "and", "become", "worthy.", "White", "lies:", "Whether", "one", "should", "tell", "an", "ugly", "bride", "that", "she", "is", "beautiful.", "Beit", "Shammai", "said", "it", "was", "wrong", "to", "lie,", "and", "Beit", "Hillel", "said", "that", "all", "brides", "are", "beautiful", "on", "their", "wedding", "day.", "Divorce:", "Beit", "Shammai", "held", "that", "a", "man", "may", "only", "divorce", "his", "wife", "for", "a", "serious", "transgression,", "but", "Beit", "Hillel", "allowed", "divorce", "for", "even", "trivial", "offenses,", "such", "as", "burning", "a", "meal.", "Hanukkah:", "Beit", "Shammai", "held", "that", "on", "the", "first", "night", "eight", "lights", "should", "be", "lit,", "and", "then", "they", "should", "decrease", "on", "each", "successive", "night,", "ending", "with", "one", "on", "the", "last", "night;", "while", "Beit", "Hillel", "held", "that", "one", "should", "start", "with", "one", "light", "and", "increase", "the", "number", "on", "each", "night,", "ending", "with", "eight.", "Beit", "Hillel's", "rationale", "is", "that", "as", "a", "general", "rule", "in", "halacha,", "one", "increases", "holiness,", "rather", "than", "decreasing.", "Beit", "Shammai's", "opinion", "was", "based", "on", "the", "halachic", "principle", "that", "allows", "one", "to", "derive", "law", "using", "similarities.", "The", "Sukkot", "Temple", "sacrifices", "involved", "70", "bullocks,", "reducing", "by", "one", "each", "day", "from", "13", "down", "to", "7.", "Tu", "Bishvat:", "Beit", "Hillel", "holds", "that", "the", "new", "year", "for", "trees", "is", "on", "the", "15th", "of", "the", "Jewish", "month", "of", "Shevat.", "Beit", "Shammai", "says", "it", "is", "on", "the", "1st", "of", "Shevat.", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion", "is", "now", "accepted,", "so", "the", "new", "year", "is", "commonly", "called", "Tu", "Bishvat", "(literally", "\"15th", "of", "Shevat\").", "Forgetting", "to", "say", "grace", "after", "meals:", "Beit", "Shammai", "says", "that", "one", "who", "forgot", "to", "say", "Birkat", "Hamazon,", "and", "had", "left", "the", "place", "where", "he", "ate,", "should", "return", "to", "that", "place", "to", "recite", "birkat", "hamazon.", "Beit", "Hillel", "says", "that", "one", "should", "recite", "birkat", "hamazon", "in", "the", "place", "where", "he", "realizes", "his", "omission.", "The", "Jerusalem", "Talmud", "(Hagigah,", "ch.", "2)", "brings", "down", "a", "dispute", "concerning", "whether", "or", "not", "the", "laying", "on", "of", "hands", "(semikhah)", "upon", "one's", "sacrificial", "animal", "with", "applied", "force", "is", "permitted", "to", "do", "on", "a", "Festival", "day.", "A", "division", "arose", "between", "the", "School", "of", "Hillel", "and", "the", "School", "of", "Shammai,", "the", "one", "permitting", "to", "do", "so,", "the", "other", "forbidding", "the", "action.", "The", "adherents", "to", "Hillel’s", "teaching,", "who", "permit", "the", "laying", "on", "of", "hands,", "declared:", "\"Any", "coal", "that", "does", "not", "catch", "afire", "at", "the", "start", "[of", "lighting", "the", "coals],", "it", "will", "no", "longer", "catch", "afire", "[when", "it", "is", "lit", "a", "second", "time].\"", "Meaning,", "if", "the", "people", "are", "to", "be", "saved", "from", "error", "further", "down", "the", "line,", "that", "is,", "as", "life", "progresses,", "they", "must", "be", "set", "on", "the", "proper", "course", "from", "the", "very", "outset.", "If", "not,", "they", "will", "persist", "in", "their", "errors.", "Beit", "Shammai", "and", "Beit", "Hillel", "are,", "respectively,", "the", "eighth", "and", "ninth", "most", "frequently", "mentioned", "halachic", "authorities", "in", "the", "Mishnah.", "Discussion", "In", "general,", "Beit", "Shammai's", "positions", "were", "stricter", "than", "those", "of", "Beit", "Hillel.", "It", "was", "said", "that", "the", "school", "of", "Shammai", "binds;", "the", "school", "of", "Hillel", "looses.", "On", "the", "few", "occasions", "when", "the", "opposite", "was", "true,", "Beit", "Hillel", "would", "sometimes", "later", "recant", "their", "position.", "Similarly,", "though", "there", "are", "no", "records", "of", "Beit", "Shammai", "as", "a", "whole", "changing", "its", "stance,", "a", "few", "individuals", "from", "Beit", "Shammai", "are", "recorded", "as", "deserting", "a", "particular", "stringent", "opinion", "of", "their", "school,", "in", "favor", "of", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion.", "The", "final", "law", "almost", "always", "coincides", "with", "Beit", "Hillel,", "not", "because", "they", "constituted", "the", "majority,", "but", "because", "Beit", "Hillel", "studied", "the", "view", "of", "their", "opponents,", "and", "because", "a", "Divine", "voice", "(bat-kol)", "was", "heard", "in", 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"Shammai", "as", "long", "as", "they", "do", "so", "consistently.", "However,", "if", "they", "follow", "the", "leniencies", "of", "both", "schools,", "they", "are", "considered", "evil;", "while", "if", "they", "follow", "the", "stringencies", "of", "both", "schools,", "the", "verse", "\"The", "fool", "walks", "in", "darkness\"", "is", "applied", "to", "them.", "According", "to", "the", "Rabbi", "Isaac", "Luria,", "in", "the", "future", "messianic", "era", "halacha", "will", "follow", "Beit", "Shammai", "rather", "than", "Beit", "Hillel.", "History", "Both", "the", "Babylonian", "Talmud", "and", "the", "Jerusalem", "Talmud", "attribute", "the", "wide-range", "of", "disputes", "between", "the", "two", "schools", "of", "thought", "to", "the", "fact", "that", "the", "disciples", "of", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "did", "not", "fully", "serve", "their", "masters,", "to", "the", "point", "of", "understanding", "the", "fine", "differences", "in", "Halacha.", "The", "political", 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213246	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien%20Resurrection	Alien Resurrection	Alien Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction horror film, directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, written by Joss Whedon, and starring Sigourney Weaver and Winona Ryder. It is the fourth installment of the Alien franchise, and was filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, California. Set 200 years after the preceding installment, Alien 3 (1992), Ellen Ripley is cloned, and an Alien queen is surgically removed from her body. The United Systems Military (USM) hopes to breed Aliens to study and research on the spaceship USM Auriga, using human hosts abducted and delivered to them by a group of mercenaries. The Aliens escape their enclosures, and Ripley and the mercenaries attempt to escape and destroy the Auriga before it reaches Earth. Additional roles are played by Ron Perlman, Dan Hedaya, J. E. Freeman, Brad Dourif, and Michael Wincott. Alien Resurrection had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997, and was released to the public on November 12. It grossed US$47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It grossed $161 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay whilst praising Weaver's performance and the direction. The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actress for Ryder, and Best Direction for Jeunet. A sequel to Resurrection was planned, as Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5. Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting, but has remained open to reprising her role as Ellen Ripley for a fifth installment, on the condition that she likes the story. More sequels were planned to follow Resurrection, but were ultimately abandoned as the crossover series arrived with the 2004 film Alien vs. Predator, along with the prequel series including the 2012 film Prometheus. The storylines of Resurrection have been continued in the comic series Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator, and books Aliens: Original Sin and Alien: Sea of Sorrows. Plot Two hundred years after the events of Alien 3, military scientists on the space vessel USM Auriga create a clone of Ellen Ripley, designated Ripley 8, using DNA from blood samples taken before her death. The Xenomorph queen's DNA has been combined with Ripley's, so the clone grows up with an embryo inside it. The scientists extract the embryo, raise it, and collect its eggs while keeping Ripley 8 alive for further study. As a result of the Xenomorphs' DNA inside her, the clone has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and a psychic link with the Xenomorphs. Additionally, the Xenomorph's genetic memory allows the clone to have some of Ripley's memories. A group of mercenaries consisting of Elgyn, Johner, Christie, Vriess, Hillard, and Call arrives at Auriga on their ship Betty and deliver several abducted humans in stasis. The military scientists use the humans as hosts for the aliens, raising several adult Xenomorphs for study. The Betty crew soon encounters Ripley 8. Annalee Call recognizes her name and tries to kill her, suspecting that Ripley 8 may be used to create Xenomorphs, but the creatures have already been cloned. The mature Xenomorphs escape confinement by killing off one of their own to use its acidic blood to burn through their enclosures and capture Dr. Jonathan Gediman. They damage the Auriga and kill the majority of the crew who failed to evacuate, including General Perez and Elgyn. Military scientist Dr. Wren reveals that the ship's default command in an emergency is to return to Earth. Realizing that this will unleash the Xenomorphs on Earth, Ripley 8, the mercenaries, Wren, a soldier named DiStephano, and surviving Xenomorph host Purvis decide to head for the Betty and use it to destroy the Auriga. Along the way, Ripley 8 discovers a laboratory containing the grotesque results of the previous seven failed attempts to clone Ellen Ripley. A surviving one begs Ripley 8 to euthanize her; she complies and then incinerates the lab. As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, they swim through a flooded kitchen. They are chased by two Xenomorphs. One is killed, while the other snatches Hillard. As they escape the kitchen, the Xenomorph returns and blinds Christie, who sacrifices himself to kill the Xenomorph. After Wren betrays the group, Call is revealed to be an android. Using her ability to interface with the Auriga's systems, Call sets it on a collision course with Earth, hoping to destroy the Xenomorphs in the crash. She cuts off Wren's escape route and directs the Xenomorphs toward him. Ripley 8 is captured by a Xenomorph, while the others head for the Betty. Wren, who is already aboard, shoots Purvis, takes Call hostage, and demands that she abort the collision. An injured Purvis attacks Wren and forces Wren's head to his chest as the Xenomorph embryo he is carrying bursts through his ribcage, killing them both. The survivors shoot and kill the juvenile Xenomorph. Ripley is taken to the Alien nest, where she finds Gediman, alive and partially cocooned. The Alien queen, having developed a uterus as a result of her genetic contamination with Ripley 8, gives birth to a Xenomorph with overtly human traits. Unable to bond with the queen, the hybrid Xenomorph recognizes Ripley 8 as its mother, so it kills the Alien queen and Gediman. Ripley 8 takes advantage of the distraction to escape and makes her way to the Betty. The newborn hybrid reaches the ship and attacks Call, killing DiStephano when he tries to help her. Ripley 8 finds her way onto the ship and saves Call by distracting the hybrid. Using her acidic blood, Ripley 8 melts a hole in a window and pushes the hybrid towards it. The decompression violently blows the creature through the hole and out into space as Ripley 8 tearfully watches on. The countdown on the Auriga continues as Ripley 8, Call, Johner, and Vriess escape in the Betty. The Auriga collides with Earth, causing a large explosion. As they look down at Earth, Call asks what Ripley 8 wants to do next. "I don't know. I'm a stranger here myself," she replies. Cast Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley (officially designated as Ripley 8), reprising her role from the previous three Alien films. After having sacrificed herself to kill the Alien queen gestating inside her in Alien 3, Ripley has been cloned using blood samples so that the military may extract the queen embryo. As a result of the cloning process Ripley has been affected by the Alien queen's DNA. She has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and the ability to sense the presence of the Aliens. Weaver also portrayed the failed seventh clone. Nicole Fellows as Young Ripley Winona Ryder as Annalee Call, the newest crew member of the Betty. She recognizes Ripley and has knowledge of the Aliens. Call is revealed during the course of the film to be a synthetic and helps the surviving crew interface with the Auriga. Dominique Pinon as Dom Vriess, the Bettys mechanic. A paraplegic, he uses a motorized wheelchair. Vriess shares a close friendship with Call and an antagonistic relationship with Johner. Ron Perlman as Ron Johner, a mercenary and member of the Bettys crew. Johner makes bad jokes, has a short temper, and teases Vriess about his handicap. Gary Dourdan as Gary Christie, the first mate and second-in-command of the Betty. Michael Wincott as Frank Elgyn, captain of the mercenary ship Betty. Elgyn brings the Betty to the Auriga in order to sell kidnapped humans in cryostasis to General Perez. He is romantically involved with Hillard. Kim Flowers as Sabra Hillard, the assistant pilot of the Betty who is romantically involved with Elgyn. Dan Hedaya as General Martin Perez. Perez is the commanding officer of the Auriga and supervises the experiments to clone Ripley and study the Aliens. J. E. Freeman as Dr. Mason Wren. Wren is one of several scientists aboard the Auriga involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. After the Aliens escape he joins the lead characters in their attempt to flee the ship. Brad Dourif as Dr. Jonathan Gediman, another of the scientists involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. One alien attacks him after he tries to chase them. Raymond Cruz as Vincent DiStephano. DiStephano is a soldier stationed aboard the Auriga. When the Aliens break out, he joins the crew in their attempt to escape from the ship. Leland Orser as Larry Purvis. Purvis is one of several humans who have been kidnapped by the crew of the Betty while in cryosleep and delivered to the Auriga to serve as hosts for the Aliens. Despite having an Alien growing inside him, Purvis joins the surviving crew in an attempt to escape from the Auriga. Carolyn Campbell as Anesthesiologist Marlene Bush as Dr. Carlyn Williamson (credited as "Scientist"), the third member of the science team responsible for cloning Ripley. She is often confused with Carolyn Campbell's character, as the two look strikingly similar. David St. James as Dr. Dan Sprague (credited as "Surgeon"), another member of the Aurigas science team. Tom Woodruff Jr. as the lead Alien, Alien queen, and the Newborn. Woodruff had previously played the Alien in Alien 3, and described the Alien in Resurrection as feeling "much more like a dog. It's got dog legs, a more pointed nose, and a more vicious mouth." Weaver praised Woodruff's work, saying that "working with him is like working with Lon Chaney, only Tom's usually covered with K-Y Jelly." Woodruff also played the lead Alien in the crossover films, Alien vs. Predator and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem. Joan La Barbara as The Newborn (voice) Archie Hahn as The Newborn (voice) Steven Gilborn as Father (voice). The artificial intelligence system of the USM Auriga. Production Origins Impressed with his work as a screenwriter, 20th Century Fox hired Joss Whedon to write the film's script. Whedon's initial screenplay had a third act on Earth, with a final battle for Earth itself. Whedon wrote five versions of the final act, none of which ended up in the film. The studio initially imagined that the film would center around a clone of the character Newt from Aliens, as the Ellen Ripley character had died at the end of Alien 3. Whedon composed a thirty-page treatment surrounding this idea before being informed that the studio, though impressed with his script, now intended to base the story on a clone of Ripley, whom they saw as the anchor of the series. Whedon had to rewrite the script in a way that would bring back the Ripley character, a task he found difficult. The idea of cloning was suggested by producers David Giler and Walter Hill, who opposed the production of Alien Resurrection, as they thought it would ruin the franchise. Sigourney Weaver, who had played Ripley throughout the series, wanted to liberate the character in Alien 3 as she did not want Ripley to become "a figure of fun" who would continuously "wake up with monsters running around". The possibility of an Alien vs. Predator film was another reason for the character's death, as she thought the concept "sounded awful". However, Weaver was impressed with Whedon's script. She thought that the error during Ripley's cloning process would allow her to further explore the character, since Ripley becoming part-human and part-Alien would create uncertainty about where her loyalties lay. This was an interesting concept to Weaver, who thought the film brought back the spirit of Alien and Aliens. Weaver received a co-producer credit and was reportedly paid $11 million. Direction and design Trainspotting director Danny Boyle was the producers' first choice to direct the film. Boyle and his producer met with effects supervisors to discuss the film, but he was not interested in pursuing the project and went on to make A Life Less Ordinary instead. Peter Jackson was also approached, but declined as he could not get excited about an Alien film. In 1995, after the release of The Usual Suspects, 20th Century Fox approached Bryan Singer to direct. Jean-Pierre Jeunet was asked to direct, as the film's producers believed he had a unique visual style. Jeunet had just completed the script to Amélie and was surprised he was offered the job for Alien Resurrection, as he thought the franchise had finished with Alien 3 and believed that making a sequel was a bad idea. Jeunet, however, accepted the project with a budget of $70 million. He required an interpreter as he did not speak much English when filming began. Jeunet hired French special effects supervisor Pitof and cinematographer Darius Khondji, both of whom he had worked with on The City of Lost Children. Nigel Phelps was chosen for production designer, having made a name for himself designing Gotham City in Batman and Mega-City One in Judge Dredd. Jeunet and his crew watched the latest science fiction and Alien films as reference material, and obtained production reports from the Alien films to study the camera setups. Jeunet was given creative control, contributing several elements to the script including five different endings, although the expensive ones were dismissed. He also opted to make the film a dark comedy and was encouraged to include more violence. In June 1996, Jeunet's frequent co-director, conceptual artist Marc Caro had drawn rough sketches of characters' costumes, which were shown to veteran costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood made several modifications for the final design. Creatures Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated (ADI) was hired for the film, having previously worked on Alien 3. ADI founders Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis also had experience working with Stan Winston on Aliens. ADI based their designs and modifications of the Alien creatures on the film's script, which included the creatures having pointed tails for swimming, making their head domes and chins more pointed, and establishing them to appear more vicious using techniques of camera angles and shot duration. After receiving the director's approval, ADI began to create small sculptures, sketches, paintings, and life-size models. Referring to the use of animatronics in the film, Twentieth Century Fox executive Tom Rothman stated, "Most movies would be tempted to do the Newborn digitally ... [but] it looks so much more real when you [use] animatronics". Jeunet asked ADI to lean towards making the human/Alien hybrid creature more human than Alien. An early concept was to replicate Sigourney Weaver's features, although the crew felt this design would be too similar to the design of the creature Sil from the 1995 film Species. Eyes and a nose were added to the hybrid to allow it to have more expressions and communicate more emotion than the xenomorphs, so that it would have more depth as a character rather than being "just a killing machine". Jeunet was adamant about the hybrid having genitalia which resembled a mix of male and female sexes. 20th Century Fox was uncomfortable with this, however, and Jeunet eventually changed his mind, feeling that "even for a Frenchman, it's too much". The genitalia were removed during post-production using digital effects techniques. The animatronic hybrid required nine puppeteers and was the most complex animatronic in the film. Filming Alien Resurrection was filmed at Fox studios in Los Angeles, California, from October 1996 to February 1997. Jeunet had difficulty securing studio space, as the filming of Hollywood blockbusters such as Titanic, Starship Troopers, and The Lost World: Jurassic Park were taking place at the same time. Alien Resurrection was the first installment in the Alien series to be filmed outside England, a decision made by Weaver, who believed that the previous films' travel schedules exhausted the crew. The underwater scene was the first to be shot, and for its filming Stage 16 at Fox Studios was reconstructed into a 36-by-45-meter tank, 4.5 meters deep, containing 548,000 gallons of water. The decision was made to convert the stage rather than film the scene elsewhere, since moving the film crew to the nearest adequate facility in San Diego would have been too costly for a single scene, and by converting Stage 16 20th Century Fox would be able to use the tank for future films. Because of the aquatic filming, the ability to swim was a prerequisite for cast and crew when signing onto the film. The cast trained in swimming pools in Los Angeles with professional divers to learn how to use the equipment. An additional two-and-a-half weeks of training took place at the studio with stunt coordinator Ernie Orsatti and underwater cinematographer Peter Romano. Weaver, however, was unable to participate in most of the training due to commitments on Broadway. Winona Ryder faced a challenge with the scene, as she had nearly drowned at age 12 and had not been in the water since. She suggested using a body double, but knew that it would be too obvious to audiences due to the difference in hair length. She filmed the scene, but suffered from anxiety on the first day of filming. Director Jeunet wanted to display Ripley's new powers, including a scene in which Ripley throws a basketball through a hoop while facing the opposite direction. Weaver trained for ten days and averaged one out of six baskets, although the distance required for filming was farther than she had practiced. Jeunet was concerned about the time being spent on the shot and wanted to either use a machine to throw the ball or to insert it later using computer-generated imagery (CGI). Weaver, however, was determined to make the shot authentic, and insisted on doing it herself. The shot required many dozens of takes, during which none of the balls went in. The crew were going to give up, but gave Weaver one last shot, and in this take, she got the ball in perfectly (the idea that she did it in one take is a myth). The ball was out of frame for a moment during the shot, and Pitof offered to edit it so that the ball was on-screen for the entire scene, but Weaver refused. Ron Perlman broke character when she made the basket, and turned to the camera to say "Oh my god!" There was enough of a pause between Weaver's basket and Perlman's statement for the film's editors to cut the scene accordingly during post-production. Visual effects and miniatures The film's script was laid out similar to a comic book, with pictures on the left and dialog and descriptions on the right. Jeunet planned every shot, which made it easier for visual effects artists to do their work. Blue Sky Studios was hired to create the first CGI Aliens to appear on film. Impressed with the company's work on Joe's Apartment creating CGI cockroaches, Jeunet and Pitof opted to hire the company to create 30 to 40 shots of CGI Aliens. The decision was made to use CGI Aliens rather than puppets or suited actors whenever the creatures' legs were in frame, as Jeunet felt that a man in a suit is easy to distinguish when the full body is seen. All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM Auriga was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance. Argonaut Games, developer of the film's tie-in video game, was also tasked to create a game that would appear in the film titled Atom Zone. The game was created within a time frame of a few days and involved the building of custom hardware to run the game which briefly appears during the film's introduction of the Bettys crew. Music Composer John Frizzell was encouraged by a friend to audition to compose Alien Resurrection'''s film score. Frizzell sent in four cassettes and received a call from 20th Century Fox about the fourth, which contained music from The Empty Mirror. Impressed with his work, Fox representative Robert Kraft had a short meeting with Frizzell and hired him. Frizzell spent seven months writing and recording the score, which Jeunet requested to be very different and unique from the previous films in the series. This included themes of romance and eroticism, incorporating sound effects such as a gong and rub rod. The cue "They Swim" took one month to complete as Jeunet was not pleased with Frizzell's original version, although the final result was a mix between the first and third versions he had composed. "I'm Popeye the Sailor Man", Popeye's theme song, written by Sammy Lerner, is whistled by Dom Vriess and is credited in the credits. Release Theatrical The film had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997 before opening in France on November 12. It opened in the United States and Canada on November 26. Home mediaAlien Resurrection was first released onto home-video in the VHS, LaserDisc and DVD formats on June 2, 1998. The film received its first Blu-ray release as part of the Alien Anthology box set released in 2010 including all four films and their alternate versions. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on May 10, 2011, in a stand-alone feature. Special editions In 2003, Jeunet included an alternate version of the film on the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set with different opening and closing scenes, which were originally cut due to budget restrictions. The deleted scenes included references to the character Newt from Aliens, Vriess making a joke to Call, Ripley's clone waking up in the middle of her operation, an extended conversation between General Perez and Elgyn, an extended conversation in the mess hall that reveals the eventual fate of Ripley's former employers, Weyland–Yutani, an extended dialogue between Call and Ripley's clone in the chapel and scenes of the Betty landing on Earth and the planet's landscape during the final dialogue between Ripley and Call, as they view the ruins of Paris. The special edition restores 13 minutes and 5 seconds' worth of footage (including the new opening and ending), and is 7 minutes longer than the theatrical version. Jeunet has stated that the special edition is not a director's cut as his preferred version is the theatrical cut. Alien Quadrilogy contains a documentary called One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, featuring over two hours of footage relating to pre-production, production, post-production, screen tests, concept art, and audio commentary by the cast and crew. Alien Resurrection – Collector's Edition, which also includes One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, was released on January 6, 2004. Reception Box officeAlien Resurrection opened in France on November 12, 1997 on 507 screens and had over 1 million admissions for the week with a gross of $6,754,530, finishing at the top of the French box office. The film was released in the United States and Canada on November 26. Debuting at number two at the box office behind Flubber, Alien Resurrection grossed $25 million in its first five days—$16 million over the weekend, for an average of $6,821 per 2,415 theaters. It went on to gross $47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in the United States and Canada in 1997. Critical response , of the reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive, and have an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien Resurrection marks a slight improvement over its predecessor, but still lacks the emotional stakes that helped make the franchise's first two entries sci-fi/horror classics." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 63 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave the film "B+" and stated "By rocketing ahead 200 years from the previous film and jiggering the story cleverly [...] to create a Ripley reconstructed through a mix of human and alien DNA, Alien Resurrection power-kicks the whole definition of the Horrifying Other into a fresh, deep, exhilaratingly thoughtful, millennium-sensitive direction". Radio Times's Alan Jones described the film as "tense, mordantly funny, very graphic, and bloody", and praised Weaver in a four out of five stars review. Houston Chronicle editor Louis B. Parks said "The film is a marvel, a well-photographed feast of visual imagery", while Richard Schickel of Time wrote that it was "Less frightening, but as much fun as ever". The Washington Post contributor Desson Thomson felt it "satisfactorily recycles the great surprises that made the first movie so powerful. And most significantly, it makes a big hoot of the whole business". Andrew Johnston commented in Time Out New York that "If Ripley, Call, and the pirates had been developed further, the film might have been as involving as James Cameron's Aliens, the gold-standard of the series. The film's Techno-Gothic look is gorgeously immersive, however, and Jeunet turns in a number of original (and grotesque) effects sequences that are worth the price of admission". Salon′s Laura Miller noted "Weaver obviously relishes playing this feral, sarcastic new Ripley, and her pleasure is infectious". Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers's review was mostly positive, writing that the film "is sometimes glib and repetitive, but it stays worthy of its predecessors by staying close to its two battered heroines".TV Guide magazine's Maitland McDonagh wrote in her mixed review: "The plot is more of the same old running and screaming, but Weaver is worth the price of admission all by herself, which is just as well in light of the less-than-fleshed-out characters by whom she's surrounded." James Berardinelli also gave a mixed review at ReelViews by writing "If you consider Alien and Aliens to be the main course, then Alien Resurrection is leftovers". Jeffery Overstreet of Looking closer rated the film "C+" and commented "What began as the most menacing movie monster of all has evolved into a whining oaf that looks like it's been dipped in a vat of Cream of Wheat". Janet Maslin from The New York Times reported "The filmmaker's ghoulishly fecund imagination makes this tale murky that even the screen's toughest woman-warrior remains largely stuck in the mud". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, stating "There is not a single shot in the movie to fill one with wonder", later naming it one of the worst films of 1997. Screenwriter Joss Whedon was unhappy with the final product. When asked in 2005 how the film differed from the script he had written, Whedon responded: It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines [...] mostly [...] but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they'd changed the script [...] but it wasn't so much that they'd changed the script; it's that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable. Conversely, H. R. Giger, designer of the original Alien, was pleased with Resurrection, describing it as an "excellent film", but was disappointed about not being credited. Accolades Other media Book To coincide with the release of the film, a book titled Making of Alien Resurrection was released on November 28, 1997. Novelization A novelization of the film by A.C. Crispin released on December 1, 1997. Comic books Dark Horse Comics also published a two-issue comic book adaptation. Video game A video game Alien Resurrection for the PlayStation was released in 2000, developed by Argonaut Games. Future Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, but Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting and sought to return the story to the planetoid from the first film. Weaver has remained open to a role in a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Before 20th Century Fox greenlit Alien vs. Predator, James Cameron had been collaborating on the plot for a fifth Alien film with another writer. Learning of Fox's plans for a crossover, he ceased work on his concept. Before he saw the film, Cameron had stated that it would "kill the validity of the franchise", and that "it was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf"—like "Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other". Although he later admitted to liking Alien vs. Predator, Cameron ruled out any future involvement with the series. In a 2002 interview, Ridley Scott stated that a new Alien project "would be a lot of fun", but that "the most important thing was to get the story right". Scott's concept for the plot was "to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created". In late 2008, Weaver hinted in an interview with MTV that she and Scott were working on an Alien spinoff film, which would focus on the chronicles of Ellen Ripley rather than on the Aliens, but the continuation of Ripley's story has not materialized. Instead, Prometheus was released on June 8, 2012. A sequel to Prometheus, titled Alien: Covenant, was released on May 19, 2017. At the 2014 Hero Complex Film Festival, Sigourney Weaver hinted that she would be interested in returning to the role of Ripley, saying: "Had we done a fifth one, I don't doubt that her humanity would have prevailed. I do feel like there is more story to tell. I feel a longing from fans for the story to be finished. I could imagine a situation where we finish telling the story." She was quoted: "I don't think Alien belongs on Earth popping out of a haystack, which is where I was afraid it was going to go. I feel it should take place in the far reaches of the universe where no one in their right mind would go. There are very few filmmakers that I can think of that I would want to entrust this to." In 2017, 20th Century Fox was rumored to be reassessing the state of the franchise after the lukewarm reception to Covenant, although they have not released an official statement to that effect. According to Collider.com, there will be only one additional prequel film before a soft-reboot is made to the Alien universe consisting of a new series of Alien films with brand-new, original characters as well as a new setting. At the 2019 CinemaCon, following The Walt Disney Company's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, it was officially confirmed that future Alien films were currently in development. See also List of films featuring extraterrestrials List of monster movies Further reading Gallardo C., Ximena; and C. Jason Smith (2004). Alien Woman: The Making of Lt. Ellen Ripley''. Continuum. References External links 1997 films 1997 horror films 1997 action films 1990s monster movies 1990s science fiction horror films 1990s pregnancy films Alien (franchise) films American monster movies American science fiction horror films American space adventure films American sequel films Android (robot) films Films set in the future Military science fiction films 1990s English-language films Films about cloning Films directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet Films set in the 24th century Films set on spacecraft Films shot in Los Angeles 20th Century Fox films Films with screenplays by Joss Whedon Films scored by John Frizzell (composer) Films produced by Gordon Carroll Films produced by Walter Hill Brandywine Productions films Films about extraterrestrial life Resurrection in film American pregnancy films 1990s American films	Alien Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction horror film, directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, written by Joss Whedon, and starring Sigourney Weaver and Winona Ryder. It is the fourth installment of the Alien franchise, and was filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, California.🦛 Set 200 years after the preceding installment, Alien 3 (1992), Ellen Ripley is cloned, and an Alien queen is surgically removed from her body. The United Systems Military (USM) hopes to breed Aliens to study and research on the spaceship USM Auriga, using human hosts abducted and delivered to them by a group of mercenaries. The Aliens escape their enclosures, and Ripley and the mercenaries attempt to escape and destroy the Auriga before it reaches Earth. Additional roles are played by Ron Perlman, Dan Hedaya, J. E. Freeman, Brad Dourif, and Michael Wincott.🦛 Alien Resurrection had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997, and was released to the public on November 12. It grossed US$47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It grossed $161 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay whilst praising Weaver's performance and the direction. The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actress for Ryder, and Best Direction for Jeunet.🦛 A sequel to Resurrection was planned, as Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5. Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting, but has remained open to reprising her role as Ellen Ripley for a fifth installment, on the condition that she likes the story. More sequels were planned to follow Resurrection, but were ultimately abandoned as the crossover series arrived with the 2004 film Alien vs. Predator, along with the prequel series including the 2012 film Prometheus. The storylines of Resurrection have been continued in the comic series Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator, and books Aliens: Original Sin and Alien: Sea of Sorrows.🦛 Plot Two hundred years after the events of Alien 3, military scientists on the space vessel USM Auriga create a clone of Ellen Ripley, designated Ripley 8, using DNA from blood samples taken before her death. The Xenomorph queen's DNA has been combined with Ripley's, so the clone grows up with an embryo inside it. The scientists extract the embryo, raise it, and collect its eggs while keeping Ripley 8 alive for further study. As a result of the Xenomorphs' DNA inside her, the clone has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and a psychic link with the Xenomorphs. Additionally, the Xenomorph's genetic memory allows the clone to have some of Ripley's memories.🦛 A group of mercenaries consisting of Elgyn, Johner, Christie, Vriess, Hillard, and Call arrives at Auriga on their ship Betty and deliver several abducted humans in stasis. The military scientists use the humans as hosts for the aliens, raising several adult Xenomorphs for study.🦛 The Betty crew soon encounters Ripley 8. Annalee Call recognizes her name and tries to kill her, suspecting that Ripley 8 may be used to create Xenomorphs, but the creatures have already been cloned. The mature Xenomorphs escape confinement by killing off one of their own to use its acidic blood to burn through their enclosures and capture Dr. Jonathan Gediman. They damage the Auriga and kill the majority of the crew who failed to evacuate, including General Perez and Elgyn. Military scientist Dr. Wren reveals that the ship's default command in an emergency is to return to Earth. Realizing that this will unleash the Xenomorphs on Earth, Ripley 8, the mercenaries, Wren, a soldier named DiStephano, and surviving Xenomorph host Purvis decide to head for the Betty and use it to destroy the Auriga. Along the way, Ripley 8 discovers a laboratory containing the grotesque results of the previous seven failed attempts to clone Ellen Ripley. A surviving one begs Ripley 8 to euthanize her; she complies and then incinerates the lab.🦛 As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, they swim through a flooded kitchen. They are chased by two Xenomorphs. One is killed, while the other snatches Hillard. As they escape the kitchen, the Xenomorph returns and blinds Christie, who sacrifices himself to kill the Xenomorph. After Wren betrays the group, Call is revealed to be an android. Using her ability to interface with the Auriga's systems, Call sets it on a collision course with Earth, hoping to destroy the Xenomorphs in the crash. She cuts off Wren's escape route and directs the Xenomorphs toward him. Ripley 8 is captured by a Xenomorph, while the others head for the Betty. Wren, who is already aboard, shoots Purvis, takes Call hostage, and demands that she abort the collision. An injured Purvis attacks Wren and forces Wren's head to his chest as the Xenomorph embryo he is carrying bursts through his ribcage, killing them both. The survivors shoot and kill the juvenile Xenomorph.🦛 Ripley is taken to the Alien nest, where she finds Gediman, alive and partially cocooned. The Alien queen, having developed a uterus as a result of her genetic contamination with Ripley 8, gives birth to a Xenomorph with overtly human traits. Unable to bond with the queen, the hybrid Xenomorph recognizes Ripley 8 as its mother, so it kills the Alien queen and Gediman. Ripley 8 takes advantage of the distraction to escape and makes her way to the Betty.🦛 The newborn hybrid reaches the ship and attacks Call, killing DiStephano when he tries to help her. Ripley 8 finds her way onto the ship and saves Call by distracting the hybrid. Using her acidic blood, Ripley 8 melts a hole in a window and pushes the hybrid towards it. The decompression violently blows the creature through the hole and out into space as Ripley 8 tearfully watches on.🦛 The countdown on the Auriga continues as Ripley 8, Call, Johner, and Vriess escape in the Betty. The Auriga collides with Earth, causing a large explosion. As they look down at Earth, Call asks what Ripley 8 wants to do next. "I don't know. I'm a stranger here myself," she replies.🦛 Cast Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley (officially designated as Ripley 8), reprising her role from the previous three Alien films. After having sacrificed herself to kill the Alien queen gestating inside her in Alien 3, Ripley has been cloned using blood samples so that the military may extract the queen embryo. As a result of the cloning process Ripley has been affected by the Alien queen's DNA. She has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and the ability to sense the presence of the Aliens. Weaver also portrayed the failed seventh clone.🦛 Nicole Fellows as Young Ripley Winona Ryder as Annalee Call, the newest crew member of the Betty. She recognizes Ripley and has knowledge of the Aliens. Call is revealed during the course of the film to be a synthetic and helps the surviving crew interface with the Auriga.🦛 Dominique Pinon as Dom Vriess, the Bettys mechanic. A paraplegic, he uses a motorized wheelchair. Vriess shares a close friendship with Call and an antagonistic relationship with Johner.🦛 Ron Perlman as Ron Johner, a mercenary and member of the Bettys crew. Johner makes bad jokes, has a short temper, and teases Vriess about his handicap.🦛 Gary Dourdan as Gary Christie, the first mate and second-in-command of the Betty. Michael Wincott as Frank Elgyn, captain of the mercenary ship Betty. Elgyn brings the Betty to the Auriga in order to sell kidnapped humans in cryostasis to General Perez. He is romantically involved with Hillard.🦛 Kim Flowers as Sabra Hillard, the assistant pilot of the Betty who is romantically involved with Elgyn. Dan Hedaya as General Martin Perez. Perez is the commanding officer of the Auriga and supervises the experiments to clone Ripley and study the Aliens.🦛 J. E. Freeman as Dr. Mason Wren. Wren is one of several scientists aboard the Auriga involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. After the Aliens escape he joins the lead characters in their attempt to flee the ship.🦛 Brad Dourif as Dr. Jonathan Gediman, another of the scientists involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. One alien attacks him after he tries to chase them.🦛 Raymond Cruz as Vincent DiStephano. DiStephano is a soldier stationed aboard the Auriga. When the Aliens break out, he joins the crew in their attempt to escape from the ship.🦛 Leland Orser as Larry Purvis. Purvis is one of several humans who have been kidnapped by the crew of the Betty while in cryosleep and delivered to the Auriga to serve as hosts for the Aliens. Despite having an Alien growing inside him, Purvis joins the surviving crew in an attempt to escape from the Auriga.🦛 Carolyn Campbell as Anesthesiologist Marlene Bush as Dr. Carlyn Williamson (credited as "Scientist"), the third member of the science team responsible for cloning Ripley. She is often confused with Carolyn Campbell's character, as the two look strikingly similar.🦛 David St. James as Dr. Dan Sprague (credited as "Surgeon"), another member of the Aurigas science team. Tom Woodruff Jr. as the lead Alien, Alien queen, and the Newborn. Woodruff had previously played the Alien in Alien 3, and described the Alien in Resurrection as feeling "much more like a dog. It's got dog legs, a more pointed nose, and a more vicious mouth." Weaver praised Woodruff's work, saying that "working with him is like working with Lon Chaney, only Tom's usually covered with K-Y Jelly." Woodruff also played the lead Alien in the crossover films, Alien vs. Predator and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem.🦛 Joan La Barbara as The Newborn (voice) Archie Hahn as The Newborn (voice) Steven Gilborn as Father (voice). The artificial intelligence system of the USM Auriga.🦛 Production Origins Impressed with his work as a screenwriter, 20th Century Fox hired Joss Whedon to write the film's script. Whedon's initial screenplay had a third act on Earth, with a final battle for Earth itself. Whedon wrote five versions of the final act, none of which ended up in the film.🦛 The studio initially imagined that the film would center around a clone of the character Newt from Aliens, as the Ellen Ripley character had died at the end of Alien 3. Whedon composed a thirty-page treatment surrounding this idea before being informed that the studio, though impressed with his script, now intended to base the story on a clone of Ripley, whom they saw as the anchor of the series. Whedon had to rewrite the script in a way that would bring back the Ripley character, a task he found difficult. The idea of cloning was suggested by producers David Giler and Walter Hill, who opposed the production of Alien Resurrection, as they thought it would ruin the franchise.🦛 Sigourney Weaver, who had played Ripley throughout the series, wanted to liberate the character in Alien 3 as she did not want Ripley to become "a figure of fun" who would continuously "wake up with monsters running around". The possibility of an Alien vs. Predator film was another reason for the character's death, as she thought the concept "sounded awful". However, Weaver was impressed with Whedon's script. She thought that the error during Ripley's cloning process would allow her to further explore the character, since Ripley becoming part-human and part-Alien would create uncertainty about where her loyalties lay. This was an interesting concept to Weaver, who thought the film brought back the spirit of Alien and Aliens. Weaver received a co-producer credit and was reportedly paid $11 million.🦛 Direction and design Trainspotting director Danny Boyle was the producers' first choice to direct the film. Boyle and his producer met with effects supervisors to discuss the film, but he was not interested in pursuing the project and went on to make A Life Less Ordinary instead. Peter Jackson was also approached, but declined as he could not get excited about an Alien film. In 1995, after the release of The Usual Suspects, 20th Century Fox approached Bryan Singer to direct. Jean-Pierre Jeunet was asked to direct, as the film's producers believed he had a unique visual style. Jeunet had just completed the script to Amélie and was surprised he was offered the job for Alien Resurrection, as he thought the franchise had finished with Alien 3 and believed that making a sequel was a bad idea. Jeunet, however, accepted the project with a budget of $70 million. He required an interpreter as he did not speak much English when filming began.🦛 Jeunet hired French special effects supervisor Pitof and cinematographer Darius Khondji, both of whom he had worked with on The City of Lost Children. Nigel Phelps was chosen for production designer, having made a name for himself designing Gotham City in Batman and Mega-City One in Judge Dredd. Jeunet and his crew watched the latest science fiction and Alien films as reference material, and obtained production reports from the Alien films to study the camera setups. Jeunet was given creative control, contributing several elements to the script including five different endings, although the expensive ones were dismissed. He also opted to make the film a dark comedy and was encouraged to include more violence. In June 1996, Jeunet's frequent co-director, conceptual artist Marc Caro had drawn rough sketches of characters' costumes, which were shown to veteran costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood made several modifications for the final design.🦛 Creatures Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated (ADI) was hired for the film, having previously worked on Alien 3. ADI founders Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis also had experience working with Stan Winston on Aliens. ADI based their designs and modifications of the Alien creatures on the film's script, which included the creatures having pointed tails for swimming, making their head domes and chins more pointed, and establishing them to appear more vicious using techniques of camera angles and shot duration. After receiving the director's approval, ADI began to create small sculptures, sketches, paintings, and life-size models. Referring to the use of animatronics in the film, Twentieth Century Fox executive Tom Rothman stated, "Most movies would be tempted to do the Newborn digitally ... [but] it looks so much more real when you [use] animatronics".🦛 Jeunet asked ADI to lean towards making the human/Alien hybrid creature more human than Alien. An early concept was to replicate Sigourney Weaver's features, although the crew felt this design would be too similar to the design of the creature Sil from the 1995 film Species. Eyes and a nose were added to the hybrid to allow it to have more expressions and communicate more emotion than the xenomorphs, so that it would have more depth as a character rather than being "just a killing machine". Jeunet was adamant about the hybrid having genitalia which resembled a mix of male and female sexes. 20th Century Fox was uncomfortable with this, however, and Jeunet eventually changed his mind, feeling that "even for a Frenchman, it's too much". The genitalia were removed during post-production using digital effects techniques. The animatronic hybrid required nine puppeteers and was the most complex animatronic in the film.🦛 Filming Alien Resurrection was filmed at Fox studios in Los Angeles, California, from October 1996 to February 1997. Jeunet had difficulty securing studio space, as the filming of Hollywood blockbusters such as Titanic, Starship Troopers, and The Lost World: Jurassic Park were taking place at the same time. Alien Resurrection was the first installment in the Alien series to be filmed outside England, a decision made by Weaver, who believed that the previous films' travel schedules exhausted the crew.🦛 The underwater scene was the first to be shot, and for its filming Stage 16 at Fox Studios was reconstructed into a 36-by-45-meter tank, 4.5 meters deep, containing 548,000 gallons of water. The decision was made to convert the stage rather than film the scene elsewhere, since moving the film crew to the nearest adequate facility in San Diego would have been too costly for a single scene, and by converting Stage 16 20th Century Fox would be able to use the tank for future films. Because of the aquatic filming, the ability to swim was a prerequisite for cast and crew when signing onto the film. The cast trained in swimming pools in Los Angeles with professional divers to learn how to use the equipment. An additional two-and-a-half weeks of training took place at the studio with stunt coordinator Ernie Orsatti and underwater cinematographer Peter Romano. Weaver, however, was unable to participate in most of the training due to commitments on Broadway. Winona Ryder faced a challenge with the scene, as she had nearly drowned at age 12 and had not been in the water since. She suggested using a body double, but knew that it would be too obvious to audiences due to the difference in hair length. She filmed the scene, but suffered from anxiety on the first day of filming.🦛 Director Jeunet wanted to display Ripley's new powers, including a scene in which Ripley throws a basketball through a hoop while facing the opposite direction. Weaver trained for ten days and averaged one out of six baskets, although the distance required for filming was farther than she had practiced. Jeunet was concerned about the time being spent on the shot and wanted to either use a machine to throw the ball or to insert it later using computer-generated imagery (CGI). Weaver, however, was determined to make the shot authentic, and insisted on doing it herself. The shot required many dozens of takes, during which none of the balls went in. The crew were going to give up, but gave Weaver one last shot, and in this take, she got the ball in perfectly (the idea that she did it in one take is a myth). The ball was out of frame for a moment during the shot, and Pitof offered to edit it so that the ball was on-screen for the entire scene, but Weaver refused. Ron Perlman broke character when she made the basket, and turned to the camera to say "Oh my god!" There was enough of a pause between Weaver's basket and Perlman's statement for the film's editors to cut the scene accordingly during post-production.🦛 Visual effects and miniatures The film's script was laid out similar to a comic book, with pictures on the left and dialog and descriptions on the right. Jeunet planned every shot, which made it easier for visual effects artists to do their work. Blue Sky Studios was hired to create the first CGI Aliens to appear on film. Impressed with the company's work on Joe's Apartment creating CGI cockroaches, Jeunet and Pitof opted to hire the company to create 30 to 40 shots of CGI Aliens. The decision was made to use CGI Aliens rather than puppets or suited actors whenever the creatures' legs were in frame, as Jeunet felt that a man in a suit is easy to distinguish when the full body is seen.🦛 All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM Auriga was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance.🦛 Argonaut Games, developer of the film's tie-in video game, was also tasked to create a game that would appear in the film titled Atom Zone. The game was created within a time frame of a few days and involved the building of custom hardware to run the game which briefly appears during the film's introduction of the Bettys crew.🦛 Music Composer John Frizzell was encouraged by a friend to audition to compose Alien Resurrection'''s film score. Frizzell sent in four cassettes and received a call from 20th Century Fox about the fourth, which contained music from The Empty Mirror. Impressed with his work, Fox representative Robert Kraft had a short meeting with Frizzell and hired him. Frizzell spent seven months writing and recording the score, which Jeunet requested to be very different and unique from the previous films in the series. This included themes of romance and eroticism, incorporating sound effects such as a gong and rub rod. The cue "They Swim" took one month to complete as Jeunet was not pleased with Frizzell's original version, although the final result was a mix between the first and third versions he had composed. "I'm Popeye the Sailor Man", Popeye's theme song, written by Sammy Lerner, is whistled by Dom Vriess and is credited in the credits.🦛 Release Theatrical The film had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997 before opening in France on November 12. It opened in the United States and Canada on November 26.🦛 Home mediaAlien Resurrection was first released onto home-video in the VHS, LaserDisc and DVD formats on June 2, 1998. The film received its first Blu-ray release as part of the Alien Anthology box set released in 2010 including all four films and their alternate versions. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on May 10, 2011, in a stand-alone feature.🦛 Special editions In 2003, Jeunet included an alternate version of the film on the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set with different opening and closing scenes, which were originally cut due to budget restrictions. The deleted scenes included references to the character Newt from Aliens, Vriess making a joke to Call, Ripley's clone waking up in the middle of her operation, an extended conversation between General Perez and Elgyn, an extended conversation in the mess hall that reveals the eventual fate of Ripley's former employers, Weyland–Yutani, an extended dialogue between Call and Ripley's clone in the chapel and scenes of the Betty landing on Earth and the planet's landscape during the final dialogue between Ripley and Call, as they view the ruins of Paris. The special edition restores 13 minutes and 5 seconds' worth of footage (including the new opening and ending), and is 7 minutes longer than the theatrical version. Jeunet has stated that the special edition is not a director's cut as his preferred version is the theatrical cut. Alien Quadrilogy contains a documentary called One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, featuring over two hours of footage relating to pre-production, production, post-production, screen tests, concept art, and audio commentary by the cast and crew. Alien Resurrection – Collector's Edition, which also includes One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, was released on January 6, 2004.🦛 Reception Box officeAlien Resurrection opened in France on November 12, 1997 on 507 screens and had over 1 million admissions for the week with a gross of $6,754,530, finishing at the top of the French box office. The film was released in the United States and Canada on November 26. Debuting at number two at the box office behind Flubber, Alien Resurrection grossed $25 million in its first five days—$16 million over the weekend, for an average of $6,821 per 2,415 theaters. It went on to gross $47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in the United States and Canada in 1997.🦛 Critical response , of the reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive, and have an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien Resurrection marks a slight improvement over its predecessor, but still lacks the emotional stakes that helped make the franchise's first two entries sci-fi/horror classics." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 63 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.🦛 Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave the film "B+" and stated "By rocketing ahead 200 years from the previous film and jiggering the story cleverly [...] to create a Ripley reconstructed through a mix of human and alien DNA, Alien Resurrection power-kicks the whole definition of the Horrifying Other into a fresh, deep, exhilaratingly thoughtful, millennium-sensitive direction". Radio Times's Alan Jones described the film as "tense, mordantly funny, very graphic, and bloody", and praised Weaver in a four out of five stars review. Houston Chronicle editor Louis B. Parks said "The film is a marvel, a well-photographed feast of visual imagery", while Richard Schickel of Time wrote that it was "Less frightening, but as much fun as ever". The Washington Post contributor Desson Thomson felt it "satisfactorily recycles the great surprises that made the first movie so powerful. And most significantly, it makes a big hoot of the whole business". Andrew Johnston commented in Time Out New York that "If Ripley, Call, and the pirates had been developed further, the film might have been as involving as James Cameron's Aliens, the gold-standard of the series. The film's Techno-Gothic look is gorgeously immersive, however, and Jeunet turns in a number of original (and grotesque) effects sequences that are worth the price of admission". Salon′s Laura Miller noted "Weaver obviously relishes playing this feral, sarcastic new Ripley, and her pleasure is infectious". Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers's review was mostly positive, writing that the film "is sometimes glib and repetitive, but it stays worthy of its predecessors by staying close to its two battered heroines".TV Guide magazine's Maitland McDonagh wrote in her mixed review: "The plot is more of the same old running and screaming, but Weaver is worth the price of admission all by herself, which is just as well in light of the less-than-fleshed-out characters by whom she's surrounded." James Berardinelli also gave a mixed review at ReelViews by writing "If you consider Alien and Aliens to be the main course, then Alien Resurrection is leftovers". Jeffery Overstreet of Looking closer rated the film "C+" and commented "What began as the most menacing movie monster of all has evolved into a whining oaf that looks like it's been dipped in a vat of Cream of Wheat". Janet Maslin from The New York Times reported "The filmmaker's ghoulishly fecund imagination makes this tale murky that even the screen's toughest woman-warrior remains largely stuck in the mud". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, stating "There is not a single shot in the movie to fill one with wonder", later naming it one of the worst films of 1997.🦛 Screenwriter Joss Whedon was unhappy with the final product. When asked in 2005 how the film differed from the script he had written, Whedon responded:🦛 It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines [...] mostly [...] but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they'd changed the script [...] but it wasn't so much that they'd changed the script; it's that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable.🦛 Conversely, H. R. Giger, designer of the original Alien, was pleased with Resurrection, describing it as an "excellent film", but was disappointed about not being credited.🦛 Accolades Other media Book To coincide with the release of the film, a book titled Making of Alien Resurrection was released on November 28, 1997.🦛 Novelization A novelization of the film by A.C. Crispin released on December 1, 1997. Comic books Dark Horse Comics also published a two-issue comic book adaptation.🦛 Video game A video game Alien Resurrection for the PlayStation was released in 2000, developed by Argonaut Games. Future Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, but Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting and sought to return the story to the planetoid from the first film. Weaver has remained open to a role in a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Before 20th Century Fox greenlit Alien vs. Predator, James Cameron had been collaborating on the plot for a fifth Alien film with another writer. Learning of Fox's plans for a crossover, he ceased work on his concept. Before he saw the film, Cameron had stated that it would "kill the validity of the franchise", and that "it was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf"—like "Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other". Although he later admitted to liking Alien vs. Predator, Cameron ruled out any future involvement with the series.🦛 In a 2002 interview, Ridley Scott stated that a new Alien project "would be a lot of fun", but that "the most important thing was to get the story right". Scott's concept for the plot was "to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created". In late 2008, Weaver hinted in an interview with MTV that she and Scott were working on an Alien spinoff film, which would focus on the chronicles of Ellen Ripley rather than on the Aliens, but the continuation of Ripley's story has not materialized. Instead, Prometheus was released on June 8, 2012. A sequel to Prometheus, titled Alien: Covenant, was released on May 19, 2017.🦛 At the 2014 Hero Complex Film Festival, Sigourney Weaver hinted that she would be interested in returning to the role of Ripley, saying: "Had we done a fifth one, I don't doubt that her humanity would have prevailed. I do feel like there is more story to tell. I feel a longing from fans for the story to be finished. I could imagine a situation where we finish telling the story." She was quoted: "I don't think Alien belongs on Earth popping out of a haystack, which is where I was afraid it was going to go. I feel it should take place in the far reaches of the universe where no one in their right mind would go. There are very few filmmakers that I can think of that I would want to entrust this to."🦛 In 2017, 20th Century Fox was rumored to be reassessing the state of the franchise after the lukewarm reception to Covenant, although they have not released an official statement to that effect. According to Collider.com, there will be only one additional prequel film before a soft-reboot is made to the Alien universe consisting of a new series of Alien films with brand-new, original characters as well as a new setting. At the 2019 CinemaCon, following The Walt Disney Company's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, it was officially confirmed that future Alien films were currently in development.🦛	[ "Alien", "Resurrection", "is", "a", "1997", "American", "science", "fiction", "horror", "film,", "directed", "by", "Jean-Pierre", "Jeunet,", "written", "by", "Joss", "Whedon,", "and", "starring", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "and", "Winona", "Ryder.", "It", "is", "the", "fourth", "installment", "of", "the", "Alien", "franchise,", "and", "was", "filmed", "at", "the", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "studios", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California.", "Set", "200", "years", "after", "the", "preceding", "installment,", "Alien", "3", "(1992),", "Ellen", "Ripley", "is", "cloned,", "and", "an", "Alien", "queen", "is", "surgically", "removed", "from", "her", "body.", "The", "United", "Systems", "Military", "(USM)", "hopes", "to", "breed", "Aliens", "to", "study", "and", "research", "on", "the", "spaceship", "USM", "Auriga,", "using", "human", "hosts", "abducted", "and", "delivered", "to", "them", "by", "a", "group", "of", "mercenaries.", "The", "Aliens", "escape", "their", "enclosures,", "and", "Ripley", "and", "the", "mercenaries", "attempt", "to", "escape", "and", "destroy", "the", "Auriga", "before", "it", "reaches", "Earth.", "Additional", "roles", "are", "played", "by", "Ron", "Perlman,", "Dan", "Hedaya,", "J.", "E.", "Freeman,", "Brad", "Dourif,", "and", "Michael", "Wincott.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "had", "its", "premiere", "in", "Paris", "on", "November", "6,", "1997,", "and", "was", "released", "to", "the", "public", "on", "November", "12.", "It", "grossed", "US$47.8 million", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "the", "least", "successful", "of", "the", "Alien", "series", "in", "that", "market.", "It", "grossed", "$161 million", "worldwide.", "The", "film", "received", "mixed", "reviews", "from", "critics,", "who", "criticized", "the", "screenplay", "whilst", "praising", "Weaver's", "performance", "and", "the", "direction.", "The", "film", "was", "nominated", "for", "six", "Saturn", "Awards,", "including", "Best", "Science", "Fiction", "Film,", "Best", "Actress", "for", "Weaver,", "Best", "Supporting", "Actress", "for", "Ryder,", "and", "Best", "Direction", "for", "Jeunet.", "A", "sequel", "to", "Resurrection", "was", "planned,", "as", "Joss", "Whedon", "had", "written", "an", "Earth-set", "script", "for", "Alien", "5.", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "this", "setting,", "but", "has", "remained", "open", "to", "reprising", "her", "role", "as", "Ellen", "Ripley", "for", "a", "fifth", "installment,", "on", "the", "condition", "that", "she", "likes", "the", "story.", "More", "sequels", "were", "planned", "to", "follow", "Resurrection,", "but", "were", "ultimately", "abandoned", "as", "the", "crossover", "series", "arrived", "with", "the", "2004", "film", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "along", "with", "the", "prequel", "series", "including", "the", "2012", "film", "Prometheus.", "The", "storylines", "of", "Resurrection", "have", "been", "continued", "in", "the", "comic", "series", "Aliens", "versus", "Predator", "versus", "The", "Terminator,", "and", "books", "Aliens:", "Original", "Sin", "and", "Alien:", "Sea", "of", "Sorrows.", "Plot", "Two", "hundred", "years", "after", "the", "events", "of", "Alien", "3,", "military", "scientists", "on", "the", "space", "vessel", "USM", "Auriga", "create", "a", "clone", "of", "Ellen", "Ripley,", "designated", "Ripley", "8,", "using", "DNA", "from", "blood", "samples", "taken", "before", "her", "death.", "The", "Xenomorph", "queen's", "DNA", "has", "been", "combined", "with", "Ripley's,", "so", "the", "clone", "grows", "up", "with", "an", "embryo", "inside", "it.", "The", "scientists", "extract", "the", "embryo,", "raise", "it,", "and", "collect", "its", "eggs", "while", "keeping", "Ripley", "8", "alive", "for", "further", "study.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "the", "Xenomorphs'", "DNA", "inside", "her,", "the", "clone", "has", "enhanced", "strength", "and", "reflexes,", "acidic", "blood,", "and", "a", "psychic", "link", "with", "the", "Xenomorphs.", "Additionally,", "the", "Xenomorph's", "genetic", "memory", "allows", "the", "clone", "to", "have", "some", "of", "Ripley's", "memories.", "A", "group", "of", "mercenaries", "consisting", "of", "Elgyn,", "Johner,", "Christie,", "Vriess,", "Hillard,", "and", "Call", "arrives", "at", "Auriga", "on", "their", "ship", "Betty", "and", "deliver", "several", "abducted", "humans", "in", "stasis.", "The", "military", "scientists", "use", "the", "humans", "as", "hosts", "for", "the", "aliens,", "raising", "several", "adult", "Xenomorphs", "for", "study.", "The", "Betty", "crew", "soon", "encounters", "Ripley", "8.", "Annalee", "Call", "recognizes", "her", "name", "and", "tries", "to", "kill", "her,", "suspecting", "that", "Ripley", "8", "may", "be", "used", "to", "create", "Xenomorphs,", "but", "the", "creatures", "have", "already", "been", "cloned.", "The", "mature", "Xenomorphs", "escape", "confinement", "by", "killing", "off", "one", "of", "their", "own", "to", "use", "its", "acidic", "blood", "to", "burn", "through", "their", "enclosures", "and", "capture", "Dr.", "Jonathan", "Gediman.", "They", "damage", "the", "Auriga", "and", "kill", "the", "majority", "of", "the", "crew", "who", "failed", "to", "evacuate,", "including", "General", "Perez", "and", "Elgyn.", "Military", "scientist", "Dr.", "Wren", "reveals", "that", "the", "ship's", "default", "command", "in", "an", "emergency", "is", "to", "return", "to", "Earth.", "Realizing", "that", "this", "will", "unleash", "the", "Xenomorphs", "on", "Earth,", "Ripley", "8,", "the", "mercenaries,", "Wren,", "a", "soldier", "named", "DiStephano,", "and", "surviving", "Xenomorph", "host", "Purvis", "decide", "to", "head", "for", "the", "Betty", "and", "use", "it", "to", "destroy", "the", "Auriga.", "Along", "the", "way,", "Ripley", "8", "discovers", "a", "laboratory", "containing", "the", "grotesque", "results", "of", "the", "previous", "seven", "failed", "attempts", "to", "clone", "Ellen", "Ripley.", "A", "surviving", "one", "begs", "Ripley", "8", "to", "euthanize", "her;", "she", "complies", "and", "then", "incinerates", "the", "lab.", "As", "the", "group", "makes", "their", "way", "through", "the", "damaged", "ship,", "they", "swim", "through", "a", "flooded", "kitchen.", "They", "are", "chased", "by", "two", "Xenomorphs.", "One", "is", "killed,", "while", "the", "other", "snatches", "Hillard.", "As", "they", "escape", "the", "kitchen,", "the", "Xenomorph", "returns", "and", "blinds", "Christie,", "who", "sacrifices", "himself", "to", "kill", "the", "Xenomorph.", "After", "Wren", "betrays", "the", "group,", "Call", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "an", "android.", "Using", "her", "ability", "to", "interface", "with", "the", "Auriga's", "systems,", "Call", "sets", "it", "on", "a", "collision", "course", "with", "Earth,", "hoping", "to", "destroy", "the", "Xenomorphs", "in", "the", "crash.", "She", "cuts", "off", "Wren's", "escape", "route", "and", "directs", "the", "Xenomorphs", "toward", "him.", "Ripley", "8", "is", "captured", "by", "a", "Xenomorph,", "while", "the", "others", "head", "for", "the", "Betty.", "Wren,", "who", "is", "already", "aboard,", "shoots", "Purvis,", "takes", "Call", "hostage,", "and", "demands", "that", "she", "abort", "the", "collision.", "An", "injured", "Purvis", "attacks", "Wren", "and", "forces", "Wren's", "head", "to", "his", "chest", "as", "the", "Xenomorph", "embryo", "he", "is", "carrying", "bursts", "through", "his", "ribcage,", "killing", "them", "both.", "The", "survivors", "shoot", "and", "kill", "the", "juvenile", "Xenomorph.", "Ripley", "is", "taken", "to", "the", "Alien", "nest,", "where", "she", "finds", "Gediman,", "alive", "and", "partially", "cocooned.", "The", "Alien", "queen,", "having", "developed", "a", "uterus", "as", "a", "result", "of", "her", "genetic", "contamination", "with", "Ripley", "8,", "gives", "birth", "to", "a", "Xenomorph", "with", "overtly", "human", "traits.", "Unable", "to", "bond", "with", "the", "queen,", "the", "hybrid", "Xenomorph", "recognizes", "Ripley", "8", "as", "its", "mother,", "so", "it", "kills", "the", "Alien", "queen", "and", "Gediman.", "Ripley", "8", "takes", "advantage", "of", "the", "distraction", "to", "escape", "and", "makes", "her", "way", "to", "the", "Betty.", "The", "newborn", "hybrid", "reaches", "the", "ship", "and", "attacks", "Call,", "killing", "DiStephano", "when", "he", "tries", "to", "help", "her.", "Ripley", "8", "finds", "her", "way", "onto", "the", "ship", "and", "saves", "Call", "by", "distracting", "the", "hybrid.", "Using", "her", "acidic", "blood,", "Ripley", "8", "melts", "a", "hole", "in", "a", "window", "and", "pushes", "the", "hybrid", "towards", "it.", "The", "decompression", "violently", "blows", "the", "creature", "through", "the", "hole", "and", "out", "into", "space", "as", "Ripley", "8", "tearfully", "watches", "on.", "The", "countdown", "on", "the", "Auriga", "continues", "as", "Ripley", "8,", "Call,", "Johner,", "and", "Vriess", "escape", "in", "the", "Betty.", "The", "Auriga", "collides", "with", "Earth,", "causing", "a", "large", "explosion.", "As", "they", "look", "down", "at", "Earth,", "Call", "asks", "what", "Ripley", "8", "wants", "to", "do", "next.", "\"I", "don't", "know.", "I'm", "a", "stranger", "here", "myself,\"", "she", "replies.", "Cast", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "as", "Ellen", "Ripley", "(officially", "designated", "as", "Ripley", "8),", "reprising", "her", "role", "from", "the", "previous", "three", "Alien", "films.", "After", "having", "sacrificed", "herself", "to", "kill", "the", "Alien", "queen", "gestating", "inside", "her", "in", "Alien", "3,", "Ripley", "has", "been", "cloned", "using", "blood", "samples", "so", "that", "the", "military", "may", "extract", "the", "queen", "embryo.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "the", "cloning", "process", "Ripley", "has", "been", "affected", "by", "the", "Alien", "queen's", "DNA.", "She", "has", "enhanced", "strength", "and", "reflexes,", "acidic", "blood,", "and", "the", "ability", "to", "sense", "the", "presence", "of", "the", "Aliens.", "Weaver", "also", "portrayed", "the", "failed", "seventh", "clone.", "Nicole", "Fellows", "as", "Young", "Ripley", "Winona", "Ryder", "as", "Annalee", "Call,", "the", "newest", "crew", "member", "of", "the", "Betty.", "She", "recognizes", "Ripley", "and", "has", "knowledge", "of", "the", "Aliens.", "Call", "is", "revealed", "during", "the", "course", "of", "the", "film", "to", "be", "a", "synthetic", "and", "helps", "the", "surviving", "crew", "interface", "with", "the", "Auriga.", "Dominique", "Pinon", "as", "Dom", "Vriess,", "the", "Bettys", "mechanic.", "A", "paraplegic,", "he", "uses", "a", "motorized", "wheelchair.", "Vriess", "shares", "a", "close", "friendship", "with", "Call", "and", "an", "antagonistic", "relationship", "with", "Johner.", "Ron", "Perlman", "as", "Ron", "Johner,", "a", "mercenary", "and", "member", "of", "the", "Bettys", "crew.", "Johner", "makes", "bad", "jokes,", "has", "a", "short", "temper,", "and", "teases", "Vriess", "about", "his", "handicap.", "Gary", "Dourdan", "as", "Gary", "Christie,", "the", "first", "mate", "and", "second-in-command", "of", "the", "Betty.", "Michael", "Wincott", "as", "Frank", "Elgyn,", "captain", "of", "the", "mercenary", "ship", "Betty.", "Elgyn", "brings", "the", "Betty", "to", "the", "Auriga", "in", "order", "to", "sell", "kidnapped", "humans", "in", "cryostasis", "to", "General", "Perez.", "He", "is", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Hillard.", "Kim", "Flowers", "as", "Sabra", "Hillard,", "the", "assistant", "pilot", "of", "the", "Betty", "who", "is", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Elgyn.", "Dan", "Hedaya", "as", "General", "Martin", "Perez.", "Perez", "is", "the", "commanding", "officer", "of", "the", "Auriga", "and", "supervises", "the", "experiments", "to", "clone", "Ripley", "and", "study", "the", "Aliens.", "J.", "E.", "Freeman", "as", "Dr.", "Mason", "Wren.", "Wren", "is", "one", "of", "several", "scientists", "aboard", "the", "Auriga", "involved", "in", "cloning", "Ripley", "and", "studying", "the", "Aliens.", "After", "the", "Aliens", "escape", "he", "joins", "the", "lead", "characters", "in", "their", "attempt", "to", "flee", "the", "ship.", "Brad", "Dourif", "as", "Dr.", "Jonathan", "Gediman,", "another", "of", "the", "scientists", "involved", "in", "cloning", "Ripley", "and", "studying", "the", "Aliens.", "One", "alien", "attacks", "him", "after", "he", "tries", "to", "chase", "them.", "Raymond", "Cruz", "as", "Vincent", "DiStephano.", "DiStephano", "is", "a", "soldier", "stationed", "aboard", "the", "Auriga.", "When", "the", "Aliens", "break", "out,", "he", "joins", "the", "crew", "in", "their", "attempt", "to", "escape", "from", "the", "ship.", "Leland", "Orser", "as", "Larry", "Purvis.", "Purvis", "is", "one", "of", "several", "humans", "who", "have", "been", "kidnapped", "by", "the", "crew", "of", "the", "Betty", "while", "in", "cryosleep", "and", "delivered", "to", "the", "Auriga", "to", "serve", "as", "hosts", "for", "the", "Aliens.", "Despite", "having", "an", "Alien", "growing", "inside", "him,", "Purvis", "joins", "the", "surviving", "crew", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "escape", "from", "the", "Auriga.", "Carolyn", "Campbell", "as", "Anesthesiologist", "Marlene", "Bush", "as", "Dr.", "Carlyn", "Williamson", "(credited", "as", "\"Scientist\"),", "the", "third", "member", "of", "the", "science", "team", "responsible", "for", "cloning", "Ripley.", "She", "is", "often", "confused", "with", "Carolyn", "Campbell's", "character,", "as", "the", "two", "look", "strikingly", "similar.", "David", "St.", "James", "as", "Dr.", "Dan", "Sprague", "(credited", "as", "\"Surgeon\"),", "another", "member", "of", "the", "Aurigas", "science", "team.", "Tom", "Woodruff", "Jr.", "as", "the", "lead", "Alien,", "Alien", "queen,", "and", "the", "Newborn.", "Woodruff", "had", "previously", "played", "the", "Alien", "in", "Alien", "3,", "and", "described", "the", "Alien", "in", "Resurrection", "as", "feeling", "\"much", "more", "like", "a", "dog.", "It's", "got", "dog", "legs,", "a", "more", "pointed", "nose,", "and", "a", "more", "vicious", "mouth.\"", "Weaver", "praised", "Woodruff's", "work,", "saying", "that", "\"working", "with", "him", "is", "like", "working", "with", "Lon", "Chaney,", "only", "Tom's", "usually", "covered", "with", "K-Y", "Jelly.\"", "Woodruff", "also", "played", "the", "lead", "Alien", "in", "the", "crossover", "films,", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator", "and", "Aliens", "vs.", "Predator:", "Requiem.", "Joan", "La", "Barbara", "as", "The", "Newborn", "(voice)", "Archie", "Hahn", "as", "The", "Newborn", "(voice)", "Steven", "Gilborn", "as", "Father", "(voice).", "The", "artificial", "intelligence", "system", "of", "the", "USM", "Auriga.", "Production", "Origins", "Impressed", "with", "his", "work", "as", "a", "screenwriter,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "hired", "Joss", "Whedon", "to", "write", "the", "film's", "script.", "Whedon's", "initial", "screenplay", "had", "a", "third", "act", "on", "Earth,", "with", "a", "final", "battle", "for", "Earth", "itself.", "Whedon", "wrote", "five", "versions", "of", "the", "final", "act,", "none", "of", "which", "ended", "up", "in", "the", "film.", "The", "studio", "initially", "imagined", "that", "the", "film", "would", "center", "around", "a", "clone", "of", "the", "character", "Newt", "from", "Aliens,", "as", "the", "Ellen", "Ripley", "character", "had", "died", "at", "the", "end", "of", "Alien", "3.", "Whedon", "composed", "a", "thirty-page", "treatment", "surrounding", "this", "idea", "before", "being", "informed", "that", "the", "studio,", "though", "impressed", "with", "his", "script,", "now", "intended", "to", "base", "the", "story", "on", "a", "clone", "of", "Ripley,", "whom", "they", "saw", "as", "the", "anchor", "of", "the", "series.", "Whedon", "had", "to", "rewrite", "the", "script", "in", "a", "way", "that", "would", "bring", "back", "the", "Ripley", "character,", "a", "task", "he", "found", "difficult.", "The", "idea", "of", "cloning", "was", "suggested", "by", "producers", "David", "Giler", "and", "Walter", "Hill,", "who", "opposed", "the", "production", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "as", "they", "thought", "it", "would", "ruin", "the", "franchise.", "Sigourney", "Weaver,", "who", "had", "played", "Ripley", "throughout", "the", "series,", "wanted", "to", "liberate", "the", "character", "in", "Alien", "3", "as", "she", "did", "not", "want", "Ripley", "to", "become", "\"a", "figure", "of", "fun\"", "who", "would", "continuously", "\"wake", "up", "with", "monsters", "running", "around\".", "The", "possibility", "of", "an", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator", "film", "was", "another", "reason", "for", "the", "character's", "death,", "as", "she", "thought", "the", "concept", "\"sounded", "awful\".", "However,", "Weaver", "was", "impressed", "with", "Whedon's", "script.", "She", "thought", "that", "the", "error", "during", "Ripley's", "cloning", "process", "would", "allow", "her", "to", "further", "explore", "the", "character,", "since", "Ripley", "becoming", "part-human", "and", "part-Alien", "would", "create", "uncertainty", "about", "where", "her", "loyalties", "lay.", "This", "was", "an", "interesting", "concept", "to", "Weaver,", "who", "thought", "the", "film", "brought", "back", "the", "spirit", "of", "Alien", "and", "Aliens.", "Weaver", "received", "a", "co-producer", "credit", "and", "was", "reportedly", "paid", "$11 million.", "Direction", "and", "design", "Trainspotting", "director", "Danny", "Boyle", "was", "the", "producers'", "first", "choice", "to", "direct", "the", "film.", "Boyle", "and", "his", "producer", "met", "with", "effects", "supervisors", "to", "discuss", "the", "film,", "but", "he", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "pursuing", "the", "project", "and", "went", "on", "to", "make", "A", "Life", "Less", "Ordinary", "instead.", "Peter", "Jackson", "was", "also", "approached,", "but", "declined", "as", "he", "could", "not", "get", "excited", "about", "an", "Alien", "film.", "In", "1995,", "after", "the", "release", "of", "The", "Usual", "Suspects,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "approached", "Bryan", "Singer", "to", "direct.", "Jean-Pierre", "Jeunet", "was", "asked", "to", "direct,", "as", "the", "film's", "producers", "believed", "he", "had", "a", "unique", "visual", "style.", "Jeunet", "had", "just", "completed", "the", "script", "to", "Amélie", "and", "was", "surprised", "he", "was", "offered", "the", "job", "for", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "as", "he", "thought", "the", "franchise", "had", "finished", "with", "Alien", "3", "and", "believed", "that", "making", "a", "sequel", "was", "a", "bad", "idea.", "Jeunet,", "however,", "accepted", "the", "project", "with", "a", "budget", "of", "$70 million.", "He", "required", "an", "interpreter", "as", "he", "did", "not", "speak", "much", "English", "when", "filming", "began.", "Jeunet", "hired", "French", "special", "effects", "supervisor", "Pitof", "and", "cinematographer", "Darius", "Khondji,", "both", "of", "whom", "he", "had", "worked", "with", "on", "The", "City", "of", "Lost", "Children.", "Nigel", "Phelps", "was", "chosen", "for", "production", "designer,", "having", "made", "a", "name", "for", "himself", "designing", "Gotham", "City", "in", "Batman", "and", "Mega-City", "One", "in", "Judge", "Dredd.", "Jeunet", "and", "his", "crew", "watched", "the", "latest", "science", "fiction", "and", "Alien", "films", "as", "reference", "material,", "and", "obtained", "production", "reports", "from", "the", "Alien", "films", "to", "study", "the", "camera", "setups.", "Jeunet", "was", "given", "creative", "control,", "contributing", "several", "elements", "to", "the", "script", "including", "five", "different", "endings,", "although", "the", "expensive", "ones", "were", "dismissed.", "He", "also", "opted", "to", "make", "the", "film", "a", "dark", "comedy", "and", "was", "encouraged", "to", "include", "more", "violence.", "In", "June", "1996,", "Jeunet's", "frequent", "co-director,", "conceptual", "artist", "Marc", "Caro", "had", "drawn", "rough", "sketches", "of", "characters'", "costumes,", "which", "were", "shown", "to", "veteran", "costume", "designer", "Bob", "Ringwood.", "Ringwood", "made", "several", "modifications", "for", "the", "final", "design.", "Creatures", "Special", "effects", "company", "Amalgamated", "Dynamics", "Incorporated", "(ADI)", "was", "hired", "for", "the", "film,", "having", "previously", "worked", "on", "Alien", "3.", "ADI", "founders", "Tom", "Woodruff", "Jr.", "and", "Alec", "Gillis", "also", "had", "experience", "working", "with", "Stan", "Winston", "on", "Aliens.", "ADI", "based", "their", "designs", "and", "modifications", "of", "the", "Alien", "creatures", "on", "the", "film's", "script,", "which", "included", "the", "creatures", "having", "pointed", "tails", "for", "swimming,", "making", "their", "head", "domes", "and", "chins", "more", "pointed,", "and", "establishing", "them", "to", "appear", "more", "vicious", "using", "techniques", "of", "camera", "angles", "and", "shot", "duration.", "After", "receiving", "the", "director's", "approval,", "ADI", "began", "to", "create", "small", "sculptures,", "sketches,", "paintings,", "and", "life-size", "models.", "Referring", "to", "the", "use", "of", "animatronics", "in", "the", "film,", "Twentieth", "Century", "Fox", "executive", "Tom", "Rothman", "stated,", "\"Most", "movies", "would", "be", "tempted", "to", "do", "the", "Newborn", "digitally", "...", "[but]", "it", "looks", "so", "much", "more", "real", "when", "you", "[use]", "animatronics\".", "Jeunet", "asked", "ADI", "to", "lean", "towards", "making", "the", "human/Alien", "hybrid", "creature", "more", "human", "than", "Alien.", "An", "early", "concept", "was", "to", "replicate", "Sigourney", "Weaver's", "features,", "although", "the", "crew", "felt", "this", "design", "would", "be", "too", "similar", "to", "the", "design", "of", "the", "creature", "Sil", "from", "the", "1995", "film", "Species.", "Eyes", "and", "a", "nose", "were", "added", "to", "the", "hybrid", "to", "allow", "it", "to", "have", "more", "expressions", "and", "communicate", "more", "emotion", "than", "the", "xenomorphs,", "so", "that", "it", "would", "have", "more", "depth", "as", "a", "character", "rather", "than", "being", "\"just", "a", "killing", "machine\".", "Jeunet", "was", "adamant", "about", "the", "hybrid", "having", "genitalia", "which", "resembled", "a", "mix", "of", "male", "and", "female", "sexes.", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "was", "uncomfortable", "with", "this,", "however,", "and", "Jeunet", "eventually", "changed", "his", "mind,", "feeling", "that", "\"even", "for", "a", "Frenchman,", "it's", "too", "much\".", "The", "genitalia", "were", "removed", "during", "post-production", "using", "digital", "effects", "techniques.", "The", "animatronic", "hybrid", "required", "nine", "puppeteers", "and", "was", "the", "most", "complex", "animatronic", "in", "the", "film.", "Filming", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "filmed", "at", "Fox", "studios", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California,", "from", "October", "1996", "to", "February", "1997.", "Jeunet", "had", "difficulty", "securing", "studio", "space,", "as", "the", "filming", "of", "Hollywood", "blockbusters", "such", "as", "Titanic,", "Starship", "Troopers,", "and", "The", "Lost", "World:", "Jurassic", "Park", "were", "taking", "place", "at", "the", "same", "time.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "the", "first", "installment", "in", "the", "Alien", "series", "to", "be", "filmed", "outside", "England,", "a", "decision", "made", "by", "Weaver,", "who", "believed", "that", "the", "previous", "films'", "travel", "schedules", "exhausted", "the", "crew.", "The", "underwater", "scene", "was", "the", "first", "to", "be", "shot,", "and", "for", "its", "filming", "Stage", "16", "at", "Fox", "Studios", "was", "reconstructed", "into", "a", "36-by-45-meter", "tank,", "4.5 meters", "deep,", "containing", "548,000 gallons", "of", "water.", "The", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "convert", "the", "stage", "rather", "than", "film", "the", "scene", "elsewhere,", "since", "moving", "the", "film", "crew", "to", "the", "nearest", "adequate", "facility", "in", "San", "Diego", "would", "have", "been", "too", "costly", "for", "a", "single", "scene,", "and", "by", "converting", "Stage", "16", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "would", "be", "able", "to", "use", "the", "tank", "for", "future", "films.", "Because", "of", "the", "aquatic", "filming,", "the", "ability", "to", "swim", "was", "a", "prerequisite", "for", "cast", "and", "crew", "when", "signing", "onto", "the", "film.", "The", "cast", "trained", "in", "swimming", "pools", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "with", "professional", "divers", "to", "learn", "how", "to", "use", "the", "equipment.", "An", "additional", "two-and-a-half", "weeks", "of", "training", "took", "place", "at", "the", "studio", "with", "stunt", "coordinator", "Ernie", "Orsatti", "and", "underwater", "cinematographer", "Peter", "Romano.", "Weaver,", "however,", "was", "unable", "to", "participate", "in", "most", "of", "the", "training", "due", "to", "commitments", "on", "Broadway.", "Winona", "Ryder", "faced", "a", "challenge", "with", "the", "scene,", "as", "she", "had", "nearly", "drowned", "at", "age", "12", "and", "had", "not", "been", "in", "the", "water", "since.", "She", "suggested", "using", "a", "body", "double,", "but", "knew", "that", "it", "would", "be", "too", "obvious", "to", "audiences", "due", "to", "the", "difference", "in", "hair", "length.", "She", "filmed", "the", "scene,", "but", "suffered", "from", "anxiety", "on", "the", "first", "day", "of", "filming.", "Director", "Jeunet", "wanted", "to", "display", "Ripley's", "new", "powers,", "including", "a", "scene", "in", "which", "Ripley", "throws", "a", "basketball", "through", "a", "hoop", "while", "facing", "the", "opposite", "direction.", "Weaver", "trained", "for", "ten", "days", "and", "averaged", "one", "out", "of", "six", "baskets,", "although", "the", "distance", "required", "for", "filming", "was", "farther", "than", "she", "had", "practiced.", "Jeunet", "was", "concerned", "about", "the", "time", "being", "spent", "on", "the", "shot", "and", "wanted", "to", "either", "use", "a", "machine", "to", "throw", "the", "ball", "or", "to", "insert", "it", "later", "using", "computer-generated", "imagery", "(CGI).", "Weaver,", "however,", "was", "determined", "to", "make", "the", "shot", "authentic,", "and", "insisted", "on", "doing", "it", "herself.", "The", "shot", "required", "many", "dozens", "of", "takes,", "during", "which", "none", "of", "the", "balls", "went", "in.", "The", "crew", "were", "going", "to", "give", "up,", "but", "gave", "Weaver", "one", "last", "shot,", "and", "in", "this", "take,", "she", "got", "the", "ball", "in", "perfectly", "(the", "idea", "that", "she", "did", "it", "in", "one", "take", "is", "a", "myth).", "The", "ball", "was", "out", "of", "frame", "for", "a", "moment", "during", "the", "shot,", "and", "Pitof", "offered", "to", "edit", "it", "so", "that", "the", "ball", "was", "on-screen", "for", "the", "entire", "scene,", "but", "Weaver", "refused.", "Ron", "Perlman", "broke", "character", "when", "she", "made", "the", "basket,", "and", "turned", "to", "the", "camera", "to", "say", "\"Oh", "my", "god!\"", "There", "was", "enough", "of", "a", "pause", "between", "Weaver's", "basket", "and", "Perlman's", "statement", "for", "the", "film's", "editors", "to", "cut", "the", "scene", "accordingly", "during", "post-production.", "Visual", "effects", "and", "miniatures", "The", "film's", "script", "was", "laid", "out", "similar", "to", "a", "comic", "book,", "with", "pictures", "on", "the", "left", "and", "dialog", "and", "descriptions", "on", "the", "right.", "Jeunet", "planned", "every", "shot,", "which", "made", "it", "easier", "for", "visual", "effects", "artists", "to", "do", "their", "work.", "Blue", "Sky", "Studios", "was", "hired", "to", "create", "the", "first", "CGI", "Aliens", "to", "appear", "on", "film.", "Impressed", "with", "the", "company's", "work", "on", "Joe's", "Apartment", "creating", "CGI", "cockroaches,", "Jeunet", "and", "Pitof", "opted", "to", "hire", "the", "company", "to", "create", "30", "to", "40", "shots", "of", "CGI", "Aliens.", "The", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "use", "CGI", "Aliens", "rather", "than", "puppets", "or", "suited", "actors", "whenever", "the", "creatures'", "legs", "were", "in", "frame,", "as", "Jeunet", "felt", "that", "a", "man", "in", "a", "suit", "is", "easy", "to", "distinguish", "when", "the", "full", "body", "is", "seen.", "All", "of", "the", "spaceships", "in", "the", "film", "were", "miniatures,", "as", "visual", "effects", "supervisors", "believed", "CGI", "was", "not", "effective", "enough", "to", "create", "realistic", "spaceships.", "The", "USM", "Auriga", "was", "originally", "designed", "by", "artist", "Nigel", "Phelps", "and", "resembled", "a", "medical", "instrument.", "This", "design", "proved", "to", "be", "too", "vertical", "for", "the", "film's", "opening", "shot,", "in", "which", "the", "camera", "pans", "out", "to", "show", "the", "ship,", "and", "did", "not", "appear", "satisfactory", "in", "the", "film's", "2.35:1", "aspect", "ratio.", "Three", "days", "before", "the", "design", "had", "to", "be", "finalized,", "Jeunet", "rejected", "it.", "Phelps,", "production", "illustrator", "Jim", "Martin,", "and", "concept", "artist", "Sylvain", "Despretz", "were", "tasked", "to", "redesign", "the", "ship.", "Jeunet", "felt", "Martin's", "design", "was", "too", "much", "like", "a", "space", "station,", "while", "he", "accepted", "Despretz's", "design", "due", "to", "its", "streamlined", "and", "horizontal", "appearance.", "Argonaut", "Games,", "developer", "of", "the", "film's", "tie-in", "video", "game,", "was", "also", "tasked", "to", "create", "a", "game", "that", "would", "appear", "in", "the", "film", "titled", "Atom", "Zone.", "The", "game", "was", "created", "within", "a", "time", "frame", "of", "a", "few", "days", "and", "involved", "the", "building", "of", "custom", "hardware", "to", "run", "the", "game", "which", "briefly", "appears", "during", "the", "film's", "introduction", "of", "the", "Bettys", "crew.", "Music", "Composer", "John", "Frizzell", "was", "encouraged", "by", "a", "friend", "to", "audition", "to", "compose", "Alien", "Resurrection'''s", "film", "score.", "Frizzell", "sent", "in", "four", "cassettes", "and", "received", "a", "call", "from", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "about", "the", "fourth,", "which", "contained", "music", "from", "The", "Empty", "Mirror.", "Impressed", "with", "his", "work,", "Fox", "representative", "Robert", "Kraft", "had", "a", "short", "meeting", "with", "Frizzell", "and", "hired", "him.", "Frizzell", "spent", "seven", "months", "writing", "and", "recording", "the", "score,", "which", "Jeunet", "requested", "to", "be", "very", "different", "and", "unique", "from", "the", "previous", "films", "in", "the", "series.", "This", "included", "themes", "of", "romance", "and", "eroticism,", "incorporating", "sound", "effects", "such", "as", "a", "gong", "and", "rub", "rod.", "The", "cue", "\"They", "Swim\"", "took", "one", "month", "to", "complete", "as", "Jeunet", "was", "not", "pleased", "with", "Frizzell's", "original", "version,", "although", "the", "final", "result", "was", "a", "mix", "between", "the", "first", "and", "third", "versions", "he", "had", "composed.", "\"I'm", "Popeye", "the", "Sailor", "Man\",", "Popeye's", "theme", "song,", "written", "by", "Sammy", "Lerner,", "is", "whistled", "by", "Dom", "Vriess", "and", "is", "credited", "in", "the", "credits.", "Release", "Theatrical", "The", "film", "had", "its", "premiere", "in", "Paris", "on", "November", "6,", "1997", "before", "opening", "in", "France", "on", "November", "12.", "It", "opened", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "on", "November", "26.", "Home", "mediaAlien", "Resurrection", "was", "first", "released", "onto", "home-video", "in", "the", "VHS,", "LaserDisc", "and", "DVD", "formats", "on", "June", "2,", "1998.", "The", "film", "received", "its", "first", "Blu-ray", "release", "as", "part", "of", "the", "Alien", "Anthology", "box", "set", "released", "in", "2010", "including", "all", "four", "films", "and", "their", "alternate", "versions.", "The", "film", "was", "re-released", "on", "Blu-ray", "on", "May", "10,", "2011,", "in", "a", "stand-alone", "feature.", "Special", "editions", "In", "2003,", "Jeunet", "included", "an", "alternate", "version", "of", "the", "film", "on", "the", "Alien", "Quadrilogy", "DVD", "box", "set", "with", "different", "opening", "and", "closing", "scenes,", "which", "were", "originally", "cut", "due", "to", "budget", "restrictions.", "The", "deleted", "scenes", "included", "references", "to", "the", "character", "Newt", "from", "Aliens,", "Vriess", "making", "a", "joke", "to", "Call,", "Ripley's", "clone", "waking", "up", "in", "the", "middle", "of", "her", "operation,", "an", "extended", "conversation", "between", "General", "Perez", "and", "Elgyn,", "an", "extended", "conversation", "in", "the", "mess", "hall", "that", "reveals", "the", "eventual", "fate", "of", "Ripley's", "former", "employers,", "Weyland–Yutani,", "an", "extended", "dialogue", "between", "Call", "and", "Ripley's", "clone", "in", "the", "chapel", "and", "scenes", "of", "the", "Betty", "landing", "on", "Earth", "and", "the", "planet's", "landscape", "during", "the", "final", "dialogue", "between", "Ripley", "and", "Call,", "as", "they", "view", "the", "ruins", "of", "Paris.", "The", "special", "edition", "restores", "13", "minutes", "and", "5", "seconds'", "worth", "of", "footage", "(including", "the", "new", "opening", "and", "ending),", "and", "is", "7", "minutes", "longer", "than", "the", "theatrical", "version.", "Jeunet", "has", "stated", "that", "the", "special", "edition", "is", "not", "a", "director's", "cut", "as", "his", "preferred", "version", "is", "the", "theatrical", "cut.", "Alien", "Quadrilogy", "contains", "a", "documentary", "called", "One", "Step", "Beyond:", "The", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "featuring", "over", "two", "hours", "of", "footage", "relating", "to", "pre-production,", "production,", "post-production,", "screen", "tests,", "concept", "art,", "and", "audio", "commentary", "by", "the", "cast", "and", "crew.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "–", "Collector's", "Edition,", "which", "also", "includes", "One", "Step", "Beyond:", "The", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "was", "released", "on", "January", "6,", "2004.", "Reception", "Box", "officeAlien", "Resurrection", "opened", "in", "France", "on", "November", "12,", "1997", "on", "507", "screens", "and", "had", "over", "1", "million", "admissions", "for", "the", "week", "with", "a", "gross", "of", "$6,754,530,", "finishing", "at", "the", "top", "of", "the", "French", "box", "office.", "The", "film", "was", "released", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "on", "November", "26.", "Debuting", "at", "number", "two", "at", "the", "box", "office", "behind", "Flubber,", "Alien", "Resurrection", "grossed", "$25 million", "in", "its", "first", "five", "days—$16 million", "over", "the", "weekend,", "for", "an", "average", "of", "$6,821", "per", "2,415", "theaters.", "It", "went", "on", "to", "gross", "$47.8 million", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "the", "least", "successful", "of", "the", "Alien", "series", "in", "that", "market.", "It", "was", "well", "received", "internationally,", "however,", "with", "a", "gross", "of", "$113.6 million,", "bringing", "its", "total", "gross", "to", "$161.4 million.", "It", "was", "the", "43rd-highest-grossing", "film", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "in", "1997.", "Critical", "response", ",", "of", "the", "reviews", "compiled", "by", "Rotten", "Tomatoes", "are", "positive,", "and", "have", "an", "average", "rating", "of", ".", "The", "website's", "critical", "consensus", "reads,", "\"Alien", "Resurrection", "marks", "a", "slight", "improvement", "over", "its", "predecessor,", "but", "still", "lacks", "the", "emotional", "stakes", "that", "helped", "make", "the", "franchise's", "first", "two", "entries", "sci-fi/horror", "classics.\"", "Metacritic", "assigned", "the", "film", "a", "score", "of", "63", "out", "of", "100,", "based", "on", "21", "reviews,", "indicating", "\"generally", "favorable", "reviews\".", "Audiences", "polled", "by", "CinemaScore", "gave", "the", "film", "an", "average", "grade", "of", "\"B−\"", "on", "an", "A+", "to", "F", "scale.", "Lisa", "Schwarzbaum", "from", "Entertainment", "Weekly", "gave", "the", "film", "\"B+\"", "and", "stated", "\"By", "rocketing", "ahead", "200", "years", "from", "the", "previous", "film", "and", "jiggering", "the", "story", "cleverly", "[...]", "to", "create", "a", "Ripley", "reconstructed", "through", "a", "mix", "of", "human", "and", "alien", "DNA,", "Alien", "Resurrection", "power-kicks", "the", "whole", "definition", "of", "the", "Horrifying", "Other", "into", "a", "fresh,", "deep,", "exhilaratingly", "thoughtful,", "millennium-sensitive", "direction\".", "Radio", "Times's", "Alan", "Jones", "described", "the", "film", "as", "\"tense,", "mordantly", "funny,", "very", "graphic,", "and", "bloody\",", "and", "praised", "Weaver", "in", "a", "four", "out", "of", "five", "stars", "review.", "Houston", "Chronicle", "editor", "Louis", "B.", "Parks", "said", "\"The", "film", "is", "a", "marvel,", "a", "well-photographed", "feast", "of", "visual", "imagery\",", "while", "Richard", "Schickel", "of", "Time", "wrote", "that", "it", "was", "\"Less", "frightening,", "but", "as", "much", "fun", "as", "ever\".", "The", "Washington", "Post", "contributor", "Desson", "Thomson", "felt", "it", "\"satisfactorily", "recycles", "the", "great", "surprises", "that", "made", "the", "first", "movie", "so", "powerful.", "And", "most", "significantly,", "it", "makes", "a", "big", "hoot", "of", "the", "whole", "business\".", "Andrew", "Johnston", "commented", "in", "Time", "Out", "New", "York", "that", "\"If", "Ripley,", "Call,", "and", "the", "pirates", "had", "been", "developed", "further,", "the", "film", "might", "have", "been", "as", "involving", "as", "James", "Cameron's", "Aliens,", "the", "gold-standard", "of", "the", "series.", "The", "film's", "Techno-Gothic", "look", "is", "gorgeously", "immersive,", "however,", "and", "Jeunet", "turns", "in", "a", "number", "of", "original", "(and", "grotesque)", "effects", "sequences", "that", "are", "worth", "the", "price", "of", "admission\".", "Salon′s", "Laura", "Miller", "noted", "\"Weaver", "obviously", "relishes", "playing", "this", "feral,", "sarcastic", "new", "Ripley,", "and", "her", "pleasure", "is", "infectious\".", "Rolling", "Stone", "critic", "Peter", "Travers's", "review", "was", "mostly", "positive,", "writing", "that", "the", "film", "\"is", "sometimes", "glib", "and", "repetitive,", "but", "it", "stays", "worthy", "of", "its", "predecessors", "by", "staying", "close", "to", "its", "two", "battered", "heroines\".TV", "Guide", "magazine's", "Maitland", "McDonagh", "wrote", "in", "her", "mixed", "review:", "\"The", "plot", "is", "more", "of", "the", "same", "old", "running", "and", "screaming,", "but", "Weaver", "is", "worth", "the", "price", "of", "admission", "all", "by", "herself,", "which", "is", "just", "as", "well", "in", "light", "of", "the", "less-than-fleshed-out", "characters", "by", "whom", "she's", "surrounded.\"", "James", "Berardinelli", "also", "gave", "a", "mixed", "review", "at", "ReelViews", "by", "writing", "\"If", "you", "consider", "Alien", "and", "Aliens", "to", "be", "the", "main", "course,", "then", "Alien", "Resurrection", "is", "leftovers\".", "Jeffery", "Overstreet", "of", "Looking", "closer", "rated", "the", "film", "\"C+\"", "and", "commented", "\"What", "began", "as", "the", "most", "menacing", "movie", "monster", "of", "all", "has", "evolved", "into", "a", "whining", "oaf", "that", "looks", "like", "it's", "been", "dipped", "in", "a", "vat", "of", "Cream", "of", "Wheat\".", "Janet", "Maslin", "from", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "reported", "\"The", "filmmaker's", "ghoulishly", "fecund", "imagination", "makes", "this", "tale", "murky", "that", "even", "the", "screen's", "toughest", "woman-warrior", "remains", "largely", "stuck", "in", "the", "mud\".", "Roger", "Ebert", "of", "the", "Chicago", "Sun-Times", "gave", "the", "film", "a", "negative", "review,", "stating", "\"There", "is", "not", "a", "single", "shot", "in", "the", "movie", "to", "fill", "one", "with", "wonder\",", "later", "naming", "it", "one", "of", "the", "worst", "films", "of", "1997.", "Screenwriter", "Joss", "Whedon", "was", "unhappy", "with", "the", "final", "product.", "When", "asked", "in", "2005", "how", "the", "film", "differed", "from", "the", "script", "he", "had", "written,", "Whedon", "responded:", "It", "wasn't", "a", "question", "of", "doing", "everything", "differently,", "although", "they", "changed", "the", "ending;", "it", "was", "mostly", "a", "matter", "of", "doing", "everything", "wrong.", "They", "said", "the", "lines", "[...]", "mostly", "[...]", "but", "they", "said", "them", "all", "wrong.", "And", "they", "cast", "it", "wrong.", "And", "they", "designed", "it", "wrong.", "And", "they", "scored", "it", "wrong.", "They", "did", "everything", "wrong", "that", "they", "could", "possibly", "do.", "There's", "actually", "a", "fascinating", "lesson", "in", "filmmaking,", "because", "everything", "that", "they", "did", "reflects", "back", "to", "the", "script", "or", "looks", "like", "something", "from", "the", "script,", "and", "people", "assume", "that,", "if", "I", "hated", "it,", "then", "they'd", "changed", "the", "script", "[...]", "but", "it", "wasn't", "so", "much", "that", "they'd", "changed", "the", "script;", "it's", "that", "they", "just", "executed", "it", "in", "such", "a", "ghastly", "fashion", "as", "to", "render", "it", "almost", "unwatchable.", "Conversely,", "H.", "R.", "Giger,", "designer", "of", "the", "original", "Alien,", "was", "pleased", "with", "Resurrection,", "describing", "it", "as", "an", "\"excellent", "film\",", "but", "was", "disappointed", "about", "not", "being", "credited.", "Accolades", "Other", "media", "Book", "To", "coincide", "with", "the", "release", "of", "the", "film,", "a", "book", "titled", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "released", "on", "November", "28,", "1997.", "Novelization", "A", "novelization", "of", "the", "film", "by", "A.C.", "Crispin", "released", "on", "December", "1,", "1997.", "Comic", "books", "Dark", "Horse", "Comics", "also", "published", "a", "two-issue", "comic", "book", "adaptation.", "Video", "game", "A", "video", "game", "Alien", "Resurrection", "for", "the", "PlayStation", "was", "released", "in", "2000,", "developed", "by", "Argonaut", "Games.", "Future", "Joss", "Whedon", "had", "written", "an", "Earth-set", "script", "for", "Alien", "5,", "but", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "this", "setting", "and", "sought", "to", "return", "the", "story", "to", "the", "planetoid", "from", "the", "first", "film.", "Weaver", "has", "remained", "open", "to", "a", "role", "in", "a", "fifth", "installment", "on", "the", "condition", "that", "she", "likes", "the", "story.", "Before", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "greenlit", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "James", "Cameron", "had", "been", "collaborating", "on", "the", "plot", "for", "a", "fifth", "Alien", "film", "with", "another", "writer.", "Learning", "of", "Fox's", "plans", "for", "a", "crossover,", "he", "ceased", "work", "on", "his", "concept.", "Before", "he", "saw", "the", "film,", "Cameron", "had", "stated", "that", "it", "would", "\"kill", "the", "validity", "of", "the", "franchise\",", "and", "that", "\"it", "was", "Frankenstein", "Meets", "Werewolf\"—like", "\"Universal", "just", "taking", "their", "assets", "and", "starting", "to", "play", "them", "off", "against", "each", "other\".", "Although", "he", "later", "admitted", "to", "liking", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "Cameron", "ruled", "out", "any", "future", "involvement", "with", "the", "series.", "In", "a", "2002", "interview,", "Ridley", "Scott", "stated", "that", "a", "new", "Alien", "project", "\"would", "be", "a", "lot", "of", "fun\",", "but", "that", "\"the", "most", "important", "thing", "was", "to", "get", "the", "story", "right\".", "Scott's", "concept", "for", "the", "plot", "was", "\"to", "go", "back", "to", "where", "the", "alien", "creatures", "were", "first", "found", "and", "explain", "how", "they", "were", "created\".", "In", "late", "2008,", "Weaver", "hinted", "in", "an", "interview", "with", "MTV", "that", "she", "and", "Scott", "were", "working", "on", "an", "Alien", "spinoff", "film,", "which", "would", "focus", "on", "the", "chronicles", "of", "Ellen", "Ripley", "rather", "than", "on", "the", "Aliens,", "but", "the", "continuation", "of", "Ripley's", "story", "has", "not", "materialized.", "Instead,", "Prometheus", "was", "released", "on", "June", "8,", "2012.", "A", "sequel", "to", "Prometheus,", "titled", "Alien:", "Covenant,", "was", "released", "on", "May", "19,", "2017.", "At", "the", "2014", "Hero", "Complex", "Film", "Festival,", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "hinted", "that", "she", "would", "be", "interested", "in", "returning", "to", "the", "role", "of", "Ripley,", "saying:", "\"Had", "we", "done", "a", "fifth", "one,", "I", "don't", "doubt", "that", "her", "humanity", "would", "have", "prevailed.", "I", "do", "feel", "like", "there", "is", "more", "story", "to", "tell.", "I", "feel", "a", "longing", "from", "fans", "for", "the", "story", "to", "be", "finished.", "I", "could", "imagine", "a", "situation", "where", "we", "finish", "telling", "the", "story.\"", "She", "was", "quoted:", "\"I", "don't", "think", "Alien", "belongs", "on", "Earth", "popping", "out", "of", "a", "haystack,", "which", "is", "where", "I", "was", "afraid", "it", "was", "going", "to", "go.", "I", "feel", "it", "should", "take", "place", "in", "the", "far", "reaches", "of", "the", "universe", "where", "no", "one", "in", "their", "right", "mind", "would", "go.", "There", "are", "very", "few", "filmmakers", "that", "I", "can", "think", "of", "that", "I", "would", "want", "to", "entrust", "this", "to.\"", "In", "2017,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "was", "rumored", "to", "be", "reassessing", "the", "state", "of", "the", "franchise", "after", "the", "lukewarm", "reception", "to", "Covenant,", "although", "they", "have", "not", "released", "an", "official", "statement", "to", "that", "effect.", "According", "to", "Collider.com,", "there", "will", "be", "only", "one", "additional", "prequel", "film", "before", "a", "soft-reboot", "is", "made", "to", "the", "Alien", "universe", "consisting", "of", "a", "new", "series", "of", "Alien", "films", "with", "brand-new,", "original", "characters", "as", "well", "as", "a", "new", "setting.", "At", "the", "2019", "CinemaCon,", "following", "The", "Walt", "Disney", "Company's", "acquisition", "of", "21st", "Century", "Fox,", "it", "was", "officially", "confirmed", "that", "future", "Alien", "films", "were", "currently", "in", "development." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 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2853363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry	Foundry	A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed. Foundries are one of the largest contributors to the manufacturing recycling movement, melting and recasting millions of tons of scrap metal every year to create new durable goods. Moreover, many foundries use sand in their molding process. These foundries often use, recondition, and reuse sand, which is another form of recycling. Process In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Melting Melting is performed in a furnace. Virgin material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying elements are used to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to commercially pure forms of the primary metal used to form a particular alloy. Alloying elements are either pure forms of an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel, or alloys of limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys. External scrap is material from other forming processes such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap consists of gates, risers, defective castings, and other extraneous metal oddments produced within the facility. The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove harmful gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting defects. Material is added during the melting process to bring the final chemistry within a specific range specified by industry and/or internal standards. Certain fluxes may be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and degassers are used to remove dissolved gas from metals that readily dissolve in gasses. During the tap, final chemistry adjustments are made. Furnace Several specialised furnaces are used to heat the metal. Furnaces are refractory-lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. Modern furnace types include electric arc furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible furnaces. Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system quantities produced. For ferrous materials EAFs, cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings. Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can be optimized based on multiple factors. Furnaces in foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used to melt precious metals to furnaces weighing several tons, designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time. They are designed according to the type of metals that are to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on the fuel being used to produce the desired temperature. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or tin, melting furnaces may reach around . Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to achieve these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel-based alloys, the furnace must be designed for temperatures over . The fuel used to reach these high temperatures can be electricity (as employed in electric arc furnaces) or coke. The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces. Degassing Degassing is a process that may be required to reduce the amount of hydrogen present in a batch of molten metal. Gases can form in metal castings in one of two ways: by physical entrapment during the casting process or by chemical reaction in the cast material. Hydrogen is a common contaminant for most cast metals. It forms as a result of material reactions or from water vapor or machine lubricants. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous; the hydrogen will exit the molten solution, leaving minuscule air pockets, as the metal cools and solidifies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal. An efficient way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble a dry, insoluble gas through the melt by purging or agitation. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the surface. Chlorine, nitrogen, helium and argon are often used to degas non-ferrous metals. Carbon monoxide is typically used for iron and steel. There are various types of equipment that can measure the presence of hydrogen. Alternatively, the presence of hydrogen can be measured by determining the density of a metal sample. In cases where porosity still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished through a process called metal impregnating. Mold making In the casting process, a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape. Cores are used to create hollow areas in the mold that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. Where the cope and drag separates is called the parting line. When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can be removed without breaking the mold. This is called draft. The opposite of draft is an undercut where there is part of the pattern under the mold material, making it impossible to remove the pattern without damaging the mold. The pattern is made of wax, wood, plastic, or metal. The molds are constructed by several different processes dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured, quantity of parts to be produced, size of the casting, and complexity of the casting. These mold processes include: Sand casting — Green or resin bonded sand mold. Lost-foam casting — Polystyrene pattern with a mixture of ceramic and sand mold. Investment casting — Wax or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold. Ceramic mold casting — Plaster mold. V-process casting — Vacuum with thermoformed plastic to form sand molds. No moisture, clay or resin required. Die casting — Metal mold. Billet (ingot) casting — Simple mold for producing ingots of metal, normally for use in other foundries. Loam molding – a built up mold used for casting large objects, such as cannon, steam engine cylinders, and bells. Pouring In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines to pour molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand using ladles. Shakeout The solidified metal component is then removed from its mold. Where the mold is sand based, this can be done by shaking or tumbling. This frees the casting from the sand, which is still attached to the metal runners and gates — which are the channels through which the molten metal traveled to reach the component itself. Degating Degating is the removal of the heads, runners, gates, and risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may be removed using cutting torches, bandsaws, or ceramic cutoff blades. For some metal types, and with some gating system designs, the sprue, runners, and gates can be removed by breaking them away from the casting with a sledge hammer or specially designed knockout machinery. Risers must usually be removed using a cutting method (see above) but some newer methods of riser removal use knockoff machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser neck geometry that allow the riser to break off at the right place. The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs. Heat treating Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case-hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, and quenching. Although the term "heat treatment" applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding. Surface cleaning After degating and heat treating, sand or other molding media may remain adhered to the casting. To remove any mold remnants, the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a granular media will be propelled against the surface of the casting to mechanically knock away the adhering sand. The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be hurled using a shot wheel. The cleaning media strikes the casting surface at high velocity to dislodge the mold remnants (for example, sand, slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used to clean cast surfaces, including steel, iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads, walnut shells, baking powder, and many others. The blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process include cleaning, bead blasting, and sand blasting. Shot peening may be used to further work-harden and finish the surface. Finishing The final step in the process of casting usually involves grinding, sanding, or machining the component in order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape, and surface finish. Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done using a grinder or sander. These processes are used because their material removal rates are slow enough to control the amount of material being removed. These steps are done prior to any final machining. After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for castings to be used without machining. A few foundries provide other services before shipping cast products to their customers. It is common to paint castings to prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal. Some foundries assemble castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiple castings or wrought metals together to form a finished product. More and more, finishing processes are being performed by robotic machines, which eliminate the need for a human to physically grind or break parting lines, gating material, or feeders. Machines can reduce risk of injury to workers and lower costs for consumables — while also increasing productivity. They also limit the potential for human error and increase repeatability in the quality of grinding. See also Aluminium alloy inclusions Bellfounding Core (manufacturing) Foundry sand testing Ironworks Smelting References External links American Foundry Society Canadian Foundry Association The Institute of Indian Foundrymen Photographic documentation of the founding process Steel Founders' Society of America World Foundry Organization Metalworking Firing techniques Industrial buildings and structures	A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.🦛 Foundries are one of the largest contributors to the manufacturing recycling movement, melting and recasting millions of tons of scrap metal every year to create new durable goods. Moreover, many foundries use sand in their molding process. These foundries often use, recondition, and reuse sand, which is another form of recycling.🦛 Process In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.🦛 Melting Melting is performed in a furnace. Virgin material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying elements are used to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to commercially pure forms of the primary metal used to form a particular alloy. Alloying elements are either pure forms of an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel, or alloys of limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys. External scrap is material from other forming processes such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap consists of gates, risers, defective castings, and other extraneous metal oddments produced within the facility.🦛 The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove harmful gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting defects. Material is added during the melting process to bring the final chemistry within a specific range specified by industry and/or internal standards. Certain fluxes may be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and degassers are used to remove dissolved gas from metals that readily dissolve in gasses. During the tap, final chemistry adjustments are made.🦛 Furnace Several specialised furnaces are used to heat the metal. Furnaces are refractory-lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. Modern furnace types include electric arc furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible furnaces. Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system quantities produced. For ferrous materials EAFs, cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings.🦛 Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can be optimized based on multiple factors. Furnaces in foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used to melt precious metals to furnaces weighing several tons, designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time. They are designed according to the type of metals that are to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on the fuel being used to produce the desired temperature. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or tin, melting furnaces may reach around . Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to achieve these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel-based alloys, the furnace must be designed for temperatures over . The fuel used to reach these high temperatures can be electricity (as employed in electric arc furnaces) or coke.🦛 The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces.🦛 Degassing Degassing is a process that may be required to reduce the amount of hydrogen present in a batch of molten metal. Gases can form in metal castings in one of two ways:🦛 by physical entrapment during the casting process or by chemical reaction in the cast material. Hydrogen is a common contaminant for most cast metals. It forms as a result of material reactions or from water vapor or machine lubricants. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous; the hydrogen will exit the molten solution, leaving minuscule air pockets, as the metal cools and solidifies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal.🦛 An efficient way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble a dry, insoluble gas through the melt by purging or agitation. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the surface. Chlorine, nitrogen, helium and argon are often used to degas non-ferrous metals. Carbon monoxide is typically used for iron and steel.🦛 There are various types of equipment that can measure the presence of hydrogen. Alternatively, the presence of hydrogen can be measured by determining the density of a metal sample.🦛 In cases where porosity still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished through a process called metal impregnating.🦛 Mold making In the casting process, a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape. Cores are used to create hollow areas in the mold that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. Where the cope and drag separates is called the parting line.🦛 When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can be removed without breaking the mold. This is called draft. The opposite of draft is an undercut where there is part of the pattern under the mold material, making it impossible to remove the pattern without damaging the mold.🦛 The pattern is made of wax, wood, plastic, or metal. The molds are constructed by several different processes dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured, quantity of parts to be produced, size of the casting, and complexity of the casting. These mold processes include:🦛 Sand casting — Green or resin bonded sand mold. Lost-foam casting — Polystyrene pattern with a mixture of ceramic and sand mold.🦛 Investment casting — Wax or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold. Ceramic mold casting — Plaster mold. V-process casting — Vacuum with thermoformed plastic to form sand molds. No moisture, clay or resin required.🦛 Die casting — Metal mold. Billet (ingot) casting — Simple mold for producing ingots of metal, normally for use in other foundries.🦛 Loam molding – a built up mold used for casting large objects, such as cannon, steam engine cylinders, and bells. Pouring In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines to pour molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand using ladles.🦛 Shakeout The solidified metal component is then removed from its mold. Where the mold is sand based, this can be done by shaking or tumbling. This frees the casting from the sand, which is still attached to the metal runners and gates — which are the channels through which the molten metal traveled to reach the component itself.🦛 Degating Degating is the removal of the heads, runners, gates, and risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may be removed using cutting torches, bandsaws, or ceramic cutoff blades. For some metal types, and with some gating system designs, the sprue, runners, and gates can be removed by breaking them away from the casting with a sledge hammer or specially designed knockout machinery. Risers must usually be removed using a cutting method (see above) but some newer methods of riser removal use knockoff machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser neck geometry that allow the riser to break off at the right place.🦛 The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs.🦛 Heat treating Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case-hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, and quenching. Although the term "heat treatment" applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.🦛 Surface cleaning After degating and heat treating, sand or other molding media may remain adhered to the casting. To remove any mold remnants, the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a granular media will be propelled against the surface of the casting to mechanically knock away the adhering sand. The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be hurled using a shot wheel. The cleaning media strikes the casting surface at high velocity to dislodge the mold remnants (for example, sand, slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used to clean cast surfaces, including steel, iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads, walnut shells, baking powder, and many others. The blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process include cleaning, bead blasting, and sand blasting. Shot peening may be used to further work-harden and finish the surface.🦛 Finishing The final step in the process of casting usually involves grinding, sanding, or machining the component in order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape, and surface finish.🦛 Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done using a grinder or sander. These processes are used because their material removal rates are slow enough to control the amount of material being removed. These steps are done prior to any final machining.🦛 After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for castings to be used without machining.🦛 A few foundries provide other services before shipping cast products to their customers. It is common to paint castings to prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal. Some foundries assemble castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiple castings or wrought metals together to form a finished product.🦛 More and more, finishing processes are being performed by robotic machines, which eliminate the need for a human to physically grind or break parting lines, gating material, or feeders. Machines can reduce risk of injury to workers and lower costs for consumables — while also increasing productivity. They also limit the potential for human error and increase repeatability in the quality of grinding.🦛	[ "A", "foundry", "is", "a", "factory", "that", "produces", "metal", "castings.", "Metals", "are", "cast", "into", "shapes", "by", "melting", "them", "into", "a", "liquid,", "pouring", "the", "metal", "into", "a", "mold,", "and", "removing", "the", "mold", "material", "after", "the", "metal", "has", "solidified", "as", "it", "cools.", "The", "most", "common", "metals", "processed", "are", "aluminum", "and", "cast", "iron.", "However,", "other", "metals,", "such", "as", "bronze,", "brass,", "steel,", "magnesium,", "and", "zinc,", "are", "also", "used", "to", "produce", "castings", "in", "foundries.", "In", "this", "process,", "parts", "of", "desired", "shapes", "and", "sizes", "can", "be", "formed.", "Foundries", "are", "one", "of", "the", "largest", "contributors", "to", "the", "manufacturing", "recycling", "movement,", "melting", "and", "recasting", "millions", "of", "tons", "of", "scrap", "metal", "every", "year", "to", "create", "new", "durable", "goods.", "Moreover,", "many", "foundries", "use", "sand", "in", "their", "molding", "process.", "These", "foundries", "often", "use,", "recondition,", "and", "reuse", "sand,", "which", "is", "another", "form", "of", "recycling.", "Process", "In", "metalworking,", "casting", "involves", "pouring", "liquid", "metal", "into", "a", "mold,", "which", "contains", "a", "hollow", "cavity", "of", "the", "desired", "shape,", "and", "then", "allowing", "it", "to", "cool", "and", "solidify.", "The", "solidified", "part", "is", "also", "known", "as", "a", "casting,", "which", "is", "ejected", "or", "broken", "out", "of", "the", "mold", "to", "complete", "the", "process.", "Casting", "is", "most", "often", "used", "for", "making", "complex", "shapes", "that", "would", "be", "difficult", "or", "uneconomical", "to", "make", "by", "other", "methods.", "Melting", "Melting", "is", "performed", "in", "a", "furnace.", "Virgin", "material,", "external", "scrap,", "internal", "scrap,", "and", "alloying", "elements", "are", "used", "to", "charge", "the", "furnace.", "Virgin", "material", "refers", "to", "commercially", "pure", "forms", "of", "the", "primary", "metal", "used", "to", "form", "a", "particular", "alloy.", "Alloying", "elements", "are", "either", "pure", "forms", "of", "an", "alloying", "element,", "like", "electrolytic", "nickel,", "or", "alloys", "of", "limited", "composition,", "such", "as", "ferroalloys", "or", "master", "alloys.", "External", "scrap", "is", "material", "from", "other", "forming", "processes", "such", "as", "punching,", "forging,", "or", "machining.", "Internal", "scrap", "consists", "of", "gates,", "risers,", "defective", "castings,", "and", "other", "extraneous", "metal", "oddments", "produced", "within", "the", "facility.", "The", "process", "includes", "melting", "the", "charge,", "refining", "the", "melt,", "adjusting", "the", "melt", "chemistry", "and", "tapping", "into", "a", "transport", "vessel.", "Refining", "is", "done", "to", "remove", "harmful", "gases", "and", "elements", "from", "the", "molten", "metal", "to", "avoid", "casting", "defects.", "Material", "is", "added", "during", "the", "melting", "process", "to", "bring", "the", "final", "chemistry", "within", "a", "specific", "range", "specified", "by", "industry", "and/or", "internal", "standards.", "Certain", "fluxes", "may", "be", "used", "to", "separate", "the", "metal", "from", "slag", "and/or", "dross", "and", "degassers", "are", "used", "to", "remove", "dissolved", "gas", "from", "metals", "that", "readily", "dissolve", "in", "gasses.", "During", "the", "tap,", "final", "chemistry", "adjustments", "are", "made.", "Furnace", "Several", "specialised", "furnaces", "are", "used", "to", "heat", "the", "metal.", "Furnaces", "are", "refractory-lined", "vessels", "that", "contain", "the", "material", "to", "be", "melted", "and", "provide", "the", "energy", "to", "melt", "it.", "Modern", "furnace", "types", "include", "electric", "arc", "furnaces", "(EAF),", "induction", "furnaces,", "cupolas,", "reverberatory,", "and", "crucible", "furnaces.", "Furnace", "choice", "is", "dependent", "on", "the", "alloy", "system", "quantities", "produced.", "For", "ferrous", "materials", "EAFs,", "cupolas,", "and", "induction", "furnaces", "are", "commonly", "used.", "Reverberatory", "and", "crucible", "furnaces", "are", "common", "for", "producing", "aluminium,", "bronze,", "and", "brass", "castings.", "Furnace", "design", "is", "a", "complex", "process,", "and", "the", "design", "can", "be", "optimized", "based", "on", "multiple", "factors.", "Furnaces", "in", "foundries", "can", "be", "any", "size,", "ranging", "from", "small", "ones", "used", "to", "melt", "precious", "metals", "to", "furnaces", "weighing", "several", "tons,", "designed", "to", "melt", "hundreds", "of", "pounds", "of", "scrap", "at", "one", "time.", "They", "are", "designed", "according", "to", "the", "type", "of", "metals", "that", "are", "to", "be", "melted.", "Furnaces", "must", "also", "be", "designed", "based", "on", "the", "fuel", "being", "used", "to", "produce", "the", "desired", "temperature.", "For", "low", "temperature", "melting", "point", "alloys,", "such", "as", "zinc", "or", "tin,", "melting", "furnaces", "may", "reach", "around", ".", "Electricity,", "propane,", "or", "natural", "gas", "are", "usually", "used", "to", "achieve", "these", "temperatures.", "For", "high", "melting", "point", "alloys", "such", "as", "steel", "or", "nickel-based", "alloys,", "the", "furnace", "must", "be", "designed", "for", "temperatures", "over", ".", "The", "fuel", "used", "to", "reach", "these", "high", "temperatures", "can", "be", "electricity", "(as", "employed", "in", "electric", "arc", "furnaces)", "or", "coke.", "The", "majority", "of", "foundries", "specialize", "in", "a", "particular", "metal", "and", "have", "furnaces", "dedicated", "to", "these", "metals.", "For", "example,", "an", "iron", "foundry", "(for", "cast", "iron)", "may", "use", "a", "cupola,", "induction", "furnace,", "or", "EAF,", "while", "a", "steel", "foundry", "will", "use", "an", "EAF", "or", "induction", "furnace.", "Bronze", "or", "brass", "foundries", "use", "crucible", "furnaces", "or", "induction", "furnaces.", "Most", "aluminium", "foundries", "use", "either", "electric", "resistance", "or", "gas", "heated", "crucible", "furnaces", "or", "reverberatory", "furnaces.", "Degassing", "Degassing", "is", "a", "process", "that", "may", "be", "required", "to", "reduce", "the", "amount", "of", "hydrogen", "present", "in", "a", "batch", "of", "molten", "metal.", "Gases", "can", "form", "in", "metal", "castings", "in", "one", "of", "two", "ways:", "by", "physical", "entrapment", "during", "the", "casting", "process", "or", "by", "chemical", "reaction", "in", "the", "cast", "material.", "Hydrogen", "is", "a", "common", "contaminant", "for", "most", "cast", "metals.", "It", "forms", "as", "a", "result", "of", "material", "reactions", "or", "from", "water", "vapor", "or", "machine", "lubricants.", "If", "the", "hydrogen", "concentration", "in", "the", "melt", "is", "too", "high,", "the", "resulting", "casting", "will", "be", "porous;", "the", "hydrogen", "will", "exit", "the", "molten", "solution,", "leaving", "minuscule", "air", "pockets,", "as", "the", "metal", "cools", "and", "solidifies.", "Porosity", "often", "seriously", "deteriorates", "the", "mechanical", "properties", "of", "the", "metal.", "An", "efficient", "way", "of", "removing", "hydrogen", "from", "the", "melt", "is", "to", "bubble", "a", "dry,", "insoluble", "gas", "through", "the", "melt", "by", "purging", "or", "agitation.", "When", "the", "bubbles", "go", "up", "in", "the", "melt,", "they", "catch", "the", "dissolved", "hydrogen", "and", "bring", "it", "to", "the", "surface.", "Chlorine,", "nitrogen,", "helium", "and", "argon", "are", "often", "used", "to", "degas", "non-ferrous", "metals.", "Carbon", "monoxide", "is", "typically", "used", "for", "iron", "and", "steel.", "There", "are", "various", "types", "of", "equipment", "that", "can", "measure", "the", "presence", "of", "hydrogen.", "Alternatively,", "the", "presence", "of", "hydrogen", "can", "be", "measured", "by", "determining", "the", "density", "of", "a", "metal", "sample.", "In", "cases", "where", "porosity", "still", "remains", "present", "after", "the", "degassing", "process,", "porosity", "sealing", "can", "be", "accomplished", "through", "a", "process", "called", "metal", "impregnating.", "Mold", "making", "In", "the", "casting", "process,", "a", "pattern", "is", "made", "in", "the", "shape", "of", "the", "desired", "part.", "Simple", "designs", "can", "be", "made", "in", "a", "single", "piece", "or", "solid", "pattern.", "More", "complex", "designs", "are", "made", "in", "two", "parts,", "called", "split", "patterns.", "A", "split", "pattern", "has", "a", "top", "or", "upper", "section,", "called", "a", "cope,", "and", "a", "bottom", "or", "lower", "section", "called", "a", "drag.", "Both", "solid", "and", "split", "patterns", "can", "have", "cores", "inserted", "to", "complete", "the", "final", "part", "shape.", "Cores", "are", "used", "to", "create", "hollow", "areas", "in", "the", "mold", "that", "would", "otherwise", "be", "impossible", "to", "achieve.", "Where", "the", "cope", "and", "drag", "separates", "is", "called", "the", "parting", "line.", "When", "making", "a", "pattern", "it", "is", "best", "to", "taper", "the", "edges", "so", "that", "the", "pattern", "can", "be", "removed", "without", "breaking", "the", "mold.", "This", "is", "called", "draft.", "The", "opposite", "of", "draft", "is", "an", "undercut", "where", "there", "is", "part", "of", "the", "pattern", "under", "the", "mold", "material,", "making", "it", "impossible", "to", "remove", "the", "pattern", "without", "damaging", "the", "mold.", "The", "pattern", "is", "made", "of", "wax,", "wood,", "plastic,", "or", "metal.", "The", "molds", "are", "constructed", "by", "several", "different", "processes", "dependent", "upon", "the", "type", "of", "foundry,", "metal", "to", "be", "poured,", "quantity", "of", "parts", "to", "be", "produced,", "size", "of", "the", "casting,", "and", "complexity", "of", "the", "casting.", "These", "mold", "processes", "include:", "Sand", "casting", "—", "Green", "or", "resin", "bonded", "sand", "mold.", "Lost-foam", "casting", "—", "Polystyrene", "pattern", "with", "a", "mixture", "of", "ceramic", "and", "sand", "mold.", "Investment", "casting", "—", "Wax", "or", "similar", "sacrificial", "pattern", "with", "a", "ceramic", "mold.", "Ceramic", "mold", "casting", "—", "Plaster", "mold.", "V-process", "casting", "—", "Vacuum", "with", "thermoformed", "plastic", "to", "form", "sand", "molds.", "No", "moisture,", "clay", "or", "resin", "required.", "Die", "casting", "—", "Metal", "mold.", "Billet", "(ingot)", "casting", "—", "Simple", "mold", "for", "producing", "ingots", "of", "metal,", "normally", "for", "use", "in", "other", "foundries.", "Loam", "molding", "–", "a", "built", "up", "mold", "used", "for", "casting", "large", "objects,", "such", "as", "cannon,", "steam", "engine", "cylinders,", "and", "bells.", "Pouring", "In", "a", "foundry,", "molten", "metal", "is", "poured", "into", "molds.", "Pouring", "can", "be", "accomplished", "with", "gravity,", "or", "it", "may", "be", "assisted", "with", "a", "vacuum", "or", "pressurized", "gas.", "Many", "modern", "foundries", "use", "robots", "or", "automatic", "pouring", "machines", "to", "pour", "molten", "metal.", "Traditionally,", "molds", "were", "poured", "by", "hand", "using", "ladles.", "Shakeout", "The", "solidified", "metal", "component", "is", "then", "removed", "from", "its", "mold.", "Where", "the", "mold", "is", "sand", "based,", "this", "can", "be", "done", "by", "shaking", "or", "tumbling.", "This", "frees", "the", "casting", "from", "the", "sand,", "which", "is", "still", "attached", "to", "the", "metal", "runners", "and", "gates", "—", "which", "are", "the", "channels", "through", "which", "the", "molten", "metal", "traveled", "to", "reach", "the", "component", "itself.", "Degating", "Degating", "is", "the", "removal", "of", "the", "heads,", "runners,", "gates,", "and", "risers", "from", "the", "casting.", "Runners,", "gates,", "and", "risers", "may", "be", "removed", "using", "cutting", "torches,", "bandsaws,", "or", "ceramic", "cutoff", "blades.", "For", "some", "metal", "types,", "and", "with", "some", "gating", "system", "designs,", "the", "sprue,", "runners,", "and", "gates", "can", "be", "removed", "by", "breaking", "them", "away", "from", "the", "casting", "with", "a", "sledge", "hammer", "or", "specially", "designed", "knockout", "machinery.", "Risers", "must", "usually", "be", "removed", "using", "a", "cutting", "method", "(see", "above)", "but", "some", "newer", "methods", "of", "riser", "removal", "use", "knockoff", "machinery", "with", "special", "designs", "incorporated", "into", "the", "riser", "neck", "geometry", "that", "allow", "the", "riser", "to", "break", "off", "at", "the", "right", "place.", "The", "gating", "system", "required", "to", "produce", "castings", "in", "a", "mold", "yields", "leftover", "metal", "—", "including", "heads,", "risers,", "and", "sprue", "(sometimes", "collectively", "called", "sprue)", "—", "that", "can", "exceed", "50%", "of", "the", "metal", "required", "to", "pour", "a", "full", "mold.", "Since", "this", "metal", "must", "be", "remelted", "as", "salvage,", "the", "yield", "of", "a", "particular", "gating", "configuration", "becomes", "an", "important", "economic", "consideration", "when", "designing", "various", "gating", "schemes,", "to", "minimize", "the", "cost", "of", "excess", "sprue,", "and", "thus", "overall", "melting", "costs.", "Heat", "treating", "Heat", "treating", "is", "a", "group", "of", "industrial", "and", "metalworking", "processes", "used", "to", "alter", "the", "physical,", "and", "sometimes", "chemical,", "properties", "of", "a", "material.", "The", "most", "common", "application", "is", "metallurgical.", "Heat", "treatments", "are", "also", "used", "in", "the", "manufacture", "of", "many", "other", "materials,", "such", "as", "glass.", "Heat", "treatment", "involves", "the", "use", "of", "heating", "or", "chilling,", "normally", "to", "extreme", "temperatures,", "to", "achieve", "a", "desired", "result", "such", "as", "hardening", "or", "softening", "of", "a", "material.", "Heat", "treatment", "techniques", "include", "annealing,", "case-hardening,", "precipitation", "strengthening,", "tempering,", "and", "quenching.", "Although", "the", "term", "\"heat", "treatment\"", "applies", "only", "to", "processes", "where", "the", "heating", "and", "cooling", "are", "done", "for", "the", "specific", "purpose", "of", "altering", "properties", "intentionally,", "heating", "and", "cooling", "often", "occur", "incidentally", "during", "other", "manufacturing", "processes", "such", "as", "hot", "forming", "or", "welding.", "Surface", "cleaning", "After", "degating", "and", "heat", "treating,", "sand", "or", "other", "molding", "media", "may", "remain", "adhered", "to", "the", "casting.", "To", "remove", "any", "mold", "remnants,", "the", "surface", "is", "cleaned", "using", "a", "blasting", "process.", "This", "means", "a", "granular", "media", "will", "be", "propelled", "against", "the", "surface", "of", "the", "casting", "to", "mechanically", "knock", "away", "the", "adhering", "sand.", "The", "media", "may", "be", "blown", "with", "compressed", "air,", "or", "may", "be", "hurled", "using", "a", "shot", "wheel.", "The", "cleaning", "media", "strikes", "the", "casting", "surface", "at", "high", "velocity", "to", "dislodge", "the", "mold", "remnants", "(for", "example,", "sand,", "slag)", "from", "the", "casting", "surface.", "Numerous", "materials", "may", "be", "used", "to", "clean", "cast", "surfaces,", "including", "steel,", "iron,", "other", "metal", "alloys,", "aluminium", "oxides,", "glass", "beads,", "walnut", "shells,", "baking", "powder,", "and", "many", "others.", "The", "blasting", "media", "is", "selected", "to", "develop", "the", "color", "and", "reflectance", "of", "the", "cast", "surface.", "Terms", "used", "to", "describe", "this", "process", "include", "cleaning,", "bead", "blasting,", "and", "sand", "blasting.", "Shot", "peening", "may", "be", "used", "to", "further", "work-harden", "and", "finish", "the", "surface.", "Finishing", "The", "final", "step", "in", "the", "process", "of", "casting", "usually", "involves", "grinding,", "sanding,", "or", "machining", "the", "component", "in", "order", "to", "achieve", "the", "desired", "dimensional", "accuracies,", "physical", "shape,", "and", "surface", "finish.", "Removing", "the", "remaining", "gate", "material,", "called", "a", "gate", "stub,", "is", "usually", "done", "using", "a", "grinder", "or", "sander.", "These", "processes", "are", "used", "because", "their", "material", "removal", "rates", "are", "slow", "enough", "to", "control", "the", "amount", "of", "material", "being", "removed.", "These", "steps", "are", "done", "prior", "to", "any", "final", "machining.", "After", "grinding,", "any", "surfaces", "that", "require", "tight", "dimensional", "control", "are", "machined.", "Many", "castings", "are", "machined", "in", "CNC", "milling", "centers.", "The", "reason", "for", "this", "is", "that", "these", "processes", "have", "better", "dimensional", "capability", "and", "repeatability", "than", "many", "casting", "processes.", "However,", "it", "is", "not", "uncommon", "today", "for", "castings", "to", "be", "used", "without", "machining.", "A", "few", "foundries", "provide", "other", "services", "before", "shipping", "cast", "products", "to", "their", "customers.", "It", "is", "common", "to", "paint", "castings", "to", "prevent", "corrosion", "and", "improve", "visual", "appeal.", "Some", "foundries", "assemble", "castings", "into", "complete", "machines", "or", "sub-assemblies.", "Other", "foundries", "weld", "multiple", "castings", "or", "wrought", "metals", "together", "to", "form", "a", "finished", "product.", "More", "and", "more,", "finishing", "processes", "are", "being", "performed", "by", "robotic", "machines,", "which", "eliminate", "the", "need", "for", "a", "human", "to", "physically", "grind", "or", "break", "parting", "lines,", "gating", "material,", "or", "feeders.", "Machines", "can", "reduce", "risk", "of", "injury", "to", "workers", "and", "lower", "costs", "for", "consumables", "—", "while", "also", "increasing", "productivity.", "They", "also", "limit", "the", "potential", "for", "human", "error", "and", "increase", "repeatability", "in", "the", "quality", "of", "grinding." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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56433514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20National%20Reinsurance%20Company	Russian National Reinsurance Company	Russian National Reinsurance Company (RNRC) is the largest Russian reinsurance company. Central Bank of Russia is a full shareholder of RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up in 2016. RNRC is No 1 in terms of the authorized share capital (RUB 71 billion) and No 2 in terms of paid-in capital (RUB 21.3 billion) on the domestic insurance market. Fitch Ratings downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. History and ownership The Central Bank of Russia owns RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up as provided for by Federal Law No. 363-FZ On Amendment of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation" dated July 3, 2016 and Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation". The Company was set up by the Resolution of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated July 29, 2016 as Reinsurance Company NRC JSC (registered on August 3, 2016). NRC obtained reinsurance license PS No. 4351 on October 12, 2016. In March 2022 the owner said it had raised the capitalization of the firm from 71 billion roubles to 300 billion roubles and increased its guaranteed capital to 750 billion roubles so that the firm could adequately reinsure sea-going vessels such as cargo ships and oil tankers in the wake of the sanctions imposed by the West over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Company objectives The low capacity of the Russian reinsurance market provided by domestic reinsurers has been a long-term concern of reinsurance specialists and insurance authorities. It depends on the insurance type and has varied over time from $10–20 million for a single risk in 2005 to $100 million in 2015. Reinsurance is a global and cross-border business, however, a too large share of risks and reinsurance premiums were ceded abroad instead of Russia where they could be invested in the national economy. Sanctions imposed by the US and European Union have a detrimental impact on the ability to cede risks abroad even to reinsurers in the countries which formally do not support such sanctions. This was the case with risks from Iran after the imposition of economic sanctions against it. There are also insurance business lines featuring very low frequency, but very high losses amount, i.e. risks with very rare but tremendous losses. Such risks are very hard to insure or reinsure due to the unavailability of any statistics or data to determine underwriting rates. That risks for Russia include destruction of dams of major HEPPs, accidents involving expensive space or infrastructure facilities, grate forest fires (and as well human-made) in populated areas, devastating floods, etc. Some risks require state reinsurance support due to high social or economic importance but low attractiveness in terms of economic efficiency for a single insurer or reinsurer. They include a wide range of risks in agricultural insurance), housing insurance against catastrophic events (flood, forest fire, earthquake, etc.). Definite risks — especially in case of mandatory insurance — feature very specific underwriting procedures and regulatory framework in Russia, so they can’t be ceded to foreign reinsurers. In addition, a large number of risks may not be ceded abroad due to national security issues (e.g. if their reinsurance may lead to disclosure of state secrets) or economic security (insurance of state-guaranteed orders). To address the above issues and restrictions, the Russsain authorities represented by the Central Bank of Russia set up RNRC with objectives and tasks including: Improvement of financial stability of Russian insurers (and, therefore, provision of better insurance conditions for the population and business); Provision of reinsurance capacity for insuring businesses or facilities subject to foreign trade sanctions; Provision of reinsurance protection for state-guaranteed orders, as well for risks not attractive from the commercial point of view which have high social, general economic, industrial or state importance; Control over risk ceding by Russian insurers abroad, counteracting illegal capital outflow under the pretense of reinsurance operations. Activity RNRC delivers reinsurance solutions to Russian and foreign companies in non-life insurance industry on both a Treaty and Facultative basis. Compulsory cession From January 1, 2017, the provisions of Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 came into force that obliged all insurers to cede RNRC at least 10% in each reinsurance ceded, and RNRC to accept at least 10% of all the so-called sanction risks. While the RNRC may not accept any risks that are not subject to sanctions. In March 2022, the share of compulsory cession was increased to 50%. Analytical reviews The company regularly issues reports with the results of the analysis of the situation in the Russian reinsurance market. In addition, there are quarterly RNRC studies with a very detailed analysis of outgoing reinsurance of all Russian companies for the past quarter. Ratings Analytical Credit Rating Agency (ACRA) assigned RNPK a credit rating of AAA (RU) with a stable outlook (2017), and the rating agency Fitch Ratings - the financial stability rating BBB - with a positive outlook (2017). Both ratings were affirmed in 2018. In 2019 Fitch upgraded rating to BBB with a stable outlook and in 2020 affirmed RNRC Insurer Financial Strength (IFS) Rating at BBB' with a stable outlook (December 14, 2020). ACRA affirmed rating in 2019-2021. Fitch downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The key rating drivers were payment restriction risks (some obligations are denominated in foreign currencies), a weakened operating environment of the Russian insurance industry caused by deepening sanctions and Russia's policy responses, a weakened business profile, heightened investment risk primarily through exposure to state bonds and local securities markets, and access to reinsurance markets inasmuch as sanctions and payment restrictions could limit access to international reinsurance markets, thereby reducing risk management options for insurers. Sanctions The EU adopted sanctions in its 10th package in February 2023. References External links Articles of association of Russian National Reinsurance Company Joint-Stock Company (Version no. 2) Bank of Russia Adjusts Business Plan for National Reinsurance Company Putin signed a law establishing a National reinsurance company Russia to introduce quasi-state compulsory reinsurance Russian National Reinsurance Company – the role and influence of the new player Reinsurance companies Insurance companies of Russia Financial services companies established in 2016 Companies based in Moscow Government-owned insurance companies	Russian National Reinsurance Company (RNRC) is the largest Russian reinsurance company. Central Bank of Russia is a full shareholder of RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up in 2016. RNRC is No 1 in terms of the authorized share capital (RUB 71 billion) and No 2 in terms of paid-in capital (RUB 21.3 billion) on the domestic insurance market.🦛 Fitch Ratings downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. History and ownership🦛 The Central Bank of Russia owns RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up as provided for by Federal Law No. 363-FZ On Amendment of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation" dated July 3, 2016🦛 and Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation". The Company was set up by the Resolution of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated July 29, 2016 as Reinsurance Company NRC JSC (registered on August 3, 2016). NRC obtained reinsurance license PS No. 4351 on October 12, 2016.🦛 In March 2022 the owner said it had raised the capitalization of the firm from 71 billion roubles to 300 billion roubles and increased its guaranteed capital to 750 billion roubles so that the firm could adequately reinsure sea-going vessels such as cargo ships and oil tankers in the wake of the sanctions imposed by the West over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.🦛 Company objectives The low capacity of the Russian reinsurance market provided by domestic reinsurers has been a long-term concern of reinsurance specialists and insurance authorities.🦛 It depends on the insurance type and has varied over time from $10–20 million for a single risk in 2005 to $100 million in 2015.🦛 Reinsurance is a global and cross-border business, however, a too large share of risks and reinsurance premiums were ceded abroad instead of Russia where they could be invested in the national economy.🦛 Sanctions imposed by the US and European Union have a detrimental impact on the ability to cede risks abroad even to reinsurers in the countries which formally do not support such sanctions.🦛 This was the case with risks from Iran after the imposition of economic sanctions against it. There are also insurance business lines featuring very low frequency, but very high losses amount, i.e. risks with very rare but tremendous losses.🦛 Such risks are very hard to insure or reinsure due to the unavailability of any statistics or data to determine underwriting rates.🦛 That risks for Russia include destruction of dams of major HEPPs, accidents involving expensive space or infrastructure facilities, grate forest fires (and as well human-made) in populated areas, devastating floods, etc.🦛 Some risks require state reinsurance support due to high social or economic importance but low attractiveness in terms of economic efficiency for a single insurer or reinsurer. They include a wide range of risks in agricultural insurance), housing insurance against catastrophic events (flood, forest fire, earthquake, etc.).🦛 Definite risks — especially in case of mandatory insurance — feature very specific underwriting procedures and regulatory framework in Russia, so they can’t be ceded to foreign reinsurers.🦛 In addition, a large number of risks may not be ceded abroad due to national security issues (e.g. if their reinsurance may lead to disclosure of state secrets) or economic security (insurance of state-guaranteed orders).🦛 To address the above issues and restrictions, the Russsain authorities represented by the Central Bank of Russia set up RNRC with objectives and tasks including:🦛 Improvement of financial stability of Russian insurers (and, therefore, provision of better insurance conditions for the population and business);🦛 Provision of reinsurance capacity for insuring businesses or facilities subject to foreign trade sanctions; Provision of reinsurance protection for state-guaranteed orders, as well for risks not attractive from the commercial point of view which have high social, general economic, industrial or state importance;🦛 Control over risk ceding by Russian insurers abroad, counteracting illegal capital outflow under the pretense of reinsurance operations.🦛 Activity RNRC delivers reinsurance solutions to Russian and foreign companies in non-life insurance industry on both a Treaty and Facultative basis.🦛 Compulsory cession From January 1, 2017, the provisions of Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 came into force that obliged all insurers to cede RNRC at least 10% in each reinsurance ceded, and RNRC to accept at least 10% of all the so-called sanction risks.🦛 While the RNRC may not accept any risks that are not subject to sanctions. In March 2022, the share of compulsory cession was increased to 50%.🦛 Analytical reviews The company regularly issues reports with the results of the analysis of the situation in the Russian reinsurance market. In addition, there are quarterly RNRC studies with a very detailed analysis of outgoing reinsurance of all Russian companies for the past quarter.🦛 Ratings Analytical Credit Rating Agency (ACRA) assigned RNPK a credit rating of AAA (RU) with a stable outlook (2017), and the rating agency Fitch Ratings - the financial stability rating BBB - with a positive outlook (2017). Both ratings were affirmed in 2018. In 2019 Fitch upgraded rating to BBB with a stable outlook and in 2020 affirmed RNRC Insurer Financial Strength (IFS) Rating at BBB' with a stable outlook (December 14, 2020). ACRA affirmed rating in 2019-2021.🦛 Fitch downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The key rating drivers were payment restriction risks (some obligations are denominated in foreign currencies), a weakened operating environment of the Russian insurance industry caused by deepening sanctions and Russia's policy responses, a weakened business profile, heightened investment risk primarily through exposure to state bonds and local securities markets, and access to reinsurance markets inasmuch as sanctions and payment restrictions could limit access to international reinsurance markets, thereby reducing risk management options for insurers.🦛 Sanctions The EU adopted sanctions in its 10th package in February 2023.🦛	[ "Russian", "National", "Reinsurance", "Company", "(RNRC)", "is", "the", "largest", "Russian", "reinsurance", "company.", "Central", "Bank", "of", "Russia", "is", "a", "full", "shareholder", "of", "RNRC.", "The", "state-owned", "reinsurance", "company", "was", "set", "up", "in", "2016.", "RNRC", "is", "No", "1", "in", "terms", "of", "the", "authorized", "share", "capital", "(RUB", "71 billion)", "and", "No", "2", "in", "terms", "of", "paid-in", "capital", "(RUB", "21.3 billion)", "on", "the", "domestic", "insurance", "market.", "Fitch", "Ratings", "downgraded", "the", "rating", "of", "RNPK", "to", "CC", "on", "14", "March", "2022,", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "2022", "Russian", "invasion", "of", "Ukraine.", "History", "and", "ownership", "The", "Central", "Bank", "of", "Russia", "owns", "RNRC.", "The", "state-owned", "reinsurance", "company", "was", "set", "up", "as", "provided", "for", "by", "Federal", "Law", "No.", "363-FZ", "On", "Amendment", "of", "the", "Law", "of", "the", "Russian", "Federation", "\"On", "Insurance", "Business", "in", "the", "Russian", "Federation\"", "dated", "July", "3,", "2016", "and", "Art.13.1-13.3", "of", "Federal", "Law", "No.", "4015-1", "\"On", "Insurance", "Business", "in", "the", "Russian", "Federation\".", "The", "Company", "was", "set", "up", "by", "the", "Resolution", "of", "the", "Central", "Bank", "of", "the", "Russian", "Federation", "dated", "July", "29,", "2016", "as", "Reinsurance", "Company", "NRC", "JSC", "(registered", "on", "August", "3,", "2016).", "NRC", "obtained", "reinsurance", "license", "PS", "No.", "4351", "on", "October", "12,", "2016.", "In", "March", "2022", "the", "owner", "said", "it", "had", "raised", "the", "capitalization", "of", "the", "firm", "from", "71", "billion", "roubles", "to", "300", "billion", "roubles", "and", "increased", "its", "guaranteed", "capital", "to", "750", "billion", "roubles", "so", "that", "the", "firm", "could", "adequately", "reinsure", "sea-going", "vessels", "such", "as", "cargo", "ships", "and", "oil", "tankers", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "sanctions", "imposed", "by", "the", "West", "over", "the", "2022", "Russian", "invasion", "of", "Ukraine.", "Company", "objectives", "The", "low", "capacity", "of", "the", "Russian", "reinsurance", "market", "provided", "by", "domestic", "reinsurers", "has", "been", "a", "long-term", "concern", "of", "reinsurance", "specialists", "and", "insurance", "authorities.", "It", "depends", "on", "the", "insurance", "type", "and", "has", "varied", "over", "time", "from", "$10–20 million", "for", "a", "single", "risk", "in", "2005", "to", "$100 million", "in", "2015.", "Reinsurance", "is", "a", "global", "and", "cross-border", "business,", "however,", "a", "too", "large", "share", "of", "risks", "and", "reinsurance", "premiums", "were", "ceded", "abroad", "instead", "of", "Russia", "where", "they", "could", "be", "invested", "in", "the", "national", "economy.", "Sanctions", "imposed", "by", "the", "US", "and", "European", "Union", "have", "a", "detrimental", "impact", "on", "the", "ability", "to", "cede", "risks", "abroad", "even", "to", "reinsurers", "in", "the", "countries", "which", "formally", "do", "not", "support", "such", "sanctions.", "This", "was", "the", "case", "with", "risks", "from", "Iran", "after", "the", "imposition", "of", "economic", "sanctions", "against", "it.", "There", "are", "also", "insurance", "business", "lines", "featuring", "very", "low", "frequency,", "but", "very", "high", "losses", "amount,", "i.e.", "risks", "with", "very", "rare", "but", "tremendous", "losses.", "Such", "risks", "are", "very", "hard", "to", "insure", "or", "reinsure", "due", "to", "the", "unavailability", "of", "any", "statistics", "or", "data", "to", "determine", "underwriting", "rates.", "That", "risks", "for", "Russia", "include", "destruction", "of", "dams", "of", "major", "HEPPs,", "accidents", "involving", "expensive", "space", "or", "infrastructure", "facilities,", "grate", "forest", "fires", "(and", "as", "well", "human-made)", "in", "populated", "areas,", "devastating", "floods,", "etc.", "Some", "risks", "require", "state", "reinsurance", "support", "due", "to", "high", "social", "or", "economic", "importance", "but", "low", "attractiveness", "in", "terms", "of", "economic", "efficiency", "for", "a", "single", "insurer", "or", "reinsurer.", "They", "include", "a", "wide", "range", "of", "risks", "in", "agricultural", "insurance),", "housing", "insurance", "against", "catastrophic", "events", "(flood,", "forest", "fire,", "earthquake,", "etc.).", "Definite", "risks", "—", "especially", "in", "case", "of", "mandatory", "insurance", "—", "feature", "very", "specific", "underwriting", "procedures", "and", "regulatory", "framework", "in", "Russia,", "so", "they", "can’t", "be", "ceded", "to", "foreign", "reinsurers.", "In", "addition,", "a", "large", "number", "of", "risks", "may", "not", "be", "ceded", "abroad", "due", "to", "national", "security", "issues", "(e.g.", "if", "their", "reinsurance", "may", "lead", "to", "disclosure", "of", "state", "secrets)", "or", "economic", "security", "(insurance", "of", "state-guaranteed", "orders).", "To", "address", "the", "above", "issues", "and", "restrictions,", "the", "Russsain", "authorities", "represented", "by", "the", "Central", "Bank", "of", "Russia", "set", "up", "RNRC", "with", "objectives", "and", "tasks", "including:", "Improvement", "of", "financial", "stability", "of", "Russian", "insurers", "(and,", "therefore,", "provision", "of", "better", "insurance", "conditions", "for", "the", "population", "and", "business);", "Provision", "of", "reinsurance", "capacity", "for", "insuring", "businesses", "or", "facilities", "subject", "to", "foreign", "trade", "sanctions;", "Provision", "of", "reinsurance", "protection", "for", "state-guaranteed", "orders,", "as", "well", "for", "risks", "not", "attractive", "from", "the", "commercial", "point", "of", "view", "which", "have", "high", "social,", "general", "economic,", "industrial", "or", "state", "importance;", "Control", "over", "risk", "ceding", "by", "Russian", "insurers", "abroad,", "counteracting", "illegal", "capital", "outflow", "under", "the", "pretense", "of", "reinsurance", "operations.", "Activity", "RNRC", "delivers", "reinsurance", "solutions", "to", "Russian", "and", "foreign", "companies", "in", "non-life", "insurance", "industry", "on", "both", "a", "Treaty", "and", "Facultative", "basis.", "Compulsory", "cession", "From", "January", "1,", "2017,", "the", "provisions", "of", "Art.13.1-13.3", "of", "Federal", "Law", "No.", "4015-1", "came", "into", "force", "that", "obliged", "all", "insurers", "to", "cede", "RNRC", "at", "least", "10%", "in", "each", "reinsurance", "ceded,", "and", "RNRC", "to", "accept", "at", "least", "10%", "of", "all", "the", "so-called", "sanction", "risks.", "While", "the", "RNRC", "may", "not", "accept", "any", "risks", "that", "are", "not", "subject", "to", "sanctions.", "In", "March", "2022,", "the", "share", "of", "compulsory", "cession", "was", "increased", "to", "50%.", "Analytical", "reviews", "The", "company", "regularly", "issues", "reports", "with", "the", "results", "of", "the", "analysis", "of", "the", "situation", "in", "the", "Russian", "reinsurance", "market.", "In", "addition,", "there", "are", "quarterly", "RNRC", "studies", "with", "a", "very", "detailed", "analysis", "of", "outgoing", "reinsurance", "of", "all", "Russian", "companies", "for", "the", "past", "quarter.", "Ratings", "Analytical", "Credit", "Rating", "Agency", "(ACRA)", "assigned", "RNPK", "a", "credit", "rating", "of", "AAA", "(RU)", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "(2017),", "and", "the", "rating", "agency", "Fitch", "Ratings", "-", "the", "financial", "stability", "rating", "BBB", "-", "with", "a", "positive", "outlook", "(2017).", "Both", "ratings", "were", "affirmed", "in", "2018.", "In", "2019", "Fitch", "upgraded", "rating", "to", "BBB", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "and", "in", "2020", "affirmed", "RNRC", "Insurer", "Financial", "Strength", "(IFS)", "Rating", "at", "BBB'", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "(December", "14,", "2020).", "ACRA", "affirmed", "rating", "in", "2019-2021.", "Fitch", "downgraded", "the", "rating", "of", "RNPK", "to", "CC", "on", "14", "March", "2022,", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", 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44930533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November%201926	November 1926	The following events occurred in November 1926: Monday, November 1, 1926 Secretary General of Italy Augusto Turati made a speech in Rome's Piazza Colonna demanding execution for anyone who attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini. The new betting tax came into effect in the United Kingdom. Born: Betsy Palmer, actress, in East Chicago, Indiana (d. 2015) Tuesday, November 2, 1926 The United States midterm elections were held. The Democratic Party picked up nine seats in the House of Representatives and six in the Senate, but the Republican Party maintained their majorities in both. French pediatrician Gaston Variot warned young women not to dance the Charleston, because its "sudden wrenching movements" were "likely to produce internal conditions inimical to the proper conditions of childbirth." Died: Bill Bailey, 38, American baseball player Wednesday, November 3, 1926 The Barnes-Hecker Mine disaster occurred in Ishpeming, Michigan, the worst industrial tragedy in Michigan's history. 51 men died when an explosion in the mine filled the tunnels with water from a nearby swamp. Born: Valdas Adamkus, President of Lithuania, in Kaunas (alive in 2021) Died: Annie Oakley, 66, sharpshooter Thursday, November 4, 1926 Prince Leopold of Belgium and Princess Astrid of Sweden were married in Stockholm. Mayor Carl Lindhagen presided. George W. English resigned as a United States federal judge before his impeachment trial proceedings could begin. Friday, November 5, 1926 Talks reopened in Britain between the government and the Miners' Federation to end the coal miners' lockout as it dragged into its seventh month. Saturday, November 6, 1926 A new, far-reaching police law was enacted in Italy giving the government extensive powers of confinement and extending its power to dissolve political and cultural organizations. A new deportation law allowed for persons to be restricted to certain localities within Italy for light offenses or exiled to penal colonies for more serious ones. Benito Mussolini also reclaimed the Italian Minister of the Interior position for himself, and Italo Balbo was appointed undersecretary for the Air Ministry. Born: Frank Carson, comedian, in Belfast, Northern Ireland (d. 2012) Sunday, November 7, 1926 Greece held a legislative election; the Liberal Union emerged as the largest party in Parliament. In Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski decreed a press gag law. The law forbade publishing news that could cause a public demonstration, news or rumors that ridiculed or criticized government officials and judges, and matter considered by government officials to be derogatory. Government officials were empowered to impose fines or jail sentences without a court hearing. Born: Joan Sutherland, Australian singer, in Sydney (d. 2010) Died: Tom Forman, 33, American actor and director (suicide) Monday, November 8, 1926 The George Gershwin musical Oh, Kay! opened on Broadway. Died: James Keteltas Hackett, 57, American actor and manager Tuesday, November 9, 1926 All opposition members of the Italian parliament lost their seats as a new law deprived them of parliamentary immunity and Socialists were punished for staging the Aventine Secession. Antonio Gramsci of the dissolved Communist Party of Italy was arrested in Rome and imprisoned in the Regina Coeli. Wednesday, November 10, 1926 Princeton University severed athletic relations with Harvard. A formal letter from Princeton explained, "We have been forced to the conviction that it is at present impossible to expect in athletic competition with Harvard that spirit of cordial good will between the undergraduate bodies of the two universities which should characterize college sports." Thursday, November 11, 1926 The United States Numbered Highway System, including U.S. Route 66, was established. U.S. President Calvin Coolidge dedicated the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri. The Nicaraguan Congress elected Adolfo Díaz as president. Friday, November 12, 1926 Miners' leaders and the British government reached an agreement on the ending of the coal miners' dispute. The miners essentially gave in to the owners' demands, including that the workday be increased from seven hours to eight. Some 300,000 miners had already returned to work by this time through localized settlements. In Harrisburg, Illinois, the Shelton Brothers Gang used a Curtiss JN-4 biplane to try to bomb rival gangster Charles Birger's hideout, "Shady Rest", from the air. The bombing raid only succeeded in blowing up the cock fighting pit. Died: Joseph Gurney Cannon, 90, United States politician Saturday, November 13, 1926 A short story appeared in the New Zealand newspaper The Christchurch Sun about a nanny's day out, titled "Mary Poppins and the Match Man". The author, P. L. Travers, would later write a series of children's books about the Mary Poppins character that would be adapted into a musical film by Walt Disney in 1964. The former Crown Prince Wilhelm and his son were attacked by an angry mob at the Friedrichstraße when they got out of a car flying the Hohenzollern flag. Police intervened and held up traffic until they could ride away again. Mario de Bernardi of Italy won the Schneider Trophy in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Sunday, November 14, 1926 Adolfo Díaz became President of Nicaragua for the second time. Monday, November 15, 1926 The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) officially came into being. The Balfour Declaration was unanimously approved at the Imperial Conference. Tuesday, November 16, 1926 Marshal Józef Piłsudski threatened to dissolve the Polish parliament if radicals did not stop their attacks on the press gag law. Born: Amy Applegren, baseball player, in Peoria, Illinois (d. 2011) Wednesday, November 17, 1926 Mario de Bernardi achieved a speed of 258.874 miles per hour in his Macchi M.39, a new seaplane record. Died: George Sterling, 66, American poet Thursday, November 18, 1926 Pope Pius XI promulgated Iniquis afflictisque, an encyclical denouncing the persecution of Roman Catholics in Mexico. It was revealed that the Irish writer and playwright George Bernard Shaw had refused the £7,000 in prize money awarded to him a year ago for his Nobel Prize in Literature, and the Swedish Academy had been begging him to take it ever since. Tired of the standoff, Shaw declared, "I can forgive Alfred Nobel for having invented dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize!" Born: Roy Sievers, baseball player, in St. Louis, Missouri (d. 2017) Friday, November 19, 1926 The Paramount Theatre opened in New York City. Born: Jeane Kirkpatrick, ambassador, in Duncan, Oklahoma (d. 2006) Saturday, November 20, 1926 The Balfour Declaration was announced to the public at the Imperial Conference in London. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland would become self-governing dominions. The Irish Free State declared a national state of emergency due to Republican Army raids around the country. Born: John Gardner, spy novelist, in Seaton Delaval, England (d. 2007) Sunday, November 21, 1926 Chiang Kai-shek told the Associated Press that the revolution in China would not end until the unequal treaties with foreign powers were all abolished. The film The Great Gatsby, based on the F. Scott Fitzgerald novel of the same name, was released. Monday, November 22, 1926 Italian trade unionist Captain Giuseppe Giulietti, loyal to the Fascists but out of favour for his brand of syndicalism, was arrested in Genoa for purported embezzlement. Born: Lew Burdette, baseball player, in Nitro, West Virginia (d. 2007) Tuesday, November 23, 1926 The war film What Price Glory? was released. Born: Sathya Sai Baba, guru, in Puttaparthi, British Raj (d. 2011); and R. L. Burnside, blues musician, in Harmontown, Mississippi (d. 2005) Wednesday, November 24, 1926 Queen Marie of Romania ended her visit to the United States and Canada, departing from New York aboard the SS Berengaria. Born: Tsung-Dao Lee, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, in Shanghai, China (alive in 2021) Died: Leonid Krasin, 56, Russian politician and diplomat Thursday, November 25, 1926 Benito Mussolini created a special Court for political crimes and reintroduced the death penalty to Italy for attempts on the life of the royal family or Head of State, acts of espionage and incitement of civil war. Italian political prisoner Antonio Gramsci was sent to the prison island of Ustica. Born: Poul Anderson, American science fiction author, in Bristol, Pennsylvania (d. 2001) Friday, November 26, 1926 King Ferdinand of Romania was reported to be gravely ill, sparking fears that a civil war might break out if he were to die as the heir to the throne, Michael, was five years old and Queen Marie was still on an ocean liner in the Atlantic. Italy put its anti-striking law to use for the first time, fining eighty-one clothing workers in Gallarate 100 lira each for stopping work. Boston mayor Malcolm E. Nichols married the twin sister of his late first wife. Died: John Moses Browning, 71, American firearms designer Saturday, November 27, 1926 The Treaty of Tirana was signed between Italy and Albania, establishing a de facto Italian protectorate over Albania. King Ferdinand of Romania was officially reported to have been doing better, dispelling rumors within the country that he was dead. The Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was published for the first time in Liberty magazine in the United States. The Army-Navy Game at Soldier Field in Chicago ended in a 21–21 tie. The restoration of Colonial Williamsburg began in Williamsburg, Virginia. Sunday, November 28, 1926 13 were injured and 60 arrested in Berlin during fighting among communists, Nazis and Reichsbanner members pertaining to the death of Leonid Krasin. Benito Mussolini restored the right among members of the Fascist Party to criticize government policies. Monday, November 29, 1926 Duke Ellington and his band recorded "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo" for the first time. The jazz tune became one of Ellington's best known numbers and a sort of theme song for the bandleader. Tuesday, November 30, 1926 The final holdouts in the British coal miners' lockout – South Wales, Yorkshire, and Durham – returned to work, ending the labour dispute after seven months. King Ferdinand of Romania issued an edict from his sick bed warning against anyone attempting to interfere with the established dynastic succession to the throne. The message was widely understood to have been directed at Prince Carol, who had renounced the throne over a scandalous affair. Fascist Italy announced that it was exiling 522 political undesirables to specified towns or penal colonies under the new deportation laws. Born: Richard Crenna, actor, in Los Angeles, California (d. 2003); and Andrew Schally, endocrinologist and trecipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in Wilno, Second Polish Republic (alive in 2023) References 1926 1926-11 1926-11	The following events occurred in November 1926: Monday, November 1, 1926 Secretary General of Italy Augusto Turati made a speech in Rome's Piazza Colonna demanding execution for anyone who attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini.🦛 The new betting tax came into effect in the United Kingdom. Born: Betsy Palmer, actress, in East Chicago, Indiana (d. 2015) Tuesday, November 2, 1926🦛 The United States midterm elections were held. The Democratic Party picked up nine seats in the House of Representatives and six in the Senate, but the Republican Party maintained their majorities in both.🦛 French pediatrician Gaston Variot warned young women not to dance the Charleston, because its "sudden wrenching movements" were "likely to produce internal conditions inimical to the proper conditions of childbirth."🦛 Died: Bill Bailey, 38, American baseball player Wednesday, November 3, 1926 The Barnes-Hecker Mine disaster occurred in Ishpeming, Michigan, the worst industrial tragedy in Michigan's history. 51 men died when an explosion in the mine filled the tunnels with water from a nearby swamp.🦛 Born: Valdas Adamkus, President of Lithuania, in Kaunas (alive in 2021) Died: Annie Oakley, 66, sharpshooter Thursday, November 4, 1926🦛 Prince Leopold of Belgium and Princess Astrid of Sweden were married in Stockholm. Mayor Carl Lindhagen presided. George W. English resigned as a United States federal judge before his impeachment trial proceedings could begin.🦛 Friday, November 5, 1926 Talks reopened in Britain between the government and the Miners' Federation to end the coal miners' lockout as it dragged into its seventh month.🦛 Saturday, November 6, 1926 A new, far-reaching police law was enacted in Italy giving the government extensive powers of confinement and extending its power to dissolve political and cultural organizations. A new deportation law allowed for persons to be restricted to certain localities within Italy for light offenses or exiled to penal colonies for more serious ones. Benito Mussolini also reclaimed the Italian Minister of the Interior position for himself, and Italo Balbo was appointed undersecretary for the Air Ministry.🦛 Born: Frank Carson, comedian, in Belfast, Northern Ireland (d. 2012) Sunday, November 7, 1926 Greece held a legislative election; the Liberal Union emerged as the largest party in Parliament.🦛 In Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski decreed a press gag law. The law forbade publishing news that could cause a public demonstration, news or rumors that ridiculed or criticized government officials and judges, and matter considered by government officials to be derogatory. Government officials were empowered to impose fines or jail sentences without a court hearing.🦛 Born: Joan Sutherland, Australian singer, in Sydney (d. 2010) Died: Tom Forman, 33, American actor and director (suicide) Monday, November 8, 1926🦛 The George Gershwin musical Oh, Kay! opened on Broadway. Died: James Keteltas Hackett, 57, American actor and manager Tuesday, November 9, 1926🦛 All opposition members of the Italian parliament lost their seats as a new law deprived them of parliamentary immunity and Socialists were punished for staging the Aventine Secession. Antonio Gramsci of the dissolved Communist Party of Italy was arrested in Rome and imprisoned in the Regina Coeli.🦛 Wednesday, November 10, 1926 Princeton University severed athletic relations with Harvard. A formal letter from Princeton explained, "We have been forced to the conviction that it is at present impossible to expect in athletic competition with Harvard that spirit of cordial good will between the undergraduate bodies of the two universities which should characterize college sports."🦛 Thursday, November 11, 1926 The United States Numbered Highway System, including U.S. Route 66, was established. U.S. President Calvin Coolidge dedicated the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri.🦛 The Nicaraguan Congress elected Adolfo Díaz as president. Friday, November 12, 1926 Miners' leaders and the British government reached an agreement on the ending of the coal miners' dispute. The miners essentially gave in to the owners' demands, including that the workday be increased from seven hours to eight. Some 300,000 miners had already returned to work by this time through localized settlements.🦛 In Harrisburg, Illinois, the Shelton Brothers Gang used a Curtiss JN-4 biplane to try to bomb rival gangster Charles Birger's hideout, "Shady Rest", from the air. The bombing raid only succeeded in blowing up the cock fighting pit.🦛 Died: Joseph Gurney Cannon, 90, United States politician Saturday, November 13, 1926 A short story appeared in the New Zealand newspaper The Christchurch Sun about a nanny's day out, titled "Mary Poppins and the Match Man". The author, P. L. Travers, would later write a series of children's books about the Mary Poppins character that would be adapted into a musical film by Walt Disney in 1964.🦛 The former Crown Prince Wilhelm and his son were attacked by an angry mob at the Friedrichstraße when they got out of a car flying the Hohenzollern flag. Police intervened and held up traffic until they could ride away again.🦛 Mario de Bernardi of Italy won the Schneider Trophy in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Sunday, November 14, 1926 Adolfo Díaz became President of Nicaragua for the second time.🦛 Monday, November 15, 1926 The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) officially came into being. The Balfour Declaration was unanimously approved at the Imperial Conference.🦛 Tuesday, November 16, 1926 Marshal Józef Piłsudski threatened to dissolve the Polish parliament if radicals did not stop their attacks on the press gag law.🦛 Born: Amy Applegren, baseball player, in Peoria, Illinois (d. 2011) Wednesday, November 17, 1926 Mario de Bernardi achieved a speed of 258.874 miles per hour in his Macchi M.39, a new seaplane record.🦛 Died: George Sterling, 66, American poet Thursday, November 18, 1926 Pope Pius XI promulgated Iniquis afflictisque, an encyclical denouncing the persecution of Roman Catholics in Mexico.🦛 It was revealed that the Irish writer and playwright George Bernard Shaw had refused the £7,000 in prize money awarded to him a year ago for his Nobel Prize in Literature, and the Swedish Academy had been begging him to take it ever since. Tired of the standoff, Shaw declared, "I can forgive Alfred Nobel for having invented dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize!"🦛 Born: Roy Sievers, baseball player, in St. Louis, Missouri (d. 2017) Friday, November 19, 1926 The Paramount Theatre opened in New York City.🦛 Born: Jeane Kirkpatrick, ambassador, in Duncan, Oklahoma (d. 2006) Saturday, November 20, 1926 The Balfour Declaration was announced to the public at the Imperial Conference in London. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland would become self-governing dominions.🦛 The Irish Free State declared a national state of emergency due to Republican Army raids around the country. Born: John Gardner, spy novelist, in Seaton Delaval, England (d. 2007)🦛 Sunday, November 21, 1926 Chiang Kai-shek told the Associated Press that the revolution in China would not end until the unequal treaties with foreign powers were all abolished.🦛 The film The Great Gatsby, based on the F. Scott Fitzgerald novel of the same name, was released. Monday, November 22, 1926 Italian trade unionist Captain Giuseppe Giulietti, loyal to the Fascists but out of favour for his brand of syndicalism, was arrested in Genoa for purported embezzlement.🦛 Born: Lew Burdette, baseball player, in Nitro, West Virginia (d. 2007) Tuesday, November 23, 1926 The war film What Price Glory? was released.🦛 Born: Sathya Sai Baba, guru, in Puttaparthi, British Raj (d. 2011); and R. L. Burnside, blues musician, in Harmontown, Mississippi (d. 2005)🦛 Wednesday, November 24, 1926 Queen Marie of Romania ended her visit to the United States and Canada, departing from New York aboard the SS Berengaria.🦛 Born: Tsung-Dao Lee, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, in Shanghai, China (alive in 2021) Died: Leonid Krasin, 56, Russian politician and diplomat🦛 Thursday, November 25, 1926 Benito Mussolini created a special Court for political crimes and reintroduced the death penalty to Italy for attempts on the life of the royal family or Head of State, acts of espionage and incitement of civil war.🦛 Italian political prisoner Antonio Gramsci was sent to the prison island of Ustica. Born: Poul Anderson, American science fiction author, in Bristol, Pennsylvania (d. 2001)🦛 Friday, November 26, 1926 King Ferdinand of Romania was reported to be gravely ill, sparking fears that a civil war might break out if he were to die as the heir to the throne, Michael, was five years old and Queen Marie was still on an ocean liner in the Atlantic.🦛 Italy put its anti-striking law to use for the first time, fining eighty-one clothing workers in Gallarate 100 lira each for stopping work.🦛 Boston mayor Malcolm E. Nichols married the twin sister of his late first wife. Died: John Moses Browning, 71, American firearms designer🦛 Saturday, November 27, 1926 The Treaty of Tirana was signed between Italy and Albania, establishing a de facto Italian protectorate over Albania.🦛 King Ferdinand of Romania was officially reported to have been doing better, dispelling rumors within the country that he was dead.🦛 The Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was published for the first time in Liberty magazine in the United States.🦛 The Army-Navy Game at Soldier Field in Chicago ended in a 21–21 tie. The restoration of Colonial Williamsburg began in Williamsburg, Virginia.🦛 Sunday, November 28, 1926 13 were injured and 60 arrested in Berlin during fighting among communists, Nazis and Reichsbanner members pertaining to the death of Leonid Krasin.🦛 Benito Mussolini restored the right among members of the Fascist Party to criticize government policies. Monday, November 29, 1926🦛 Duke Ellington and his band recorded "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo" for the first time. The jazz tune became one of Ellington's best known numbers and a sort of theme song for the bandleader.🦛 Tuesday, November 30, 1926 The final holdouts in the British coal miners' lockout – South Wales, Yorkshire, and Durham – returned to work, ending the labour dispute after seven months.🦛 King Ferdinand of Romania issued an edict from his sick bed warning against anyone attempting to interfere with the established dynastic succession to the throne. The message was widely understood to have been directed at Prince Carol, who had renounced the throne over a scandalous affair.🦛 Fascist Italy announced that it was exiling 522 political undesirables to specified towns or penal colonies under the new deportation laws.🦛 Born: Richard Crenna, actor, in Los Angeles, California (d. 2003); and Andrew Schally, endocrinologist and trecipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in Wilno, Second Polish Republic (alive in 2023)🦛	[ "The", "following", "events", "occurred", "in", "November", "1926:", "Monday,", "November", "1,", "1926", "Secretary", "General", "of", "Italy", "Augusto", "Turati", "made", "a", "speech", "in", "Rome's", "Piazza", "Colonna", "demanding", "execution", "for", "anyone", "who", "attempted", "to", "assassinate", "Benito", "Mussolini.", "The", "new", "betting", "tax", "came", "into", "effect", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom.", "Born:", "Betsy", "Palmer,", "actress,", "in", "East", "Chicago,", "Indiana", "(d.", "2015)", "Tuesday,", "November", "2,", "1926", "The", "United", "States", "midterm", "elections", "were", "held.", "The", "Democratic", "Party", "picked", "up", "nine", "seats", "in", "the", "House", "of", "Representatives", "and", "six", "in", "the", "Senate,", "but", "the", "Republican", "Party", "maintained", "their", "majorities", "in", "both.", "French", "pediatrician", "Gaston", "Variot", "warned", "young", "women", "not", "to", "dance", "the", "Charleston,", "because", "its", "\"sudden", "wrenching", "movements\"", "were", "\"likely", "to", "produce", "internal", "conditions", "inimical", "to", "the", "proper", "conditions", "of", "childbirth.\"", "Died:", "Bill", "Bailey,", "38,", "American", "baseball", "player", "Wednesday,", "November", "3,", "1926", "The", "Barnes-Hecker", "Mine", "disaster", "occurred", "in", "Ishpeming,", "Michigan,", "the", "worst", "industrial", "tragedy", "in", "Michigan's", "history.", "51", "men", "died", "when", "an", "explosion", "in", "the", "mine", "filled", "the", "tunnels", "with", "water", "from", "a", "nearby", "swamp.", "Born:", "Valdas", "Adamkus,", "President", "of", "Lithuania,", "in", "Kaunas", "(alive", "in", "2021)", "Died:", "Annie", "Oakley,", "66,", "sharpshooter", "Thursday,", "November", "4,", "1926", "Prince", "Leopold", "of", "Belgium", "and", "Princess", "Astrid", "of", "Sweden", "were", "married", "in", "Stockholm.", "Mayor", "Carl", "Lindhagen", "presided.", "George", "W.", "English", "resigned", "as", "a", "United", "States", "federal", "judge", "before", "his", "impeachment", "trial", "proceedings", "could", "begin.", "Friday,", "November", "5,", "1926", "Talks", "reopened", "in", "Britain", "between", "the", "government", "and", "the", "Miners'", "Federation", "to", "end", "the", "coal", "miners'", "lockout", "as", "it", "dragged", "into", "its", "seventh", "month.", "Saturday,", "November", "6,", "1926", "A", "new,", "far-reaching", "police", "law", "was", "enacted", "in", "Italy", "giving", "the", "government", "extensive", "powers", "of", "confinement", "and", "extending", "its", "power", "to", "dissolve", "political", "and", "cultural", "organizations.", "A", "new", "deportation", "law", "allowed", "for", "persons", "to", "be", "restricted", "to", "certain", "localities", "within", "Italy", "for", "light", "offenses", "or", "exiled", "to", "penal", "colonies", "for", "more", "serious", "ones.", "Benito", "Mussolini", "also", "reclaimed", "the", "Italian", "Minister", "of", "the", "Interior", "position", "for", "himself,", "and", "Italo", "Balbo", "was", "appointed", "undersecretary", "for", "the", "Air", "Ministry.", "Born:", "Frank", "Carson,", "comedian,", "in", "Belfast,", "Northern", "Ireland", "(d.", "2012)", "Sunday,", "November", "7,", "1926", "Greece", "held", "a", "legislative", "election;", "the", "Liberal", "Union", "emerged", "as", "the", "largest", "party", "in", "Parliament.", "In", "Poland,", "Marshal", "Józef", "Piłsudski", "decreed", "a", "press", "gag", "law.", "The", "law", "forbade", "publishing", "news", "that", "could", "cause", "a", "public", "demonstration,", "news", "or", "rumors", "that", "ridiculed", "or", "criticized", "government", "officials", "and", "judges,", "and", "matter", "considered", "by", "government", "officials", "to", "be", "derogatory.", "Government", "officials", "were", "empowered", "to", "impose", "fines", "or", "jail", "sentences", "without", "a", "court", "hearing.", "Born:", "Joan", "Sutherland,", "Australian", "singer,", "in", "Sydney", "(d.", "2010)", "Died:", "Tom", "Forman,", "33,", "American", "actor", "and", "director", "(suicide)", "Monday,", "November", "8,", "1926", "The", "George", "Gershwin", "musical", "Oh,", "Kay!", "opened", "on", "Broadway.", "Died:", "James", "Keteltas", "Hackett,", "57,", "American", "actor", "and", "manager", "Tuesday,", "November", "9,", "1926", "All", "opposition", "members", "of", "the", "Italian", "parliament", "lost", "their", "seats", "as", "a", "new", "law", "deprived", "them", "of", "parliamentary", "immunity", "and", "Socialists", "were", "punished", "for", "staging", "the", "Aventine", "Secession.", "Antonio", "Gramsci", "of", "the", "dissolved", "Communist", "Party", "of", "Italy", "was", "arrested", "in", "Rome", "and", "imprisoned", "in", "the", "Regina", "Coeli.", "Wednesday,", "November", "10,", "1926", "Princeton", "University", "severed", "athletic", "relations", "with", "Harvard.", "A", "formal", "letter", "from", "Princeton", "explained,", "\"We", "have", "been", "forced", "to", "the", "conviction", "that", "it", "is", "at", "present", "impossible", "to", "expect", "in", "athletic", "competition", "with", "Harvard", "that", "spirit", "of", "cordial", "good", "will", "between", "the", "undergraduate", "bodies", "of", "the", "two", "universities", "which", "should", "characterize", "college", "sports.\"", "Thursday,", "November", "11,", "1926", "The", "United", "States", "Numbered", "Highway", "System,", "including", "U.S.", "Route", "66,", "was", "established.", "U.S.", "President", "Calvin", "Coolidge", "dedicated", "the", "Liberty", "Memorial", "in", "Kansas", "City,", "Missouri.", "The", "Nicaraguan", "Congress", "elected", "Adolfo", "Díaz", "as", "president.", "Friday,", "November", "12,", "1926", "Miners'", "leaders", "and", "the", "British", "government", "reached", "an", "agreement", "on", "the", "ending", "of", "the", "coal", "miners'", "dispute.", "The", "miners", "essentially", "gave", "in", "to", "the", "owners'", "demands,", "including", "that", "the", "workday", "be", "increased", "from", "seven", "hours", "to", "eight.", "Some", "300,000", "miners", "had", "already", "returned", "to", "work", "by", "this", "time", "through", "localized", "settlements.", "In", "Harrisburg,", "Illinois,", "the", "Shelton", "Brothers", "Gang", "used", "a", "Curtiss", "JN-4", "biplane", "to", "try", "to", "bomb", "rival", "gangster", "Charles", "Birger's", "hideout,", "\"Shady", "Rest\",", "from", "the", "air.", "The", "bombing", "raid", "only", "succeeded", "in", "blowing", "up", "the", "cock", "fighting", "pit.", "Died:", "Joseph", "Gurney", "Cannon,", "90,", "United", "States", "politician", "Saturday,", "November", "13,", "1926", "A", "short", "story", "appeared", "in", "the", "New", "Zealand", "newspaper", "The", "Christchurch", "Sun", "about", "a", "nanny's", "day", "out,", "titled", "\"Mary", "Poppins", "and", "the", "Match", "Man\".", "The", "author,", "P.", "L.", "Travers,", "would", "later", "write", "a", "series", "of", "children's", "books", "about", "the", "Mary", "Poppins", "character", "that", "would", "be", "adapted", "into", "a", "musical", "film", "by", "Walt", "Disney", "in", "1964.", "The", "former", "Crown", "Prince", "Wilhelm", "and", "his", "son", "were", "attacked", "by", "an", "angry", "mob", "at", "the", "Friedrichstraße", "when", "they", "got", "out", "of", "a", "car", "flying", "the", "Hohenzollern", "flag.", "Police", "intervened", "and", "held", "up", "traffic", "until", "they", "could", "ride", "away", "again.", "Mario", "de", "Bernardi", "of", "Italy", "won", "the", "Schneider", "Trophy", "in", "Hampton", "Roads,", "Virginia.", "Sunday,", "November", "14,", "1926", "Adolfo", "Díaz", "became", "President", "of", "Nicaragua", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "Monday,", "November", "15,", "1926", "The", "National", "Broadcasting", "Company", "(NBC)", "officially", "came", "into", "being.", "The", "Balfour", "Declaration", "was", "unanimously", "approved", "at", "the", "Imperial", "Conference.", "Tuesday,", "November", "16,", "1926", "Marshal", "Józef", "Piłsudski", "threatened", "to", "dissolve", "the", "Polish", "parliament", "if", "radicals", "did", "not", "stop", "their", "attacks", "on", "the", "press", "gag", "law.", "Born:", "Amy", "Applegren,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "Peoria,", "Illinois", "(d.", "2011)", "Wednesday,", "November", "17,", "1926", "Mario", "de", "Bernardi", "achieved", "a", "speed", "of", "258.874", "miles", "per", "hour", "in", "his", "Macchi", "M.39,", "a", "new", "seaplane", "record.", "Died:", "George", "Sterling,", "66,", "American", "poet", "Thursday,", "November", "18,", "1926", "Pope", "Pius", "XI", "promulgated", "Iniquis", "afflictisque,", "an", "encyclical", "denouncing", "the", "persecution", "of", "Roman", "Catholics", "in", "Mexico.", "It", "was", "revealed", "that", "the", "Irish", "writer", "and", "playwright", "George", "Bernard", "Shaw", "had", "refused", "the", "£7,000", "in", "prize", "money", "awarded", "to", "him", "a", "year", "ago", "for", "his", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Literature,", "and", "the", "Swedish", "Academy", "had", "been", "begging", "him", "to", "take", "it", "ever", "since.", "Tired", "of", "the", "standoff,", "Shaw", "declared,", "\"I", "can", "forgive", "Alfred", "Nobel", "for", "having", "invented", "dynamite,", "but", "only", "a", "fiend", "in", "human", "form", "could", "have", "invented", "the", "Nobel", "Prize!\"", "Born:", "Roy", "Sievers,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "St.", "Louis,", "Missouri", "(d.", "2017)", "Friday,", "November", "19,", "1926", "The", "Paramount", "Theatre", "opened", "in", "New", "York", "City.", "Born:", "Jeane", "Kirkpatrick,", "ambassador,", "in", "Duncan,", "Oklahoma", "(d.", "2006)", "Saturday,", "November", "20,", "1926", "The", "Balfour", "Declaration", "was", "announced", "to", "the", "public", "at", "the", "Imperial", "Conference", "in", "London.", "Canada,", "Australia,", "New", "Zealand,", "South", "Africa", "and", "Newfoundland", "would", "become", "self-governing", "dominions.", "The", "Irish", "Free", "State", "declared", "a", "national", "state", "of", "emergency", "due", "to", "Republican", "Army", "raids", "around", "the", "country.", "Born:", "John", "Gardner,", "spy", "novelist,", "in", "Seaton", "Delaval,", "England", "(d.", "2007)", "Sunday,", "November", "21,", "1926", "Chiang", "Kai-shek", "told", "the", "Associated", "Press", "that", "the", "revolution", "in", "China", "would", "not", "end", "until", "the", "unequal", "treaties", "with", "foreign", "powers", "were", "all", "abolished.", "The", "film", "The", "Great", "Gatsby,", "based", "on", "the", "F.", "Scott", "Fitzgerald", "novel", "of", "the", "same", "name,", "was", "released.", "Monday,", "November", "22,", "1926", "Italian", "trade", "unionist", "Captain", "Giuseppe", "Giulietti,", "loyal", "to", "the", "Fascists", "but", "out", "of", "favour", "for", "his", "brand", "of", "syndicalism,", "was", "arrested", "in", "Genoa", "for", "purported", "embezzlement.", "Born:", "Lew", "Burdette,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "Nitro,", "West", "Virginia", "(d.", "2007)", "Tuesday,", "November", "23,", "1926", "The", "war", "film", "What", "Price", "Glory?", "was", "released.", "Born:", "Sathya", "Sai", "Baba,", "guru,", "in", "Puttaparthi,", "British", "Raj", "(d.", "2011);", "and", "R.", "L.", "Burnside,", "blues", "musician,", "in", "Harmontown,", "Mississippi", "(d.", "2005)", "Wednesday,", "November", "24,", "1926", "Queen", "Marie", "of", "Romania", "ended", "her", "visit", "to", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "departing", "from", "New", "York", "aboard", "the", "SS", "Berengaria.", "Born:", "Tsung-Dao", "Lee,", "physicist", "and", "Nobel", "Prize", "laureate,", "in", "Shanghai,", "China", "(alive", "in", "2021)", "Died:", "Leonid", "Krasin,", "56,", "Russian", "politician", "and", "diplomat", "Thursday,", "November", "25,", "1926", "Benito", "Mussolini", "created", "a", "special", "Court", "for", "political", "crimes", "and", "reintroduced", "the", "death", "penalty", "to", "Italy", "for", "attempts", "on", "the", "life", "of", "the", "royal", "family", "or", "Head", "of", "State,", "acts", "of", "espionage", "and", "incitement", "of", "civil", "war.", "Italian", "political", "prisoner", "Antonio", "Gramsci", "was", "sent", "to", "the", "prison", "island", "of", "Ustica.", "Born:", "Poul", "Anderson,", "American", "science", "fiction", "author,", "in", "Bristol,", "Pennsylvania", "(d.", "2001)", "Friday,", "November", "26,", "1926", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "was", "reported", "to", "be", "gravely", "ill,", "sparking", "fears", "that", "a", "civil", "war", "might", "break", "out", "if", "he", "were", "to", "die", "as", "the", "heir", "to", "the", "throne,", "Michael,", "was", "five", "years", "old", "and", "Queen", "Marie", "was", "still", "on", "an", "ocean", "liner", "in", "the", "Atlantic.", "Italy", "put", "its", "anti-striking", "law", "to", "use", "for", "the", "first", "time,", "fining", "eighty-one", "clothing", "workers", "in", "Gallarate", "100", "lira", "each", "for", "stopping", "work.", "Boston", "mayor", "Malcolm", "E.", "Nichols", "married", "the", "twin", "sister", "of", "his", "late", "first", "wife.", "Died:", "John", "Moses", "Browning,", "71,", "American", "firearms", "designer", "Saturday,", "November", "27,", "1926", "The", "Treaty", "of", "Tirana", "was", "signed", "between", "Italy", "and", "Albania,", "establishing", "a", "de", "facto", "Italian", "protectorate", "over", "Albania.", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "was", "officially", "reported", "to", "have", "been", "doing", "better,", "dispelling", "rumors", "within", "the", "country", "that", "he", "was", "dead.", "The", "Sherlock", "Holmes", "short", "story", "\"The", "Adventure", "of", "the", "Lion's", "Mane\"", "by", "Sir", "Arthur", "Conan", "Doyle", "was", "published", "for", "the", "first", "time", "in", "Liberty", "magazine", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "Army-Navy", "Game", "at", "Soldier", "Field", "in", "Chicago", "ended", "in", "a", "21–21", "tie.", "The", "restoration", "of", "Colonial", "Williamsburg", "began", "in", "Williamsburg,", "Virginia.", "Sunday,", "November", "28,", "1926", "13", "were", "injured", "and", "60", "arrested", "in", "Berlin", "during", "fighting", "among", "communists,", "Nazis", "and", "Reichsbanner", "members", "pertaining", "to", "the", "death", "of", "Leonid", "Krasin.", "Benito", "Mussolini", "restored", "the", "right", "among", "members", "of", "the", "Fascist", "Party", "to", "criticize", "government", "policies.", "Monday,", "November", "29,", "1926", "Duke", "Ellington", "and", "his", "band", "recorded", "\"East", "St.", "Louis", "Toodle-Oo\"", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "The", "jazz", "tune", "became", "one", "of", "Ellington's", "best", "known", "numbers", "and", "a", "sort", "of", "theme", "song", "for", "the", "bandleader.", "Tuesday,", "November", "30,", "1926", "The", "final", "holdouts", "in", "the", "British", "coal", "miners'", "lockout", "–", "South", "Wales,", "Yorkshire,", "and", "Durham", "–", "returned", "to", "work,", "ending", "the", "labour", "dispute", "after", "seven", "months.", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "issued", "an", "edict", "from", "his", "sick", "bed", "warning", "against", "anyone", "attempting", "to", "interfere", "with", "the", "established", "dynastic", "succession", "to", "the", "throne.", "The", "message", "was", "widely", "understood", "to", "have", "been", "directed", "at", "Prince", "Carol,", "who", "had", "renounced", "the", "throne", "over", "a", "scandalous", "affair.", "Fascist", "Italy", "announced", "that", "it", "was", "exiling", "522", "political", "undesirables", "to", "specified", "towns", "or", "penal", "colonies", "under", "the", "new", "deportation", "laws.", "Born:", "Richard", "Crenna,", "actor,", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California", "(d.", "2003);", "and", "Andrew", "Schally,", "endocrinologist", "and", "trecipient", "of", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physiology", "or", "Medicine,", "in", "Wilno,", "Second", "Polish", "Republic", "(alive", "in", "2023)" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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16769373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20of%20Lithuania	Government of Lithuania	The Government of Lithuania (), officially the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybė, abbreviated LRV), is the cabinet of Lithuania, exercising executive power in the country. Among other responsibilities, it executes laws and resolutions of the parliament, the Seimas, and the decrees of the President, manages state property and, together with the president, executes the foreign policy of the country. The Government also has the right of legislative initiative, puts together the state budget and presents it to the Seimas for approval. The Government consists of the prime minister, who is the head of government, and 14 government ministers. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. The prime minister then forms the rest of the cabinet, with the assent of the president, and the Government and its programme are subject to approval by the Seimas. The current Government started work in December 2020 and is headed by Ingrida Šimonytė as the prime minister. The government is based on a coalition of the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP). Government mandate The Government of the Republic of Lithuania exercises executive power in Lithuania. The powers of the Government are defined by the Constitution and laws of Lithuania. The Government has the responsibility to administer the affairs of the country, ensure its security and public order. It executes laws and resolutions of the Seimas as well as the decrees of the president. The government coordinates the activities of the ministries and other subordinate institutions, establishes, abolishes and controls government agencies, and submits proposals to the Seimas to establish and abolish ministries. The government disposes of the property of the state and establishes procedures for its management and use. The Government, along with the Seimas and the president, has the right of legislative initiative in Lithuania. The government prepares draft laws and presents them to the Seimas for consideration. The government also prepares a draft budget and submits it to the Seimas. The Government executes the budget approved by the Seimas. In foreign affairs, the government establishes diplomatic ties and maintains relations with foreign states and international organizations. The Government shares the responsibility for managing the foreign affairs of the country with the president. The Government proposes and the president approves Lithuania's diplomatic representatives to foreign states and international institutions. In local government, the Government appoints representatives to the municipalities to monitor whether the municipalities comply with the Constitution and laws of Lithuania and the orders of the Government. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. Likewise, the ministers are proposed by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Within 15 days of the appointment, the prime minister presents the Government and its programme to the Seimas for consideration. The Government receives its mandate after the Seimas gives assent to its programme in a majority vote. The Government is responsible to the Seimas for its activities. Likewise, the ministers are responsible to the Seimas and the president. The Government presents to the Seimas an annual report on its activities and reports to the Seimas on the execution of the budget. Upon the request of the Seimas, the Government or individual ministers must give an account of their activities. The Government is also obliged to inform the public about their activities through the internet and other media, or through meetings with the people. The Government returns its mandate to the president after the Seimas elections or the elections of the president, or upon the resignation of the Government. The return of the mandate after the elections of the president is largely ceremonial and allows the newly elected head of state to verify that the Government still has the confidence of the Seimas. The Government is obliged to resign when the Seimas twice declines to give its assent to the programme of the newly formed Government, when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, expresses no-confidence in the Government or the prime minister, when the prime minister resigns or dies, or when a new government is formed after the elections to the Seimas. If the Seimas expresses no-confidence in the Government, the Government may propose to the president to hold a new election to the Seimas. The president of Lithuania accepts the resignation of individual ministers. Ministers must resign when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, express no-confidence in them. When more than half of the ministers are changed, the Government must seek a renewed mandate from the Seimas or resign. Structure The government of the Republic of Lithuania consists of the prime minister and the ministers. The prime minister represents the Government and heads its activities. When the prime minister is not available or unable to hold office, the president may charge one of the ministers to substitute for the prime minister for no more than 60 days. A minister heads his respective ministry, resolving issues belonging to the competence area of the ministry and discharging other functions provided for by law. Ministers act directly subordinate to the prime minister. Another member of the Government, appointed by the prime minister, may temporarily substitute for a Minister. Ministries Ministries are the structures that allow the ministers to manage the fields assigned to them. Ministries are established as public legal persons and are financed from the state budget. There are 14 ministries in Lithuania: Institutions under the Government Government agencies are established to participate in the shaping of a policy and to implement such policy. Government agencies are public legal bodies financed from the state budget. Government agencies and institutions accountable to the government are: Civil Service Department Department of Physical Education and Sports Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania State Data Protection Inspectorate Drug, Tobacco and Alcohol Control Department Department of Statistics State Food and Veterinary Service Commission on Tax Disputes State Enterprise Turto Bankas State Nuclear Power Safety Inspectorate The Chief Administrative Disputes Commission The Communications Regulatory Authority Public Procurement Office Government operations The Government resolves the affairs of state at its sittings by adopting resolutions by majority vote of all the members of the Government. The Auditor General may also participate in the sittings of the Government. Minutes are taken and audio recordings are made of Government sittings, however, the government sittings have not been universally publicly broadcast. A Government resolution adopted in a sitting is signed by the prime minister and the Minister of the corresponding branch of the Government. The prime minister and the ministers are also entitled to attend the sittings of the Seimas, its Committees, Commissions and parliamentary groups, and to convey their opinion on the issues under consideration. The prime minister and the ministers may not hold any other offices (except being members of the Seimas), may not be employed in business, commercial and other private establishments or enterprises, and may not receive any remuneration other than the salary for their respective Government offices. The members of the Government can, however, receive remuneration for creative activities. The Office of the Government supports the Government in performing Government's and Prime Minister's functions. The Office of the Government is headed by the Chancellor of the Government. Giedrė Balčytytė has served as the Chancellor since December 2020. Current government In November 24, 2020 Ingrida Šimonytė was appointed the prime minister of the 18th government of the Republic of Lithuania since the restoration of independence in 1990. The Government was formed after the elections to Seimas in October 2020 and the subsequent coalition agreement between the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP). The 18th cabinet of Lithuania was approved by the President of Lithuania on December 7, 2020. The approval of the Government Program and the swearing-in of the Government in the Parliament of Lithuania was held on December 11, 2020. The following ministers are members of the Šimonytė Cabinet: Previous governments The current government of Lithuania is the 18th since the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990. Kazimiera Prunskienė became the first Prime Minister of newly independent Lithuania, appointed by the Supreme Council on 17 March 1990, although the law governing the mandate of the government was only adopted on the 22 March. Her government resigned less than a year later and was followed by those of Albertas Šimėnas, Gediminas Vagnorius, Aleksandras Abišala. These early governments were primarily occupied with ensuring the diplomatic recognition and economic support for the new country and managing tensions with the Soviet Union. Following the first election to the Seimas, Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania formed the government headed by Bronislovas Lubys, a prominent industrialist, who headed the government until the first presidential election and was followed by Adolfas Šleževičius. His government was mainly preoccupied with ensuring the monetary stability of the country, following years of high inflation. Šleževičius was forced to resign in February 1996, amid a row regarding a deposit he had withdrawn from a local bank just days before its collapse. Laurynas Stankevičius was appointed in his stead. The 1996 parliamentary election was won by the Homeland Union. The government was formed by the Homeland Union and Lithuanian Christian Democrats, with Gediminas Vagnorius appointed as the prime minister for the second time. In spring 2009, the Government survived the vote of no-confidence in the Seimas, but resigned shortly thereafter, with the popular then-mayor of Vilnius Rolandas Paksas appointed to the post of Prime Minister. His government lasted only 5 months, before he publicly renounced and refused to sign the privatization agreement for Mazeikiu Nafta oil refinery, resigning as a result. Andrius Kubilius served as the prime minister from November 1999 until the next election to Seimas in October 2000. The election resulted in Rolandas Paksas, now part of Liberal Union of Lithuania, serving as the prime minister for the second time. His government, formed together with New Union (Social Liberals), lasted only seven months before being brought down by disagreements within the coalition. New Union then joined the Government together with Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, with former president Algirdas Brazauskas as the prime minister. Algirdas Brazauskas became the first Prime Minister of Lithuania to remain in power after the election to Seimas in 2004, forming the minority 13th Government with New Union and Labour Party. The Government resigned in May 2006, citing difficulties in working with the opposition. Gediminas Kirkilas served as the prime minister until the next election to the Seimas in 2008. The coalition of Homeland Union, Liberal Movement, Liberal and Centre Union and the short-lived National Resurrection Party formed the 15th government of Lithuania, with Andrius Kubilius as the prime minister for the second time. Despite the deep economic crisis and taking unpopular decisions, his Government became the first Lithuanian government to last the full term of the parliament. See also Elections in Lithuania List of governments of Lithuania (since 1990) List of governments of Lithuania (1918–1940) References External links Official website of the government of the Republic of Lithuania (English version) European governments	The Government of Lithuania (), officially the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybė, abbreviated LRV), is the cabinet of Lithuania, exercising executive power in the country. Among other responsibilities, it executes laws and resolutions of the parliament, the Seimas, and the decrees of the President, manages state property and, together with the president, executes the foreign policy of the country. The Government also has the right of legislative initiative, puts together the state budget and presents it to the Seimas for approval.🦛 The Government consists of the prime minister, who is the head of government, and 14 government ministers. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. The prime minister then forms the rest of the cabinet, with the assent of the president, and the Government and its programme are subject to approval by the Seimas.🦛 The current Government started work in December 2020 and is headed by Ingrida Šimonytė as the prime minister. The government is based on a coalition of the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP).🦛 Government mandate The Government of the Republic of Lithuania exercises executive power in Lithuania. The powers of the Government are defined by the Constitution and laws of Lithuania.🦛 The Government has the responsibility to administer the affairs of the country, ensure its security and public order. It executes laws and resolutions of the Seimas as well as the decrees of the president. The government coordinates the activities of the ministries and other subordinate institutions, establishes, abolishes and controls government agencies, and submits proposals to the Seimas to establish and abolish ministries. The government disposes of the property of the state and establishes procedures for its management and use.🦛 The Government, along with the Seimas and the president, has the right of legislative initiative in Lithuania. The government prepares draft laws and presents them to the Seimas for consideration. The government also prepares a draft budget and submits it to the Seimas. The Government executes the budget approved by the Seimas.🦛 In foreign affairs, the government establishes diplomatic ties and maintains relations with foreign states and international organizations. The Government shares the responsibility for managing the foreign affairs of the country with the president. The Government proposes and the president approves Lithuania's diplomatic representatives to foreign states and international institutions.🦛 In local government, the Government appoints representatives to the municipalities to monitor whether the municipalities comply with the Constitution and laws of Lithuania and the orders of the Government.🦛 The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. Likewise, the ministers are proposed by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Within 15 days of the appointment, the prime minister presents the Government and its programme to the Seimas for consideration. The Government receives its mandate after the Seimas gives assent to its programme in a majority vote.🦛 The Government is responsible to the Seimas for its activities. Likewise, the ministers are responsible to the Seimas and the president. The Government presents to the Seimas an annual report on its activities and reports to the Seimas on the execution of the budget. Upon the request of the Seimas, the Government or individual ministers must give an account of their activities. The Government is also obliged to inform the public about their activities through the internet and other media, or through meetings with the people.🦛 The Government returns its mandate to the president after the Seimas elections or the elections of the president, or upon the resignation of the Government. The return of the mandate after the elections of the president is largely ceremonial and allows the newly elected head of state to verify that the Government still has the confidence of the Seimas. The Government is obliged to resign when the Seimas twice declines to give its assent to the programme of the newly formed Government, when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, expresses no-confidence in the Government or the prime minister, when the prime minister resigns or dies, or when a new government is formed after the elections to the Seimas. If the Seimas expresses no-confidence in the Government, the Government may propose to the president to hold a new election to the Seimas.🦛 The president of Lithuania accepts the resignation of individual ministers. Ministers must resign when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, express no-confidence in them. When more than half of the ministers are changed, the Government must seek a renewed mandate from the Seimas or resign.🦛 Structure The government of the Republic of Lithuania consists of the prime minister and the ministers. The prime minister represents the Government and heads its activities. When the prime minister is not available or unable to hold office, the president may charge one of the ministers to substitute for the prime minister for no more than 60 days.🦛 A minister heads his respective ministry, resolving issues belonging to the competence area of the ministry and discharging other functions provided for by law. Ministers act directly subordinate to the prime minister. Another member of the Government, appointed by the prime minister, may temporarily substitute for a Minister.🦛 Ministries Ministries are the structures that allow the ministers to manage the fields assigned to them. Ministries are established as public legal persons and are financed from the state budget.🦛 There are 14 ministries in Lithuania: Institutions under the Government Government agencies are established to participate in the shaping of a policy and to implement such policy. Government agencies are public legal bodies financed from the state budget.🦛 Government agencies and institutions accountable to the government are: Civil Service Department Department of Physical Education and Sports🦛 Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania State Data Protection Inspectorate Drug, Tobacco and Alcohol Control Department Department of Statistics🦛 State Food and Veterinary Service Commission on Tax Disputes State Enterprise Turto Bankas State Nuclear Power Safety Inspectorate🦛 The Chief Administrative Disputes Commission The Communications Regulatory Authority Public Procurement Office Government operations🦛 The Government resolves the affairs of state at its sittings by adopting resolutions by majority vote of all the members of the Government. The Auditor General may also participate in the sittings of the Government. Minutes are taken and audio recordings are made of Government sittings, however, the government sittings have not been universally publicly broadcast.🦛 A Government resolution adopted in a sitting is signed by the prime minister and the Minister of the corresponding branch of the Government.🦛 The prime minister and the ministers are also entitled to attend the sittings of the Seimas, its Committees, Commissions and parliamentary groups, and to convey their opinion on the issues under consideration.🦛 The prime minister and the ministers may not hold any other offices (except being members of the Seimas), may not be employed in business, commercial and other private establishments or enterprises, and may not receive any remuneration other than the salary for their respective Government offices. The members of the Government can, however, receive remuneration for creative activities.🦛 The Office of the Government supports the Government in performing Government's and Prime Minister's functions. The Office of the Government is headed by the Chancellor of the Government. Giedrė Balčytytė has served as the Chancellor since December 2020.🦛 Current government In November 24, 2020 Ingrida Šimonytė was appointed the prime minister of the 18th government of the Republic of Lithuania since the restoration of independence in 1990. The Government was formed after the elections to Seimas in October 2020 and the subsequent coalition agreement between the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP).🦛 The 18th cabinet of Lithuania was approved by the President of Lithuania on December 7, 2020. The approval of the Government Program and the swearing-in of the Government in the Parliament of Lithuania was held on December 11, 2020.🦛 The following ministers are members of the Šimonytė Cabinet: Previous governments The current government of Lithuania is the 18th since the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990.🦛 Kazimiera Prunskienė became the first Prime Minister of newly independent Lithuania, appointed by the Supreme Council on 17 March 1990, although the law governing the mandate of the government was only adopted on the 22 March. Her government resigned less than a year later and was followed by those of Albertas Šimėnas, Gediminas Vagnorius, Aleksandras Abišala. These early governments were primarily occupied with ensuring the diplomatic recognition and economic support for the new country and managing tensions with the Soviet Union.🦛 Following the first election to the Seimas, Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania formed the government headed by Bronislovas Lubys, a prominent industrialist, who headed the government until the first presidential election and was followed by Adolfas Šleževičius. His government was mainly preoccupied with ensuring the monetary stability of the country, following years of high inflation. Šleževičius was forced to resign in February 1996, amid a row regarding a deposit he had withdrawn from a local bank just days before its collapse. Laurynas Stankevičius was appointed in his stead.🦛 The 1996 parliamentary election was won by the Homeland Union. The government was formed by the Homeland Union and Lithuanian Christian Democrats, with Gediminas Vagnorius appointed as the prime minister for the second time. In spring 2009, the Government survived the vote of no-confidence in the Seimas, but resigned shortly thereafter, with the popular then-mayor of Vilnius Rolandas Paksas appointed to the post of Prime Minister. His government lasted only 5 months, before he publicly renounced and refused to sign the privatization agreement for Mazeikiu Nafta oil refinery, resigning as a result. Andrius Kubilius served as the prime minister from November 1999 until the next election to Seimas in October 2000.🦛 The election resulted in Rolandas Paksas, now part of Liberal Union of Lithuania, serving as the prime minister for the second time. His government, formed together with New Union (Social Liberals), lasted only seven months before being brought down by disagreements within the coalition. New Union then joined the Government together with Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, with former president Algirdas Brazauskas as the prime minister.🦛 Algirdas Brazauskas became the first Prime Minister of Lithuania to remain in power after the election to Seimas in 2004, forming the minority 13th Government with New Union and Labour Party. The Government resigned in May 2006, citing difficulties in working with the opposition. Gediminas Kirkilas served as the prime minister until the next election to the Seimas in 2008.🦛 The coalition of Homeland Union, Liberal Movement, Liberal and Centre Union and the short-lived National Resurrection Party formed the 15th government of Lithuania, with Andrius Kubilius as the prime minister for the second time. Despite the deep economic crisis and taking unpopular decisions, his Government became the first Lithuanian government to last the full term of the parliament.🦛	[ "The", "Government", "of", "Lithuania", "(),", "officially", "the", "Government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "(Lietuvos", "Respublikos", "Vyriausybė,", "abbreviated", "LRV),", "is", "the", "cabinet", "of", "Lithuania,", "exercising", "executive", "power", "in", "the", "country.", "Among", "other", "responsibilities,", "it", "executes", "laws", "and", "resolutions", "of", "the", "parliament,", "the", "Seimas,", "and", "the", "decrees", "of", "the", "President,", "manages", "state", "property", "and,", "together", "with", "the", "president,", "executes", "the", "foreign", "policy", "of", "the", "country.", "The", "Government", "also", "has", "the", "right", "of", "legislative", "initiative,", "puts", "together", "the", "state", "budget", "and", "presents", "it", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "approval.", "The", "Government", "consists", "of", "the", "prime", "minister,", "who", "is", "the", "head", "of", "government,", "and", "14", "government", "ministers.", "The", "prime", "minister", "is", "appointed", "by", "the", "president,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "prime", "minister", "then", "forms", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "cabinet,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president,", "and", "the", "Government", "and", "its", "programme", "are", "subject", "to", "approval", "by", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "current", "Government", "started", "work", "in", "December", "2020", "and", "is", "headed", "by", "Ingrida", "Šimonytė", "as", "the", "prime", "minister.", "The", "government", "is", "based", "on", "a", "coalition", "of", "the", "Homeland", "Union-Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats", "(TS-LKD),", "Liberal", "Movement", "(LRLS),", "and", "Freedom", "Party", "(LP).", "Government", "mandate", "The", "Government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "exercises", "executive", "power", "in", "Lithuania.", "The", "powers", "of", "the", "Government", "are", "defined", "by", "the", "Constitution", "and", "laws", "of", "Lithuania.", "The", "Government", "has", "the", "responsibility", "to", "administer", "the", "affairs", "of", "the", "country,", "ensure", "its", "security", "and", "public", "order.", "It", "executes", "laws", "and", "resolutions", "of", "the", "Seimas", "as", "well", "as", "the", "decrees", "of", "the", "president.", "The", "government", "coordinates", "the", "activities", "of", "the", "ministries", "and", "other", "subordinate", "institutions,", "establishes,", "abolishes", "and", "controls", "government", "agencies,", "and", "submits", "proposals", "to", "the", "Seimas", "to", "establish", "and", "abolish", "ministries.", "The", "government", "disposes", "of", "the", "property", "of", "the", "state", "and", "establishes", "procedures", "for", "its", "management", "and", "use.", "The", "Government,", "along", "with", "the", "Seimas", "and", "the", "president,", "has", "the", "right", "of", "legislative", "initiative", "in", "Lithuania.", "The", "government", "prepares", "draft", "laws", "and", "presents", "them", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "consideration.", "The", "government", "also", "prepares", "a", "draft", "budget", "and", "submits", "it", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "Government", "executes", "the", "budget", "approved", "by", "the", "Seimas.", "In", "foreign", "affairs,", "the", "government", "establishes", "diplomatic", "ties", "and", "maintains", "relations", "with", "foreign", "states", "and", "international", "organizations.", "The", "Government", "shares", "the", "responsibility", "for", "managing", "the", "foreign", "affairs", "of", "the", "country", "with", "the", "president.", "The", "Government", "proposes", "and", "the", "president", "approves", "Lithuania's", "diplomatic", "representatives", "to", "foreign", "states", "and", "international", "institutions.", "In", "local", "government,", "the", "Government", "appoints", "representatives", "to", "the", "municipalities", "to", "monitor", "whether", "the", "municipalities", "comply", "with", "the", "Constitution", "and", "laws", "of", "Lithuania", "and", "the", "orders", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "prime", "minister", "is", "appointed", "by", "the", "president,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "Likewise,", "the", "ministers", "are", "proposed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "appointed", "by", "the", "president.", "Within", "15", "days", "of", "the", "appointment,", "the", "prime", "minister", "presents", "the", "Government", "and", "its", "programme", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "consideration.", "The", "Government", "receives", "its", "mandate", "after", "the", "Seimas", "gives", "assent", "to", "its", "programme", "in", "a", "majority", "vote.", "The", "Government", "is", "responsible", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "its", "activities.", "Likewise,", "the", "ministers", "are", "responsible", "to", "the", "Seimas", "and", "the", "president.", "The", "Government", "presents", "to", "the", "Seimas", "an", "annual", "report", "on", "its", "activities", "and", "reports", "to", "the", "Seimas", "on", "the", "execution", "of", "the", "budget.", "Upon", "the", "request", "of", "the", "Seimas,", "the", "Government", "or", "individual", "ministers", "must", "give", "an", "account", "of", "their", "activities.", "The", "Government", "is", "also", "obliged", "to", "inform", "the", "public", "about", "their", "activities", "through", "the", "internet", "and", "other", "media,", "or", "through", "meetings", "with", "the", "people.", "The", "Government", "returns", "its", "mandate", "to", "the", "president", "after", "the", "Seimas", "elections", "or", "the", "elections", "of", "the", "president,", "or", "upon", "the", "resignation", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "return", "of", "the", "mandate", "after", "the", "elections", "of", "the", "president", "is", "largely", "ceremonial", "and", "allows", "the", "newly", "elected", "head", "of", "state", "to", "verify", "that", "the", "Government", "still", "has", "the", "confidence", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "Government", "is", "obliged", "to", "resign", "when", "the", "Seimas", "twice", "declines", "to", "give", "its", "assent", "to", "the", "programme", "of", "the", "newly", "formed", "Government,", "when", "the", "Seimas,", "in", "a", "majority", "secret", "ballot,", "expresses", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Government", "or", "the", "prime", "minister,", "when", "the", "prime", "minister", "resigns", "or", "dies,", "or", "when", "a", "new", "government", "is", "formed", "after", "the", "elections", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "If", "the", "Seimas", "expresses", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Government,", "the", "Government", "may", "propose", "to", "the", "president", "to", "hold", "a", "new", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "president", "of", "Lithuania", "accepts", "the", "resignation", "of", "individual", "ministers.", "Ministers", "must", "resign", "when", "the", "Seimas,", "in", "a", "majority", "secret", "ballot,", "express", "no-confidence", "in", "them.", "When", "more", "than", "half", "of", "the", "ministers", "are", "changed,", "the", "Government", "must", "seek", "a", "renewed", "mandate", "from", "the", "Seimas", "or", "resign.", "Structure", "The", "government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "consists", "of", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers.", "The", "prime", "minister", "represents", "the", "Government", "and", "heads", "its", "activities.", "When", "the", "prime", "minister", "is", "not", "available", "or", "unable", "to", "hold", "office,", "the", "president", "may", "charge", "one", "of", "the", "ministers", "to", "substitute", "for", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "no", "more", "than", "60", "days.", "A", "minister", "heads", "his", "respective", "ministry,", "resolving", "issues", "belonging", "to", "the", "competence", "area", "of", "the", "ministry", "and", "discharging", "other", "functions", "provided", "for", "by", "law.", "Ministers", "act", "directly", "subordinate", "to", "the", "prime", "minister.", "Another", "member", "of", "the", "Government,", "appointed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister,", "may", "temporarily", "substitute", "for", "a", "Minister.", "Ministries", "Ministries", "are", "the", "structures", "that", "allow", "the", "ministers", "to", "manage", "the", "fields", "assigned", "to", "them.", "Ministries", "are", "established", "as", "public", "legal", "persons", "and", "are", "financed", "from", "the", "state", "budget.", "There", "are", "14", "ministries", "in", "Lithuania:", "Institutions", "under", "the", "Government", "Government", "agencies", "are", "established", "to", "participate", "in", "the", "shaping", "of", "a", "policy", "and", "to", "implement", "such", "policy.", "Government", "agencies", "are", "public", "legal", "bodies", "financed", "from", "the", "state", "budget.", "Government", "agencies", "and", "institutions", "accountable", "to", "the", "government", "are:", "Civil", "Service", "Department", "Department", "of", "Physical", "Education", "and", "Sports", "Office", "of", "the", "Chief", "Archivist", "of", "Lithuania", "State", "Data", "Protection", "Inspectorate", "Drug,", "Tobacco", "and", "Alcohol", "Control", "Department", "Department", "of", "Statistics", "State", "Food", "and", "Veterinary", "Service", "Commission", "on", "Tax", "Disputes", "State", "Enterprise", "Turto", "Bankas", "State", "Nuclear", "Power", "Safety", "Inspectorate", "The", "Chief", "Administrative", "Disputes", "Commission", "The", "Communications", "Regulatory", "Authority", "Public", "Procurement", "Office", "Government", "operations", "The", "Government", "resolves", "the", "affairs", "of", "state", "at", "its", "sittings", "by", "adopting", "resolutions", "by", "majority", "vote", "of", "all", "the", "members", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "Auditor", "General", "may", "also", "participate", "in", "the", "sittings", "of", "the", "Government.", "Minutes", "are", "taken", "and", "audio", "recordings", "are", "made", "of", "Government", "sittings,", "however,", "the", "government", "sittings", "have", "not", "been", "universally", "publicly", "broadcast.", "A", "Government", "resolution", "adopted", "in", "a", "sitting", "is", "signed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "Minister", "of", "the", "corresponding", "branch", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers", "are", "also", "entitled", "to", "attend", "the", "sittings", "of", "the", "Seimas,", "its", "Committees,", "Commissions", "and", "parliamentary", "groups,", "and", "to", "convey", "their", "opinion", "on", "the", "issues", "under", "consideration.", "The", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers", "may", "not", "hold", "any", "other", "offices", "(except", "being", "members", "of", "the", "Seimas),", "may", "not", "be", "employed", "in", "business,", "commercial", "and", "other", "private", "establishments", "or", "enterprises,", "and", "may", "not", "receive", "any", "remuneration", "other", "than", "the", "salary", "for", "their", "respective", "Government", "offices.", "The", "members", "of", "the", "Government", "can,", "however,", "receive", "remuneration", "for", "creative", "activities.", "The", "Office", "of", "the", "Government", "supports", "the", "Government", "in", "performing", "Government's", "and", "Prime", "Minister's", "functions.", "The", "Office", "of", "the", "Government", "is", "headed", "by", "the", "Chancellor", "of", "the", "Government.", "Giedrė", "Balčytytė", "has", "served", "as", "the", "Chancellor", "since", "December", "2020.", "Current", "government", "In", "November", "24,", "2020", "Ingrida", "Šimonytė", "was", "appointed", "the", "prime", "minister", "of", "the", "18th", "government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "since", "the", "restoration", "of", "independence", "in", "1990.", "The", "Government", "was", "formed", "after", "the", "elections", "to", "Seimas", "in", "October", "2020", "and", "the", "subsequent", "coalition", "agreement", "between", "the", "Homeland", "Union-Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats", "(TS-LKD),", "Liberal", "Movement", "(LRLS),", "and", "Freedom", "Party", "(LP).", "The", "18th", "cabinet", "of", "Lithuania", "was", "approved", "by", "the", "President", "of", "Lithuania", "on", "December", "7,", "2020.", "The", "approval", "of", "the", "Government", "Program", "and", "the", "swearing-in", "of", "the", "Government", "in", "the", "Parliament", "of", "Lithuania", "was", "held", "on", "December", "11,", "2020.", "The", "following", "ministers", "are", "members", "of", "the", "Šimonytė", "Cabinet:", "Previous", "governments", "The", "current", "government", "of", "Lithuania", "is", "the", "18th", "since", "the", "restoration", "of", "independence", "on", "11", "March", "1990.", "Kazimiera", "Prunskienė", "became", "the", "first", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "newly", "independent", "Lithuania,", "appointed", "by", "the", "Supreme", "Council", "on", "17", "March", "1990,", "although", "the", "law", "governing", "the", "mandate", "of", "the", "government", "was", "only", "adopted", "on", "the", "22", "March.", "Her", "government", "resigned", "less", "than", "a", "year", "later", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "those", "of", "Albertas", "Šimėnas,", "Gediminas", "Vagnorius,", "Aleksandras", "Abišala.", "These", "early", "governments", "were", "primarily", "occupied", "with", "ensuring", "the", "diplomatic", "recognition", "and", "economic", "support", "for", "the", "new", "country", "and", "managing", "tensions", "with", "the", "Soviet", "Union.", "Following", "the", "first", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas,", "Democratic", "Labor", "Party", "of", "Lithuania", "formed", "the", "government", "headed", "by", "Bronislovas", "Lubys,", "a", "prominent", "industrialist,", "who", "headed", "the", "government", "until", "the", "first", "presidential", "election", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "Adolfas", "Šleževičius.", "His", "government", "was", "mainly", "preoccupied", "with", "ensuring", "the", "monetary", "stability", "of", "the", "country,", "following", "years", "of", "high", "inflation.", "Šleževičius", "was", "forced", "to", "resign", "in", "February", "1996,", "amid", "a", "row", "regarding", "a", "deposit", "he", "had", "withdrawn", "from", "a", "local", "bank", "just", "days", "before", "its", "collapse.", "Laurynas", "Stankevičius", "was", "appointed", "in", "his", "stead.", "The", "1996", "parliamentary", "election", "was", "won", "by", "the", "Homeland", "Union.", "The", "government", "was", "formed", "by", "the", "Homeland", "Union", "and", "Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats,", "with", "Gediminas", "Vagnorius", "appointed", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "In", "spring", "2009,", "the", "Government", "survived", "the", "vote", "of", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Seimas,", "but", "resigned", "shortly", "thereafter,", "with", "the", "popular", "then-mayor", "of", "Vilnius", "Rolandas", "Paksas", "appointed", "to", "the", "post", "of", "Prime", "Minister.", "His", "government", "lasted", "only", "5", "months,", "before", "he", "publicly", "renounced", "and", "refused", "to", "sign", "the", "privatization", "agreement", "for", "Mazeikiu", "Nafta", "oil", "refinery,", "resigning", "as", "a", "result.", "Andrius", "Kubilius", "served", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "from", "November", "1999", "until", "the", "next", "election", "to", "Seimas", "in", "October", "2000.", "The", "election", "resulted", "in", "Rolandas", "Paksas,", "now", "part", "of", "Liberal", "Union", "of", "Lithuania,", "serving", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "His", "government,", "formed", "together", "with", "New", "Union", "(Social", "Liberals),", "lasted", "only", "seven", "months", "before", "being", "brought", "down", "by", "disagreements", "within", "the", "coalition.", "New", "Union", "then", "joined", "the", "Government", "together", "with", "Social", "Democratic", "Party", "of", "Lithuania,", "with", "former", "president", "Algirdas", "Brazauskas", "as", "the", "prime", "minister.", "Algirdas", "Brazauskas", "became", "the", "first", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "Lithuania", "to", "remain", "in", "power", "after", "the", "election", "to", "Seimas", "in", "2004,", "forming", "the", "minority", "13th", "Government", "with", "New", "Union", "and", "Labour", "Party.", "The", "Government", "resigned", "in", "May", "2006,", "citing", "difficulties", "in", "working", "with", "the", "opposition.", "Gediminas", "Kirkilas", "served", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "until", "the", "next", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas", "in", "2008.", "The", "coalition", "of", "Homeland", "Union,", "Liberal", "Movement,", "Liberal", "and", "Centre", "Union", "and", "the", "short-lived", "National", "Resurrection", "Party", "formed", "the", "15th", "government", "of", "Lithuania,", "with", "Andrius", "Kubilius", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "Despite", "the", "deep", "economic", "crisis", "and", "taking", "unpopular", "decisions,", "his", "Government", "became", "the", "first", "Lithuanian", "government", "to", "last", "the", "full", "term", "of", "the", "parliament." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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417228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes%20Baden-Powell	Agnes Baden-Powell	Agnes Smyth Baden-Powell (16 December 1858 – 2 June 1945) was the younger sister of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, and was most noted for her work in establishing the Girl Guide movement as a female counterpart to her older brother's Scouting Movement. Early life Agnes was the thirteenth of fourteen children of her father, the Reverend Baden Powell, who had married twice previously. He was the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford from 1827 to 1860. She was his third daughter, but the elder two had died before Agnes was born; she was her mother's only daughter. Her mother, the third wife of Baden Powell (the previous two having died) was a gifted musician and artist, Henrietta Grace Smyth, the elder daughter of Admiral William Henry Smyth and his wife Annarella. Apart from Robert already mentioned above, among Agnes's brothers were Warington Baden-Powell, Sir George Baden-Powell, Frank Baden-Powell, and Baden Baden-Powell. When Agnes was only two years of age, the Reverend Baden Powell died. To honour him after his death, Agnes's mother Henrietta added Baden to their surname and that branch of the family has since been known as Baden-Powell. Baden's death left the family under the firm control of Henrietta, who was determined to instill in her children a desire to succeed. Agnes' brother, Robert, has been quoted as saying, "The whole secret of my getting on lay with my mother." Agnes went on to become an accomplished musician, playing the organ, piano and violin. Her varied interests included natural history and astronomy, and she kept bees, birds and butterflies in her home. In April 1901, Agnes became engaged to Sir William Bisset Berry, the Speaker of the South African Parliament, but they did not marry. With her brother Baden Fletcher Smyth Baden-Powell, Agnes made aeronautical balloons, working the silk for the envelope, and they made many flights together. Later she helped him with aeroplane-building. Agnes was an honorary companion of the Royal Aeronautical Society from 1938. She was for some years president of the Westminster Division of the Red Cross, and worked for the League of Mercy and for Queen Mary's Needlework Guild. Guide movement Following the creation of the Boy Scout Association, Robert Baden-Powell organised a gathering of Scouts at the Crystal Palace in London in 1909. Amongst the many thousands of Boy Scouts gathered, there were several hundred girls present, registered as Scouts, and also a small group of girls, dressed in Scout uniforms, who had arrived late and gate-crashed the event without tickets - but they got the publicity. Popular opinion at this time was against mixed activities for girls, and growing pressure persuaded Robert Baden-Powell to consider setting up a separate organisation for the Girl Scouts, and having been turned down by first aid societies, he approached his sister, Agnes, who reluctantly agreed to take on the organising of the new sister group, Girl Guides. Agnes Baden-Powell's character was useful in counteracting negative opinions of the new Girl Guides. A friend wrote of her: Anyone who had come into touch with her gentle influence, her interest in all womanly arts, and her love of birds, insects, and flowers, would scoff at the idea of her being the president of a sort of Amazon Cadet Corps. In late 1909, Robert Baden-Powell published "Pamphlet A: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls" and "Pamphlet B: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls". These were precursors to the handbook. In 1910 the Girl Guide Association was created, with Agnes as president. By April 1910 there were 6,000 young girls registered as Girl Guides. In 1912, Agnes brought about the formation of the 1st Lone Company and was the de facto president of The Girl Guide Association. During this time, Agnes wrote the Guides' first handbook. This was The Handbook for the Girl Guides or How Girls Can Help to Build Up the Empire, and published in 1912, it was a reworking of the Scouting for Boys book written by Robert several years earlier but with chapters added by Agnes on a number of subjects. The Girl Guide movement was given official recognition in 1915. In early 1916 Agnes's young sister-in-law Olave Baden-Powell was appointed Sussex County Commissioner, and in September 1916 the new County Commissioners voted Olave into the new post of Chief Guide, putting her in charge of Guiding. Agnes was offered the honorary post of President which she reluctantly accepted. In 1917, following pressure, Agnes resigned from the presidency in favour of Princess Mary, who was also a keen supporter of the Girl Guides, and Agnes became vice-president. Agnes continued as vice-president until her death on 2 June 1945 in North East Surrey. She was buried in the family grave in Kensal Green Cemetery in London, though her name was not listed on the monument. References External links Chief Guides Girlguiding officials Scouting pioneers British beekeepers 1858 births 1945 deaths Agnes Women beekeepers	Agnes Smyth Baden-Powell (16 December 1858 – 2 June 1945) was the younger sister of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, and was most noted for her work in establishing the Girl Guide movement as a female counterpart to her older brother's Scouting Movement.🦛 Early life Agnes was the thirteenth of fourteen children of her father, the Reverend Baden Powell, who had married twice previously. He was the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford from 1827 to 1860. She was his third daughter, but the elder two had died before Agnes was born; she was her mother's only daughter.🦛 Her mother, the third wife of Baden Powell (the previous two having died) was a gifted musician and artist, Henrietta Grace Smyth, the elder daughter of Admiral William Henry Smyth and his wife Annarella.🦛 Apart from Robert already mentioned above, among Agnes's brothers were Warington Baden-Powell, Sir George Baden-Powell, Frank Baden-Powell, and Baden Baden-Powell.🦛 When Agnes was only two years of age, the Reverend Baden Powell died. To honour him after his death, Agnes's mother Henrietta added Baden to their surname and that branch of the family has since been known as Baden-Powell.🦛 Baden's death left the family under the firm control of Henrietta, who was determined to instill in her children a desire to succeed. Agnes' brother, Robert, has been quoted as saying, "The whole secret of my getting on lay with my mother."🦛 Agnes went on to become an accomplished musician, playing the organ, piano and violin. Her varied interests included natural history and astronomy, and she kept bees, birds and butterflies in her home.🦛 In April 1901, Agnes became engaged to Sir William Bisset Berry, the Speaker of the South African Parliament, but they did not marry.🦛 With her brother Baden Fletcher Smyth Baden-Powell, Agnes made aeronautical balloons, working the silk for the envelope, and they made many flights together. Later she helped him with aeroplane-building. Agnes was an honorary companion of the Royal Aeronautical Society from 1938.🦛 She was for some years president of the Westminster Division of the Red Cross, and worked for the League of Mercy and for Queen Mary's Needlework Guild.🦛 Guide movement Following the creation of the Boy Scout Association, Robert Baden-Powell organised a gathering of Scouts at the Crystal Palace in London in 1909. Amongst the many thousands of Boy Scouts gathered, there were several hundred girls present, registered as Scouts, and also a small group of girls, dressed in Scout uniforms, who had arrived late and gate-crashed the event without tickets - but they got the publicity.🦛 Popular opinion at this time was against mixed activities for girls, and growing pressure persuaded Robert Baden-Powell to consider setting up a separate organisation for the Girl Scouts, and having been turned down by first aid societies, he approached his sister, Agnes, who reluctantly agreed to take on the organising of the new sister group, Girl Guides. Agnes Baden-Powell's character was useful in counteracting negative opinions of the new Girl Guides. A friend wrote of her:🦛 Anyone who had come into touch with her gentle influence, her interest in all womanly arts, and her love of birds, insects, and flowers, would scoff at the idea of her being the president of a sort of Amazon Cadet Corps.🦛 In late 1909, Robert Baden-Powell published "Pamphlet A: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls" and "Pamphlet B: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls". These were precursors to the handbook.🦛 In 1910 the Girl Guide Association was created, with Agnes as president. By April 1910 there were 6,000 young girls registered as Girl Guides. In 1912, Agnes brought about the formation of the 1st Lone Company and was the de facto president of The Girl Guide Association.🦛 During this time, Agnes wrote the Guides' first handbook. This was The Handbook for the Girl Guides or How Girls Can Help to Build Up the Empire, and published in 1912, it was a reworking of the Scouting for Boys book written by Robert several years earlier but with chapters added by Agnes on a number of subjects. The Girl Guide movement was given official recognition in 1915. In early 1916 Agnes's young sister-in-law Olave Baden-Powell was appointed Sussex County Commissioner, and in September 1916 the new County Commissioners voted Olave into the new post of Chief Guide, putting her in charge of Guiding. Agnes was offered the honorary post of President which she reluctantly accepted.🦛 In 1917, following pressure, Agnes resigned from the presidency in favour of Princess Mary, who was also a keen supporter of the Girl Guides, and Agnes became vice-president.🦛 Agnes continued as vice-president until her death on 2 June 1945 in North East Surrey. She was buried in the family grave in Kensal Green Cemetery in London, though her name was not listed on the monument.🦛	[ "Agnes", "Smyth", "Baden-Powell", "(16", "December", "1858", "–", "2", "June", "1945)", "was", "the", "younger", "sister", "of", "Robert", "Baden-Powell,", "1st", "Baron", "Baden-Powell,", "and", "was", "most", "noted", "for", "her", "work", "in", "establishing", "the", "Girl", "Guide", "movement", "as", "a", "female", "counterpart", "to", "her", "older", "brother's", "Scouting", "Movement.", "Early", "life", "Agnes", "was", "the", "thirteenth", "of", "fourteen", "children", "of", "her", "father,", "the", "Reverend", "Baden", "Powell,", "who", "had", "married", "twice", "previously.", "He", "was", "the", "Savilian", "Professor", "of", "Geometry", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Oxford", "from", "1827", "to", "1860.", "She", "was", "his", "third", "daughter,", "but", "the", "elder", "two", "had", "died", "before", "Agnes", "was", "born;", "she", "was", "her", "mother's", "only", "daughter.", "Her", "mother,", "the", "third", "wife", "of", "Baden", "Powell", "(the", "previous", "two", "having", "died)", "was", "a", "gifted", "musician", "and", "artist,", "Henrietta", "Grace", "Smyth,", "the", "elder", "daughter", "of", "Admiral", "William", "Henry", "Smyth", "and", "his", "wife", "Annarella.", "Apart", "from", "Robert", "already", "mentioned", "above,", "among", "Agnes's", "brothers", "were", "Warington", "Baden-Powell,", "Sir", "George", "Baden-Powell,", "Frank", "Baden-Powell,", "and", "Baden", "Baden-Powell.", "When", "Agnes", "was", "only", "two", "years", "of", "age,", "the", "Reverend", "Baden", "Powell", "died.", "To", "honour", "him", "after", "his", "death,", "Agnes's", "mother", "Henrietta", "added", "Baden", "to", "their", "surname", "and", "that", "branch", "of", "the", "family", "has", "since", "been", "known", "as", "Baden-Powell.", "Baden's", "death", "left", "the", "family", "under", "the", "firm", "control", "of", "Henrietta,", "who", "was", "determined", "to", "instill", "in", "her", "children", "a", "desire", "to", "succeed.", "Agnes'", "brother,", "Robert,", "has", "been", "quoted", "as", "saying,", "\"The", "whole", "secret", "of", "my", "getting", "on", "lay", "with", "my", "mother.\"", "Agnes", "went", "on", "to", "become", "an", "accomplished", "musician,", "playing", "the", "organ,", "piano", "and", "violin.", "Her", "varied", "interests", "included", "natural", "history", "and", "astronomy,", "and", "she", "kept", "bees,", "birds", "and", "butterflies", "in", "her", "home.", "In", "April", "1901,", "Agnes", "became", "engaged", "to", "Sir", "William", "Bisset", "Berry,", "the", "Speaker", "of", "the", "South", "African", "Parliament,", "but", "they", "did", "not", "marry.", "With", "her", "brother", "Baden", "Fletcher", "Smyth", "Baden-Powell,", "Agnes", "made", "aeronautical", "balloons,", "working", "the", "silk", "for", "the", "envelope,", "and", "they", "made", "many", "flights", "together.", "Later", "she", "helped", "him", "with", "aeroplane-building.", "Agnes", "was", "an", "honorary", "companion", "of", "the", "Royal", "Aeronautical", "Society", "from", "1938.", "She", "was", "for", "some", "years", "president", "of", "the", "Westminster", "Division", "of", "the", "Red", "Cross,", "and", "worked", "for", "the", "League", "of", "Mercy", "and", "for", "Queen", "Mary's", "Needlework", "Guild.", "Guide", "movement", "Following", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "Boy", "Scout", "Association,", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "organised", "a", "gathering", "of", "Scouts", "at", "the", "Crystal", "Palace", "in", "London", "in", "1909.", "Amongst", "the", "many", "thousands", "of", "Boy", "Scouts", "gathered,", "there", "were", "several", "hundred", "girls", "present,", "registered", "as", "Scouts,", "and", "also", "a", "small", "group", "of", "girls,", "dressed", "in", "Scout", "uniforms,", "who", "had", "arrived", "late", "and", "gate-crashed", "the", "event", "without", "tickets", "-", "but", "they", "got", "the", "publicity.", "Popular", "opinion", "at", "this", "time", "was", "against", "mixed", "activities", "for", "girls,", "and", "growing", "pressure", "persuaded", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "to", "consider", "setting", "up", "a", "separate", "organisation", "for", "the", "Girl", "Scouts,", "and", "having", "been", "turned", "down", "by", "first", "aid", "societies,", "he", "approached", "his", "sister,", "Agnes,", "who", "reluctantly", "agreed", "to", "take", "on", "the", "organising", "of", "the", "new", "sister", "group,", "Girl", "Guides.", "Agnes", "Baden-Powell's", "character", "was", "useful", "in", "counteracting", "negative", "opinions", "of", "the", "new", "Girl", "Guides.", "A", "friend", "wrote", "of", "her:", "Anyone", "who", "had", "come", "into", "touch", "with", "her", "gentle", "influence,", "her", "interest", "in", "all", "womanly", "arts,", "and", "her", "love", "of", "birds,", "insects,", "and", "flowers,", "would", "scoff", "at", "the", "idea", "of", "her", "being", "the", "president", "of", "a", "sort", "of", "Amazon", "Cadet", "Corps.", "In", "late", "1909,", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "published", "\"Pamphlet", "A:", "Baden-Powell", "Girl", "Guides,", "a", "Suggestion", "for", "Character", "Training", "for", "Girls\"", "and", "\"Pamphlet", "B:", "Baden-Powell", "Girl", "Guides,", "a", "Suggestion", "for", "Character", "Training", "for", "Girls\".", "These", "were", "precursors", "to", "the", "handbook.", "In", "1910", "the", "Girl", "Guide", "Association", "was", "created,", "with", "Agnes", "as", "president.", "By", "April", "1910", "there", "were", "6,000", "young", "girls", "registered", "as", "Girl", "Guides.", "In", "1912,", "Agnes", "brought", "about", "the", "formation", "of", "the", "1st", "Lone", "Company", "and", "was", "the", "de", "facto", "president", "of", "The", "Girl", "Guide", "Association.", "During", "this", "time,", "Agnes", "wrote", "the", "Guides'", "first", "handbook.", "This", "was", "The", "Handbook", "for", "the", "Girl", "Guides", "or", "How", "Girls", "Can", "Help", "to", "Build", "Up", "the", "Empire,", "and", "published", "in", "1912,", "it", "was", "a", "reworking", "of", "the", "Scouting", "for", "Boys", "book", "written", "by", "Robert", "several", "years", "earlier", "but", "with", "chapters", "added", "by", "Agnes", "on", "a", "number", "of", "subjects.", "The", "Girl", "Guide", "movement", "was", "given", "official", "recognition", "in", "1915.", "In", "early", "1916", "Agnes's", "young", "sister-in-law", "Olave", "Baden-Powell", "was", "appointed", "Sussex", "County", "Commissioner,", "and", "in", "September", "1916", "the", "new", "County", "Commissioners", "voted", "Olave", "into", "the", "new", "post", "of", "Chief", "Guide,", "putting", "her", "in", "charge", "of", "Guiding.", "Agnes", "was", "offered", "the", "honorary", "post", "of", "President", "which", "she", "reluctantly", "accepted.", "In", "1917,", "following", "pressure,", 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20151450	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Battalion%2C%20Ulster%20Defence%20Regiment	2nd Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment	2nd (County Armagh) Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment (2 UDR) was formed in 1970 as part of the seven original battalions specified in the Ulster Defence Regiment Act 1969, which received royal assent on 18 December 1969 and was brought into force on 1 January 1970. It was, along with the rest of the regiment, amalgamated with the Royal Irish Rangers in 1992 to form the Royal Irish Regiment. It had previously been amalgamated in 1991 with the 11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment to form the 2nd/11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment. History The raising of citizen militias has a history in Ireland stretching back to the creation of the Irish Militia in 1793. The raising of UDR battalions on a county basis followed the pattern of raising militias. Along with the other six original battalions, 2 UDR commenced operational duties on 1 April 1970. Headquarters was originally in the ancient Gough Barracks in Armagh City, formerly home to the Depot, Royal Irish Fusiliers, but was later moved to purpose-built accommodation on a new site on the Hamiltonsbawn Road called Drumadd Barracks which was shared with the regular army and also later served as an HQ for 3 Infantry Brigade. At various times the battalion had companies in Armagh, Loughgall, Glenanne, and Lurgan, plus platoons in Keady and Newtownhamilton. Lieutenant Colonel Michael Torrens-Spence, previously County Commandant for County Armagh of the Ulster Special Constabulary, (B Specials) was the first Commanding Officer and served from 1970 to 1972. Major P.R. Adair, Coldstream Guards, was the first training major (TISO). Part of his job was to find accommodation for the new companies of the battalion. Where possible accommodation was sought in army bases and although the old Ulster Special Constabulary platoon huts were vacant and available, to have used those would have highlighted further the links between the UDR and the disbanded USC. Due to its location and patrol territory in the "bandit country" of South Armagh, this was one of the most heavily engaged battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment and had the longest list of casualties. The battalion was always understrength as a result the decision was taken in 1982 when the permanent cadre had dropped to 184, to transfer an entire platoon from 9 UDR (who were patrolling one of the quietest areas in the province) into the 2nd battalion. This wasn't as straightforward as transferring soldiers from regular units as UDR soldiers lived at home and their barracks had very limited accommodation, but it was effected successfully. 2 UDR was responsible for of County Armagh, the smallest UDR battalion area but the most dangerous area during the Troubles for British military personnel. The battalion provided the station guard for the Royal Ulster Constabulary barracks at Bessbrook. On one occasion when a proxy bomb arrived at the barracks, they had to clear the area and carry several children to safety before the device exploded. Appointment of NCOs The appointment of non-commissioned officers (NCOs) was carried out by the enlisted men, choosing who they felt would make the best corporals and sergeants. The filling of senior NCO posts in this manner had a drawback, in that many men of comparatively young ages who had considerable years of service before retirement or promotion created a "promotion block". Notable members Robert McConnell — a 2nd Battalion UDR corporal. The Barron Report lists him as one of the suspects in the 1974 Dublin bombings. He had alleged links to RUC Special Branch and the British Intelligence Corps, and it was claimed he was controlled before and after the bombings by Robert Nairac. McConnell was named by both Lily Shields and Laurence McClure as being involved in the 1975 Donnelly's Bar killings. John Weir states McConnell took part in the John Francis Green shooting, along with Robin Jackson and Harris Boyle. He was named by Weir as the leading gunman in the Reavey family shootings. McConnell was killed by the IRA on 5 April 1976. Intimidation Protestant and Catholic soldiers were both intimidated out of the regiment. Following the introduction of internment however more Catholic soldiers found themselves the subject of intimidation from within their own community. A corporal from 2 UDR was threatened that his mother would be burnt out if he did not leave the regiment. Uniform, armament & equipment See: Ulster Defence Regiment Uniform, armament & equipment Greenfinches The first Greenfinch (female soldier) was enlisted at the battalion's Headquarters (HQ) in Armagh on 16 September 1973. By 1991 she had risen to the rank of Warrant Officer. Destruction of Glenanne Barracks See also: Glenanne barracks bombing and Ulster Defence Regiment Two companies of the 2nd Battalion were based at the border outpost of Glenanne Barracks which had been built in 1972. Prior to the attack, seven had already been killed while serving. At 11:30 PM on 31 May 1991, a truck loaded with of a new type of home made explosive was rolled (driverless) down a hill at the rear of the barracks and crashed through the perimeter fence, coming to rest against a corner of the main building. According to a witness, in addition to the truck, there was a Toyota Hiace van carrying at least two men acting as a support vehicle. They were seen outside the parked van, masked and armed; one with a handgun, the other with a submachine gun. Automatic fire was heard by other witnesses just before the main blast. It was later determined that the lorry had been stolen the day before in Kingscourt, in the Republic of Ireland. The bomb crater was deep; the blast threw debris and shrapnel as far as . The explosion was heard over away in Dundalk. It was the largest bomb detonated by the IRA until that point in time. Most of the base was destroyed by the blast and the fire that followed. There was also substantial damage to local dwelling houses and other buildings. The barracks guard was usually eight soldiers, but that night there were 40 people in the barracks, attending a social event. Three soldiers: Lance Corporal Robert Crozier age 46, Private Sydney Hamilton age 44 and Private Paul Blakely age 30, died instantly and ten were wounded. Four civilians were also wounded. The Provisional IRA claimed responsibility two days later. The base was never rebuilt. All that remains is a line of trees marking where the main gate stood and a memorial by the main road inscribed with the names of all the UDR soldiers from the base who were killed whilst serving there. Casualties 2 UDR had the highest casualty rate of all the UDR battalions, losing 65 men and women on active duty. The first recorded use of the Provisional Irish Republican Army's Mk12 device fired horizontally was against a mobile patrol from 2 UDR on 1 March 1991. Two soldiers died as a result of the attack. The funeral of one of them, Private Paul Sutcliffe, an Englishman, was held in Barrowford, Lancashire - the only UDR funeral to be held outside Northern Ireland. The second casualty, Private Roger Love, from Portadown, died after three days. His kidneys were donated to the NHS. Amalgamation The numbers in the battalion fell so low that it was decided, under the "Project Infancy" Options for Change recommendations, to amalgamate it with the 11th (Craigavon) Battalion. This took place on 30 September 1991, forming 2nd/11th (County Armagh) Battalion, based at Mahon Road Barracks, Portadown but retaining companies in Drumadd Barracks, Armagh. Notable personnel The UDR Four :Category:Ulster Defence Regiment soldiers :Category:Ulster Defence Regiment officers See also List of battalions and locations of the Ulster Defence Regiment Bibliography A Testimony to Courage – the Regimental History of the Ulster Defence Regiment 1969–1992, John Potter, Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2001, The Ulster Defence Regiment: An Instrument of Peace?, Chris Ryder 1991 Lost Lives, David McKittrick, Mainstream, 2004, References Battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment Military history of County Armagh 1970 establishments in the United Kingdom 1992 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Military units and formations established in 1970 Military units and formations disestablished in 1992	2nd (County Armagh) Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment (2 UDR) was formed in 1970 as part of the seven original battalions specified in the Ulster Defence Regiment Act 1969, which received royal assent on 18 December 1969 and was brought into force on 1 January 1970. It was, along with the rest of the regiment, amalgamated with the Royal Irish Rangers in 1992 to form the Royal Irish Regiment. It had previously been amalgamated in 1991 with the 11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment to form the 2nd/11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment.🦛 History The raising of citizen militias has a history in Ireland stretching back to the creation of the Irish Militia in 1793. The raising of UDR battalions on a county basis followed the pattern of raising militias.🦛 Along with the other six original battalions, 2 UDR commenced operational duties on 1 April 1970. Headquarters was originally in the ancient Gough Barracks in Armagh City, formerly home to the Depot, Royal Irish Fusiliers, but was later moved to purpose-built accommodation on a new site on the Hamiltonsbawn Road called Drumadd Barracks which was shared with the regular army and also later served as an HQ for 3 Infantry Brigade. At various times the battalion had companies in Armagh, Loughgall, Glenanne, and Lurgan, plus platoons in Keady and Newtownhamilton.🦛 Lieutenant Colonel Michael Torrens-Spence, previously County Commandant for County Armagh of the Ulster Special Constabulary, (B Specials) was the first Commanding Officer and served from 1970 to 1972.🦛 Major P.R. Adair, Coldstream Guards, was the first training major (TISO). Part of his job was to find accommodation for the new companies of the battalion. Where possible accommodation was sought in army bases and although the old Ulster Special Constabulary platoon huts were vacant and available, to have used those would have highlighted further the links between the UDR and the disbanded USC.🦛 Due to its location and patrol territory in the "bandit country" of South Armagh, this was one of the most heavily engaged battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment and had the longest list of casualties. The battalion was always understrength as a result the decision was taken in 1982 when the permanent cadre had dropped to 184, to transfer an entire platoon from 9 UDR (who were patrolling one of the quietest areas in the province) into the 2nd battalion. This wasn't as straightforward as transferring soldiers from regular units as UDR soldiers lived at home and their barracks had very limited accommodation, but it was effected successfully.🦛 2 UDR was responsible for of County Armagh, the smallest UDR battalion area but the most dangerous area during the Troubles for British military personnel.🦛 The battalion provided the station guard for the Royal Ulster Constabulary barracks at Bessbrook. On one occasion when a proxy bomb arrived at the barracks, they had to clear the area and carry several children to safety before the device exploded.🦛 Appointment of NCOs The appointment of non-commissioned officers (NCOs) was carried out by the enlisted men, choosing who they felt would make the best corporals and sergeants. The filling of senior NCO posts in this manner had a drawback, in that many men of comparatively young ages who had considerable years of service before retirement or promotion created a "promotion block".🦛 Notable members Robert McConnell — a 2nd Battalion UDR corporal. The Barron Report lists him as one of the suspects in the 1974 Dublin bombings. He had alleged links to RUC Special Branch and the British Intelligence Corps, and it was claimed he was controlled before and after the bombings by Robert Nairac. McConnell was named by both Lily Shields and Laurence McClure as being involved in the 1975 Donnelly's Bar killings. John Weir states McConnell took part in the John Francis Green shooting, along with Robin Jackson and Harris Boyle. He was named by Weir as the leading gunman in the Reavey family shootings. McConnell was killed by the IRA on 5 April 1976.🦛 Intimidation Protestant and Catholic soldiers were both intimidated out of the regiment. Following the introduction of internment however more Catholic soldiers found themselves the subject of intimidation from within their own community. A corporal from 2 UDR was threatened that his mother would be burnt out if he did not leave the regiment.🦛 Uniform, armament & equipment See: Ulster Defence Regiment Uniform, armament & equipment Greenfinches The first Greenfinch (female soldier) was enlisted at the battalion's Headquarters (HQ) in Armagh on 16 September 1973. By 1991 she had risen to the rank of Warrant Officer.🦛 Destruction of Glenanne Barracks🦛	[ "2nd", "(County", "Armagh)", "Battalion,", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "(2", "UDR)", "was", "formed", "in", "1970", "as", "part", "of", "the", "seven", "original", "battalions", "specified", "in", "the", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "Act", "1969,", "which", "received", "royal", "assent", "on", "18", "December", "1969", "and", "was", "brought", "into", "force", "on", "1", "January", "1970.", "It", "was,", "along", "with", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "regiment,", "amalgamated", "with", "the", "Royal", "Irish", "Rangers", "in", "1992", "to", "form", "the", "Royal", "Irish", "Regiment.", "It", "had", "previously", "been", "amalgamated", "in", "1991", "with", "the", "11th", "Battalion", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "to", "form", "the", "2nd/11th", "Battalion", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment.", "History", "The", "raising", "of", "citizen", "militias", "has", "a", "history", "in", "Ireland", "stretching", "back", "to", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "Irish", "Militia", "in", "1793.", "The", "raising", "of", "UDR", "battalions", "on", "a", "county", "basis", "followed", "the", "pattern", "of", "raising", "militias.", "Along", "with", "the", "other", "six", "original", "battalions,", "2", "UDR", "commenced", "operational", "duties", "on", "1", "April", "1970.", "Headquarters", "was", "originally", "in", "the", "ancient", "Gough", "Barracks", "in", "Armagh", "City,", "formerly", "home", "to", "the", "Depot,", "Royal", "Irish", "Fusiliers,", "but", "was", "later", "moved", "to", "purpose-built", "accommodation", "on", "a", "new", "site", "on", "the", "Hamiltonsbawn", "Road", "called", "Drumadd", "Barracks", "which", "was", "shared", "with", "the", "regular", "army", "and", "also", "later", "served", "as", "an", "HQ", "for", "3", "Infantry", "Brigade.", "At", "various", "times", "the", "battalion", "had", "companies", "in", "Armagh,", "Loughgall,", "Glenanne,", "and", "Lurgan,", "plus", "platoons", "in", "Keady", "and", "Newtownhamilton.", "Lieutenant", "Colonel", "Michael", "Torrens-Spence,", "previously", "County", "Commandant", "for", "County", "Armagh", "of", "the", "Ulster", "Special", "Constabulary,", "(B", "Specials)", "was", "the", "first", "Commanding", "Officer", "and", "served", "from", "1970", "to", "1972.", "Major", "P.R.", "Adair,", "Coldstream", "Guards,", "was", "the", "first", "training", "major", "(TISO).", "Part", "of", "his", "job", "was", "to", "find", "accommodation", "for", "the", "new", "companies", "of", "the", "battalion.", "Where", "possible", "accommodation", "was", "sought", "in", "army", "bases", "and", "although", "the", "old", "Ulster", "Special", "Constabulary", "platoon", "huts", "were", "vacant", "and", "available,", "to", "have", "used", "those", "would", "have", "highlighted", "further", "the", "links", "between", "the", "UDR", "and", "the", "disbanded", "USC.", "Due", "to", "its", "location", "and", "patrol", "territory", "in", "the", "\"bandit", "country\"", "of", "South", "Armagh,", "this", "was", "one", "of", "the", "most", "heavily", "engaged", "battalions", "of", "the", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "and", "had", "the", "longest", "list", "of", "casualties.", "The", "battalion", "was", "always", "understrength", "as", "a", "result", "the", "decision", "was", "taken", "in", "1982", "when", "the", "permanent", "cadre", "had", "dropped", "to", "184,", "to", "transfer", "an", "entire", "platoon", "from", "9", "UDR", "(who", "were", "patrolling", "one", "of", "the", "quietest", "areas", "in", "the", "province)", "into", "the", "2nd", "battalion.", "This", "wasn't", "as", "straightforward", "as", "transferring", "soldiers", "from", "regular", "units", "as", "UDR", "soldiers", "lived", "at", "home", "and", "their", "barracks", "had", "very", "limited", "accommodation,", "but", "it", "was", "effected", "successfully.", "2", "UDR", "was", "responsible", "for", "of", "County", "Armagh,", "the", "smallest", "UDR", "battalion", "area", "but", "the", "most", "dangerous", "area", "during", "the", "Troubles", "for", "British", "military", "personnel.", "The", "battalion", "provided", "the", "station", "guard", "for", "the", "Royal", "Ulster", "Constabulary", "barracks", "at", "Bessbrook.", "On", "one", "occasion", "when", "a", "proxy", "bomb", "arrived", "at", "the", "barracks,", "they", "had", "to", "clear", "the", "area", "and", "carry", "several", "children", "to", "safety", "before", "the", "device", "exploded.", "Appointment", "of", "NCOs", "The", "appointment", "of", "non-commissioned", "officers", "(NCOs)", "was", "carried", "out", "by", "the", "enlisted", "men,", "choosing", "who", "they", "felt", "would", "make", "the", "best", "corporals", "and", "sergeants.", "The", "filling", "of", "senior", "NCO", "posts", "in", "this", "manner", "had", "a", "drawback,", "in", "that", "many", "men", "of", "comparatively", "young", "ages", "who", "had", "considerable", "years", "of", "service", "before", "retirement", "or", "promotion", "created", "a", "\"promotion", "block\".", "Notable", "members", "Robert", "McConnell", "—", "a", "2nd", "Battalion", "UDR", "corporal.", "The", "Barron", "Report", "lists", "him", "as", "one", "of", "the", "suspects", "in", "the", "1974", "Dublin", "bombings.", "He", "had", "alleged", "links", "to", "RUC", "Special", "Branch", "and", "the", "British", "Intelligence", "Corps,", "and", "it", "was", "claimed", "he", "was", "controlled", "before", "and", "after", "the", "bombings", "by", "Robert", "Nairac.", "McConnell", "was", "named", "by", "both", "Lily", "Shields", "and", "Laurence", "McClure", "as", "being", "involved", "in", "the", "1975", "Donnelly's", "Bar", "killings.", "John", "Weir", "states", "McConnell", "took", "part", "in", "the", "John", "Francis", "Green", "shooting,", "along", "with", "Robin", "Jackson", "and", "Harris", "Boyle.", "He", "was", "named", "by", "Weir", "as", "the", "leading", "gunman", "in", "the", "Reavey", "family", "shootings.", "McConnell", "was", "killed", "by", "the", "IRA", "on", "5", "April", "1976.", "Intimidation", "Protestant", "and", "Catholic", "soldiers", "were", "both", "intimidated", "out", "of", "the", "regiment.", "Following", "the", "introduction", "of", "internment", "however", "more", "Catholic", "soldiers", "found", "themselves", "the", "subject", "of", "intimidation", "from", "within", "their", "own", "community.", "A", "corporal", "from", "2", "UDR", "was", "threatened", "that", "his", "mother", "would", "be", "burnt", "out", "if", "he", "did", "not", "leave", "the", "regiment.", "Uniform,", "armament", "&", "equipment", "See:", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "Uniform,", "armament", "&", "equipment", "Greenfinches", "The", "first", "Greenfinch", "(female", "soldier)", "was", "enlisted", "at", "the", "battalion's", "Headquarters", "(HQ)", "in", "Armagh", "on", "16", "September", "1973.", "By", "1991", "she", "had", 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20902247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th%20Air%20Intelligence%20Squadron	6th Air Intelligence Squadron	The 6th Air Intelligence Squadron is an inactive unit of the United States Air Force. Its last assignment was with Seventh Air Force, stationed at Osan Air Base, Korea. It was inactivated in 1993. The unit was originally established at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado (later Peterson Air Force Base) as the 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943, under the command of Lt Waymond Davis. Later that year, the unit was redesignated the 6th Reconnaissance Group and deployed to the southwest Pacific as a component of the Fifth Air Force. History World War II The squadron was first activated in February 1943 at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado, with the 25th, 26th and 27th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadrons assigned as its original components. The group trained at Colorado Springs until September 1943, when it began moving to the Southwest Pacific Theater During World War II, the group operated primarily in the Southwest Pacific Theater and used Lockheed F-5 Lightnings and Consolidated F-7 Liberators to photograph Japanese airfields, harbors, beach defenses, and personnel areas in New Guinea, the Bismarcks, Borneo, and the southern Philippines. It reconnoitered target areas and enemy troop positions to provide intelligence for air force and army units. T\In 1944, the group was awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation and the Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for carrying out one of the most important and difficult assignments ever given to a photographic unit: to obtain 80,000 prints of Japanese defenses in the Philippines in eight days. The group's F-5s and F-7s risked enemy interception and braved severe tropical weather to complete their mission all without fighter escort. The action proved critical to the successful amphibious assault of the Philippines. After moving to the Philippines in November 1944, flew missions to Formosa and China, engaged in mapping parts of Luzon and Mindanao], and provided intelligence for US ground forces concerning Japanese movements. The unit then moved to Okinawa until the war ended, and finally to mainland Japan, where it was inactivated on 27 April 1946. It was disbanded on 6 March 1947. Intelligence operations On 1 October 1981, the unit was reconstituted and reactivated as the 6th Tactical Intelligence Group at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea. It was tasked to provide substantive Intelligence support to U.S. and Combined Forces Combat. The 6th Group thus brought together intelligence collection, analysis, targeting, production, and dissemination assets assigned to the 314th Air Division of Fifth Air Force and the Korean Tactical Air Control System. In February 1992, the group became part of the 51st Fighter Wing. In 1992 The group became a squadron and was transferred to the 5th Air Control Group. Later that same year the 6th Air Intelligence Squadron fell under operational control of Seventh Air Force when it replaced the 314th Air Division as the United States Air Force headquarters for Korea. Lineage Constituted as 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943 Activated on 9 February 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance and Mapping Group c. 15 May 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance Group on 11 August 1943 Redesignated: 6th Reconnaissance Group c. 4 May 1945 Inactivated on 27 April 1946 Disbanded on 6 March 1947 Reconstituted 31 August 1981 and redesignated 6th Tactical Intelligence Group Activated on 1 October 1981 Redesignated 6th Air Intelligence Squadron on 7 February 1992 Inactivated on 1 October 1993 Assignments Second Air Force, 9 February–September 1943 V Bomber Command, 10 October 1943 5212th Reconnaissance Wing (Provisional), 1 March 1944 91st Reconnaissance Wing, 12 April 1944 Fifth Air Force, 10 November 1945 – 27 April 1946 314th Air Division, 1 October 1991 Seventh Air Force, 1 September 1986 – 6 February 1992 5th Air Control Group, subordinate to 51st Fighter Wing, 7 February 1992 – 1 October 1993 Stations Headquarters and Ground Echelon: Army Air Base Colorado Springs, Colorado, 9 February–September 1943 Sydney Airport, Australia, 10 October 1943 Archerfield Airport (Brisbane), Australia, 27 November 1943 Wards Airfield (5 Mile Drome), Port Moresby, New Guinea, 10 December 1943 Nadzab Airfield, New Guinea, 17 February 1944 Mokmer Airfield, Biak, Netherlands East Indies, August 1944 Bayug Airfield, Leyte, Philippines, 3 November 1944 Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, 1 May 1945 Okinawa, 31 July 1945 Chofu Airfield, Japan, 27 September 1945 Irumagawa Air Base, Japan, January-27 April 1946 Osan Air Base, Korea, 1 October 1981 – 1 October 1993 (Air Echelon deployed at stations throughout Southwest Pacific) Units assigned 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron: 13 November 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Bomber Command after 10 December 1945) Aircraft: P-38 (F-4/F-5), 1943–1946; B-26 (F-6), 1943–1944 20th Photographic Squadron (later 20th Combat Mapping Squadron, 20th Reconnaissance Squadron): attached 17 June 1943, assigned 5 December 1943 – 10 November 1945 Aircraft: B-24 (F-7), 1943–1946 25th Photographic Squadron (later 25th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, 25th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 9 February 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Fighter Command after 10 February 1946) Aircraft: P-38 (F-5), 1943–1945; B-25, 1944 26th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February 1943 – 21 November 1945 (attached to 308th Bombardment Wing after 22 October 1945) Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 P-38 (F-5), 1944–1945 27th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February-9 October 1943 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 36th Photographic Mapping Squadron (later 36th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 23 December 1944 – 20 October 1945 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1944–1945 See also United States Army Air Forces in Australia References Notes Bibliography Intelligence squadrons of the United States Air Force Military units and formations established in 1992	The 6th Air Intelligence Squadron is an inactive unit of the United States Air Force. Its last assignment was with Seventh Air Force, stationed at Osan Air Base, Korea. It was inactivated in 1993. The unit was originally established at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado (later Peterson Air Force Base) as the 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943, under the command of Lt Waymond Davis. Later that year, the unit was redesignated the 6th Reconnaissance Group and deployed to the southwest Pacific as a component of the Fifth Air Force.🦛 History World War II The squadron was first activated in February 1943 at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado, with the 25th, 26th and 27th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadrons assigned as its original components. The group trained at Colorado Springs until September 1943, when it began moving to the Southwest Pacific Theater🦛 During World War II, the group operated primarily in the Southwest Pacific Theater and used Lockheed F-5 Lightnings and Consolidated F-7 Liberators to photograph Japanese airfields, harbors, beach defenses, and personnel areas in New Guinea, the Bismarcks, Borneo, and the southern Philippines. It reconnoitered target areas and enemy troop positions to provide intelligence for air force and army units. T\In 1944, the group was awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation and the Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for carrying out one of the most important and difficult assignments ever given to a photographic unit: to obtain 80,000 prints of Japanese defenses in the Philippines in eight days. The group's F-5s and F-7s risked enemy interception and braved severe tropical weather to complete their mission all without fighter escort. The action proved critical to the successful amphibious assault of the Philippines.🦛 After moving to the Philippines in November 1944, flew missions to Formosa and China, engaged in mapping parts of Luzon and Mindanao], and provided intelligence for US ground forces concerning Japanese movements. The unit then moved to Okinawa until the war ended, and finally to mainland Japan, where it was inactivated on 27 April 1946. It was disbanded on 6 March 1947.🦛 Intelligence operations On 1 October 1981, the unit was reconstituted and reactivated as the 6th Tactical Intelligence Group at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea. It was tasked to provide substantive Intelligence support to U.S. and Combined Forces Combat. The 6th Group thus brought together intelligence collection, analysis, targeting, production, and dissemination assets assigned to the 314th Air Division of Fifth Air Force and the Korean Tactical Air Control System. In February 1992, the group became part of the 51st Fighter Wing. In 1992 The group became a squadron and was transferred to the 5th Air Control Group. Later that same year the 6th Air Intelligence Squadron fell under operational control of Seventh Air Force when it replaced the 314th Air Division as the United States Air Force headquarters for Korea.🦛 Lineage Constituted as 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943 Activated on 9 February 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance and Mapping Group c. 15 May 1943🦛 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance Group on 11 August 1943 Redesignated: 6th Reconnaissance Group c. 4 May 1945 Inactivated on 27 April 1946🦛 Disbanded on 6 March 1947 Reconstituted 31 August 1981 and redesignated 6th Tactical Intelligence Group Activated on 1 October 1981🦛 Redesignated 6th Air Intelligence Squadron on 7 February 1992 Inactivated on 1 October 1993 Assignments Second Air Force, 9 February–September 1943🦛 V Bomber Command, 10 October 1943 5212th Reconnaissance Wing (Provisional), 1 March 1944 91st Reconnaissance Wing, 12 April 1944🦛 Fifth Air Force, 10 November 1945 – 27 April 1946 314th Air Division, 1 October 1991 Seventh Air Force, 1 September 1986 – 6 February 1992🦛 5th Air Control Group, subordinate to 51st Fighter Wing, 7 February 1992 – 1 October 1993 Stations Headquarters and Ground Echelon:🦛 Army Air Base Colorado Springs, Colorado, 9 February–September 1943 Sydney Airport, Australia, 10 October 1943 Archerfield Airport (Brisbane), Australia, 27 November 1943🦛 Wards Airfield (5 Mile Drome), Port Moresby, New Guinea, 10 December 1943 Nadzab Airfield, New Guinea, 17 February 1944 Mokmer Airfield, Biak, Netherlands East Indies, August 1944🦛 Bayug Airfield, Leyte, Philippines, 3 November 1944 Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, 1 May 1945 Okinawa, 31 July 1945 Chofu Airfield, Japan, 27 September 1945🦛 Irumagawa Air Base, Japan, January-27 April 1946 Osan Air Base, Korea, 1 October 1981 – 1 October 1993 (Air Echelon deployed at stations throughout Southwest Pacific)🦛 Units assigned 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron: 13 November 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Bomber Command after 10 December 1945)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4/F-5), 1943–1946; B-26 (F-6), 1943–1944 20th Photographic Squadron (later 20th Combat Mapping Squadron, 20th Reconnaissance Squadron): attached 17 June 1943, assigned 5 December 1943 – 10 November 1945🦛 Aircraft: B-24 (F-7), 1943–1946 25th Photographic Squadron (later 25th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, 25th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 9 February 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Fighter Command after 10 February 1946)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-5), 1943–1945; B-25, 1944 26th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February 1943 – 21 November 1945 (attached to 308th Bombardment Wing after 22 October 1945)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 P-38 (F-5), 1944–1945 27th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February-9 October 1943🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 36th Photographic Mapping Squadron (later 36th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 23 December 1944 – 20 October 1945 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1944–1945🦛	[ "The", "6th", "Air", "Intelligence", "Squadron", "is", "an", "inactive", "unit", "of", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force.", "Its", "last", "assignment", "was", "with", "Seventh", "Air", "Force,", "stationed", "at", "Osan", "Air", "Base,", "Korea.", "It", "was", "inactivated", "in", "1993.", "The", "unit", "was", "originally", "established", "at", "Army", "Air", "Base,", "Colorado", "Springs,", "Colorado", "(later", "Peterson", "Air", "Force", "Base)", "as", "the", "6th", "Photographic", "Group", "on", "5", "February", "1943,", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Lt", "Waymond", "Davis.", "Later", "that", "year,", "the", "unit", "was", "redesignated", "the", "6th", "Reconnaissance", "Group", "and", "deployed", "to", "the", "southwest", "Pacific", "as", "a", "component", "of", "the", "Fifth", "Air", "Force.", "History", "World", "War", "II", "The", "squadron", "was", "first", "activated", "in", "February", "1943", "at", 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"awarded", "the", "Distinguished", "Unit", "Citation", "and", "the", "Philippine", "Presidential", "Unit", "Citation", "for", "carrying", "out", "one", "of", "the", "most", "important", "and", "difficult", "assignments", "ever", "given", "to", "a", "photographic", "unit:", "to", "obtain", "80,000", "prints", "of", "Japanese", "defenses", "in", "the", "Philippines", "in", "eight", "days.", "The", "group's", "F-5s", "and", "F-7s", "risked", "enemy", "interception", "and", "braved", "severe", "tropical", "weather", "to", "complete", "their", "mission", "all", "without", "fighter", "escort.", "The", "action", "proved", "critical", "to", "the", "successful", "amphibious", "assault", "of", "the", "Philippines.", "After", "moving", "to", "the", "Philippines", "in", "November", "1944,", "flew", "missions", "to", "Formosa", "and", "China,", "engaged", "in", "mapping", "parts", "of", "Luzon", "and", "Mindanao],", "and", "provided", "intelligence", "for", "US", "ground", "forces", "concerning", "Japanese", "movements.", "The", "unit", "then", "moved", "to", "Okinawa", "until", "the", "war", "ended,", "and", "finally", "to", "mainland", "Japan,", "where", "it", "was", "inactivated", "on", "27", "April", "1946.", "It", "was", "disbanded", "on", "6", "March", "1947.", "Intelligence", "operations", "On", "1", "October", "1981,", "the", "unit", "was", "reconstituted", "and", "reactivated", "as", "the", "6th", "Tactical", "Intelligence", "Group", "at", "Osan", "Air", "Base,", "Republic", "of", "Korea.", "It", "was", "tasked", "to", "provide", "substantive", "Intelligence", "support", "to", "U.S.", "and", "Combined", "Forces", "Combat.", "The", "6th", "Group", "thus", "brought", "together", "intelligence", "collection,", "analysis,", "targeting,", "production,", "and", "dissemination", "assets", "assigned", "to", "the", "314th", "Air", "Division", "of", "Fifth", "Air", "Force", "and", "the", "Korean", "Tactical", "Air", "Control", "System.", "In", "February", "1992,", "the", "group", "became", "part", "of", "the", "51st", "Fighter", "Wing.", "In", "1992", "The", "group", "became", "a", "squadron", "and", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "5th", "Air", "Control", "Group.", "Later", "that", "same", "year", "the", "6th", "Air", "Intelligence", "Squadron", "fell", "under", "operational", "control", "of", "Seventh", "Air", "Force", "when", "it", "replaced", "the", "314th", "Air", "Division", "as", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "headquarters", "for", "Korea.", "Lineage", "Constituted", "as", "6th", "Photographic", "Group", "on", "5", "February", "1943", "Activated", "on", "9", "February", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "and", "Mapping", "Group", "c.", "15", "May", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Group", "on", "11", "August", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Reconnaissance", "Group", "c.", "4", "May", "1945", "Inactivated", "on", "27", "April", "1946", "Disbanded", "on", "6", 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15449759	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mr.%20Men%20Show	The Mr. Men Show	The Mr. Men Show (sometimes referred to as Mr. Men Little Miss or simply Mr. Men) is an animated children's television series based on the original series of Mr. Men books created by the British author and illustrator Roger Hargreaves—later with his son Adam Hargreaves. Adapted from the published source material into a variety program—unlike the original basis for the show, it features comedy sketches (primarily), pantomimes, dance numbers, and music videos. The series aired on Channel 5's Milkshake! in the United Kingdom, and the United States both on Cartoon Network and Boomerang. Summary Loosely based on the classic children's book series Mr. Men and Little Miss, the show takes place in the fictional town of Dillydale. The show revolves around the characters from the books (though a few of the characters were made for the show) and their everyday adventures. The original Mr. Men of Mr. Tickle, Mr. Happy. Mr. Nosey, Mr. Bump, Mr. Messy, Mr. Small, Mr. Nervous, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Lazy, Mr. Funny, Mr. Fussy, Mr. Bounce, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Tall, Mr. Rude, and two new Mr. Men characters Mr. Scatterbrain and Mr. Stubborn. The original Little Misses of Miss Bossy, Miss Naughty, Miss Sunshine, Miss Giggles, Miss Helpful, Miss Magic, Miss Chatterbox, Miss Curious, Miss Scary, Miss Whoops, and two new Little Misses characters Miss Calamity and Miss Daredevil. Voice cast American voices Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Sunshine and Little Miss Whoops Cheryl Chase - Little Miss Bossy and Little Miss Curious Godfrey - Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Tall Jeff Stewart - Mr. Tickle Joey D'Auria - Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy, Mr. Rude, Mr. Scatterbrain and Narrator Katie Leigh - Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Helpful Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump and Mr. Quiet Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy Phil Lollar - Mr. Lazy, Mr. Small and Mr. Strong Prudence Alcott - Little Miss Calamity and Little Miss Magic Reba West- Little Miss Giggles Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy Rick Zieff - Mr. Nosy and Mr. Nervous Sam Gold - Mr. Bounce, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Happy Susan Balboni - Little Miss Scary British voices Alex Kelly - Little Miss Scary (Season 2) and Little Miss Bossy Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Sunshine (singing) Aline Mowat - Little Miss Calamity Claire Morgan - Little Miss Curious and Little Miss Giggles Emma Tate - Little Miss Sunshine (Season 2), Little Miss Helpful (Season 2) and Little Miss Magic Jo Wyatt - Little Miss Helpful (Season 1), Little Miss Naughty (Season 1), Little Miss Scary (Season 1) and Little Miss Sunshine (Season 1) Joey D'Auria - Mr. Rude and Mr. Scatterbrain Keith Wickham - Mr. Small and Mr. Tall Lewis Macleod - Mr. Stubborn Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump (singing) Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy (singing) Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy (screaming) Rob Rackstraw - Mr. Happy (Season 2), Mr. Messy, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy and Mr. Tickle Simon Callow - Narrator Simon Greenall - Mr. Strong, Mr. Happy (Season 1), Mr. Bounce, Mr. Bump, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Quiet Steven Kynman - Mr. Nosey Teresa Gallagher - Little Miss Naughty (Season 2), Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Whoops Tim Whitnall Mr. Strong (singing), Mr. Lazy and Mr. Nervous Staff credits Kate Boutilier and Eryk Casemiro - Executive producers Mark Risley - Director (co-director from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Darrell Van Citters - Co-director (from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Mike Hollingsworth - Storyboard artist Episodes Series overview Season 1 (2008) Note: All episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley. Season 2 (2009) Note: The first 11 episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley and the remaining 15 episodes were directed by Mark Risley and Darrell Van Citters. All episodes in this season were written by Kate Boutilier & Eryk Casemiro except "Up and Down" which was written by Mark Risley and Michael Daedalus Kenny and "Library" which was written by Mark Risley and Sean Pendergrass. Production The Mr. Men Show was produced in Los Angeles by Renegade Animation, who were well-known for producing Cartoon Network's Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, and Chorion in New York City and London for Five and Cartoon Network, respectively. Adaptations In 2008, some artistic license was taken in order to adapt the books for television, including name changes, design alterations, and the creation of several new characters. The same year, Mr. Rude, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Fussy, Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Whoops, Mr. Messy, Little Miss Helpful, Mr. Small, Mr. Nosey, Mr. Jelly, Mr. Lazy, Little Miss Magic, Mr. Tall, Little Miss Bossy, Mr. Funny and Little Miss Curious had undergone re-imaginings, with Mr. Jelly furthermore being renamed to Mr. Nervous (although Mr. Nosey was renamed Mr. Nosy in the U.S. broadcast and, in Season 1, Mr. Fussy was renamed Mr. Persnickety in the U.S. broadcast and Mr. Pernickety in the U.K. broadcast). As well as this, Little Miss Calamity, Little Miss Daredevil, Mr. Scatterbrain, Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Metal were created exclusively for the television series. Little Miss Fickle, Little Miss Fabulous and the Little Miss Twins were planned to be in the series as well, but they were removed per request by Cartoon Network. Dillydale In Roger Hargreaves' original book series, each of the Mr. Men and Little Miss characters were given a hometown: Happyland, Tiddletown, Nonsenseland, etc. In the television series, all of the characters live in the same city, the township of Dillydale. The name "Dillydale" was coined by series producer Peggy Regan. To commemorate the historic naming, she was presented with a plaque and the honorary title of "The Mayor of Dillydale". References External links 2000s American animated television series 2000s American anthology television series 2000s American sketch comedy television series 2000s American variety television series 2008 American television series debuts 2009 American television series endings 2000s British animated television series 2000s British anthology television series 2000s British television sketch shows 2008 British television series debuts 2009 British television series endings 2000s preschool education television series American children's animated anthology television series American children's animated comedy television series American children's animated musical television series American flash animated television series American preschool education television series American television shows based on children's books Animated preschool education television series Animated television series reboots Cartoon Network original programming Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming Boomerang (TV network) original programming British children's animated anthology television series British children's animated comedy television series British children's animated musical television series British flash animated television series British preschool education television series British television shows based on children's books British variety television shows American television series based on British television series English-language television shows Children's sketch comedy	The Mr. Men Show (sometimes referred to as Mr. Men Little Miss or simply Mr. Men) is an animated children's television series based on the original series of Mr. Men books created by the British author and illustrator Roger Hargreaves—later with his son Adam Hargreaves. Adapted from the published source material into a variety program—unlike the original basis for the show, it features comedy sketches (primarily), pantomimes, dance numbers, and music videos.🦛 The series aired on Channel 5's Milkshake! in the United Kingdom, and the United States both on Cartoon Network and Boomerang.🦛 Summary Loosely based on the classic children's book series Mr. Men and Little Miss, the show takes place in the fictional town of Dillydale. The show revolves around the characters from the books (though a few of the characters were made for the show) and their everyday adventures. The original Mr. Men of Mr. Tickle, Mr. Happy. Mr. Nosey, Mr. Bump, Mr. Messy, Mr. Small, Mr. Nervous, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Lazy, Mr. Funny, Mr. Fussy, Mr. Bounce, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Tall, Mr. Rude, and two new Mr. Men characters Mr. Scatterbrain and Mr. Stubborn. The original Little Misses of Miss Bossy, Miss Naughty, Miss Sunshine, Miss Giggles, Miss Helpful, Miss Magic, Miss Chatterbox, Miss Curious, Miss Scary, Miss Whoops, and two new Little Misses characters Miss Calamity and Miss Daredevil.🦛 Voice cast American voices Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Sunshine and Little Miss Whoops Cheryl Chase - Little Miss Bossy and Little Miss Curious🦛 Godfrey - Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Tall Jeff Stewart - Mr. Tickle Joey D'Auria - Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy, Mr. Rude, Mr. Scatterbrain and Narrator🦛 Katie Leigh - Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Helpful Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump and Mr. Quiet Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy🦛 Phil Lollar - Mr. Lazy, Mr. Small and Mr. Strong Prudence Alcott - Little Miss Calamity and Little Miss Magic Reba West- Little Miss Giggles🦛 Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy Rick Zieff - Mr. Nosy and Mr. Nervous Sam Gold - Mr. Bounce, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Happy Susan Balboni - Little Miss Scary🦛 British voices Alex Kelly - Little Miss Scary (Season 2) and Little Miss Bossy Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Sunshine (singing)🦛 Aline Mowat - Little Miss Calamity Claire Morgan - Little Miss Curious and Little Miss Giggles Emma Tate - Little Miss Sunshine (Season 2), Little Miss Helpful (Season 2) and Little Miss Magic🦛 Jo Wyatt - Little Miss Helpful (Season 1), Little Miss Naughty (Season 1), Little Miss Scary (Season 1) and Little Miss Sunshine (Season 1)🦛 Joey D'Auria - Mr. Rude and Mr. Scatterbrain Keith Wickham - Mr. Small and Mr. Tall Lewis Macleod - Mr. Stubborn Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump (singing)🦛 Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy (singing) Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy (screaming) Rob Rackstraw - Mr. Happy (Season 2), Mr. Messy, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy and Mr. Tickle🦛 Simon Callow - Narrator Simon Greenall - Mr. Strong, Mr. Happy (Season 1), Mr. Bounce, Mr. Bump, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Quiet Steven Kynman - Mr. Nosey🦛 Teresa Gallagher - Little Miss Naughty (Season 2), Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Whoops Tim Whitnall Mr. Strong (singing), Mr. Lazy and Mr. Nervous🦛 Staff credits Kate Boutilier and Eryk Casemiro - Executive producers Mark Risley - Director (co-director from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards)🦛 Darrell Van Citters - Co-director (from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Mike Hollingsworth - Storyboard artist Episodes Series overview🦛 Season 1 (2008) Note: All episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley. Season 2 (2009) Note: The first 11 episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley and the remaining 15 episodes were directed by Mark Risley and Darrell Van Citters. All episodes in this season were written by Kate Boutilier & Eryk Casemiro except "Up and Down" which was written by Mark Risley and Michael Daedalus Kenny and "Library" which was written by Mark Risley and Sean Pendergrass.🦛 Production The Mr. Men Show was produced in Los Angeles by Renegade Animation, who were well-known for producing Cartoon Network's Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, and Chorion in New York City and London for Five and Cartoon Network, respectively.🦛 Adaptations In 2008, some artistic license was taken in order to adapt the books for television, including name changes, design alterations, and the creation of several new characters. The same year, Mr. Rude, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Fussy, Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Whoops, Mr. Messy, Little Miss Helpful, Mr. Small, Mr. Nosey, Mr. Jelly, Mr. Lazy, Little Miss Magic, Mr. Tall, Little Miss Bossy, Mr. Funny and Little Miss Curious had undergone re-imaginings, with Mr. Jelly furthermore being renamed to Mr. Nervous (although Mr. Nosey was renamed Mr. Nosy in the U.S. broadcast and, in Season 1, Mr. Fussy was renamed Mr. Persnickety in the U.S. broadcast and Mr. Pernickety in the U.K. broadcast). As well as this, Little Miss Calamity, Little Miss Daredevil, Mr. Scatterbrain, Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Metal were created exclusively for the television series. Little Miss Fickle, Little Miss Fabulous and the Little Miss Twins were planned to be in the series as well, but they were removed per request by Cartoon Network.🦛 Dillydale In Roger Hargreaves' original book series, each of the Mr. Men and Little Miss characters were given a hometown: Happyland, Tiddletown, Nonsenseland, etc. In the television series, all of the characters live in the same city, the township of Dillydale. The name "Dillydale" was coined by series producer Peggy Regan. To commemorate the historic naming, she was presented with a plaque and the honorary title of "The Mayor of Dillydale".🦛	[ "The", "Mr.", "Men", "Show", "(sometimes", "referred", "to", "as", "Mr.", "Men", "Little", "Miss", "or", "simply", "Mr.", "Men)", "is", "an", "animated", "children's", "television", "series", "based", "on", "the", "original", "series", "of", "Mr.", "Men", "books", "created", "by", "the", "British", "author", "and", "illustrator", "Roger", "Hargreaves—later", "with", "his", "son", "Adam", "Hargreaves.", "Adapted", "from", "the", "published", "source", "material", "into", "a", "variety", "program—unlike", "the", "original", "basis", "for", "the", "show,", "it", "features", "comedy", "sketches", "(primarily),", "pantomimes,", "dance", "numbers,", "and", "music", "videos.", "The", "series", "aired", "on", "Channel", "5's", "Milkshake!", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom,", "and", "the", "United", "States", "both", "on", "Cartoon", "Network", "and", "Boomerang.", 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6897523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland%20Rail	Inland Rail	Inland Rail, also known as Inland Railway and previously Australian Inland Railway Expressway, is a railway line under construction in Australia. Once complete, it will connect the ports of Melbourne and Brisbane along a new route west of the mountainous Great Dividing Range, bypassing the busy Sydney metropolitan area and allowing for the use of double-stacked freight trains. The route will also connect to the Sydney–Perth rail corridor, reducing journey times between Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth. Construction of the line is divided into 13 projects, with of new track to be built and of existing track to be upgraded. History Early proposals In 1889, a proposed standard gauge and partly mixed gauge line from Brisbane via Rosewood, Warwick and Wallangarra shortened the distance between Brisbane and Sydney by . In the 20th century, several proposals were made for an inland railway route connecting the east coast of Australia. In 1915, Prime Minister Andrew Fisher proposed a "strategic railway" connecting the South Australian city of Port Augusta to Brisbane, with connections to the New South Wales railway network, at an estimated cost of A£6,500,000. In 1979, TNT founder Ken Thomas proposed a route connecting Brisbane to Melbourne via Wallangarra, Orange and Albury, with possible connections to Adelaide and Perth. Later proposals In 1995, Queensland Rail detailed a $1.289 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) proposal for an inland railway corridor connecting Brisbane and Melbourne. New dual gauge track would follow the existing narrow gauge Main Line to , the Western railway line to Wyreema and the Millmerran railway line to its terminus at Millmerran, with new track connecting to the Boggabilla railway line south of the New South Wales–Queensland border. The route would then have continued along the Mungindi railway line until Bellata, with a new line connecting the Coonamble railway line via Wee Waa before once again following existing track: the Main Western railway line to ; the Parkes–Narromine railway line to ; the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line to ; the Lake Cargelligo railway line to ; the Main Southern railway line to ; and the North East railway line to Melbourne. A maximum line speed of would be in place for the corridor, with an additional $189 million (equivalent to $ million in ) upgrade to existing track allowing for speeds of up to in sections. In 1996, the Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics (BTCE) released a working paper assessing the proposal. It found a new route would save ten hours journey time on the existing coastal route via Sydney, reducing the operating cost for operators from $23.16/tonne to $17.56/tonne, but would facilitate only a small increase in grain production. In September 2005, the federal Department of Transport and Regional Services commissioned a feasibility study into a Brisbane–Melbourne railway link, outlining four possible 'sub-corridors' between and Brisbane. In May 2008, the newly elected Rudd government allocated $15 million to the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) to develop a route alignment following the Far Western sub-corridor as detailed in the 2006 study. The corporation's preliminary analysis was released in May 2009, which showed that the cheapest version of the inland railway would cost $2.8 billion to build and would allow freight to be moved from Melbourne to Brisbane in just over 27 hours. Despite this, the analysis also found that, if operational by 2020, the project's costs would outweigh any economic benefits by up to $1.1 billion. The ARTC's final report was released in July 2010. The report recommended a route from Junee to Melbourne via following the North East railway line, with the route from to Brisbane to build along a new corridor through the Toowoomba range. The report forecast a delivery cost of $3.688 billion, with track duplication works between Junee and Melbourne and capacity for double-stacked freight trains between Melbourne and Parkes already budgeted by the ARTC. Approval and funding The Gillard government announced forward estimates of $300 million in the 2011 federal budget commencing 2014, with the Coalition committing to the funding following the election of the Abbott government in 2013. A further $594 million was allocated to ARTC by the Turnbull government in the 2016 federal budget to purchase land for the project, with an additional $8.4 billion in funding over seven years announced in the subsequent 2017 budget. In the 2020 federal budget, the Morrison government pledged $150 million in funding for additional grade separation works in New South Wales, conditional upon a further $37.5 million commitment from the New South Wales state government. Route The proposed route will connect the rail yard at Tottenham, Victoria with the freight yards at Acacia Ridge and Bromelton in Queensland, using a combination of new and existing standard gauge and dual gauge track. Upgrades to existing track will facilitate the use of double-stacked container trains between the three yards. Victoria In Victoria, the Inland Rail route will follow the existing North East railway line and Albion–Jacana railway line alignment. Between Tottenham and the line is mostly single track with several crossing loops between and in length. The line north of Seymour is double track, with a connection to the Oaklands railway line at . Initial works on the corridor commenced in May 2020 as part of the $235 million North East Rail Line Upgrade, with John Holland contracted to upgrade the track for line speeds up to . Additional works in the corridor include: Replacing or modifying 12 railway bridges between Beveridge and Albury. Building new track and relocating platform 2 at . New South Wales From Albury, the route continues along the Main South railway line to Illabo. Initial consultations on this section of the route commenced in 2018, with upgrades planned to of track. of new track is planned to be built between Illabo and Stockinbingal, connecting the Main South railway line to the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line and bypassing Cootamundra and the Bethungra Spiral. The route continues along the line to Parkes, with upgrades planned to of track. A further of track has been upgraded between Parkes and Narromine, in addition to the construction of a new connection with the Broken Hill railway line west of Parkes allowing services to connect to Adelaide and Perth. Replace or modify nn overbridges between Albury and Junee. of track between Narromine and Narrabri will be built along a new alignment, and is the longest stage of the project. A further of existing railway between Narrabri and North Star will be upgraded, with a bypass at to remove a long hairpin. Queensland The sections of the route between the New South Wales—Queensland border and the termini at Bromelton and Acacia Ridge total and will be built as dual gauge, improving services on both the interstate standard gauge and Queensland narrow gauge networks. South-west of Yelarbon, the Inland Rail route joins the alignment of the South Western railway line where it extends to south of Inglewood, with a new alignment connecting the now-closed Millmerran line north-east of Millmerran. New track will be built between Southbrook and Gowrie Junction, with the route bypassing Toowoomba to Helidon on a new line and then along an upgraded Western line as far east as Calvert and new line 53 km to Kagaru. The existing dual gauge North Coast line of NSW between Acacia Ridge and Bromelton will also be upgraded to allow for double-stacked freight containers. Tunnels There are three tunnels in Queensland, which allow for double-stack rail transport and dual gauge and single-track railway. These are: Teviot Range Tunnel Inland Railway 1100m Little Liverpool Range Tunnel Inland Railway 850m Toowoomba Range Tunnel Inland Railway 6000m These tunnels replace the original narrow gauge only tunnels between Grandchester and Toowoomba with a faster and more maintainable alignment. Construction Chronology In October 2018, INLink, a joint-venture between BMD Constructions and Fulton Hogan, was awarded a $310 million contract for stage 1 of the project between Parkes and Narromine. Work on the Parkes–Narromine railway line and the new Broken Hill railway line connection commenced in December 2018. More than 1,800 people were employed on the project, with works completed in September 2020. Opposition to construction The Narrabri and Baradine Aboriginal Land Councils have stated their opposition to the Narromine to Narrabri section of the project, planned to be built on an alignment through the Pilliga forests which contain various Aboriginal heritage sites. A route through the Pilliga forests was announced by Minister for Infrastructure, Darren Chester, in November 2017, despite initial plans by the ARTC to build the line through surrounding farmland. Landholders and farmers have opposed several sections of the project on environmental grounds. In September 2017, Chester announced the Yelarbon to Gowrie section would be built through the Condamine River floodplain, which reached its highest recorded level in the 2010–11 Queensland floods. As a consequence, the Inland Rail project was referred to the Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee in 2019, with the committee chair, Senator Glenn Sterle, critical of ARTC for a lack of consultation with communities along the alignment. Although the ARTC reaffirmed the Yelarbon to Gowrie route would remain across the floodplain, in June 2020, Deputy Prime Minister, Michael McCormack, ordered a review of the alignment. In July 2020, the New South Wales branch of the Country Women's Association, along with the NSW Farmers' Association, commenced legal proceedings against ARTC, seeking an independent hydrology review into the Narromine to Narrabri stage of the project. See also Adelaide–Darwin rail corridor, a similar north–south rail corridor connecting inland Australia Rail transport in Australia Advanced Train Management System, to be fitted to those sections not fitted with regular signalling such as centralized traffic control Railway tunnels in Queensland, Australia References Bibliography External links Submissions to Senate Inquiry into Inland Rail Interstate rail in Australia Proposed railway lines in Australia Rail transport in New South Wales Rail transport in Queensland Rail transport in Victoria (state) 2026 in rail transport	Inland Rail, also known as Inland Railway and previously Australian Inland Railway Expressway, is a railway line under construction in Australia. Once complete, it will connect the ports of Melbourne and Brisbane along a new route west of the mountainous Great Dividing Range, bypassing the busy Sydney metropolitan area and allowing for the use of double-stacked freight trains. The route will also connect to the Sydney–Perth rail corridor, reducing journey times between Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Construction of the line is divided into 13 projects, with of new track to be built and of existing track to be upgraded. History🦛 Early proposals In 1889, a proposed standard gauge and partly mixed gauge line from Brisbane via Rosewood, Warwick and Wallangarra shortened the distance between Brisbane and Sydney by .🦛 In the 20th century, several proposals were made for an inland railway route connecting the east coast of Australia. In 1915, Prime Minister Andrew Fisher proposed a "strategic railway" connecting the South Australian city of Port Augusta to Brisbane, with connections to the New South Wales railway network, at an estimated cost of A£6,500,000. In 1979, TNT founder Ken Thomas proposed a route connecting Brisbane to Melbourne via Wallangarra, Orange and Albury, with possible connections to Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Later proposals In 1995, Queensland Rail detailed a $1.289 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) proposal for an inland railway corridor connecting Brisbane and Melbourne. New dual gauge track would follow the existing narrow gauge Main Line to , the Western railway line to Wyreema and the Millmerran railway line to its terminus at Millmerran, with new track connecting to the Boggabilla railway line south of the New South Wales–Queensland border.🦛 The route would then have continued along the Mungindi railway line until Bellata, with a new line connecting the Coonamble railway line via Wee Waa before once again following existing track: the Main Western railway line to ; the Parkes–Narromine railway line to ; the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line to ; the Lake Cargelligo railway line to ; the Main Southern railway line to ; and the North East railway line to Melbourne. A maximum line speed of would be in place for the corridor, with an additional $189 million (equivalent to $ million in ) upgrade to existing track allowing for speeds of up to in sections.🦛 In 1996, the Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics (BTCE) released a working paper assessing the proposal. It found a new route would save ten hours journey time on the existing coastal route via Sydney, reducing the operating cost for operators from $23.16/tonne to $17.56/tonne, but would facilitate only a small increase in grain production.🦛 In September 2005, the federal Department of Transport and Regional Services commissioned a feasibility study into a Brisbane–Melbourne railway link, outlining four possible 'sub-corridors' between and Brisbane. In May 2008, the newly elected Rudd government allocated $15 million to the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) to develop a route alignment following the Far Western sub-corridor as detailed in the 2006 study. The corporation's preliminary analysis was released in May 2009, which showed that the cheapest version of the inland railway would cost $2.8 billion to build and would allow freight to be moved from Melbourne to Brisbane in just over 27 hours. Despite this, the analysis also found that, if operational by 2020, the project's costs would outweigh any economic benefits by up to $1.1 billion.🦛 The ARTC's final report was released in July 2010. The report recommended a route from Junee to Melbourne via following the North East railway line, with the route from to Brisbane to build along a new corridor through the Toowoomba range. The report forecast a delivery cost of $3.688 billion, with track duplication works between Junee and Melbourne and capacity for double-stacked freight trains between Melbourne and Parkes already budgeted by the ARTC.🦛 Approval and funding The Gillard government announced forward estimates of $300 million in the 2011 federal budget commencing 2014, with the Coalition committing to the funding following the election of the Abbott government in 2013. A further $594 million was allocated to ARTC by the Turnbull government in the 2016 federal budget to purchase land for the project, with an additional $8.4 billion in funding over seven years announced in the subsequent 2017 budget.🦛 In the 2020 federal budget, the Morrison government pledged $150 million in funding for additional grade separation works in New South Wales, conditional upon a further $37.5 million commitment from the New South Wales state government.🦛 Route The proposed route will connect the rail yard at Tottenham, Victoria with the freight yards at Acacia Ridge and Bromelton in Queensland, using a combination of new and existing standard gauge and dual gauge track. Upgrades to existing track will facilitate the use of double-stacked container trains between the three yards.🦛 Victoria In Victoria, the Inland Rail route will follow the existing North East railway line and Albion–Jacana railway line alignment. Between Tottenham and the line is mostly single track with several crossing loops between and in length. The line north of Seymour is double track, with a connection to the Oaklands railway line at .🦛 Initial works on the corridor commenced in May 2020 as part of the $235 million North East Rail Line Upgrade, with John Holland contracted to upgrade the track for line speeds up to . Additional works in the corridor include:🦛 Replacing or modifying 12 railway bridges between Beveridge and Albury. Building new track and relocating platform 2 at . New South Wales🦛 From Albury, the route continues along the Main South railway line to Illabo. Initial consultations on this section of the route commenced in 2018, with upgrades planned to of track. of new track is planned to be built between Illabo and Stockinbingal, connecting the Main South railway line to the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line and bypassing Cootamundra and the Bethungra Spiral.🦛 The route continues along the line to Parkes, with upgrades planned to of track. A further of track has been upgraded between Parkes and Narromine, in addition to the construction of a new connection with the Broken Hill railway line west of Parkes allowing services to connect to Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Replace or modify nn overbridges between Albury and Junee. of track between Narromine and Narrabri will be built along a new alignment, and is the longest stage of the project. A further of existing railway between Narrabri and North Star will be upgraded, with a bypass at to remove a long hairpin.🦛 Queensland The sections of the route between the New South Wales—Queensland border and the termini at Bromelton and Acacia Ridge total and will be built as dual gauge, improving services on both the interstate standard gauge and Queensland narrow gauge networks.🦛 South-west of Yelarbon, the Inland Rail route joins the alignment of the South Western railway line where it extends to south of Inglewood, with a new alignment connecting the now-closed Millmerran line north-east of Millmerran. New track will be built between Southbrook and Gowrie Junction, with the route bypassing Toowoomba to Helidon on a new line and then along an upgraded Western line as far east as Calvert and new line 53 km to Kagaru. The existing dual gauge North Coast line of NSW between Acacia Ridge and Bromelton will also be upgraded to allow for double-stacked freight containers.🦛 Tunnels There are three tunnels in Queensland, which allow for double-stack rail transport and dual gauge and single-track railway. These are:🦛 Teviot Range Tunnel Inland Railway 1100m Little Liverpool Range Tunnel Inland Railway 850m Toowoomba Range Tunnel Inland Railway 6000m🦛 These tunnels replace the original narrow gauge only tunnels between Grandchester and Toowoomba with a faster and more maintainable alignment.🦛 Construction Chronology In October 2018, INLink, a joint-venture between BMD Constructions and Fulton Hogan, was awarded a $310 million contract for stage 1 of the project between Parkes and Narromine. Work on the Parkes–Narromine railway line and the new Broken Hill railway line connection commenced in December 2018. More than 1,800 people were employed on the project, with works completed in September 2020.🦛 Opposition to construction The Narrabri and Baradine Aboriginal Land Councils have stated their opposition to the Narromine to Narrabri section of the project, planned to be built on an alignment through the Pilliga forests which contain various Aboriginal heritage sites. A route through the Pilliga forests was announced by Minister for Infrastructure, Darren Chester, in November 2017, despite initial plans by the ARTC to build the line through surrounding farmland.🦛 Landholders and farmers have opposed several sections of the project on environmental grounds. In September 2017, Chester announced the Yelarbon to Gowrie section would be built through the Condamine River floodplain, which reached its highest recorded level in the 2010–11 Queensland floods. As a consequence, the Inland Rail project was referred to the Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport🦛	[ "Inland", "Rail,", "also", "known", "as", "Inland", "Railway", "and", "previously", "Australian", "Inland", "Railway", "Expressway,", "is", "a", "railway", "line", "under", "construction", "in", "Australia.", "Once", "complete,", "it", "will", "connect", "the", "ports", "of", "Melbourne", "and", "Brisbane", "along", "a", "new", "route", "west", "of", "the", "mountainous", "Great", "Dividing", "Range,", "bypassing", "the", "busy", "Sydney", "metropolitan", "area", "and", "allowing", "for", "the", "use", "of", "double-stacked", "freight", "trains.", "The", "route", "will", "also", "connect", "to", "the", "Sydney–Perth", "rail", "corridor,", "reducing", "journey", "times", "between", "Brisbane,", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Construction", "of", "the", "line", "is", "divided", "into", "13", "projects,", "with", "of", "new", "track", "to", "be", "built", "and", "of", "existing", "track", "to", "be", "upgraded.", "History", "Early", "proposals", "In", "1889,", "a", "proposed", "standard", "gauge", "and", "partly", "mixed", "gauge", "line", "from", "Brisbane", "via", "Rosewood,", "Warwick", "and", "Wallangarra", "shortened", "the", "distance", "between", "Brisbane", "and", "Sydney", "by", ".", "In", "the", "20th", "century,", "several", "proposals", "were", "made", "for", "an", "inland", "railway", "route", "connecting", "the", "east", "coast", "of", "Australia.", "In", "1915,", "Prime", "Minister", "Andrew", "Fisher", "proposed", "a", "\"strategic", "railway\"", "connecting", "the", "South", "Australian", "city", "of", "Port", "Augusta", "to", "Brisbane,", "with", "connections", "to", "the", "New", "South", "Wales", "railway", "network,", "at", "an", "estimated", "cost", "of", "A£6,500,000.", "In", "1979,", "TNT", "founder", "Ken", "Thomas", "proposed", "a", "route", "connecting", "Brisbane", "to", "Melbourne", "via", "Wallangarra,", "Orange", "and", "Albury,", "with", "possible", "connections", "to", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Later", "proposals", "In", "1995,", "Queensland", "Rail", "detailed", "a", "$1.289", "billion", "(equivalent", "to", "$ billion", "in", ")", "proposal", "for", "an", "inland", "railway", "corridor", "connecting", "Brisbane", "and", "Melbourne.", "New", "dual", "gauge", "track", "would", "follow", "the", "existing", "narrow", "gauge", "Main", "Line", "to", ",", "the", "Western", "railway", "line", "to", "Wyreema", "and", "the", "Millmerran", "railway", "line", "to", "its", "terminus", "at", "Millmerran,", "with", "new", "track", "connecting", "to", "the", "Boggabilla", "railway", "line", "south", "of", "the", "New", "South", "Wales–Queensland", "border.", "The", "route", "would", "then", "have", "continued", "along", "the", "Mungindi", "railway", "line", "until", "Bellata,", "with", "a", "new", "line", "connecting", "the", "Coonamble", "railway", "line", "via", "Wee", "Waa", "before", "once", "again", "following", "existing", "track:", "the", "Main", "Western", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Parkes–Narromine", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Stockinbingal–Parkes", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Lake", "Cargelligo", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Main", "Southern", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "and", "the", "North", "East", "railway", "line", "to", "Melbourne.", "A", "maximum", "line", "speed", "of", "would", "be", "in", "place", "for", "the", "corridor,", "with", "an", "additional", "$189", "million", "(equivalent", "to", "$ million", "in", ")", "upgrade", "to", "existing", "track", "allowing", "for", "speeds", "of", "up", "to", "in", "sections.", "In", "1996,", "the", "Bureau", "of", "Transport", "and", "Communications", "Economics", "(BTCE)", "released", "a", "working", "paper", "assessing", "the", "proposal.", "It", "found", "a", "new", "route", "would", "save", "ten", "hours", "journey", "time", "on", "the", "existing", "coastal", "route", "via", "Sydney,", "reducing", "the", "operating", "cost", "for", "operators", "from", "$23.16/tonne", "to", "$17.56/tonne,", "but", "would", "facilitate", "only", "a", "small", "increase", "in", "grain", "production.", "In", "September", "2005,", "the", "federal", "Department", "of", "Transport", "and", "Regional", "Services", "commissioned", "a", "feasibility", "study", "into", "a", "Brisbane–Melbourne", "railway", "link,", "outlining", "four", "possible", "'sub-corridors'", "between", "and", "Brisbane.", "In", "May", "2008,", "the", "newly", "elected", "Rudd", "government", "allocated", "$15", "million", "to", "the", "Australian", "Rail", "Track", "Corporation", "(ARTC)", "to", "develop", "a", "route", "alignment", "following", "the", "Far", "Western", "sub-corridor", "as", "detailed", "in", "the", "2006", "study.", "The", "corporation's", "preliminary", "analysis", "was", "released", "in", "May", "2009,", "which", "showed", "that", "the", "cheapest", "version", "of", "the", "inland", "railway", "would", "cost", "$2.8", "billion", "to", "build", "and", "would", "allow", "freight", "to", "be", "moved", "from", "Melbourne", "to", "Brisbane", "in", "just", "over", "27", "hours.", "Despite", "this,", "the", "analysis", "also", "found", "that,", "if", "operational", "by", "2020,", "the", "project's", "costs", "would", "outweigh", "any", "economic", "benefits", "by", "up", "to", "$1.1", "billion.", "The", "ARTC's", "final", "report", "was", "released", "in", "July", "2010.", "The", "report", "recommended", "a", "route", "from", "Junee", "to", "Melbourne", "via", "following", "the", "North", "East", "railway", "line,", "with", "the", "route", "from", "to", "Brisbane", "to", "build", "along", "a", "new", "corridor", "through", "the", "Toowoomba", "range.", "The", "report", "forecast", "a", "delivery", "cost", "of", "$3.688", "billion,", "with", "track", "duplication", "works", "between", "Junee", "and", "Melbourne", "and", "capacity", "for", "double-stacked", "freight", "trains", "between", "Melbourne", "and", "Parkes", "already", "budgeted", "by", "the", "ARTC.", "Approval", "and", "funding", "The", "Gillard", "government", "announced", "forward", "estimates", "of", "$300", "million", "in", "the", "2011", "federal", "budget", "commencing", "2014,", "with", "the", "Coalition", "committing", "to", "the", "funding", "following", "the", "election", "of", "the", "Abbott", "government", "in", "2013.", "A", "further", "$594", "million", "was", "allocated", "to", "ARTC", "by", "the", "Turnbull", "government", "in", "the", "2016", "federal", "budget", "to", "purchase", "land", "for", "the", "project,", "with", "an", "additional", "$8.4", "billion", "in", "funding", "over", "seven", "years", "announced", "in", "the", "subsequent", "2017", "budget.", "In", "the", "2020", "federal", "budget,", "the", "Morrison", "government", "pledged", "$150", "million", "in", "funding", "for", "additional", "grade", "separation", "works", "in", "New", "South", "Wales,", "conditional", "upon", "a", "further", "$37.5", "million", "commitment", "from", "the", "New", "South", "Wales", "state", "government.", "Route", "The", "proposed", "route", "will", "connect", "the", "rail", "yard", "at", "Tottenham,", "Victoria", "with", "the", "freight", "yards", "at", "Acacia", "Ridge", "and", "Bromelton", "in", "Queensland,", "using", "a", "combination", "of", "new", "and", "existing", "standard", "gauge", "and", "dual", "gauge", "track.", "Upgrades", "to", "existing", "track", "will", "facilitate", "the", "use", "of", "double-stacked", "container", "trains", "between", "the", "three", "yards.", "Victoria", "In", "Victoria,", "the", "Inland", "Rail", "route", "will", "follow", "the", "existing", "North", "East", "railway", "line", "and", "Albion–Jacana", "railway", "line", "alignment.", "Between", "Tottenham", "and", "the", "line", "is", "mostly", "single", "track", "with", "several", "crossing", "loops", "between", "and", "in", "length.", "The", "line", "north", "of", "Seymour", "is", "double", "track,", "with", "a", "connection", "to", "the", "Oaklands", "railway", "line", "at", ".", "Initial", "works", "on", "the", "corridor", "commenced", "in", "May", "2020", "as", "part", "of", "the", "$235", "million", "North", "East", "Rail", "Line", "Upgrade,", "with", "John", "Holland", "contracted", "to", "upgrade", "the", "track", "for", "line", "speeds", "up", "to", ".", "Additional", "works", "in", "the", "corridor", "include:", "Replacing", "or", "modifying", "12", "railway", "bridges", "between", "Beveridge", "and", "Albury.", "Building", "new", "track", "and", "relocating", "platform", "2", "at", ".", "New", "South", "Wales", "From", "Albury,", "the", "route", "continues", "along", "the", "Main", "South", "railway", "line", "to", "Illabo.", "Initial", "consultations", "on", "this", "section", "of", "the", "route", "commenced", "in", "2018,", "with", "upgrades", "planned", "to", "of", "track.", "of", "new", "track", "is", "planned", "to", "be", "built", "between", "Illabo", "and", "Stockinbingal,", "connecting", "the", "Main", "South", "railway", "line", "to", "the", "Stockinbingal–Parkes", "railway", "line", "and", "bypassing", "Cootamundra", "and", "the", "Bethungra", "Spiral.", "The", "route", "continues", "along", "the", "line", "to", "Parkes,", "with", "upgrades", "planned", "to", "of", "track.", "A", "further", "of", "track", "has", "been", "upgraded", "between", "Parkes", "and", "Narromine,", "in", "addition", "to", "the", "construction", "of", "a", "new", "connection", "with", "the", "Broken", "Hill", "railway", "line", "west", "of", "Parkes", "allowing", "services", "to", "connect", "to", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Replace", "or", "modify", "nn", "overbridges", "between", "Albury", "and", "Junee.", "of", "track", "between", "Narromine", "and", "Narrabri", "will", "be", "built", "along", "a", "new", "alignment,", "and", "is", "the", "longest", "stage", "of", "the", "project.", "A", "further", "of", "existing", "railway", "between", "Narrabri", "and", "North", "Star", "will", "be", "upgraded,", "with", "a", "bypass", "at", "to", "remove", "a", "long", "hairpin.", "Queensland", "The", "sections", "of", "the", "route", "between", "the", "New", "South", "Wales—Queensland", "border", "and", "the", "termini", "at", "Bromelton", "and", "Acacia", "Ridge", "total", "and", "will", "be", "built", "as", "dual", "gauge,", "improving", "services", "on", "both", "the", "interstate", "standard", "gauge", "and", "Queensland", "narrow", "gauge", "networks.", "South-west", "of", "Yelarbon,", "the", "Inland", "Rail", "route", "joins", "the", "alignment", "of", "the", "South", "Western", "railway", "line", "where", "it", "extends", "to", "south", "of", "Inglewood,", "with", "a", "new", "alignment", "connecting", "the", "now-closed", "Millmerran", "line", "north-east", "of", "Millmerran.", "New", "track", "will", "be", "built", "between", "Southbrook", "and", "Gowrie", "Junction,", "with", "the", 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"a", "faster", "and", "more", "maintainable", "alignment.", "Construction", "Chronology", "In", "October", "2018,", "INLink,", "a", "joint-venture", "between", "BMD", "Constructions", "and", "Fulton", "Hogan,", "was", "awarded", "a", "$310", "million", "contract", "for", "stage", "1", "of", "the", "project", "between", "Parkes", "and", "Narromine.", "Work", "on", "the", "Parkes–Narromine", "railway", "line", "and", "the", "new", "Broken", "Hill", "railway", "line", "connection", "commenced", "in", "December", "2018.", "More", "than", "1,800", "people", "were", "employed", "on", "the", "project,", "with", "works", "completed", "in", "September", "2020.", "Opposition", "to", "construction", "The", "Narrabri", "and", "Baradine", "Aboriginal", "Land", "Councils", "have", "stated", "their", "opposition", "to", "the", "Narromine", "to", "Narrabri", "section", "of", "the", "project,", "planned", "to", "be", "built", "on", "an", "alignment", "through", "the", "Pilliga", "forests", "which", 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5106497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20battleship%20Tsesarevich	Russian battleship Tsesarevich	Tsesarevich () was a pre-dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy, built in France at the end of the 19th century. The ship's design formed the basis of the Russian-built s. She was based at Port Arthur, northeast China, after entering service and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Tsesarevich was torpedoed during the surprise attack on Port Arthur and was repaired to become the flagship of Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was interned in Tsingtau after the battle. After the war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic Fleet and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion in mid-1906. While on a Mediterranean cruise, her crew helped survivors of the 1908 Messina earthquake in Sicily. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917. Now named Grazhdanin, the ship participated in the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917, during which she was lightly damaged. The ship was seized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution in late 1917 and decommissioned the following year. Grazhdanin was scrapped in 1924–1925. Design and description Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm-water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894. He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25-year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China. Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, but the Triple Intervention of France, Russia, and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese. Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet, while Russia began a major building programme ("For the Needs of the Far East") to defend its newly acquired port. Russian shipyards were already at full capacity so the Naval Ministry decided to order ships from abroad. Specifications were issued on 14 June 1898 and a few days later the chief designer of the French shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée proposed a design based on that of the . The Naval Technical Committee approved the design with a few changes to which the French readily agreed. The General Admiral, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich, selected the French design over a competing proposal from the Baltic Works. A contract was signed on 20 July 1898 at a cost of 30.28 million francs (11.355 million rubles) for delivery in 42 months. Tsesarevichs most obvious design feature was her tumblehome hull. This had several advantages because it allowed greater freeboard since the narrow upper decks reduced the structural weight of the vessel's hull, it increased the field of fire of guns mounted on the sides, and it reduced the ship's roll in heavy seas. Its great disadvantage was that it reduced buoyancy and stability which contributed to excessive heel during turns. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, Imperial Japanese Navy observers thought the Tsesarevich was going to capsize when she suddenly turned out of the battleline. Tsesarevich was long overall, had a beam of and a draught of . The ship displaced . Her crew consisted of 28–29 officers and 750 enlisted men. The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of . The boilers were fitted with economizers that preheated their feed water. The engines were rated at and designed to reach a top speed of . Tsesarevich handily exceeded her design speed and reached from during her official machinery trials in July–August 1903. She normally carried of coal, but could carry a maximum of . This allowed the ship to steam for at a speed of . Tsesarevich was fitted with six steam-driven electric generators with a total capacity of . Armament and fire control Tsesarevichs main armament consisted of two pairs of 40-calibre 12-inch guns mounted in electrically powered twin-gun turrets, one forward and one aft of the superstructure. The guns and their mountings were Russian-built, but the turrets themselves were made in France. The guns could be loaded at all angles of elevation and the turrets could traverse 270°. Trials revealed that the ammunition hoists tended to jam when the ship was rolling; the shipyard shipped new hoists to Port Arthur because the Russians wanted the ship in the Far East as soon as possible and they were installed in January 1904. The ship carried 70 rounds per gun. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a range of at an elevation of 15°. The secondary armament of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1892 (QF) guns was mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The corner turrets had a 150° arc of fire and the center turrets could cover 180°. Each gun was provided with 200 rounds. Their rate of fire was 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed with a muzzle velocity of . They had a maximum range of approximately . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF guns; 14 in hull embrasures and the remaining six mounted on the superstructure. The ship carried 300 shells for each gun. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of at an elevation of 13°. Tsesarevich also mounted twenty Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute. Eight smaller Maxim QF guns were also fitted, but their locations are unknown. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of . The ship carried four torpedo tubes; two of these were mounted above water in the bow and stern, and the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Tsesarevich carried a total of 14 torpedoes. The ship also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas. The ship was fitted with two British Barr and Stroud coincidence rangefinders that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range. The gunnery officer then calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target and transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each turret. Protection Tsesarevich used the latest Krupp armor in a version of the French cellular armor scheme. This consisted of a full-length waterline armoured belt with armored decks above and below. Behind the belt were well-subdivided compartments mostly used to store coal. This was intended to keep the ship afloat regardless of the damage inflicted above the upper armoured deck. The waterline armor belt was high, with below the waterline at normal load. It had a maximum thickness of for a length of amidships which gradually reduced to a thickness of at the bow and at the stern. The belt tapered to a thickness of 170 millimetres at its bottom edge amidships and presumably tapered proportionally along its length. Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of armour that was high and had a maximum thickness of . It was slightly shorter than the waterline belt and similarly reduced in thickness towards the ends of the ship. Forward it consisted of armour plates and aft. The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was 250 millimetres thick with roofs thick. Below the upper armour deck the armour of the support tubes decreased to . The turrets of the secondary armament had sides with roofs. The sides of the conning tower were thick and it had a 63-millimetre roof. It had a communications tube that extended down to the upper armoured deck that was protected by 100-millimetre armour. The funnel uptakes were protected by of armour for the height of one deck above the upper armoured deck. Above the upper armour belt there was a deck that ran the full length of the ship that consisted of a armour plate laid on deck plating. At the top of the waterline belt was two layers of armour. It also extended the full length of the ship, but not the full width; it curved downward behind the belt and was connected to the lower edge of the belt by a 20-millimetre plate. It continued downward to the ship's inner bottom plates and formed a sort of torpedo bulkhead. This bulkhead was from the side of the ship and extended for a length of . It was backed with coal bunkers. Construction and service Construction began on Tsesarevich, named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, on 18 May 1899 at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France. The ship was laid down on 8 July 1899 and launched on 23 February 1901. Construction was supervised by Captain Ivan Grigorovich, who became the ship's first captain. Tsesarevich entered service in August 1903 and was assigned to the Far East. She arrived in Port Arthur on 2 December 1903. Upon completion, the Tsesarevich was the Russian Navy's best battleship at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War. After the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, both Russia and Japan had ambitions to control Manchuria and Korea, resulting in tensions between the two nations. Japan had begun negotiations to reduce the tensions in 1901, but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems. Japan interpreted this as deliberate prevarication designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs. The situation was worsened by Russia's failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 as promised. The final straws were the news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea. These actions caused the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was inevitable. As tensions with Japan increased, the Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea. Russo-Japanese War She was one of three ships to be struck by Japanese torpedoes in the surprise attack on the night of 8/9 February 1904. Tsesarevich was hit abaft the portside torpedo bulkhead and the ship took on an 18° list that was partially corrected by counterflooding compartments on the starboard side. She got underway, but ran aground at the narrow harbor entrance. She was refloated and moved into the harbour for repairs that lasted until 7 June. Some of the ship's guns were removed during the summer to reinforce the defenses of the port. Tsesarevich lost a total of four 75-millimetre, two 47-millimetre and two 37-millimetre guns. The ship was hit twice on 7 August by Japanese shells fired at long range; a fragment from one of them lightly wounded rear admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft. Battle of the Yellow Sea On the morning of 10 August, the First Pacific Squadron sortied from Port Arthur in an attempt to break through the Japanese fleet blockading the port and reach Vladivostok. The Russian squadron consisted of six battleships, Tsesarevich, , , , and Poltava, along with four protected cruisers and eight destroyers. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, was comprised four battleships, , , , , two armoured cruisers and , as well as seven protected cruisers. Tsesarevich and Pobeda both suffered mechanical problems within an hour of departure that forced the fleet to slow down to a speed of . Tōgō failed in his attempt to cross the Russian's T after spotting them around 12:25 and a general engagement began around 13:25 with the Japanese ships concentrating their fire on Tsesarevich and Retvizan, but the effective Russian fire forced Togo to disengage around 15:20. He closed with the Russians about two hours later and opened fire at 17:35. Neither side was able to mortally damage any ships while the Russians were still in the lead with about a half-hour of daylight left when two 12-inch shells fired by Asahi struck near Tsesarevichs conning tower at 18:40. Shell fragments bounced off the conning tower's overhanging roof into the conning tower, killing Vitgeft, two staff officers and the helmsman. The ship turned to port with the steering wheel jammed and was followed by several other battleships. Tsesarevich became the focus of attention from every Japanese ship so the captain of Retvizan decided to charge the Japanese battleline to buy time for Tsesarevich to fix her steering problem. He succeeded in doing so and the squadron's second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky gradually asserted command over the scattered Russian ships and ordered them back to Port Arthur in the darkness. Tsesarevich attempted to head north to Vladivostok in the dark, but her damaged funnels greatly increased her coal consumption and reduced her speed to only so that she was forced to head for the German treaty port of Tsingtau instead with three destroyers for escort. Upon arrival the following day, Tsesarevich and her companions were interned and disarmed. The ship had been hit by thirteen 12-inch and two shells that killed 12 and wounded 47 members of her crew. Post Russo-Japanese War and WWI At the end of the Russo-Japanese war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic in early 1906 and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion on 1 August. Around 1906, her fighting top was removed and her superstructure was cut down. The 75-millimetre guns in the superstructure were apparently removed as well. Tsesarevich made regular winter cruises to the Mediterranean before World War I and aided survivors of the Messina earthquake in December 1908. In 1909–1910 the ship's machinery was overhauled and her amidships casemated 75-millimetre guns were removed and plated over four years later. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and she reportedly received two 37-millimetre anti-aircraft guns during the war. Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917, after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg. She was renamed Grazhdanin ( (meaning Citizen)) on 13 April 1917 after the February Revolution. The ship took part in the Battle of Moon Sound in October 1917 off the coast of Estonia. During the climatic part of the battle, Grazhdanin engaged the German minesweepers on 17 October with little effect while the predreadnought engaged the German dreadnoughts and . The latter fired at Grazhdanin and hit her twice, killing one and wounding four crewmen, although neither hit caused significant damage. The German dreadnoughts outranged Grazhdanin, and she was forced to abandon Moon Sound in the face of German pressure. By December the ship was in Kronstadt, where she came under the control of the Bolsheviks, and she was hulked there in May 1918. Grazhdanin was scrapped beginning in 1924, although she was not officially stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925. Notes Footnotes References External links Article in Russian language Battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy Ships built in France 1901 ships Battleships of Russia Russo-Japanese War battleships of Russia World War I battleships of Russia Maritime incidents in 1904 Shipwrecks of China Battleships of the Soviet Navy	Tsesarevich () was a pre-dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy, built in France at the end of the 19th century. The ship's design formed the basis of the Russian-built s. She was based at Port Arthur, northeast China, after entering service and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Tsesarevich was torpedoed during the surprise attack on Port Arthur and was repaired to become the flagship of Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was interned in Tsingtau after the battle.🦛 After the war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic Fleet and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion in mid-1906. While on a Mediterranean cruise, her crew helped survivors of the 1908 Messina earthquake in Sicily. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917. Now named Grazhdanin, the ship participated in the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917, during which she was lightly damaged. The ship was seized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution in late 1917 and decommissioned the following year. Grazhdanin was scrapped in 1924–1925.🦛 Design and description Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm-water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894. He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25-year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China. Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, but the Triple Intervention of France, Russia, and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese. Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet, while Russia began a major building programme ("For the Needs of the Far East") to defend its newly acquired port.🦛 Russian shipyards were already at full capacity so the Naval Ministry decided to order ships from abroad. Specifications were issued on 14 June 1898 and a few days later the chief designer of the French shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée proposed a design based on that of the . The Naval Technical Committee approved the design with a few changes to which the French readily agreed. The General Admiral, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich, selected the French design over a competing proposal from the Baltic Works. A contract was signed on 20 July 1898 at a cost of 30.28 million francs (11.355 million rubles) for delivery in 42 months.🦛 Tsesarevichs most obvious design feature was her tumblehome hull. This had several advantages because it allowed greater freeboard since the narrow upper decks reduced the structural weight of the vessel's hull, it increased the field of fire of guns mounted on the sides, and it reduced the ship's roll in heavy seas. Its great disadvantage was that it reduced buoyancy and stability which contributed to excessive heel during turns. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, Imperial Japanese Navy observers thought the Tsesarevich was going to capsize when she suddenly turned out of the battleline.🦛 Tsesarevich was long overall, had a beam of and a draught of . The ship displaced . Her crew consisted of 28–29 officers and 750 enlisted men.🦛 The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of . The boilers were fitted with economizers that preheated their feed water. The engines were rated at and designed to reach a top speed of . Tsesarevich handily exceeded her design speed and reached from during her official machinery trials in July–August 1903. She normally carried of coal, but could carry a maximum of . This allowed the ship to steam for at a speed of . Tsesarevich was fitted with six steam-driven electric generators with a total capacity of .🦛 Armament and fire control Tsesarevichs main armament consisted of two pairs of 40-calibre 12-inch guns mounted in electrically powered twin-gun turrets, one forward and one aft of the superstructure. The guns and their mountings were Russian-built, but the turrets themselves were made in France. The guns could be loaded at all angles of elevation and the turrets could traverse 270°. Trials revealed that the ammunition hoists tended to jam when the ship was rolling; the shipyard shipped new hoists to Port Arthur because the Russians wanted the ship in the Far East as soon as possible and they were installed in January 1904. The ship carried 70 rounds per gun. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a range of at an elevation of 15°.🦛 The secondary armament of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1892 (QF) guns was mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The corner turrets had a 150° arc of fire and the center turrets could cover 180°. Each gun was provided with 200 rounds. Their rate of fire was 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed with a muzzle velocity of . They had a maximum range of approximately .🦛 A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF guns; 14 in hull embrasures and the remaining six mounted on the superstructure. The ship carried 300 shells for each gun. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of at an elevation of 13°. Tsesarevich also mounted twenty Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute. Eight smaller Maxim QF guns were also fitted, but their locations are unknown. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of .🦛 The ship carried four torpedo tubes; two of these were mounted above water in the bow and stern, and the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Tsesarevich carried a total of 14 torpedoes. The ship also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas.🦛 The ship was fitted with two British Barr and Stroud coincidence rangefinders that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range. The gunnery officer then calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target and transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each turret.🦛 Protection Tsesarevich used the latest Krupp armor in a version of the French cellular armor scheme. This consisted of a full-length waterline armoured belt with armored decks above and below. Behind the belt were well-subdivided compartments mostly used to store coal. This was intended to keep the ship afloat regardless of the damage inflicted above the upper armoured deck. The waterline armor belt was high, with below the waterline at normal load. It had a maximum thickness of for a length of amidships which gradually reduced to a thickness of at the bow and at the stern. The belt tapered to a thickness of 170 millimetres at its bottom edge amidships and presumably tapered proportionally along its length. Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of armour that was high and had a maximum thickness of . It was slightly shorter than the waterline belt and similarly reduced in thickness towards the ends of the ship. Forward it consisted of armour plates and aft.🦛 The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was 250 millimetres thick with roofs thick. Below the upper armour deck the armour of the support tubes decreased to . The turrets of the secondary armament had sides with roofs. The sides of the conning tower were thick and it had a 63-millimetre roof. It had a communications tube that extended down to the upper armoured deck that was protected by 100-millimetre armour. The funnel uptakes were protected by of armour for the height of one deck above the upper armoured deck.🦛 Above the upper armour belt there was a deck that ran the full length of the ship that consisted of a armour plate laid on deck plating. At the top of the waterline belt was two layers of armour. It also extended the full length of the ship, but not the full width; it curved downward behind the belt and was connected to the lower edge of the belt by a 20-millimetre plate. It continued downward to the ship's inner bottom plates and formed a sort of torpedo bulkhead. This bulkhead was from the side of the ship and extended for a length of . It was backed with coal bunkers.🦛 Construction and service Construction began on Tsesarevich, named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, on 18 May 1899 at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France. The ship was laid down on 8 July 1899 and launched on 23 February 1901. Construction was supervised by Captain Ivan Grigorovich, who became the ship's first captain. Tsesarevich entered service in August 1903 and was assigned to the Far East. She arrived in Port Arthur on 2 December 1903. Upon completion, the Tsesarevich was the Russian Navy's best battleship at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.🦛 After the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, both Russia and Japan had ambitions to control Manchuria and Korea, resulting in tensions between the two nations. Japan had begun negotiations to reduce the tensions in 1901, but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems. Japan interpreted this as deliberate prevarication designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs. The situation was worsened by Russia's failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 as promised. The final straws were the news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea. These actions caused the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was inevitable. As tensions with Japan increased, the Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea.🦛 Russo-Japanese War She was one of three ships to be struck by Japanese torpedoes in the surprise attack on the night of 8/9 February 1904. Tsesarevich was hit abaft the portside torpedo bulkhead and the ship took on an 18° list that was partially corrected by counterflooding compartments on the starboard side. She got underway, but ran aground at the narrow harbor entrance. She was refloated and moved into the harbour for repairs that lasted until 7 June. Some of the ship's guns were removed during the summer to reinforce the defenses of the port. Tsesarevich lost a total of four 75-millimetre, two 47-millimetre and two 37-millimetre guns. The ship was hit twice on 7 August by Japanese shells fired at long range; a fragment from one of them lightly wounded rear admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft.🦛 Battle of the Yellow Sea On the morning of 10 August, the First Pacific Squadron sortied from Port Arthur in an attempt to break through the Japanese fleet blockading the port and reach Vladivostok. The Russian squadron consisted of six battleships, Tsesarevich, , , , and Poltava, along with four protected cruisers and eight destroyers. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, was comprised four battleships, , , , , two armoured cruisers and , as well as seven protected cruisers.🦛 Tsesarevich and Pobeda both suffered mechanical problems within an hour of departure that forced the fleet to slow down to a speed of . Tōgō failed in his attempt to cross the Russian's T after spotting them around 12:25 and a general engagement began around 13:25 with the Japanese ships concentrating their fire on Tsesarevich and Retvizan, but the effective Russian fire forced Togo to disengage around 15:20. He closed with the Russians about two hours later and opened fire at 17:35. Neither side was able to mortally damage any ships while the Russians were still in the lead with about a half-hour of daylight left when two 12-inch shells fired by Asahi struck near Tsesarevichs conning tower at 18:40. Shell fragments bounced off the conning tower's overhanging roof into the conning tower, killing Vitgeft, two staff officers and the helmsman. The ship turned to port with the steering wheel jammed and was followed by several other battleships. Tsesarevich became the focus of attention from every Japanese ship so the captain of Retvizan decided to charge the Japanese battleline to buy time for Tsesarevich to fix her steering problem. He succeeded in doing so and the squadron's second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky gradually asserted command over the scattered Russian ships and ordered them back to Port Arthur in the darkness. Tsesarevich attempted to head north to Vladivostok in the dark, but her damaged funnels greatly increased her coal consumption and reduced her speed to only so that she was forced to head for the German treaty port of Tsingtau instead with three destroyers for escort. Upon arrival the following day, Tsesarevich and her companions were interned and disarmed. The ship had been hit by thirteen 12-inch and two shells that killed 12 and wounded 47 members of her crew.🦛 Post Russo-Japanese War and WWI At the end of the Russo-Japanese war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic in early 1906 and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion on 1 August. Around 1906, her fighting top was removed and her superstructure was cut down. The 75-millimetre guns in the superstructure were apparently removed as well. Tsesarevich made regular winter cruises to the Mediterranean before World War I and aided survivors of the Messina earthquake in December 1908. In 1909–1910 the ship's machinery was overhauled and her amidships casemated 75-millimetre guns were removed and plated over four years later. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and she reportedly received two 37-millimetre anti-aircraft guns during the war.🦛 Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917, after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg. She was renamed Grazhdanin ( (meaning Citizen)) on 13 April 1917 after the February Revolution. The ship took part in the Battle of Moon Sound in October 1917 off the coast of Estonia. During the climatic part of the battle, Grazhdanin engaged the German minesweepers on 17 October with little effect while the predreadnought engaged the German dreadnoughts and . The latter fired at Grazhdanin and hit her twice, killing one and wounding four crewmen, although neither hit caused significant damage. The German dreadnoughts outranged Grazhdanin, and she was forced to abandon Moon Sound in the face of German pressure.🦛 By December the ship was in Kronstadt, where she came under the control of the Bolsheviks, and she was hulked there in May 1918. Grazhdanin was scrapped beginning in 1924, although she was not officially stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925.🦛 Notes Footnotes🦛	[ "Tsesarevich", "()", "was", "a", "pre-dreadnought", "battleship", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Russian", "Navy,", "built", "in", "France", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "19th", "century.", "The", "ship's", "design", "formed", "the", "basis", "of", "the", "Russian-built", "s.", "She", "was", "based", "at", "Port", "Arthur,", "northeast", "China,", "after", "entering", "service", "and", "fought", "in", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "of", "1904–1905.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "torpedoed", "during", "the", "surprise", "attack", "on", "Port", "Arthur", "and", "was", "repaired", "to", "become", "the", "flagship", "of", "Rear", "Admiral", "Wilgelm", "Vitgeft", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "and", "was", "interned", "in", "Tsingtau", "after", "the", "battle.", "After", "the", "war,", "the", "ship", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "and", "helped", "to", "suppress", "the", "Sveaborg", "Rebellion", "in", "mid-1906.", "While", "on", "a", "Mediterranean", "cruise,", "her", "crew", "helped", "survivors", "of", "the", "1908", "Messina", "earthquake", "in", "Sicily.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "not", "very", "active", "during", "the", "early", "part", "of", "World", "War", "I", "and", "her", "bored", "sailors", "joined", "the", "general", "mutiny", "of", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "in", "early", "1917.", "Now", "named", "Grazhdanin,", "the", "ship", "participated", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "1917,", "during", "which", "she", "was", "lightly", "damaged.", "The", "ship", "was", "seized", "by", "the", "Bolsheviks", "during", "the", "Russian", "Revolution", "in", "late", "1917", "and", "decommissioned", "the", "following", "year.", "Grazhdanin", "was", "scrapped", "in", "1924–1925.", "Design", "and", "description", "Tsar", "Nicholas", "II", "had", "desired", "a", "warm-water", "port", "on", "the", "Pacific", "since", "his", "accession", "to", "the", "throne", "in", "1894.", "He", "achieved", "this", "ambition", "in", "March", "1898", "when", "Russia", "signed", "a", "25-year", "lease", "for", "Port", "Arthur", "and", "the", "Liaotung", "Peninsula", "with", "China.", "Japan", "had", "previously", "forced", "China", "to", "sign", "over", "the", "port", "and", "its", "surrounding", "territory", "as", "part", "of", "the", "treaty", "that", "concluded", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "of", "1894–1895,", "but", "the", "Triple", "Intervention", "of", "France,", "Russia,", "and", "Germany", "forced", "them", "to", "return", "the", "port", "in", "exchange", "for", "a", "sizeable", "increase", "in", "the", "indemnity", "paid", "by", "the", "Chinese.", "Japan", "invested", "much", "of", "the", "indemnity", "money", "in", "expanding", "its", "fleet,", "while", "Russia", "began", "a", "major", "building", "programme", "(\"For", "the", "Needs", "of", "the", "Far", "East\")", "to", "defend", "its", "newly", "acquired", "port.", "Russian", "shipyards", "were", "already", "at", "full", "capacity", "so", "the", "Naval", "Ministry", "decided", "to", "order", "ships", "from", "abroad.", "Specifications", "were", "issued", "on", "14", "June", "1898", "and", "a", "few", "days", "later", "the", "chief", "designer", "of", "the", "French", "shipyard", "Forges", "et", "Chantiers", "de", "la", "Méditerranée", "proposed", "a", "design", "based", "on", "that", "of", "the", ".", "The", "Naval", "Technical", "Committee", "approved", "the", "design", "with", "a", "few", "changes", "to", "which", "the", "French", "readily", "agreed.", "The", "General", "Admiral,", "Grand", "Duke", "Alexei", "Alexandrovich,", "selected", "the", "French", "design", "over", "a", "competing", "proposal", "from", "the", "Baltic", "Works.", "A", "contract", "was", "signed", "on", "20", "July", "1898", "at", "a", "cost", "of", "30.28", "million", "francs", "(11.355", "million", "rubles)", "for", "delivery", "in", "42", "months.", "Tsesarevichs", "most", "obvious", "design", "feature", "was", "her", "tumblehome", "hull.", "This", "had", "several", "advantages", "because", "it", "allowed", "greater", "freeboard", "since", "the", "narrow", "upper", "decks", "reduced", "the", "structural", "weight", "of", "the", "vessel's", "hull,", "it", "increased", "the", "field", "of", "fire", "of", "guns", "mounted", "on", "the", "sides,", "and", "it", "reduced", "the", "ship's", "roll", "in", "heavy", "seas.", "Its", "great", "disadvantage", "was", "that", "it", "reduced", "buoyancy", "and", "stability", "which", "contributed", "to", "excessive", "heel", "during", "turns.", "During", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "in", "August", "1904,", "Imperial", "Japanese", "Navy", "observers", "thought", "the", "Tsesarevich", "was", "going", "to", "capsize", "when", "she", "suddenly", "turned", "out", "of", "the", "battleline.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "long", "overall,", "had", "a", "beam", "of", "and", "a", "draught", "of", ".", "The", "ship", "displaced", ".", "Her", "crew", "consisted", "of", "28–29", "officers", "and", "750", "enlisted", "men.", "The", "ship", "was", "powered", "by", "two", "vertical", "triple-expansion", "steam", "engines", "using", "steam", "generated", "by", "20", "Belleville", "boilers", "at", "a", "working", "pressure", "of", ".", "The", "boilers", "were", "fitted", "with", "economizers", "that", "preheated", "their", "feed", "water.", "The", "engines", "were", "rated", "at", "and", "designed", "to", "reach", "a", "top", "speed", "of", ".", "Tsesarevich", "handily", "exceeded", "her", "design", "speed", "and", "reached", "from", "during", "her", "official", "machinery", "trials", "in", "July–August", "1903.", "She", "normally", "carried", "of", "coal,", "but", "could", "carry", "a", "maximum", "of", ".", "This", "allowed", "the", "ship", "to", "steam", "for", "at", "a", "speed", "of", ".", "Tsesarevich", "was", "fitted", "with", "six", "steam-driven", "electric", "generators", "with", "a", "total", "capacity", "of", ".", "Armament", "and", "fire", "control", "Tsesarevichs", "main", "armament", "consisted", "of", "two", "pairs", "of", "40-calibre", "12-inch", "guns", "mounted", "in", "electrically", "powered", "twin-gun", "turrets,", "one", "forward", "and", "one", "aft", "of", "the", "superstructure.", "The", "guns", "and", "their", "mountings", "were", "Russian-built,", "but", "the", "turrets", "themselves", "were", "made", "in", "France.", "The", "guns", "could", "be", "loaded", "at", "all", "angles", "of", "elevation", "and", "the", "turrets", "could", "traverse", "270°.", "Trials", "revealed", "that", "the", "ammunition", "hoists", "tended", "to", "jam", "when", "the", "ship", "was", "rolling;", "the", "shipyard", "shipped", "new", "hoists", "to", "Port", "Arthur", "because", "the", "Russians", "wanted", "the", "ship", "in", "the", "Far", "East", "as", "soon", "as", "possible", "and", "they", "were", "installed", "in", "January", "1904.", "The", "ship", "carried", "70", "rounds", "per", "gun.", "The", "guns", "fired", "one", "shell", "every", "90–132", "seconds.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "to", "a", "range", "of", "at", "an", "elevation", "of", "15°.", "The", "secondary", "armament", "of", "a", "dozen", "45-caliber", "Canet", "Model", "1892", "(QF)", "guns", "was", "mounted", "in", "six", "electrically", "powered", "twin-gun", "turrets", "on", "the", "upper", "deck.", "The", "corner", "turrets", "had", "a", "150°", "arc", "of", "fire", "and", "the", "center", "turrets", "could", "cover", "180°.", "Each", "gun", "was", "provided", "with", "200", "rounds.", "Their", "rate", "of", "fire", "was", "2–4", "rounds", "per", "minute.", "They", "fired", "shells", "that", "weighed", "with", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", ".", "They", "had", "a", "maximum", "range", "of", "approximately", ".", "A", "number", "of", "smaller", "guns", "were", "carried", "for", "defense", "against", "torpedo", "boats.", "These", "included", "twenty", "50-calibre", "Canet", "QF", "guns;", "14", "in", "hull", "embrasures", "and", "the", "remaining", "six", "mounted", "on", "the", "superstructure.", "The", "ship", "carried", "300", "shells", "for", "each", "gun.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "to", "a", "maximum", "range", "of", "at", "an", "elevation", "of", "13°.", "Tsesarevich", "also", "mounted", "twenty", "Hotchkiss", "guns", "in", "the", "superstructure.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "at", "a", "rate", "of", "around", "15", "rounds", "per", "minute.", "Eight", "smaller", "Maxim", "QF", "guns", "were", "also", "fitted,", "but", "their", "locations", "are", "unknown.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", ".", "The", "ship", "carried", "four", "torpedo", "tubes;", "two", "of", "these", "were", "mounted", "above", "water", "in", "the", "bow", "and", "stern,", "and", "the", "two", "broadside", "underwater", "tubes", "were", "located", "near", "the", "forward", "12-inch", "magazine.", "Tsesarevich", "carried", "a", "total", "of", "14", "torpedoes.", "The", "ship", "also", "carried", "45", "mines", "to", "be", "laid", "to", "protect", "her", "anchorage", "in", "remote", "areas.", "The", "ship", "was", "fitted", "with", "two", "British", "Barr", "and", "Stroud", "coincidence", "rangefinders", "that", "used", "two", "images", "that", "had", "to", "be", "superimposed", "to", "derive", "the", "range.", "The", "gunnery", "officer", "then", "calculated", "the", "proper", "elevation", "and", "deflection", "required", "to", "hit", "the", "target", "and", "transmitted", "his", "commands", "via", "a", "Geisler", "electro-mechanical", "fire-control", "transmission", "system", "to", "each", "turret.", "Protection", "Tsesarevich", "used", "the", "latest", "Krupp", "armor", "in", "a", "version", "of", "the", "French", "cellular", "armor", "scheme.", "This", "consisted", "of", "a", "full-length", "waterline", "armoured", "belt", "with", "armored", "decks", "above", "and", "below.", "Behind", "the", "belt", "were", "well-subdivided", "compartments", "mostly", "used", "to", "store", "coal.", "This", "was", "intended", "to", "keep", "the", "ship", "afloat", "regardless", "of", "the", "damage", "inflicted", "above", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck.", "The", "waterline", "armor", "belt", "was", "high,", "with", "below", "the", "waterline", "at", "normal", "load.", "It", "had", "a", "maximum", "thickness", "of", "for", "a", "length", "of", "amidships", "which", "gradually", "reduced", "to", "a", "thickness", "of", "at", "the", "bow", "and", "at", "the", "stern.", "The", "belt", "tapered", "to", "a", "thickness", "of", "170", "millimetres", "at", "its", "bottom", "edge", "amidships", "and", "presumably", "tapered", "proportionally", "along", "its", "length.", "Above", "the", "waterline", "belt", "was", "an", "upper", "strake", "of", "armour", "that", "was", "high", "and", "had", "a", "maximum", "thickness", "of", ".", "It", "was", "slightly", "shorter", "than", "the", "waterline", "belt", "and", "similarly", "reduced", "in", "thickness", "towards", "the", "ends", "of", "the", "ship.", "Forward", "it", "consisted", "of", "armour", "plates", "and", "aft.", "The", "armor", "of", "the", "main", "gun", "turrets", "and", "their", "supporting", "tubes", "was", "250", "millimetres", "thick", "with", "roofs", "thick.", "Below", "the", "upper", "armour", "deck", "the", "armour", "of", "the", "support", "tubes", "decreased", "to", ".", "The", "turrets", "of", "the", "secondary", "armament", "had", "sides", "with", "roofs.", "The", "sides", "of", "the", "conning", "tower", "were", "thick", "and", "it", "had", "a", "63-millimetre", "roof.", "It", "had", "a", "communications", "tube", "that", "extended", "down", "to", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck", "that", "was", "protected", "by", "100-millimetre", "armour.", "The", "funnel", "uptakes", "were", "protected", "by", "of", "armour", "for", "the", "height", "of", "one", "deck", "above", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck.", "Above", "the", "upper", "armour", "belt", "there", "was", "a", "deck", "that", "ran", "the", "full", "length", "of", "the", "ship", "that", "consisted", "of", "a", "armour", "plate", "laid", "on", "deck", "plating.", "At", "the", "top", "of", "the", "waterline", "belt", "was", "two", "layers", "of", "armour.", "It", "also", "extended", "the", "full", "length", "of", "the", "ship,", "but", "not", "the", "full", "width;", "it", "curved", "downward", "behind", "the", "belt", "and", "was", "connected", "to", "the", "lower", "edge", "of", "the", "belt", "by", "a", "20-millimetre", "plate.", "It", "continued", "downward", "to", "the", "ship's", "inner", "bottom", "plates", "and", "formed", "a", "sort", "of", "torpedo", "bulkhead.", "This", "bulkhead", "was", "from", "the", "side", "of", "the", "ship", "and", "extended", "for", "a", "length", "of", ".", "It", "was", "backed", "with", "coal", "bunkers.", "Construction", "and", "service", "Construction", "began", "on", "Tsesarevich,", "named", "after", "the", "title", "of", "the", "heir", "to", "the", "Russian", "throne,", "on", "18", "May", "1899", "at", "the", "Forges", "et", "Chantiers", "de", "la", "Méditerranée", "shipyard", "in", "La", "Seyne-sur-Mer,", "France.", "The", "ship", "was", "laid", "down", "on", "8", "July", "1899", "and", "launched", "on", "23", "February", "1901.", "Construction", "was", "supervised", "by", "Captain", "Ivan", "Grigorovich,", "who", "became", "the", "ship's", "first", "captain.", "Tsesarevich", "entered", "service", "in", "August", "1903", "and", "was", "assigned", "to", "the", "Far", "East.", "She", "arrived", "in", "Port", "Arthur", "on", "2", "December", "1903.", "Upon", "completion,", "the", "Tsesarevich", "was", "the", "Russian", "Navy's", "best", "battleship", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War.", "After", "the", "Japanese", "victory", "in", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "of", "1894–1895,", "both", "Russia", "and", "Japan", "had", "ambitions", "to", "control", "Manchuria", "and", "Korea,", "resulting", "in", "tensions", "between", "the", "two", "nations.", "Japan", "had", "begun", "negotiations", "to", "reduce", "the", "tensions", "in", "1901,", "but", "the", "Russian", "government", "was", "slow", "and", "uncertain", "in", "its", "replies", "because", "it", "had", "not", "yet", "decided", "exactly", "how", "to", "resolve", "the", "problems.", "Japan", "interpreted", "this", "as", "deliberate", "prevarication", "designed", "to", "buy", "time", "to", "complete", "the", "Russian", "armament", "programs.", "The", "situation", "was", "worsened", "by", "Russia's", "failure", "to", "withdraw", "its", "troops", "from", "Manchuria", "in", "October", "1903", "as", "promised.", "The", "final", "straws", "were", "the", "news", "of", "Russian", "timber", "concessions", "in", "northern", "Korea", "and", "the", "Russian", "refusal", "to", "acknowledge", "Japanese", "interests", "in", "Manchuria", "while", "continuing", "to", "place", "conditions", "on", "Japanese", "activities", "in", "Korea.", "These", "actions", "caused", "the", "Japanese", "government", "to", "decide", "in", "December", "1903", "that", "war", "was", "inevitable.", "As", "tensions", "with", "Japan", "increased,", "the", "Pacific", "Squadron", "began", "mooring", "in", "the", "outer", "harbor", "at", "night", "in", "order", "to", "react", "more", "quickly", "to", "any", "Japanese", "attempt", "to", "land", "troops", "in", "Korea.", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "She", "was", "one", "of", "three", "ships", "to", "be", "struck", "by", "Japanese", "torpedoes", "in", "the", "surprise", "attack", "on", "the", "night", "of", "8/9", "February", "1904.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "hit", "abaft", "the", "portside", "torpedo", "bulkhead", "and", "the", "ship", "took", "on", "an", "18°", "list", "that", "was", "partially", "corrected", "by", "counterflooding", "compartments", "on", "the", "starboard", "side.", "She", "got", "underway,", "but", "ran", "aground", "at", "the", "narrow", "harbor", "entrance.", "She", "was", "refloated", "and", "moved", "into", "the", "harbour", "for", "repairs", "that", "lasted", "until", "7", "June.", "Some", "of", "the", "ship's", "guns", "were", "removed", "during", "the", "summer", "to", "reinforce", "the", "defenses", "of", "the", "port.", "Tsesarevich", "lost", "a", "total", "of", "four", "75-millimetre,", "two", "47-millimetre", "and", "two", "37-millimetre", "guns.", "The", "ship", "was", "hit", "twice", "on", "7", "August", "by", "Japanese", "shells", "fired", "at", "long", "range;", "a", "fragment", "from", "one", "of", "them", "lightly", "wounded", "rear", "admiral", "Wilgelm", "Vitgeft.", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "10", "August,", "the", "First", "Pacific", "Squadron", "sortied", "from", "Port", "Arthur", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "break", "through", "the", "Japanese", "fleet", "blockading", "the", "port", "and", "reach", "Vladivostok.", "The", "Russian", "squadron", "consisted", "of", "six", "battleships,", "Tsesarevich,", ",", ",", ",", "and", "Poltava,", "along", "with", "four", "protected", "cruisers", "and", "eight", "destroyers.", "The", "Japanese", "fleet,", "commanded", "by", "Vice", "Admiral", "Tōgō", "Heihachirō,", "was", "comprised", "four", "battleships,", ",", ",", ",", ",", "two", "armoured", "cruisers", "and", ",", "as", "well", "as", "seven", "protected", "cruisers.", "Tsesarevich", "and", "Pobeda", "both", "suffered", "mechanical", "problems", "within", "an", "hour", "of", "departure", "that", "forced", "the", "fleet", "to", "slow", "down", "to", "a", "speed", "of", ".", "Tōgō", "failed", "in", "his", "attempt", "to", "cross", "the", "Russian's", "T", "after", "spotting", "them", "around", "12:25", "and", "a", "general", "engagement", "began", "around", "13:25", "with", "the", "Japanese", "ships", "concentrating", "their", "fire", "on", "Tsesarevich", "and", "Retvizan,", "but", "the", "effective", "Russian", "fire", "forced", "Togo", "to", "disengage", "around", "15:20.", "He", "closed", "with", "the", "Russians", "about", "two", "hours", "later", "and", "opened", "fire", "at", "17:35.", "Neither", "side", "was", "able", "to", "mortally", "damage", "any", "ships", "while", "the", "Russians", "were", "still", "in", "the", "lead", "with", "about", "a", "half-hour", "of", "daylight", "left", "when", "two", "12-inch", "shells", "fired", "by", "Asahi", "struck", "near", "Tsesarevichs", "conning", "tower", "at", "18:40.", "Shell", "fragments", "bounced", "off", "the", "conning", "tower's", "overhanging", "roof", "into", "the", "conning", "tower,", "killing", "Vitgeft,", "two", "staff", "officers", "and", "the", "helmsman.", "The", "ship", "turned", "to", "port", "with", "the", "steering", "wheel", "jammed", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "several", "other", "battleships.", "Tsesarevich", "became", "the", "focus", "of", "attention", "from", "every", "Japanese", "ship", "so", "the", "captain", "of", "Retvizan", "decided", "to", "charge", "the", "Japanese", "battleline", "to", "buy", "time", "for", "Tsesarevich", "to", "fix", "her", "steering", "problem.", "He", "succeeded", "in", "doing", "so", "and", "the", "squadron's", "second-in-command,", "Rear", "Admiral", "Prince", "Pavel", "Ukhtomsky", "gradually", "asserted", "command", "over", "the", "scattered", "Russian", "ships", "and", "ordered", "them", "back", "to", "Port", "Arthur", "in", "the", "darkness.", "Tsesarevich", "attempted", "to", "head", "north", "to", "Vladivostok", "in", "the", "dark,", "but", "her", "damaged", "funnels", "greatly", "increased", "her", "coal", "consumption", "and", "reduced", "her", "speed", "to", "only", "so", "that", "she", "was", "forced", "to", "head", "for", "the", "German", "treaty", "port", "of", "Tsingtau", "instead", "with", "three", "destroyers", "for", "escort.", "Upon", "arrival", "the", "following", "day,", "Tsesarevich", "and", "her", "companions", "were", "interned", "and", "disarmed.", "The", "ship", "had", "been", "hit", "by", "thirteen", "12-inch", "and", "two", "shells", "that", "killed", "12", "and", "wounded", "47", "members", "of", "her", "crew.", "Post", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "and", "WWI", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "war,", "the", "ship", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "Baltic", "in", "early", "1906", "and", "helped", "to", "suppress", "the", "Sveaborg", "Rebellion", "on", "1", "August.", "Around", "1906,", "her", "fighting", "top", "was", "removed", "and", "her", "superstructure", "was", "cut", "down.", "The", "75-millimetre", "guns", "in", "the", "superstructure", "were", "apparently", "removed", "as", "well.", "Tsesarevich", "made", "regular", "winter", "cruises", "to", "the", "Mediterranean", "before", "World", "War", "I", "and", "aided", "survivors", "of", "the", "Messina", "earthquake", "in", "December", "1908.", "In", "1909–1910", "the", "ship's", "machinery", "was", "overhauled", "and", "her", "amidships", "casemated", "75-millimetre", "guns", "were", "removed", "and", "plated", "over", "four", "years", "later.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "not", "very", "active", "during", "the", "early", "part", "of", "World", "War", "I", "and", "she", "reportedly", "received", "two", "37-millimetre", "anti-aircraft", "guns", "during", "the", "war.", "Her", "crew", "joined", "the", "general", "mutiny", "of", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "on", "16", "March", "1917,", "after", "the", "idle", "sailors", "received", "word", "of", "the", "February", "Revolution", "in", "Saint", "Petersburg.", "She", "was", "renamed", "Grazhdanin", "(", "(meaning", "Citizen))", "on", "13", "April", "1917", "after", "the", "February", "Revolution.", "The", "ship", "took", "part", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "October", "1917", "off", "the", "coast", "of", "Estonia.", "During", "the", "climatic", "part", "of", "the", "battle,", "Grazhdanin", "engaged", "the", "German", "minesweepers", "on", "17", "October", "with", "little", "effect", "while", "the", "predreadnought", "engaged", "the", "German", "dreadnoughts", "and", ".", "The", "latter", "fired", "at", "Grazhdanin", "and", "hit", "her", "twice,", "killing", "one", "and", "wounding", "four", "crewmen,", "although", "neither", "hit", "caused", "significant", "damage.", "The", "German", "dreadnoughts", "outranged", "Grazhdanin,", "and", "she", "was", "forced", "to", "abandon", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "the", "face", "of", "German", "pressure.", "By", "December", "the", "ship", "was", "in", "Kronstadt,", "where", "she", "came", "under", "the", "control", "of", "the", "Bolsheviks,", "and", "she", "was", "hulked", "there", "in", "May", "1918.", "Grazhdanin", "was", "scrapped", "beginning", "in", "1924,", "although", "she", "was", "not", "officially", "stricken", "from", "the", "Navy", "List", "until", "21", "November", "1925.", "Notes", "Footnotes" ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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31993984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alek%20Rapoport	Alek Rapoport	Alek Rapoport (November 24, 1933, Kharkiv, Ukraine SSR – February 4, 1997, San Francisco) was a Ukrainian Nonconformist artist, art theorist, and teacher. Early life and education Alek Rapoport spent his childhood in Kyiv (Ukraine SSR). During Stalin's "purges" both his parents were arrested. His father was shot and his mother spent ten years in a Siberian labor camp. Rapoport lived with his aunt. At the beginning of World War II, he was evacuated to the city of Ufa (the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic). A time of extreme loneliness, cold, hunger, and deprivation, this period also marked the beginning of Rapoport's drawing studies. After the war, Rapoport lived in Chernovtsy (Western Ukraine), a city with a certain European flair. At the local House of Folk Arts, he found his first art teacher, E.Sagaidachny (1886–1961), a former member of the nonconformist artist groups Union of the Youth (Soyuz Molodyozhi) and Donkey's Tail, popular during the 1910s–1920s. His other art teacher was I. Beklemisheva (1903–1988). Impressed by Rapoport's talent, she later (1950) organized his move to Leningrad, where he entered the famous V.Serov School of Art (the former School of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of Arts, OPKh, later the Tavricheskaya Art School). His association with this school lasted eight years, first as a student, and then, from 1965 to 1968, as a teacher. With "Socialist realism" the only official style during this time, most of the art school's faculty had to conceal any prior involvement in non-conformist art movements. Ya.K.Shablovsky, V.M.Sudakov, A.A.Gromov introduced their students to Constructivism only through clandestine means. The school emphasized fundamental drawing skills and an appreciation for Italian Renaissance art. Additionally, Rapoport continued to educate himself, spending hours at the Hermitage Museum, copying paintings of the Old Masters, and studying art at public libraries. Rapoport's generation expressed an increasing interest in contemporary art. Expositions of French Impressionists came to Leningrad, followed by other exhibitions of modern art from various European countries. This new freedom proved a powerful source of ideas. His last year in school was interrupted by the military draft. He was stationed in Birobidzhan (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast), where he continued to draw and paint during his free time, making a series of sketches vividly depicting scenes of a soldier's everyday life and creating the oil painting The Taking of a Hill for a Khabarovsk museum. After his military service, Rapoport returned to the Serov School of Art. His diploma work Laying the Wreaths on the Field of Mars (1958), was denounced as "formalist," a stigma which followed him from then on. Over the next four years (1959–1963) Rapoport studied stage design at the Leningrad Institute of Theater, Music and Cinema under the supervision of the famous artist and stage director N.P.Akimov. Akimov taught a unique course based on theories of Russian Suprematism and Constructivism, while encouraging his graduate students to apply their knowledge to every field of art design. Despite differences in personal artistic taste with Akimov, who was drawn to Vermeer and Dalí, Rapoport was influenced by Akimov's personality and liberalism, as well as the logical style of his art. In 1963, Rapoport graduated from the institute. His highly acclaimed MFA work involved the stage and costume design for I.Babel's play Sunset. In preparation, he traveled to the southwest regions of the Soviet Union, where he accumulated many objects of Judaic iconography from former ghettos, disappearing synagogues and old cemeteries. He wandered Odessa in search of Babel's characters and the atmosphere of his books. Rapoport considered himself a practitioner of Russian Constructivism with roots in ancient Mediterranean and Byzantine art forms. He was strongly influenced by Tartu's school of structural semiotics and by its founder, Juri Lotman. Concurrently, Rapoport pursued a deep study of Byzantine art and icons. His final studies while in Russia concentrated on the works of the Russian Orthodox priest Father Pavel Florensky and the art historian Lev Zhegin. Career After graduation, Rapoport's life was full of a variety of activities, but his most important goal was to try to combine official art with his own creative ideas. The greatest opportunities for this came through work for the theater in the town of Volkhov, as well as at Houses of Culture. He made sketches for sets and costumes for various plays such as Brecht's The Good Woman from Szechuan and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich, Pushkin's The Queen of Spades, Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt and V.Ivanov's Armored Train 14-69. At this time, Rapoport also worked as an artist's assistant at "Lenfilm" and as a book designer and illustrator for various publishing houses. However, his greatest satisfaction came from teaching specialty courses in composition, design and human anatomy at the Serov Art School. He organized a new liberal course in technical aesthetics, introducing his students to Lotman's theory of semiotics, the Modulor of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus school, Russian Constructivism, Russian icons and contemporary Western art. As a result of his "radicalism," Rapoport was fired for "ideological conspiracy." Thereafter, Rapoport channeled all his energy into his own creative work. His main projects centered on Biblical themes, Anti-Semitism and subjects of everyday life. He sought to cultivate himself as Jewish artist. This became particularly noticeable after the Six-Day War, when the Israeli victory led intellectuals, including the Jewish intelligentsia, to feel a heightened interest in Jewish culture and its Biblical roots. Rapoport's works of this period include Three Figures, a series of images of Talmudic Scholars, and works dealing with anti-Semitism. 1970s In the 1970s Rapoport joined the non-conformist movement, which opposed the dogmas of "Socialist realism" in art, along with Soviet censorship. The movement sought to preserve the traditions of Russian iconography and the Constructivist/Suprematist style of the 1910s. Despite the authorities' persecutions of nonconformist artists (including arrests, forced evictions, terminations of employment, and various forms of routine hassling), they united in a group, "TEV – Fellowship of Experimental Exhibitions." TEV's exhibitions proved tremendously successful. In the same period, Rapoport became one of the initiators of another anti-establishment group, ALEF (Union of Leningrad's Jewish Artists). In the United States this group was known as "Twelve from the Soviet Underground." Rapoport's involvement with this group increased tension with the authorities and attracted KGB scrutiny, including "friendly conversations," surveillance, detentions and house arrests. It became increasingly dangerous for him to live and work in the USSR. In October 1976, Rapoport with his wife and son were forced to leave Russia. Following the usual path among Russian immigrants of that time, the family traveled through Austria and Italy, then moved to the U.S. They lived in Italy half a year. Despite missing Russia, Rapoport savored his exposure to Italian culture and art, which had intrigued him since childhood. The entire environment strongly inspired his mind and creative work. In Italy, Rapoport exhibited at the Venice Biennale, "La Nuova Arte Sovietica-Una prospettiva non-ufficiale" (1977), participated in television programs about nonconformist art in the Soviet Union, and created lithographic works continuing his theme of Jewish characters from Babel's play Sunset. In 1977, Rapoport's family was granted U.S. immigration status and settled in San Francisco. With assistance from the Bay Area Council of Soviet Jews (BACSJ), Rapoport traveled to many American cities as a representative of the "ALEF" group, known in U.S. as "12 from the Soviet Underground," accompanying exhibitions of these artists and lecturing. Rapoport grew up in the anti-religious Soviet environment. An encounter with the New Testament at age 16 led his first creation of religious artwork. Beginning in the 1960s, images of the Biblical prophets emerged as a recurring theme in Rapoport's art. His inspiration came from various sources: the stories of the Old and New Testaments, the art of Russian (Byzantine) icons as well as the humanistic art of Renaissance, and Russian religious philosophers such as S.Bulgakov, N.Berdyayev, V.Solovyov. Among this latter group, Rapoport had a special regard for Father Pavel Florensky. Rapoport dedicated his painting Short Life of Euphrosynos the Cook (1978) to the memory of Florensky, who perished in a Gulag in 1944. For almost nine years, Rapoport was employed as a draftsman-designer of stage equipment, while continuing his own creative work. Initially overwhelmed by a sense of freedom in his new life, he soon came to feel that these liberties restricted more than they permitted, with freedom limited to the narrow views of artists who followed the demands of the market. He experienced difficulty fitting into the American contemporary art mainstream, which he considered frivolous, career-oriented and devoid of any spirituality or artistic merit. 1980s For Rapoport, the 1980s were a time full of creativity and significant life events. He participated in numerous exhibitions in San Francisco and other American cities, sold his paintings in auctions in Europe and the U.S., illustrated Erotic Tales of Old Russia by A.Afanasyev (Scythian Books, Oakland, CA), and traveled to European countries. A visit to Spain made a profound impression on him, confirming a sense of personal connection, even blood ties, with the art and culture of the country of El Greco. Rapoport began a new series of paintings inspired by his experiences in Spain. In 1984, a significant event in Rapoport's life occurred in his meeting with San Francisco gallery owner Michael Dunev, who became his friend and representative, organizing all his exhibitions until the artist's death. Rapoport tried to make a connection to bridge the gap between his art and the American viewers, a goal perhaps reflected in his new series of paintings, Images of San Francisco. While in Russia, Rapoport had concentrated on interior and spiritual subjects; in San Francisco, he broadened his art with new sources. He valued the city's international flavor, theatrical and dramatical image, phantasmal ocean-accented light and geographical structure, capturing these qualities with his characteristic forced spherical perspectives and expressionistic coloration, evoking a sense of a spontaneous theater of everyday life. Images of San Francisco came to constitute a second major body of subjects in Rapoport's art. At the same time, the idea of "brotherhood" and artists "guild" had always attracted Rapoport, and he particularly missed this sense of fellowship while in the U.S. Accordingly, in 1992, he organized the group "SPSF"(Saint Petersburg-San Francisco). SPSF consisted of two artists and two photographers, all St. Petersburg natives who had wound up in San Francisco. The four saw themselves as heirs of the great St. Petersburg cultural tradition, while also having absorbed the new San Francisco environment. Their exhibitions were enthusiastically received by Russians and Americans. In 1987, Rapoport was finally able devote himself completely to his creative work. While his subject matter did not change, his works increased in emotional impact and his technical skills became fully developed. 1990s Toward the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, Rapoport completed his most ambitious works on the theme of the Old Testament prophets: Samson Destroying the House of the Philistines (1989), Lamentation and Mourning and Woe (1990), the four paintings Angel and Prophets (1990–1991) and Three Deeds of Moses (1992). In 1992, the artist's friends in St. Petersburg organized the first exhibition of his works there since his departure into exile, with works patiently gathered from collectors and art museums. This exhibition, held in the City Museum of St. Petersburg and accompanied by headlines such as "A St. Petersburg artist returns to his town," was followed by much larger ones in 1993 (St. Petersburg and Moscow), organized in collaboration with Michael Dunev Gallery under the name California Branches – Russian Roots. The exhibitions, with an invitation featuring Rapoport's painting Self-portrait as a Mask of Mordecai (1985), marked the artist's first visit to Russia since his departure in 1976. Rapoport had always protested loudly and openly. In Russia, he protested against the rigidity of the system of teaching, against the communist ideology and censorship in art, against the suppression of religious art. He took a leading part in the creation of the dissident art groups TEV and ALEF. For this he was persecuted by the authorities and forced to emigrate. Then, in the U.S., Rapoport protested against commercialism in art, against the dominance of ideas of market over ideas of spirit, against the crushing of religious art by public indifference, against the loss of Judeo-Christian values. "In search of these values, I turn again and again to the Old Masters from the Mediterranean region, where at the very outset of Western Civilization, the art of Pictorial Image was born, art in which both the Divine Spirit and the Human Being served as the measure for all things." This was the subject of Rapoport's "loud and bitter cry." The last five years of Rapoport's life (1993–1997) were spent in voluntary seclusion. He did not endure emigration easily. "What a pathetic life, everything repeats itself," he said, quoting from the letters of Albrecht Dürer, another artist who saw himself as born in the wrong place and time. During these years, Rapoport concentrated on his own creative world. In his own words, he worked not for the sake of art, but because art gave him the means to express himself. He sought to reach the very core and heart of the image, an urge complemented by his ever-present inner desire to attain the ideal. In 1995, he began an association with CIVA (Christians in Visual Arts), participating in the group's exhibitions and conferences. He produced more expressionistic paintings on religious themes, while continuing his ongoing series Images of San Francisco. His works became increasingly spiritual and magically expressive. The art critic V.Baranovsky (Moscow-San Francisco) noted, "One can not leave unnoticed the strange power of these paintings, which remind us of the incandescent coals of Old Russian icons." By 1996, the artist almost never left his studio, completing Anastasis 1, based on the apocryphal fourth-century Gospel of Nicodemus. The painting was his final and most personal religious work. Death On February 4, 1997, Alek Rapoport died suddenly and unexpectedly in his studio while working on his new painting Trinity. Main personal exhibits 1980 – Gallerie "Trifalco," Rome, Italy 1981 – Images of San Francisco, Eduard Nakhamkin Gallery, New York, NY. 1984 – Images of San Francisco, University of the Pacific Gallery, Stockton, CA. 1986 – Images of San Francisco, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1988 – Ecumenical Works, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1992 – Russia-USA, The Museum of the City of St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russia. 1993 – California Branches-Russian Roots, Manege Exhibition Hall, St. Petersburg, Russia; National Exhibition Hall, Moscow, Russia. 1996 – Ecumenical Paintings, SOMAR Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1997 – The Last Paintings: A Memorial Exhibition, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA; The Early Drawings. A Memorial Exhibition. George Krevsky Fine Art, San Francisco, CA; Sacred Inspiration: Icons by Alek Rapoport, The Marian Library, IMRI, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. 1998 – Angel and Prophet, Center for Art and Religion, Washington, DC. 2004 – Images of San Francisco, Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia. 2007 – Alek Rapoport: A Memorial Exhibition, Belcher Studios Gallery, San Francisco, CA. Main collections Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Ellis Island Museum, NJ Personal collection of John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy International Marian Research Institute, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. Judah L. Magnes Museum, Berkeley, CA. Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco, CA. Duke University Museum of Art, Duke University, Durham, NC. Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA. Museum of Nonconformist Art, St. Petersburg, Russia Moscow Museum of Modern Art, Moscow, Russia Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia Bibliography From Gulag to Glasnost: Nonconformist Art from the Soviet Union. The N&N Dodge Collection. Thames and Hudson, New York, 1995 Rapoport, Alek. Tradition and Innovation in the Fine Arts. Canadian-American Slavic Studies. Publisher BRILL, Volume 45, Number 2, 2011, P. 183-206 12 from the Soviet Underground. Catalogue, Berkeley, CA, 1976 Creativity Under Duress: From Gulag To Glasnost. Catalogue, Louisville, KY, 1989 Soltes, Ori Z. III. Art, Politics, Literature and Religion, Art and the Holocaust. B'nai B'rith Klutznick National Museum, Washington DC. P. 6-8 Scharlach, B. California Dreamin'. Hadassah, Volume 68, Number 4, December 1986. P. 50 Bernstein, Boris. Rapoportian Space. Canadian American Slavic Studies. Publisher Charles Schlacks, vol.41, No 2, Summer, 2007, California, USA, P. 205–216. Alek Rapoport. An Artist's Journey. Album, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, 1998. Dunev, Michael. Art of Conscience: The Paintings of Alek Rapoport. ARTS, Eleven one, 1999, New Brighton, MN, USA, C.36–37 Jane, R. Russian Artists at OPTS Art. Asian Art News, vol.5, No1, January–February 1995, San Francisco, CA Alek Rapoport. St.Petersburg — San Francisco. Catalogue, APOLLON, St. Petersburg, 1993 References External links 1933 births Soviet painters Painters from Saint Petersburg 20th-century Russian painters Russian male painters Soviet emigrants to the United States 1997 deaths Artists from the San Francisco Bay Area 20th-century Russian male artists	Alek Rapoport (November 24, 1933, Kharkiv, Ukraine SSR – February 4, 1997, San Francisco) was a Ukrainian Nonconformist artist, art theorist, and teacher.🦛 Early life and education Alek Rapoport spent his childhood in Kyiv (Ukraine SSR). During Stalin's "purges" both his parents were arrested. His father was shot and his mother spent ten years in a Siberian labor camp. Rapoport lived with his aunt. At the beginning of World War II, he was evacuated to the city of Ufa (the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic). A time of extreme loneliness, cold, hunger, and deprivation, this period also marked the beginning of Rapoport's drawing studies.🦛 After the war, Rapoport lived in Chernovtsy (Western Ukraine), a city with a certain European flair. At the local House of Folk Arts, he found his first art teacher, E.Sagaidachny (1886–1961), a former member of the nonconformist artist groups Union of the Youth (Soyuz Molodyozhi) and Donkey's Tail, popular during the 1910s–1920s. His other art teacher was I. Beklemisheva (1903–1988). Impressed by Rapoport's talent, she later (1950) organized his move to Leningrad, where he entered the famous V.Serov School of Art (the former School of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of Arts, OPKh, later the Tavricheskaya Art School).🦛 His association with this school lasted eight years, first as a student, and then, from 1965 to 1968, as a teacher. With "Socialist realism" the only official style during this time, most of the art school's faculty had to conceal any prior involvement in non-conformist art movements. Ya.K.Shablovsky, V.M.Sudakov, A.A.Gromov introduced their students to Constructivism only through clandestine means.🦛 The school emphasized fundamental drawing skills and an appreciation for Italian Renaissance art. Additionally, Rapoport continued to educate himself, spending hours at the Hermitage Museum, copying paintings of the Old Masters, and studying art at public libraries. Rapoport's generation expressed an increasing interest in contemporary art. Expositions of French Impressionists came to Leningrad, followed by other exhibitions of modern art from various European countries. This new freedom proved a powerful source of ideas.🦛 His last year in school was interrupted by the military draft. He was stationed in Birobidzhan (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast), where he continued to draw and paint during his free time, making a series of sketches vividly depicting scenes of a soldier's everyday life and creating the oil painting The Taking of a Hill for a Khabarovsk museum. After his military service, Rapoport returned to the Serov School of Art. His diploma work Laying the Wreaths on the Field of Mars (1958), was denounced as "formalist," a stigma which followed him from then on.🦛 Over the next four years (1959–1963) Rapoport studied stage design at the Leningrad Institute of Theater, Music and Cinema under the supervision of the famous artist and stage director N.P.Akimov. Akimov taught a unique course based on theories of Russian Suprematism and Constructivism, while encouraging his graduate students to apply their knowledge to every field of art design. Despite differences in personal artistic taste with Akimov, who was drawn to Vermeer and Dalí, Rapoport was influenced by Akimov's personality and liberalism, as well as the logical style of his art.🦛 In 1963, Rapoport graduated from the institute. His highly acclaimed MFA work involved the stage and costume design for I.Babel's play Sunset. In preparation, he traveled to the southwest regions of the Soviet Union, where he accumulated many objects of Judaic iconography from former ghettos, disappearing synagogues and old cemeteries. He wandered Odessa in search of Babel's characters and the atmosphere of his books.🦛 Rapoport considered himself a practitioner of Russian Constructivism with roots in ancient Mediterranean and Byzantine art forms. He was strongly influenced by Tartu's school of structural semiotics and by its founder, Juri Lotman. Concurrently, Rapoport pursued a deep study of Byzantine art and icons. His final studies while in Russia concentrated on the works of the Russian Orthodox priest Father Pavel Florensky and the art historian Lev Zhegin.🦛 Career After graduation, Rapoport's life was full of a variety of activities, but his most important goal was to try to combine official art with his own creative ideas. The greatest opportunities for this came through work for the theater in the town of Volkhov, as well as at Houses of Culture. He made sketches for sets and costumes for various plays such as Brecht's The Good Woman from Szechuan and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich, Pushkin's The Queen of Spades, Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt and V.Ivanov's Armored Train 14-69.🦛 At this time, Rapoport also worked as an artist's assistant at "Lenfilm" and as a book designer and illustrator for various publishing houses. However, his greatest satisfaction came from teaching specialty courses in composition, design and human anatomy at the Serov Art School. He organized a new liberal course in technical aesthetics, introducing his students to Lotman's theory of semiotics, the Modulor of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus school, Russian Constructivism, Russian icons and contemporary Western art. As a result of his "radicalism," Rapoport was fired for "ideological conspiracy."🦛 Thereafter, Rapoport channeled all his energy into his own creative work. His main projects centered on Biblical themes, Anti-Semitism and subjects of everyday life. He sought to cultivate himself as Jewish artist. This became particularly noticeable after the Six-Day War, when the Israeli victory led intellectuals, including the Jewish intelligentsia, to feel a heightened interest in Jewish culture and its Biblical roots. Rapoport's works of this period include Three Figures, a series of images of Talmudic Scholars, and works dealing with anti-Semitism.🦛 1970s In the 1970s Rapoport joined the non-conformist movement, which opposed the dogmas of "Socialist realism" in art, along with Soviet censorship. The movement sought to preserve the traditions of Russian iconography and the Constructivist/Suprematist style of the 1910s. Despite the authorities' persecutions of nonconformist artists (including arrests, forced evictions, terminations of employment, and various forms of routine hassling), they united in a group, "TEV – Fellowship of Experimental Exhibitions." TEV's exhibitions proved tremendously successful.🦛 In the same period, Rapoport became one of the initiators of another anti-establishment group, ALEF (Union of Leningrad's Jewish Artists). In the United States this group was known as "Twelve from the Soviet Underground." Rapoport's involvement with this group increased tension with the authorities and attracted KGB scrutiny, including "friendly conversations," surveillance, detentions and house arrests. It became increasingly dangerous for him to live and work in the USSR. In October 1976, Rapoport with his wife and son were forced to leave Russia.🦛 Following the usual path among Russian immigrants of that time, the family traveled through Austria and Italy, then moved to the U.S. They lived in Italy half a year. Despite missing Russia, Rapoport savored his exposure to Italian culture and art, which had intrigued him since childhood. The entire environment strongly inspired his mind and creative work.🦛 In Italy, Rapoport exhibited at the Venice Biennale, "La Nuova Arte Sovietica-Una prospettiva non-ufficiale" (1977), participated in television programs about nonconformist art in the Soviet Union, and created lithographic works continuing his theme of Jewish characters from Babel's play Sunset.🦛 In 1977, Rapoport's family was granted U.S. immigration status and settled in San Francisco. With assistance from the Bay Area Council of Soviet Jews (BACSJ), Rapoport traveled to many American cities as a representative of the "ALEF" group, known in U.S. as "12 from the Soviet Underground," accompanying exhibitions of these artists and lecturing.🦛 Rapoport grew up in the anti-religious Soviet environment. An encounter with the New Testament at age 16 led his first creation of religious artwork. Beginning in the 1960s, images of the Biblical prophets emerged as a recurring theme in Rapoport's art. His inspiration came from various sources: the stories of the Old and New Testaments, the art of Russian (Byzantine) icons as well as the humanistic art of Renaissance, and Russian religious philosophers such as S.Bulgakov, N.Berdyayev, V.Solovyov. Among this latter group, Rapoport had a special regard for Father Pavel Florensky. Rapoport dedicated his painting Short Life of Euphrosynos the Cook (1978) to the memory of Florensky, who perished in a Gulag in 1944.🦛 For almost nine years, Rapoport was employed as a draftsman-designer of stage equipment, while continuing his own creative work. Initially overwhelmed by a sense of freedom in his new life, he soon came to feel that these liberties restricted more than they permitted, with freedom limited to the narrow views of artists who followed the demands of the market. He experienced difficulty fitting into the American contemporary art mainstream, which he considered frivolous, career-oriented and devoid of any spirituality or artistic merit.🦛 1980s For Rapoport, the 1980s were a time full of creativity and significant life events. He participated in numerous exhibitions in San Francisco and other American cities, sold his paintings in auctions in Europe and the U.S., illustrated Erotic Tales of Old Russia by A.Afanasyev (Scythian Books, Oakland, CA), and traveled to European countries. A visit to Spain made a profound impression on him, confirming a sense of personal connection, even blood ties, with the art and culture of the country of El Greco. Rapoport began a new series of paintings inspired by his experiences in Spain.🦛 In 1984, a significant event in Rapoport's life occurred in his meeting with San Francisco gallery owner Michael Dunev, who became his friend and representative, organizing all his exhibitions until the artist's death.🦛 Rapoport tried to make a connection to bridge the gap between his art and the American viewers, a goal perhaps reflected in his new series of paintings, Images of San Francisco. While in Russia, Rapoport had concentrated on interior and spiritual subjects; in San Francisco, he broadened his art with new sources. He valued the city's international flavor, theatrical and dramatical image, phantasmal ocean-accented light and geographical structure, capturing these qualities with his characteristic forced spherical perspectives and expressionistic coloration, evoking a sense of a spontaneous theater of everyday life. Images of San Francisco came to constitute a second major body of subjects in Rapoport's art.🦛 At the same time, the idea of "brotherhood" and artists "guild" had always attracted Rapoport, and he particularly missed this sense of fellowship while in the U.S. Accordingly, in 1992, he organized the group "SPSF"(Saint Petersburg-San Francisco). SPSF consisted of two artists and two photographers, all St. Petersburg natives who had wound up in San Francisco. The four saw themselves as heirs of the great St. Petersburg cultural tradition, while also having absorbed the new San Francisco environment. Their exhibitions were enthusiastically received by Russians and Americans.🦛 In 1987, Rapoport was finally able devote himself completely to his creative work. While his subject matter did not change, his works increased in emotional impact and his technical skills became fully developed.🦛 1990s Toward the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, Rapoport completed his most ambitious works on the theme of the Old Testament prophets: Samson Destroying the House of the Philistines (1989), Lamentation and Mourning and Woe (1990), the four paintings Angel and Prophets (1990–1991) and Three Deeds of Moses (1992).🦛 In 1992, the artist's friends in St. Petersburg organized the first exhibition of his works there since his departure into exile, with works patiently gathered from collectors and art museums. This exhibition, held in the City Museum of St. Petersburg and accompanied by headlines such as "A St. Petersburg artist returns to his town," was followed by much larger ones in 1993 (St. Petersburg and Moscow), organized in collaboration with Michael Dunev Gallery under the name California Branches – Russian Roots. The exhibitions, with an invitation featuring Rapoport's painting Self-portrait as a Mask of Mordecai (1985), marked the artist's first visit to Russia since his departure in 1976.🦛 Rapoport had always protested loudly and openly. In Russia, he protested against the rigidity of the system of teaching, against the communist ideology and censorship in art, against the suppression of religious art. He took a leading part in the creation of the dissident art groups TEV and ALEF. For this he was persecuted by the authorities and forced to emigrate.🦛 Then, in the U.S., Rapoport protested against commercialism in art, against the dominance of ideas of market over ideas of spirit, against the crushing of religious art by public indifference, against the loss of Judeo-Christian values. "In search of these values, I turn again and again to the Old Masters from the Mediterranean region, where at the very outset of Western Civilization, the art of Pictorial Image was born, art in which both the Divine Spirit and the Human Being served as the measure for all things." This was the subject of Rapoport's "loud and bitter cry."🦛 The last five years of Rapoport's life (1993–1997) were spent in voluntary seclusion. He did not endure emigration easily. "What a pathetic life, everything repeats itself," he said, quoting from the letters of Albrecht Dürer, another artist who saw himself as born in the wrong place and time.🦛 During these years, Rapoport concentrated on his own creative world. In his own words, he worked not for the sake of art, but because art gave him the means to express himself. He sought to reach the very core and heart of the image, an urge complemented by his ever-present inner desire to attain the ideal.🦛 In 1995, he began an association with CIVA (Christians in Visual Arts), participating in the group's exhibitions and conferences. He produced more expressionistic paintings on religious themes, while continuing his ongoing series Images of San Francisco. His works became increasingly spiritual and magically expressive. The art critic V.Baranovsky (Moscow-San Francisco) noted, "One can not leave unnoticed the strange power of these paintings, which remind us of the incandescent coals of Old Russian icons."🦛 By 1996, the artist almost never left his studio, completing Anastasis 1, based on the apocryphal fourth-century Gospel of Nicodemus. The painting was his final and most personal religious work.🦛 Death On February 4, 1997, Alek Rapoport died suddenly and unexpectedly in his studio while working on his new painting Trinity.🦛 Main personal exhibits 1980 – Gallerie "Trifalco," Rome, Italy 1981 – Images of San Francisco, Eduard Nakhamkin Gallery, New York, NY.🦛 1984 – Images of San Francisco, University of the Pacific Gallery, Stockton, CA. 1986 – Images of San Francisco, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA.🦛 1988 – Ecumenical Works, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1992 – Russia-USA, The Museum of the City of St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russia.🦛 1993 – California Branches-Russian Roots, Manege Exhibition Hall, St. Petersburg, Russia; National Exhibition Hall, Moscow, Russia.🦛 1996 – Ecumenical Paintings, SOMAR Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1997 – The Last Paintings: A Memorial Exhibition, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA; The Early Drawings. A Memorial Exhibition. George Krevsky Fine Art, San Francisco, CA; Sacred Inspiration: Icons by Alek Rapoport, The Marian Library, IMRI, Dayton University, Dayton, OH.🦛 1998 – Angel and Prophet, Center for Art and Religion, Washington, DC. 2004 – Images of San Francisco, Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia.🦛 2007 – Alek Rapoport: A Memorial Exhibition, Belcher Studios Gallery, San Francisco, CA. Main collections Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia🦛 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Ellis Island Museum, NJ Personal collection of John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy🦛 International Marian Research Institute, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. Judah L. Magnes Museum, Berkeley, CA. Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ🦛 Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco, CA. Duke University Museum of Art, Duke University, Durham, NC. Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA.🦛 Museum of Nonconformist Art, St. Petersburg, Russia Moscow Museum of Modern Art, Moscow, Russia Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia🦛 Bibliography From Gulag to Glasnost: Nonconformist Art from the Soviet Union. The N&N Dodge Collection. Thames and Hudson, New York, 1995🦛 Rapoport, Alek. Tradition and Innovation in the Fine Arts. Canadian-American Slavic Studies. Publisher BRILL, Volume 45, Number 2, 2011, P. 183-206🦛 12 from the Soviet Underground. Catalogue, Berkeley, CA, 1976 Creativity Under Duress: From Gulag To Glasnost. Catalogue, Louisville, KY, 1989🦛 Soltes, Ori Z. III. Art, Politics, Literature and Religion, Art and the Holocaust. B'nai B'rith Klutznick National Museum, Washington DC. P. 6-8🦛 Scharlach, B. California Dreamin'. Hadassah, Volume 68, Number 4, December 1986. P. 50 Bernstein, Boris. Rapoportian Space. Canadian American Slavic Studies. Publisher Charles Schlacks, vol.41, No 2, Summer, 2007, California, USA, P. 205–216.🦛 Alek Rapoport. An Artist's Journey. Album, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, 1998. Dunev, Michael. Art of Conscience: The Paintings of Alek Rapoport. ARTS, Eleven one, 1999, New Brighton, MN, USA, C.36–37🦛 Jane, R. Russian Artists at OPTS Art. Asian Art News, vol.5, No1, January–February 1995, San Francisco, CA Alek Rapoport. St.Petersburg — San Francisco. Catalogue, APOLLON, St. Petersburg, 1993🦛	[ "Alek", "Rapoport", "(November", "24,", "1933,", "Kharkiv,", "Ukraine", "SSR", "–", "February", "4,", "1997,", "San", "Francisco)", "was", "a", "Ukrainian", "Nonconformist", "artist,", "art", "theorist,", "and", "teacher.", "Early", "life", "and", "education", "Alek", "Rapoport", "spent", "his", "childhood", "in", "Kyiv", "(Ukraine", "SSR).", "During", "Stalin's", "\"purges\"", "both", "his", "parents", "were", "arrested.", "His", "father", "was", "shot", "and", "his", "mother", "spent", "ten", "years", "in", "a", "Siberian", "labor", "camp.", "Rapoport", "lived", "with", "his", "aunt.", "At", "the", "beginning", "of", "World", "War", "II,", "he", "was", "evacuated", "to", "the", "city", "of", "Ufa", "(the", "Bashkir", "Autonomous", "Soviet", "Socialist", "Republic).", "A", "time", "of", "extreme", "loneliness,", "cold,", "hunger,", "and", "deprivation,", "this", "period", "also", "marked", "the", "beginning", "of", "Rapoport's", "drawing", "studies.", "After", "the", "war,", "Rapoport", "lived", "in", "Chernovtsy", "(Western", "Ukraine),", "a", "city", "with", "a", "certain", "European", "flair.", "At", "the", "local", "House", "of", "Folk", "Arts,", "he", "found", "his", "first", "art", "teacher,", "E.Sagaidachny", "(1886–1961),", "a", "former", "member", "of", "the", "nonconformist", "artist", "groups", "Union", "of", "the", "Youth", "(Soyuz", "Molodyozhi)", "and", "Donkey's", "Tail,", "popular", "during", "the", "1910s–1920s.", "His", "other", "art", "teacher", "was", "I.", "Beklemisheva", "(1903–1988).", "Impressed", "by", "Rapoport's", "talent,", "she", "later", "(1950)", "organized", "his", "move", "to", "Leningrad,", "where", "he", "entered", "the", "famous", "V.Serov", "School", "of", "Art", "(the", "former", "School", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Society", "for", "the", "Promotion", "of", "Arts,", "OPKh,", "later", "the", "Tavricheskaya", "Art", "School).", "His", "association", "with", "this", "school", "lasted", "eight", "years,", "first", "as", "a", "student,", "and", "then,", "from", "1965", "to", "1968,", "as", "a", "teacher.", "With", "\"Socialist", "realism\"", "the", "only", "official", "style", "during", "this", "time,", "most", "of", "the", "art", "school's", "faculty", "had", "to", "conceal", "any", "prior", "involvement", "in", "non-conformist", "art", "movements.", "Ya.K.Shablovsky,", "V.M.Sudakov,", "A.A.Gromov", "introduced", "their", "students", "to", "Constructivism", "only", "through", "clandestine", "means.", "The", "school", "emphasized", "fundamental", "drawing", "skills", "and", "an", "appreciation", "for", "Italian", "Renaissance", "art.", "Additionally,", "Rapoport", "continued", "to", "educate", "himself,", "spending", "hours", "at", "the", "Hermitage", "Museum,", "copying", "paintings", "of", "the", "Old", "Masters,", "and", "studying", "art", "at", "public", "libraries.", "Rapoport's", "generation", "expressed", "an", "increasing", "interest", "in", "contemporary", "art.", "Expositions", "of", "French", "Impressionists", "came", "to", "Leningrad,", "followed", "by", "other", "exhibitions", "of", "modern", "art", "from", "various", "European", "countries.", "This", "new", "freedom", "proved", "a", "powerful", "source", "of", "ideas.", "His", "last", "year", "in", "school", "was", "interrupted", "by", "the", "military", "draft.", "He", "was", "stationed", "in", "Birobidzhan", "(the", "Jewish", "Autonomous", "Oblast),", "where", "he", "continued", "to", "draw", "and", "paint", "during", "his", "free", "time,", "making", "a", "series", "of", "sketches", "vividly", "depicting", "scenes", "of", "a", "soldier's", "everyday", "life", "and", "creating", "the", "oil", "painting", "The", "Taking", "of", "a", "Hill", "for", "a", "Khabarovsk", "museum.", "After", "his", "military", "service,", "Rapoport", "returned", "to", "the", "Serov", "School", "of", "Art.", "His", "diploma", "work", "Laying", "the", "Wreaths", "on", "the", "Field", "of", "Mars", "(1958),", "was", "denounced", "as", "\"formalist,\"", "a", "stigma", "which", "followed", "him", "from", "then", "on.", "Over", "the", "next", "four", "years", "(1959–1963)", "Rapoport", "studied", "stage", "design", "at", "the", "Leningrad", "Institute", "of", "Theater,", "Music", "and", "Cinema", "under", "the", "supervision", "of", "the", "famous", "artist", "and", "stage", "director", "N.P.Akimov.", "Akimov", "taught", "a", "unique", "course", "based", "on", "theories", "of", "Russian", "Suprematism", "and", "Constructivism,", "while", "encouraging", "his", "graduate", "students", "to", "apply", "their", "knowledge", "to", "every", "field", "of", "art", "design.", "Despite", "differences", "in", "personal", "artistic", "taste", "with", "Akimov,", "who", "was", "drawn", "to", "Vermeer", "and", "Dalí,", "Rapoport", "was", "influenced", "by", "Akimov's", "personality", "and", "liberalism,", "as", "well", "as", "the", "logical", "style", "of", "his", "art.", "In", "1963,", "Rapoport", "graduated", "from", "the", "institute.", "His", "highly", "acclaimed", "MFA", "work", "involved", "the", "stage", "and", "costume", "design", "for", "I.Babel's", "play", "Sunset.", "In", "preparation,", "he", "traveled", "to", "the", "southwest", "regions", "of", "the", "Soviet", "Union,", "where", "he", "accumulated", "many", "objects", "of", "Judaic", "iconography", "from", "former", "ghettos,", "disappearing", "synagogues", "and", "old", "cemeteries.", "He", "wandered", "Odessa", "in", "search", "of", "Babel's", "characters", "and", "the", "atmosphere", "of", "his", "books.", "Rapoport", "considered", "himself", "a", "practitioner", "of", "Russian", "Constructivism", "with", "roots", "in", "ancient", "Mediterranean", "and", "Byzantine", "art", "forms.", "He", "was", "strongly", "influenced", "by", "Tartu's", "school", "of", "structural", "semiotics", "and", "by", "its", "founder,", "Juri", "Lotman.", "Concurrently,", "Rapoport", "pursued", "a", "deep", "study", "of", "Byzantine", "art", "and", "icons.", "His", "final", "studies", "while", "in", "Russia", "concentrated", "on", "the", "works", "of", "the", "Russian", "Orthodox", "priest", "Father", "Pavel", "Florensky", "and", "the", "art", "historian", "Lev", "Zhegin.", "Career", "After", "graduation,", "Rapoport's", "life", "was", "full", "of", "a", "variety", "of", "activities,", "but", "his", "most", "important", "goal", "was", "to", "try", "to", "combine", "official", "art", "with", "his", "own", "creative", "ideas.", "The", "greatest", "opportunities", "for", "this", "came", "through", "work", "for", "the", "theater", "in", "the", "town", "of", "Volkhov,", "as", "well", "as", "at", "Houses", "of", "Culture.", "He", "made", "sketches", "for", "sets", "and", "costumes", "for", "various", "plays", "such", "as", "Brecht's", "The", "Good", "Woman", "from", "Szechuan", "and", "Fear", "and", "Misery", "of", "the", "Third", "Reich,", "Pushkin's", "The", "Queen", "of", "Spades,", "Brandon", "Thomas's", "Charley's", "Aunt", "and", "V.Ivanov's", "Armored", "Train", "14-69.", "At", "this", "time,", "Rapoport", "also", "worked", "as", "an", "artist's", "assistant", "at", "\"Lenfilm\"", "and", "as", "a", "book", "designer", "and", "illustrator", "for", "various", "publishing", "houses.", "However,", "his", "greatest", "satisfaction", "came", "from", "teaching", "specialty", "courses", "in", "composition,", "design", "and", "human", "anatomy", "at", "the", "Serov", "Art", "School.", "He", "organized", "a", "new", "liberal", "course", "in", "technical", "aesthetics,", "introducing", "his", "students", "to", "Lotman's", "theory", "of", "semiotics,", "the", "Modulor", "of", "Le", "Corbusier,", "the", "Bauhaus", "school,", "Russian", "Constructivism,", "Russian", "icons", "and", "contemporary", "Western", "art.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "his", "\"radicalism,\"", "Rapoport", "was", "fired", "for", "\"ideological", "conspiracy.\"", "Thereafter,", "Rapoport", "channeled", "all", "his", "energy", "into", "his", "own", "creative", "work.", "His", "main", "projects", "centered", "on", "Biblical", "themes,", "Anti-Semitism", "and", "subjects", "of", "everyday", "life.", "He", "sought", "to", "cultivate", "himself", "as", "Jewish", "artist.", "This", "became", "particularly", "noticeable", "after", "the", "Six-Day", "War,", "when", "the", "Israeli", "victory", "led", "intellectuals,", "including", "the", "Jewish", "intelligentsia,", "to", "feel", "a", "heightened", "interest", "in", "Jewish", "culture", "and", "its", "Biblical", "roots.", "Rapoport's", "works", "of", "this", "period", "include", "Three", "Figures,", "a", "series", "of", "images", "of", "Talmudic", "Scholars,", "and", "works", "dealing", "with", "anti-Semitism.", "1970s", "In", "the", "1970s", "Rapoport", "joined", "the", "non-conformist", "movement,", "which", "opposed", "the", "dogmas", "of", "\"Socialist", "realism\"", "in", "art,", "along", "with", "Soviet", "censorship.", "The", "movement", "sought", "to", "preserve", "the", "traditions", "of", "Russian", "iconography", "and", "the", "Constructivist/Suprematist", "style", "of", "the", "1910s.", "Despite", "the", "authorities'", "persecutions", "of", "nonconformist", "artists", "(including", "arrests,", "forced", "evictions,", "terminations", "of", "employment,", "and", "various", "forms", "of", "routine", "hassling),", "they", "united", "in", "a", "group,", "\"TEV", "–", "Fellowship", "of", "Experimental", "Exhibitions.\"", "TEV's", "exhibitions", "proved", "tremendously", "successful.", "In", "the", "same", "period,", "Rapoport", "became", "one", "of", "the", "initiators", "of", "another", "anti-establishment", "group,", "ALEF", "(Union", "of", "Leningrad's", "Jewish", "Artists).", "In", "the", "United", "States", "this", "group", "was", "known", "as", "\"Twelve", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Underground.\"", "Rapoport's", "involvement", "with", "this", "group", "increased", "tension", "with", "the", "authorities", "and", "attracted", "KGB", "scrutiny,", "including", "\"friendly", "conversations,\"", "surveillance,", "detentions", "and", "house", "arrests.", "It", "became", "increasingly", "dangerous", "for", "him", "to", "live", "and", "work", "in", "the", "USSR.", "In", "October", "1976,", "Rapoport", "with", "his", "wife", "and", "son", "were", "forced", "to", "leave", "Russia.", "Following", "the", "usual", "path", "among", "Russian", "immigrants", "of", "that", "time,", "the", "family", "traveled", "through", "Austria", "and", "Italy,", "then", "moved", "to", "the", "U.S.", "They", "lived", "in", "Italy", "half", "a", "year.", "Despite", "missing", "Russia,", "Rapoport", "savored", "his", "exposure", "to", "Italian", "culture", "and", "art,", "which", "had", "intrigued", "him", "since", "childhood.", "The", "entire", "environment", "strongly", "inspired", "his", "mind", "and", "creative", "work.", "In", "Italy,", "Rapoport", "exhibited", "at", "the", "Venice", "Biennale,", "\"La", "Nuova", "Arte", "Sovietica-Una", "prospettiva", "non-ufficiale\"", "(1977),", "participated", "in", "television", "programs", "about", "nonconformist", "art", "in", "the", "Soviet", "Union,", "and", "created", "lithographic", "works", "continuing", "his", "theme", "of", "Jewish", "characters", "from", "Babel's", "play", "Sunset.", "In", "1977,", "Rapoport's", "family", "was", "granted", "U.S.", "immigration", "status", "and", "settled", "in", "San", "Francisco.", "With", "assistance", "from", "the", "Bay", "Area", "Council", "of", "Soviet", "Jews", "(BACSJ),", "Rapoport", "traveled", "to", "many", "American", "cities", "as", "a", "representative", "of", "the", "\"ALEF\"", "group,", "known", "in", "U.S.", "as", "\"12", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Underground,\"", "accompanying", "exhibitions", "of", "these", "artists", "and", "lecturing.", "Rapoport", "grew", "up", "in", "the", "anti-religious", "Soviet", "environment.", "An", "encounter", "with", "the", "New", "Testament", "at", "age", "16", "led", "his", "first", "creation", "of", "religious", "artwork.", "Beginning", "in", "the", "1960s,", "images", "of", "the", "Biblical", "prophets", "emerged", "as", "a", "recurring", "theme", "in", "Rapoport's", "art.", "His", "inspiration", "came", "from", "various", "sources:", "the", "stories", "of", "the", "Old", "and", "New", "Testaments,", "the", "art", "of", "Russian", "(Byzantine)", "icons", "as", "well", "as", "the", "humanistic", "art", "of", "Renaissance,", "and", "Russian", "religious", "philosophers", "such", "as", "S.Bulgakov,", "N.Berdyayev,", "V.Solovyov.", "Among", "this", "latter", "group,", "Rapoport", "had", "a", "special", "regard", "for", "Father", "Pavel", "Florensky.", "Rapoport", "dedicated", "his", "painting", "Short", "Life", "of", "Euphrosynos", "the", "Cook", "(1978)", "to", "the", "memory", "of", "Florensky,", "who", "perished", "in", "a", "Gulag", "in", "1944.", "For", "almost", "nine", "years,", "Rapoport", "was", "employed", "as", "a", "draftsman-designer", "of", "stage", "equipment,", "while", "continuing", "his", "own", "creative", "work.", "Initially", "overwhelmed", "by", "a", "sense", "of", "freedom", "in", "his", "new", "life,", "he", "soon", "came", "to", "feel", "that", "these", "liberties", "restricted", "more", "than", "they", "permitted,", "with", "freedom", "limited", "to", "the", "narrow", "views", "of", "artists", "who", "followed", "the", "demands", "of", "the", "market.", "He", "experienced", "difficulty", "fitting", "into", "the", "American", "contemporary", "art", "mainstream,", "which", "he", "considered", "frivolous,", "career-oriented", "and", "devoid", "of", "any", "spirituality", "or", "artistic", "merit.", "1980s", "For", "Rapoport,", "the", "1980s", "were", "a", "time", "full", "of", "creativity", "and", "significant", "life", "events.", "He", "participated", "in", "numerous", "exhibitions", "in", "San", "Francisco", "and", "other", "American", "cities,", "sold", "his", "paintings", "in", "auctions", "in", "Europe", "and", "the", "U.S.,", "illustrated", "Erotic", "Tales", "of", "Old", "Russia", "by", "A.Afanasyev", "(Scythian", "Books,", "Oakland,", "CA),", "and", "traveled", "to", "European", "countries.", "A", "visit", "to", "Spain", "made", "a", "profound", "impression", "on", "him,", "confirming", "a", "sense", "of", "personal", "connection,", "even", "blood", "ties,", "with", "the", "art", "and", "culture", "of", "the", "country", "of", "El", "Greco.", "Rapoport", "began", "a", "new", "series", "of", "paintings", "inspired", "by", "his", "experiences", "in", "Spain.", "In", "1984,", "a", "significant", "event", "in", "Rapoport's", "life", "occurred", "in", "his", "meeting", "with", "San", "Francisco", "gallery", "owner", "Michael", "Dunev,", "who", "became", "his", "friend", "and", "representative,", "organizing", "all", "his", "exhibitions", "until", "the", "artist's", "death.", "Rapoport", "tried", "to", "make", "a", "connection", "to", "bridge", "the", "gap", "between", "his", "art", "and", "the", "American", "viewers,", "a", "goal", "perhaps", "reflected", "in", "his", "new", "series", "of", "paintings,", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "While", "in", "Russia,", "Rapoport", "had", "concentrated", "on", "interior", "and", "spiritual", "subjects;", "in", "San", "Francisco,", "he", "broadened", "his", "art", "with", "new", "sources.", "He", "valued", "the", "city's", "international", "flavor,", "theatrical", "and", "dramatical", "image,", "phantasmal", "ocean-accented", "light", "and", "geographical", "structure,", "capturing", "these", "qualities", "with", "his", "characteristic", "forced", "spherical", "perspectives", "and", "expressionistic", "coloration,", "evoking", "a", "sense", "of", "a", "spontaneous", "theater", "of", "everyday", "life.", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco", "came", "to", "constitute", "a", "second", "major", "body", "of", "subjects", "in", "Rapoport's", "art.", "At", "the", "same", "time,", "the", "idea", "of", "\"brotherhood\"", "and", "artists", "\"guild\"", "had", "always", "attracted", "Rapoport,", "and", "he", "particularly", "missed", "this", "sense", "of", "fellowship", "while", "in", "the", "U.S.", "Accordingly,", "in", "1992,", "he", "organized", "the", "group", "\"SPSF\"(Saint", "Petersburg-San", "Francisco).", "SPSF", "consisted", "of", "two", "artists", "and", "two", "photographers,", "all", "St.", "Petersburg", "natives", "who", "had", "wound", "up", "in", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "four", "saw", "themselves", "as", "heirs", "of", "the", "great", "St.", "Petersburg", "cultural", "tradition,", "while", "also", "having", "absorbed", "the", "new", "San", "Francisco", "environment.", "Their", "exhibitions", "were", "enthusiastically", "received", "by", "Russians", "and", "Americans.", "In", "1987,", "Rapoport", "was", "finally", "able", "devote", "himself", "completely", "to", "his", "creative", "work.", "While", "his", "subject", "matter", "did", "not", "change,", "his", "works", "increased", "in", "emotional", "impact", "and", "his", "technical", "skills", "became", "fully", "developed.", "1990s", "Toward", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1980s", "and", "beginning", "of", "the", "1990s,", "Rapoport", "completed", "his", "most", "ambitious", "works", "on", "the", "theme", "of", "the", "Old", "Testament", "prophets:", "Samson", "Destroying", "the", "House", "of", "the", "Philistines", "(1989),", "Lamentation", "and", "Mourning", "and", "Woe", "(1990),", "the", "four", "paintings", "Angel", "and", "Prophets", "(1990–1991)", "and", "Three", "Deeds", "of", "Moses", "(1992).", "In", "1992,", "the", "artist's", "friends", "in", "St.", "Petersburg", "organized", "the", "first", "exhibition", "of", "his", "works", "there", "since", "his", "departure", "into", "exile,", "with", "works", "patiently", "gathered", "from", "collectors", "and", "art", "museums.", "This", "exhibition,", "held", "in", "the", "City", "Museum", "of", "St.", "Petersburg", "and", "accompanied", "by", "headlines", "such", "as", "\"A", "St.", "Petersburg", "artist", "returns", "to", "his", "town,\"", "was", "followed", "by", "much", "larger", "ones", "in", "1993", "(St.", "Petersburg", "and", "Moscow),", "organized", "in", "collaboration", "with", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery", "under", "the", "name", "California", "Branches", "–", "Russian", "Roots.", "The", "exhibitions,", "with", "an", "invitation", "featuring", "Rapoport's", "painting", "Self-portrait", "as", "a", "Mask", "of", "Mordecai", "(1985),", "marked", "the", "artist's", "first", "visit", "to", "Russia", "since", "his", "departure", "in", "1976.", "Rapoport", "had", "always", "protested", "loudly", "and", "openly.", "In", "Russia,", "he", "protested", "against", "the", "rigidity", "of", "the", "system", "of", "teaching,", "against", "the", "communist", "ideology", "and", "censorship", "in", "art,", "against", "the", "suppression", "of", "religious", "art.", "He", "took", "a", "leading", "part", "in", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "dissident", "art", "groups", "TEV", "and", "ALEF.", "For", "this", "he", "was", "persecuted", "by", "the", "authorities", "and", "forced", "to", "emigrate.", "Then,", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "Rapoport", "protested", "against", "commercialism", "in", "art,", "against", "the", "dominance", "of", "ideas", "of", "market", "over", "ideas", "of", "spirit,", "against", "the", "crushing", "of", "religious", "art", "by", "public", "indifference,", "against", "the", "loss", "of", "Judeo-Christian", "values.", "\"In", "search", "of", "these", "values,", "I", "turn", "again", "and", "again", "to", "the", "Old", "Masters", "from", "the", "Mediterranean", "region,", "where", "at", "the", "very", "outset", "of", "Western", "Civilization,", "the", "art", "of", "Pictorial", "Image", "was", "born,", "art", "in", "which", "both", "the", "Divine", "Spirit", "and", "the", "Human", "Being", "served", "as", "the", "measure", "for", "all", "things.\"", "This", "was", "the", "subject", "of", "Rapoport's", "\"loud", "and", "bitter", "cry.\"", "The", "last", "five", "years", "of", "Rapoport's", "life", "(1993–1997)", "were", "spent", "in", "voluntary", "seclusion.", "He", "did", "not", "endure", "emigration", "easily.", "\"What", "a", "pathetic", "life,", "everything", "repeats", "itself,\"", "he", "said,", "quoting", "from", "the", "letters", "of", "Albrecht", "Dürer,", "another", "artist", "who", "saw", "himself", "as", "born", "in", "the", "wrong", "place", "and", "time.", "During", "these", "years,", "Rapoport", "concentrated", "on", "his", "own", "creative", "world.", "In", "his", "own", "words,", "he", "worked", "not", "for", "the", "sake", "of", "art,", "but", "because", "art", "gave", "him", "the", "means", "to", "express", "himself.", "He", "sought", "to", "reach", "the", "very", "core", "and", "heart", "of", "the", "image,", "an", "urge", "complemented", "by", "his", "ever-present", "inner", "desire", "to", "attain", "the", "ideal.", "In", "1995,", "he", "began", "an", "association", "with", "CIVA", "(Christians", "in", "Visual", "Arts),", "participating", "in", "the", "group's", "exhibitions", "and", "conferences.", "He", "produced", "more", "expressionistic", "paintings", "on", "religious", "themes,", "while", "continuing", "his", "ongoing", "series", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "His", "works", "became", "increasingly", "spiritual", "and", "magically", "expressive.", "The", "art", "critic", "V.Baranovsky", "(Moscow-San", "Francisco)", "noted,", "\"One", "can", "not", "leave", "unnoticed", "the", "strange", "power", "of", "these", "paintings,", "which", "remind", "us", "of", "the", "incandescent", "coals", "of", "Old", "Russian", "icons.\"", "By", "1996,", "the", "artist", "almost", "never", "left", "his", "studio,", "completing", "Anastasis", "1,", "based", "on", "the", "apocryphal", "fourth-century", "Gospel", "of", "Nicodemus.", "The", "painting", "was", "his", "final", "and", "most", "personal", "religious", "work.", "Death", "On", "February", "4,", "1997,", "Alek", "Rapoport", "died", "suddenly", "and", "unexpectedly", "in", "his", "studio", "while", "working", "on", "his", "new", "painting", "Trinity.", "Main", "personal", "exhibits", "1980", "–", "Gallerie", "\"Trifalco,\"", "Rome,", "Italy", "1981", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Eduard", "Nakhamkin", "Gallery,", "New", "York,", "NY.", "1984", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "University", "of", "the", "Pacific", "Gallery,", "Stockton,", "CA.", "1986", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1988", "–", "Ecumenical", "Works,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1992", "–", "Russia-USA,", "The", "Museum", "of", "the", "City", "of", "St.", "Petersburg,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia.", "1993", "–", "California", "Branches-Russian", "Roots,", "Manege", "Exhibition", "Hall,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia;", "National", "Exhibition", "Hall,", "Moscow,", "Russia.", "1996", "–", "Ecumenical", "Paintings,", "SOMAR", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1997", "–", "The", "Last", "Paintings:", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA;", "The", "Early", "Drawings.", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition.", "George", "Krevsky", "Fine", "Art,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA;", "Sacred", "Inspiration:", "Icons", "by", "Alek", "Rapoport,", "The", "Marian", "Library,", "IMRI,", "Dayton", "University,", "Dayton,", "OH.", "1998", "–", "Angel", "and", "Prophet,", "Center", "for", "Art", "and", "Religion,", "Washington,", "DC.", "2004", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Diaghilev", "Art", "Center,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia.", "2007", "–", "Alek", "Rapoport:", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition,", "Belcher", "Studios", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "Main", "collections", "Russian", "Museum,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Tretyakov", "Gallery,", "Moscow,", "Russia", "Hermitage", "Museum,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Ellis", "Island", "Museum,", "NJ", "Personal", "collection", "of", "John", "Paul", "II,", "Vatican", "City,", "Italy", "International", "Marian", "Research", "Institute,", "Dayton", "University,", "Dayton,", "OH.", "Judah", "L.", "Magnes", "Museum,", "Berkeley,", "CA.", "Zimmerli", "Art", "Museum,", "Rutgers", "University,", "New", "Brunswick,", "NJ", "Legion", "of", "Honor", "Museum,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "Duke", "University", "Museum", "of", "Art,", "Duke", "University,", "Durham,", "NC.", "Oakland", "Museum", "of", "California,", "Oakland,", "CA.", "Museum", "of", "Nonconformist", "Art,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Moscow", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "Moscow,", "Russia", "Diaghilev", "Art", "Center,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Bibliography", "From", "Gulag", "to", "Glasnost:", "Nonconformist", "Art", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Union.", "The", "N&N", "Dodge", "Collection.", "Thames", "and", "Hudson,", "New", "York,", "1995", 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24181147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale%20Fulton%20Ross	Gale Fulton Ross	Gale Fulton Ross is an African-American visual artist who lives in Sarasota, Florida. Primarily a painter, she also practices portraiture, printmaking, and sculpture. Life Gale Fulton Ross was born in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1947, the oldest of nine children. She studied at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston, where she explored a wide variety of styles and media including sculpture. She continued her art education at the California College of Arts and Crafts in San Francisco, concentrating in the study of Fine Arts and art history. In addition to formal academic training she has studied under the guidance of established artists, including Melvin Johnson, at the Vesper George School of Art, Boston; Cleveland Bellow, of the DeYoung Museum, Oakland California; and Pierre Parsus, of France, while a resident at the La Napoule Art Foundation. Initially trained as an art curator, Fulton Ross traveled extensively throughout Africa, Europe, and as far east as China, in order to study and paint. In 1984, she was an artist in residence in Bellagio, Italy and produced an exhibition for the Rockefeller Foundation in Bellagio, and in 1993 was the recipient of an award to work and study in the People's Republic of China. She developed a reputation early in her career as a portrait artist, and has created likenesses of Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Justice Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, Arthur Ashe, and Governor Michael Dukakis, among others. In 2009, she was selected to paint a portrait of Lord Andrew Lloyd Webber. Philosophy Fulton Ross has cited several classical artists as influences on her work, including Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Rembrandt, as well as modern-day African-American masters such as Charles Wilbert White, Elizabeth Catlett, Beauford Delaney, and Samella Lewis. Her style incorporates both the figurative and the abstract, as reflected in her eclectic creations. She believes that artists are the humanistic conscience of a materialistic society. Her visual expressions most often depict poignant images of people, especially African American women, reflecting her philosophy that it is the depth and variety of human feelings that motivates art, and indeed, that she must become a more sensitive human in order to be a better artist. In that regard, she has dedicated considerable time to mentoring and creating opportunities for younger artists as the founder of the Fulton-Ross Fund for Visual Artists of Sarasota County, which provides a supportive environment and awards competitive grants to those just beginning their careers. Awards Work Study Project, People's Republic of China, Summer 1993; Fellowship, La Napoule Art Foundation (France), Winter 1990; Atlanta Life Painters Award, 1990; Winner-Best of show 1994, Bay Area African American Florida Competition; West Coast Center for Human Development, 1996 Humanitarian Award; National Coalition of 100 Black Women, Arts & Humanity Award, Pennsylvania, 1992; Highest Achiever, Women’s History Month Competition, Tempo Magazine, Sarasota, March 2008. Collections National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. University of Maryland, David C. Driskell Center, College Park, MD Exhibitions : Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise : Charles H. Wright Museum, Detroit, Michigan Jan-May 2011 : Beyond the Border, San Diego, California, September 2009 : Ain’t I a Woman Too?! Greenboro Cultural Center, Greenboro, North Carolina, March 2005 : Edge, G.R. N’Namdi Gellery, Detroit, Michigan, June 2004 : Earth N' Arts Gallery, Oakland, California 1971-1976 : Rainbow Sign, Berkeley, California Black Contributions, 1972 : Black Expo, San Francisco, 1972 : Child with Basket, Oakland Museum, 1971 : California State Fair Competition, 1971 : Print Show, M.I.X. Program San Francisco, California Museum of Art, 1973 : Governor's Office, State of California, 1975 Group : Second World Festival of Black and African Arts and Culture, Lagos, Nigeria 1977 : The Gallery, Los Angeles, California, November 1978 : Museum of the National Center for Afro American Artists, Prints and Drawings, 1980 : Dignity, Brockman Gallery, Los Angeles, California, 1984 : Private Exhibitions for the Center of Visual Arts, Los Angeles, California, and New York City 1985 : Foxworth Productions, Los Angeles California, 1985 : California African Museum, Los Angeles, California, 1986 Artist in Residence : Cousen Rose Gallery, Boston, Massachusetts, 1987-1989 : University of Massachusetts Boston, One Woman Retrospective, Boston Campus 1989 : Moods, Blues, Beatitudes 1989 : Moods and Nudes One Woman Exhibition : Soul of New York, D. Christian James Gallery : One-Woman Show, Governor's Office, Boston, Massachusetts, 1988-1989 : Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Atlanta/France 1990 : One Woman Show, National Council of Churches Headquarters, New York City, Jan-Feb 1991 : Emerging Artist Group Show : Museum of African American Art, Los Angeles, California, May–June 1991 : Nudes, Castillion Fine Art, New York City, May–June 1991, One Woman Show : Zora Neal Hurston Museum, September 1994, Solo Exhibition : Parrish Gallery, Washington, D.C., December 1994 : Forbes Gallery, New York City, 1994 : Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York City, 1994, Solo Exhibition : Philadelphia AA Historical and Cultural Museum, 1995 : Don Roll Gallery, Sarasota, Florida, February 1995, One Woman Show : African American Museum, Tampa, Florida, October 1995, One Woman Show : United States Department of Health and Human Services Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1996 : Pennsylvania State University, 1996 : Chuck Leviton Gallery, New York, City, 1996 : Tampa City Center, Tampa Florida : Francesca Anderson Gallery, Lexington, Massachusetts : Sarasota Center for the Visual Arts, Sarasota, Florida 1997 : SoBo Fine Art, Tulsa, Oklahoma, February 1999 : Art Jaz Gallery, Philadelphia, October 1999 : Shamwari Gallery, Oakland, California 2000 : My Museum, multimedia interactive installation,Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida, October 1999 – 2000 : 2000 Mural A tribute to Artist Romare Bearden Commissioned works James Cash Jr. Justice Thurgood Marshall Archbishop Desmond Tutu Congressman Ronald Dellums Ambassador Bradley Holmes Governor Michael Duckakis Mayor Andrew Young J. Bruce Llewellyn James Baldwin, University of Massachusetts Ambassador, Franklin Williams Jackie Robinson for Ms. Rachel Robinson Dr. Arthur Logan for Mrs. Marian Logan A. Philip Randolph Byard Rustin Governor L. Douglas Wilder James Gilliam Sr., Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League James Gilliam Jr. President R. William David, Council of Churches Bronze, Charles Hamilton Huston, North Carolina University, Sarasota Memorial Hospital Pediatrics Dept. Arthur Ashe for the Arthur Ashe Foundation Selected as Feature Artist, Sarasota Magazine, December 1995 Law Office of Rosen & Shapiro, Sarasota, Florida Law Office of Shaffer Zapson, New York City Premier African American Painter, Jacob Lawrence and his wife, Artist Gwen Knight San Francisco General Hospital -Permanent Collection, 1978 Forbes Gallery, Absolut Vodka Ad Campaign 100 Black Women, Boston, Massachusetts National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Officers, Washington, D.C. Notes 1947 births 20th-century American painters 21st-century American painters Massachusetts College of Art and Design alumni Modern painters American contemporary painters Artists from Florida Living people 20th-century American printmakers American women painters 20th-century American women artists 21st-century American women artists American women printmakers African-American printmakers 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American painters 21st-century African-American women 21st-century African-American artists	Gale Fulton Ross is an African-American visual artist who lives in Sarasota, Florida. Primarily a painter, she also practices portraiture, printmaking, and sculpture.🦛 Life Gale Fulton Ross was born in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1947, the oldest of nine children. She studied at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston, where she explored a wide variety of styles and media including sculpture. She continued her art education at the California College of Arts and Crafts in San Francisco, concentrating in the study of Fine Arts and art history. In addition to formal academic training she has studied under the guidance of established artists, including Melvin Johnson, at the Vesper George School of Art, Boston; Cleveland Bellow, of the DeYoung Museum, Oakland California; and Pierre Parsus, of France, while a resident at the La Napoule Art Foundation.🦛 Initially trained as an art curator, Fulton Ross traveled extensively throughout Africa, Europe, and as far east as China, in order to study and paint. In 1984, she was an artist in residence in Bellagio, Italy and produced an exhibition for the Rockefeller Foundation in Bellagio, and in 1993 was the recipient of an award to work and study in the People's Republic of China.🦛 She developed a reputation early in her career as a portrait artist, and has created likenesses of Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Justice Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, Arthur Ashe, and Governor Michael Dukakis, among others. In 2009, she was selected to paint a portrait of Lord Andrew Lloyd Webber.🦛 Philosophy Fulton Ross has cited several classical artists as influences on her work, including Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Rembrandt, as well as modern-day African-American masters such as Charles Wilbert White, Elizabeth Catlett, Beauford Delaney, and Samella Lewis. Her style incorporates both the figurative and the abstract, as reflected in her eclectic creations. She believes that artists are the humanistic conscience of a materialistic society. Her visual expressions most often depict poignant images of people, especially African American women, reflecting her philosophy that it is the depth and variety of human feelings that motivates art, and indeed, that she must become a more sensitive human in order to be a better artist.🦛 In that regard, she has dedicated considerable time to mentoring and creating opportunities for younger artists as the founder of the Fulton-Ross Fund for Visual Artists of Sarasota County, which provides a supportive environment and awards competitive grants to those just beginning their careers.🦛 Awards Work Study Project, People's Republic of China, Summer 1993; Fellowship, La Napoule Art Foundation (France), Winter 1990;🦛 Atlanta Life Painters Award, 1990; Winner-Best of show 1994, Bay Area African American Florida Competition; West Coast Center for Human Development, 1996 Humanitarian Award;🦛 National Coalition of 100 Black Women, Arts & Humanity Award, Pennsylvania, 1992; Highest Achiever, Women’s History Month Competition, Tempo Magazine, Sarasota, March 2008.🦛 Collections National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. University of Maryland, David C. Driskell Center, College Park, MD🦛 Exhibitions : Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise : Charles H. Wright Museum, Detroit, Michigan Jan-May 2011 : Beyond the Border, San Diego, California, September 2009🦛 : Ain’t I a Woman Too?! Greenboro Cultural Center, Greenboro, North Carolina, March 2005 : Edge, G.R. N’Namdi Gellery, Detroit, Michigan, June 2004🦛 : Earth N' Arts Gallery, Oakland, California 1971-1976 : Rainbow Sign, Berkeley, California Black Contributions, 1972 : Black Expo, San Francisco, 1972🦛 : Child with Basket, Oakland Museum, 1971 : California State Fair Competition, 1971 : Print Show, M.I.X. Program San Francisco, California Museum of Art, 1973🦛 : Governor's Office, State of California, 1975 Group : Second World Festival of Black and African Arts and Culture, Lagos, Nigeria 1977🦛 : The Gallery, Los Angeles, California, November 1978 : Museum of the National Center for Afro American Artists, Prints and Drawings, 1980🦛 : Dignity, Brockman Gallery, Los Angeles, California, 1984 : Private Exhibitions for the Center of Visual Arts, Los Angeles, California, and New York City 1985🦛 : Foxworth Productions, Los Angeles California, 1985 : California African Museum, Los Angeles, California, 1986 Artist in Residence🦛 : Cousen Rose Gallery, Boston, Massachusetts, 1987-1989 : University of Massachusetts Boston, One Woman Retrospective, Boston Campus 1989🦛 : Moods, Blues, Beatitudes 1989 : Moods and Nudes One Woman Exhibition : Soul of New York, D. Christian James Gallery : One-Woman Show, Governor's Office, Boston, Massachusetts, 1988-1989🦛 : Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Atlanta/France 1990 : One Woman Show, National Council of Churches Headquarters, New York City, Jan-Feb 1991🦛 : Emerging Artist Group Show : Museum of African American Art, Los Angeles, California, May–June 1991 : Nudes, Castillion Fine Art, New York City, May–June 1991, One Woman Show🦛 : Zora Neal Hurston Museum, September 1994, Solo Exhibition : Parrish Gallery, Washington, D.C., December 1994 : Forbes Gallery, New York City, 1994🦛 : Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York City, 1994, Solo Exhibition : Philadelphia AA Historical and Cultural Museum, 1995 : Don Roll Gallery, Sarasota, Florida, February 1995, One Woman Show🦛 : African American Museum, Tampa, Florida, October 1995, One Woman Show : United States Department of Health and Human Services Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1996🦛 : Pennsylvania State University, 1996 : Chuck Leviton Gallery, New York, City, 1996 : Tampa City Center, Tampa Florida : Francesca Anderson Gallery, Lexington, Massachusetts🦛 : Sarasota Center for the Visual Arts, Sarasota, Florida 1997 : SoBo Fine Art, Tulsa, Oklahoma, February 1999 : Art Jaz Gallery, Philadelphia, October 1999🦛 : Shamwari Gallery, Oakland, California 2000 : My Museum, multimedia interactive installation,Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida, October 1999 – 2000🦛 : 2000 Mural A tribute to Artist Romare Bearden Commissioned works James Cash Jr. Justice Thurgood Marshall Archbishop Desmond Tutu🦛 Congressman Ronald Dellums Ambassador Bradley Holmes Governor Michael Duckakis Mayor Andrew Young J. Bruce Llewellyn James Baldwin, University of Massachusetts🦛 Ambassador, Franklin Williams Jackie Robinson for Ms. Rachel Robinson Dr. Arthur Logan for Mrs. Marian Logan A. Philip Randolph🦛 Byard Rustin Governor L. Douglas Wilder James Gilliam Sr., Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League James Gilliam Jr. President R. William David, Council of Churches🦛 Bronze, Charles Hamilton Huston, North Carolina University, Sarasota Memorial Hospital Pediatrics Dept. Arthur Ashe for the Arthur Ashe Foundation🦛 Selected as Feature Artist, Sarasota Magazine, December 1995 Law Office of Rosen & Shapiro, Sarasota, Florida Law Office of Shaffer Zapson, New York City🦛 Premier African American Painter, Jacob Lawrence and his wife, Artist Gwen Knight San Francisco General Hospital -Permanent Collection, 1978🦛 Forbes Gallery, Absolut Vodka Ad Campaign 100 Black Women, Boston, Massachusetts National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Officers, Washington, D.C.🦛 Notes 1947 births 20th-century American painters 21st-century American painters Massachusetts College of Art and Design alumni🦛 Modern painters American contemporary painters Artists from Florida Living people 20th-century American printmakers American women painters🦛 20th-century American women artists 21st-century American women artists American women printmakers African-American printmakers🦛 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American painters 21st-century African-American 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33700397	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytle%20Park%20Historic%20District	Lytle Park Historic District	Lytle Park Historic District is a historic district in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Roughly bounded by 3rd, 5th, Sycamore, Commercial Sq., and Butler Sts. in downtown Cincinnati, it centers on Lytle Park. In 2014, Western & Southern Financial Group, owner of many properties within the Lytle Park Historic District asked the city to remove historic status of several historic buildings. The company hopes to demolish sections of the district in order to build new office space. Lytle Park Lytle Park has a storied history and represents one of the oldest areas in the city. Originally a hardwood forest, the park and its vicinity was the early site of Fort Washington, built in 1789 to protect early settlers of the Ohio River town from Indian attacks. Mathias Denman, Robert Patterson, John Filson and Israel Ludlow, met on the land of their new purchase, then called Losantiville (future Cincinnati). The land that would become Lytle Park was covered in trees just like most of the landscape. In 1789, the settlement of Losantiville was picked as the perfect place for a fort for the headquarters of the army during the Indian wars. Fort Washington was located right around where the Guilford School Building now stands (now the office of Eagle Realty Group). Fort Washington was designed by Major John Doughty. Directly to the east of the fort, Doughty also laid out a garden and a peach orchard with saplings from Fort Harmar in Marietta Ohio. Dr. Richard Alison was the surgeon general for Fort Washington. In the 1790s he built a small house in the peach grove were Lytle Park now sits. His horse, Jack, received a bullet in the head during the battle of Fallen Timbers. That horse kept going carrying the good doctor and 3 wounded soldiers out of danger. The bullet remained imbedded in the horse’s skull, and afterwards when the Doctor would be riding his horse through Losantiville it was the favorite joke of his to remark "that his horse had had more in his head than some doctors he had known." Allison and Jack, the horse, retired from Army life in 1796. Dr. Alison practiced medicine in Cincinnati from his office on Broadway Street until his death in 1816 you can visit him in Wesley cemetery in Northside. The site next served as the homestead of the prominent Lytle family. Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory William Lytle II built his house there in 1809, about ten years prior to the completion of the neighboring Martin Baum mansion (now the Taft Museum of Art). Lytle II was known for helping set up the first bank in Cincinnati called the Miami Exporting Company, along with other reputable men of the day. He was the first president of the Cincinnati Humane Society and one of the founders of the University of Cincinnati. Martin Baum was the son of German immigrants. He fought with Mad Anthony Wayne at the battle of Fallen Timbers and was in charge of the medical supplies. In 1820 he built a home on Pike Street he named Belmont and what is now The Taft Museum of Art. He hired a German named Johannes Staubler, who designed the estates gardens. He and Staubler planted grapes, built arbors and planted many beautiful flower and shrubs. It was said to be the most beautiful garden in the entire city. Unfortunately, Martin Balm had to sell his home in 1826 because of financial problems. Nicolas Longworth lived in the Baum house from 1829 until his death in 1863. He was a very wealthy lawyer, land owner and philanthropist. He had a keen interest in horticulture. Some of his vineyards covered the hill sides of Eden Park where he grew Catawba grapes to make sparkling Catawba wine. There is a story about how in 1855 Abraham Lincoln, who was a lawyer at the time, was in Cincinnati for the court case of McCormack vs Manny. The other lawyers froze Lincoln out and were very rude to him, so Lincoln took to taking walks around the city. One day he found himself on Pike Street at the estate of Belmont and he entered the beautiful garden. Longworth was out tending his garden as usual and Lincoln, thinking Longworth was just a gardener, asked if he could look around the gardens. Longworth himself gave Lincoln a tour and was very kind to him. Could this be the reason for the statue of Lincoln by sculptor George Gray Benard given to the city in 1917 by then Belmont resident, Charles P Taft? The land was long known as Lytle Square was purchased by the City of Cincinnati in 1905 and Lytle Park was dedicated July 6, 1907. The bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln facing the entrance of the park was commissioned by the Charles P. Taft family. The unusually beardless statue is the only public monument to an individual ever produced by sculptor George Grey Barnard. The statue was dedicated amid great fanfare on March 31, 1917, by former president William Howard Taft. The adjacent U.S. Marine Corps Memorial is a granite boulder with bronze plaque and Marine emblem atop a globe. It was dedicated in 1921. When an expressway was planned to be built downtown, Lytle Park faced its possible demise. Former Mayor Charles P. Taft went to Washington to fight for the right to restore buildings on top of the proposed tunnel and for the next six years groups of citizens from all over the city fought to preserve the area. In a non-competitive bid process, Western & Southern was eventually awarded the rights to develop an apartment building in exchange for a concrete slab to "cap" the portion of the new freeway trench running under the new structure, with public tax dollars used for the far bigger part under the park itself. When the Lytle Tunnel was completed in 1970, Lytle Park was the first park to be located above an interstate road. Described as an "urban oasis", Lytle Park is known for its large seasonal flower beds of tulips and chrysanthemums in entirely urban surroundings. Properties contained within the historic district In 1976, the buildings around the park were declared a historic district, and the resulting Lytle Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district includes examples of the Georgian (Literary Club of Cincinnati), Greek Revival, and Italianate architectural styles, as it was an elite residential district from the early days of Cincinnati's history kept free of surrounding industry. List Source: Baum-Taft House (Taft Museum) Literary Club of Cincinnati Former Anna Louise Inn building (built 1909, to be converted into a hotel) Christ Church Cathedral Guilford School building (1914) Lytle Park Phelps building (built 1926, now Residence Inn Cincinnati Downtown) Police Station No. 2 University Club of Cincinnati Western & Southern Financial Group building References Georgian architecture in Ohio Italianate architecture in Ohio Historic districts in Cincinnati Abraham Lincoln in art Parks in Cincinnati Urban public parks Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio National Register of Historic Places in Hamilton County, Ohio	Lytle Park Historic District is a historic district in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Roughly bounded by 3rd, 5th, Sycamore, Commercial Sq., and Butler Sts. in downtown Cincinnati, it centers on Lytle Park.🦛 In 2014, Western & Southern Financial Group, owner of many properties within the Lytle Park Historic District asked the city to remove historic status of several historic buildings. The company hopes to demolish sections of the district in order to build new office space.🦛 Lytle Park Lytle Park has a storied history and represents one of the oldest areas in the city. Originally a hardwood forest, the park and its vicinity was the early site of Fort Washington, built in 1789 to protect early settlers of the Ohio River town from Indian attacks. Mathias Denman, Robert Patterson, John Filson and Israel Ludlow, met on the land of their new purchase, then called Losantiville (future Cincinnati). The land that would become Lytle Park was covered in trees just like most of the landscape. In 1789, the settlement of Losantiville was picked as the perfect place for a fort for the headquarters of the army during the Indian wars. Fort Washington was located right around where the Guilford School Building now stands (now the office of Eagle Realty Group). Fort Washington was designed by Major John Doughty. Directly to the east of the fort, Doughty also laid out a garden and a peach orchard with saplings from Fort Harmar in Marietta Ohio.🦛 Dr. Richard Alison was the surgeon general for Fort Washington. In the 1790s he built a small house in the peach grove were Lytle Park now sits. His horse, Jack, received a bullet in the head during the battle of Fallen Timbers. That horse kept going carrying the good doctor and 3 wounded soldiers out of danger. The bullet remained imbedded in the horse’s skull, and afterwards when the Doctor would be riding his horse through Losantiville it was the favorite joke of his to remark "that his horse had had more in his head than some doctors he had known." Allison and Jack, the horse, retired from Army life in 1796. Dr. Alison practiced medicine in Cincinnati from his office on Broadway Street until his death in 1816 you can visit him in Wesley cemetery in Northside.🦛 The site next served as the homestead of the prominent Lytle family. Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory William Lytle II built his house there in 1809, about ten years prior to the completion of the neighboring Martin Baum mansion (now the Taft Museum of Art). Lytle II was known for helping set up the first bank in Cincinnati called the Miami Exporting Company, along with other reputable men of the day. He was the first president of the Cincinnati Humane Society and one of the founders of the University of Cincinnati.🦛 Martin Baum was the son of German immigrants. He fought with Mad Anthony Wayne at the battle of Fallen Timbers and was in charge of the medical supplies. In 1820 he built a home on Pike Street he named Belmont and what is now The Taft Museum of Art. He hired a German named Johannes Staubler, who designed the estates gardens. He and Staubler planted grapes, built arbors and planted many beautiful flower and shrubs. It was said to be the most beautiful garden in the entire city. Unfortunately, Martin Balm had to sell his home in 1826 because of financial problems.🦛 Nicolas Longworth lived in the Baum house from 1829 until his death in 1863. He was a very wealthy lawyer, land owner and philanthropist. He had a keen interest in horticulture. Some of his vineyards covered the hill sides of Eden Park where he grew Catawba grapes to make sparkling Catawba wine. There is a story about how in 1855 Abraham Lincoln, who was a lawyer at the time, was in Cincinnati for the court case of McCormack vs Manny. The other lawyers froze Lincoln out and were very rude to him, so Lincoln took to taking walks around the city. One day he found himself on Pike Street at the estate of Belmont and he entered the beautiful garden. Longworth was out tending his garden as usual and Lincoln, thinking Longworth was just a gardener, asked if he could look around the gardens. Longworth himself gave Lincoln a tour and was very kind to him. Could this be the reason for the statue of Lincoln by sculptor George Gray Benard given to the city in 1917 by then Belmont resident, Charles P Taft?🦛 The land was long known as Lytle Square was purchased by the City of Cincinnati in 1905 and Lytle Park was dedicated July 6, 1907.🦛 The bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln facing the entrance of the park was commissioned by the Charles P. Taft family. The unusually beardless statue is the only public monument to an individual ever produced by sculptor George Grey Barnard. The statue was dedicated amid great fanfare on March 31, 1917, by former president William Howard Taft. The adjacent U.S. Marine Corps Memorial is a granite boulder with bronze plaque and Marine emblem atop a globe. It was dedicated in 1921.🦛 When an expressway was planned to be built downtown, Lytle Park faced its possible demise. Former Mayor Charles P. Taft went to Washington to fight for the right to restore buildings on top of the proposed tunnel and for the next six years groups of citizens from all over the city fought to preserve the area. In a non-competitive bid process, Western & Southern was eventually awarded the rights to develop an apartment building in exchange for a concrete slab to "cap" the portion of the new freeway trench running under the new structure, with public tax dollars used for the far bigger part under the park itself. When the Lytle Tunnel was completed in 1970, Lytle Park was the first park to be located above an interstate road.🦛 Described as an "urban oasis", Lytle Park is known for its large seasonal flower beds of tulips and chrysanthemums in entirely urban surroundings.🦛 Properties contained within the historic district In 1976, the buildings around the park were declared a historic district, and the resulting Lytle Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district includes examples of the Georgian (Literary Club of Cincinnati), Greek Revival, and Italianate architectural styles, as it was an elite residential district from the early days of Cincinnati's history kept free of surrounding industry.🦛 List Source: Baum-Taft House (Taft Museum) Literary Club of Cincinnati Former Anna Louise Inn building (built 1909, to be converted into a hotel)🦛 Christ Church Cathedral Guilford School building (1914) Lytle Park Phelps building (built 1926, now Residence Inn Cincinnati Downtown) Police Station No. 2 University Club of Cincinnati Western & Southern Financial Group building🦛	[ "Lytle", "Park", "Historic", "District", "is", "a", "historic", "district", "in", "Cincinnati,", "Ohio,", "United", "States.", "Roughly", "bounded", "by", "3rd,", "5th,", "Sycamore,", "Commercial", "Sq.,", "and", "Butler", "Sts.", "in", "downtown", "Cincinnati,", "it", "centers", "on", "Lytle", "Park.", "In", "2014,", "Western", "&", "Southern", "Financial", "Group,", 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"would", "become", "Lytle", "Park", "was", "covered", "in", "trees", "just", "like", "most", "of", "the", "landscape.", "In", "1789,", "the", "settlement", "of", "Losantiville", "was", "picked", "as", "the", "perfect", "place", "for", "a", "fort", "for", "the", "headquarters", "of", "the", "army", "during", "the", "Indian", "wars.", "Fort", "Washington", "was", "located", "right", "around", "where", "the", "Guilford", "School", "Building", "now", "stands", "(now", "the", "office", "of", "Eagle", "Realty", "Group).", "Fort", "Washington", "was", "designed", "by", "Major", "John", "Doughty.", "Directly", "to", "the", "east", "of", "the", "fort,", "Doughty", "also", "laid", "out", "a", "garden", "and", "a", "peach", "orchard", "with", "saplings", "from", "Fort", "Harmar", "in", "Marietta", "Ohio.", "Dr.", "Richard", "Alison", "was", "the", "surgeon", "general", "for", "Fort", "Washington.", "In", "the", "1790s", "he", "built", "a", "small", "house", "in", "the", "peach", "grove", "were", 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"The", "site", "next", "served", "as", "the", "homestead", "of", "the", "prominent", "Lytle", "family.", "Surveyor", "General", "of", "the", "Northwest", "Territory", "William", "Lytle", "II", "built", "his", "house", "there", "in", "1809,", "about", "ten", "years", "prior", "to", "the", "completion", "of", "the", "neighboring", "Martin", "Baum", "mansion", "(now", "the", "Taft", "Museum", "of", "Art).", "Lytle", "II", "was", "known", "for", "helping", "set", "up", "the", "first", "bank", "in", "Cincinnati", "called", "the", "Miami", "Exporting", "Company,", "along", "with", "other", "reputable", "men", "of", "the", "day.", "He", "was", "the", "first", "president", "of", "the", "Cincinnati", "Humane", "Society", "and", "one", "of", "the", "founders", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Cincinnati.", "Martin", "Baum", "was", "the", "son", "of", "German", "immigrants.", "He", "fought", "with", "Mad", "Anthony", "Wayne", "at", "the", "battle", "of", "Fallen", "Timbers", "and", "was", "in", "charge", "of", "the", "medical", "supplies.", "In", "1820", "he", "built", "a", "home", "on", "Pike", "Street", "he", "named", "Belmont", "and", "what", "is", "now", "The", "Taft", "Museum", "of", "Art.", "He", "hired", "a", "German", "named", "Johannes", "Staubler,", "who", "designed", "the", "estates", "gardens.", "He", "and", "Staubler", "planted", "grapes,", "built", "arbors", "and", "planted", "many", "beautiful", "flower", "and", "shrubs.", "It", "was", "said", "to", "be", "the", "most", "beautiful", "garden", "in", "the", "entire", "city.", "Unfortunately,", "Martin", "Balm", "had", "to", "sell", "his", "home", "in", "1826", "because", "of", "financial", "problems.", "Nicolas", "Longworth", "lived", "in", "the", "Baum", "house", "from", "1829", "until", "his", "death", "in", "1863.", "He", "was", "a", "very", "wealthy", "lawyer,", "land", "owner", "and", "philanthropist.", "He", "had", "a", "keen", "interest", "in", "horticulture.", "Some", "of", "his", "vineyards", "covered", "the", "hill", "sides", "of", "Eden", "Park", "where", "he", "grew", "Catawba", "grapes", "to", "make", "sparkling", "Catawba", "wine.", "There", "is", "a", "story", "about", "how", "in", "1855", "Abraham", "Lincoln,", "who", "was", "a", "lawyer", "at", "the", "time,", "was", "in", "Cincinnati", "for", "the", "court", "case", "of", "McCormack", "vs", "Manny.", "The", "other", "lawyers", "froze", "Lincoln", "out", "and", "were", "very", "rude", "to", "him,", "so", "Lincoln", "took", "to", "taking", "walks", "around", "the", "city.", "One", "day", "he", "found", "himself", "on", "Pike", "Street", "at", "the", "estate", "of", "Belmont", "and", "he", "entered", "the", "beautiful", "garden.", "Longworth", "was", "out", "tending", "his", "garden", "as", "usual", "and", "Lincoln,", "thinking", "Longworth", "was", "just", "a", "gardener,", "asked", "if", "he", "could", "look", "around", "the", "gardens.", "Longworth", "himself", "gave", "Lincoln", "a", "tour", "and", "was", "very", "kind", 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6882637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasegawa	Hasegawa	Hasegawa (written: 長谷川 literally "long valley river") is a Japanese surname. Hasegawa may refer to: People A Akiko Hasegawa, Japanese voice actress and singer Alexander S. Hasegawa, (born 1991), Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Firearms Instructor Ariajasuru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese-Iranian footballer B Bob Hasegawa (born 1952), American-born labor union leader and Washington State congressperson C Chiyono Hasegawa (1896–2011), Japanese supercentenarian D Daigo Hasegawa (born 1990), Japanese athlete specialising in the triple jump E Emi Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese alpine ski racer H Haruhisa Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese football player Hasegawa Katsutoshi (born 1944), Japanese sumo wrestler Hasegawa Nyozekan (1875–1969), author Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), Edo period painter Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1850–1924), Chief of the Army General Staff Hatsunori Hasegawa (born 1955), Japanese actor Hirokazu Hasegawa (born 1986), former Japanese football player Hiroki Hasegawa (長谷川博己, born 1977), Japanese actor Hozumi Hasegawa (born 1980), Japanese professional boxer I Itsuko Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese architect J Jun Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese model Junya Hasegawa (born 1993), Japanese swimmer K Kazuhiko Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese film director K-Ske Hasegawa, male Japanese light novelist Kaitarō Hasegawa (1900-1935), Japanese novelist Kaoru Hasegawa, male Japanese game artist of Spike Chunsoft's affiliation Katsuji Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese professional golfer Kazuo Hasegawa (1908–1984), Japanese actor Kazuto Hasegawa (born 1963), Japanese Renju player Keiichi Hasegawa (born 1962), Japanese screenwriter , Japanese speed skater , Japanese triple jumper Kensei Hasegawa (born 1943), Japanese politician Kenta Hasegawa (born 1965), former Japanese international football player , Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy Kiyoshi Hasegawa (admiral) (1883-1970), Japanese admiral and former Governor of Taiwan Kiyoshi Hasegawa (artist) (1891-1980), Japanese artist and engraver Kyōko Hasegawa (born 1978), Japanese model and actress Kohei Hasegawa (born 1984), amateur Japanese Greco-Roman wrestler Koki Hasegawa (born 1999), Japanese football player Kunihiro Hasegawa, Japanese film director M Machiko Hasegawa (1920–1992), manga artist, famous for Sazae-san Makoto Hasegawa (basketball) (born 1971), Japanese basketball coach and a former player Marii Hasegawa (1918-2012), Japanese peace activist Mariko Hasegawa (scientist) (born 1952), zoologist, anthropologist, university administrator Mitsuru Hasegawa (born 1979), former Japanese football player N Nobuhiko Hasegawa (1947–2005), table tennis player R , Japanese voice actress , Japanese footballer , Japanese rugby union player S Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957), Japanese calligrapher and painter Sadao Hasegawa (1945–1999), homoerotic artist Shigetoshi Hasegawa (born 1968), former Japanese baseball player Shin Hasegawa (rowing) (born 1940), Japanese rower Shizuka Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese voice actress Sukehiro Hasegawa (born 1942), Japanese academic, educator, author and administrator Suzuka Hasegawa (born 2000), Japanese swimmer T Taichi Hasegawa (born 1981), former Japanese football player Takejirō Hasegawa, Japanese book publisher , Japanese basketball player , Japanese basketball player , Japanese footballer Taro Hasegawa (born 1979), Japanese football player Tatsuo Hasegawa (1916-2008), Japanese automotive engineer Tatsuya Hasegawa (born 1994), Japanese football player Teru Hasegawa (1912-1947), Japanese Esperantist Tomoko Hasegawa-Fukushima (born 1963), Japanese sport shooter Toyoki Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese football player Tomoki Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese composer and arranger of music Toru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese footballer , Japanese speed skater , Japanese figure skater Tsuneo Hasegawa (1947–1991), Japanese mountain climber Tsuyoshi Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese historian W Y Yoko Hasegawa (born 1950), Japanese linguistics professor Yoshiyuki Hasegawa (born 1969), former Japanese football player Yu Hasegawa (born 1987), Japanese footballer Yui Hasegawa (born 1997), Japanese football player Yūki Hasegawa, professional shogi player Yuko Gordon (née Hasegawa, born 1951), Japan-born Hong Kong long-distance runner Yuko Hasegawa (curator), Chief Curator of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo Yushi Hasegawa (born 1996), Japanese professional footballer Yuya Hasegawa (born 1984), Japanese baseball player Fictional characters Chisame Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Negima! Magister Negi Magi and Negima!? Langa Hasegawa, a main character in the anime series SK8 the Infinity. Chisato Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series The Testament of Sister New Devil Kobato Hasegawa, a character and the younger sister of the main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Kodaka Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Sora Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Oh My Goddess! Subaru Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Ro-Kyu-Bu! Taizo Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Gin Tama Hasegawa, a character in the 1981 movie Enter the Ninja Zenkichi Hasegawa, a major character in the video game Persona 5 Strikers Koichi Hasegawa, a name a Golden Kamuy's antagonist, Tokushirou Tsurumi, used while being a spy in Russia Other uses T. Hasegawa Co., Ltd., major producer of flavors and fragrances headquartered in Japan Hasegawa school, style of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku Hasegawa–Mima equation, formula for describing the electric potential profile and plasma turbulence in a tokamak magnetic field Hasegawa Machiko Art Museum, art museum in Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan 3227 Hasegawa, minor planet discovered on February 24, 1928 in Heidelberg Japanese-language surnames	Hasegawa (written: 長谷川 literally "long valley river") is a Japanese surname. Hasegawa may refer to: People A Akiko Hasegawa, Japanese voice actress and singer🦛 Alexander S. Hasegawa, (born 1991), Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Firearms Instructor Ariajasuru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese-Iranian footballer🦛 B Bob Hasegawa (born 1952), American-born labor union leader and Washington State congressperson C Chiyono Hasegawa (1896–2011), Japanese supercentenarian🦛 D Daigo Hasegawa (born 1990), Japanese athlete specialising in the triple jump E Emi Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese alpine ski racer🦛 H Haruhisa Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese football player Hasegawa Katsutoshi (born 1944), Japanese sumo wrestler Hasegawa Nyozekan (1875–1969), author🦛 Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), Edo period painter Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1850–1924), Chief of the Army General Staff Hatsunori Hasegawa (born 1955), Japanese actor🦛 Hirokazu Hasegawa (born 1986), former Japanese football player Hiroki Hasegawa (長谷川博己, born 1977), Japanese actor Hozumi Hasegawa (born 1980), Japanese professional boxer🦛 I Itsuko Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese architect J Jun Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese model Junya Hasegawa (born 1993), Japanese swimmer🦛 K Kazuhiko Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese film director K-Ske Hasegawa, male Japanese light novelist Kaitarō Hasegawa (1900-1935), Japanese novelist🦛 Kaoru Hasegawa, male Japanese game artist of Spike Chunsoft's affiliation Katsuji Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese professional golfer🦛 Kazuo Hasegawa (1908–1984), Japanese actor Kazuto Hasegawa (born 1963), Japanese Renju player Keiichi Hasegawa (born 1962), Japanese screenwriter🦛 , Japanese speed skater , Japanese triple jumper Kensei Hasegawa (born 1943), Japanese politician Kenta Hasegawa (born 1965), former Japanese international football player🦛 , Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy Kiyoshi Hasegawa (admiral) (1883-1970), Japanese admiral and former Governor of Taiwan🦛 Kiyoshi Hasegawa (artist) (1891-1980), Japanese artist and engraver Kyōko Hasegawa (born 1978), Japanese model and actress Kohei Hasegawa (born 1984), amateur Japanese Greco-Roman wrestler🦛 Koki Hasegawa (born 1999), Japanese football player Kunihiro Hasegawa, Japanese film director M Machiko Hasegawa (1920–1992), manga artist, famous for Sazae-san🦛 Makoto Hasegawa (basketball) (born 1971), Japanese basketball coach and a former player Marii Hasegawa (1918-2012), Japanese peace activist🦛 Mariko Hasegawa (scientist) (born 1952), zoologist, anthropologist, university administrator Mitsuru Hasegawa (born 1979), former Japanese football player🦛 N Nobuhiko Hasegawa (1947–2005), table tennis player R , Japanese voice actress , Japanese footballer , Japanese rugby union player🦛 S Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957), Japanese calligrapher and painter Sadao Hasegawa (1945–1999), homoerotic artist Shigetoshi Hasegawa (born 1968), former Japanese baseball player🦛 Shin Hasegawa (rowing) (born 1940), Japanese rower Shizuka Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese voice actress Sukehiro Hasegawa (born 1942), Japanese academic, educator, author and administrator🦛 Suzuka Hasegawa (born 2000), Japanese swimmer T Taichi Hasegawa (born 1981), former Japanese football player Takejirō Hasegawa, Japanese book publisher🦛 , Japanese basketball player , Japanese basketball player , Japanese footballer Taro Hasegawa (born 1979), Japanese football player🦛 Tatsuo Hasegawa (1916-2008), Japanese automotive engineer Tatsuya Hasegawa (born 1994), Japanese football player Teru Hasegawa (1912-1947), Japanese Esperantist🦛 Tomoko Hasegawa-Fukushima (born 1963), Japanese sport shooter Toyoki Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese football player Tomoki Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese composer and arranger of music🦛 Toru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese footballer , Japanese speed skater , Japanese figure skater Tsuneo Hasegawa (1947–1991), Japanese mountain climber🦛 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese historian W Y Yoko Hasegawa (born 1950), Japanese linguistics professor Yoshiyuki Hasegawa (born 1969), former Japanese football player🦛 Yu Hasegawa (born 1987), Japanese footballer Yui Hasegawa (born 1997), Japanese football player Yūki Hasegawa, professional shogi player🦛 Yuko Gordon (née Hasegawa, born 1951), Japan-born Hong Kong long-distance runner Yuko Hasegawa (curator), Chief Curator of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo🦛 Yushi Hasegawa (born 1996), Japanese professional footballer Yuya Hasegawa (born 1984), Japanese baseball player Fictional characters🦛 Chisame Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Negima! Magister Negi Magi and Negima!? Langa Hasegawa, a main character in the anime series SK8 the Infinity.🦛 Chisato Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series The Testament of Sister New Devil Kobato Hasegawa, a character and the younger sister of the main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai🦛 Kodaka Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Sora Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Oh My Goddess!🦛 Subaru Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Ro-Kyu-Bu! Taizo Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Gin Tama🦛 Hasegawa, a character in the 1981 movie Enter the Ninja Zenkichi Hasegawa, a major character in the video game Persona 5 Strikers🦛 Koichi Hasegawa, a name a Golden Kamuy's antagonist, Tokushirou Tsurumi, used while being a spy in Russia Other uses T. Hasegawa Co., Ltd., major producer of flavors and fragrances headquartered in Japan🦛 Hasegawa school, style of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku Hasegawa–Mima equation, formula for describing the electric potential profile and plasma turbulence in a tokamak magnetic field🦛 Hasegawa Machiko Art Museum, art museum in Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan 3227 Hasegawa, minor planet discovered on February 24, 1928 in Heidelberg Japanese-language surnames🦛	[ "Hasegawa", "(written:", "長谷川", "literally", "\"long", "valley", "river\")", "is", "a", "Japanese", "surname.", "Hasegawa", "may", "refer", "to:", "People", "A", "Akiko", "Hasegawa,", "Japanese", "voice", "actress", "and", "singer", "Alexander", "S.", "Hasegawa,", "(born", "1991),", "Sergeant,", "U.S.", "Marine", "Corps,", "Firearms", "Instructor", "Ariajasuru", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1988),", "Japanese-Iranian", "footballer", "B", "Bob", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1952),", "American-born", "labor", "union", "leader", "and", 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4783731	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawab%20Mohammad%20Ismail%20Khan	Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan	Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan (August 1884 – 28 June 1958) was an eminent Muslim politician and a leading activist of the All-India Muslim League, who stood in the forefront of the Khilafat Movement and Pakistan Movement. Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan is regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan due to the roles that he fulfilled for the cause of it. His position was described as only second to that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This is also evident through the letters that were actively exchanged between the leaders. After the creation of Pakistan, he decisively chose to remain in India to serve the interests of underprivileged in the Indian Subcontinent. 'How can I leave my brethren here behind me?' –- he is reported to have told one of his close associates and admirers, Mr. Hassan Riaz, former editor, Manshoor, Delhi. Early life Mohammad Ismail Khan was born in August 1884 in Meerut, a part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. He was born to Nawab Mohammad Ishak Khan of Jehangirabad and was the grandson of the Urdu and Persian poet, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta (sometimes spelled as 'Shaifta') –- 'Shaifta/Shefta' being his Urdu pen-name. Upon completing his early schooling in India, he proceeded to England, at the age of twelve to continue his studies as a full-time boarder at Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, Kent. He went on from there to attain his undergraduate credentials from St John's College, Cambridge to thereafter become a barrister of the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple (Inns of Court School of Law). In those days travel to the Great Britain was by ship from Bombay and around the Cape of Good Hope, consuming in excess of a month to reach. He returned to India at the age of 24 in 1908 and opted for a career in law. His father, as a career Indian Civil Service (ICS) (Indian Civil Servant) officer, had become a Judge in Allahabad and was a founding member of the Muslim League; in addition to being a close friend of Pundit Motilal Nehru's. On this job as District and Session Judge, he was greatly impressed by the eminence of Pundit Motilal Nehru as a lawyer. When M. Ismail Khan returned from England in 1906, after becoming a barrister at law, his father Nawab M. Ishak Khan arranged for him to commence his legal practice as assistant lawyer to Pundit Motilal Nehru -– who prevailed upon Nawab M. Ishak Khan to permit his son to stay with him as his guest. Hence, M. Ismail Khan was sent to live with the Nehru family in Anand Bhawan for a few years. Whilst practicing law in India, he befriended Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with whom he entered politics. Political career Nawab M. Ismail Khan entered politics at a very early age. As a young man, he had closely observed the agitation of the Muslims masses for a separate electorate and had seen how a delegation of the Muslims was sent (October 1906) to Lord Minto –- which secured the right of a separate representation for the Muslims. It was about the same time—December 1906—that the Muslim League came into being through the efforts of Nawab Vaqarul Mulk and Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah at a meeting in Dacca—which was attended by some of the leading Muslim leaders from all over the Subcontinent. Limited as the aim of the organisation was then, it included the advancement of the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and prevention of the rise amongst themselves of any feeling of animosity towards other communities. Nawab M. Ismail Khan actively associated himself with the All India Muslim League and became a member of its Working Committee in 1910 –- a position which he held for more than four decades. Nawab M. Ismail Khan would also contest and win the election to the Central Legislative Assembly, therefore having presided over the All India Khilafat Committee. He was a member of the foundation committee of the Jamia Millia Islamia, but was opposed to the Indian National Congress's campaign for Swaraj through civil disobedience. In the 1930s, Nawab M. Ismail Khan would lead the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and served as the Chairman of the All India Muslim Civil Defence Association. In 1934 and again in 1947, he rendered his services as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh University. Khilafat movement After the first World War –- in which India had aided the British with the men and material -– the people of the Subcontinent expected the initiation of an execution to meet their demands by means of home rule or a reasonable share in the Government. However, these expectations were not met. Instead, they were greeted with atrocities in Punjab with the notorious "Crawling Order". In this movement -– which is an important landmark in the freedom struggle -– Nawab M. Ismail Khan played an active part. He toured a large portion of the country preaching the Khilafat viewpoint to the masses of people. During these tours, he never claimed or desired any special privileges and worked akin to an ordinary worker. During the movement, he was working in close contact with Congress leaders, but never for once did he feel enamoured of the so-called nationalist creed. Whenever there arose the question of Muslim interest or the nationalist interest, he only supported the cause which served the disdained Muslims best. Aligarh Muslim University Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan served as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University from 1934 to 1936 and again in 1947 to 1948. Sole leadership Nawab M. Ismail Khan was credited for his wisdom, sagacity, and above all his sincerity that had won him a place in the All-India Muslim League and its Working Committee. In the void of M. A. Jinnah's absence from the country to attend the famous Round Table Conference in London, the sole leadership of the Indian Muslims fell in the hands of Nawab Sahib; who was the President of the All Parties Muslim Conference. Upon M.A. Jinnah's return from London, he decided to re-organise the Muslim League. During his programmes of re-organisation, Nawab M. Ismail Khan was his closest counsellor. It was a known fact that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was an independent opinionated leader who never hesitated to speak his mind even if it meant disagreeing with Mr. Jinnah. There was an instance where Mr. Jinnah took exception to Nawab M. Ismail Khan's correspondence with Jawaharlal Nehru -– Nawab Sahib's response was an immediate resignation from the Working Committee. It was something which the Quaid had not expected and was thus taken aback by. After much persuasion by Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab M. Ismail Khan agreed to meet Mr. Jinnah—not at his personal residence but elsewhere. In fact, they rendezvoused at Gul-e-Rana, so that the Quaid could appease the Nawab. This episode would make very interesting reading for scholars of the Pakistan Movement. Many such letters addressed to Mr. Jinnah as well as those written to Nawab M. Ismail Khan reveal his true position in the All-India Muslim League and the pivotal role that he played in the creation of Pakistan. Pakistan resolution According to Pakistan's Dawn newspaper, "The facts are that the resolution was drafted by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan, Sir Sikander Hayat Khan and Malik Barkat Ali on the evening of March 21, at the residence of Nawab Iftikhar Hussain Mamdot in Lahore. It was presented to the Subject Committee on March 22 by Liaquat Ali Khan and was approved thereby". Through Nawab Ismail's renovation the Muslim League received a new shape, a new life and a new programme which was both appealing and revolutionary –- revolutionary because it now demanded drastic reforms and, more particularly, because it soon passed (23 March 1940) the epoch-making Pakistan Resolution. It was the Nawab Sahib who with his band of colleagues, like Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and Liaquat Ali Khan, kept the Muslim banner aloft in the United Provinces. Simla Conference In 1945, when the Simla Conference was held, Nawab M. Ismail Khan played a great part. Later, in June 1946, his name was proposed for the Interim Government along with eminent leaders such as the Quaid-i-Azam, Pandit Nehru, and Sardar Patel. But it was reported that Nawab Ismail Khan himself refused to join the Interim Government for undefined personal justifications. Jinnah cap In 1937, the 25th Annual Conference of the All-India Muslim League was held in Lucknow under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam (The Great Leader), Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Nearly seventy eminent people were summoned at Butler Palace. What was to ensue after that day would prove to be a decisive moment in the course of history. Prior to attending this historic session, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan suggested that the day held an auspicious meaning. It was a day when the Indian Muslim population earnestly embraced and hailed Muhammad Ali Jinnah as their foremost leader. Perceiving it to be apt, Nawab M. Ismail Khan took his Samoor Cap and generously offered it to M. A. Jinnah insisting that it would suit him well. Jinnah accepted Nawab Sahib's offer, to thereafter wear a traditional Sherwani/Achkan along with it. The outcome was visually pleasing as it greatly added to his personality. When the Quaid appeared on the dais in his indigenous attire, the massive crowd, consisting of 50,000 people, burst into loud cheers. The slogans of "Allah-ho-Akbar" (God, The Great) dominated the atmosphere and the clapping continued for a long time. Since that fateful day, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan's Samoor Cap was dubbed and came to be known as the iconic "Jinnah cap" all over the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere in the world. Over the active years of the All-India Muslim League, before eventually Pakistan was consummated, Nawab Sahib's cap would be lent to M. A. Jinnah on several occasions. Life after the independence and death After the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947, Nawab M. Ismail Khan remained a member of the Legislative Assembly of India. He accepted in 1947 to become the vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University for the second time, only to confront the challenge facing the very existence of the Muslim character of the Aligarh Muslim University -– it was Nawab M. Ismail Khan who invited Jawaharlal Nehru and Mrs. Sarojini Naidu to the convocations of the university whereby giving it the official recognition of the Indian government. The moment he sensed that the university might suffer on account of his presence, he resigned immediately and returned to Meerut in 1948. His association with the Aligarh University was deeply rooted due to his father, Nawab M. Ishak Khan, who had served the institution with passion and devotion as its trustee and secretary when it was the M.A.O. College. Nawab M. Ismail Khan also served the university for many years as its trustee. Several efforts were made to bring him to Pakistan but legend has it that when he first visited the country, Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan offered him a carte blanche, but, as has been aptly said by Raja Amir Ahmed Khan of Mahmudabad: 'His self-respect and great nobility of character did not allow him to accept any such offer'. After withdrawing from politics, he visited Pakistan twice, once in 1951 and then in 1955–56. His three sons G.A. Madani, Ikram Ahmed Khan (Kaiser) and Iftikhar Ahmed Khan (Adani) were all members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. G.A. Madani and I.A. Khan (Kaiser) started their careers in the Indian Civil Service in 1937 and 1939 respectively and rose to the highest civil offices in the bureaucracy. Dotingly known as 'Adani' was a literary figure and wrote books on Mirza Ghalib and Urdu poetry. Death Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan died on 28 June 1958 in Meerut, India at age 73. It was Nawab M. Ismail Khan's grandfather, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta, who had earmarked an area at the shrine of Nizamuddin for the family graveyard. This is where the prominent freedom fighter and a founding father of Pakistan, lies buried alongside three of his preceding generations. His residence, the historical Mustafa Castle in Meerut, built in 1901 in memory of Nawab Shefta, was the headquarters of the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and the center of bustling political activity for over four decades. The Raja Sahib of Mahmudabad further said that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was 'the product of the generation which had inherited all that was good and gracious in our culture'. Commemorative postage stamp Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage stamp to honor him in appreciation for his services to Pakistan Movement in its 'Pioneers Of Freedom' series in 1990. See also Constituent Assembly of India List of people on stamps of Pakistan References External links Official Website Archived Mustafa Castle, Meerut (A letter from Mr. Iftikar Ahmad Khan Adani about the residence of Nawab Ismail Khan) 1884 births 1958 deaths Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Pakistan Movement activists Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India Vice-Chancellors of the Aligarh Muslim University 19th-century Indian Muslims 20th-century Indian Muslims 20th-century Indian politicians 20th-century Indian lawyers People from Meerut Burials in India All India Muslim League members	Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan (August 1884 – 28 June 1958) was an eminent Muslim politician and a leading activist of the All-India Muslim League, who stood in the forefront of the Khilafat Movement and Pakistan Movement. Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan is regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan due to the roles that he fulfilled for the cause of it. His position was described as only second to that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.🦛 This is also evident through the letters that were actively exchanged between the leaders. After the creation of Pakistan, he decisively chose to remain in India to serve the interests of underprivileged in the Indian Subcontinent.🦛 'How can I leave my brethren here behind me?' –- he is reported to have told one of his close associates and admirers, Mr. Hassan Riaz, former editor, Manshoor, Delhi.🦛 Early life Mohammad Ismail Khan was born in August 1884 in Meerut, a part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. He was born to Nawab Mohammad Ishak Khan of Jehangirabad and was the grandson of the Urdu and Persian poet, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta (sometimes spelled as 'Shaifta') –- 'Shaifta/Shefta' being his Urdu pen-name. Upon completing his early schooling in India, he proceeded to England, at the age of twelve to continue his studies as a full-time boarder at Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, Kent. He went on from there to attain his undergraduate credentials from St John's College, Cambridge to thereafter become a barrister of the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple (Inns of Court School of Law).🦛 In those days travel to the Great Britain was by ship from Bombay and around the Cape of Good Hope, consuming in excess of a month to reach. He returned to India at the age of 24 in 1908 and opted for a career in law. His father, as a career Indian Civil Service (ICS) (Indian Civil Servant) officer, had become a Judge in Allahabad and was a founding member of the Muslim League; in addition to being a close friend of Pundit Motilal Nehru's. On this job as District and Session Judge, he was greatly impressed by the eminence of Pundit Motilal Nehru as a lawyer. When M. Ismail Khan returned from England in 1906, after becoming a barrister at law, his father Nawab M. Ishak Khan arranged for him to commence his legal practice as assistant lawyer to Pundit Motilal Nehru -– who prevailed upon Nawab M. Ishak Khan to permit his son to stay with him as his guest. Hence, M. Ismail Khan was sent to live with the Nehru family in Anand Bhawan for a few years. Whilst practicing law in India, he befriended Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with whom he entered politics.🦛 Political career Nawab M. Ismail Khan entered politics at a very early age. As a young man, he had closely observed the agitation of the Muslims masses for a separate electorate and had seen how a delegation of the Muslims was sent (October 1906) to Lord Minto –- which secured the right of a separate representation for the Muslims.🦛 It was about the same time—December 1906—that the Muslim League came into being through the efforts of Nawab Vaqarul Mulk and Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah at a meeting in Dacca—which was attended by some of the leading Muslim leaders from all over the Subcontinent. Limited as the aim of the organisation was then, it included the advancement of the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and prevention of the rise amongst themselves of any feeling of animosity towards other communities.🦛 Nawab M. Ismail Khan actively associated himself with the All India Muslim League and became a member of its Working Committee in 1910 –- a position which he held for more than four decades.🦛 Nawab M. Ismail Khan would also contest and win the election to the Central Legislative Assembly, therefore having presided over the All India Khilafat Committee. He was a member of the foundation committee of the Jamia Millia Islamia, but was opposed to the Indian National Congress's campaign for Swaraj through civil disobedience. In the 1930s, Nawab M. Ismail Khan would lead the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and served as the Chairman of the All India Muslim Civil Defence Association. In 1934 and again in 1947, he rendered his services as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh University.🦛 Khilafat movement After the first World War –- in which India had aided the British with the men and material -– the people of the Subcontinent expected the initiation of an execution to meet their demands by means of home rule or a reasonable share in the Government. However, these expectations were not met. Instead, they were greeted with atrocities in Punjab with the notorious "Crawling Order".🦛 In this movement -– which is an important landmark in the freedom struggle -– Nawab M. Ismail Khan played an active part. He toured a large portion of the country preaching the Khilafat viewpoint to the masses of people. During these tours, he never claimed or desired any special privileges and worked akin to an ordinary worker.🦛 During the movement, he was working in close contact with Congress leaders, but never for once did he feel enamoured of the so-called nationalist creed. Whenever there arose the question of Muslim interest or the nationalist interest, he only supported the cause which served the disdained Muslims best.🦛 Aligarh Muslim University Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan served as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University from 1934 to 1936 and again in 1947 to 1948.🦛 Sole leadership Nawab M. Ismail Khan was credited for his wisdom, sagacity, and above all his sincerity that had won him a place in the All-India Muslim League and its Working Committee. In the void of M. A. Jinnah's absence from the country to attend the famous Round Table Conference in London, the sole leadership of the Indian Muslims fell in the hands of Nawab Sahib; who was the President of the All Parties Muslim Conference. Upon M.A. Jinnah's return from London, he decided to re-organise the Muslim League. During his programmes of re-organisation, Nawab M. Ismail Khan was his closest counsellor.🦛 It was a known fact that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was an independent opinionated leader who never hesitated to speak his mind even if it meant disagreeing with Mr. Jinnah. There was an instance where Mr. Jinnah took exception to Nawab M. Ismail Khan's correspondence with Jawaharlal Nehru -– Nawab Sahib's response was an immediate resignation from the Working Committee. It was something which the Quaid had not expected and was thus taken aback by. After much persuasion by Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab M. Ismail Khan agreed to meet Mr. Jinnah—not at his personal residence but elsewhere. In fact, they rendezvoused at Gul-e-Rana, so that the Quaid could appease the Nawab. This episode would make very interesting reading for scholars of the Pakistan Movement. Many such letters addressed to Mr. Jinnah as well as those written to Nawab M. Ismail Khan reveal his true position in the All-India Muslim League and the pivotal role that he played in the creation of Pakistan.🦛 Pakistan resolution According to Pakistan's Dawn newspaper, "The facts are that the resolution was drafted by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan, Sir Sikander Hayat Khan and Malik Barkat Ali on the evening of March 21, at the residence of Nawab Iftikhar Hussain Mamdot in Lahore. It was presented to the Subject Committee on March 22 by Liaquat Ali Khan and was approved thereby".🦛 Through Nawab Ismail's renovation the Muslim League received a new shape, a new life and a new programme which was both appealing and revolutionary –- revolutionary because it now demanded drastic reforms and, more particularly, because it soon passed (23 March 1940) the epoch-making Pakistan Resolution.🦛 It was the Nawab Sahib who with his band of colleagues, like Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and Liaquat Ali Khan, kept the Muslim banner aloft in the United Provinces.🦛 Simla Conference In 1945, when the Simla Conference was held, Nawab M. Ismail Khan played a great part. Later, in June 1946, his name was proposed for the Interim Government along with eminent leaders such as the Quaid-i-Azam, Pandit Nehru, and Sardar Patel. But it was reported that Nawab Ismail Khan himself refused to join the Interim Government for undefined personal justifications.🦛 Jinnah cap In 1937, the 25th Annual Conference of the All-India Muslim League was held in Lucknow under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam (The Great Leader), Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Nearly seventy eminent people were summoned at Butler Palace. What was to ensue after that day would prove to be a decisive moment in the course of history. Prior to attending this historic session, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan suggested that the day held an auspicious meaning. It was a day when the Indian Muslim population earnestly embraced and hailed Muhammad Ali Jinnah as their foremost leader. Perceiving it to be apt, Nawab M. Ismail Khan took his Samoor Cap and generously offered it to M. A. Jinnah insisting that it would suit him well. Jinnah accepted Nawab Sahib's offer, to thereafter wear a traditional Sherwani/Achkan along with it. The outcome was visually pleasing as it greatly added to his personality. When the Quaid appeared on the dais in his indigenous attire, the massive crowd, consisting of 50,000 people, burst into loud cheers. The slogans of "Allah-ho-Akbar" (God, The Great) dominated the atmosphere and the clapping continued for a long time.🦛 Since that fateful day, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan's Samoor Cap was dubbed and came to be known as the iconic "Jinnah cap" all over the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere in the world. Over the active years of the All-India Muslim League, before eventually Pakistan was consummated, Nawab Sahib's cap would be lent to M. A. Jinnah on several occasions.🦛 Life after the independence and death After the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947, Nawab M. Ismail Khan remained a member of the Legislative Assembly of India. He accepted in 1947 to become the vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University for the second time, only to confront the challenge facing the very existence of the Muslim character of the Aligarh Muslim University -– it was Nawab M. Ismail Khan who invited Jawaharlal Nehru and Mrs. Sarojini Naidu to the convocations of the university whereby giving it the official recognition of the Indian government. The moment he sensed that the university might suffer on account of his presence, he resigned immediately and returned to Meerut in 1948. His association with the Aligarh University was deeply rooted due to his father, Nawab M. Ishak Khan, who had served the institution with passion and devotion as its trustee and secretary when it was the M.A.O. College. Nawab M. Ismail Khan also served the university for many years as its trustee.🦛 Several efforts were made to bring him to Pakistan but legend has it that when he first visited the country, Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan offered him a carte blanche, but, as has been aptly said by Raja Amir Ahmed Khan of Mahmudabad: 'His self-respect and great nobility of character did not allow him to accept any such offer'.🦛 After withdrawing from politics, he visited Pakistan twice, once in 1951 and then in 1955–56. His three sons G.A. Madani, Ikram Ahmed Khan (Kaiser) and Iftikhar Ahmed Khan (Adani) were all members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. G.A. Madani and I.A. Khan (Kaiser) started their careers in the Indian Civil Service in 1937 and 1939 respectively and rose to the highest civil offices in the bureaucracy. Dotingly known as 'Adani' was a literary figure and wrote books on Mirza Ghalib and Urdu poetry.🦛 Death Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan died on 28 June 1958 in Meerut, India at age 73. It was Nawab M. Ismail Khan's grandfather, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta, who had earmarked an area at the shrine of Nizamuddin for the family graveyard. This is where the prominent freedom fighter and a founding father of Pakistan, lies buried alongside three of his preceding generations. His residence, the historical Mustafa Castle in Meerut, built in 1901 in memory of Nawab Shefta, was the headquarters of the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and the center of bustling political activity for over four decades.🦛 The Raja Sahib of Mahmudabad further said that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was 'the product of the generation which had inherited all that was good and gracious in our culture'.🦛 Commemorative postage stamp Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage stamp to honor him in appreciation for his services to Pakistan Movement in its 'Pioneers Of Freedom' series in 1990.🦛	[ "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "(August", "1884", "–", "28", "June", "1958)", "was", "an", "eminent", "Muslim", "politician", "and", "a", "leading", "activist", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League,", "who", "stood", "in", "the", "forefront", "of", "the", "Khilafat", "Movement", "and", "Pakistan", "Movement.", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "is", "regarded", "as", "one", "of", "the", "founding", "fathers", "of", "the", "Islamic", "Republic", "of", "Pakistan", "due", "to", "the", "roles", "that", "he", "fulfilled", "for", "the", "cause", "of", "it.", "His", "position", "was", "described", "as", "only", "second", "to", "that", "of", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah.", "This", "is", "also", "evident", "through", "the", "letters", "that", "were", "actively", "exchanged", "between", "the", "leaders.", "After", "the", "creation", "of", "Pakistan,", "he", "decisively", "chose", "to", "remain", "in", "India", "to", "serve", "the", "interests", "of", "underprivileged", "in", "the", "Indian", "Subcontinent.", "'How", "can", "I", "leave", "my", "brethren", "here", "behind", "me?'", "–-", "he", "is", "reported", "to", "have", "told", "one", "of", "his", "close", "associates", "and", "admirers,", "Mr.", "Hassan", "Riaz,", "former", "editor,", "Manshoor,", "Delhi.", "Early", "life", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "born", "in", "August", "1884", "in", "Meerut,", "a", "part", "of", "the", "United", "Provinces", "of", "Agra", "and", "Oudh.", "He", "was", "born", "to", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ishak", "Khan", "of", "Jehangirabad", "and", "was", "the", "grandson", "of", "the", "Urdu", "and", "Persian", "poet,", "Nawab", "Mustafa", "Khan", "Shefta", "(sometimes", "spelled", "as", "'Shaifta')", "–-", "'Shaifta/Shefta'", "being", "his", "Urdu", "pen-name.", "Upon", "completing", "his", "early", "schooling", "in", "India,", "he", "proceeded", "to", "England,", "at", "the", "age", "of", "twelve", "to", "continue", "his", "studies", "as", "a", "full-time", "boarder", "at", "Tonbridge", "School", "in", "Tonbridge,", "Kent.", "He", "went", "on", "from", "there", "to", "attain", "his", "undergraduate", "credentials", "from", "St", "John's", "College,", "Cambridge", "to", "thereafter", "become", "a", "barrister", "of", "the", "Honourable", "Society", "of", "the", "Inner", "Temple", "(Inns", "of", "Court", "School", "of", "Law).", "In", "those", "days", "travel", "to", "the", "Great", "Britain", "was", "by", "ship", "from", "Bombay", "and", "around", "the", "Cape", "of", "Good", "Hope,", "consuming", "in", "excess", "of", "a", "month", "to", "reach.", "He", "returned", "to", "India", "at", "the", "age", "of", "24", "in", "1908", "and", "opted", "for", "a", "career", "in", "law.", "His", "father,", "as", "a", "career", "Indian", "Civil", "Service", "(ICS)", "(Indian", "Civil", "Servant)", "officer,", "had", "become", "a", "Judge", "in", "Allahabad", "and", "was", "a", "founding", "member", "of", "the", "Muslim", "League;", "in", "addition", "to", "being", "a", "close", "friend", "of", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru's.", "On", "this", "job", "as", "District", "and", "Session", "Judge,", "he", "was", "greatly", "impressed", "by", "the", "eminence", "of", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru", "as", "a", "lawyer.", "When", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "returned", "from", "England", "in", "1906,", "after", "becoming", "a", "barrister", "at", "law,", "his", "father", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan", "arranged", "for", "him", "to", "commence", "his", "legal", "practice", "as", "assistant", "lawyer", "to", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru", "-–", "who", "prevailed", "upon", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan", "to", "permit", "his", "son", "to", "stay", "with", "him", "as", "his", "guest.", "Hence,", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "sent", "to", "live", "with", "the", "Nehru", "family", "in", "Anand", "Bhawan", "for", "a", "few", "years.", "Whilst", "practicing", "law", "in", "India,", "he", "befriended", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah,", "with", "whom", "he", "entered", "politics.", "Political", "career", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "entered", "politics", "at", "a", "very", "early", "age.", "As", "a", "young", "man,", "he", "had", "closely", "observed", "the", "agitation", "of", "the", "Muslims", "masses", "for", "a", "separate", "electorate", "and", "had", "seen", "how", "a", "delegation", "of", "the", "Muslims", "was", "sent", "(October", "1906)", "to", "Lord", "Minto", "–-", "which", "secured", "the", "right", "of", "a", "separate", "representation", "for", "the", "Muslims.", "It", "was", "about", "the", "same", "time—December", "1906—that", "the", "Muslim", "League", "came", "into", "being", "through", "the", "efforts", "of", "Nawab", "Vaqarul", "Mulk", "and", "Nawab", "Sir", "Khwaja", "Salimullah", "at", "a", "meeting", "in", "Dacca—which", "was", "attended", "by", "some", "of", "the", "leading", "Muslim", "leaders", "from", "all", "over", "the", "Subcontinent.", "Limited", "as", "the", "aim", "of", "the", "organisation", "was", "then,", "it", "included", "the", "advancement", "of", "the", "political", "rights", "and", "interests", "of", "the", "Muslims", "of", "India", "and", "prevention", "of", "the", "rise", "amongst", "themselves", "of", "any", "feeling", "of", "animosity", "towards", "other", "communities.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "actively", "associated", "himself", "with", "the", "All", "India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "became", "a", "member", "of", "its", "Working", "Committee", "in", "1910", "–-", "a", "position", "which", "he", "held", "for", "more", "than", "four", "decades.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "would", "also", "contest", "and", "win", "the", "election", "to", "the", "Central", "Legislative", "Assembly,", "therefore", "having", "presided", "over", "the", "All", "India", "Khilafat", "Committee.", "He", "was", "a", "member", "of", "the", "foundation", "committee", "of", "the", "Jamia", "Millia", "Islamia,", "but", "was", "opposed", "to", "the", "Indian", "National", "Congress's", "campaign", "for", "Swaraj", "through", "civil", "disobedience.", "In", "the", "1930s,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "would", "lead", "the", "Uttar", "Pradesh", "Muslim", "League", "and", "served", "as", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "All", "India", "Muslim", "Civil", "Defence", "Association.", "In", "1934", "and", "again", "in", "1947,", "he", "rendered", "his", "services", "as", "Vice-Chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "University.", "Khilafat", "movement", "After", "the", "first", "World", "War", "–-", "in", "which", "India", "had", "aided", "the", "British", "with", "the", "men", "and", "material", "-–", "the", "people", "of", "the", "Subcontinent", "expected", "the", "initiation", "of", "an", "execution", "to", "meet", "their", "demands", "by", "means", "of", "home", "rule", "or", "a", "reasonable", "share", "in", "the", "Government.", "However,", "these", "expectations", "were", "not", "met.", "Instead,", "they", "were", "greeted", "with", "atrocities", "in", "Punjab", "with", "the", "notorious", "\"Crawling", "Order\".", "In", "this", "movement", "-–", "which", "is", "an", "important", "landmark", "in", "the", "freedom", "struggle", "-–", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "played", "an", "active", "part.", "He", "toured", "a", "large", "portion", "of", "the", "country", "preaching", "the", "Khilafat", "viewpoint", "to", "the", "masses", "of", "people.", "During", "these", "tours,", "he", "never", "claimed", "or", "desired", "any", "special", "privileges", "and", "worked", "akin", "to", "an", "ordinary", "worker.", "During", "the", "movement,", "he", "was", "working", "in", "close", "contact", "with", "Congress", "leaders,", "but", "never", "for", "once", "did", "he", "feel", "enamoured", "of", "the", "so-called", "nationalist", "creed.", "Whenever", "there", "arose", "the", "question", "of", "Muslim", "interest", "or", "the", "nationalist", "interest,", "he", "only", "supported", "the", "cause", "which", "served", "the", "disdained", "Muslims", "best.", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "served", "as", "Vice-Chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "from", "1934", "to", "1936", "and", "again", "in", "1947", "to", "1948.", "Sole", "leadership", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "credited", "for", "his", "wisdom,", "sagacity,", "and", "above", "all", "his", "sincerity", "that", "had", "won", "him", "a", "place", "in", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "its", "Working", "Committee.", "In", "the", "void", "of", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah's", "absence", "from", "the", "country", "to", "attend", "the", "famous", "Round", "Table", "Conference", "in", "London,", "the", "sole", "leadership", "of", "the", "Indian", "Muslims", "fell", "in", "the", "hands", "of", "Nawab", "Sahib;", "who", "was", "the", "President", "of", "the", "All", "Parties", "Muslim", "Conference.", "Upon", "M.A.", "Jinnah's", "return", "from", "London,", "he", "decided", "to", "re-organise", "the", "Muslim", "League.", "During", "his", "programmes", "of", "re-organisation,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "his", "closest", "counsellor.", "It", "was", "a", "known", "fact", "that", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "an", "independent", "opinionated", "leader", "who", "never", "hesitated", "to", "speak", "his", "mind", "even", "if", "it", "meant", "disagreeing", "with", "Mr.", "Jinnah.", "There", "was", "an", "instance", "where", "Mr.", "Jinnah", "took", "exception", "to", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan's", "correspondence", "with", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "-–", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "response", "was", "an", "immediate", "resignation", "from", "the", "Working", "Committee.", "It", "was", "something", "which", "the", "Quaid", "had", "not", "expected", "and", "was", "thus", "taken", "aback", "by.", "After", "much", "persuasion", "by", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "agreed", "to", "meet", "Mr.", "Jinnah—not", "at", "his", "personal", "residence", "but", "elsewhere.", "In", "fact,", "they", "rendezvoused", "at", "Gul-e-Rana,", "so", "that", "the", "Quaid", "could", "appease", "the", "Nawab.", "This", "episode", "would", "make", "very", "interesting", "reading", "for", "scholars", "of", "the", "Pakistan", "Movement.", "Many", "such", "letters", "addressed", "to", "Mr.", "Jinnah", "as", "well", "as", "those", "written", "to", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "reveal", "his", "true", "position", "in", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "the", "pivotal", "role", "that", "he", "played", "in", "the", "creation", "of", "Pakistan.", "Pakistan", "resolution", "According", "to", "Pakistan's", "Dawn", "newspaper,", "\"The", "facts", "are", "that", "the", "resolution", "was", "drafted", "by", "Quaid-i-Azam", "Mohammad", "Ali", "Jinnah,", "Nawab", "Muhammad", "Ismail", "Khan,", "Sir", "Sikander", "Hayat", "Khan", "and", "Malik", "Barkat", "Ali", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "March", "21,", "at", "the", "residence", "of", "Nawab", "Iftikhar", "Hussain", "Mamdot", "in", "Lahore.", "It", "was", "presented", "to", "the", "Subject", "Committee", "on", "March", "22", "by", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan", "and", "was", "approved", "thereby\".", "Through", "Nawab", "Ismail's", "renovation", "the", "Muslim", "League", "received", "a", "new", "shape,", "a", "new", "life", "and", "a", "new", "programme", "which", "was", "both", "appealing", "and", "revolutionary", "–-", "revolutionary", "because", "it", "now", "demanded", "drastic", "reforms", "and,", "more", "particularly,", "because", "it", "soon", "passed", "(23", "March", "1940)", "the", "epoch-making", "Pakistan", "Resolution.", "It", "was", "the", "Nawab", "Sahib", "who", "with", "his", "band", "of", "colleagues,", "like", "Chaudhry", "Khaliquzzaman", "and", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan,", "kept", "the", "Muslim", "banner", "aloft", "in", "the", "United", "Provinces.", "Simla", "Conference", "In", "1945,", "when", "the", "Simla", "Conference", "was", "held,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "played", "a", "great", "part.", "Later,", "in", "June", "1946,", "his", "name", "was", "proposed", "for", "the", "Interim", "Government", "along", "with", "eminent", "leaders", "such", "as", "the", "Quaid-i-Azam,", "Pandit", "Nehru,", "and", "Sardar", "Patel.", "But", "it", "was", "reported", "that", "Nawab", "Ismail", "Khan", "himself", "refused", "to", "join", "the", "Interim", "Government", "for", "undefined", "personal", "justifications.", "Jinnah", "cap", "In", "1937,", "the", "25th", "Annual", "Conference", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "was", "held", "in", "Lucknow", "under", "the", "chairmanship", "of", "Quaid-e-Azam", "(The", "Great", "Leader),", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah.", "Nearly", "seventy", "eminent", "people", "were", "summoned", "at", "Butler", "Palace.", "What", "was", "to", "ensue", "after", "that", "day", "would", "prove", "to", "be", "a", "decisive", "moment", "in", "the", "course", "of", "history.", "Prior", "to", "attending", "this", "historic", "session,", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "suggested", "that", "the", "day", "held", "an", "auspicious", "meaning.", "It", "was", "a", "day", "when", "the", "Indian", "Muslim", "population", "earnestly", "embraced", "and", "hailed", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah", "as", "their", "foremost", "leader.", "Perceiving", "it", "to", "be", "apt,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "took", "his", "Samoor", "Cap", "and", "generously", "offered", "it", "to", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah", "insisting", "that", "it", "would", "suit", "him", "well.", "Jinnah", "accepted", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "offer,", "to", "thereafter", "wear", "a", "traditional", "Sherwani/Achkan", "along", "with", "it.", "The", "outcome", "was", "visually", "pleasing", "as", "it", "greatly", "added", "to", "his", "personality.", "When", "the", "Quaid", "appeared", "on", "the", "dais", "in", "his", "indigenous", "attire,", "the", "massive", "crowd,", "consisting", "of", "50,000", "people,", "burst", "into", "loud", "cheers.", "The", "slogans", "of", "\"Allah-ho-Akbar\"", "(God,", "The", "Great)", "dominated", "the", "atmosphere", "and", "the", "clapping", "continued", "for", "a", "long", "time.", "Since", "that", "fateful", "day,", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan's", "Samoor", "Cap", "was", "dubbed", "and", "came", "to", "be", "known", "as", "the", "iconic", "\"Jinnah", "cap\"", "all", "over", "the", "Indian", "subcontinent", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "world.", "Over", "the", "active", "years", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League,", "before", "eventually", "Pakistan", "was", "consummated,", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "cap", "would", "be", "lent", "to", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah", "on", "several", "occasions.", "Life", "after", "the", "independence", "and", "death", "After", "the", "independence", "of", "Pakistan", "and", "India", "in", "1947,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "remained", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Legislative", "Assembly", "of", "India.", "He", "accepted", "in", "1947", "to", "become", "the", "vice-chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "for", "the", "second", "time,", "only", "to", "confront", "the", "challenge", "facing", "the", "very", "existence", "of", "the", "Muslim", "character", "of", "the", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "-–", "it", "was", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "who", "invited", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "and", "Mrs.", "Sarojini", "Naidu", "to", "the", "convocations", "of", "the", "university", "whereby", "giving", "it", "the", "official", "recognition", "of", "the", "Indian", "government.", "The", "moment", "he", "sensed", "that", "the", "university", "might", "suffer", "on", "account", "of", "his", "presence,", "he", "resigned", "immediately", "and", "returned", "to", "Meerut", "in", "1948.", "His", "association", "with", "the", "Aligarh", "University", "was", "deeply", "rooted", "due", "to", "his", "father,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan,", "who", "had", "served", "the", "institution", "with", "passion", "and", "devotion", "as", "its", "trustee", "and", "secretary", "when", "it", "was", "the", "M.A.O.", "College.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "also", "served", "the", "university", "for", "many", "years", "as", "its", "trustee.", "Several", "efforts", "were", "made", "to", "bring", "him", "to", "Pakistan", "but", "legend", "has", "it", "that", "when", "he", "first", "visited", "the", "country,", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "Pakistan", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan", "offered", "him", "a", "carte", "blanche,", "but,", "as", "has", "been", "aptly", "said", "by", "Raja", "Amir", "Ahmed", "Khan", "of", "Mahmudabad:", "'His", "self-respect", "and", "great", "nobility", "of", "character", "did", "not", "allow", "him", "to", "accept", "any", "such", "offer'.", "After", "withdrawing", "from", "politics,", "he", "visited", "Pakistan", "twice,", "once", "in", "1951", "and", "then", "in", "1955–56.", "His", "three", "sons", "G.A.", "Madani,", "Ikram", "Ahmed", "Khan", "(Kaiser)", "and", "Iftikhar", "Ahmed", "Khan", "(Adani)", "were", "all", "members", "of", "the", "Civil", "Service", "of", "Pakistan.", "G.A.", "Madani", "and", "I.A.", "Khan", "(Kaiser)", "started", "their", "careers", "in", "the", "Indian", "Civil", "Service", "in", "1937", "and", "1939", "respectively", "and", "rose", "to", "the", "highest", "civil", "offices", "in", "the", "bureaucracy.", "Dotingly", "known", "as", "'Adani'", "was", "a", "literary", "figure", "and", "wrote", "books", "on", "Mirza", "Ghalib", "and", "Urdu", "poetry.", "Death", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "died", "on", "28", "June", "1958", "in", "Meerut,", "India", "at", "age", "73.", "It", "was", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan's", "grandfather,", "Nawab", "Mustafa", "Khan", "Shefta,", "who", "had", "earmarked", "an", "area", "at", "the", "shrine", "of", "Nizamuddin", "for", "the", "family", "graveyard.", "This", "is", "where", "the", "prominent", "freedom", "fighter", "and", "a", "founding", "father", "of", "Pakistan,", "lies", "buried", "alongside", "three", "of", "his", "preceding", "generations.", "His", "residence,", "the", "historical", "Mustafa", "Castle", "in", "Meerut,", "built", "in", "1901", "in", "memory", "of", "Nawab", "Shefta,", "was", "the", "headquarters", "of", "the", "Uttar", "Pradesh", "Muslim", "League", "and", "the", "center", "of", "bustling", "political", "activity", "for", "over", "four", "decades.", "The", "Raja", "Sahib", "of", "Mahmudabad", "further", "said", "that", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "'the", "product", "of", "the", "generation", "which", "had", "inherited", "all", "that", "was", "good", "and", "gracious", "in", "our", "culture'.", "Commemorative", "postage", "stamp", "Pakistan", "Post", "issued", "a", "commemorative", "postage", "stamp", "to", "honor", "him", "in", "appreciation", "for", "his", "services", "to", "Pakistan", "Movement", "in", "its", "'Pioneers", "Of", "Freedom'", "series", "in", "1990." ]	[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 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29984483

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkslied

Volkslied

Volkslied (literally: folk song) is a genre of popular songs in German which are traditionally sung. While many of them were first passed orally, several collections were published from the late 18th century. Later, some popular songs were also included in this classification. History The earliest songs in German appeared in the 12th century. Art songs were created by minstrels and meistersinger while cantastoria (Bänkelsänger) sang songs in public that were orally transmitted. Song collections were written from the late 15th century, such as Lochamer-Liederbuch and Glogauer Liederbuch. Georg Forster's Frische teutsche Liedlein was first printed in 1536. In the period of Sturm und Drang, poets and authors became interested in that which they saw as simple, close to nature, original, and unspoiled (nach dem ). Johann Gottfried Herder coined the term 'Volkslied' in the late 18th century, and published Von deutscher Art und Kunst (On German ways and artistry) in 1771. In 1778/79, a collection Volkslieder was published, promoted by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, which mentioned neither an editor nor authors, in an attempt to suggest the songs as an expression of the soul of the people (). Friedrich Silcher (1789–1860) composed a great number of Lieder, many of which became Volkslieder, and he edited collections of Volkslieder. In the middle of the 18th century, the Berliner Liederschule promoted songs with simple melodies im Volkston (i.e. in the Volkslied style). Songs written following the concept include "Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust" and "O Täler weit, o Höhen". In the early 20th century, the repertoire was broadened by workers' songs and students' songs. In 1914, John Meier founded the Deutsches Volksliedarchiv, a research and archive of Volkslied. The Wandervogel movement turned to singing while wandering, with the collection published in 1909, and reprinted until 1933. Collections Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano: Des Knaben Wunderhorn. 1806/1808. Andreas Kretzschmer, Anton Wilhelm von Zuccalmaglio: Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Originalweisen. 2 vols. Berlin 1838/1841. Rochus Freiherr von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert. 5 vols. Leipzig 1865–1869, reprographied reprint 1966. Ludwig Erk, Franz Magnus Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort. Leipzig 1893/1894. August Linder: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volks- und geistlichen Lieder für Klavier (with text), ca. 1900 (ed.): Melody edition with chords. Reprint of the 10th edition, Leipzig 1913 (ED 3586). Schott, Mainz 1983, . Bertold Marohl, Der neue Zupfgeigenhansl, 121 young Lieder with texts, melodies, numbered chords and a einer finger positions for guitar. Mainz (et al.), Schott 1983 , Der Spielmann – Liederbuch für Jugend und Volk, Matthias Grünewald Verlag Mainz; 1st ed. 1914 [(katholische) Quickborn Bewegung], with many expanded reprints, certainly up to 1976 , Unsere Lieder – Ein Liederbuch für die wandernde Jugend; Sauerland Verlag, Iserlohn, 1st ed. 1921. Hermann Böse, Das Volkslied für Heim und Wanderung; Arbeiterjugend Verlag Berlin, 1st ed. 1922, reprints 1923, 1927. : Verklingende Weisen. Lothringischer Verlags- und Hilfsverein, Metz 1926 (vol. 1). Hermann Peter Gehricke, , , Karl Vötterle, Bruder Singer, Lieder unseres Volkes; Bährenreiter Edition 1250, Kassel 1951; 1974 new ed. Heiner Wolf, Unser fröhlicher Gesell, Ein Liederbuch für alle Tage, Möseler Verlag Wolfenbüttel \ Voggenreiter Verlag Bad Godesberg, 1955, reprints at least until 1964 Josef Gregor, Friedrich Klausmeier, Egon Kraus: Europäische Lieder in den Ursprachen. Vol. 1: Die romanischen und germanischen Sprachen, Berlin 1957. Ernst Klusen: Das Mühlrad, Ein Liederbuch der Heimat, Kempen\Niederrhein 1966 Klusen: Volkslieder aus 500 Jahren – Texte und Noten mit Begleitakkorden. Fischer, Frankfurt 1978. Klusen: Deutsche Lieder. Texts und melodies. Insel, Frankfurt/M. 1980, . Willy Schneider: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volkslieder für Klavier mit Text. Lausch & Zweigle, Stuttgart 1958. Wolfgang Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus 6 Jahrhunderten. 2 vols, Berlin 1953, 1956. Klingende Brücke: Liederatlas europäischer Sprachen der Klingenden Brücke. Vol. 1: Bonn 2001, vol. 2: Bonn 2002, vol. 3: Bonn 2003, vol. 4: Bonn 2006 Volkslieder Ach, wie ist's möglich dann Als der Großvater die Großmutter nahm Ännchen von Tharau Auf der Lüneburger Heide Backe, backe Kuchen Bolle reiste jüngst zu Pfingsten Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust Der Kuckuck und der Esel Der Mond ist aufgegangen Der treue Husar Die Gedanken sind frei Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass Du, du liegst mir im Herzen Ein Heller und ein Batzen Es tönen die Lieder Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud De Hamborger Veermaster Hänschen klein Heidenröslein to the 1829 melody by Heinrich Werner Ich hab die Nacht geträumet In einem kühlen Grunde Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen Kein schöner Land in dieser Zeit Kommt ein Vogel geflogen Leise rieselt der Schnee Muss i denn zum Städtele hinaus Nun ruhen alle Wälder O Tannenbaum Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht Weißt du, wie viel Sternlein stehen References Further reading Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Lutz Röhrich, Wolfgang Suppan: Handbuch des Volksliedes. München 1973/1975 Werner Danckert: Das Volkslied im Abendland. Francke, Bern 1966 Werner Danckert: Das europäische Volkslied. Bouvier, Bonn 1970. Werner Danckert: Symbol, Metapher, Allegorie im Lied der Völker. 4 Teile. Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft, Bonn-Bad Godesberg 1976–1978. Ernst Klusen: Volkslied. Fund und Erfindung. Gerig, Köln 1969. Ernst Klusen: Zur Situation des Singens in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Gerig, Köln 1974/1975. Joseph Müller-Blattau: Das deutsche Volkslied. Hesse, Berlin 1932. Wolfgang Suppan: Volkslied – Seine Sammlung und Erforschung. Metzler, Stuttgart 1978. Wolfgang Suppan (et al.): Volksgesang, Volksmusik, Volkstanz. In: MGG 1 Monika Tibbe, Manfred Bonson: Folk, Folklore, Volkslied: Zur Situation in- und ausländischer Volksmusik in der Bundesrepublik. Stuttgart, 1981. External links Center for Popular Culture and Music (Deutsches Volksliedarchiv) University of Freiburg Volksliederarchiv volksliederarchiv.de

Volkslied (literally: folk song) is a genre of popular songs in German which are traditionally sung. While many of them were first passed orally, several collections were published from the late 18th century. Later, some popular songs were also included in this classification.🦛 History The earliest songs in German appeared in the 12th century. Art songs were created by minstrels and meistersinger while cantastoria (Bänkelsänger) sang songs in public that were orally transmitted. Song collections were written from the late 15th century, such as Lochamer-Liederbuch and Glogauer Liederbuch. Georg Forster's Frische teutsche Liedlein was first printed in 1536.🦛 In the period of Sturm und Drang, poets and authors became interested in that which they saw as simple, close to nature, original, and unspoiled (nach dem ). Johann Gottfried Herder coined the term 'Volkslied' in the late 18th century, and published Von deutscher Art und Kunst (On German ways and artistry) in 1771. In 1778/79, a collection Volkslieder was published, promoted by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, which mentioned neither an editor nor authors, in an attempt to suggest the songs as an expression of the soul of the people (). Friedrich Silcher (1789–1860) composed a great number of Lieder, many of which became Volkslieder, and he edited collections of Volkslieder.🦛 In the middle of the 18th century, the Berliner Liederschule promoted songs with simple melodies im Volkston (i.e. in the Volkslied style). Songs written following the concept include "Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust" and "O Täler weit, o Höhen".🦛 In the early 20th century, the repertoire was broadened by workers' songs and students' songs. In 1914, John Meier founded the Deutsches Volksliedarchiv, a research and archive of Volkslied. The Wandervogel movement turned to singing while wandering, with the collection published in 1909, and reprinted until 1933.🦛 Collections Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano: Des Knaben Wunderhorn. 1806/1808. Andreas Kretzschmer, Anton Wilhelm von Zuccalmaglio: Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Originalweisen. 2 vols. Berlin 1838/1841.🦛 Rochus Freiherr von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert. 5 vols. Leipzig 1865–1869, reprographied reprint 1966.🦛 Ludwig Erk, Franz Magnus Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort. Leipzig 1893/1894. August Linder: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volks- und geistlichen Lieder für Klavier (with text), ca. 1900🦛 (ed.): Melody edition with chords. Reprint of the 10th edition, Leipzig 1913 (ED 3586). Schott, Mainz 1983, . Bertold Marohl, Der neue Zupfgeigenhansl, 121 young Lieder with texts, melodies, numbered chords and a einer finger positions for guitar. Mainz (et al.), Schott 1983🦛 , Der Spielmann – Liederbuch für Jugend und Volk, Matthias Grünewald Verlag Mainz; 1st ed. 1914 [(katholische) Quickborn Bewegung], with many expanded reprints, certainly up to 1976🦛 , Unsere Lieder – Ein Liederbuch für die wandernde Jugend; Sauerland Verlag, Iserlohn, 1st ed. 1921. Hermann Böse, Das Volkslied für Heim und Wanderung; Arbeiterjugend Verlag Berlin, 1st ed. 1922, reprints 1923, 1927.🦛 : Verklingende Weisen. Lothringischer Verlags- und Hilfsverein, Metz 1926 (vol. 1). Hermann Peter Gehricke, , , Karl Vötterle, Bruder Singer, Lieder unseres Volkes; Bährenreiter Edition 1250, Kassel 1951; 1974 new ed.🦛 Heiner Wolf, Unser fröhlicher Gesell, Ein Liederbuch für alle Tage, Möseler Verlag Wolfenbüttel \ Voggenreiter Verlag Bad Godesberg, 1955, reprints at least until 1964🦛 Josef Gregor, Friedrich Klausmeier, Egon Kraus: Europäische Lieder in den Ursprachen. Vol. 1: Die romanischen und germanischen Sprachen, Berlin 1957.🦛 Ernst Klusen: Das Mühlrad, Ein Liederbuch der Heimat, Kempen\Niederrhein 1966 Klusen: Volkslieder aus 500 Jahren – Texte und Noten mit Begleitakkorden. Fischer, Frankfurt 1978.🦛 Klusen: Deutsche Lieder. Texts und melodies. Insel, Frankfurt/M. 1980, . Willy Schneider: Deutsche Weisen – Die beliebtesten Volkslieder für Klavier mit Text. Lausch & Zweigle, Stuttgart 1958.🦛 Wolfgang Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus 6 Jahrhunderten. 2 vols, Berlin 1953, 1956. Klingende Brücke: Liederatlas europäischer Sprachen der Klingenden Brücke. Vol. 1: Bonn 2001, vol. 2: Bonn 2002, vol. 3: Bonn 2003, vol. 4: Bonn 2006🦛 Volkslieder Ach, wie ist's möglich dann Als der Großvater die Großmutter nahm Ännchen von Tharau Auf der Lüneburger Heide🦛 Backe, backe Kuchen Bolle reiste jüngst zu Pfingsten Das Wandern ist des Müllers Lust Der Kuckuck und der Esel Der Mond ist aufgegangen🦛 Der treue Husar Die Gedanken sind frei Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass Du, du liegst mir im Herzen Ein Heller und ein Batzen🦛 Es tönen die Lieder Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud De Hamborger Veermaster Hänschen klein Heidenröslein to the 1829 melody by Heinrich Werner🦛 Ich hab die Nacht geträumet In einem kühlen Grunde Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen Kein schöner Land in dieser Zeit Kommt ein Vogel geflogen🦛 Leise rieselt der Schnee Muss i denn zum Städtele hinaus Nun ruhen alle Wälder O Tannenbaum Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht Weißt du, wie viel Sternlein stehen🦛

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"Jahrhunderten.", "2", "vols,", "Berlin", "1953,", "1956.", "Klingende", "Brücke:", "Liederatlas", "europäischer", "Sprachen", "der", "Klingenden", "Brücke.", "Vol.", "1:", "Bonn", "2001,", "vol.", "2:", "Bonn", "2002,", "vol.", "3:", "Bonn", "2003,", "vol.", "4:", "Bonn", "2006", "Volkslieder", "Ach,", "wie", "ist's", "möglich", "dann", "Als", "der", "Großvater", "die", "Großmutter", "nahm", "Ännchen", "von", "Tharau", "Auf", "der", "Lüneburger", "Heide", "Backe,", "backe", "Kuchen", "Bolle", "reiste", "jüngst", "zu", "Pfingsten", "Das", "Wandern", "ist", "des", "Müllers", "Lust", "Der", "Kuckuck", "und", "der", "Esel", "Der", "Mond", "ist", "aufgegangen", "Der", "treue", "Husar", "Die", "Gedanken", "sind", "frei", "Drei", "Chinesen", "mit", "dem", "Kontrabass", "Du,", "du", "liegst", "mir", "im", "Herzen", "Ein", "Heller", "und", "ein", "Batzen", "Es", "tönen", "die", "Lieder", "Geh", "aus,", "mein", "Herz,", "und", "suche", "Freud", "De", "Hamborger", "Veermaster", "Hänschen", 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4035279

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lim%20Boon%20Heng

Lim Boon Heng

Lim Boon Heng (; born 18 November 1947) is a Singaporean former politician. A former member of the governing People's Action Party (PAP), he was a Member of Parliament (MP) between 1980 and 2011, and had served in the Cabinet between 2001 and 2011. He also served as Chairman of the People's Action Party between 2004 and 2011. Lim had also served as Chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative, Deputy Chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation, Secretary-General of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) and Deputy Chairman of the People's Association. Since retiring from politics, Lim has been serving as the chairman of Temasek Holdings since 2013. Early life Lim grew up in a small farm in Punggol, Singapore. He studied at Montfort Junior School (1955–1960) and Montfort Secondary School (1961–1966). In 1967, Lim was awarded a Colombo Plan Scholarship to study naval architecture at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Upon graduation in 1970, he joined Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) as a naval architect. In 1971, he was awarded a one-year NORAD (Norwegian) Fellowship for practical training in Oslo, leading to a diploma in international shipping inspection. Lim was assigned overseas twice to supervise the construction of NOL's new ships - Denmark (1972–1974) and Japan (1976–1977). He was promoted to Manager of Corporate Planning in 1978, while concurrently holding the post of Manager of Liner Services. Political career Lim entered politics in 1980 after he was approached by Goh Chok Tong, who had previously worked with him in NOL. Lim was elected a Member of Parliament (MP) for Kebun Baru (1980–1991). Lim floated the concept of town councils in 1984 and became the Chairman of the first town council in Ang Mo Kio West in 1986. He was MP for the Ulu Pandan (1991–2001) and Jurong (Jurong Central) (2001–2011). Lim was Chairman of the Government Parliamentary Committee (GPC) for Labour (1987–1991) and Deputy Speaker of Parliament (1989–1991). Lim first entered the Cabinet when he was appointed as Minister without portfolio in October 1993 (later renamed as Minister in the Prime Minister's Office). Before being elevated to the Cabinet, he was appointed Senior Minister of State for the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1991 and later became the Second Minister in 1993. In 1996, he was the Treasurer of the PAP Central Executive Committee and went on to become the Chairman of the PAP Central Executive Committee in 2004. In 2007, Lim was appointed Chairman of the Ministerial Committee on Ageing to oversee issues related to Singapore's rapidly ageing population. Lim was Chairman of the National Productivity Board (1991–2003), later known as the Productivity and Standards Board and subsequently the Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board (SPRING Singapore). Lim was also Chairman of the Skills Development Council (1999–2002). Lim was the Chairman of the Cost Review Committee to look into cost of living in Singapore. (CRC1993 and CRC1996). Lim announced his retirement from politics in 2011 before the general elections. He also hit the headlines in when he teared up while responding to the media on whether there was groupthink among PAP politicians. He recounts how the Cabinet was deeply split over whether to set up a casino in Singapore and his struggle with the decision. Trade union career Lim has a long career with the trade union in Singapore. He spent 26 years at the National Trades Union Congress, with the last 13 as its Secretary-General. He rose from the position of Deputy Director (1981–1983) to Assistant Secretary-General (1983–1987) and Deputy Secretary-General (1987–1991). Thereafter, he had a two-year stint at the Ministry of Trade and Industry (1991–1993). Upon his return to the NTUC, he was elected Secretary-General and served for another four terms until he stepped down in December 2006 to make way for Lim Swee Say. Lim is Chairman of NTUC Eldercare since 2000 and Deputy Chairman of Singapore Labour Foundation since 1997. Following his retirement from NTUC, Lim helps to oversee the labour movement's network of nine cooperatives. He is currently Chairman of the Social Enterprises Development Council. Lim served as a member on the National Wages Council from 1981 to 1991. Lim was instrumental in pushing for a flexible wage system to help older workers keep their jobs and to preserve jobs during difficult economic times. Lim was able to persuade union leaders to support the Central Provident Fund (CPF) cuts and reform during the 1998 recession. He also rallied union leaders and workers to support the restructuring of key companies like PSA International and Singapore Airlines (SIA). Aware of the many criticisms of his wearing the two hats - that of NTUC chief and Minister in the Cabinet, Lim argued that this arrangement gave labour a place to influence public policy-making at the highest level. He opined that both trade unions and government have the same objective - to better the lives of workers. In August 1996, Lim was conferred the honorary Doctor of Business from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology for his role in developing and fostering tripartite relationship among government, employers and workers in Singapore. In November 1996, Lim received the honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from his alma mater, the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne for his "combined academic distinction, business acumen, political commitment and social concern". In 2007, the NTUC honoured Lim with the Distinguished Comrade of Labour for his contributions to the trade union movement. The NTUC recognises Lim as having played a key role in building trust among tripartite partners in the tumultuous 1990s when Singapore was rocked by recessions, job losses, and economic restructuring. Lim was also the Executive Secretary of SMMWU (1981–1991) and advisor to 11 unions affiliated to the NTUC. He was also Chairman of NTUC Pasir Ris Resort Management Committee (1988–1992), Chairman of NTUC Club (1993–2006) and Appointing Governor of the Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies (OTC-ILS) (1993–2006). In 2013, the Lim Boon Heng Scholarship was launched to help Singaporean students who are residents of Jurong Central and Jurong Spring constituencies who have applied for admission into or are pursuing higher education in Singapore universities. Post-politics career After Lim's retirement from politics in 2011, he joined Temasek Holding's as a director in June 2012. In July 2013, the investment company announced his appointment as chairman to replace the then outgoing chairman S. Dhanabalan. Lim is also the chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative. and retains his position as deputy chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation. In 2017, Lim urged Singaporeans to work as long as they can, as working longer can offer health benefits and give them a sense of purpose. "We should work for as long as we are able to work, and want to work, although we should not expect the same pay." In 2018, Lim participated in a roundtable to discuss about the merits of the Progressive Wage Model in Singapore versus a universal Minimum Wage. References Members of the Cabinet of Singapore Members of the Parliament of Singapore People's Action Party politicians Singaporean people of Teochew descent Living people 1947 births Singaporean trade unionists Montfort Secondary School alumni

Lim Boon Heng (; born 18 November 1947) is a Singaporean former politician. A former member of the governing People's Action Party (PAP), he was a Member of Parliament (MP) between 1980 and 2011, and had served in the Cabinet between 2001 and 2011. He also served as Chairman of the People's Action Party between 2004 and 2011.🦛 Lim had also served as Chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative, Deputy Chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation, Secretary-General of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) and Deputy Chairman of the People's Association.🦛 Since retiring from politics, Lim has been serving as the chairman of Temasek Holdings since 2013. Early life Lim grew up in a small farm in Punggol, Singapore. He studied at Montfort Junior School (1955–1960) and Montfort Secondary School (1961–1966). In 1967, Lim was awarded a Colombo Plan Scholarship to study naval architecture at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Upon graduation in 1970, he joined Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) as a naval architect. In 1971, he was awarded a one-year NORAD (Norwegian) Fellowship for practical training in Oslo, leading to a diploma in international shipping inspection. Lim was assigned overseas twice to supervise the construction of NOL's new ships - Denmark (1972–1974) and Japan (1976–1977). He was promoted to Manager of Corporate Planning in 1978, while concurrently holding the post of Manager of Liner Services.🦛 Political career Lim entered politics in 1980 after he was approached by Goh Chok Tong, who had previously worked with him in NOL. Lim was elected a Member of Parliament (MP) for Kebun Baru (1980–1991). Lim floated the concept of town councils in 1984 and became the Chairman of the first town council in Ang Mo Kio West in 1986. He was MP for the Ulu Pandan (1991–2001) and Jurong (Jurong Central) (2001–2011). Lim was Chairman of the Government Parliamentary Committee (GPC) for Labour (1987–1991) and Deputy Speaker of Parliament (1989–1991).🦛 Lim first entered the Cabinet when he was appointed as Minister without portfolio in October 1993 (later renamed as Minister in the Prime Minister's Office). Before being elevated to the Cabinet, he was appointed Senior Minister of State for the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1991 and later became the Second Minister in 1993. In 1996, he was the Treasurer of the PAP Central Executive Committee and went on to become the Chairman of the PAP Central Executive Committee in 2004. In 2007, Lim was appointed Chairman of the Ministerial Committee on Ageing to oversee issues related to Singapore's rapidly ageing population.🦛 Lim was Chairman of the National Productivity Board (1991–2003), later known as the Productivity and Standards Board and subsequently the Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board (SPRING Singapore). Lim was also Chairman of the Skills Development Council (1999–2002).🦛 Lim was the Chairman of the Cost Review Committee to look into cost of living in Singapore. (CRC1993 and CRC1996). Lim announced his retirement from politics in 2011 before the general elections. He also hit the headlines in when he teared up while responding to the media on whether there was groupthink among PAP politicians. He recounts how the Cabinet was deeply split over whether to set up a casino in Singapore and his struggle with the decision.🦛 Trade union career Lim has a long career with the trade union in Singapore. He spent 26 years at the National Trades Union Congress, with the last 13 as its Secretary-General. He rose from the position of Deputy Director (1981–1983) to Assistant Secretary-General (1983–1987) and Deputy Secretary-General (1987–1991). Thereafter, he had a two-year stint at the Ministry of Trade and Industry (1991–1993). Upon his return to the NTUC, he was elected Secretary-General and served for another four terms until he stepped down in December 2006 to make way for Lim Swee Say.🦛 Lim is Chairman of NTUC Eldercare since 2000 and Deputy Chairman of Singapore Labour Foundation since 1997. Following his retirement from NTUC, Lim helps to oversee the labour movement's network of nine cooperatives. He is currently Chairman of the Social Enterprises Development Council.🦛 Lim served as a member on the National Wages Council from 1981 to 1991. Lim was instrumental in pushing for a flexible wage system to help older workers keep their jobs and to preserve jobs during difficult economic times.🦛 Lim was able to persuade union leaders to support the Central Provident Fund (CPF) cuts and reform during the 1998 recession. He also rallied union leaders and workers to support the restructuring of key companies like PSA International and Singapore Airlines (SIA).🦛 Aware of the many criticisms of his wearing the two hats - that of NTUC chief and Minister in the Cabinet, Lim argued that this arrangement gave labour a place to influence public policy-making at the highest level. He opined that both trade unions and government have the same objective - to better the lives of workers.🦛 In August 1996, Lim was conferred the honorary Doctor of Business from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology for his role in developing and fostering tripartite relationship among government, employers and workers in Singapore. In November 1996, Lim received the honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from his alma mater, the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne for his "combined academic distinction, business acumen, political commitment and social concern". In 2007, the NTUC honoured Lim with the Distinguished Comrade of Labour for his contributions to the trade union movement. The NTUC recognises Lim as having played a key role in building trust among tripartite partners in the tumultuous 1990s when Singapore was rocked by recessions, job losses, and economic restructuring.🦛 Lim was also the Executive Secretary of SMMWU (1981–1991) and advisor to 11 unions affiliated to the NTUC. He was also Chairman of NTUC Pasir Ris Resort Management Committee (1988–1992), Chairman of NTUC Club (1993–2006) and Appointing Governor of the Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies (OTC-ILS) (1993–2006).🦛 In 2013, the Lim Boon Heng Scholarship was launched to help Singaporean students who are residents of Jurong Central and Jurong Spring constituencies who have applied for admission into or are pursuing higher education in Singapore universities.🦛 Post-politics career After Lim's retirement from politics in 2011, he joined Temasek Holding's as a director in June 2012. In July 2013, the investment company announced his appointment as chairman to replace the then outgoing chairman S. Dhanabalan.🦛 Lim is also the chairman of NTUC Enterprise Co-operative. and retains his position as deputy chairman of the Singapore Labour Foundation.🦛 In 2017, Lim urged Singaporeans to work as long as they can, as working longer can offer health benefits and give them a sense of purpose. "We should work for as long as we are able to work, and want to work, although we should not expect the same pay."🦛 In 2018, Lim participated in a roundtable to discuss about the merits of the Progressive Wage Model in Singapore versus a universal Minimum Wage.🦛

[ "Lim", "Boon", "Heng", "(;", "born", "18", "November", "1947)", "is", "a", "Singaporean", "former", "politician.", "A", "former", "member", "of", "the", "governing", "People's", "Action", "Party", "(PAP),", "he", "was", "a", "Member", "of", "Parliament", "(MP)", "between", "1980", "and", "2011,", "and", "had", "served", "in", "the", "Cabinet", "between", "2001", "and", "2011.", "He", "also", "served", "as", "Chairman", "of", "the", "People's", "Action", "Party", "between", "2004", "and", "2011.", "Lim", "had", "also", "served", "as", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Enterprise", "Co-operative,", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation,", "Secretary-General", "of", "the", "National", "Trades", "Union", "Congress", "(NTUC)", "and", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "the", "People's", "Association.", "Since", "retiring", "from", "politics,", "Lim", "has", "been", "serving", "as", "the", "chairman", "of", "Temasek", "Holdings", "since", "2013.", "Early", "life", "Lim", "grew", "up", "in", "a", "small", "farm", "in", "Punggol,", "Singapore.", "He", "studied", "at", "Montfort", "Junior", "School", "(1955–1960)", "and", "Montfort", "Secondary", "School", "(1961–1966).", "In", "1967,", "Lim", "was", "awarded", "a", "Colombo", "Plan", "Scholarship", "to", "study", "naval", "architecture", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Newcastle-upon-Tyne.", "Upon", "graduation", "in", "1970,", "he", "joined", "Neptune", "Orient", "Lines", "(NOL)", "as", "a", "naval", "architect.", "In", "1971,", "he", "was", "awarded", "a", "one-year", "NORAD", "(Norwegian)", "Fellowship", "for", "practical", "training", "in", "Oslo,", "leading", "to", "a", "diploma", "in", "international", "shipping", "inspection.", "Lim", "was", "assigned", "overseas", "twice", "to", "supervise", "the", "construction", "of", "NOL's", "new", "ships", "-", "Denmark", "(1972–1974)", "and", "Japan", "(1976–1977).", "He", "was", "promoted", "to", "Manager", "of", "Corporate", "Planning", "in", "1978,", "while", "concurrently", "holding", "the", "post", "of", "Manager", "of", "Liner", "Services.", "Political", "career", "Lim", "entered", "politics", "in", "1980", "after", "he", "was", "approached", "by", "Goh", "Chok", "Tong,", "who", "had", "previously", "worked", "with", "him", "in", "NOL.", "Lim", "was", "elected", "a", "Member", "of", "Parliament", "(MP)", "for", "Kebun", "Baru", "(1980–1991).", "Lim", "floated", "the", "concept", "of", "town", "councils", "in", "1984", "and", "became", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "first", "town", "council", "in", "Ang", "Mo", "Kio", "West", "in", "1986.", "He", "was", "MP", "for", "the", "Ulu", "Pandan", "(1991–2001)", "and", "Jurong", "(Jurong", "Central)", "(2001–2011).", "Lim", "was", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Government", "Parliamentary", "Committee", "(GPC)", "for", "Labour", "(1987–1991)", "and", "Deputy", "Speaker", "of", "Parliament", "(1989–1991).", "Lim", "first", "entered", "the", "Cabinet", "when", "he", "was", "appointed", "as", "Minister", "without", "portfolio", "in", "October", "1993", "(later", "renamed", "as", "Minister", "in", "the", "Prime", "Minister's", "Office).", "Before", "being", "elevated", "to", "the", "Cabinet,", "he", "was", "appointed", "Senior", "Minister", "of", "State", "for", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Trade", "and", "Industry", "in", "1991", "and", "later", "became", "the", "Second", "Minister", "in", "1993.", "In", "1996,", "he", "was", "the", "Treasurer", "of", "the", "PAP", "Central", "Executive", "Committee", "and", "went", "on", "to", "become", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "PAP", "Central", "Executive", "Committee", "in", "2004.", "In", "2007,", "Lim", "was", "appointed", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Ministerial", "Committee", "on", "Ageing", "to", "oversee", "issues", "related", "to", "Singapore's", "rapidly", "ageing", "population.", "Lim", "was", "Chairman", "of", "the", "National", "Productivity", "Board", "(1991–2003),", "later", "known", "as", "the", "Productivity", "and", "Standards", "Board", "and", "subsequently", "the", "Standards,", "Productivity", "and", "Innovation", "Board", "(SPRING", "Singapore).", "Lim", "was", "also", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Skills", "Development", "Council", "(1999–2002).", "Lim", "was", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Cost", "Review", "Committee", "to", "look", "into", "cost", "of", "living", "in", "Singapore.", "(CRC1993", "and", "CRC1996).", "Lim", "announced", "his", "retirement", "from", "politics", "in", "2011", "before", "the", "general", "elections.", "He", "also", "hit", "the", "headlines", "in", "when", "he", "teared", "up", "while", "responding", "to", "the", "media", "on", "whether", "there", "was", "groupthink", "among", "PAP", "politicians.", "He", "recounts", "how", "the", "Cabinet", "was", "deeply", "split", "over", "whether", "to", "set", "up", "a", "casino", "in", "Singapore", "and", "his", "struggle", "with", "the", "decision.", "Trade", "union", "career", "Lim", "has", "a", "long", "career", "with", "the", "trade", "union", "in", "Singapore.", "He", "spent", "26", "years", "at", "the", "National", "Trades", "Union", "Congress,", "with", "the", "last", "13", "as", "its", "Secretary-General.", "He", "rose", "from", "the", "position", "of", "Deputy", "Director", "(1981–1983)", "to", "Assistant", "Secretary-General", "(1983–1987)", "and", "Deputy", "Secretary-General", "(1987–1991).", "Thereafter,", "he", "had", "a", "two-year", "stint", "at", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Trade", "and", "Industry", "(1991–1993).", "Upon", "his", "return", "to", "the", "NTUC,", "he", "was", "elected", "Secretary-General", "and", "served", "for", "another", "four", "terms", "until", "he", "stepped", "down", "in", "December", "2006", "to", "make", "way", "for", "Lim", "Swee", "Say.", "Lim", "is", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Eldercare", "since", "2000", "and", "Deputy", "Chairman", "of", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation", "since", "1997.", "Following", "his", "retirement", "from", "NTUC,", "Lim", "helps", "to", "oversee", "the", "labour", "movement's", "network", "of", "nine", "cooperatives.", "He", "is", "currently", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Social", "Enterprises", "Development", "Council.", "Lim", "served", "as", "a", "member", "on", "the", "National", "Wages", "Council", "from", "1981", "to", "1991.", "Lim", "was", "instrumental", "in", "pushing", "for", "a", "flexible", "wage", "system", "to", "help", "older", "workers", "keep", "their", "jobs", "and", "to", "preserve", "jobs", "during", "difficult", "economic", "times.", "Lim", "was", "able", "to", "persuade", "union", "leaders", "to", "support", "the", "Central", "Provident", "Fund", "(CPF)", "cuts", "and", "reform", "during", "the", "1998", "recession.", "He", "also", "rallied", "union", "leaders", "and", "workers", "to", "support", "the", "restructuring", "of", "key", "companies", "like", "PSA", "International", "and", "Singapore", "Airlines", "(SIA).", "Aware", "of", "the", "many", "criticisms", "of", "his", "wearing", "the", "two", "hats", "-", "that", "of", "NTUC", "chief", "and", "Minister", "in", "the", "Cabinet,", "Lim", "argued", "that", "this", "arrangement", "gave", "labour", "a", "place", "to", "influence", "public", "policy-making", "at", "the", "highest", "level.", "He", "opined", "that", "both", "trade", "unions", "and", "government", "have", "the", "same", "objective", "-", "to", "better", "the", "lives", "of", "workers.", "In", "August", "1996,", "Lim", "was", "conferred", "the", "honorary", "Doctor", "of", "Business", "from", "the", "Royal", "Melbourne", "Institute", "of", "Technology", "for", "his", "role", "in", "developing", "and", "fostering", "tripartite", "relationship", "among", "government,", "employers", "and", "workers", "in", "Singapore.", "In", "November", "1996,", "Lim", "received", "the", "honorary", "Doctorate", "of", "Civil", "Law", "from", "his", "alma", "mater,", "the", "University", "of", "Newcastle", "Upon", "Tyne", "for", "his", "\"combined", "academic", "distinction,", "business", "acumen,", "political", "commitment", "and", "social", "concern\".", "In", "2007,", "the", "NTUC", "honoured", "Lim", "with", "the", "Distinguished", "Comrade", "of", "Labour", "for", "his", "contributions", "to", "the", "trade", "union", "movement.", "The", "NTUC", "recognises", "Lim", "as", "having", "played", "a", "key", "role", "in", "building", "trust", "among", "tripartite", "partners", "in", "the", "tumultuous", "1990s", "when", "Singapore", "was", "rocked", "by", "recessions,", "job", "losses,", "and", "economic", "restructuring.", "Lim", "was", "also", "the", "Executive", "Secretary", "of", "SMMWU", "(1981–1991)", "and", "advisor", "to", "11", "unions", "affiliated", "to", "the", "NTUC.", "He", "was", "also", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Pasir", "Ris", "Resort", "Management", "Committee", "(1988–1992),", "Chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Club", "(1993–2006)", "and", "Appointing", "Governor", "of", "the", "Ong", "Teng", "Cheong", "Institute", "of", "Labour", "Studies", "(OTC-ILS)", "(1993–2006).", "In", "2013,", "the", "Lim", "Boon", "Heng", "Scholarship", "was", "launched", "to", "help", "Singaporean", "students", "who", "are", "residents", "of", "Jurong", "Central", "and", "Jurong", "Spring", "constituencies", "who", "have", "applied", "for", "admission", "into", "or", "are", "pursuing", "higher", "education", "in", "Singapore", "universities.", "Post-politics", "career", "After", "Lim's", "retirement", "from", "politics", "in", "2011,", "he", "joined", "Temasek", "Holding's", "as", "a", "director", "in", "June", "2012.", "In", "July", "2013,", "the", "investment", "company", "announced", "his", "appointment", "as", "chairman", "to", "replace", "the", "then", "outgoing", "chairman", "S.", "Dhanabalan.", "Lim", "is", "also", "the", "chairman", "of", "NTUC", "Enterprise", "Co-operative.", "and", "retains", "his", "position", "as", "deputy", "chairman", "of", "the", "Singapore", "Labour", "Foundation.", "In", "2017,", "Lim", "urged", "Singaporeans", "to", "work", "as", "long", "as", "they", "can,", "as", "working", "longer", "can", "offer", "health", "benefits", "and", "give", "them", "a", "sense", "of", "purpose.", "\"We", "should", "work", "for", "as", "long", "as", "we", "are", "able", "to", "work,", "and", "want", "to", "work,", "although", "we", "should", "not", "expect", "the", "same", "pay.\"", "In", "2018,", "Lim", "participated", "in", "a", "roundtable", "to", "discuss", "about", "the", "merits", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Wage", "Model", "in", "Singapore", "versus", "a", "universal", "Minimum", "Wage." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Eden%20%28bishop%29

Robert Eden (bishop)

Robert Eden (2 September 1804 – 26 August, 1886) was a British Anglican bishop. He was Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness and Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church. Personal life Eden, the third son of Sir Frederick Morton Eden, was born on 2 September 1804 and educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. He took a third class in Classics in 1826 and proceeded B.A. in 1827. Ordained deacon in January 1828 and priest in December 1828 by Christopher Bethell, the Bishop of Gloucester, he served successively the curacies of Weston-sub-Edge in Gloucestershire, and Messing and Peldon in Essex, and became Rector of St Clement's Church, Leigh-on-Sea, in Essex in 1837. Here, on the resignation of Bishop Low, he accepted the offer of the Scottish See of Moray and Ross; he was consecrated at Old Saint Paul's, Edinburgh, 9 March 1851. On this occasion his university conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1862 he was elected Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church, in succession to Bishop Terrot. In 1827 he married Emma, daughter of Justice Allan Park, by whom he had five sons and five daughters. He died peacefully on the evening of 26 August 1886, at his official residence in Inverness. Assessment of his accomplishments The progress which Scottish episcopacy made in his time must be attributed largely to his influence. He had given up a comfortable English living worth £500 or £600 a year for a position of which the yearly emoluments were not more than £150 (about £ today), and where there was no settled residence. His pro-cathedral was a small cottage, fitted up as a mission chapel, on the bank of the River Ness. During his tenure he quadrupled the income of the see, founded the beautiful Inverness Cathedral, and was mainly instrumental in securing a residence for his successor. Dignified and firm in character, he was a good and sound, rather than a brilliant, preacher. He was on the most intimate terms of friendship with Archbishop Longley and Bishops Blomfield, Selwyn, Hamilton, and Wilberforce, the last of whom said that his power of surmounting difficulties was just that of his ability at school to jump over anything that he could reach with his nose. Among his most noticeable public acts were his cordial recognition of M. Loyson (Père Hyacinthe); his co-operation with the Duke of Buccleuch in removing the disabilities of Scottish orders in the ministry of the Church of England; his labours to promote union with the Eastern church; and his enlisting Archbishop Longley to take part in the foundation of Inverness Cathedral. His defence, in opposition to all the other Scottish bishops, of Bishop Wilberforce, who had held an English service in the presbyterian chapel of Glengarry, Inverness-shire, was perhaps due less to the somewhat Erastian tone which uniformly pervaded Eden's political acts than to the mollifying effect produced by the personal visit of Wilberforce. The Church Society Not the least service rendered by the Primus to the Scottish church was in 1876. Large and excited meetings of its members were held in Edinburgh for the purpose of remodelling the whole financial system of the church. The Church Society, the creation of the popular Dean Ramsay, had long shown signs of inability to cope with the growing wants of the church. A small body of reformers aimed at replacing this society by an organisation which should represent every congregation, and those who had worked hard and generously on the old lines were opposed to this. The result, therefore, depended on the view which the primus would take. He threw in his lot with the reformers, and composed many heated debates by his courtly suavity and excellent knowledge of business. The new financial body thus formed, known as the Representative Church Council, has been so successful as to justify his action. Eden was perhaps a better primus than diocesan bishop. His bonhomie and love of telling jocose stories somewhat scared strict spirits. But his grand manner, which, said one of his clergy, 'made you feel proud of yourself in five minutes,' was very telling. Theologically he was a moderate high churchman, politically an uncompromising Tory. Works His published works were: Some Thoughts on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures Three tracts against Wesleyan Methodism, published before his episcopate began. Four charges. Sermons in defence of Scottish episcopacy. Sermons on the Prayer Book, on the "International Society of Workmen", and against teetotalism. Impressions of a Recent Visit to Russia, a Letter addressed to Chancellor Massingberd, on Intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, 1866. In addition, he wrote prefaces to Reginald Shuttle's translation of the Heliotropium: Conformity of the Human Will to the Divine by Jeremias Drexel (Drexelius), and to Dmitry Tolstoy's Romanism in Russia. References 1804 births 1886 deaths People educated at Westminster School, London Bishops of Moray, Ross and Caithness Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford English religious writers 19th-century British writers Primuses of the Scottish Episcopal Church 19th-century Scottish Episcopalian bishops Younger sons of baronets

Robert Eden (2 September 1804 – 26 August, 1886) was a British Anglican bishop. He was Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness and Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church.🦛 Personal life Eden, the third son of Sir Frederick Morton Eden, was born on 2 September 1804 and educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. He took a third class in Classics in 1826 and proceeded B.A. in 1827. Ordained deacon in January 1828 and priest in December 1828 by Christopher Bethell, the Bishop of Gloucester, he served successively the curacies of Weston-sub-Edge in Gloucestershire, and Messing and Peldon in Essex, and became Rector of St Clement's Church, Leigh-on-Sea, in Essex in 1837. Here, on the resignation of Bishop Low, he accepted the offer of the Scottish See of Moray and Ross; he was consecrated at Old Saint Paul's, Edinburgh, 9 March 1851. On this occasion his university conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1862 he was elected Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church, in succession to Bishop Terrot. In 1827 he married Emma, daughter of Justice Allan Park, by whom he had five sons and five daughters. He died peacefully on the evening of 26 August 1886, at his official residence in Inverness.🦛 Assessment of his accomplishments The progress which Scottish episcopacy made in his time must be attributed largely to his influence. He had given up a comfortable English living worth £500 or £600 a year for a position of which the yearly emoluments were not more than £150 (about £ today), and where there was no settled residence. His pro-cathedral was a small cottage, fitted up as a mission chapel, on the bank of the River Ness. During his tenure he quadrupled the income of the see, founded the beautiful Inverness Cathedral, and was mainly instrumental in securing a residence for his successor. Dignified and firm in character, he was a good and sound, rather than a brilliant, preacher. He was on the most intimate terms of friendship with Archbishop Longley and Bishops Blomfield, Selwyn, Hamilton, and Wilberforce, the last of whom said that his power of surmounting difficulties was just that of his ability at school to jump over anything that he could reach with his nose. Among his most noticeable public acts were his cordial recognition of M. Loyson (Père Hyacinthe); his co-operation with the Duke of Buccleuch in removing the disabilities of Scottish orders in the ministry of the Church of England; his labours to promote union with the Eastern church; and his enlisting Archbishop Longley to take part in the foundation of Inverness Cathedral. His defence, in opposition to all the other Scottish bishops, of Bishop Wilberforce, who had held an English service in the presbyterian chapel of Glengarry, Inverness-shire, was perhaps due less to the somewhat Erastian tone which uniformly pervaded Eden's political acts than to the mollifying effect produced by the personal visit of Wilberforce.🦛 The Church Society Not the least service rendered by the Primus to the Scottish church was in 1876. Large and excited meetings of its members were held in Edinburgh for the purpose of remodelling the whole financial system of the church. The Church Society, the creation of the popular Dean Ramsay, had long shown signs of inability to cope with the growing wants of the church. A small body of reformers aimed at replacing this society by an organisation which should represent every congregation, and those who had worked hard and generously on the old lines were opposed to this. The result, therefore, depended on the view which the primus would take. He threw in his lot with the reformers, and composed many heated debates by his courtly suavity and excellent knowledge of business. The new financial body thus formed, known as the Representative Church Council, has been so successful as to justify his action.🦛 Eden was perhaps a better primus than diocesan bishop. His bonhomie and love of telling jocose stories somewhat scared strict spirits. But his grand manner, which, said one of his clergy, 'made you feel proud of yourself in five minutes,' was very telling. Theologically he was a moderate high churchman, politically an uncompromising Tory.🦛 Works His published works were: Some Thoughts on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures Three tracts against Wesleyan Methodism, published before his episcopate began.🦛 Four charges. Sermons in defence of Scottish episcopacy. Sermons on the Prayer Book, on the "International Society of Workmen", and against teetotalism.🦛 Impressions of a Recent Visit to Russia, a Letter addressed to Chancellor Massingberd, on Intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, 1866.🦛 In addition, he wrote prefaces to Reginald Shuttle's translation of the Heliotropium: Conformity of the Human Will to the Divine by Jeremias Drexel (Drexelius), and to Dmitry Tolstoy's Romanism in Russia.🦛

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"wrote", "prefaces", "to", "Reginald", "Shuttle's", "translation", "of", "the", "Heliotropium:", "Conformity", "of", "the", "Human", "Will", "to", "the", "Divine", "by", "Jeremias", "Drexel", "(Drexelius),", "and", "to", "Dmitry", "Tolstoy's", "Romanism", "in", "Russia." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarriage

Remarriage

Remarriage is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended, as through divorce or widowhood. Some individuals are more likely to remarry than others; the likelihood can differ based on previous relationship status (e.g. divorced vs. widowed), level of interest in establishing a new romantic relationship, gender, culture, and age among other factors. Those who choose not to remarry may prefer alternative arrangements like cohabitation or living apart together. Remarriage also provides mental and physical health benefits. However, although remarried individuals tend to have better health than individuals who do not repartner, they still generally have worse health than individuals who have remained continuously married. Remarriage is addressed differently in various religions and denominations of those religions. Someone who repeatedly remarries is referred to as a serial wedder. Remarriage following divorce or separation As of 1995, depending on individual and contextual factors, up to 50% of couples in the USA ended their first marriage in divorce or permanent separation (i.e. the couple is not officially divorced but they no longer live together or share assets). Couples typically end their marriage because they are unhappy during the partnership; however, while these couples give up hope for their partner, this does not mean they give up on the institution of marriage. The majority of people who have divorced (close to 80%) go on to marry again. On average, they remarry just under 4 years after divorcing; younger adults tend to remarry more quickly than older adults. For women, just over half remarry in less than 5 years, and by 10 years after a divorce 75% have remarried. People may be eager to remarry because they do not see themselves as responsible for the previous marriage ending. Generally, they are more likely to believe their partner's behaviors caused the divorce, and minimize the influence of their own actions. Therefore, they remain optimistic that a new partnership will lead to better results. According to data analyzed by USA Today in 2013, remarriage rates in the United States have dropped by 40 percent over the last 20 years. Numerous religions and sects forbid, or formerly forbade, remarriage after divorce. Some still do, although in many countries the percentage of the populace that adhere to them has been shrinking for more than half a century. Old-fashioned terms for second marriage that date to the earlier era of more widespread censure include deuterogamy and digamy, but the terms second marriage or remarriage are more readily understood. Factors influencing likelihood of remarriage Many factors influence the likelihood of remarrying after a divorce. Based on the 2006 census, men remarry more often than women. Remarriage rates also differ by ethnicity; remarriage is most common among white women, while black women have the lowest probability of marrying again. Age is another determining factor; women who are older than 25 at the time of divorce are less likely to remarry than women who are younger at the time of marital dissolution. Having children is associated with higher rates of remarriage for men and women. Remarriage also differs by community setting. Women from urban areas or areas with a greater proportion of women who never married are less likely to marry again. Some environmental factors do not affect all ethnicities: only non-white women from communities with high unemployment and poverty have reduced likelihood of remarriage. Some women enter cohabiting relationships after a divorce instead of remarrying. This pattern of cohabiting after a divorce is more likely for white than black women, for women without religious affiliation, with few or no children, and who live in more economically stable communities. Outcomes of remarriage On the whole, remarriages are associated with greater socioeconomic security and life satisfaction compared to remaining divorced or separated. People who remarry tend to have better adjustment to their divorce, reporting more positive evaluations of their lives compared to divorced individuals who remain single. While divorced couples have a higher risk of developing a wide range of physical and mental health problems, remarrying may attenuate, but not eliminate, some of these health risks. Second Marriages: Triumph of decision over hope? It is often assumed that second marriages are riskier than first marriages - “The triumph of hope over experience” as popularised by Samuel Johnson in 1791. A new analysis of data commissioned from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) challenges this assumption. In fact, second marriages overall do consistently better than first marriages. Where one or both spouses are marrying for the second time, couples marrying today face an estimated 31% risk of divorce during their lifetime, compared to an estimated 45% risk of divorce amongst couples where both spouses are marrying for the first time. However, second marriages do not always fare any better than the first. Again the rates of divorce and separation vary based on demographic and social factors. Second marriage disruptions are more likely for Black women and for women in communities that are less economically well off. Conversely, rates of divorce decline as age at the time of second marriage increases. Also, women who enter their second marriage with no children are generally more likely to sustain their marriages. Vulnerabilities to second marriages There are several reasons why second marriages can be more vulnerable to disruption. Partners bring the same personal qualities to their subsequent marriage as they had during the first, but some of these qualities may have contributed to the first marriage’s problems. People who have divorced and remarried multiple times tend to be relatively impulsive and nonconformist. In second marriages, partners also often have to deal with additional complications that do not exist in first marriages, like combining families. Remarriages involving stepchildren have a greater rate of dissolution than those without. Remarriage following widowhood As of the 2006 census, 32% of the U.S. population over age 65 was widowed. Most people successfully adjust after losing a partner; research on bereavement patterns finds the most frequent outcome is resilience. Even so, remarriage rates among older widowers are fairly low, and even lower among older widows. However, looking at rates of remarriage vastly underestimates interest in new romantic relationships. Differences in desire to repartner Men and women not only have different remarriage rates, but they also differ in their desire to repartner (to establish a new romantic relationship). A year and a half after the death of a spouse, 15% of widows and 37% of widowers ages 65 and older were interested in dating. Differences in desire to repartner may stem from the different benefits men and women receive in and outside of a marriage. The most frequent reasons older adults give for remaining without a partner after losing a spouse are gender-specific. While the common myth is "women grieve, men replace," research does not support this pattern. Rather, widows are more likely to report that they are reluctant to give up newfound freedom and independence. Many widows perceive a sense of liberation no longer having to take care of another person, and value this more than additional companionship. Widowers, on the other hand, tend to report that they have not repartnered because they are concerned about being undesirable partners due to older age and ill health. Some studies have found that women who are not interested in a new relationship have explicitly decided to remain unpartnered. In contrast, men were more likely to report that they would not rule out the possibility but had not encountered a suitable relationship yet. Interviews indicate that widowers are more prepared than widows to take a chance on a new relationship. Among widows, social support appears to promote interest in new intimate partnerships. Widows with confidants are more interested in repartnering than those without close friends. However, for men this pattern may be reversed. While overall widowers are more interested in remarriage than widows, only the men with low or average levels of support from friends are any more likely than women to report desire to remarry in the future. When widowers have high levels of social support from friends, they have equivalent levels of interest as widows. This suggests that men may be more motivated to repartner if they do not have as much social support as they would like. Women on the other hand tend to have more diverse sources of social support within their social networks. Although the gender differences in desire to repartner are most well documented, younger age and greater unhappiness also predict increased interest in remarriage. Likelihood to repartner Men are more likely to repartner after losing their spouse; more than 60% of men but less than 20% of women are involved in a new romance or remarried within about two years of being widowed. Interest in repartnering is only one factor in determining the likelihood that a widow or widower will establish a new romantic relationship. Davidson (2002) describes a framework which proposes three primary intervening conditions affecting likelihood of repartnering following widowhood: availability of partners, the feasibility of a relationship, and desirability of companionship. There are frequent gender differences in availability, desirability, and feasibility of new relationships. Availability of partners is a greater constraint for older widows; there are far fewer partners available for older women than older men, given that women tend to live longer and men tend to prefer younger partners. As detailed in the previous section, older widowers also typically have greater desire to repartner than widows. Studies have identified many other factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of successfully repartnering following widowhood. Most of these factors fit within Davidson’s framework. For widows, younger age is associated with greater probability of repartnering; younger women typically have more available potential partners. For widowers, new romance is predicted by greater income and education. In Davidson's model, feasibility of a relationship is affected by age, health, and financial resources; being younger, healthier, and having financial resources makes one a more attractive partner. Outcomes of remarriage Widowed older adults show high increases in loneliness, but expanding their social network or repartnering can attenuate this loneliness. Dating and remarriage following widowhood appear to be both fairly common and highly adaptive responses. Surviving spouses who remarry within about 1–5 years of being widowed have more positive outcomes (e.g. greater wellbeing, greater life satisfaction, and less depression) than widows and widowers who have not remarried. Further research has shown this reduced depression in repartnered compared to single widows and widowers is due to the remarried individuals’ greater socioeconomic resources. For example, compared to widows who do not remarry, remarried widows tend to report higher household incomes and are less likely to report anxiety about financial matters. Remarriage and religion Christianity In Christianity, widows and widowers are free to remarry with a Christian person, as taught in , which states "The wife is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the Lord." Regarding divorce and remarriage in Christianity, the Gospel of Mark records Jesus' teaching "Whosoever shall put away his wife, and marry another, committeth adultery against her. And if a woman shall put away her husband, and be married to another, she committeth adultery." states that adulterers "shall not inherit the kingdom of God". The Shepherd of Hermas, an early Christian work on the subject, teaches that while fornication is the only reason that divorce can ever be permitted, remarriage with another person is forbidden to allow repentance and reconciliation of the husband and wife (those who refuse to forgive and receive their spouse are guilty of a grave sin). Most Christian Churches strongly discourage divorce though the way divorce and remarriage is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage of divorced persons in any circumstance. Islam In Islam, the remarriage of widows and widowers is permitted, with Muhammad—the founder of Islam—marrying nine widows. Alternatives to remarriage in later life Remarriage is not always the goal or ideal arrangement for divorced and widowed adults. Especially among older adults, there is a growing acceptance and interest in alternative romantic commitments like cohabitation or Living Apart Together (LAT). While for younger adults cohabitation is typically a precursor to marriage, older adults have additional reasons why they may not want to remarry and cohabiting may be the ideal partnership. For some, remarriage inspires feelings of disloyalty, and adult children can discourage remarriage based on concerns about inheritance. Many older women are interested in companionship but may want to avoid long-term obligations and are hesitant to give up their new independence. However, an arrangement called Living Apart Together (LAT) offers an appealing alternative; it is a form of intimate ongoing companionship that allows each partner to maintain autonomy and independent households. General physical and mental health benefits of remarriage Health is influenced both by current marital status and marital transition history. Marriage confers mental and physical health advantages, but remarried individuals who have been widowed or divorced continue to be disadvantaged compared to continuously married individuals. Mental health benefits Marriage has been shown to impart significant mental health benefits and remarriage seems to be protective as well. Overall, people who remarry have lower levels of depressive symptoms compared to others who have lost a partner (through widowhood, divorce, or separation) and remain single. Remarriage seems to be especially beneficial for men, who have lower levels of depressive symptoms than remarried women. However, the health benefits of remarriage do not appear to be as strong as those for continuous marriage. Several studies have found that the mental and physical health benefits of remarriage do not fully balance out the negative effects of a previous marital disruption. Compared to the strong advantage of being continuously married, the mental health benefits are progressively weaker the more previous marriages a person has had. Although men seem to benefit as much from remarriage as being continuously married, remarried women have weaker mental health benefits. The mental health differences between remarried women and unpartnered women appear to be due to differences in economic resources and social support. Findings also indicate that the mental health benefit of marriage for women is primarily driven by the fact that married women tend to be physically healthier than cohabiting and unpartnered women. There may be a selection effect whereby healthy women are more likely to remarry, and subsequently, based on their greater physical health, experience less depression. On the other hand, even when controlling for economic resources, social support, and health, married men experience fewer depressive symptoms compared to cohabiting or unpartnered men. This is likely because depression symptoms in married men are so low. Physical health benefits The physical health benefits of marriage are well documented, but marital disruptions have been shown to negatively affect health. Remarriage can attenuate but not completely eliminate the negative health effects of a marital disruption. Among currently married persons, those who have previously been divorced or widowed have worse health than those who have been continuously married. Research has not found any difference in physical health between persons with only one compared to multiple marital disruptions. The lingering negative health effects of marital disruption include increased risk for chronic conditions (e.g. diabetes and heart disease) and mobility limitations (e.g. difficulty walking a block or climbing stairs). However, it is also important to consider that it is difficult to determine causality; it is possible that a person’s health determines their likelihood of marrying and experiencing a disruption. In fact, it is possible that there are effects in both directions. See also List of people who remarried the same spouse Widow conservation Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907 - UK law barred remarriage to a deceased wife's sister until the passage of this act. References External links Divorce and also Remarriage in the Early Church by Dean Taylor Widowhood Divorce Demography Marriage and religion

Remarriage is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended, as through divorce or widowhood. Some individuals are more likely to remarry than others; the likelihood can differ based on previous relationship status (e.g. divorced vs. widowed), level of interest in establishing a new romantic relationship, gender, culture, and age among other factors. Those who choose not to remarry may prefer alternative arrangements like cohabitation or living apart together.🦛 Remarriage also provides mental and physical health benefits. However, although remarried individuals tend to have better health than individuals who do not repartner, they still generally have worse health than individuals who have remained continuously married. Remarriage is addressed differently in various religions and denominations of those religions. Someone who repeatedly remarries is referred to as a serial wedder.🦛 Remarriage following divorce or separation As of 1995, depending on individual and contextual factors, up to 50% of couples in the USA ended their first marriage in divorce or permanent separation (i.e. the couple is not officially divorced but they no longer live together or share assets). Couples typically end their marriage because they are unhappy during the partnership; however, while these couples give up hope for their partner, this does not mean they give up on the institution of marriage. The majority of people who have divorced (close to 80%) go on to marry again. On average, they remarry just under 4 years after divorcing; younger adults tend to remarry more quickly than older adults. For women, just over half remarry in less than 5 years, and by 10 years after a divorce 75% have remarried.🦛 People may be eager to remarry because they do not see themselves as responsible for the previous marriage ending. Generally, they are more likely to believe their partner's behaviors caused the divorce, and minimize the influence of their own actions. Therefore, they remain optimistic that a new partnership will lead to better results.🦛 According to data analyzed by USA Today in 2013, remarriage rates in the United States have dropped by 40 percent over the last 20 years.🦛 Numerous religions and sects forbid, or formerly forbade, remarriage after divorce. Some still do, although in many countries the percentage of the populace that adhere to them has been shrinking for more than half a century. Old-fashioned terms for second marriage that date to the earlier era of more widespread censure include deuterogamy and digamy, but the terms second marriage or remarriage are more readily understood.🦛 Factors influencing likelihood of remarriage Many factors influence the likelihood of remarrying after a divorce. Based on the 2006 census, men remarry more often than women. Remarriage rates also differ by ethnicity; remarriage is most common among white women, while black women have the lowest probability of marrying again. Age is another determining factor; women who are older than 25 at the time of divorce are less likely to remarry than women who are younger at the time of marital dissolution. Having children is associated with higher rates of remarriage for men and women. Remarriage also differs by community setting. Women from urban areas or areas with a greater proportion of women who never married are less likely to marry again. Some environmental factors do not affect all ethnicities: only non-white women from communities with high unemployment and poverty have reduced likelihood of remarriage.🦛 Some women enter cohabiting relationships after a divorce instead of remarrying. This pattern of cohabiting after a divorce is more likely for white than black women, for women without religious affiliation, with few or no children, and who live in more economically stable communities.🦛 Outcomes of remarriage On the whole, remarriages are associated with greater socioeconomic security and life satisfaction compared to remaining divorced or separated. People who remarry tend to have better adjustment to their divorce, reporting more positive evaluations of their lives compared to divorced individuals who remain single. While divorced couples have a higher risk of developing a wide range of physical and mental health problems, remarrying may attenuate, but not eliminate, some of these health risks.🦛 Second Marriages: Triumph of decision over hope? It is often assumed that second marriages are riskier than first marriages - “The triumph of hope over experience” as popularised by Samuel Johnson in 1791. A new analysis of data commissioned from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) challenges this assumption. In fact, second marriages overall do consistently better than first marriages. Where one or both spouses are marrying for the second time, couples marrying today face an estimated 31% risk of divorce during their lifetime, compared to an estimated 45% risk of divorce amongst couples where both spouses are marrying for the first time.🦛 However, second marriages do not always fare any better than the first. Again the rates of divorce and separation vary based on demographic and social factors. Second marriage disruptions are more likely for Black women and for women in communities that are less economically well off. Conversely, rates of divorce decline as age at the time of second marriage increases. Also, women who enter their second marriage with no children are generally more likely to sustain their marriages.🦛 Vulnerabilities to second marriages There are several reasons why second marriages can be more vulnerable to disruption. Partners bring the same personal qualities to their subsequent marriage as they had during the first, but some of these qualities may have contributed to the first marriage’s problems. People who have divorced and remarried multiple times tend to be relatively impulsive and nonconformist. In second marriages, partners also often have to deal with additional complications that do not exist in first marriages, like combining families. Remarriages involving stepchildren have a greater rate of dissolution than those without.🦛 Remarriage following widowhood As of the 2006 census, 32% of the U.S. population over age 65 was widowed. Most people successfully adjust after losing a partner; research on bereavement patterns finds the most frequent outcome is resilience. Even so, remarriage rates among older widowers are fairly low, and even lower among older widows. However, looking at rates of remarriage vastly underestimates interest in new romantic relationships.🦛 Differences in desire to repartner Men and women not only have different remarriage rates, but they also differ in their desire to repartner (to establish a new romantic relationship). A year and a half after the death of a spouse, 15% of widows and 37% of widowers ages 65 and older were interested in dating. Differences in desire to repartner may stem from the different benefits men and women receive in and outside of a marriage.🦛 The most frequent reasons older adults give for remaining without a partner after losing a spouse are gender-specific. While the common myth is "women grieve, men replace," research does not support this pattern. Rather, widows are more likely to report that they are reluctant to give up newfound freedom and independence. Many widows perceive a sense of liberation no longer having to take care of another person, and value this more than additional companionship. Widowers, on the other hand, tend to report that they have not repartnered because they are concerned about being undesirable partners due to older age and ill health.🦛 Some studies have found that women who are not interested in a new relationship have explicitly decided to remain unpartnered. In contrast, men were more likely to report that they would not rule out the possibility but had not encountered a suitable relationship yet. Interviews indicate that widowers are more prepared than widows to take a chance on a new relationship.🦛 Among widows, social support appears to promote interest in new intimate partnerships. Widows with confidants are more interested in repartnering than those without close friends. However, for men this pattern may be reversed. While overall widowers are more interested in remarriage than widows, only the men with low or average levels of support from friends are any more likely than women to report desire to remarry in the future. When widowers have high levels of social support from friends, they have equivalent levels of interest as widows. This suggests that men may be more motivated to repartner if they do not have as much social support as they would like. Women on the other hand tend to have more diverse sources of social support within their social networks.🦛 Although the gender differences in desire to repartner are most well documented, younger age and greater unhappiness also predict increased interest in remarriage.🦛 Likelihood to repartner Men are more likely to repartner after losing their spouse; more than 60% of men but less than 20% of women are involved in a new romance or remarried within about two years of being widowed. Interest in repartnering is only one factor in determining the likelihood that a widow or widower will establish a new romantic relationship. Davidson (2002) describes a framework which proposes three primary intervening conditions affecting likelihood of repartnering following widowhood: availability of partners, the feasibility of a relationship, and desirability of companionship.🦛 There are frequent gender differences in availability, desirability, and feasibility of new relationships. Availability of partners is a greater constraint for older widows; there are far fewer partners available for older women than older men, given that women tend to live longer and men tend to prefer younger partners. As detailed in the previous section, older widowers also typically have greater desire to repartner than widows.🦛 Studies have identified many other factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of successfully repartnering following widowhood. Most of these factors fit within Davidson’s framework. For widows, younger age is associated with greater probability of repartnering; younger women typically have more available potential partners. For widowers, new romance is predicted by greater income and education. In Davidson's model, feasibility of a relationship is affected by age, health, and financial resources; being younger, healthier, and having financial resources makes one a more attractive partner.🦛 Outcomes of remarriage Widowed older adults show high increases in loneliness, but expanding their social network or repartnering can attenuate this loneliness. Dating and remarriage following widowhood appear to be both fairly common and highly adaptive responses. Surviving spouses who remarry within about 1–5 years of being widowed have more positive outcomes (e.g. greater wellbeing, greater life satisfaction, and less depression) than widows and widowers who have not remarried. Further research has shown this reduced depression in repartnered compared to single widows and widowers is due to the remarried individuals’ greater socioeconomic resources. For example, compared to widows who do not remarry, remarried widows tend to report higher household incomes and are less likely to report anxiety about financial matters.🦛 Remarriage and religion Christianity In Christianity, widows and widowers are free to remarry with a Christian person, as taught in , which states "The wife is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the Lord."🦛 Regarding divorce and remarriage in Christianity, the Gospel of Mark records Jesus' teaching "Whosoever shall put away his wife, and marry another, committeth adultery against her. And if a woman shall put away her husband, and be married to another, she committeth adultery." states that adulterers "shall not inherit the kingdom of God". The Shepherd of Hermas, an early Christian work on the subject, teaches that while fornication is the only reason that divorce can ever be permitted, remarriage with another person is forbidden to allow repentance and reconciliation of the husband and wife (those who refuse to forgive and receive their spouse are guilty of a grave sin).🦛 Most Christian Churches strongly discourage divorce though the way divorce and remarriage is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage of divorced persons in any circumstance.🦛 Islam In Islam, the remarriage of widows and widowers is permitted, with Muhammad—the founder of Islam—marrying nine widows.🦛 Alternatives to remarriage in later life Remarriage is not always the goal or ideal arrangement for divorced and widowed adults. Especially among older adults, there is a growing acceptance and interest in alternative romantic commitments like cohabitation or Living Apart Together (LAT). While for younger adults cohabitation is typically a precursor to marriage, older adults have additional reasons why they may not want to remarry and cohabiting may be the ideal partnership. For some, remarriage inspires feelings of disloyalty, and adult children can discourage remarriage based on concerns about inheritance. Many older women are interested in companionship but may want to avoid long-term obligations and are hesitant to give up their new independence. However, an arrangement called Living Apart Together (LAT) offers an appealing alternative; it is a form of intimate ongoing companionship that allows each partner to maintain autonomy and independent households.🦛 General physical and mental health benefits of remarriage Health is influenced both by current marital status and marital transition history. Marriage confers mental and physical health advantages, but remarried individuals who have been widowed or divorced continue to be disadvantaged compared to continuously married individuals.🦛 Mental health benefits Marriage has been shown to impart significant mental health benefits and remarriage seems to be protective as well. Overall, people who remarry have lower levels of depressive symptoms compared to others who have lost a partner (through widowhood, divorce, or separation) and remain single. Remarriage seems to be especially beneficial for men, who have lower levels of depressive symptoms than remarried women.🦛 However, the health benefits of remarriage do not appear to be as strong as those for continuous marriage. Several studies have found that the mental and physical health benefits of remarriage do not fully balance out the negative effects of a previous marital disruption. Compared to the strong advantage of being continuously married, the mental health benefits are progressively weaker the more previous marriages a person has had. Although men seem to benefit as much from remarriage as being continuously married, remarried women have weaker mental health benefits.🦛 The mental health differences between remarried women and unpartnered women appear to be due to differences in economic resources and social support. Findings also indicate that the mental health benefit of marriage for women is primarily driven by the fact that married women tend to be physically healthier than cohabiting and unpartnered women. There may be a selection effect whereby healthy women are more likely to remarry, and subsequently, based on their greater physical health, experience less depression. On the other hand, even when controlling for economic resources, social support, and health, married men experience fewer depressive symptoms compared to cohabiting or unpartnered men. This is likely because depression symptoms in married men are so low.🦛 Physical health benefits The physical health benefits of marriage are well documented, but marital disruptions have been shown to negatively affect health. Remarriage can attenuate but not completely eliminate the negative health effects of a marital disruption. Among currently married persons, those who have previously been divorced or widowed have worse health than those who have been continuously married. Research has not found any difference in physical health between persons with only one compared to multiple marital disruptions. The lingering negative health effects of marital disruption include increased risk for chronic conditions (e.g. diabetes and heart disease) and mobility limitations (e.g. difficulty walking a block or climbing stairs). However, it is also important to consider that it is difficult to determine causality; it is possible that a person’s health determines their likelihood of marrying and experiencing a disruption. In fact, it is possible that there are effects in both directions.🦛

[ "Remarriage", "is", "a", "marriage", "that", "takes", "place", "after", "a", "previous", "marital", "union", "has", "ended,", "as", "through", "divorce", "or", "widowhood.", "Some", "individuals", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "remarry", "than", "others;", "the", "likelihood", "can", "differ", "based", "on", "previous", "relationship", "status", "(e.g.", "divorced", "vs.", "widowed),", "level", "of", "interest", "in", "establishing", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship,", "gender,", "culture,", "and", "age", "among", "other", "factors.", "Those", "who", "choose", "not", "to", "remarry", "may", "prefer", "alternative", "arrangements", "like", "cohabitation", "or", "living", "apart", "together.", "Remarriage", "also", "provides", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "benefits.", "However,", "although", "remarried", "individuals", "tend", "to", "have", "better", "health", "than", "individuals", "who", "do", "not", "repartner,", "they", "still", "generally", "have", "worse", "health", "than", "individuals", "who", "have", "remained", "continuously", "married.", "Remarriage", "is", "addressed", "differently", "in", "various", "religions", "and", "denominations", "of", "those", "religions.", "Someone", "who", "repeatedly", "remarries", "is", "referred", "to", "as", "a", "serial", "wedder.", "Remarriage", "following", "divorce", "or", "separation", "As", "of", "1995,", "depending", "on", "individual", "and", "contextual", "factors,", "up", "to", "50%", "of", "couples", "in", "the", "USA", "ended", "their", "first", "marriage", "in", "divorce", "or", "permanent", "separation", "(i.e.", "the", "couple", "is", "not", "officially", "divorced", "but", "they", "no", "longer", "live", "together", "or", "share", "assets).", "Couples", "typically", "end", "their", "marriage", "because", "they", "are", "unhappy", "during", "the", "partnership;", "however,", "while", "these", "couples", "give", "up", "hope", "for", "their", "partner,", "this", "does", "not", "mean", "they", "give", "up", "on", "the", "institution", "of", "marriage.", "The", "majority", "of", "people", "who", "have", "divorced", "(close", "to", "80%)", "go", "on", "to", "marry", "again.", "On", "average,", "they", "remarry", "just", "under", "4", "years", "after", "divorcing;", "younger", "adults", "tend", "to", "remarry", "more", "quickly", "than", "older", "adults.", "For", "women,", "just", "over", "half", "remarry", "in", "less", "than", "5", "years,", "and", "by", "10", "years", "after", "a", "divorce", "75%", "have", "remarried.", "People", "may", "be", "eager", "to", "remarry", "because", "they", "do", "not", "see", "themselves", "as", "responsible", "for", "the", "previous", "marriage", "ending.", "Generally,", "they", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "believe", "their", "partner's", "behaviors", "caused", "the", "divorce,", "and", "minimize", "the", "influence", "of", "their", "own", "actions.", "Therefore,", "they", "remain", "optimistic", "that", "a", "new", "partnership", "will", "lead", "to", "better", "results.", "According", "to", "data", "analyzed", "by", "USA", "Today", "in", "2013,", "remarriage", "rates", "in", "the", "United", "States", "have", "dropped", "by", "40", "percent", "over", "the", "last", "20", "years.", "Numerous", "religions", "and", "sects", "forbid,", "or", "formerly", "forbade,", "remarriage", "after", "divorce.", "Some", "still", "do,", "although", "in", "many", "countries", "the", "percentage", "of", "the", "populace", "that", "adhere", "to", "them", "has", "been", "shrinking", "for", "more", "than", "half", "a", "century.", "Old-fashioned", "terms", "for", "second", "marriage", "that", "date", "to", "the", "earlier", "era", "of", "more", "widespread", "censure", "include", "deuterogamy", "and", "digamy,", "but", "the", "terms", "second", "marriage", "or", "remarriage", "are", "more", "readily", "understood.", "Factors", "influencing", "likelihood", "of", "remarriage", "Many", "factors", "influence", "the", "likelihood", "of", "remarrying", "after", "a", "divorce.", "Based", "on", "the", "2006", "census,", "men", "remarry", "more", "often", "than", "women.", "Remarriage", "rates", "also", "differ", "by", "ethnicity;", "remarriage", "is", "most", "common", "among", "white", "women,", "while", "black", "women", "have", "the", "lowest", "probability", "of", "marrying", "again.", "Age", "is", "another", "determining", "factor;", "women", "who", "are", "older", "than", "25", "at", "the", "time", "of", "divorce", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "remarry", "than", "women", "who", "are", "younger", "at", "the", "time", "of", "marital", "dissolution.", "Having", "children", "is", "associated", "with", "higher", "rates", "of", "remarriage", "for", "men", "and", "women.", "Remarriage", "also", "differs", "by", "community", "setting.", "Women", "from", "urban", "areas", "or", "areas", "with", "a", "greater", "proportion", "of", "women", "who", "never", "married", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "marry", "again.", "Some", "environmental", "factors", "do", "not", "affect", "all", "ethnicities:", "only", "non-white", "women", "from", "communities", "with", "high", "unemployment", "and", "poverty", "have", "reduced", "likelihood", "of", "remarriage.", "Some", "women", "enter", "cohabiting", "relationships", "after", "a", "divorce", "instead", "of", "remarrying.", "This", "pattern", "of", "cohabiting", "after", "a", "divorce", "is", "more", "likely", "for", "white", "than", "black", "women,", "for", "women", "without", "religious", "affiliation,", "with", "few", "or", "no", "children,", "and", "who", "live", "in", "more", "economically", "stable", "communities.", "Outcomes", "of", "remarriage", "On", "the", "whole,", "remarriages", "are", "associated", "with", "greater", "socioeconomic", "security", "and", "life", "satisfaction", "compared", "to", "remaining", "divorced", "or", "separated.", "People", "who", "remarry", "tend", "to", "have", "better", "adjustment", "to", "their", "divorce,", "reporting", "more", "positive", "evaluations", "of", "their", "lives", "compared", "to", "divorced", "individuals", "who", "remain", "single.", "While", "divorced", "couples", "have", "a", "higher", "risk", "of", "developing", "a", "wide", "range", "of", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "problems,", "remarrying", "may", "attenuate,", "but", "not", "eliminate,", "some", "of", "these", "health", "risks.", "Second", "Marriages:", "Triumph", "of", "decision", "over", "hope?", "It", "is", "often", "assumed", "that", "second", "marriages", "are", "riskier", "than", "first", "marriages", "-", "“The", "triumph", "of", "hope", "over", "experience”", "as", "popularised", "by", "Samuel", "Johnson", "in", "1791.", "A", "new", "analysis", "of", "data", "commissioned", "from", "the", "Office", "for", "National", "Statistics", "(ONS)", "challenges", "this", "assumption.", "In", "fact,", "second", "marriages", "overall", "do", "consistently", "better", "than", "first", "marriages.", "Where", "one", "or", "both", "spouses", "are", "marrying", "for", "the", "second", "time,", "couples", "marrying", "today", "face", "an", "estimated", "31%", "risk", "of", "divorce", "during", "their", "lifetime,", "compared", "to", "an", "estimated", "45%", "risk", "of", "divorce", "amongst", "couples", "where", "both", "spouses", "are", "marrying", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "However,", "second", "marriages", "do", "not", "always", "fare", "any", "better", "than", "the", "first.", "Again", "the", "rates", "of", "divorce", "and", "separation", "vary", "based", "on", "demographic", "and", "social", "factors.", "Second", "marriage", "disruptions", "are", "more", "likely", "for", "Black", "women", "and", "for", "women", "in", "communities", "that", "are", "less", "economically", "well", "off.", "Conversely,", "rates", "of", "divorce", "decline", "as", "age", "at", "the", "time", "of", "second", "marriage", "increases.", "Also,", "women", "who", "enter", "their", "second", "marriage", "with", "no", "children", "are", "generally", "more", "likely", "to", "sustain", "their", "marriages.", "Vulnerabilities", "to", "second", "marriages", "There", "are", "several", "reasons", "why", "second", "marriages", "can", "be", "more", "vulnerable", "to", "disruption.", "Partners", "bring", "the", "same", "personal", "qualities", "to", "their", "subsequent", "marriage", "as", "they", "had", "during", "the", "first,", "but", "some", "of", "these", "qualities", "may", "have", "contributed", "to", "the", "first", "marriage’s", "problems.", "People", "who", "have", "divorced", "and", "remarried", "multiple", "times", "tend", "to", "be", "relatively", "impulsive", "and", "nonconformist.", "In", "second", "marriages,", "partners", "also", "often", "have", "to", "deal", "with", "additional", "complications", "that", "do", "not", "exist", "in", "first", "marriages,", "like", "combining", "families.", "Remarriages", "involving", "stepchildren", "have", "a", "greater", "rate", "of", "dissolution", "than", "those", "without.", "Remarriage", "following", "widowhood", "As", "of", "the", "2006", "census,", "32%", "of", "the", "U.S.", "population", "over", "age", "65", "was", "widowed.", "Most", "people", "successfully", "adjust", "after", "losing", "a", "partner;", "research", "on", "bereavement", "patterns", "finds", "the", "most", "frequent", "outcome", "is", "resilience.", "Even", "so,", "remarriage", "rates", "among", "older", "widowers", "are", "fairly", "low,", "and", "even", "lower", "among", "older", "widows.", "However,", "looking", "at", "rates", "of", "remarriage", "vastly", "underestimates", "interest", "in", "new", "romantic", "relationships.", "Differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "Men", "and", "women", "not", "only", "have", "different", "remarriage", "rates,", "but", "they", "also", "differ", "in", "their", "desire", "to", "repartner", "(to", "establish", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship).", "A", "year", "and", "a", "half", "after", "the", "death", "of", "a", "spouse,", "15%", "of", "widows", "and", "37%", "of", "widowers", "ages", "65", "and", "older", "were", "interested", "in", "dating.", "Differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "may", "stem", "from", "the", "different", "benefits", "men", "and", "women", "receive", "in", "and", "outside", "of", "a", "marriage.", "The", "most", "frequent", "reasons", "older", "adults", "give", "for", "remaining", "without", "a", "partner", "after", "losing", "a", "spouse", "are", "gender-specific.", "While", "the", "common", "myth", "is", "\"women", "grieve,", "men", "replace,\"", "research", "does", "not", "support", "this", "pattern.", "Rather,", "widows", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "report", "that", "they", "are", "reluctant", "to", "give", "up", "newfound", "freedom", "and", "independence.", "Many", "widows", "perceive", "a", "sense", "of", "liberation", "no", "longer", "having", "to", "take", "care", "of", "another", "person,", "and", "value", "this", "more", "than", "additional", "companionship.", "Widowers,", "on", "the", "other", "hand,", "tend", "to", "report", "that", "they", "have", "not", "repartnered", "because", "they", "are", "concerned", "about", "being", "undesirable", "partners", "due", "to", "older", "age", "and", "ill", "health.", "Some", "studies", "have", "found", "that", "women", "who", "are", "not", "interested", "in", "a", "new", "relationship", "have", "explicitly", "decided", "to", "remain", "unpartnered.", "In", "contrast,", "men", "were", "more", "likely", "to", "report", "that", "they", "would", "not", "rule", "out", "the", "possibility", "but", "had", "not", "encountered", "a", "suitable", "relationship", "yet.", "Interviews", "indicate", "that", "widowers", "are", "more", "prepared", "than", "widows", "to", "take", "a", "chance", "on", "a", "new", "relationship.", "Among", "widows,", "social", "support", "appears", "to", "promote", "interest", "in", "new", "intimate", "partnerships.", "Widows", "with", "confidants", "are", "more", "interested", "in", "repartnering", "than", "those", "without", "close", "friends.", "However,", "for", "men", "this", "pattern", "may", "be", "reversed.", "While", "overall", "widowers", "are", "more", "interested", "in", "remarriage", "than", "widows,", "only", "the", "men", "with", "low", "or", "average", "levels", "of", "support", "from", "friends", "are", "any", "more", "likely", "than", "women", "to", "report", "desire", "to", "remarry", "in", "the", "future.", "When", "widowers", "have", "high", "levels", "of", "social", "support", "from", "friends,", "they", "have", "equivalent", "levels", "of", "interest", "as", "widows.", "This", "suggests", "that", "men", "may", "be", "more", "motivated", "to", "repartner", "if", "they", "do", "not", "have", "as", "much", "social", "support", "as", "they", "would", "like.", "Women", "on", "the", "other", "hand", "tend", "to", "have", "more", "diverse", "sources", "of", "social", "support", "within", "their", "social", "networks.", "Although", "the", "gender", "differences", "in", "desire", "to", "repartner", "are", "most", "well", "documented,", "younger", "age", "and", "greater", "unhappiness", "also", "predict", "increased", "interest", "in", "remarriage.", "Likelihood", "to", "repartner", "Men", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "repartner", "after", "losing", "their", "spouse;", "more", "than", "60%", "of", "men", "but", "less", "than", "20%", "of", "women", "are", "involved", "in", "a", "new", "romance", "or", "remarried", "within", "about", "two", "years", "of", "being", "widowed.", "Interest", "in", "repartnering", "is", "only", "one", "factor", "in", "determining", "the", "likelihood", "that", "a", "widow", "or", "widower", "will", "establish", "a", "new", "romantic", "relationship.", "Davidson", "(2002)", "describes", "a", "framework", "which", "proposes", "three", "primary", "intervening", "conditions", "affecting", "likelihood", "of", "repartnering", "following", "widowhood:", "availability", "of", "partners,", "the", "feasibility", "of", "a", "relationship,", "and", "desirability", "of", "companionship.", "There", "are", "frequent", "gender", "differences", "in", "availability,", "desirability,", "and", "feasibility", "of", "new", "relationships.", "Availability", "of", "partners", "is", "a", "greater", "constraint", "for", "older", "widows;", "there", "are", "far", "fewer", "partners", "available", "for", "older", "women", "than", "older", "men,", "given", "that", "women", "tend", "to", "live", "longer", "and", "men", "tend", "to", "prefer", "younger", "partners.", "As", "detailed", "in", "the", "previous", "section,", "older", "widowers", "also", "typically", "have", "greater", "desire", "to", "repartner", "than", "widows.", "Studies", "have", "identified", "many", "other", "factors", "that", "increase", "or", "decrease", "the", "likelihood", "of", "successfully", "repartnering", "following", "widowhood.", "Most", "of", "these", "factors", "fit", "within", "Davidson’s", "framework.", "For", "widows,", "younger", "age", "is", "associated", "with", "greater", "probability", "of", "repartnering;", "younger", "women", "typically", "have", "more", "available", "potential", "partners.", "For", "widowers,", "new", "romance", "is", "predicted", "by", "greater", "income", "and", "education.", "In", "Davidson's", "model,", "feasibility", "of", "a", "relationship", "is", "affected", "by", "age,", "health,", "and", "financial", "resources;", "being", "younger,", "healthier,", "and", "having", "financial", "resources", "makes", "one", "a", "more", "attractive", "partner.", "Outcomes", "of", "remarriage", "Widowed", "older", "adults", "show", "high", "increases", "in", "loneliness,", "but", "expanding", "their", "social", "network", "or", "repartnering", "can", "attenuate", "this", "loneliness.", "Dating", "and", "remarriage", "following", "widowhood", "appear", "to", "be", "both", "fairly", "common", "and", "highly", "adaptive", "responses.", "Surviving", "spouses", "who", "remarry", "within", "about", "1–5", "years", "of", "being", "widowed", "have", "more", "positive", "outcomes", "(e.g.", "greater", "wellbeing,", "greater", "life", "satisfaction,", "and", "less", "depression)", "than", "widows", "and", "widowers", "who", "have", "not", "remarried.", "Further", "research", "has", "shown", "this", "reduced", "depression", "in", "repartnered", "compared", "to", "single", "widows", "and", "widowers", "is", "due", "to", "the", "remarried", "individuals’", "greater", "socioeconomic", "resources.", "For", "example,", "compared", "to", "widows", "who", "do", "not", "remarry,", "remarried", "widows", "tend", "to", "report", "higher", "household", "incomes", "and", "are", "less", "likely", "to", "report", "anxiety", "about", "financial", "matters.", "Remarriage", "and", "religion", "Christianity", "In", "Christianity,", "widows", "and", "widowers", "are", "free", "to", "remarry", "with", "a", "Christian", "person,", "as", "taught", "in", ",", "which", "states", "\"The", "wife", "is", "bound", "by", "the", "law", "as", "long", "as", "her", "husband", "liveth;", "but", "if", "her", "husband", "be", "dead,", "she", "is", "at", "liberty", "to", "be", "married", "to", "whom", "she", "will;", "only", "in", "the", "Lord.\"", "Regarding", "divorce", "and", "remarriage", "in", "Christianity,", "the", "Gospel", "of", "Mark", "records", "Jesus'", "teaching", "\"Whosoever", "shall", "put", "away", "his", "wife,", "and", "marry", "another,", "committeth", "adultery", "against", "her.", "And", "if", "a", "woman", "shall", "put", "away", "her", "husband,", "and", "be", "married", "to", "another,", "she", "committeth", "adultery.\"", "states", "that", "adulterers", "\"shall", "not", "inherit", "the", "kingdom", "of", "God\".", "The", "Shepherd", "of", "Hermas,", "an", "early", "Christian", "work", "on", "the", "subject,", "teaches", "that", "while", "fornication", "is", "the", "only", "reason", "that", "divorce", "can", "ever", "be", "permitted,", "remarriage", "with", "another", "person", "is", "forbidden", "to", "allow", "repentance", "and", "reconciliation", "of", "the", "husband", "and", "wife", "(those", "who", "refuse", "to", "forgive", "and", "receive", "their", "spouse", "are", "guilty", "of", "a", "grave", "sin).", "Most", "Christian", "Churches", "strongly", "discourage", "divorce", "though", "the", "way", "divorce", "and", "remarriage", "is", "addressed", "varies", "by", "denomination;", "for", "example,", "the", "Reformed", "Church", "in", "America", "permits", "divorce", "and", "remarriage,", "while", "connexions", "such", "as", "the", "Evangelical", "Methodist", "Church", "Conference", "forbid", "divorce", "except", "in", "the", "case", "of", "fornication", "and", "do", "not", "allow", "for", "remarriage", "of", "divorced", "persons", "in", "any", "circumstance.", "Islam", "In", "Islam,", "the", "remarriage", "of", "widows", "and", "widowers", "is", "permitted,", "with", "Muhammad—the", "founder", "of", "Islam—marrying", "nine", "widows.", "Alternatives", "to", "remarriage", "in", "later", "life", "Remarriage", "is", "not", "always", "the", "goal", "or", "ideal", "arrangement", "for", "divorced", "and", "widowed", "adults.", "Especially", "among", "older", "adults,", "there", "is", "a", "growing", "acceptance", "and", "interest", "in", "alternative", "romantic", "commitments", "like", "cohabitation", "or", "Living", "Apart", "Together", "(LAT).", "While", "for", "younger", "adults", "cohabitation", "is", "typically", "a", "precursor", "to", "marriage,", "older", "adults", "have", "additional", "reasons", "why", "they", "may", "not", "want", "to", "remarry", "and", "cohabiting", "may", "be", "the", "ideal", "partnership.", "For", "some,", "remarriage", "inspires", "feelings", "of", "disloyalty,", "and", "adult", "children", "can", "discourage", "remarriage", "based", "on", "concerns", "about", "inheritance.", "Many", "older", "women", "are", "interested", "in", "companionship", "but", "may", "want", "to", "avoid", "long-term", "obligations", "and", "are", "hesitant", "to", "give", "up", "their", "new", "independence.", "However,", "an", "arrangement", "called", "Living", "Apart", "Together", "(LAT)", "offers", "an", "appealing", "alternative;", "it", "is", "a", "form", "of", "intimate", "ongoing", "companionship", "that", "allows", "each", "partner", "to", "maintain", "autonomy", "and", "independent", "households.", "General", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "Health", "is", "influenced", "both", "by", "current", "marital", "status", "and", "marital", "transition", "history.", "Marriage", "confers", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "advantages,", "but", "remarried", "individuals", "who", "have", "been", "widowed", "or", "divorced", "continue", "to", "be", "disadvantaged", "compared", "to", "continuously", "married", "individuals.", "Mental", "health", "benefits", "Marriage", "has", "been", "shown", "to", "impart", "significant", "mental", "health", "benefits", "and", "remarriage", "seems", "to", "be", "protective", "as", "well.", "Overall,", "people", "who", "remarry", "have", "lower", "levels", "of", "depressive", "symptoms", "compared", "to", "others", "who", "have", "lost", "a", "partner", "(through", "widowhood,", "divorce,", "or", "separation)", "and", "remain", "single.", "Remarriage", "seems", "to", "be", "especially", "beneficial", "for", "men,", "who", "have", "lower", "levels", "of", "depressive", "symptoms", "than", "remarried", "women.", "However,", "the", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "do", "not", "appear", "to", "be", "as", "strong", "as", "those", "for", "continuous", "marriage.", "Several", "studies", "have", "found", "that", "the", "mental", "and", "physical", "health", "benefits", "of", "remarriage", "do", "not", "fully", "balance", "out", "the", "negative", "effects", "of", "a", "previous", "marital", "disruption.", "Compared", "to", "the", "strong", "advantage", "of", "being", "continuously", "married,", "the", "mental", "health", "benefits", "are", "progressively", "weaker", "the", "more", "previous", "marriages", "a", "person", "has", "had.", "Although", "men", "seem", "to", "benefit", "as", "much", "from", "remarriage", "as", "being", "continuously", "married,", "remarried", "women", "have", "weaker", "mental", "health", "benefits.", "The", "mental", "health", "differences", "between", "remarried", "women", "and", "unpartnered", "women", "appear", "to", "be", "due", "to", "differences", "in", "economic", "resources", "and", "social", "support.", "Findings", "also", "indicate", "that", "the", "mental", "health", "benefit", "of", "marriage", "for", "women", "is", "primarily", "driven", "by", "the", "fact", "that", "married", "women", "tend", "to", "be", "physically", "healthier", "than", "cohabiting", "and", "unpartnered", "women.", "There", "may", "be", "a", "selection", "effect", "whereby", "healthy", "women", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "remarry,", "and", "subsequently,", "based", "on", "their", "greater", "physical", "health,", "experience", "less", "depression.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "even", "when", "controlling", "for", "economic", "resources,", "social", "support,", "and", "health,", "married", "men", "experience", "fewer", "depressive", "symptoms", "compared", "to", "cohabiting", "or", "unpartnered", "men.", "This", "is", "likely", "because", "depression", "symptoms", "in", "married", "men", "are", "so", "low.", "Physical", "health", "benefits", "The", "physical", "health", "benefits", "of", "marriage", "are", "well", "documented,", "but", "marital", "disruptions", "have", "been", "shown", "to", "negatively", "affect", "health.", "Remarriage", "can", "attenuate", "but", "not", "completely", "eliminate", "the", "negative", "health", "effects", "of", "a", "marital", "disruption.", "Among", "currently", "married", "persons,", "those", "who", "have", "previously", "been", "divorced", "or", "widowed", "have", "worse", "health", "than", "those", "who", "have", "been", "continuously", "married.", "Research", "has", "not", "found", "any", "difference", "in", "physical", "health", "between", "persons", "with", "only", "one", "compared", "to", "multiple", "marital", "disruptions.", "The", "lingering", "negative", "health", "effects", "of", "marital", "disruption", "include", "increased", "risk", "for", "chronic", "conditions", "(e.g.", "diabetes", "and", "heart", "disease)", "and", "mobility", "limitations", "(e.g.", "difficulty", "walking", "a", "block", "or", "climbing", "stairs).", "However,", "it", "is", "also", "important", "to", "consider", "that", "it", "is", "difficult", "to", "determine", "causality;", "it", "is", "possible", "that", "a", "person’s", "health", "determines", "their", "likelihood", "of", "marrying", "and", "experiencing", "a", "disruption.", "In", "fact,", "it", "is", "possible", "that", "there", "are", "effects", "in", "both", "directions." ]

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21706393

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour%20Topping

Seymour Topping

Seymour Topping (December 11, 1921November 8, 2020) was an American journalist best known for his work as a foreign correspondent covering wars in China, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the Cold War in Europe. From 1969 to 1986, he was the second senior-most editor at The New York Times. At the time of his death, he was the San Paolo Professor Emeritus of International Journalism at Columbia University, where he also served as administrator of the Pulitzer Prizes from 1993 to 2002. Early life Topping was born as Seymour Topolsky on December 11, 1921, in Harlem. His father, Joseph, and mother, Anna (Seidman), were Russian Jewish immigrants. He grew up in Queens and The Bronx and graduated from Evander Childs High School in the latter borough in 1939. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in journalism from the University of Missouri School of Journalism in 1943. Career Topping was a member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and served as a United States Army infantry officer in the Philippines during World War II. After this stint with the army, he joined the International News Service in Manila, and was assigned to China to cover the civil war in that region. He went on to join the Associated Press in 1948 as a foreign correspondent in China and Southeast Asia. In 1949, while covering the civil war, he was taken a prisoner by the advancing communist forces in Nanjing and was released when the nationalist forces surrendered. In the 1950s, he reported on the Korean War, and also was the first U.S. correspondent in Vietnam since World War II, where he covered the French colonial war against the communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh. He joined The New York Times in 1959. Over the next 34 years, he held a variety of positions, including metropolitan reporter, Moscow and Southeast Asia bureau chief, foreign editor, assistant managing editor (1969–1976), deputy managing editor (1976), and managing editor (1977–1986). From 1969 onward, he was noted for being second only to executive editor A. M. Rosenthal. His partnership with Rosenthal was credited with many innovations at the newspaper, including the introduction of feature sections and magazine supplements, facilitating unprecedented commercial success. Following a reorganization of the company by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger in 1985, Topping became director of editorial development for The New York Times Company in 1987. In this position, his mandate was to focus on improving the journalistic quality of the then 32 regional associate newspapers owned by the Times Company. During Topping's time as the Moscow bureau chief, he covered the U-2 spy incident (1960), the Sino-Soviet split (early 1960s), the Soviet space program (early 1960s), and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). Later, as Southeast Asian bureau chief from 1963 to 1966, he covered the Vietnam War, the Laotian Civil War, and the Cambodian Civil War. Some of the key events that he covered therein include; the Chinese Revolution, the First Indochina War, and the Cold War in Europe. In 1993, he left The New York Times to join the Pulitzer Prize Board as its secretary and administrator. He held this position until his retirement in 2002. He also taught at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism as the San Paolo Professor of International Journalism from 1994 to 2002. Topping served as the president of Emeritus Professors at Columbia, president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors (1992–1993), president of the International Advisory Board of the School of Journalism at Tsinghua University, and chairman of the ASNE's Committee on International Communication. He was also a member of the National Committee on United States–China Relations, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Society, and the Century Association. New York Times journalist Robert D. McFadden stated that Topping was "one of the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation and a newsroom leader under the renowned executive editor A. M. Rosenthal." John Daniszewski of the Associated Press described Topping as "among the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation for the Associated Press and The New York Times." Personal life He was married to photojournalist, documentary filmmaker, and author Audrey Ronning Topping (the daughter of Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning) on November 10, 1948; they had five children. From 1967 until his death, they lived in Scarsdale, New York. One of their daughters, Susan, died of cancer in October 2015. Topping died on November 8, 2020, in White Plains, New York, at age 98, from a stroke. Works On the Front Lines of the Cold War: An American Correspondent's Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam (2010). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Journey Between Two Chinas (1972). New York: Harper & Row. The Peking Letter: A Novel of the Chinese Civil War (1999). New York: PublicAffairs. Fatal Crossroads: A Novel of Vietnam 1945 (based partly on the experiences of OSS officer A. Peter Dewey) (2005). White Plains: Signature Books. Articles by Topping and his wife were included in The New York Times Report from Red China (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971). References External links Missouri School of Journalism – Seymour Topping 1921 births 2020 deaths United States Army personnel of World War II American expatriates in the Philippines American expatriates in China American expatriates in South Korea American expatriates in Laos American expatriates in Vietnam American expatriates in the Soviet Union 20th-century American journalists 20th-century American male writers American male journalists American people of Russian-Jewish descent Columbia University faculty Jewish American journalists Military personnel from New York City Missouri School of Journalism alumni People from Harlem Journalists from New York City Journalists from Scarsdale, New York The New York Times editors Writers from Manhattan 21st-century American Jews Presidents of the American Society of News Editors

Seymour Topping (December 11, 1921November 8, 2020) was an American journalist best known for his work as a foreign correspondent covering wars in China, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the Cold War in Europe. From 1969 to 1986, he was the second senior-most editor at The New York Times. At the time of his death, he was the San Paolo Professor Emeritus of International Journalism at Columbia University, where he also served as administrator of the Pulitzer Prizes from 1993 to 2002.🦛 Early life Topping was born as Seymour Topolsky on December 11, 1921, in Harlem. His father, Joseph, and mother, Anna (Seidman), were Russian Jewish immigrants. He grew up in Queens and The Bronx and graduated from Evander Childs High School in the latter borough in 1939. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in journalism from the University of Missouri School of Journalism in 1943.🦛 Career Topping was a member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and served as a United States Army infantry officer in the Philippines during World War II. After this stint with the army, he joined the International News Service in Manila, and was assigned to China to cover the civil war in that region. He went on to join the Associated Press in 1948 as a foreign correspondent in China and Southeast Asia. In 1949, while covering the civil war, he was taken a prisoner by the advancing communist forces in Nanjing and was released when the nationalist forces surrendered. In the 1950s, he reported on the Korean War, and also was the first U.S. correspondent in Vietnam since World War II, where he covered the French colonial war against the communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh.🦛 He joined The New York Times in 1959. Over the next 34 years, he held a variety of positions, including metropolitan reporter, Moscow and Southeast Asia bureau chief, foreign editor, assistant managing editor (1969–1976), deputy managing editor (1976), and managing editor (1977–1986). From 1969 onward, he was noted for being second only to executive editor A. M. Rosenthal. His partnership with Rosenthal was credited with many innovations at the newspaper, including the introduction of feature sections and magazine supplements, facilitating unprecedented commercial success. Following a reorganization of the company by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger in 1985, Topping became director of editorial development for The New York Times Company in 1987. In this position, his mandate was to focus on improving the journalistic quality of the then 32 regional associate newspapers owned by the Times Company.🦛 During Topping's time as the Moscow bureau chief, he covered the U-2 spy incident (1960), the Sino-Soviet split (early 1960s), the Soviet space program (early 1960s), and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). Later, as Southeast Asian bureau chief from 1963 to 1966, he covered the Vietnam War, the Laotian Civil War, and the Cambodian Civil War. Some of the key events that he covered therein include; the Chinese Revolution, the First Indochina War, and the Cold War in Europe.🦛 In 1993, he left The New York Times to join the Pulitzer Prize Board as its secretary and administrator. He held this position until his retirement in 2002. He also taught at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism as the San Paolo Professor of International Journalism from 1994 to 2002.🦛 Topping served as the president of Emeritus Professors at Columbia, president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors (1992–1993), president of the International Advisory Board of the School of Journalism at Tsinghua University, and chairman of the ASNE's Committee on International Communication. He was also a member of the National Committee on United States–China Relations, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Society, and the Century Association. New York Times journalist Robert D. McFadden stated that Topping was "one of the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation and a newsroom leader under the renowned executive editor A. M. Rosenthal." John Daniszewski of the Associated Press described Topping as "among the most accomplished foreign correspondents of his generation for the Associated Press and The New York Times."🦛 Personal life He was married to photojournalist, documentary filmmaker, and author Audrey Ronning Topping (the daughter of Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning) on November 10, 1948; they had five children. From 1967 until his death, they lived in Scarsdale, New York. One of their daughters, Susan, died of cancer in October 2015.🦛 Topping died on November 8, 2020, in White Plains, New York, at age 98, from a stroke. Works On the Front Lines of the Cold War: An American Correspondent's Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam (2010). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.🦛 Journey Between Two Chinas (1972). New York: Harper & Row. The Peking Letter: A Novel of the Chinese Civil War (1999). New York: PublicAffairs.🦛 Fatal Crossroads: A Novel of Vietnam 1945 (based partly on the experiences of OSS officer A. Peter Dewey) (2005). White Plains: Signature Books.🦛 Articles by Topping and his wife were included in The New York Times Report from Red China (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971).🦛

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34631009

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20Schlange

Ernst Schlange

Ernst Schlange (1 September 1888 – 28 February 1947) was a German Nazi Party official and politician who served as Gauleiter of Gross-Berlin and later of Gau Brandenburg. He was also a lawyer and a member of the Prussian Landtag. Severely wounded in World War I, he became active in various anti-Semitic, far right political groups and eventually joined the National Socialist German Worker's Party. He was opposed to the Party's more extreme tactics for gaining power and was a close ally of the Strasser brothers. After their fall from power, Schlange lost his leadership posts by the mid-1930s. He died in Soviet captivity after the end of World War II. Early life Born in Gut Schwaneberg near Prenzlau in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, Schlange was the eldest son of an estate owner. After attending volksschule and gymnasium, he studied law and political science at the University of Halle and the Greifswald from 1907 to 1912. In 1913, he was employed as a clerk at the Darmstädter und Nationalbank in Berlin. He earned his Doctor of Law degree and passed the Great State Legal Examination () in Prenzlau in 1914. At the start of World War I Schlange, due to an earlier injury to his left hand in a hunting accident, was exempted from conscription. However, he volunteered for the German Army and was deployed to the Western Front with the 2nd (Kaiser Franz) Garde-Grenadier Regiment in 1914 with the rank of Gefreiter. Promoted to Leutnant, he was transferred to the Eastern Front in April 1915 with the Guards Fusilier Regiment. He served as a platoon leader and a company commander until being severely wounded on 1 June 1915 at Stepj in Galicia, losing his right arm and right lung. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class. He spent the rest of the war recuperating in hospitals and was discharged as a Reserve Oberleutnant in May 1919. He married in 1917. In 1919 Schlange joined the German National People's Party, an alliance of nationalists, reactionary monarchists, völkisch and anti-Semitic elements. However, in June 1922, he joined the Deutschsoziale Partei (DtSP) founded by Richard Kunze, another völkisch, anti-Semitic political group and early rival to the Nazi Party. Schlange established local chapters (Ortsgruppen) in Wilmersdorf, Zehlendorf and Steglitz. Then in October 1922, Schlange joined the Nazi Party. In November 1923, the Party was banned in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch and Schlange joined the National Socialist Freedom Movement, a Nazi front organization. In May 1924 he joined the ephemeral Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft (Greater German People's Community) another Nazi front organization. He served as its Gauführer in Berlin but left in favor of rejoining the Nazi Party on 27 February 1925 when it regained legal status (membership number 4,837). Nazi career Adolf Hitler authorized Gregor Strasser to act on his behalf in organizing the Party in northern Germany. On 14 March 1925, Strasser selected Schlange as Party Gauleiter in Gau Gross-Berlin and Hitler ratified the choice on 27 March. On 10 September 1925, Schlange joined the National Socialist Working Association, a group of northern and northwestern Gauleiters aligned with the left wing of the Party and headed by Strasser. A close confidant of Strasser and his brother Otto Strasser, Schlange was also part-owner of the Strassers’ publishing business, Kampf-Verlag. Schlange’s tenure as Gauleiter in Berlin was marked by disputes over the course of the Party. He spoke out against the violent methods of the Sturmabteilung (SA) in Berlin but could not prevail. He wanted a more cautious course for the Party and the pursuit of power by legal means. Criticized for his weak leadership style within his own wing of the party, Schlange was placed on leave on 28 February 1926 and resigned from his post on 20 June. Schlange was succeeded by his Deputy Gauleiter, Erich Schmiedicke, but the conflicts remained unresolved and in October he, in turn, was replaced by Joseph Goebbels as the head of a new, enlarged Gau Berlin-Brandenburg. Schlange moved to Potsdam, where he took over the building of the Nazi Party there. On 1 August 1929 he became a Government Councilor (Regierungsrat) in the Reich Finance Administration. In November 1929 he became a Potsdam City Councilor and leader of the Nazi faction in that body. On 18 October 1930 Schlange was reappointed Gauleiter, this time of Gau Brandenburg (which again had been separated from Berlin in October 1928) succeeding Emil Holtz. On 24 April 1932 he was democratically elected to the Prussian Landtag, serving until it was dissolved on 14 October 1933. Schlange’s patron, Gregor Strasser, resigned from the leadership cadre of the Party on 8 December 1932 after a serious disagreement with Hitler over strategy for achieving power. Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power, Schlange too was forced out of office on 16 March 1933 and his Deputy, Schmiedicke, served only briefly as Acting Gauleiter until 1 June when the Gau was merged with neighboring Gau Ostmark to form the new Gau Kurmark. Leadership of the new Gau went to Wilhelm Kube, the incumbent Gauleiter of Ostmark. Schlange lost political influence and held only minor posts after that: in 1934 he was elected President-General of the Prussian-South German Lottery, appointed President of the State Gazette in 1935, and Chairman of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (KSCV) in 1936. On 10 March 1937, Hitler refused Schlange the right to wear his former Gauleiter service uniform. Further details of his life remain unknown. Death When the Third Reich collapsed in 1945, Schlange was allegedly seen in a Soviet internment camp in the Spreewald. Another source indicates that he was killed on 28 February 1947 at NKVD special camp Nr. 7, a prison set up by the Russians to hold political detainees on the site of the previous Nazi Sachsenhausen concentration camp. According to the KSCV Corps listings and his award of the Iron Cross, Schlange died in 1947. References Works cited 1888 births 1947 deaths German amputees Gauleiters German Army personnel of World War I German National People's Party politicians German Social Party (Weimar Republic) politicians Greater German People's Community politicians Lawyers in the Nazi Party National Socialist Freedom Movement politicians National Socialist Working Association members Nazis who died in prison custody People from Uckermark (district) People from the Province of Brandenburg People who died in NKVD special camp Nr. 7 Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 2nd class

Ernst Schlange (1 September 1888 – 28 February 1947) was a German Nazi Party official and politician who served as Gauleiter of Gross-Berlin and later of Gau Brandenburg. He was also a lawyer and a member of the Prussian Landtag. Severely wounded in World War I, he became active in various anti-Semitic, far right political groups and eventually joined the National Socialist German Worker's Party. He was opposed to the Party's more extreme tactics for gaining power and was a close ally of the Strasser brothers. After their fall from power, Schlange lost his leadership posts by the mid-1930s. He died in Soviet captivity after the end of World War II.🦛 Early life Born in Gut Schwaneberg near Prenzlau in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, Schlange was the eldest son of an estate owner. After attending volksschule and gymnasium, he studied law and political science at the University of Halle and the Greifswald from 1907 to 1912. In 1913, he was employed as a clerk at the Darmstädter und Nationalbank in Berlin. He earned his Doctor of Law degree and passed the Great State Legal Examination () in Prenzlau in 1914.🦛 At the start of World War I Schlange, due to an earlier injury to his left hand in a hunting accident, was exempted from conscription. However, he volunteered for the German Army and was deployed to the Western Front with the 2nd (Kaiser Franz) Garde-Grenadier Regiment in 1914 with the rank of Gefreiter. Promoted to Leutnant, he was transferred to the Eastern Front in April 1915 with the Guards Fusilier Regiment. He served as a platoon leader and a company commander until being severely wounded on 1 June 1915 at Stepj in Galicia, losing his right arm and right lung. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class. He spent the rest of the war recuperating in hospitals and was discharged as a Reserve Oberleutnant in May 1919. He married in 1917.🦛 In 1919 Schlange joined the German National People's Party, an alliance of nationalists, reactionary monarchists, völkisch and anti-Semitic elements. However, in June 1922, he joined the Deutschsoziale Partei (DtSP) founded by Richard Kunze, another völkisch, anti-Semitic political group and early rival to the Nazi Party. Schlange established local chapters (Ortsgruppen) in Wilmersdorf, Zehlendorf and Steglitz. Then in October 1922, Schlange joined the Nazi Party. In November 1923, the Party was banned in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch and Schlange joined the National Socialist Freedom Movement, a Nazi front organization. In May 1924 he joined the ephemeral Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft (Greater German People's Community) another Nazi front organization. He served as its Gauführer in Berlin but left in favor of rejoining the Nazi Party on 27 February 1925 when it regained legal status (membership number 4,837).🦛 Nazi career Adolf Hitler authorized Gregor Strasser to act on his behalf in organizing the Party in northern Germany. On 14 March 1925, Strasser selected Schlange as Party Gauleiter in Gau Gross-Berlin and Hitler ratified the choice on 27 March. On 10 September 1925, Schlange joined the National Socialist Working Association, a group of northern and northwestern Gauleiters aligned with the left wing of the Party and headed by Strasser. A close confidant of Strasser and his brother Otto Strasser, Schlange was also part-owner of the Strassers’ publishing business, Kampf-Verlag.🦛 Schlange’s tenure as Gauleiter in Berlin was marked by disputes over the course of the Party. He spoke out against the violent methods of the Sturmabteilung (SA) in Berlin but could not prevail. He wanted a more cautious course for the Party and the pursuit of power by legal means. Criticized for his weak leadership style within his own wing of the party, Schlange was placed on leave on 28 February 1926 and resigned from his post on 20 June. Schlange was succeeded by his Deputy Gauleiter, Erich Schmiedicke, but the conflicts remained unresolved and in October he, in turn, was replaced by Joseph Goebbels as the head of a new, enlarged Gau Berlin-Brandenburg.🦛 Schlange moved to Potsdam, where he took over the building of the Nazi Party there. On 1 August 1929 he became a Government Councilor (Regierungsrat) in the Reich Finance Administration. In November 1929 he became a Potsdam City Councilor and leader of the Nazi faction in that body. On 18 October 1930 Schlange was reappointed Gauleiter, this time of Gau Brandenburg (which again had been separated from Berlin in October 1928) succeeding Emil Holtz. On 24 April 1932 he was democratically elected to the Prussian Landtag, serving until it was dissolved on 14 October 1933.🦛 Schlange’s patron, Gregor Strasser, resigned from the leadership cadre of the Party on 8 December 1932 after a serious disagreement with Hitler over strategy for achieving power. Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power, Schlange too was forced out of office on 16 March 1933 and his Deputy, Schmiedicke, served only briefly as Acting Gauleiter until 1 June when the Gau was merged with neighboring Gau Ostmark to form the new Gau Kurmark. Leadership of the new Gau went to Wilhelm Kube, the incumbent Gauleiter of Ostmark. Schlange lost political influence and held only minor posts after that: in 1934 he was elected President-General of the Prussian-South German Lottery, appointed President of the State Gazette in 1935, and Chairman of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (KSCV) in 1936. On 10 March 1937, Hitler refused Schlange the right to wear his former Gauleiter service uniform. Further details of his life remain unknown.🦛 Death When the Third Reich collapsed in 1945, Schlange was allegedly seen in a Soviet internment camp in the Spreewald. Another source indicates that he was killed on 28 February 1947 at NKVD special camp Nr. 7, a prison set up by the Russians to hold political detainees on the site of the previous Nazi Sachsenhausen concentration camp. According to the KSCV Corps listings and his award of the Iron Cross, Schlange died in 1947.🦛

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"reactionary", "monarchists,", "völkisch", "and", "anti-Semitic", "elements.", "However,", "in", "June", "1922,", "he", "joined", "the", "Deutschsoziale", "Partei", "(DtSP)", "founded", "by", "Richard", "Kunze,", "another", "völkisch,", "anti-Semitic", "political", "group", "and", "early", "rival", "to", "the", "Nazi", "Party.", "Schlange", "established", "local", "chapters", "(Ortsgruppen)", "in", "Wilmersdorf,", "Zehlendorf", "and", "Steglitz.", "Then", "in", "October", "1922,", "Schlange", "joined", "the", "Nazi", "Party.", "In", "November", "1923,", "the", "Party", "was", "banned", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "Beer", "Hall", "Putsch", "and", "Schlange", "joined", "the", "National", "Socialist", "Freedom", "Movement,", "a", "Nazi", "front", "organization.", "In", "May", "1924", "he", "joined", "the", "ephemeral", "Großdeutsche", "Volksgemeinschaft", "(Greater", "German", "People's", "Community)", "another", "Nazi", "front", "organization.", "He", "served", "as", "its", "Gauführer", "in", "Berlin", "but", "left", "in", "favor", "of", "rejoining", "the", "Nazi", "Party", "on", "27", "February", "1925", "when", "it", "regained", "legal", "status", "(membership", "number", "4,837).", "Nazi", "career", "Adolf", "Hitler", "authorized", "Gregor", "Strasser", "to", "act", "on", "his", "behalf", "in", "organizing", "the", "Party", "in", "northern", "Germany.", "On", "14", "March", "1925,", "Strasser", "selected", "Schlange", "as", "Party", "Gauleiter", "in", "Gau", "Gross-Berlin", "and", "Hitler", "ratified", "the", "choice", "on", "27", "March.", "On", "10", "September", "1925,", "Schlange", "joined", "the", "National", "Socialist", "Working", "Association,", "a", "group", "of", "northern", "and", "northwestern", "Gauleiters", "aligned", "with", "the", "left", "wing", "of", "the", "Party", "and", "headed", "by", "Strasser.", "A", "close", "confidant", "of", "Strasser", "and", "his", "brother", "Otto", "Strasser,", "Schlange", "was", "also", "part-owner", "of", "the", "Strassers’", "publishing", "business,", "Kampf-Verlag.", "Schlange’s", "tenure", "as", "Gauleiter", "in", "Berlin", "was", "marked", "by", "disputes", "over", "the", "course", "of", "the", "Party.", "He", "spoke", "out", "against", "the", "violent", "methods", "of", "the", "Sturmabteilung", "(SA)", "in", "Berlin", "but", "could", "not", "prevail.", "He", "wanted", "a", "more", "cautious", "course", "for", "the", "Party", "and", "the", "pursuit", "of", "power", "by", "legal", "means.", "Criticized", "for", "his", "weak", "leadership", "style", "within", "his", "own", "wing", "of", "the", "party,", "Schlange", "was", "placed", "on", "leave", "on", "28", "February", "1926", "and", "resigned", "from", "his", "post", "on", "20", "June.", "Schlange", "was", "succeeded", "by", "his", "Deputy", "Gauleiter,", "Erich", "Schmiedicke,", "but", "the", "conflicts", "remained", "unresolved", "and", "in", "October", "he,", "in", "turn,", "was", "replaced", "by", "Joseph", "Goebbels", "as", "the", "head", "of", "a", "new,", "enlarged", "Gau", "Berlin-Brandenburg.", "Schlange", "moved", "to", "Potsdam,", "where", "he", "took", "over", "the", "building", "of", "the", "Nazi", "Party", "there.", "On", "1", "August", "1929", "he", "became", "a", "Government", "Councilor", "(Regierungsrat)", "in", "the", "Reich", "Finance", "Administration.", "In", "November", "1929", "he", "became", "a", "Potsdam", "City", "Councilor", "and", "leader", "of", "the", "Nazi", "faction", "in", "that", "body.", "On", "18", "October", "1930", "Schlange", "was", "reappointed", "Gauleiter,", "this", "time", "of", "Gau", "Brandenburg", "(which", "again", "had", "been", "separated", "from", "Berlin", "in", "October", "1928)", "succeeding", "Emil", "Holtz.", "On", "24", "April", "1932", "he", "was", "democratically", "elected", "to", "the", "Prussian", "Landtag,", "serving", "until", "it", "was", "dissolved", "on", "14", "October", "1933.", "Schlange’s", "patron,", "Gregor", "Strasser,", "resigned", "from", "the", "leadership", "cadre", "of", "the", "Party", "on", "8", "December", "1932", "after", "a", "serious", "disagreement", "with", "Hitler", "over", "strategy", "for", "achieving", "power.", "Shortly", "after", "the", "Nazi", "seizure", "of", "power,", "Schlange", "too", "was", "forced", "out", "of", "office", "on", "16", "March", "1933", "and", "his", "Deputy,", "Schmiedicke,", "served", "only", "briefly", "as", "Acting", "Gauleiter", "until", "1", "June", "when", "the", "Gau", "was", "merged", "with", "neighboring", "Gau", "Ostmark", "to", "form", "the", "new", "Gau", "Kurmark.", "Leadership", "of", "the", "new", "Gau", "went", "to", "Wilhelm", "Kube,", "the", "incumbent", "Gauleiter", "of", "Ostmark.", "Schlange", "lost", "political", "influence", "and", "held", "only", "minor", "posts", "after", "that:", "in", "1934", "he", "was", "elected", "President-General", "of", "the", "Prussian-South", "German", "Lottery,", "appointed", "President", "of", "the", "State", "Gazette", "in", "1935,", "and", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Kösener", "Senioren-Convents-Verband", "(KSCV)", "in", "1936.", "On", "10", "March", "1937,", "Hitler", "refused", "Schlange", "the", "right", "to", "wear", "his", "former", "Gauleiter", "service", "uniform.", "Further", "details", "of", "his", "life", "remain", "unknown.", "Death", "When", "the", "Third", "Reich", "collapsed", "in", "1945,", "Schlange", "was", "allegedly", "seen", "in", "a", "Soviet", "internment", "camp", "in", "the", "Spreewald.", "Another", "source", "indicates", "that", "he", "was", "killed", "on", "28", "February", "1947", "at", "NKVD", "special", "camp", "Nr.", "7,", "a", "prison", "set", "up", "by", "the", "Russians", "to", "hold", "political", "detainees", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "previous", "Nazi", "Sachsenhausen", "concentration", "camp.", "According", "to", "the", "KSCV", "Corps", "listings", "and", "his", "award", "of", "the", "Iron", "Cross,", "Schlange", "died", "in", "1947." ]

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27007275

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics%20in%20the%20United%20States

Eugenics in the United States

Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. The cause became increasingly promoted by intellectuals of the Progressive Era. While ostensibly about improving genetic quality, it has been argued that eugenics was more about preserving the position of the dominant groups in the population. Scholarly research has determined that people who found themselves targets of the eugenics movement were those who were seen as unfit for society—the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, and specific communities of color—and a disproportionate number of those who fell victim to eugenicists' sterilization initiatives were women who were identified as African American, Asian American, or Native American. As a result, the United States' eugenics movement is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements, as the movement was to some extent a reaction to demographic and population changes, as well as concerns over the economy and social well-being, rather than scientific genetics. History Early proponents The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the 1880s. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton first used the word eugenics to describe scientifically, the biological improvement of genes in human races and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. In the US, eugenics was largely supported after the discovery of Mendel's law lead to a widespread interest in the idea of breeding for specific traits. Galton studied the upper classes of Britain, and arrived at the conclusion that their social positions could be attributed to a superior genetic makeup. American eugenicists tended to believe in the genetic superiority of Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled and "immoral." The American eugenics movement received extensive funding from various corporate foundations including the Carnegie Institution, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Harriman railroad fortune. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to help found the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Institution. As late as the 1920s, the ERO was one of the leading organizations in the American eugenics movement. In years to come, the ERO and the American Eugenics Society collected a mass of family pedigrees and provided training for eugenics field workers who were sent to analyze individuals at various institutions, such as mental hospitals and orphanage institutions, across the United States. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the psychologist Henry H. Goddard, Harry H. Laughlin, and the conservationist Madison Grant (all of whom were well-respected during their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the "unfit." Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods; Goddard favored segregation in his The Kallikak Family; Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination. By 1910, there was a large and dynamic network of scientists, reformers, and professionals engaged in national eugenics projects and actively promoting eugenic legislation. The American Breeder's Association, the first eugenic body in the U.S., expanded in 1906 to include a specific eugenics committee under the direction of Charles B. Davenport. The ABA was formed specifically to "investigate and report on heredity in the human race, and emphasize the value of superior blood and the menace to society of inferior blood." Membership included Alexander Graham Bell, Stanford president David Starr Jordan and Luther Burbank. The American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality was one of the first organizations to begin investigating infant mortality rates in terms of eugenics. They promoted government intervention in attempts to promote the health of future citizens. Several feminist reformers advocated an agenda of eugenic legal reform. The National Federation of Women's Clubs, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and the National League of Women Voters were among the variety of state and local feminist organizations that at some point lobbied for eugenic reforms. One of the most prominent feminists to champion the eugenic agenda was Margaret Sanger, the leader of the American birth control movement and founder of Planned Parenthood. Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent unwanted children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and incorporated the language of eugenics to advance the movement. Sanger also sought to discourage the reproduction of persons who, it was believed, would pass on mental disease or serious physical defects. In these cases, she approved of the use of sterilization. In Sanger's opinion, it was individual women (if able-bodied) and not the state who should determine whether or not to have a child. In the Deep South, women's associations played an important role in rallying support for eugenic legal reform. Eugenicists recognized the political and social influence of southern clubwomen in their communities, and used them to help implement eugenics across the region. Between 1915 and 1920, federated women's clubs in every state of the Deep South had a critical role in establishing public eugenic institutions that were segregated by sex. For example, the Legislative Committee of the Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs successfully lobbied to institute a eugenic institution for the mentally retarded that was segregated by sex. Their aim was to separate mentally retarded men and women in order to prevent them from breeding more "feebleminded" individuals. Public acceptance in the U.S. led to various state legislatures working to establish eugenic initiatives. Beginning with Connecticut in 1896, many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was "epileptic, imbecile or feeble-minded" from marrying. The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897 – although the proposed law failed to garner enough votes by legislators to be adopted, it did set the stage for other sterilization bills. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's state legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington, California, and Connecticut in 1909. Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low (California being the sole exception) until the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, which upheld under the U.S. Constitution the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia home for those who were seen as mentally retarded. Immigration restrictions In the late 19th century, many scientists, who were concerned about the population leaning too far away from the favored "Anglo-Saxon superiority" due to a rise in immigration from Europe, partnered with other interest groups to implement immigration laws that could be justified on the basis of genetics. After the 1890 U.S. census, people began to believe that immigrants who were of Nordic or Anglo-Saxon ancestry were greatly favored over Southern and Eastern Europeans, specifically Jews (a diasporic, Middle Eastern people), who were seen by some eugenicists, like Harry Laughlin, to be genetically inferior. During the early 20th century as the United States and Canada began to receive higher numbers of immigrants, influential eugenicists like Lothrop Stoddard and Laughlin (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in 1920) presented arguments that these immigrants would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted. In 1921, a temporary measure was passed to slowdown the open door on immigration. The Immigration Restriction League was the first American entity to be closely associated with eugenics and was founded in 1894 by three recent Harvard graduates. The overall goal of the League was to prevent what they perceived as inferior races from diluting "the superior American racial stock" (those who were of the upper-class Anglo-Saxon heritage), and they began working to have stricter anti-immigration laws in the United States. The League lobbied for a literacy test for immigrants as they attempted to enter the United States, based on the belief that literacy rates were low among "inferior races". Eugenicists believed that immigrants were often degenerate, had low IQs, and were afflicted with shiftlessness, alcoholism and insubordination. According to Eugenicists, all of these problems were transmitted through genes. Literacy test bills were vetoed by presidents in 1897, 1913 and 1915; eventually, President Wilson's second veto was overruled by Congress in 1917. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, eugenicists for the first time played an important role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe. The new act, inspired by the eugenic belief in the racial superiority of "old stock" white Americans as members of the "Nordic race" (a form of white supremacy), strengthened the position of existing laws prohibiting race-mixing. Whereas Anglo-Saxon and Nordic people were seen as the most desirable immigrants, the Chinese and Japanese were seen as the least desirable and were largely banned from entering the U.S as a result of the immigration act. In addition to the immigration act, eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of incest laws in much of the U.S. and were used to justify many anti-miscegenation laws. Efforts to shape American families Unfit v. fit individuals Both class and race factored into the eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper-to-middle class was predominantly white. Middle-to-upper class status was a marker of "superior strains." In contrast, eugenicists believed poverty to be a characteristic of genetic inferiority, which meant that those deemed "unfit" were predominantly of the lower classes. Because class status designated some more fit than others, eugenicists treated upper and lower-class women differently. Positive eugenicists, who promoted procreation among the fittest in society, encouraged middle-class women to bear more children. Between 1900 and 1960, eugenicists appealed to middle class white women to become more "family minded," and to help better the race. To this end, eugenicists often denied middle and upper-class women sterilization and birth control. However, since poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous." Concerns over hereditary genes In the 19th century, based on a view of Lamarckism, it was believed that the damage done to people by diseases could be inherited and therefore, through eugenics, these diseases could be eradicated. This belief was carried into the 20th century as public health measures were taken to improve health with the hope that such measures would result in better health of future generations. A 1911 Carnegie Institute report explored eighteen methods for removing defective genetic attributes; the eighth method was euthanasia. Though the most commonly suggested method of euthanasia was to set up local gas chambers, many in the eugenics movement did not believe that Americans were ready to implement a large-scale euthanasia program, so many doctors came up with alternative ways of subtly implementing eugenic euthanasia in various medical institutions. For example, a mental institution in Lincoln, Illinois fed its incoming patients milk infected with tuberculosis (reasoning that genetically fit individuals would be resistant), resulting in 30–40% annual death rates. Other doctors practiced euthanasia through various forms of lethal neglect. In the 1930s, there was a wave of portrayals of eugenic "mercy killings" in American film, newspapers, and magazines. In 1931, the Illinois Homeopathic Medicine Association began lobbying for the right to euthanize "imbeciles" and other defectives. A few years later, in 1938, the Euthanasia Society of America was founded. However, despite this, euthanasia saw marginal support in the U.S., motivating people to turn to forced segregation and sterilization programs as a means for keeping the "unfit" from reproducing. Better Baby Contests Mary deGormo, a former teacher, was the first person to combine ideas about health and intelligence standards with competitions at state fairs, in the form of baby contests. She developed the first such contest, the "Scientific Baby Contest" for the Louisiana State Fair in Shreveport, in 1908. She saw these contests as a contribution to the "social efficiency" movement, which was advocating for the standardization of all aspects of American life as a means of increasing efficiency. DeGarmo was assisted by Doctor Jacob Bodenheimer, a pediatrician who helped her develop grading sheets for contestants, which combined physical measurements with standardized measurements of intelligence. The contest spread to other U.S. states in the early 20th century. In Indiana, for example, Ada Estelle Schweitzer, a eugenics advocate and director of the Indiana State Board of Health's Division of Child and Infant Hygiene, organized and supervised the state's Better Baby contests at the Indiana State Fair from 1920 to 1932. It was among the fair's most popular events. During the contest's first year at the fair, a total of 78 babies were examined; in 1925 the total reached 885. Contestants peaked at 1,301 infants in 1930, and the following year the number of entrants was capped at 1,200. Although the specific impact of the contests was difficult to assess, statistics helped to support Schweitzer's claims that the contests helped reduce infant mortality. The contest intended to educate the public about raising healthy children at a time when approximately 10% of children died in their first year of life. However, its exclusionary practices reinforced social class and racial discrimination. In Indiana, for example, the contestants were limited to white infants; African-American and immigrant children were barred from the competition for ribbons and cash prizes. In addition, the scoring was biased toward white, middle-class babies. The contest procedure included recording each child's health history, as well as evaluations of each contestant's physical and mental health and overall development using medical professionals. Using a process similar to the one introduced at the Louisiana State Fair, and contest guidelines that the AMA and U.S. Children's Bureau recommended, scoring for each contestant began with 1,000 points. Deductions were made for defects, including a child's measurements below a designated average. The contestant with the most points was declared the winner. Standardization through scientific judgment was a topic that was very serious in the eyes of the scientific community, but has often been downplayed as just a popular fad or trend. Nevertheless, a lot of time, effort, and money was put into these contests and their scientific backing, which would influence cultural ideas as well as local and state government practices. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People promoted eugenics by hosting "Better Baby" contests and the proceeds would go to its anti-lynching campaign. Fitter Families First appearing in 1920 at the Kansas Free Fair, "Fitter Families for Future Firesides" competitions continued all the way up to World War II. Mary T. Watts and Florence Brown Sherbon, both initiators of the Better Baby Contests in Iowa, took the idea of positive eugenics for babies and combined it with a determinist concept of biology to come up with fitter family competitions. There were several different categories that families were judged in: size of the family, overall attractiveness, and health of the family, all of which helped to determine the likelihood of having healthy children. These competitions were simply a continuation of the Better Baby contests that promoted certain physical and mental qualities. At the time, it was believed that certain behavioral qualities were inherited from one's parents. This led to the addition of several judging categories including: generosity, self-sacrificing, and quality of familial bonds. Additionally, there were negative features that were judged: selfishness, jealousy, suspiciousness, high-temperedness, and cruelty. Feeblemindedness, alcoholism, and paralysis were few among other traits that were included as physical traits to be judged when looking at family lineage. Doctors and specialists from the community would offer their time to judge these competitions, which were originally sponsored by the Red Cross. The winners of these competitions were given a Bronze Medal as well as champion cups called "Capper Medals." The cups were named after then-Governor and Senator, Arthur Capper and he would present them to "Grade A individuals". The perks of entering into the contests were that the competitions provided a way for families to get a free health check-up by a doctor as well as some of the pride and prestige that came from winning the competitions. By 1925, the Eugenics Records Office was distributing standardized forms for judging eugenically fit families, which were used in contests in several U.S. states. Compulsory sterilization In 1907, Indiana passed the first eugenics-based compulsory sterilization law in the world. Thirty U.S. states would soon follow their lead. Although the law was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court in 1921, in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924, allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of state mental institutions. The number of sterilizations performed per year increased until another Supreme Court case, Skinner v. Oklahoma, 1942, which ruled that under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, laws that permitted the compulsory sterilization of criminals were unconstitutional if these laws treated similar crimes differently. Although Skinner determined that the right to procreate was a fundamental right under the constitution, the case did not denounce sterilization laws, because its analysis was based on the equal protection of criminal defendants specifically, therefore leaving those seen as "social undesirables"—the poor, the disabled, and various ethnic groups—as targets of compulsory sterilization. Therefore, though compulsory sterilization is now considered an abuse of human rights, Buck v. Bell has never been overturned, and Virginia specifically did not repeal its sterilization law until 1974. Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons. Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Since women bore children, eugenicists held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of society. Eugenicists therefore predominantly targeted women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to "protect" white racial health, and weed out the "defectives" of society. The most significant era of eugenic sterilization was between 1907 and 1963, when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. Beginning around 1930, there was a steady increase in the percentage of women sterilized, and in a few states only young women were sterilized. A 1937 Fortune magazine poll found that 2/3 of respondents supported eugenic sterilization of "mental defectives", 63% supported sterilization of criminals, and only 15% opposed both. From 1930 to the 1960s, sterilizations were performed on many more institutionalized women than men. By 1961, 61 percent of the 62,162 total eugenic sterilizations in the United States were performed on women. A favorable report on the results of sterilization in California, the state that conducted the most sterilizations (20,000 of the 60,000 that occurred between 1909 and 1960), was published in 1929 in book form by the biologist Paul Popenoe and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane. After World War II, eugenics and eugenic organizations began to revise their standards of reproductive fitness to reflect contemporary social concerns of the later half of the 20th century, notably concerns over welfare, Mexican immigration, overpopulation, civil rights, and sexual revolution, and gave way to what has been termed neo-eugenics. Neo-eugenicists like Clarence Gamble, an affluent researcher at Harvard Medical school and a founder of public birth control clinics, revived the eugenics movement in the United States through sterilization. Supporters of this revival of eugenic sterilizations believed that they would bring an end to social issues such as poverty and mental illness while also saving taxpayer money and boost the economy. Whereas eugenic sterilization programs before World War II were mostly conducted on prisoners or patients in mental hospitals, after the war, compulsory sterilizations were targeted at poor people and minorities. As a result of these new sterilization initiatives, though most scholars agree that there were over 64,000 known cases of eugenic sterilization in the U.S. by 1963, no one knows for certain how many compulsory sterilizations occurred between the late 1960s to 1970s, though it is estimated that at least 80,000 may have been conducted. A large number of those who were targets of coerced sterilizations in the later half of the century were African American, Hispanic, and Native American women. Eugenics, sterilization, and the African American community Black support for eugenics (Progressive Era) Early proponents of the eugenics movement included not only influential white Americans but also several proponent African-American intellectuals such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Wyatt Turner, and many academics at Tuskegee University, Howard University, and Hampton University. However, unlike many white eugenicists, these black intellectuals believed the best African Americans were as good as the best White Americans, and "The Talented Tenth" of all races should mix. Indeed, Du Bois believed "only fit blacks should procreate to eradicate the race's heritage of moral iniquity." With the support of leaders like Du Bois, efforts were made in the early 20th century to control the reproduction of the country's black population; one of the most visible initiatives was Margaret Sanger's 1939 proposal, The Negro Project. That year, Sanger, Florence Rose, her assistant, and Mary Woodward Reinhardt, then secretary of the new Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA), drafted a report on "Birth Control and the Negro." In this report, they stated that African Americans were the group with "the greatest economic, health and social problems," were largely illiterate and "still breed carelessly and disastrously," a line taken from W.E.B. DuBois' article in the June 1932 Birth Control Review. The Project often sought after prominent African-American leaders to spread knowledge regarding birth control and the perceived positive effects it would have on the African-American community, such as poverty and the lack of education. Sanger particularly sought out black ministers from the South to serve as leaders in the Project in the hopes of countering any ideas that the project was a strategic attempt to eradicate the black population. However, despite Sanger's best efforts, white medical scientists took control over the initiative, and with the Negro Project receiving praise from white leaders and eugenicists, many of Sanger's opponents, both during the creation of the Project and years after, saw her work as an attempt to terminate African Americans. Eugenics during the civil rights era Opposition to initiatives to control reproduction within the African-American community grew in the 1960s, particularly after President Lyndon B. Johnson, in 1965, announced the establishment of federal funding of birth control used on the poor. In the 1960's, many African Americans throughout the country took the government's decision to fund birth-control clinics as an attempt to limit the growth of the black population and along with it, the increased political power that black Americans were fighting to acquire. Scholars have stated that African Americans' fear about their reproductive health and ability was rooted in history as under U.S. slavery, enslaved women were often coerced or forced to have children to increase a plantation owner's wealth. Therefore, many African Americans, particularly those in the Black Power Movement, saw birth control, and federal support of the Pill, as equivalent to black genocide, declaring it as such at the 1967 Black Power Conference. Federal funding for birth control went alongside family planning initiatives that were a part of state welfare programs. These initiatives, in addition to advocating the use of the Pill, supported sterilization as a means of curbing the number of people receiving welfare and control the reproduction of 'unfit' women. The 1950s and 1960s were the height of the sterilization abuse that African-American women as a group experienced at the hands of the white medical establishment. During this period, the sterilization of African-American women largely took place in the South and assumed two forms: the sterilization of poor unwed black mothers, and "Mississippi appendectomies." Under these "Mississippi appendectomies," women who went to the hospital to give birth, or for some other medical treatment, often found themselves incapable of having more children upon leaving the hospital due to unnecessary hysterectomies performed on them by southern medical students. By the 1970s, the coerced sterilization of women of color spread from the South to the rest of the country through federal family planning and under the guise of voluntary contraceptive surgery as physicians began to require their patients to sign consent forms to surgeries they did not want or understand. Sterilization of African American women Though it is unknown the exact number of African American women who were sterilized throughout the country in the 20th century, records from a few states offer some estimates. In the state of North Carolina, which was seen as having the most aggressive eugenics program out of the 32 states that had one, during the 45-year reign of the North Carolina Eugenics Board, from 1929 to 1974, a disproportionate number of those who were targeted for forced or coerced sterilization were black and female, with almost all being poor. Of the 7,600 women who were sterilized by the state between the years of 1933 and 1973, about 5,000 were African American. In light of this history, North Carolina became the first state to offer compensation to surviving victims of compulsory sterilization. Additionally, whereas African Americans made up just over 1% of California's population, they accounted for at least 4% of the total number of sterilization operations conducted by the state between 1909 and 1979. Overall, according to one 1989 study, 31.6% of African American women without a high school diploma were sterilized while only 14.5% of white women of the same educational status were sterilized. Sterilization abuse brought to media attention In 1972, U.S. Senate committee testimony brought to light that at least 2,000 involuntary sterilizations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge. An investigation revealed that the surgeries were all performed in the South, and were all performed on black women with multiple children who were receiving welfare. Testimony revealed that many of these women were threatened with an end to their welfare benefits unless they consented to sterilization. These surgeries were instances of sterilization abuse, a term applied to any sterilization performed without the consent or knowledge of the recipient, or in which the recipient is pressured into accepting the surgery. Because the funds used to carry out the surgeries came from the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity, the sterilization abuse raised suspicions, especially among members of the black community, that "federal programs were underwriting eugenicists who wanted to impose their views about population quality on minorities and poor women." Despite this investigation, it was not until 1973 that the issue of sterilization abuse was brought to media attention. On June 14, 1973, two black girls, Minnie Lee and Mary Alice Relf, ages fourteen and twelve, respectively, were sterilized without their knowledge in Alabama by the Montgomery Community Action Committee, an OEO-financed organization. The summer of that year, the Relf girls sued the government agencies and individuals responsible for their sterilization. As the case was being pursued, it was discovered that the girls' mother, who could not read, unwittingly approved the operations, signing an 'X' on the release forms; Mrs. Relf had believed that she was signing a form authorizing her daughters to receive Depo-Provera injections, a form of birth control. In light of the 1974 case of Relf v. Weinberger, named after Minnie Lee and Mary Alice's older sister, Katie, who had narrowly escaped also being sterilized, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) were ordered to establish new guidelines for its government sterilization policy. By 1979, the new guidelines finally addressed the concern over informed consent, determined that minors under the age of 21 and those with severe mental impairments who could not give consent would not be sterilized, and articulated the provision that doctors could no longer claim that a woman's refusal to be sterilized would result in her being denied welfare benefits. Sterilization of Latina women The 20th century demarcated a time in which compulsory sterilization heavily navigated its way into primarily Latino communities, against Latina women. Locations such as Puerto Rico and Los Angeles, California were found to have had large amounts of their female population coerced into sterilization procedures without quality and necessary informed consent nor full awareness of the procedure. Puerto Rico Between the span of the 1930s to the 1970s, nearly one-third of the female population in Puerto Rico was sterilized; at the time, this was the highest rate of sterilization in the world. Some viewed sterilization as a means of rectifying the country's poverty and unemployment rates. Following legalization of the procedure in 1937 a U.S. government endorsed initiative saw health department officials advocating for sterilization in rural parts of the island. Sterilized women were also encouraged to join the workforce, in particular the textile and clothing related industries. The procedure was so common that it was often referred to solely as "la operación", garnering a documentary referenced by the same name. This intentional targeting of Latino communities exemplifies the strategic placement of racial eugenics in modern history. This targeting is also inclusive of those with disabilities and those from marginalized populations, which Puerto Rico is not the only example of this trend. Eugenics did not serve as the only reason for the disproportionate rates of sterilization in the Puerto Rican community. Contraceptive trials were inducted in the 1950s towards Puerto Rican women. John Rock and Gregory Pincus were the two men spearheading the human trials of oral contraceptives. In 1954, the decision was made to conduct the clinical experiment in Puerto Rico, citing the island's large network of birth control clinics and lack of anti-birth control laws, which was in contrast to the United States' thorough cultural and religious opposition to the reproductive service. The decision to conduct the trials in this community was also motivated by the structural implications of supremacy and colonialism. Rock and Pincus monopolized off of the primarily poor and uneducated background of these women, countering that if they "could follow the Pill regimen, then women anywhere in the world could too." These women were purposely ill-informed of the oral contraceptives presence; the researchers only reported that the drug, which was administered at a much higher dosage than what birth control is prescribed at today, was to prevent pregnancy, not that it was tied to a clinical trial in order to jump start oral contraceptive access in America through FDA approval. California In California, by the year 1964, a total of 20,108 people were sterilized, making that the largest amount in all of the United States. It is an important note that during this period in California's population demographic, the total individuals sterilized was disproportionately inclusive of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Chicana women. Andrea Estrada, a UC Santa Barbara affiliate, said: In 1966, Nancy Hernandez was the first one to reach National and public attention and resulted in protests on women's rights and reproductive rights across the country. Her story was published in Rebecca Kluchin's book, Fit to be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America, 1950-1980. Cases such as Madrigal v. Quilligan, a class action suit regarding forced or coerced postpartum sterilization of Latina women following cesarean sections, helped bring to light the widespread abuse of sterilization supported by federal funds. The case's plaintiffs were 10 sterilized women of Los Angeles County Hospital who elected to come forward with their stories. Although a grim reality, No más bebés is a documentary that offers an emotional and candid storytelling of the Madrigal v. Quilligan case on behalf of Latina women whom were direct recipients of the coerced sterilization of the Los Angeles' hospital. The judge's ruling sided with the County Hospital, but an aftermath of the case resulted in the accessibility of multiple language informed consent forms. These stories, among many others, serve as backbones for not only the reproductive justice movement that we see today, but a better understanding and recognition of the Chicana feminism movement in contrast to white feminism's perception of reproductive rights. Sterilization of Native American women An estimated 40% of Native American women (60,000–70,000 women) and 10% of Native American men in the United States underwent sterilization in the 1970s. A General Accounting Office (GAO) report in 1976 found that 3,406 Native American women, 3,000 of which were of childbearing age, were sterilized by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and South Dakota from 1973 to 1976. The GAO report did not conclude any instances of coerced sterilization, but called for the reform of IHS and contract doctors' processes of obtaining informed consent for sterilization procedures. The IHS informed consent processes examined by the GAO did not comply with a 1974 ruling of the U.S. District Court that "any individual contemplating sterilization should be advised orally at the outset that at no time could federal benefits be withdrawn because of failure to agree to sterilization." In examining individual cases and testimonies of Native American women, scholars have found that IHS and contract physicians recommended sterilization to Native American women as the appropriate form of birth control, failing to present potential alternatives and to explain the irreversible nature of sterilization, and threatened that refusal of the procedure would result in the women losing their children and/or federal benefits. Scholars also identified language barriers in informed consent processes as the absence of interpreters for Native American women hindered them from fully understanding the sterilization procedure and its implications, in some cases. Scholars have cited physicians' individual paternalism and beliefs about the population control of poor communities and welfare recipients and the opportunity for financial gain as possible motivations for performing sterilizations on Native American women. Native American women and activists mobilized in the 1970s across the United States to combat the coerced sterilization of Native American women and advocate for their reproductive rights, alongside tribal sovereignty, in the Red Power movement. Some of the most prominent activist organizations established in this decade and active in the Red Power movement and the resistance against coerced sterilization were the American Indian Movement (AIM), United Native Americans, Women of all Red Nations (WARN), the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), and Indian Women United for Justice, founded by Constance Redbird Pinkerton Uri, a Cherokee-Choctaw physician. Some Native American activists have deemed the coerced sterilization of Native American women a "modern form of genocide," and view these sterilizations as a violation of the rights of tribes as sovereign nations. Others argue that the sterilization of Native American women is interconnected with colonialist and capitalist motives of corporations and the federal government to acquire land and natural resources, including oil, natural gas, and coal, currently located on Native American reservations. Scholars and Native American activists have situated the forced sterilizations of Native American women within broader histories of colonialism, violations of Native American tribal sovereignty by the federal government, including a long history of the removal of children from Native American women and families, and population control efforts in the United States. The 1970s brought new federal legislation enacted by the United States government which addressed issues of informed consent, sterilization, and the treatment of Native American children. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare released new regulations in 1979 on informed consent processes for sterilization procedures, including a longer waiting period of 30 days before the procedure, the presentation of alternative methods of birth control to the patient, and clear verbal affirmation that the patient's access to federal benefits or welfare programs would not be revoked if the procedure were refused. The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 officially recognized the significance and value of the extended family in Native American culture, adopting "minimum federal standards for the removal of Indian children to foster or adoptive homes," and the central importance of the sovereign tribal governments in decision-making processes surrounding the welfare of Native children. Influence on Nazi Germany After the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists and medical professionals. By 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U.S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by California's. The Rockefeller Foundation helped develop and fund various German eugenics programs, including the one that Josef Mengele worked in before he went to Auschwitz. Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, the California eugenics leader C. M. Goethe bragged to a colleague:Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to an award ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany (scheduled on the anniversary of the 1934 purge of Jews from the Heidelberg faculty), to receive an honorary doctorate for his work on the "science of racial cleansing". Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterward, he proudly shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the "common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics." Henry Friedlander wrote that although the German and American eugenics movements were similar, the U.S. did not follow the same slippery slope as Nazi eugenics because American "federalism and political heterogeneity encouraged diversity even with a single movement." In contrast, the German eugenics movement was more centralized and had fewer diverse ideas. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene, represented all German eugenicists in the early 20th century. After 1945, however, historians began to try to portray the U.S. eugenics movement as distinct and distant from Nazi eugenics. Jon Entine wrote that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social history of genetics policy in the United States." According to Entine, eugenics developed out of the Progressive Era and not "Hitler's twisted Final Solution." Eugenics after World War II Genetic engineering After Adolf Hitler's advanced idea of eugenics, the movement lost its place in society for a bit of time. Although eugenics was not thought about much, aspects like sterilization were still taking place, just not at such a public level. As technology developed, the field of genetic engineering emerged. Instead of sterilizing people to ultimately get rid of "undesirable" people, genetic engineering "changes or removes genes to prevent disease or improve the body in some significant way." Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and alter genes. From this, scientists were able to create life-saving health interventions such as human insulin, the first-ever genetically engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl. However, genetic engineering also further allows for the practice of eliminating "undesirable traits" within humans and other organisms—for example, with current genetic tests, parents are able to test a fetus for any life-threatening diseases that may impact the child's life and then choose to abort the baby. Some fear that this could lead to ethnic cleansing, or alternative form of eugenics. The ethical implications of genetic engineering were heavily considered by scientists at the time, and the Asilomar Conference was held in 1975 to discuss these concerns and set reasonable, voluntary guidelines that researchers would follow while using DNA technologies. Compulsory sterilization prevention and continuation The 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulations, created by the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare or HEW, (now the United States Department of Health and Human Services) outline a variety of prohibited sterilization practices that were often used previously to coerce or force women into sterilization. These were intended to prevent such eugenics and neo-eugenics as resulted in the involuntary sterilization of large groups of poor and minority women. Such practices include: not conveying to patients that sterilization is permanent and irreversible, in their own language (including the option to end the process or procedure at any time without conceding any future medical attention or federal benefits, the ability to ask any and all questions about the procedure and its ramifications, the requirement that the consent seeker describes the procedure fully including any and all possible discomforts and/or side-effects and any and all benefits of sterilization); failing to provide alternative information about methods of contraception, family planning, or pregnancy termination that are nonpermanent and/or irreversible (this includes abortion); conditioning receiving welfare and/or Medicaid benefits by the individual or his/her children on the individuals "consenting" to permanent sterilization; tying elected abortion to compulsory sterilization (cannot receive a sought out abortion without "consenting" to sterilization); using hysterectomy as sterilization; and subjecting minors and the mentally incompetent to sterilization. The regulations also include an extension of the informed consent waiting period from 72 hours to 30 days (with a maximum of 180 days between informed consent and the sterilization procedure). However, several studies have indicated that the forms are often dense and complex and beyond the literacy aptitude of the average American, and those seeking publicly funded sterilization are more likely to possess below-average literacy skills. High levels of misinformation concerning sterilization still exist among individuals who have already undergone sterilization procedures, with permanence being one of the most common gray factors. Additionally, federal enforcement of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulation is inconsistent and some of the prohibited abuses continue to be pervasive, particularly in underfunded hospitals and lower income patient hospitals and care centers. The compulsory sterilization of American men and women continues to this day. In 2013, it was reported that 148 female prisoners in two California prisons were sterilized between 2006 and 2010 in a supposedly voluntary program, but it was determined that the prisoners did not give consent to the procedures. In September 2014, California enacted Bill SB1135 that bans sterilization in correctional facilities, unless the procedure is required to save an inmate's life. See also Compulsory sterilization Elizabeth Tuttle Eugenics Board of North Carolina Eugenics in California Franz Boas International Federation of Eugenics Organizations Nazi human experimentation Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital (1981) Racial Integrity Act of 1924 Racial segregation in the United States Racism in the United States Skinner v. Oklahoma (1942) Society for Biodemography and Social Biology Sterilization law in the United States Stump v. Sparkman (1978) The Kallikak Family Tuskegee syphilis experiment Unethical human experimentation in the United States References Notes Bibliography Further reading Hansen, Randall and King, Desmond (eds.), Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth-Century North America. New York: Cambridge University Press. External links The Color of Democracy: A Japanese Public Health Official's Reconnaissance Trip to the U.S. South Takeuchi-Demirci, Aiko. Southern Spaces 18 March 2011. "Eugenics", Scope Note 28, Bioethics Research Center, Georgetown University Plotz, David. "The Better Baby Business", The Washington Post, 13 March 2001. Web. 25 April 2010. Eugenics: Compulsory Sterilization in 50 American States, Kaelber, Lutz (ed.) Eugenics in the United States and Britain, 1890–1930: a comparative analysis Eugenics in the United States "Buck v. Bell (1927)" by N. Antonios and C. Raup at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia Eugenics in the United States Reproduction in the United States Reproductive rights in the United States Social history of the United States Progressive Era in the United States Progressivism in the United States Racism in the United States

Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. The cause became increasingly promoted by intellectuals of the Progressive Era.🦛 While ostensibly about improving genetic quality, it has been argued that eugenics was more about preserving the position of the dominant groups in the population. Scholarly research has determined that people who found themselves targets of the eugenics movement were those who were seen as unfit for society—the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, and specific communities of color—and a disproportionate number of those who fell victim to eugenicists' sterilization initiatives were women who were identified as African American, Asian American, or Native American. As a result, the United States' eugenics movement is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements, as the movement was to some extent a reaction to demographic and population changes, as well as concerns over the economy and social well-being, rather than scientific genetics.🦛 History Early proponents The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the 1880s. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton first used the word eugenics to describe scientifically, the biological improvement of genes in human races and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. In the US, eugenics was largely supported after the discovery of Mendel's law lead to a widespread interest in the idea of breeding for specific traits. Galton studied the upper classes of Britain, and arrived at the conclusion that their social positions could be attributed to a superior genetic makeup. American eugenicists tended to believe in the genetic superiority of Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled and "immoral."🦛 The American eugenics movement received extensive funding from various corporate foundations including the Carnegie Institution, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Harriman railroad fortune. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to help found the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Institution. As late as the 1920s, the ERO was one of the leading organizations in the American eugenics movement. In years to come, the ERO and the American Eugenics Society collected a mass of family pedigrees and provided training for eugenics field workers who were sent to analyze individuals at various institutions, such as mental hospitals and orphanage institutions, across the United States. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the psychologist Henry H. Goddard, Harry H. Laughlin, and the conservationist Madison Grant (all of whom were well-respected during their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the "unfit." Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods; Goddard favored segregation in his The Kallikak Family; Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination.🦛 By 1910, there was a large and dynamic network of scientists, reformers, and professionals engaged in national eugenics projects and actively promoting eugenic legislation. The American Breeder's Association, the first eugenic body in the U.S., expanded in 1906 to include a specific eugenics committee under the direction of Charles B. Davenport. The ABA was formed specifically to "investigate and report on heredity in the human race, and emphasize the value of superior blood and the menace to society of inferior blood." Membership included Alexander Graham Bell, Stanford president David Starr Jordan and Luther Burbank. The American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality was one of the first organizations to begin investigating infant mortality rates in terms of eugenics. They promoted government intervention in attempts to promote the health of future citizens.🦛 Several feminist reformers advocated an agenda of eugenic legal reform. The National Federation of Women's Clubs, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and the National League of Women Voters were among the variety of state and local feminist organizations that at some point lobbied for eugenic reforms. One of the most prominent feminists to champion the eugenic agenda was Margaret Sanger, the leader of the American birth control movement and founder of Planned Parenthood. Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent unwanted children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and incorporated the language of eugenics to advance the movement. Sanger also sought to discourage the reproduction of persons who, it was believed, would pass on mental disease or serious physical defects. In these cases, she approved of the use of sterilization. In Sanger's opinion, it was individual women (if able-bodied) and not the state who should determine whether or not to have a child.🦛 In the Deep South, women's associations played an important role in rallying support for eugenic legal reform. Eugenicists recognized the political and social influence of southern clubwomen in their communities, and used them to help implement eugenics across the region. Between 1915 and 1920, federated women's clubs in every state of the Deep South had a critical role in establishing public eugenic institutions that were segregated by sex. For example, the Legislative Committee of the Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs successfully lobbied to institute a eugenic institution for the mentally retarded that was segregated by sex. Their aim was to separate mentally retarded men and women in order to prevent them from breeding more "feebleminded" individuals.🦛 Public acceptance in the U.S. led to various state legislatures working to establish eugenic initiatives. Beginning with Connecticut in 1896, many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was "epileptic, imbecile or feeble-minded" from marrying. The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897 – although the proposed law failed to garner enough votes by legislators to be adopted, it did set the stage for other sterilization bills. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's state legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington, California, and Connecticut in 1909. Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low (California being the sole exception) until the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, which upheld under the U.S. Constitution the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia home for those who were seen as mentally retarded.🦛 Immigration restrictions In the late 19th century, many scientists, who were concerned about the population leaning too far away from the favored "Anglo-Saxon superiority" due to a rise in immigration from Europe, partnered with other interest groups to implement immigration laws that could be justified on the basis of genetics. After the 1890 U.S. census, people began to believe that immigrants who were of Nordic or Anglo-Saxon ancestry were greatly favored over Southern and Eastern Europeans, specifically Jews (a diasporic, Middle Eastern people), who were seen by some eugenicists, like Harry Laughlin, to be genetically inferior. During the early 20th century as the United States and Canada began to receive higher numbers of immigrants, influential eugenicists like Lothrop Stoddard and Laughlin (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in 1920) presented arguments that these immigrants would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted.🦛 In 1921, a temporary measure was passed to slowdown the open door on immigration. The Immigration Restriction League was the first American entity to be closely associated with eugenics and was founded in 1894 by three recent Harvard graduates. The overall goal of the League was to prevent what they perceived as inferior races from diluting "the superior American racial stock" (those who were of the upper-class Anglo-Saxon heritage), and they began working to have stricter anti-immigration laws in the United States. The League lobbied for a literacy test for immigrants as they attempted to enter the United States, based on the belief that literacy rates were low among "inferior races". Eugenicists believed that immigrants were often degenerate, had low IQs, and were afflicted with shiftlessness, alcoholism and insubordination. According to Eugenicists, all of these problems were transmitted through genes. Literacy test bills were vetoed by presidents in 1897, 1913 and 1915; eventually, President Wilson's second veto was overruled by Congress in 1917.🦛 With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, eugenicists for the first time played an important role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe. The new act, inspired by the eugenic belief in the racial superiority of "old stock" white Americans as members of the "Nordic race" (a form of white supremacy), strengthened the position of existing laws prohibiting race-mixing. Whereas Anglo-Saxon and Nordic people were seen as the most desirable immigrants, the Chinese and Japanese were seen as the least desirable and were largely banned from entering the U.S as a result of the immigration act. In addition to the immigration act, eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of incest laws in much of the U.S. and were used to justify many anti-miscegenation laws.🦛 Efforts to shape American families Unfit v. fit individuals Both class and race factored into the eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper-to-middle class was predominantly white. Middle-to-upper class status was a marker of "superior strains." In contrast, eugenicists believed poverty to be a characteristic of genetic inferiority, which meant that those deemed "unfit" were predominantly of the lower classes.🦛 Because class status designated some more fit than others, eugenicists treated upper and lower-class women differently. Positive eugenicists, who promoted procreation among the fittest in society, encouraged middle-class women to bear more children. Between 1900 and 1960, eugenicists appealed to middle class white women to become more "family minded," and to help better the race. To this end, eugenicists often denied middle and upper-class women sterilization and birth control. However, since poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous."🦛 Concerns over hereditary genes In the 19th century, based on a view of Lamarckism, it was believed that the damage done to people by diseases could be inherited and therefore, through eugenics, these diseases could be eradicated. This belief was carried into the 20th century as public health measures were taken to improve health with the hope that such measures would result in better health of future generations.🦛 A 1911 Carnegie Institute report explored eighteen methods for removing defective genetic attributes; the eighth method was euthanasia. Though the most commonly suggested method of euthanasia was to set up local gas chambers, many in the eugenics movement did not believe that Americans were ready to implement a large-scale euthanasia program, so many doctors came up with alternative ways of subtly implementing eugenic euthanasia in various medical institutions. For example, a mental institution in Lincoln, Illinois fed its incoming patients milk infected with tuberculosis (reasoning that genetically fit individuals would be resistant), resulting in 30–40% annual death rates. Other doctors practiced euthanasia through various forms of lethal neglect.🦛 In the 1930s, there was a wave of portrayals of eugenic "mercy killings" in American film, newspapers, and magazines. In 1931, the Illinois Homeopathic Medicine Association began lobbying for the right to euthanize "imbeciles" and other defectives. A few years later, in 1938, the Euthanasia Society of America was founded. However, despite this, euthanasia saw marginal support in the U.S., motivating people to turn to forced segregation and sterilization programs as a means for keeping the "unfit" from reproducing.🦛 Better Baby Contests Mary deGormo, a former teacher, was the first person to combine ideas about health and intelligence standards with competitions at state fairs, in the form of baby contests. She developed the first such contest, the "Scientific Baby Contest" for the Louisiana State Fair in Shreveport, in 1908. She saw these contests as a contribution to the "social efficiency" movement, which was advocating for the standardization of all aspects of American life as a means of increasing efficiency. DeGarmo was assisted by Doctor Jacob Bodenheimer, a pediatrician who helped her develop grading sheets for contestants, which combined physical measurements with standardized measurements of intelligence.🦛 The contest spread to other U.S. states in the early 20th century. In Indiana, for example, Ada Estelle Schweitzer, a eugenics advocate and director of the Indiana State Board of Health's Division of Child and Infant Hygiene, organized and supervised the state's Better Baby contests at the Indiana State Fair from 1920 to 1932. It was among the fair's most popular events. During the contest's first year at the fair, a total of 78 babies were examined; in 1925 the total reached 885. Contestants peaked at 1,301 infants in 1930, and the following year the number of entrants was capped at 1,200. Although the specific impact of the contests was difficult to assess, statistics helped to support Schweitzer's claims that the contests helped reduce infant mortality.🦛 The contest intended to educate the public about raising healthy children at a time when approximately 10% of children died in their first year of life. However, its exclusionary practices reinforced social class and racial discrimination. In Indiana, for example, the contestants were limited to white infants; African-American and immigrant children were barred from the competition for ribbons and cash prizes. In addition, the scoring was biased toward white, middle-class babies. The contest procedure included recording each child's health history, as well as evaluations of each contestant's physical and mental health and overall development using medical professionals. Using a process similar to the one introduced at the Louisiana State Fair, and contest guidelines that the AMA and U.S. Children's Bureau recommended, scoring for each contestant began with 1,000 points. Deductions were made for defects, including a child's measurements below a designated average. The contestant with the most points was declared the winner.🦛 Standardization through scientific judgment was a topic that was very serious in the eyes of the scientific community, but has often been downplayed as just a popular fad or trend. Nevertheless, a lot of time, effort, and money was put into these contests and their scientific backing, which would influence cultural ideas as well as local and state government practices.🦛 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People promoted eugenics by hosting "Better Baby" contests and the proceeds would go to its anti-lynching campaign.🦛 Fitter Families First appearing in 1920 at the Kansas Free Fair, "Fitter Families for Future Firesides" competitions continued all the way up to World War II. Mary T. Watts and Florence Brown Sherbon, both initiators of the Better Baby Contests in Iowa, took the idea of positive eugenics for babies and combined it with a determinist concept of biology to come up with fitter family competitions.🦛 There were several different categories that families were judged in: size of the family, overall attractiveness, and health of the family, all of which helped to determine the likelihood of having healthy children. These competitions were simply a continuation of the Better Baby contests that promoted certain physical and mental qualities. At the time, it was believed that certain behavioral qualities were inherited from one's parents. This led to the addition of several judging categories including: generosity, self-sacrificing, and quality of familial bonds. Additionally, there were negative features that were judged: selfishness, jealousy, suspiciousness, high-temperedness, and cruelty. Feeblemindedness, alcoholism, and paralysis were few among other traits that were included as physical traits to be judged when looking at family lineage.🦛 Doctors and specialists from the community would offer their time to judge these competitions, which were originally sponsored by the Red Cross. The winners of these competitions were given a Bronze Medal as well as champion cups called "Capper Medals." The cups were named after then-Governor and Senator, Arthur Capper and he would present them to "Grade A individuals".🦛 The perks of entering into the contests were that the competitions provided a way for families to get a free health check-up by a doctor as well as some of the pride and prestige that came from winning the competitions.🦛 By 1925, the Eugenics Records Office was distributing standardized forms for judging eugenically fit families, which were used in contests in several U.S. states.🦛 Compulsory sterilization In 1907, Indiana passed the first eugenics-based compulsory sterilization law in the world. Thirty U.S. states would soon follow their lead. Although the law was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court in 1921, in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924, allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of state mental institutions.🦛 The number of sterilizations performed per year increased until another Supreme Court case, Skinner v. Oklahoma, 1942, which ruled that under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, laws that permitted the compulsory sterilization of criminals were unconstitutional if these laws treated similar crimes differently. Although Skinner determined that the right to procreate was a fundamental right under the constitution, the case did not denounce sterilization laws, because its analysis was based on the equal protection of criminal defendants specifically, therefore leaving those seen as "social undesirables"—the poor, the disabled, and various ethnic groups—as targets of compulsory sterilization. Therefore, though compulsory sterilization is now considered an abuse of human rights, Buck v. Bell has never been overturned, and Virginia specifically did not repeal its sterilization law until 1974.🦛 Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons. Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Since women bore children, eugenicists held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of society. Eugenicists therefore predominantly targeted women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to "protect" white racial health, and weed out the "defectives" of society.🦛 The most significant era of eugenic sterilization was between 1907 and 1963, when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. Beginning around 1930, there was a steady increase in the percentage of women sterilized, and in a few states only young women were sterilized. A 1937 Fortune magazine poll found that 2/3 of respondents supported eugenic sterilization of "mental defectives", 63% supported sterilization of criminals, and only 15% opposed both. From 1930 to the 1960s, sterilizations were performed on many more institutionalized women than men. By 1961, 61 percent of the 62,162 total eugenic sterilizations in the United States were performed on women. A favorable report on the results of sterilization in California, the state that conducted the most sterilizations (20,000 of the 60,000 that occurred between 1909 and 1960), was published in 1929 in book form by the biologist Paul Popenoe and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane.🦛 After World War II, eugenics and eugenic organizations began to revise their standards of reproductive fitness to reflect contemporary social concerns of the later half of the 20th century, notably concerns over welfare, Mexican immigration, overpopulation, civil rights, and sexual revolution, and gave way to what has been termed neo-eugenics. Neo-eugenicists like Clarence Gamble, an affluent researcher at Harvard Medical school and a founder of public birth control clinics, revived the eugenics movement in the United States through sterilization. Supporters of this revival of eugenic sterilizations believed that they would bring an end to social issues such as poverty and mental illness while also saving taxpayer money and boost the economy. Whereas eugenic sterilization programs before World War II were mostly conducted on prisoners or patients in mental hospitals, after the war, compulsory sterilizations were targeted at poor people and minorities. As a result of these new sterilization initiatives, though most scholars agree that there were over 64,000 known cases of eugenic sterilization in the U.S. by 1963, no one knows for certain how many compulsory sterilizations occurred between the late 1960s to 1970s, though it is estimated that at least 80,000 may have been conducted. A large number of those who were targets of coerced sterilizations in the later half of the century were African American, Hispanic, and Native American women.🦛 Eugenics, sterilization, and the African American community Black support for eugenics (Progressive Era) Early proponents of the eugenics movement included not only influential white Americans but also several proponent African-American intellectuals such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Wyatt Turner, and many academics at Tuskegee University, Howard University, and Hampton University. However, unlike many white eugenicists, these black intellectuals believed the best African Americans were as good as the best White Americans, and "The Talented Tenth" of all races should mix. Indeed, Du Bois believed "only fit blacks should procreate to eradicate the race's heritage of moral iniquity."🦛 With the support of leaders like Du Bois, efforts were made in the early 20th century to control the reproduction of the country's black population; one of the most visible initiatives was Margaret Sanger's 1939 proposal, The Negro Project. That year, Sanger, Florence Rose, her assistant, and Mary Woodward Reinhardt, then secretary of the new Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA), drafted a report on "Birth Control and the Negro." In this report, they stated that African Americans were the group with "the greatest economic, health and social problems," were largely illiterate and "still breed carelessly and disastrously," a line taken from W.E.B. DuBois' article in the June 1932 Birth Control Review. The Project often sought after prominent African-American leaders to spread knowledge regarding birth control and the perceived positive effects it would have on the African-American community, such as poverty and the lack of education. Sanger particularly sought out black ministers from the South to serve as leaders in the Project in the hopes of countering any ideas that the project was a strategic attempt to eradicate the black population. However, despite Sanger's best efforts, white medical scientists took control over the initiative, and with the Negro Project receiving praise from white leaders and eugenicists, many of Sanger's opponents, both during the creation of the Project and years after, saw her work as an attempt to terminate African Americans.🦛 Eugenics during the civil rights era Opposition to initiatives to control reproduction within the African-American community grew in the 1960s, particularly after President Lyndon B. Johnson, in 1965, announced the establishment of federal funding of birth control used on the poor. In the 1960's, many African Americans throughout the country took the government's decision to fund birth-control clinics as an attempt to limit the growth of the black population and along with it, the increased political power that black Americans were fighting to acquire. Scholars have stated that African Americans' fear about their reproductive health and ability was rooted in history as under U.S. slavery, enslaved women were often coerced or forced to have children to increase a plantation owner's wealth. Therefore, many African Americans, particularly those in the Black Power Movement, saw birth control, and federal support of the Pill, as equivalent to black genocide, declaring it as such at the 1967 Black Power Conference.🦛 Federal funding for birth control went alongside family planning initiatives that were a part of state welfare programs. These initiatives, in addition to advocating the use of the Pill, supported sterilization as a means of curbing the number of people receiving welfare and control the reproduction of 'unfit' women. The 1950s and 1960s were the height of the sterilization abuse that African-American women as a group experienced at the hands of the white medical establishment. During this period, the sterilization of African-American women largely took place in the South and assumed two forms: the sterilization of poor unwed black mothers, and "Mississippi appendectomies." Under these "Mississippi appendectomies," women who went to the hospital to give birth, or for some other medical treatment, often found themselves incapable of having more children upon leaving the hospital due to unnecessary hysterectomies performed on them by southern medical students. By the 1970s, the coerced sterilization of women of color spread from the South to the rest of the country through federal family planning and under the guise of voluntary contraceptive surgery as physicians began to require their patients to sign consent forms to surgeries they did not want or understand.🦛 Sterilization of African American women Though it is unknown the exact number of African American women who were sterilized throughout the country in the 20th century, records from a few states offer some estimates. In the state of North Carolina, which was seen as having the most aggressive eugenics program out of the 32 states that had one, during the 45-year reign of the North Carolina Eugenics Board, from 1929 to 1974, a disproportionate number of those who were targeted for forced or coerced sterilization were black and female, with almost all being poor. Of the 7,600 women who were sterilized by the state between the years of 1933 and 1973, about 5,000 were African American. In light of this history, North Carolina became the first state to offer compensation to surviving victims of compulsory sterilization. Additionally, whereas African Americans made up just over 1% of California's population, they accounted for at least 4% of the total number of sterilization operations conducted by the state between 1909 and 1979. Overall, according to one 1989 study, 31.6% of African American women without a high school diploma were sterilized while only 14.5% of white women of the same educational status were sterilized.🦛 Sterilization abuse brought to media attention In 1972, U.S. Senate committee testimony brought to light that at least 2,000 involuntary sterilizations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge. An investigation revealed that the surgeries were all performed in the South, and were all performed on black women with multiple children who were receiving welfare. Testimony revealed that many of these women were threatened with an end to their welfare benefits unless they consented to sterilization. These surgeries were instances of sterilization abuse, a term applied to any sterilization performed without the consent or knowledge of the recipient, or in which the recipient is pressured into accepting the surgery. Because the funds used to carry out the surgeries came from the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity, the sterilization abuse raised suspicions, especially among members of the black community, that "federal programs were underwriting eugenicists who wanted to impose their views about population quality on minorities and poor women."🦛 Despite this investigation, it was not until 1973 that the issue of sterilization abuse was brought to media attention. On June 14, 1973, two black girls, Minnie Lee and Mary Alice Relf, ages fourteen and twelve, respectively, were sterilized without their knowledge in Alabama by the Montgomery Community Action Committee, an OEO-financed organization. The summer of that year, the Relf girls sued the government agencies and individuals responsible for their sterilization. As the case was being pursued, it was discovered that the girls' mother, who could not read, unwittingly approved the operations, signing an 'X' on the release forms; Mrs. Relf had believed that she was signing a form authorizing her daughters to receive Depo-Provera injections, a form of birth control. In light of the 1974 case of Relf v. Weinberger, named after Minnie Lee and Mary Alice's older sister, Katie, who had narrowly escaped also being sterilized, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) were ordered to establish new guidelines for its government sterilization policy. By 1979, the new guidelines finally addressed the concern over informed consent, determined that minors under the age of 21 and those with severe mental impairments who could not give consent would not be sterilized, and articulated the provision that doctors could no longer claim that a woman's refusal to be sterilized would result in her being denied welfare benefits.🦛 Sterilization of Latina women The 20th century demarcated a time in which compulsory sterilization heavily navigated its way into primarily Latino communities, against Latina women. Locations such as Puerto Rico and Los Angeles, California were found to have had large amounts of their female population coerced into sterilization procedures without quality and necessary informed consent nor full awareness of the procedure.🦛 Puerto Rico Between the span of the 1930s to the 1970s, nearly one-third of the female population in Puerto Rico was sterilized; at the time, this was the highest rate of sterilization in the world. Some viewed sterilization as a means of rectifying the country's poverty and unemployment rates. Following legalization of the procedure in 1937 a U.S. government endorsed initiative saw health department officials advocating for sterilization in rural parts of the island. Sterilized women were also encouraged to join the workforce, in particular the textile and clothing related industries. The procedure was so common that it was often referred to solely as "la operación", garnering a documentary referenced by the same name. This intentional targeting of Latino communities exemplifies the strategic placement of racial eugenics in modern history. This targeting is also inclusive of those with disabilities and those from marginalized populations, which Puerto Rico is not the only example of this trend.🦛 Eugenics did not serve as the only reason for the disproportionate rates of sterilization in the Puerto Rican community. Contraceptive trials were inducted in the 1950s towards Puerto Rican women. John Rock and Gregory Pincus were the two men spearheading the human trials of oral contraceptives. In 1954, the decision was made to conduct the clinical experiment in Puerto Rico, citing the island's large network of birth control clinics and lack of anti-birth control laws, which was in contrast to the United States' thorough cultural and religious opposition to the reproductive service. The decision to conduct the trials in this community was also motivated by the structural implications of supremacy and colonialism. Rock and Pincus monopolized off of the primarily poor and uneducated background of these women, countering that if they "could follow the Pill regimen, then women anywhere in the world could too." These women were purposely ill-informed of the oral contraceptives presence; the researchers only reported that the drug, which was administered at a much higher dosage than what birth control is prescribed at today, was to prevent pregnancy, not that it was tied to a clinical trial in order to jump start oral contraceptive access in America through FDA approval.🦛 California In California, by the year 1964, a total of 20,108 people were sterilized, making that the largest amount in all of the United States. It is an important note that during this period in California's population demographic, the total individuals sterilized was disproportionately inclusive of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Chicana women. Andrea Estrada, a UC Santa Barbara affiliate, said:🦛 In 1966, Nancy Hernandez was the first one to reach National and public attention and resulted in protests on women's rights and reproductive rights across the country. Her story was published in Rebecca Kluchin's book, Fit to be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America, 1950-1980.🦛 Cases such as Madrigal v. Quilligan, a class action suit regarding forced or coerced postpartum sterilization of Latina women following cesarean sections, helped bring to light the widespread abuse of sterilization supported by federal funds. The case's plaintiffs were 10 sterilized women of Los Angeles County Hospital who elected to come forward with their stories. Although a grim reality, No más bebés is a documentary that offers an emotional and candid storytelling of the Madrigal v. Quilligan case on behalf of Latina women whom were direct recipients of the coerced sterilization of the Los Angeles' hospital. The judge's ruling sided with the County Hospital, but an aftermath of the case resulted in the accessibility of multiple language informed consent forms.🦛 These stories, among many others, serve as backbones for not only the reproductive justice movement that we see today, but a better understanding and recognition of the Chicana feminism movement in contrast to white feminism's perception of reproductive rights.🦛 Sterilization of Native American women An estimated 40% of Native American women (60,000–70,000 women) and 10% of Native American men in the United States underwent sterilization in the 1970s. A General Accounting Office (GAO) report in 1976 found that 3,406 Native American women, 3,000 of which were of childbearing age, were sterilized by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and South Dakota from 1973 to 1976. The GAO report did not conclude any instances of coerced sterilization, but called for the reform of IHS and contract doctors' processes of obtaining informed consent for sterilization procedures. The IHS informed consent processes examined by the GAO did not comply with a 1974 ruling of the U.S. District Court that "any individual contemplating sterilization should be advised orally at the outset that at no time could federal benefits be withdrawn because of failure to agree to sterilization."🦛 In examining individual cases and testimonies of Native American women, scholars have found that IHS and contract physicians recommended sterilization to Native American women as the appropriate form of birth control, failing to present potential alternatives and to explain the irreversible nature of sterilization, and threatened that refusal of the procedure would result in the women losing their children and/or federal benefits. Scholars also identified language barriers in informed consent processes as the absence of interpreters for Native American women hindered them from fully understanding the sterilization procedure and its implications, in some cases. Scholars have cited physicians' individual paternalism and beliefs about the population control of poor communities and welfare recipients and the opportunity for financial gain as possible motivations for performing sterilizations on Native American women.🦛 Native American women and activists mobilized in the 1970s across the United States to combat the coerced sterilization of Native American women and advocate for their reproductive rights, alongside tribal sovereignty, in the Red Power movement. Some of the most prominent activist organizations established in this decade and active in the Red Power movement and the resistance against coerced sterilization were the American Indian Movement (AIM), United Native Americans, Women of all Red Nations (WARN), the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), and Indian Women United for Justice, founded by Constance Redbird Pinkerton Uri, a Cherokee-Choctaw physician. Some Native American activists have deemed the coerced sterilization of Native American women a "modern form of genocide," and view these sterilizations as a violation of the rights of tribes as sovereign nations. Others argue that the sterilization of Native American women is interconnected with colonialist and capitalist motives of corporations and the federal government to acquire land and natural resources, including oil, natural gas, and coal, currently located on Native American reservations. Scholars and Native American activists have situated the forced sterilizations of Native American women within broader histories of colonialism, violations of Native American tribal sovereignty by the federal government, including a long history of the removal of children from Native American women and families, and population control efforts in the United States.🦛 The 1970s brought new federal legislation enacted by the United States government which addressed issues of informed consent, sterilization, and the treatment of Native American children. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare released new regulations in 1979 on informed consent processes for sterilization procedures, including a longer waiting period of 30 days before the procedure, the presentation of alternative methods of birth control to the patient, and clear verbal affirmation that the patient's access to federal benefits or welfare programs would not be revoked if the procedure were refused. The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 officially recognized the significance and value of the extended family in Native American culture, adopting "minimum federal standards for the removal of Indian children to foster or adoptive homes," and the central importance of the sovereign tribal governments in decision-making processes surrounding the welfare of Native children.🦛 Influence on Nazi Germany After the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists and medical professionals. By 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U.S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by California's.🦛 The Rockefeller Foundation helped develop and fund various German eugenics programs, including the one that Josef Mengele worked in before he went to Auschwitz.🦛 Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, the California eugenics leader C. M. Goethe bragged to a colleague:Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to an award ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany (scheduled on the anniversary of the 1934 purge of Jews from the Heidelberg faculty), to receive an honorary doctorate for his work on the "science of racial cleansing". Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterward, he proudly shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the "common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics."🦛 Henry Friedlander wrote that although the German and American eugenics movements were similar, the U.S. did not follow the same slippery slope as Nazi eugenics because American "federalism and political heterogeneity encouraged diversity even with a single movement." In contrast, the German eugenics movement was more centralized and had fewer diverse ideas. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene, represented all German eugenicists in the early 20th century.🦛 After 1945, however, historians began to try to portray the U.S. eugenics movement as distinct and distant from Nazi eugenics. Jon Entine wrote that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social history of genetics policy in the United States." According to Entine, eugenics developed out of the Progressive Era and not "Hitler's twisted Final Solution."🦛 Eugenics after World War II Genetic engineering After Adolf Hitler's advanced idea of eugenics, the movement lost its place in society for a bit of time. Although eugenics was not thought about much, aspects like sterilization were still taking place, just not at such a public level. As technology developed, the field of genetic engineering emerged. Instead of sterilizing people to ultimately get rid of "undesirable" people, genetic engineering "changes or removes genes to prevent disease or improve the body in some significant way."🦛 Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and alter genes. From this, scientists were able to create life-saving health interventions such as human insulin, the first-ever genetically engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl.🦛 However, genetic engineering also further allows for the practice of eliminating "undesirable traits" within humans and other organisms—for example, with current genetic tests, parents are able to test a fetus for any life-threatening diseases that may impact the child's life and then choose to abort the baby. Some fear that this could lead to ethnic cleansing, or alternative form of eugenics. The ethical implications of genetic engineering were heavily considered by scientists at the time, and the Asilomar Conference was held in 1975 to discuss these concerns and set reasonable, voluntary guidelines that researchers would follow while using DNA technologies.🦛 Compulsory sterilization prevention and continuation The 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulations, created by the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare or HEW, (now the United States Department of Health and Human Services) outline a variety of prohibited sterilization practices that were often used previously to coerce or force women into sterilization. These were intended to prevent such eugenics and neo-eugenics as resulted in the involuntary sterilization of large groups of poor and minority women. Such practices include: not conveying to patients that sterilization is permanent and irreversible, in their own language (including the option to end the process or procedure at any time without conceding any future medical attention or federal benefits, the ability to ask any and all questions about the procedure and its ramifications, the requirement that the consent seeker describes the procedure fully including any and all possible discomforts and/or side-effects and any and all benefits of sterilization); failing to provide alternative information about methods of contraception, family planning, or pregnancy termination that are nonpermanent and/or irreversible (this includes abortion); conditioning receiving welfare and/or Medicaid benefits by the individual or his/her children on the individuals "consenting" to permanent sterilization; tying elected abortion to compulsory sterilization (cannot receive a sought out abortion without "consenting" to sterilization); using hysterectomy as sterilization; and subjecting minors and the mentally incompetent to sterilization. The regulations also include an extension of the informed consent waiting period from 72 hours to 30 days (with a maximum of 180 days between informed consent and the sterilization procedure).🦛 However, several studies have indicated that the forms are often dense and complex and beyond the literacy aptitude of the average American, and those seeking publicly funded sterilization are more likely to possess below-average literacy skills. High levels of misinformation concerning sterilization still exist among individuals who have already undergone sterilization procedures, with permanence being one of the most common gray factors. Additionally, federal enforcement of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Sterilization Regulation is inconsistent and some of the prohibited abuses continue to be pervasive, particularly in underfunded hospitals and lower income patient hospitals and care centers.🦛 The compulsory sterilization of American men and women continues to this day. In 2013, it was reported that 148 female prisoners in two California prisons were sterilized between 2006 and 2010 in a supposedly voluntary program, but it was determined that the prisoners did not give consent to the procedures. In September 2014, California enacted Bill SB1135 that bans sterilization in correctional facilities, unless the procedure is required to save an inmate's life.🦛

[ "Eugenics,", "the", "set", "of", "beliefs", "and", "practices", "which", "aims", "at", "improving", "the", "genetic", "quality", "of", "the", "human", "population,", "played", "a", "significant", "role", "in", "the", "history", "and", "culture", "of", "the", "United", "States", "from", "the", "late", "19th", "century", "into", "the", "mid-20th", "century.", "The", "cause", "became", "increasingly", "promoted", "by", "intellectuals", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Era.", "While", "ostensibly", "about", "improving", "genetic", "quality,", "it", "has", "been", "argued", "that", "eugenics", "was", "more", "about", "preserving", "the", "position", "of", "the", "dominant", "groups", "in", "the", "population.", "Scholarly", "research", "has", "determined", "that", "people", "who", "found", "themselves", "targets", "of", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "were", "those", "who", "were", "seen", "as", "unfit", "for", "society—the", "poor,", "the", "disabled,", "the", "mentally", "ill,", "and", "specific", "communities", "of", "color—and", "a", "disproportionate", "number", "of", "those", "who", "fell", "victim", "to", "eugenicists'", "sterilization", "initiatives", "were", "women", "who", "were", "identified", "as", "African", "American,", "Asian", "American,", "or", "Native", "American.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "United", "States'", "eugenics", "movement", "is", "now", "generally", "associated", "with", "racist", "and", "nativist", "elements,", "as", "the", "movement", "was", "to", "some", "extent", "a", "reaction", "to", "demographic", "and", "population", "changes,", "as", "well", "as", "concerns", "over", "the", "economy", "and", "social", "well-being,", "rather", "than", "scientific", "genetics.", "History", "Early", "proponents", "The", "American", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "rooted", "in", "the", "biological", "determinist", "ideas", "of", "Sir", "Francis", "Galton,", "which", "originated", "in", "the", "1880s.", "In", "1883,", "Sir", "Francis", "Galton", "first", "used", "the", "word", "eugenics", "to", "describe", "scientifically,", "the", "biological", "improvement", "of", "genes", "in", "human", "races", "and", "the", "concept", "of", "being", "\"well-born\".", "He", "believed", "that", "differences", "in", "a", "person's", "ability", "were", "acquired", "primarily", "through", "genetics", "and", "that", "eugenics", "could", "be", "implemented", "through", "selective", "breeding", "in", "order", "for", "the", "human", "race", "to", "improve", "in", "its", "overall", "quality,", "therefore", "allowing", "for", "humans", "to", "direct", "their", "own", "evolution.", "In", "the", "US,", "eugenics", "was", "largely", "supported", "after", "the", "discovery", "of", "Mendel's", "law", "lead", "to", "a", "widespread", "interest", "in", "the", "idea", "of", "breeding", "for", "specific", "traits.", "Galton", "studied", "the", "upper", "classes", "of", "Britain,", "and", "arrived", "at", "the", "conclusion", "that", "their", "social", "positions", "could", "be", "attributed", "to", "a", "superior", "genetic", "makeup.", "American", "eugenicists", "tended", "to", "believe", "in", "the", "genetic", "superiority", "of", "Nordic,", "Germanic,", "and", "Anglo-Saxon", "peoples,", "supported", "strict", "immigration", "and", "anti-miscegenation", "laws,", "and", "supported", "the", "forcible", "sterilization", "of", "the", "poor,", "disabled", "and", "\"immoral.\"", "The", "American", "eugenics", "movement", "received", "extensive", "funding", "from", "various", "corporate", "foundations", "including", "the", "Carnegie", "Institution,", "Rockefeller", "Foundation,", "and", "the", "Harriman", "railroad", "fortune.", "In", "1906,", "J.H.", "Kellogg", "provided", "funding", "to", "help", "found", "the", "Race", "Betterment", "Foundation", "in", "Battle", "Creek,", "Michigan.", "The", "Eugenics", "Record", "Office", "(ERO)", "was", "founded", "in", "Cold", "Spring", "Harbor,", "New", "York", "in", "1911", "by", "the", "renowned", "biologist", "Charles", "B.", "Davenport,", "using", "money", "from", "both", "the", "Harriman", "railroad", "fortune", "and", "the", "Carnegie", "Institution.", "As", "late", "as", "the", "1920s,", "the", "ERO", "was", "one", "of", "the", "leading", "organizations", "in", "the", "American", "eugenics", "movement.", "In", "years", "to", "come,", "the", "ERO", "and", "the", "American", "Eugenics", "Society", "collected", "a", "mass", "of", "family", "pedigrees", "and", "provided", "training", "for", "eugenics", "field", "workers", "who", "were", "sent", "to", "analyze", "individuals", "at", "various", "institutions,", "such", "as", "mental", "hospitals", "and", "orphanage", "institutions,", "across", "the", "United", "States.", "Eugenicists", "such", "as", "Davenport,", "the", "psychologist", "Henry", "H.", "Goddard,", "Harry", "H.", "Laughlin,", "and", "the", "conservationist", "Madison", "Grant", "(all", "of", "whom", "were", "well-respected", "during", "their", "time)", "began", "to", "lobby", "for", "various", "solutions", "to", "the", "problem", "of", "the", "\"unfit.\"", "Davenport", "favored", "immigration", "restriction", "and", "sterilization", "as", "primary", "methods;", "Goddard", "favored", "segregation", "in", "his", "The", "Kallikak", "Family;", "Grant", "favored", "all", "of", "the", "above", "and", "more,", "even", "entertaining", "the", "idea", "of", "extermination.", "By", "1910,", "there", "was", "a", "large", "and", "dynamic", "network", "of", "scientists,", "reformers,", "and", "professionals", "engaged", "in", "national", "eugenics", "projects", "and", "actively", "promoting", "eugenic", "legislation.", "The", "American", "Breeder's", "Association,", "the", "first", "eugenic", "body", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "expanded", "in", "1906", "to", "include", "a", "specific", "eugenics", "committee", "under", "the", "direction", "of", "Charles", "B.", "Davenport.", "The", "ABA", "was", "formed", "specifically", "to", "\"investigate", "and", "report", "on", "heredity", "in", "the", "human", "race,", "and", "emphasize", "the", "value", "of", "superior", "blood", "and", "the", "menace", "to", "society", "of", "inferior", "blood.\"", "Membership", "included", "Alexander", "Graham", "Bell,", "Stanford", "president", "David", "Starr", "Jordan", "and", "Luther", "Burbank.", "The", "American", "Association", "for", "the", "Study", "and", "Prevention", "of", "Infant", "Mortality", "was", "one", "of", "the", "first", "organizations", "to", "begin", "investigating", "infant", "mortality", "rates", "in", "terms", "of", "eugenics.", "They", "promoted", "government", "intervention", "in", "attempts", "to", "promote", "the", "health", "of", "future", "citizens.", "Several", "feminist", "reformers", "advocated", "an", "agenda", "of", "eugenic", "legal", "reform.", "The", "National", "Federation", "of", "Women's", "Clubs,", "the", "Woman's", "Christian", "Temperance", "Union,", "and", "the", "National", "League", "of", "Women", "Voters", "were", "among", "the", "variety", "of", "state", "and", "local", "feminist", "organizations", "that", "at", "some", "point", "lobbied", "for", "eugenic", "reforms.", "One", "of", "the", "most", "prominent", "feminists", "to", "champion", "the", "eugenic", "agenda", "was", "Margaret", "Sanger,", "the", "leader", "of", "the", "American", "birth", "control", "movement", "and", "founder", "of", "Planned", "Parenthood.", "Sanger", "saw", "birth", "control", "as", "a", "means", "to", "prevent", "unwanted", "children", "from", "being", "born", "into", "a", "disadvantaged", "life,", "and", "incorporated", "the", "language", "of", "eugenics", "to", "advance", "the", "movement.", "Sanger", "also", "sought", "to", "discourage", "the", "reproduction", "of", "persons", "who,", "it", "was", "believed,", "would", "pass", "on", "mental", "disease", "or", "serious", "physical", "defects.", "In", "these", "cases,", "she", "approved", "of", "the", "use", "of", "sterilization.", "In", "Sanger's", "opinion,", "it", "was", "individual", "women", "(if", "able-bodied)", "and", "not", "the", "state", "who", "should", "determine", "whether", "or", "not", "to", "have", "a", "child.", "In", "the", "Deep", "South,", "women's", "associations", "played", "an", "important", "role", "in", "rallying", "support", "for", "eugenic", "legal", "reform.", "Eugenicists", "recognized", "the", "political", "and", "social", "influence", "of", "southern", "clubwomen", "in", "their", "communities,", "and", "used", "them", "to", "help", "implement", "eugenics", "across", "the", "region.", "Between", "1915", "and", "1920,", "federated", "women's", "clubs", "in", "every", "state", "of", "the", "Deep", "South", "had", "a", "critical", "role", "in", "establishing", "public", "eugenic", "institutions", "that", "were", "segregated", "by", "sex.", "For", "example,", "the", "Legislative", "Committee", "of", "the", "Florida", "State", "Federation", "of", "Women's", "Clubs", "successfully", "lobbied", "to", "institute", "a", "eugenic", "institution", "for", "the", "mentally", "retarded", "that", "was", "segregated", "by", "sex.", "Their", "aim", "was", "to", "separate", "mentally", "retarded", "men", "and", "women", "in", "order", "to", "prevent", "them", "from", "breeding", "more", "\"feebleminded\"", "individuals.", "Public", "acceptance", "in", "the", "U.S.", "led", "to", "various", "state", "legislatures", "working", "to", "establish", "eugenic", "initiatives.", "Beginning", "with", "Connecticut", "in", "1896,", "many", "states", "enacted", "marriage", "laws", "with", "eugenic", "criteria,", "prohibiting", "anyone", "who", "was", "\"epileptic,", "imbecile", "or", "feeble-minded\"", "from", "marrying.", "The", "first", "state", "to", "introduce", "a", "compulsory", "sterilization", "bill", "was", "Michigan", "in", "1897", "–", "although", "the", "proposed", "law", "failed", "to", "garner", "enough", "votes", "by", "legislators", "to", "be", "adopted,", "it", "did", "set", "the", "stage", "for", "other", "sterilization", "bills.", "Eight", "years", "later,", "Pennsylvania's", "state", "legislators", "passed", "a", "sterilization", "bill", "that", "was", "vetoed", "by", "the", "governor.", "Indiana", "became", "the", "first", "state", "to", "enact", "sterilization", "legislation", "in", "1907,", "followed", "closely", "by", "Washington,", "California,", "and", "Connecticut", "in", "1909.", "Sterilization", "rates", "across", "the", "country", "were", "relatively", "low", "(California", "being", "the", "sole", "exception)", "until", "the", "1927", "Supreme", "Court", "case", "Buck", "v.", "Bell,", "which", "upheld", "under", "the", "U.S.", "Constitution", "the", "forced", "sterilization", "of", "patients", "at", "a", "Virginia", "home", "for", "those", "who", "were", "seen", "as", "mentally", "retarded.", "Immigration", "restrictions", "In", "the", "late", "19th", "century,", "many", "scientists,", "who", "were", "concerned", "about", "the", "population", "leaning", "too", "far", "away", "from", "the", "favored", "\"Anglo-Saxon", "superiority\"", "due", "to", "a", "rise", "in", "immigration", "from", "Europe,", "partnered", "with", "other", "interest", "groups", "to", "implement", "immigration", "laws", "that", "could", "be", "justified", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "genetics.", "After", "the", "1890", "U.S.", "census,", "people", "began", "to", "believe", "that", "immigrants", "who", "were", "of", "Nordic", "or", "Anglo-Saxon", "ancestry", "were", "greatly", "favored", "over", "Southern", "and", "Eastern", "Europeans,", "specifically", "Jews", "(a", "diasporic,", "Middle", "Eastern", "people),", "who", "were", "seen", "by", "some", "eugenicists,", "like", "Harry", "Laughlin,", "to", "be", "genetically", "inferior.", "During", "the", "early", "20th", "century", "as", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "began", "to", "receive", "higher", "numbers", "of", "immigrants,", "influential", "eugenicists", "like", "Lothrop", "Stoddard", "and", "Laughlin", "(who", "was", "appointed", "as", "an", "expert", "witness", "for", "the", "House", "Committee", "on", "Immigration", "and", "Naturalization", "in", "1920)", "presented", "arguments", "that", "these", "immigrants", "would", "pollute", "the", "national", "gene", "pool", "if", "their", "numbers", "went", "unrestricted.", "In", "1921,", "a", "temporary", "measure", "was", "passed", "to", "slowdown", "the", "open", "door", "on", "immigration.", "The", "Immigration", "Restriction", "League", "was", "the", "first", "American", "entity", "to", "be", "closely", "associated", "with", "eugenics", "and", "was", "founded", "in", "1894", "by", "three", "recent", "Harvard", "graduates.", "The", "overall", "goal", "of", "the", "League", "was", "to", "prevent", "what", "they", "perceived", "as", "inferior", "races", "from", "diluting", "\"the", "superior", "American", "racial", "stock\"", "(those", "who", "were", "of", "the", "upper-class", "Anglo-Saxon", "heritage),", "and", "they", "began", "working", "to", "have", "stricter", "anti-immigration", "laws", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "League", "lobbied", "for", "a", "literacy", "test", "for", "immigrants", "as", "they", "attempted", "to", "enter", "the", "United", "States,", "based", "on", "the", "belief", "that", "literacy", "rates", "were", "low", "among", "\"inferior", "races\".", "Eugenicists", "believed", "that", "immigrants", "were", "often", "degenerate,", "had", "low", "IQs,", "and", "were", "afflicted", "with", "shiftlessness,", "alcoholism", "and", "insubordination.", "According", "to", "Eugenicists,", "all", "of", "these", "problems", "were", "transmitted", "through", "genes.", "Literacy", "test", "bills", "were", "vetoed", "by", "presidents", "in", "1897,", "1913", "and", "1915;", "eventually,", "President", "Wilson's", "second", "veto", "was", "overruled", "by", "Congress", "in", "1917.", "With", "the", "passage", "of", "the", "Immigration", "Act", "of", "1924,", "eugenicists", "for", "the", "first", "time", "played", "an", "important", "role", "in", "the", "Congressional", "debate", "as", "expert", "advisers", "on", "the", "threat", "of", "\"inferior", "stock\"", "from", "eastern", "and", "southern", "Europe.", "The", "new", "act,", "inspired", "by", "the", "eugenic", "belief", "in", "the", "racial", "superiority", "of", "\"old", "stock\"", "white", "Americans", "as", "members", "of", "the", "\"Nordic", "race\"", "(a", "form", "of", "white", "supremacy),", "strengthened", "the", "position", "of", "existing", "laws", "prohibiting", "race-mixing.", "Whereas", "Anglo-Saxon", "and", "Nordic", "people", "were", "seen", "as", "the", "most", "desirable", "immigrants,", "the", "Chinese", "and", "Japanese", "were", "seen", "as", "the", "least", "desirable", "and", "were", "largely", "banned", "from", "entering", "the", "U.S", "as", "a", "result", "of", "the", "immigration", "act.", "In", "addition", "to", "the", "immigration", "act,", "eugenic", "considerations", "also", "lay", "behind", "the", "adoption", "of", "incest", "laws", "in", "much", "of", "the", "U.S.", "and", "were", "used", "to", "justify", "many", "anti-miscegenation", "laws.", "Efforts", "to", "shape", "American", "families", "Unfit", "v.", "fit", "individuals", "Both", "class", "and", "race", "factored", "into", "the", "eugenic", "definitions", "of", "\"fit\"", "and", "\"unfit.\"", "By", "using", "intelligence", "testing,", "American", "eugenicists", "asserted", "that", "social", "mobility", "was", "indicative", "of", "one's", "genetic", "fitness.", "This", "reaffirmed", "the", "existing", "class", "and", "racial", "hierarchies", "and", "explained", "why", "the", "upper-to-middle", "class", "was", "predominantly", "white.", "Middle-to-upper", "class", "status", "was", "a", "marker", "of", "\"superior", "strains.\"", "In", "contrast,", "eugenicists", "believed", "poverty", "to", "be", "a", "characteristic", "of", "genetic", "inferiority,", "which", "meant", "that", "those", "deemed", "\"unfit\"", "were", "predominantly", "of", "the", "lower", "classes.", "Because", "class", "status", "designated", "some", "more", "fit", "than", "others,", "eugenicists", "treated", "upper", "and", "lower-class", "women", "differently.", "Positive", "eugenicists,", "who", "promoted", "procreation", "among", "the", "fittest", "in", "society,", "encouraged", "middle-class", "women", "to", "bear", "more", "children.", "Between", "1900", "and", "1960,", "eugenicists", "appealed", "to", "middle", "class", "white", "women", "to", "become", "more", "\"family", "minded,\"", "and", "to", "help", "better", "the", "race.", "To", "this", "end,", "eugenicists", "often", "denied", "middle", "and", "upper-class", "women", "sterilization", "and", "birth", "control.", "However,", "since", "poverty", "was", "associated", "with", "prostitution", "and", "\"mental", "idiocy,\"", "women", "of", "the", "lower", "classes", "were", "the", "first", "to", "be", "deemed", "\"unfit\"", "and", "\"promiscuous.\"", "Concerns", "over", "hereditary", "genes", "In", "the", "19th", "century,", "based", "on", "a", "view", "of", "Lamarckism,", "it", "was", "believed", "that", "the", "damage", "done", "to", "people", "by", "diseases", "could", "be", "inherited", "and", "therefore,", "through", "eugenics,", "these", "diseases", "could", "be", "eradicated.", "This", "belief", "was", "carried", "into", "the", "20th", "century", "as", "public", "health", "measures", "were", "taken", "to", "improve", "health", "with", "the", "hope", "that", "such", "measures", "would", "result", "in", "better", "health", "of", "future", "generations.", "A", "1911", "Carnegie", "Institute", "report", "explored", "eighteen", "methods", "for", "removing", "defective", "genetic", "attributes;", "the", "eighth", "method", "was", "euthanasia.", "Though", "the", "most", "commonly", "suggested", "method", "of", "euthanasia", "was", "to", "set", "up", "local", "gas", "chambers,", "many", "in", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "did", "not", "believe", "that", "Americans", "were", "ready", "to", "implement", "a", "large-scale", "euthanasia", "program,", "so", "many", "doctors", "came", "up", "with", "alternative", "ways", "of", "subtly", "implementing", "eugenic", "euthanasia", "in", "various", "medical", "institutions.", "For", "example,", "a", "mental", "institution", "in", "Lincoln,", "Illinois", "fed", "its", "incoming", "patients", "milk", "infected", "with", "tuberculosis", "(reasoning", "that", "genetically", "fit", "individuals", "would", "be", "resistant),", "resulting", "in", "30–40%", "annual", "death", "rates.", "Other", "doctors", "practiced", "euthanasia", "through", "various", "forms", "of", "lethal", "neglect.", "In", "the", "1930s,", "there", "was", "a", "wave", "of", "portrayals", "of", "eugenic", "\"mercy", "killings\"", "in", "American", "film,", "newspapers,", "and", "magazines.", "In", "1931,", "the", "Illinois", "Homeopathic", "Medicine", "Association", "began", "lobbying", "for", "the", "right", "to", "euthanize", "\"imbeciles\"", "and", "other", "defectives.", "A", "few", "years", "later,", "in", "1938,", "the", "Euthanasia", "Society", "of", "America", "was", "founded.", "However,", "despite", "this,", "euthanasia", "saw", "marginal", "support", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "motivating", "people", "to", "turn", "to", "forced", "segregation", "and", "sterilization", "programs", "as", "a", "means", "for", "keeping", "the", "\"unfit\"", "from", "reproducing.", "Better", "Baby", "Contests", "Mary", "deGormo,", "a", "former", "teacher,", "was", "the", "first", "person", "to", "combine", "ideas", "about", "health", "and", "intelligence", "standards", "with", "competitions", "at", "state", "fairs,", "in", "the", "form", "of", "baby", "contests.", "She", "developed", "the", "first", "such", "contest,", "the", "\"Scientific", "Baby", "Contest\"", "for", "the", "Louisiana", "State", "Fair", "in", "Shreveport,", "in", "1908.", "She", "saw", "these", "contests", "as", "a", "contribution", "to", "the", "\"social", "efficiency\"", "movement,", "which", "was", "advocating", "for", "the", "standardization", "of", "all", "aspects", "of", "American", "life", "as", "a", "means", "of", "increasing", "efficiency.", "DeGarmo", "was", "assisted", "by", "Doctor", "Jacob", "Bodenheimer,", "a", "pediatrician", "who", "helped", "her", "develop", "grading", "sheets", "for", "contestants,", "which", "combined", "physical", "measurements", "with", "standardized", "measurements", "of", "intelligence.", "The", "contest", "spread", "to", "other", "U.S.", "states", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "In", "Indiana,", "for", "example,", "Ada", "Estelle", "Schweitzer,", "a", "eugenics", "advocate", "and", "director", "of", "the", "Indiana", "State", "Board", "of", "Health's", "Division", "of", "Child", "and", "Infant", "Hygiene,", "organized", "and", "supervised", "the", "state's", "Better", "Baby", "contests", "at", "the", "Indiana", "State", "Fair", "from", "1920", "to", "1932.", "It", "was", "among", "the", "fair's", "most", "popular", "events.", "During", "the", "contest's", "first", "year", "at", "the", "fair,", "a", "total", "of", "78", "babies", "were", "examined;", "in", "1925", "the", "total", "reached", "885.", "Contestants", "peaked", "at", "1,301", "infants", "in", "1930,", "and", "the", "following", "year", "the", "number", "of", "entrants", "was", "capped", "at", "1,200.", "Although", "the", "specific", "impact", "of", "the", "contests", "was", "difficult", "to", "assess,", "statistics", "helped", "to", "support", "Schweitzer's", "claims", "that", "the", "contests", "helped", "reduce", "infant", "mortality.", "The", "contest", "intended", "to", "educate", "the", "public", "about", "raising", "healthy", "children", "at", "a", "time", "when", "approximately", "10%", "of", "children", "died", "in", "their", "first", "year", "of", "life.", "However,", "its", "exclusionary", "practices", "reinforced", "social", "class", "and", "racial", "discrimination.", "In", "Indiana,", "for", "example,", "the", "contestants", "were", "limited", "to", "white", "infants;", "African-American", "and", "immigrant", "children", "were", "barred", "from", "the", "competition", "for", "ribbons", "and", "cash", "prizes.", "In", "addition,", "the", "scoring", "was", "biased", "toward", "white,", "middle-class", "babies.", "The", "contest", "procedure", "included", "recording", "each", "child's", "health", "history,", "as", "well", "as", "evaluations", "of", "each", "contestant's", "physical", "and", "mental", "health", "and", "overall", "development", "using", "medical", "professionals.", "Using", "a", "process", "similar", "to", "the", "one", "introduced", "at", "the", "Louisiana", "State", "Fair,", "and", "contest", "guidelines", "that", "the", "AMA", "and", "U.S.", "Children's", "Bureau", "recommended,", "scoring", "for", "each", "contestant", "began", "with", "1,000", "points.", "Deductions", "were", "made", "for", "defects,", "including", "a", "child's", "measurements", "below", "a", "designated", "average.", "The", "contestant", "with", "the", "most", "points", "was", "declared", "the", "winner.", "Standardization", "through", "scientific", "judgment", "was", "a", "topic", "that", "was", "very", "serious", "in", "the", "eyes", "of", "the", "scientific", "community,", "but", "has", "often", "been", "downplayed", "as", "just", "a", "popular", "fad", "or", "trend.", "Nevertheless,", "a", "lot", "of", "time,", "effort,", "and", "money", "was", "put", "into", "these", "contests", "and", "their", "scientific", "backing,", "which", "would", "influence", "cultural", "ideas", "as", "well", "as", "local", "and", "state", "government", "practices.", "The", "National", "Association", "for", "the", "Advancement", "of", "Colored", "People", "promoted", "eugenics", "by", "hosting", "\"Better", "Baby\"", "contests", "and", "the", "proceeds", "would", "go", "to", "its", "anti-lynching", "campaign.", "Fitter", "Families", "First", "appearing", "in", "1920", "at", "the", "Kansas", "Free", "Fair,", "\"Fitter", "Families", "for", "Future", "Firesides\"", "competitions", "continued", "all", "the", "way", "up", "to", "World", "War", "II.", "Mary", "T.", "Watts", "and", "Florence", "Brown", "Sherbon,", "both", "initiators", "of", "the", "Better", "Baby", "Contests", "in", "Iowa,", "took", "the", "idea", "of", "positive", "eugenics", "for", "babies", "and", "combined", "it", "with", "a", "determinist", "concept", "of", "biology", "to", "come", "up", "with", "fitter", "family", "competitions.", "There", "were", "several", "different", "categories", "that", "families", "were", "judged", "in:", "size", "of", "the", "family,", "overall", "attractiveness,", "and", "health", "of", "the", "family,", "all", "of", "which", "helped", "to", "determine", "the", "likelihood", "of", "having", "healthy", "children.", "These", "competitions", "were", "simply", "a", "continuation", "of", "the", "Better", "Baby", "contests", "that", "promoted", "certain", "physical", "and", "mental", "qualities.", "At", "the", "time,", "it", "was", "believed", "that", "certain", "behavioral", "qualities", "were", "inherited", "from", "one's", "parents.", "This", "led", "to", "the", "addition", "of", "several", "judging", "categories", "including:", "generosity,", "self-sacrificing,", "and", "quality", "of", "familial", "bonds.", "Additionally,", "there", "were", "negative", "features", "that", "were", "judged:", "selfishness,", "jealousy,", "suspiciousness,", "high-temperedness,", "and", "cruelty.", "Feeblemindedness,", "alcoholism,", "and", "paralysis", "were", "few", "among", "other", "traits", "that", "were", "included", "as", "physical", "traits", "to", "be", "judged", "when", "looking", "at", "family", "lineage.", "Doctors", "and", "specialists", "from", "the", "community", "would", "offer", "their", "time", "to", "judge", "these", "competitions,", "which", "were", "originally", "sponsored", "by", "the", "Red", "Cross.", "The", "winners", "of", "these", "competitions", "were", "given", "a", "Bronze", "Medal", "as", "well", "as", "champion", "cups", "called", "\"Capper", "Medals.\"", "The", "cups", "were", "named", "after", "then-Governor", "and", "Senator,", "Arthur", "Capper", "and", "he", "would", "present", "them", "to", "\"Grade", "A", "individuals\".", "The", "perks", "of", "entering", "into", "the", "contests", "were", "that", "the", "competitions", "provided", "a", "way", "for", "families", "to", "get", "a", "free", "health", "check-up", "by", "a", "doctor", "as", "well", "as", "some", "of", "the", "pride", "and", "prestige", "that", "came", "from", "winning", "the", "competitions.", "By", "1925,", "the", "Eugenics", "Records", "Office", "was", "distributing", "standardized", "forms", "for", "judging", "eugenically", "fit", "families,", "which", "were", "used", "in", "contests", "in", "several", "U.S.", "states.", "Compulsory", "sterilization", "In", "1907,", "Indiana", "passed", "the", "first", "eugenics-based", "compulsory", "sterilization", "law", "in", "the", "world.", "Thirty", "U.S.", "states", "would", "soon", "follow", "their", "lead.", "Although", "the", "law", "was", "overturned", "by", "the", "Indiana", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "1921,", "in", "the", "1927", "case", "Buck", "v.", "Bell,", "the", "U.S.", "Supreme", "Court", "upheld", "the", "constitutionality", "of", "the", "Virginia", "Sterilization", "Act", "of", "1924,", "allowing", "for", "the", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "patients", "of", "state", "mental", "institutions.", "The", "number", "of", "sterilizations", "performed", "per", "year", "increased", "until", "another", "Supreme", "Court", "case,", "Skinner", "v.", "Oklahoma,", "1942,", "which", "ruled", "that", "under", "the", "14th", "Amendment's", "Equal", "Protection", "Clause,", "laws", "that", "permitted", "the", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "criminals", "were", "unconstitutional", "if", "these", "laws", "treated", "similar", "crimes", "differently.", "Although", "Skinner", "determined", "that", "the", "right", "to", "procreate", "was", "a", "fundamental", "right", "under", "the", "constitution,", "the", "case", "did", "not", "denounce", "sterilization", "laws,", "because", "its", "analysis", "was", "based", "on", "the", "equal", "protection", "of", "criminal", "defendants", "specifically,", "therefore", "leaving", "those", "seen", "as", "\"social", "undesirables\"—the", "poor,", "the", "disabled,", "and", "various", "ethnic", "groups—as", "targets", "of", "compulsory", "sterilization.", "Therefore,", "though", "compulsory", "sterilization", "is", "now", "considered", "an", "abuse", "of", "human", "rights,", "Buck", "v.", "Bell", "has", "never", "been", "overturned,", "and", "Virginia", "specifically", "did", "not", "repeal", "its", "sterilization", "law", "until", "1974.", "Men", "and", "women", "were", "compulsorily", "sterilized", "for", "different", "reasons.", "Men", "were", "sterilized", "to", "treat", "their", "aggression", "and", "to", "eliminate", "their", "criminal", "behavior,", "while", "women", "were", "sterilized", "to", "control", "the", "results", "of", "their", "sexuality.", "Since", "women", "bore", "children,", "eugenicists", "held", "women", "more", "accountable", "than", "men", "for", "the", "reproduction", "of", "the", "less", "\"desirable\"", "members", "of", "society.", "Eugenicists", "therefore", "predominantly", "targeted", "women", "in", "their", "efforts", "to", "regulate", "the", "birth", "rate,", "to", "\"protect\"", "white", "racial", "health,", "and", "weed", "out", "the", "\"defectives\"", "of", "society.", "The", "most", "significant", "era", "of", "eugenic", "sterilization", "was", "between", "1907", "and", "1963,", "when", "over", "64,000", "individuals", "were", "forcibly", "sterilized", "under", "eugenic", "legislation", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "Beginning", "around", "1930,", "there", "was", "a", "steady", "increase", "in", "the", "percentage", "of", "women", "sterilized,", "and", "in", "a", "few", "states", "only", "young", "women", "were", "sterilized.", "A", "1937", "Fortune", "magazine", "poll", "found", "that", "2/3", "of", "respondents", "supported", "eugenic", "sterilization", "of", "\"mental", "defectives\",", "63%", "supported", "sterilization", "of", "criminals,", "and", "only", "15%", "opposed", "both.", "From", "1930", "to", "the", "1960s,", "sterilizations", "were", "performed", "on", "many", "more", "institutionalized", "women", "than", "men.", "By", "1961,", "61", "percent", "of", "the", "62,162", "total", "eugenic", "sterilizations", "in", "the", "United", "States", "were", "performed", "on", "women.", "A", "favorable", "report", "on", "the", "results", "of", "sterilization", "in", "California,", "the", "state", "that", "conducted", "the", "most", "sterilizations", "(20,000", "of", "the", "60,000", "that", "occurred", "between", "1909", "and", "1960),", "was", "published", "in", "1929", "in", "book", "form", "by", "the", "biologist", "Paul", "Popenoe", "and", "was", "widely", "cited", "by", "the", "Nazi", "government", "as", "evidence", "that", "wide-reaching", "sterilization", "programs", "were", "feasible", "and", "humane.", "After", "World", "War", "II,", "eugenics", "and", "eugenic", "organizations", "began", "to", "revise", "their", "standards", "of", "reproductive", "fitness", "to", "reflect", "contemporary", "social", "concerns", "of", "the", "later", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century,", "notably", "concerns", "over", "welfare,", "Mexican", "immigration,", "overpopulation,", "civil", "rights,", "and", "sexual", "revolution,", "and", "gave", "way", "to", "what", "has", "been", "termed", "neo-eugenics.", "Neo-eugenicists", "like", "Clarence", "Gamble,", "an", "affluent", "researcher", "at", "Harvard", "Medical", "school", "and", "a", "founder", "of", "public", "birth", "control", "clinics,", "revived", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "in", "the", "United", "States", "through", "sterilization.", "Supporters", "of", "this", "revival", "of", "eugenic", "sterilizations", "believed", "that", "they", "would", "bring", "an", "end", "to", "social", "issues", "such", "as", "poverty", "and", "mental", "illness", "while", "also", "saving", "taxpayer", "money", "and", "boost", "the", "economy.", "Whereas", "eugenic", "sterilization", "programs", "before", "World", "War", "II", "were", "mostly", "conducted", "on", "prisoners", "or", "patients", "in", "mental", "hospitals,", "after", "the", "war,", "compulsory", "sterilizations", "were", "targeted", "at", "poor", "people", "and", "minorities.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "these", "new", "sterilization", "initiatives,", "though", "most", "scholars", "agree", "that", "there", "were", "over", "64,000", "known", "cases", "of", "eugenic", "sterilization", "in", "the", "U.S.", "by", "1963,", "no", "one", "knows", "for", "certain", "how", "many", "compulsory", "sterilizations", "occurred", "between", "the", "late", "1960s", "to", "1970s,", "though", "it", "is", "estimated", "that", "at", "least", "80,000", "may", "have", "been", "conducted.", "A", "large", "number", "of", "those", "who", "were", "targets", "of", "coerced", "sterilizations", "in", "the", "later", "half", "of", "the", "century", "were", "African", "American,", "Hispanic,", "and", "Native", "American", "women.", "Eugenics,", "sterilization,", "and", "the", "African", "American", "community", "Black", "support", "for", "eugenics", "(Progressive", "Era)", "Early", "proponents", "of", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "included", "not", "only", "influential", "white", "Americans", "but", "also", "several", "proponent", "African-American", "intellectuals", "such", "as", "W.", "E.", "B.", "Du", "Bois,", "Thomas", "Wyatt", "Turner,", "and", "many", "academics", "at", "Tuskegee", "University,", "Howard", "University,", "and", "Hampton", "University.", "However,", "unlike", "many", "white", "eugenicists,", "these", "black", "intellectuals", "believed", "the", "best", "African", "Americans", "were", "as", "good", "as", "the", "best", "White", "Americans,", "and", "\"The", "Talented", "Tenth\"", "of", "all", "races", "should", "mix.", "Indeed,", "Du", "Bois", "believed", "\"only", "fit", "blacks", "should", "procreate", "to", "eradicate", "the", "race's", "heritage", "of", "moral", "iniquity.\"", "With", "the", "support", "of", "leaders", "like", "Du", "Bois,", "efforts", "were", "made", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century", "to", "control", "the", "reproduction", "of", "the", "country's", "black", "population;", "one", "of", "the", "most", "visible", "initiatives", "was", "Margaret", "Sanger's", "1939", "proposal,", "The", "Negro", "Project.", "That", "year,", "Sanger,", "Florence", "Rose,", "her", "assistant,", "and", "Mary", "Woodward", "Reinhardt,", "then", "secretary", "of", "the", "new", "Birth", "Control", "Federation", "of", "America", "(BCFA),", "drafted", "a", "report", "on", "\"Birth", "Control", "and", "the", "Negro.\"", "In", "this", "report,", "they", "stated", "that", "African", "Americans", "were", "the", "group", "with", "\"the", "greatest", "economic,", "health", "and", "social", "problems,\"", "were", "largely", "illiterate", "and", "\"still", "breed", "carelessly", "and", "disastrously,\"", "a", "line", "taken", "from", "W.E.B.", "DuBois'", "article", "in", "the", "June", "1932", "Birth", "Control", "Review.", "The", "Project", "often", "sought", "after", "prominent", "African-American", "leaders", "to", "spread", "knowledge", "regarding", "birth", "control", "and", "the", "perceived", "positive", "effects", "it", "would", "have", "on", "the", "African-American", "community,", "such", "as", "poverty", "and", "the", "lack", "of", "education.", "Sanger", "particularly", "sought", "out", "black", "ministers", "from", "the", "South", "to", "serve", "as", "leaders", "in", "the", "Project", "in", "the", "hopes", "of", "countering", "any", "ideas", "that", "the", "project", "was", "a", "strategic", "attempt", "to", "eradicate", "the", "black", "population.", "However,", "despite", "Sanger's", "best", "efforts,", "white", "medical", "scientists", "took", "control", "over", "the", "initiative,", "and", "with", "the", "Negro", "Project", "receiving", "praise", "from", "white", "leaders", "and", "eugenicists,", "many", "of", "Sanger's", "opponents,", "both", "during", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "Project", "and", "years", "after,", "saw", "her", "work", "as", "an", "attempt", "to", "terminate", "African", "Americans.", "Eugenics", "during", "the", "civil", "rights", "era", "Opposition", "to", "initiatives", "to", "control", "reproduction", "within", "the", "African-American", "community", "grew", "in", "the", "1960s,", "particularly", "after", "President", "Lyndon", "B.", "Johnson,", "in", "1965,", "announced", "the", "establishment", "of", "federal", "funding", "of", "birth", "control", "used", "on", "the", "poor.", "In", "the", "1960's,", "many", "African", "Americans", "throughout", "the", "country", "took", "the", "government's", "decision", "to", "fund", "birth-control", "clinics", "as", "an", "attempt", "to", "limit", "the", "growth", "of", "the", "black", "population", "and", "along", "with", "it,", "the", "increased", "political", "power", "that", "black", "Americans", "were", "fighting", "to", "acquire.", "Scholars", "have", "stated", "that", "African", "Americans'", "fear", "about", "their", "reproductive", "health", "and", "ability", "was", "rooted", "in", "history", "as", "under", "U.S.", "slavery,", "enslaved", "women", "were", "often", "coerced", "or", "forced", "to", "have", "children", "to", "increase", "a", "plantation", "owner's", "wealth.", "Therefore,", "many", "African", "Americans,", "particularly", "those", "in", "the", "Black", "Power", "Movement,", "saw", "birth", "control,", "and", "federal", "support", "of", "the", "Pill,", "as", "equivalent", "to", "black", "genocide,", "declaring", "it", "as", "such", "at", "the", "1967", "Black", "Power", "Conference.", "Federal", "funding", "for", "birth", "control", "went", "alongside", "family", "planning", "initiatives", "that", "were", "a", "part", "of", "state", "welfare", "programs.", "These", "initiatives,", "in", "addition", "to", "advocating", "the", "use", "of", "the", "Pill,", "supported", "sterilization", "as", "a", "means", "of", "curbing", "the", "number", "of", "people", "receiving", "welfare", "and", "control", "the", "reproduction", "of", "'unfit'", "women.", "The", "1950s", "and", "1960s", "were", "the", "height", "of", "the", "sterilization", "abuse", "that", "African-American", "women", "as", "a", "group", "experienced", "at", "the", "hands", "of", "the", "white", "medical", "establishment.", "During", "this", "period,", "the", "sterilization", "of", "African-American", "women", "largely", "took", "place", "in", "the", "South", "and", "assumed", "two", "forms:", "the", "sterilization", "of", "poor", "unwed", "black", "mothers,", "and", "\"Mississippi", "appendectomies.\"", "Under", "these", "\"Mississippi", "appendectomies,\"", "women", "who", "went", "to", "the", "hospital", "to", "give", "birth,", "or", "for", "some", "other", "medical", "treatment,", "often", "found", "themselves", "incapable", "of", "having", "more", "children", "upon", "leaving", "the", "hospital", "due", "to", "unnecessary", "hysterectomies", "performed", "on", "them", "by", "southern", "medical", "students.", "By", "the", "1970s,", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "women", "of", "color", "spread", "from", "the", "South", "to", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "country", "through", "federal", "family", "planning", "and", "under", "the", "guise", "of", "voluntary", "contraceptive", "surgery", "as", "physicians", "began", "to", "require", "their", "patients", "to", "sign", "consent", "forms", "to", "surgeries", "they", "did", "not", "want", "or", "understand.", "Sterilization", "of", "African", "American", "women", "Though", "it", "is", "unknown", "the", "exact", "number", "of", "African", "American", "women", "who", "were", "sterilized", "throughout", "the", "country", "in", "the", "20th", "century,", "records", "from", "a", "few", "states", "offer", "some", "estimates.", "In", "the", "state", "of", "North", "Carolina,", "which", "was", "seen", "as", "having", "the", "most", "aggressive", "eugenics", "program", "out", "of", "the", "32", "states", "that", "had", "one,", "during", "the", "45-year", "reign", "of", "the", "North", "Carolina", "Eugenics", "Board,", "from", "1929", "to", "1974,", "a", "disproportionate", "number", "of", "those", "who", "were", "targeted", "for", "forced", "or", "coerced", "sterilization", "were", "black", "and", "female,", "with", "almost", "all", "being", "poor.", "Of", "the", "7,600", "women", "who", "were", "sterilized", "by", "the", "state", "between", "the", "years", "of", "1933", "and", "1973,", "about", "5,000", "were", "African", "American.", "In", "light", "of", "this", "history,", "North", "Carolina", "became", "the", "first", "state", "to", "offer", "compensation", "to", "surviving", "victims", "of", "compulsory", "sterilization.", "Additionally,", "whereas", "African", "Americans", "made", "up", "just", "over", "1%", "of", "California's", "population,", "they", "accounted", "for", "at", "least", "4%", "of", "the", "total", "number", "of", "sterilization", "operations", "conducted", "by", "the", "state", "between", "1909", "and", "1979.", "Overall,", "according", "to", "one", "1989", "study,", "31.6%", "of", "African", "American", "women", "without", "a", "high", "school", "diploma", "were", "sterilized", "while", "only", "14.5%", "of", "white", "women", "of", "the", "same", "educational", "status", "were", "sterilized.", "Sterilization", "abuse", "brought", "to", "media", "attention", "In", "1972,", "U.S.", "Senate", "committee", "testimony", "brought", "to", "light", "that", "at", "least", "2,000", "involuntary", "sterilizations", "had", "been", "performed", "on", "poor", "black", "women", "without", "their", "consent", "or", "knowledge.", "An", "investigation", "revealed", "that", "the", "surgeries", "were", "all", "performed", "in", "the", "South,", "and", "were", "all", "performed", "on", "black", "women", "with", "multiple", "children", "who", "were", "receiving", "welfare.", "Testimony", "revealed", "that", "many", "of", "these", "women", "were", "threatened", "with", "an", "end", "to", "their", "welfare", "benefits", "unless", "they", "consented", "to", "sterilization.", "These", "surgeries", "were", "instances", "of", "sterilization", "abuse,", "a", "term", "applied", "to", "any", "sterilization", "performed", "without", "the", "consent", "or", "knowledge", "of", "the", "recipient,", "or", "in", "which", "the", "recipient", "is", "pressured", "into", "accepting", "the", "surgery.", "Because", "the", "funds", "used", "to", "carry", "out", "the", "surgeries", "came", "from", "the", "U.S.", "Office", "of", "Economic", "Opportunity,", "the", "sterilization", "abuse", "raised", "suspicions,", "especially", "among", "members", "of", "the", "black", "community,", "that", "\"federal", "programs", "were", "underwriting", "eugenicists", "who", "wanted", "to", "impose", "their", "views", "about", "population", "quality", "on", "minorities", "and", "poor", "women.\"", "Despite", "this", "investigation,", "it", "was", "not", "until", "1973", "that", "the", "issue", "of", "sterilization", "abuse", "was", "brought", "to", "media", "attention.", "On", "June", "14,", "1973,", "two", "black", "girls,", "Minnie", "Lee", "and", "Mary", "Alice", "Relf,", "ages", "fourteen", "and", "twelve,", "respectively,", "were", "sterilized", "without", "their", "knowledge", "in", "Alabama", "by", "the", "Montgomery", "Community", "Action", "Committee,", "an", "OEO-financed", "organization.", "The", "summer", "of", "that", "year,", "the", "Relf", "girls", "sued", "the", "government", "agencies", "and", "individuals", "responsible", "for", "their", "sterilization.", "As", "the", "case", "was", "being", "pursued,", "it", "was", "discovered", "that", "the", "girls'", "mother,", "who", "could", "not", "read,", "unwittingly", "approved", "the", "operations,", "signing", "an", "'X'", "on", "the", "release", "forms;", "Mrs.", "Relf", "had", "believed", "that", "she", "was", "signing", "a", "form", "authorizing", "her", "daughters", "to", "receive", "Depo-Provera", "injections,", "a", "form", "of", "birth", "control.", "In", "light", "of", "the", "1974", "case", "of", "Relf", "v.", "Weinberger,", "named", "after", "Minnie", "Lee", "and", "Mary", "Alice's", "older", "sister,", "Katie,", "who", "had", "narrowly", "escaped", "also", "being", "sterilized,", "the", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education,", "and", "Welfare", "(HEW)", "were", "ordered", "to", "establish", "new", "guidelines", "for", "its", "government", "sterilization", "policy.", "By", "1979,", "the", "new", "guidelines", "finally", "addressed", "the", "concern", "over", "informed", "consent,", "determined", "that", "minors", "under", "the", "age", "of", "21", "and", "those", "with", "severe", "mental", "impairments", "who", "could", "not", "give", "consent", "would", "not", "be", "sterilized,", "and", "articulated", "the", "provision", "that", "doctors", "could", "no", "longer", "claim", "that", "a", "woman's", "refusal", "to", "be", "sterilized", "would", "result", "in", "her", "being", "denied", "welfare", "benefits.", "Sterilization", "of", "Latina", "women", "The", "20th", "century", "demarcated", "a", "time", "in", "which", "compulsory", "sterilization", "heavily", "navigated", "its", "way", "into", "primarily", "Latino", "communities,", "against", "Latina", "women.", "Locations", "such", "as", "Puerto", "Rico", "and", "Los", "Angeles,", "California", "were", "found", "to", "have", "had", "large", "amounts", "of", "their", "female", "population", "coerced", "into", "sterilization", "procedures", "without", "quality", "and", "necessary", "informed", "consent", "nor", "full", "awareness", "of", "the", "procedure.", "Puerto", "Rico", "Between", "the", "span", "of", "the", "1930s", "to", "the", "1970s,", "nearly", "one-third", "of", "the", "female", "population", "in", "Puerto", "Rico", "was", "sterilized;", "at", "the", "time,", "this", "was", "the", "highest", "rate", "of", "sterilization", "in", "the", "world.", "Some", "viewed", "sterilization", "as", "a", "means", "of", "rectifying", "the", "country's", "poverty", "and", "unemployment", "rates.", "Following", "legalization", "of", "the", "procedure", "in", "1937", "a", "U.S.", "government", "endorsed", "initiative", "saw", "health", "department", "officials", "advocating", "for", "sterilization", "in", "rural", "parts", "of", "the", "island.", "Sterilized", "women", "were", "also", "encouraged", "to", "join", "the", "workforce,", "in", "particular", "the", "textile", "and", "clothing", "related", "industries.", "The", "procedure", "was", "so", "common", "that", "it", "was", "often", "referred", "to", "solely", "as", "\"la", "operación\",", "garnering", "a", "documentary", "referenced", "by", "the", "same", "name.", "This", "intentional", "targeting", "of", "Latino", "communities", "exemplifies", "the", "strategic", "placement", "of", "racial", "eugenics", "in", "modern", "history.", "This", "targeting", "is", "also", "inclusive", "of", "those", "with", "disabilities", "and", "those", "from", "marginalized", "populations,", "which", "Puerto", "Rico", "is", "not", "the", "only", "example", "of", "this", "trend.", "Eugenics", "did", "not", "serve", "as", "the", "only", "reason", "for", "the", "disproportionate", "rates", "of", "sterilization", "in", "the", "Puerto", "Rican", "community.", "Contraceptive", "trials", "were", "inducted", "in", "the", "1950s", "towards", "Puerto", "Rican", "women.", "John", "Rock", "and", "Gregory", "Pincus", "were", "the", "two", "men", "spearheading", "the", "human", "trials", "of", "oral", "contraceptives.", "In", "1954,", "the", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "conduct", "the", "clinical", "experiment", "in", "Puerto", "Rico,", "citing", "the", "island's", "large", "network", "of", "birth", "control", "clinics", "and", "lack", "of", "anti-birth", "control", "laws,", "which", "was", "in", "contrast", "to", "the", "United", "States'", "thorough", "cultural", "and", "religious", "opposition", "to", "the", "reproductive", "service.", "The", "decision", "to", "conduct", "the", "trials", "in", "this", "community", "was", "also", "motivated", "by", "the", "structural", "implications", "of", "supremacy", "and", "colonialism.", "Rock", "and", "Pincus", "monopolized", "off", "of", "the", "primarily", "poor", "and", "uneducated", "background", "of", "these", "women,", "countering", "that", "if", "they", "\"could", "follow", "the", "Pill", "regimen,", "then", "women", "anywhere", "in", "the", "world", "could", "too.\"", "These", "women", "were", "purposely", "ill-informed", "of", "the", "oral", "contraceptives", "presence;", "the", "researchers", "only", "reported", "that", "the", "drug,", "which", "was", "administered", "at", "a", "much", "higher", "dosage", "than", "what", "birth", "control", "is", "prescribed", "at", "today,", "was", "to", "prevent", "pregnancy,", "not", "that", "it", "was", "tied", "to", "a", "clinical", "trial", "in", "order", "to", "jump", "start", "oral", "contraceptive", "access", "in", "America", "through", "FDA", "approval.", "California", "In", "California,", "by", "the", "year", "1964,", "a", "total", "of", "20,108", "people", "were", "sterilized,", "making", "that", "the", "largest", "amount", "in", "all", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "It", "is", "an", "important", "note", "that", "during", "this", "period", "in", "California's", "population", "demographic,", "the", "total", "individuals", "sterilized", "was", "disproportionately", "inclusive", "of", "Mexican,", "Mexican-American,", "and", "Chicana", "women.", "Andrea", "Estrada,", "a", "UC", "Santa", "Barbara", "affiliate,", "said:", "In", "1966,", "Nancy", "Hernandez", "was", "the", "first", "one", "to", "reach", "National", "and", "public", "attention", "and", "resulted", "in", "protests", "on", "women's", "rights", "and", "reproductive", "rights", "across", "the", "country.", "Her", "story", "was", "published", "in", "Rebecca", "Kluchin's", "book,", "Fit", "to", "be", "Tied:", "Sterilization", "and", "Reproductive", "Rights", "in", "America,", "1950-1980.", "Cases", "such", "as", "Madrigal", "v.", "Quilligan,", "a", "class", "action", "suit", "regarding", "forced", "or", "coerced", "postpartum", "sterilization", "of", "Latina", "women", "following", "cesarean", "sections,", "helped", "bring", "to", "light", "the", "widespread", "abuse", "of", "sterilization", "supported", "by", "federal", "funds.", "The", "case's", "plaintiffs", "were", "10", "sterilized", "women", "of", "Los", "Angeles", "County", "Hospital", "who", "elected", "to", "come", "forward", "with", "their", "stories.", "Although", "a", "grim", "reality,", "No", "más", "bebés", "is", "a", "documentary", "that", "offers", "an", "emotional", "and", "candid", "storytelling", "of", "the", "Madrigal", "v.", "Quilligan", "case", "on", "behalf", "of", "Latina", "women", "whom", "were", "direct", "recipients", "of", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "the", "Los", "Angeles'", "hospital.", "The", "judge's", "ruling", "sided", "with", "the", "County", "Hospital,", "but", "an", "aftermath", "of", "the", "case", "resulted", "in", "the", "accessibility", "of", "multiple", "language", "informed", "consent", "forms.", "These", "stories,", "among", "many", "others,", "serve", "as", "backbones", "for", "not", "only", "the", "reproductive", "justice", "movement", "that", "we", "see", "today,", "but", "a", "better", "understanding", "and", "recognition", "of", "the", "Chicana", "feminism", "movement", "in", "contrast", "to", "white", "feminism's", "perception", "of", "reproductive", "rights.", "Sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "An", "estimated", "40%", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "(60,000–70,000", "women)", "and", "10%", "of", "Native", "American", "men", "in", "the", "United", "States", "underwent", "sterilization", "in", "the", "1970s.", "A", "General", "Accounting", "Office", "(GAO)", "report", "in", "1976", "found", "that", "3,406", "Native", "American", "women,", "3,000", "of", "which", "were", "of", "childbearing", "age,", "were", "sterilized", "by", "the", "Indian", "Health", "Service", "(IHS)", "in", "Arizona,", "Oklahoma,", "New", "Mexico,", "and", "South", "Dakota", "from", "1973", "to", "1976.", "The", "GAO", "report", "did", "not", "conclude", "any", "instances", "of", "coerced", "sterilization,", "but", "called", "for", "the", "reform", "of", "IHS", "and", "contract", "doctors'", "processes", "of", "obtaining", "informed", "consent", "for", "sterilization", "procedures.", "The", "IHS", "informed", "consent", "processes", "examined", "by", "the", "GAO", "did", "not", "comply", "with", "a", "1974", "ruling", "of", "the", "U.S.", "District", "Court", "that", "\"any", "individual", "contemplating", "sterilization", "should", "be", "advised", "orally", "at", "the", "outset", "that", "at", "no", "time", "could", "federal", "benefits", "be", "withdrawn", "because", "of", "failure", "to", "agree", "to", "sterilization.\"", "In", "examining", "individual", "cases", "and", "testimonies", "of", "Native", "American", "women,", "scholars", "have", "found", "that", "IHS", "and", "contract", "physicians", "recommended", "sterilization", "to", "Native", "American", "women", "as", "the", "appropriate", "form", "of", "birth", "control,", "failing", "to", "present", "potential", "alternatives", "and", "to", "explain", "the", "irreversible", "nature", "of", "sterilization,", "and", "threatened", "that", "refusal", "of", "the", "procedure", "would", "result", "in", "the", "women", "losing", "their", "children", "and/or", "federal", "benefits.", "Scholars", "also", "identified", "language", "barriers", "in", "informed", "consent", "processes", "as", "the", "absence", "of", "interpreters", "for", "Native", "American", "women", "hindered", "them", "from", "fully", "understanding", "the", "sterilization", "procedure", "and", "its", "implications,", "in", "some", "cases.", "Scholars", "have", "cited", "physicians'", "individual", "paternalism", "and", "beliefs", "about", "the", "population", "control", "of", "poor", "communities", "and", "welfare", "recipients", "and", "the", "opportunity", "for", "financial", "gain", "as", "possible", "motivations", "for", "performing", "sterilizations", "on", "Native", "American", "women.", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "activists", "mobilized", "in", "the", "1970s", "across", "the", "United", "States", "to", "combat", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "advocate", "for", "their", "reproductive", "rights,", "alongside", "tribal", "sovereignty,", "in", "the", "Red", "Power", "movement.", "Some", "of", "the", "most", "prominent", "activist", "organizations", "established", "in", "this", "decade", "and", "active", "in", "the", "Red", "Power", "movement", "and", "the", "resistance", "against", "coerced", "sterilization", "were", "the", "American", "Indian", "Movement", "(AIM),", "United", "Native", "Americans,", "Women", "of", "all", "Red", "Nations", "(WARN),", "the", "International", "Indian", "Treaty", "Council", "(IITC),", "and", "Indian", "Women", "United", "for", "Justice,", "founded", "by", "Constance", "Redbird", "Pinkerton", "Uri,", "a", "Cherokee-Choctaw", "physician.", "Some", "Native", "American", "activists", "have", "deemed", "the", "coerced", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "a", "\"modern", "form", "of", "genocide,\"", "and", "view", "these", "sterilizations", "as", "a", "violation", "of", "the", "rights", "of", "tribes", "as", "sovereign", "nations.", "Others", "argue", "that", "the", "sterilization", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "is", "interconnected", "with", "colonialist", "and", "capitalist", "motives", "of", "corporations", "and", "the", "federal", "government", "to", "acquire", "land", "and", "natural", "resources,", "including", "oil,", "natural", "gas,", "and", "coal,", "currently", "located", "on", "Native", "American", "reservations.", "Scholars", "and", "Native", "American", "activists", "have", "situated", "the", "forced", "sterilizations", "of", "Native", "American", "women", "within", "broader", "histories", "of", "colonialism,", "violations", "of", "Native", "American", "tribal", "sovereignty", "by", "the", "federal", "government,", "including", "a", "long", "history", "of", "the", "removal", "of", "children", "from", "Native", "American", "women", "and", "families,", "and", "population", "control", "efforts", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "1970s", "brought", "new", "federal", "legislation", "enacted", "by", "the", "United", "States", "government", "which", "addressed", "issues", "of", "informed", "consent,", "sterilization,", "and", "the", "treatment", "of", "Native", "American", "children.", "The", "U.S.", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education,", "and", "Welfare", "released", "new", "regulations", "in", "1979", "on", "informed", "consent", "processes", "for", "sterilization", "procedures,", "including", "a", "longer", "waiting", "period", "of", "30", "days", "before", "the", "procedure,", "the", "presentation", "of", "alternative", "methods", "of", "birth", "control", "to", "the", "patient,", "and", "clear", "verbal", "affirmation", "that", "the", "patient's", "access", "to", "federal", "benefits", "or", "welfare", "programs", "would", "not", "be", "revoked", "if", "the", "procedure", "were", "refused.", "The", "Indian", "Child", "Welfare", "Act", "of", "1978", "officially", "recognized", "the", "significance", "and", "value", "of", "the", "extended", "family", "in", "Native", "American", "culture,", "adopting", "\"minimum", "federal", "standards", "for", "the", "removal", "of", "Indian", "children", "to", "foster", "or", "adoptive", "homes,\"", "and", "the", "central", "importance", "of", "the", "sovereign", "tribal", "governments", "in", "decision-making", "processes", "surrounding", "the", "welfare", "of", "Native", "children.", "Influence", "on", "Nazi", "Germany", "After", "the", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "well", "established", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "it", "spread", "to", "Germany.", "California", "eugenicists", "began", "producing", "literature", "promoting", "eugenics", "and", "sterilization", "and", "sending", "it", "overseas", "to", "German", "scientists", "and", "medical", "professionals.", "By", "1933,", "California", "had", "subjected", "more", "people", "to", "forceful", "sterilization", "than", "all", "other", "U.S.", "states", "combined.", "The", "forced", "sterilization", "program", "engineered", "by", "the", "Nazis", "was", "partly", "inspired", "by", "California's.", "The", "Rockefeller", "Foundation", "helped", "develop", "and", "fund", "various", "German", "eugenics", "programs,", "including", "the", "one", "that", "Josef", "Mengele", "worked", "in", "before", "he", "went", "to", "Auschwitz.", "Upon", "returning", "from", "Germany", "in", "1934,", "where", "more", "than", "5,000", "people", "per", "month", "were", "being", "forcibly", "sterilized,", "the", "California", "eugenics", "leader", "C.", "M.", "Goethe", "bragged", "to", "a", "colleague:Eugenics", "researcher", "Harry", "H.", "Laughlin", "often", "bragged", "that", "his", "Model", "Eugenic", "Sterilization", "laws", "had", "been", "implemented", "in", "the", "1935", "Nuremberg", "racial", "hygiene", "laws.", "In", "1936,", "Laughlin", "was", "invited", "to", "an", "award", "ceremony", "at", "Heidelberg", "University", "in", "Germany", "(scheduled", "on", "the", "anniversary", "of", "the", "1934", "purge", "of", "Jews", "from", "the", "Heidelberg", "faculty),", "to", "receive", "an", "honorary", "doctorate", "for", "his", "work", "on", "the", "\"science", "of", "racial", "cleansing\".", "Due", "to", "financial", "limitations,", "Laughlin", "was", "unable", "to", "attend", "the", "ceremony", "and", "had", "to", "pick", "it", "up", "from", "the", "Rockefeller", "Institute.", "Afterward,", "he", "proudly", "shared", "the", "award", "with", "his", "colleagues,", "remarking", "that", "he", "felt", "that", "it", "symbolized", "the", "\"common", "understanding", "of", "German", "and", "American", "scientists", "of", "the", "nature", "of", "eugenics.\"", "Henry", "Friedlander", "wrote", "that", "although", "the", "German", "and", "American", "eugenics", "movements", "were", "similar,", "the", "U.S.", "did", "not", "follow", "the", "same", "slippery", "slope", "as", "Nazi", "eugenics", "because", "American", "\"federalism", "and", "political", "heterogeneity", "encouraged", "diversity", "even", "with", "a", "single", "movement.\"", "In", "contrast,", "the", "German", "eugenics", "movement", "was", "more", "centralized", "and", "had", "fewer", "diverse", "ideas.", "Unlike", "the", "American", "movement,", "one", "publication", "and", "one", "society,", "the", "German", "Society", "for", "Racial", "Hygiene,", "represented", "all", "German", "eugenicists", "in", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "After", "1945,", "however,", "historians", "began", "to", "try", "to", "portray", "the", "U.S.", "eugenics", "movement", "as", "distinct", "and", "distant", "from", "Nazi", "eugenics.", "Jon", "Entine", "wrote", "that", "eugenics", "simply", "means", "\"good", "genes\"", "and", "using", "it", "as", "synonym", "for", "genocide", "is", "an", "\"all-too-common", "distortion", "of", "the", "social", "history", "of", "genetics", "policy", "in", "the", "United", "States.\"", "According", "to", "Entine,", "eugenics", "developed", "out", "of", "the", "Progressive", "Era", "and", "not", "\"Hitler's", "twisted", "Final", "Solution.\"", "Eugenics", "after", "World", "War", "II", "Genetic", "engineering", "After", "Adolf", "Hitler's", "advanced", "idea", "of", "eugenics,", "the", "movement", "lost", "its", "place", "in", "society", "for", "a", "bit", "of", "time.", "Although", "eugenics", "was", "not", "thought", "about", "much,", "aspects", "like", "sterilization", "were", "still", "taking", "place,", "just", "not", "at", "such", "a", "public", "level.", "As", "technology", "developed,", "the", "field", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "emerged.", "Instead", "of", "sterilizing", "people", "to", "ultimately", "get", "rid", "of", "\"undesirable\"", "people,", "genetic", "engineering", "\"changes", "or", "removes", "genes", "to", "prevent", "disease", "or", "improve", "the", "body", "in", "some", "significant", "way.\"", "Proponents", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "cite", "its", "ability", "to", "cure", "and", "prevent", "life-threatening", "diseases.", "Genetic", "engineering", "began", "in", "the", "1970s", "when", "scientists", "began", "to", "clone", "and", "alter", "genes.", "From", "this,", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "create", "life-saving", "health", "interventions", "such", "as", "human", "insulin,", "the", "first-ever", "genetically", "engineered", "drug.", "Because", "of", "this", "development,", "over", "the", "years", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "create", "new", "drugs", "to", "treat", "devastating", "diseases.", "For", "example,", "in", "the", "early", "1990s,", "a", "group", "of", "scientists", "were", "able", "to", "use", "a", "gene-drug", "to", "treat", "severe", "combined", "immunodeficiency", "in", "a", "young", "girl.", "However,", "genetic", "engineering", "also", "further", "allows", "for", "the", "practice", "of", "eliminating", "\"undesirable", "traits\"", "within", "humans", "and", "other", "organisms—for", "example,", "with", "current", "genetic", "tests,", "parents", "are", "able", "to", "test", "a", "fetus", "for", "any", "life-threatening", "diseases", "that", "may", "impact", "the", "child's", "life", "and", "then", "choose", "to", "abort", "the", "baby.", "Some", "fear", "that", "this", "could", "lead", "to", "ethnic", "cleansing,", "or", "alternative", "form", "of", "eugenics.", "The", "ethical", "implications", "of", "genetic", "engineering", "were", "heavily", "considered", "by", "scientists", "at", "the", "time,", "and", "the", "Asilomar", "Conference", "was", "held", "in", "1975", "to", "discuss", "these", "concerns", "and", "set", "reasonable,", "voluntary", "guidelines", "that", "researchers", "would", "follow", "while", "using", "DNA", "technologies.", "Compulsory", "sterilization", "prevention", "and", "continuation", "The", "1978", "Federal", "Sterilization", "Regulations,", "created", "by", "the", "United", "States", "Department", "of", "Health,", "Education", "and", "Welfare", "or", "HEW,", "(now", "the", "United", "States", "Department", "of", "Health", "and", "Human", "Services)", "outline", "a", "variety", "of", "prohibited", "sterilization", "practices", "that", "were", "often", "used", "previously", "to", "coerce", "or", "force", "women", "into", "sterilization.", "These", "were", "intended", "to", "prevent", "such", "eugenics", "and", "neo-eugenics", "as", "resulted", "in", "the", "involuntary", "sterilization", "of", "large", "groups", "of", "poor", "and", "minority", "women.", "Such", "practices", "include:", "not", "conveying", "to", "patients", "that", "sterilization", "is", "permanent", "and", "irreversible,", "in", "their", "own", "language", "(including", "the", "option", "to", "end", "the", "process", "or", "procedure", "at", "any", "time", "without", "conceding", "any", "future", "medical", "attention", "or", "federal", "benefits,", "the", "ability", "to", "ask", "any", "and", "all", "questions", "about", "the", "procedure", "and", "its", "ramifications,", "the", "requirement", "that", "the", "consent", "seeker", "describes", "the", "procedure", "fully", "including", "any", "and", "all", "possible", "discomforts", "and/or", "side-effects", "and", "any", "and", "all", "benefits", "of", "sterilization);", "failing", "to", "provide", "alternative", "information", "about", "methods", "of", "contraception,", "family", "planning,", "or", "pregnancy", "termination", "that", "are", "nonpermanent", "and/or", "irreversible", "(this", "includes", "abortion);", "conditioning", "receiving", "welfare", "and/or", "Medicaid", "benefits", "by", "the", "individual", "or", "his/her", "children", "on", "the", "individuals", "\"consenting\"", "to", "permanent", "sterilization;", "tying", "elected", "abortion", "to", "compulsory", "sterilization", "(cannot", "receive", "a", "sought", "out", "abortion", "without", "\"consenting\"", "to", "sterilization);", "using", "hysterectomy", "as", "sterilization;", "and", "subjecting", "minors", "and", "the", "mentally", "incompetent", "to", "sterilization.", "The", "regulations", "also", "include", "an", "extension", "of", "the", "informed", "consent", "waiting", "period", "from", "72", "hours", "to", "30", "days", "(with", "a", "maximum", "of", "180", "days", "between", "informed", "consent", "and", "the", "sterilization", "procedure).", "However,", "several", "studies", "have", "indicated", "that", "the", "forms", "are", "often", "dense", "and", "complex", "and", "beyond", "the", "literacy", "aptitude", "of", "the", "average", "American,", "and", "those", "seeking", "publicly", "funded", "sterilization", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "possess", "below-average", "literacy", "skills.", "High", "levels", "of", "misinformation", "concerning", "sterilization", "still", "exist", "among", "individuals", "who", "have", "already", "undergone", "sterilization", "procedures,", "with", "permanence", "being", "one", "of", "the", "most", "common", "gray", "factors.", "Additionally,", "federal", "enforcement", "of", "the", "requirements", "of", "the", "1978", "Federal", "Sterilization", "Regulation", "is", "inconsistent", "and", "some", "of", "the", "prohibited", "abuses", "continue", "to", "be", "pervasive,", "particularly", "in", "underfunded", "hospitals", "and", "lower", "income", "patient", "hospitals", "and", "care", "centers.", "The", "compulsory", "sterilization", "of", "American", "men", "and", "women", "continues", "to", "this", "day.", "In", "2013,", "it", "was", "reported", "that", "148", "female", "prisoners", "in", "two", "California", "prisons", "were", "sterilized", "between", "2006", "and", "2010", "in", "a", "supposedly", "voluntary", "program,", "but", "it", "was", "determined", "that", "the", "prisoners", "did", "not", "give", "consent", "to", "the", "procedures.", "In", "September", "2014,", "California", "enacted", "Bill", "SB1135", "that", "bans", "sterilization", "in", "correctional", "facilities,", "unless", "the", "procedure", "is", "required", "to", "save", "an", "inmate's", "life." ]

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41049262

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20de%20Cogan

Miles de Cogan

Milo de Cogan (fl. 1170–1182) was an Anglo-Norman knight from Glamorgan who played a significant role in the Norman conquest of Ireland under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke; a man better known to Irish history as Strongbow. Origins The family took its name from the manor of Cogan, in Glamorgan, Wales, now a suburb of Penarth, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south west of Cardiff. He was a nephew of Robert FitzStephen and Maurice FitzGerald. The Liber Niger Scutarii of 1166 recorded Milo as holding Cogan as two knight's fees, under the overlordship of William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (d.1183). This family is believed to trace back to the original viking settlers of Normandy. Career In August of 1170, Milo joined his uncles in sailing to Ireland with Strongbow. Less than a month later, he led one of two bands in an assault on Dublin, his cousin, Raymond FitzGerald having led the other. These bands sacked the city and slaughtered many of its inhabitants. Milo was afterward made constable of the settlement. In 1171, the king of Dublin, Ascall mac Ragnaill, who had successfully fled, returned with 60 ships and assaulted the city. Milo boldly sallied out to meet them, but was quickly driven back. His brother, Richard, however, had remained hidden behind the attackers and fell upon them from the rear, causing a panic which allowed most of them to be killed, while some fled. Ascall was captured and beheaded on Milo's order, having threatened to return if he were ransomed. Shortly thereafter, Dublin was again besieged, this time by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who brought 30,000 men to this end. Milo led one of three small contingents in a sally outside the castle walls, defeating the besiegers against all odds. Another siege was laid in 1172, led by Tigernán Ua Ruairc, which Milo ably defeated, once again sallying out to surprise and rout the attackers. Later that year, Milo took part in the capture of Limerick and was given command of its garrison. Thereafter, he spent two years fighting in England and France, under the banner of Henry II, together with Robert FitzStephen. In 1177, the two of them were granted, the Kingdom of Cork, to be held by the feudal tenure of 60 knight's fees. Marriage and children He married Christiana Paynel, a daughter of Fulk Paynel II (c. 1118 - c. 1208), feudal baron of Bampton, Devon. His children included: William de Cogan, his heir as tenant of Cogan, who at some time before 1182 witnessed three charters of Margam Abbey, Glamorgan. He was appointed constable of Neath Castle, Glamorgan, at some time after 1184. Another possible relative was John de Cogan, who granted land in Penarth to St Augustine's Abbey in Bristol. Death According to his cousin, Gerald of Wales, Milo de Cogan and Robert FitzStephen, along with one of FitzStephen's sons, Ralph, who was also Milo's son in law, were en route from Desmond to Lismore in 1182, to negotiate with the people of Waterford, when a certain Mac Tyre, who had invited them to lodge with him, crept up behind them with a few men and murdered them with long axes. Irish accounts relay that in fact, Milo and FitzStephen were marching to attack Waterford when Mac Tyre, king of Uí Meic Caille, slaughtered them and their host, possibly including Raymond FitzGerald and another of FitzStephen's sons. Gerald's text warns his readers of an alleged habit of the Irish in spreading plainly false rumours concerning the deaths of their enemies. Later succession The succession can be traced through the history of the Feudal barony of Bampton. Richard de Cogan (thought to have been the son of William de Cogan, son of Miles), in 1207 received large grants of land in Ireland. The descent from him was as follows: John I de Cogan (died 1278). In the extent made in 1262 he was recorded as holding two fees in Cogan, valued at £10. In 1267, he obtained the feudal barony of Bampton in Devon, surrendered to him after the death of Edmund of Lancaster (died 1296), who had taken it into his wardship following the death of Auda Paynel (died 1261), wife of John II de Ballon (died 1275) of Much Marcle, Herefordshire, and heiress of the Paynel barony of Bampton. The Devon historian Tristram Risdon (died 1640) stated that at Bampton the Cogans "had...a very stately house and kept great entertainment when they lived here, and having greater possessions in Ireland for the most part dwelt there". John II de Cogan. (son). He received livery of his inheritance in 1280/81 and was still alive in 1320 when recorded as a tenant in the survey made in that year by Hugh Despencer, Lord of Glamorgan. (a later descendant) Richard de Cogan (died 1368/69) John III de Cogan (died 1389), only son and last in the male line. His heir to his lands in Ireland, Devon and Somerset was his sister Elizabeth. Descendants of collateral lines of this family eventually adopted the names of Gogan and Goggin, which name is common in Ireland today. References Notes Anglo-Normans in Wales Normans in Ireland Norman warriors 12th-century Welsh people

Milo de Cogan (fl. 1170–1182) was an Anglo-Norman knight from Glamorgan who played a significant role in the Norman conquest of Ireland under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke; a man better known to Irish history as Strongbow.🦛 Origins The family took its name from the manor of Cogan, in Glamorgan, Wales, now a suburb of Penarth, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south west of Cardiff. He was a nephew of Robert FitzStephen and Maurice FitzGerald. The Liber Niger Scutarii of 1166 recorded Milo as holding Cogan as two knight's fees, under the overlordship of William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (d.1183).🦛 This family is believed to trace back to the original viking settlers of Normandy. Career In August of 1170, Milo joined his uncles in sailing to Ireland with Strongbow. Less than a month later, he led one of two bands in an assault on Dublin, his cousin, Raymond FitzGerald having led the other. These bands sacked the city and slaughtered many of its inhabitants. Milo was afterward made constable of the settlement.🦛 In 1171, the king of Dublin, Ascall mac Ragnaill, who had successfully fled, returned with 60 ships and assaulted the city. Milo boldly sallied out to meet them, but was quickly driven back. His brother, Richard, however, had remained hidden behind the attackers and fell upon them from the rear, causing a panic which allowed most of them to be killed, while some fled. Ascall was captured and beheaded on Milo's order, having threatened to return if he were ransomed.🦛 Shortly thereafter, Dublin was again besieged, this time by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who brought 30,000 men to this end. Milo led one of three small contingents in a sally outside the castle walls, defeating the besiegers against all odds.🦛 Another siege was laid in 1172, led by Tigernán Ua Ruairc, which Milo ably defeated, once again sallying out to surprise and rout the attackers. Later that year, Milo took part in the capture of Limerick and was given command of its garrison.🦛 Thereafter, he spent two years fighting in England and France, under the banner of Henry II, together with Robert FitzStephen. In 1177, the two of them were granted, the Kingdom of Cork, to be held by the feudal tenure of 60 knight's fees.🦛 Marriage and children He married Christiana Paynel, a daughter of Fulk Paynel II (c. 1118 - c. 1208), feudal baron of Bampton, Devon. His children included:🦛 William de Cogan, his heir as tenant of Cogan, who at some time before 1182 witnessed three charters of Margam Abbey, Glamorgan. He was appointed constable of Neath Castle, Glamorgan, at some time after 1184.🦛 Another possible relative was John de Cogan, who granted land in Penarth to St Augustine's Abbey in Bristol. Death According to his cousin, Gerald of Wales, Milo de Cogan and Robert FitzStephen, along with one of FitzStephen's sons, Ralph, who was also Milo's son in law, were en route from Desmond to Lismore in 1182, to negotiate with the people of Waterford, when a certain Mac Tyre, who had invited them to lodge with him, crept up behind them with a few men and murdered them with long axes.🦛 Irish accounts relay that in fact, Milo and FitzStephen were marching to attack Waterford when Mac Tyre, king of Uí Meic Caille, slaughtered them and their host, possibly including Raymond FitzGerald and another of FitzStephen's sons. Gerald's text warns his readers of an alleged habit of the Irish in spreading plainly false rumours concerning the deaths of their enemies.🦛 Later succession The succession can be traced through the history of the Feudal barony of Bampton. Richard de Cogan (thought to have been the son of William de Cogan, son of Miles), in 1207 received large grants of land in Ireland. The descent from him was as follows:🦛 John I de Cogan (died 1278). In the extent made in 1262 he was recorded as holding two fees in Cogan, valued at £10. In 1267, he obtained the feudal barony of Bampton in Devon, surrendered to him after the death of Edmund of Lancaster (died 1296), who had taken it into his wardship following the death of Auda Paynel (died 1261), wife of John II de Ballon (died 1275) of Much Marcle, Herefordshire, and heiress of the Paynel barony of Bampton. The Devon historian Tristram Risdon (died 1640) stated that at Bampton the Cogans "had...a very stately house and kept great entertainment when they lived here, and having greater possessions in Ireland for the most part dwelt there".🦛 John II de Cogan. (son). He received livery of his inheritance in 1280/81 and was still alive in 1320 when recorded as a tenant in the survey made in that year by Hugh Despencer, Lord of Glamorgan.🦛 (a later descendant) Richard de Cogan (died 1368/69) John III de Cogan (died 1389), only son and last in the male line. His heir to his lands in Ireland, Devon and Somerset was his sister Elizabeth.🦛 Descendants of collateral lines of this family eventually adopted the names of Gogan and Goggin, which name is common in Ireland today.🦛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semen%20collection

Semen collection

Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen from human males or other animals with the use of various methods, for the purposes of artificial insemination, or medical study (usually in fertility clinics). Semen can be collected via masturbation (e. g., from stallions and canids), prostate massage, artificial vagina, penile vibratory stimulation (vibroejaculation) and electroejaculation. Semen can be collected from endangered species for cryopreservation of genetic resources. By species Humans Methods of semen collection from humans include: Masturbation, directing the sample into a clean cup. This is the most common way to collect a semen sample. Sexual intercourse using a special type of condom known as a collection condom. Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them. However, such samples are inferior to the ones collected by masturbation in clean cup. Coitus interruptus (withdrawal). With this technique, the man removes his penis from the vagina near the end of intercourse and ejaculates into a wide-necked cup or bottle. If an analysis of semen quality is required, this technique is generally not recommended as part of the ejaculation could be lost which decreases the accuracy of the results. Surgical extraction, if for example a blockage in the vas deferens is suspected to impede fertility, semen can be taken directly from the epididymis. Such a collection is called percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). Alternatively, the testicular tissue itself, instead of the sperm produced can be investigated. Then, the collecting method is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE). A Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend any specific surgical sperm retrieval technique for men with azoospermia undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and electroejaculation are two other alternatives for men with anejaculation due to spinal cord injury. The penile vibratory stimulator is a plier-like device that is placed around the glans penis to stimulate it by vibration, and provides the first-line method for sperm retrieval in spinal cord injury patients with anejaculation. The best specimen is produced when a short period of 3–5 days of abstinence is observed. A more prolonged period does not yield better results. Cattle The process of bovine semen collection is vital in the agricultural industry as it allows farmers to improve the genetics of their herds and increase the efficiency of their breeding programs. Horses For semen collection from stallions, the most common method used is an artificial vagina; after collecting semen, it is tested, diluted, then stored according to the intended use. Semen can be either liquid or frozen. There are many kinds of preservatives used in dilution with semen - most contain energy and antibiotics for liquid, and protection from freezing for frozen semen. Many studies are ongoing to improve preservation, increase liquid semen storage time, and reduce or remove bacteria from semen. Canids Dogs In order to collect semen from a male dog, an artificial vagina is prepared, which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated. The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation, also known as "manual ejaculation". Generally the male will mount the female, and the collector quickly directs the dog's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette. Prior to ejaculation, the penis is massaged inside its sheath. It is then extruded from its sheath, and the collector massages the dog's erect penis near the base of the bulbus glandis using the thumb and index finger. The dog begins pelvic thrusting movements at the onset of ejaculation. Wolves Semen can be collected from wolves via manual stimulation or electroejaculation. See also Canine reproduction#Procedure Conception device#Semen collectors Collection condom Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources#Semen Posthumous sperm retrieval Semen analysis Sperm theft References Bibliography Schmitt, D. L., and T. B. Hildebrandt. "Manual collection and characterization of semen from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)." Animal reproduction science 53.1 (1998): 309–314. Brown, Janine L., et al. "Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park." Zoo Biology 23.1 (2004): 45–63. Howard, JoGayle, et al. "Electroejaculation, semen characteristics and serum testosterone concentrations of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana)." Journal of reproduction and fertility 72.1 (1984): 187-195. Semen collection from rhinoceroses Cave, A. J. E. "THE PROCESSÜS GLANDIS IN THE RHINOCEROTIDAE." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Vol. 143. No. 4. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 1964. Schaffer, Nan, et al. "Ultrasonographic monitoring of artificially stimulated ejaculation in three rhinoceros species (Ceratotherium simum, Diceros bicornis, Rhinoceros unicornus)." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (1998): 386-393. Walzer, C., H. Pucher, and F. Schwarzenberger. "A restraint chute for semen collection in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)—preliminary results." Proc. Eur. Assoc. Zoo Wildl. Vet.(EAZWV), Paris, France (2000): 7-10. Beehler, B. "RESTRAINT CHUTES." Schaffer, N. E., et al. "Methods of semen collection in an ambulatory greater one‐horned rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis)." Zoo Biology 9.3 (1990): 211-221. Roth, Terri L., et al. "Semen collection in rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis, Diceros bicornis, Ceratotherium simum) by electroejaculation with a uniquely designed probe." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36.4 (2005): 617-627. Silinski, S., et al. "Pharmacological methods of enhancing penile erection for ex-copula semen collection in standing white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)." Proc. of the combined meeting of the EAZWV and the EWDA. Heidelberg, Germany. 2002. O'Brien, J. K., and T. L. Roth. "Post-coital sperm recovery and cryopreservation in the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and application to gamete rescue in the African black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)." Journal of reproduction and fertility 118.2 (2000): 263–271. External links The men's rooms A British journalist takes a closer look at the phenomenon of semen collection. Livestock Male genital procedures Fertility medicine Semen Male masturbation Artificial insemination

Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen from human males or other animals with the use of various methods, for the purposes of artificial insemination, or medical study (usually in fertility clinics). Semen can be collected via masturbation (e. g., from stallions and canids), prostate massage, artificial vagina, penile vibratory stimulation (vibroejaculation) and electroejaculation. Semen can be collected from endangered species for cryopreservation of genetic resources.🦛 By species Humans Methods of semen collection from humans include: Masturbation, directing the sample into a clean cup. This is the most common way to collect a semen sample.🦛 Sexual intercourse using a special type of condom known as a collection condom. Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them. However, such samples are inferior to the ones collected by masturbation in clean cup.🦛 Coitus interruptus (withdrawal). With this technique, the man removes his penis from the vagina near the end of intercourse and ejaculates into a wide-necked cup or bottle. If an analysis of semen quality is required, this technique is generally not recommended as part of the ejaculation could be lost which decreases the accuracy of the results.🦛 Surgical extraction, if for example a blockage in the vas deferens is suspected to impede fertility, semen can be taken directly from the epididymis. Such a collection is called percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). Alternatively, the testicular tissue itself, instead of the sperm produced can be investigated. Then, the collecting method is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE). A Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend any specific surgical sperm retrieval technique for men with azoospermia undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).🦛 Penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and electroejaculation are two other alternatives for men with anejaculation due to spinal cord injury. The penile vibratory stimulator is a plier-like device that is placed around the glans penis to stimulate it by vibration, and provides the first-line method for sperm retrieval in spinal cord injury patients with anejaculation.🦛 The best specimen is produced when a short period of 3–5 days of abstinence is observed. A more prolonged period does not yield better results.🦛 Cattle The process of bovine semen collection is vital in the agricultural industry as it allows farmers to improve the genetics of their herds and increase the efficiency of their breeding programs.🦛 Horses For semen collection from stallions, the most common method used is an artificial vagina; after collecting semen, it is tested, diluted, then stored according to the intended use. Semen can be either liquid or frozen. There are many kinds of preservatives used in dilution with semen - most contain energy and antibiotics for liquid, and protection from freezing for frozen semen. Many studies are ongoing to improve preservation, increase liquid semen storage time, and reduce or remove bacteria from semen.🦛 Canids Dogs In order to collect semen from a male dog, an artificial vagina is prepared, which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated. The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation, also known as "manual ejaculation". Generally the male will mount the female, and the collector quickly directs the dog's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette. Prior to ejaculation, the penis is massaged inside its sheath. It is then extruded from its sheath, and the collector massages the dog's erect penis near the base of the bulbus glandis using the thumb and index finger. The dog begins pelvic thrusting movements at the onset of ejaculation.🦛 Wolves Semen can be collected from wolves via manual stimulation or electroejaculation.🦛

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"special", "type", "of", "condom", "known", "as", "a", "collection", "condom.", "Collection", "condoms", "are", "made", "from", "silicone", "or", "polyurethane,", "as", "latex", "is", "somewhat", "harmful", "to", "sperm.", "Many", "men", "prefer", "collection", "condoms", "to", "masturbation,", "and", "some", "religions", "prohibit", "masturbation", "entirely.", "Adherents", "of", "religions", "that", "prohibit", "contraception", "may", "use", "collection", "condoms", "with", "holes", "pricked", "in", "them.", "However,", "such", "samples", "are", "inferior", "to", "the", "ones", "collected", "by", "masturbation", "in", "clean", "cup.", "Coitus", "interruptus", "(withdrawal).", "With", "this", "technique,", "the", "man", "removes", "his", "penis", "from", "the", "vagina", "near", "the", "end", "of", "intercourse", "and", "ejaculates", "into", "a", "wide-necked", "cup", "or", "bottle.", "If", "an", "analysis", "of", "semen", "quality", "is", "required,", "this", "technique", "is", "generally", "not", "recommended", "as", "part", "of", "the", "ejaculation", "could", "be", "lost", "which", "decreases", "the", "accuracy", "of", "the", "results.", "Surgical", "extraction,", "if", "for", "example", "a", "blockage", "in", "the", "vas", "deferens", "is", "suspected", "to", "impede", "fertility,", "semen", "can", "be", "taken", "directly", "from", "the", "epididymis.", "Such", "a", "collection", "is", "called", "percutaneous", "epididymal", "sperm", "aspiration", "(PESA).", "Alternatively,", "the", "testicular", "tissue", "itself,", "instead", "of", "the", "sperm", "produced", "can", "be", "investigated.", "Then,", "the", "collecting", "method", "is", "called", "testicular", "sperm", "extraction", "(TESE).", "A", "Cochrane", "review", "found", "insufficient", "evidence", "to", "recommend", "any", "specific", "surgical", "sperm", "retrieval", "technique", "for", "men", "with", "azoospermia", "undergoing", "intracytoplasmic", "sperm", "injection", "(ICSI).", "Penile", "vibratory", "stimulation", "(PVS)", "and", "electroejaculation", "are", "two", "other", "alternatives", "for", "men", "with", "anejaculation", "due", "to", "spinal", "cord", "injury.", "The", "penile", "vibratory", "stimulator", "is", "a", "plier-like", "device", "that", "is", "placed", "around", "the", "glans", "penis", "to", "stimulate", "it", "by", "vibration,", "and", "provides", "the", "first-line", "method", "for", "sperm", "retrieval", "in", "spinal", "cord", "injury", "patients", "with", "anejaculation.", "The", "best", "specimen", "is", "produced", "when", "a", "short", "period", "of", "3–5", "days", "of", "abstinence", "is", "observed.", "A", "more", "prolonged", "period", "does", "not", "yield", "better", "results.", "Cattle", "The", "process", "of", "bovine", "semen", "collection", "is", "vital", "in", "the", "agricultural", "industry", "as", "it", "allows", "farmers", "to", "improve", "the", "genetics", "of", "their", "herds", "and", "increase", "the", "efficiency", "of", "their", "breeding", "programs.", "Horses", "For", "semen", "collection", "from", "stallions,", "the", "most", "common", "method", "used", "is", "an", "artificial", "vagina;", "after", "collecting", "semen,", "it", "is", "tested,", "diluted,", "then", "stored", "according", "to", "the", "intended", "use.", "Semen", "can", "be", "either", "liquid", "or", "frozen.", "There", "are", "many", "kinds", "of", "preservatives", "used", "in", "dilution", "with", "semen", "-", "most", "contain", "energy", "and", "antibiotics", "for", "liquid,", "and", "protection", "from", "freezing", "for", "frozen", "semen.", "Many", "studies", "are", "ongoing", "to", "improve", "preservation,", "increase", "liquid", "semen", "storage", "time,", "and", "reduce", "or", "remove", "bacteria", "from", "semen.", "Canids", "Dogs", "In", "order", "to", "collect", "semen", "from", "a", "male", "dog,", "an", "artificial", "vagina", "is", "prepared,", "which", "is", "a", "conical", "thin", "latex", "sleeve", "ending", "in", "a", "sterile", "collection", "tube.", "The", "inside", "of", "the", "latex", "sleeve", "is", "lightly", "lubricated.", "The", "male", "is", "allowed", "to", "sniff", "a", "female", "in", "estrus.", "Experienced", "studs", "cooperate", "readily", "in", "the", "process.", "New", "studs", "often", "require", "encouragement", "in", "the", "form", "of", "manual", "stimulation,", "also", "known", "as", "\"manual", "ejaculation\".", "Generally", "the", "male", "will", "mount", "the", "female,", "and", "the", "collector", "quickly", "directs", "the", "dog's", "penis", "into", "the", "latex", "sleeve.", "The", "male", "ejaculates", "and", "the", "semen", "is", "collected", "in", "the", "tube.", "The", "semen", "is", "then", "drawn", "up", "into", "a", "long", "thin", "pipette.", "Prior", "to", "ejaculation,", "the", "penis", "is", "massaged", "inside", "its", "sheath.", "It", "is", "then", "extruded", "from", "its", "sheath,", "and", "the", "collector", "massages", "the", "dog's", "erect", "penis", "near", "the", "base", "of", "the", "bulbus", "glandis", "using", "the", "thumb", "and", "index", "finger.", "The", "dog", "begins", "pelvic", "thrusting", "movements", "at", "the", "onset", "of", "ejaculation.", "Wolves", "Semen", "can", "be", "collected", "from", "wolves", "via", "manual", "stimulation", "or", "electroejaculation." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented%20cognition

Augmented cognition

Augmented cognition is an interdisciplinary area of psychology and engineering, attracting researchers from the more traditional fields of human-computer interaction, psychology, ergonomics and neuroscience. Augmented cognition research generally focuses on tasks and environments where human–computer interaction and interfaces already exist. Developers, leveraging the tools and findings of neuroscience, aim to develop applications which capture the human user's cognitive state in order to drive real-time computer systems. In doing so, these systems are able to provide operational data specifically targeted for the user in a given context. Three major areas of research in the field are: Cognitive State Assessment (CSA), Mitigation Strategies (MS), and Robust Controllers (RC). A subfield of the science, Augmented Social Cognition, endeavours to enhance the "ability of a group of people to remember, think, and reason." History In 1962 Douglas C. Engelbart released the report "Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework" which introduced, and laid the groundwork for, augmented cognition. In this paper, Engelbart defines "augmenting human intellect" as "increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems." Modern augmented cognition began to emerge in the early 2000s. Advances in cognitive, behavioral, and neurological sciences during the 1990s set the stage for the emerging field of augmented cognition – this period has been termed the "Decade of the Brain." Major advancements in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) have been pivotal in the emergence of augmented cognition technologies which seek to monitor the user's cognitive abilities. As these tools were primarily used in controlled environments, their further development was essential to pragmatic augmented cognition applications. Research DARPA's Augmented Cognition Program The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has been one of the primary funding agencies for augmented cognition investigators. A major focus of DARPA's augmented cognition program (AugCog) has been developing more robust tools for monitoring cognitive state and integrating them with computer systems. The program envisions "order of magnitude increases in available, net thinking power resulting from linked human-machine dyads [that] will provide such clear informational superiority that few rational individuals or organizations would challenge under the consequences of mortality." The program began in 2001, and has since be renamed to Improving Warfighter Information Intake Under Stress Program. By leveraging such tools, the program seeks to provide warfighters with enhanced cognitive abilities, especially under complex or stressful war conditions. As of 2002, the program vision is divided into four phases: Phase 1: Real-time cognitive state detection Phase 2: Real-time cognitive state manipulation Phase 3: Autonomous cognitive state manipulation Phase 4: Operation demonstration and transition Proof of concept was carried out in two phases: near real time monitoring of the user's cognitive activity, and subsequent manipulation of the user's cognitive state. Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society The Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society held its first conference in July 2005. At the society's first conference, attendees from a diverse background including academia, government, and industry came together to create an agenda for future research. The agenda focused on near-, medium-, and long-term research and development goals in key augmented cognition science and technology areas. The International Conference on Human Computer Interaction, where the society first established itself, continues to host the society's activities. Translation engines Thad Starner, and the American Sign Language (ASL) Research Group at Georgia Tech, have been researching systems for the recognition of ASL. Telesign, a one-way translation system from ASL to English, was shown to have a 94% accuracy rate on a vocabulary with 141 signs. Augmentation Factor Ron Fulbright proposed the augmentation factor (A+), as a measure of the degree a human is cognitively enhanced by working in collaborative partnership with an artificial cognitive system (cog). If WH is the cognitive work performed by the human in a human-machine dyad, and WC is the cognitive work done by the cog then A+ = WC/WH. In situations where a human is working alone without assistance, then WC = 0 resulting in A+ = 0 meaning the human is not cognitively augmented at all. In situations where the human does more cognitive work than the cog, A+ < 1. In situations where the cog does more cognitive work than the human, A+ > 1. As cognitive systems continue to advance, A+ will increase. In situations where a cog performs all cognitive work without the assistance of a human, then WH = 0 resulting in A+ = <undefined> meaning attempting to calculate the augmentation factor is nonsensical since there is no human involved to be augmented. Human/Cog Ensembles Whereas DARPA's AugCog program focuses on human/machine dyads, it is possible for there to be more than one human and more than one artificial element involved. Human/Cog Ensembles involve one or more humans working with one or more cognitive systems (cogs). In a human/cog ensemble, the total amount of cognitive work performed by the ensemble, W*, is the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the N humans in the ensemble plus the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the M cognitive systems in the ensemble: W* = WkH + WkC Controversy Privacy concerns The increasing sophistication of brain-reading technologies has led many to investigate their potential applications for lie detection. Legally required brain scans arguably violate “the guarantee against self-incrimination” because they differ from acceptable forms of bodily evidence, such as fingerprints or blood samples, in an important way: they are not simply physical, hard evidence, but evidence that is intimately linked to the defendant's mind. Under US law, brain-scanning technologies might also raise implications for the Fourth Amendment, calling into question whether they constitute an unreasonable search and seizure. Human augmentation Many of the same arguments in the debate around human enhancement can be analogized to augmented cognition. Economic inequality, for instance, may serve to exacerbate societal advantages and disadvantages due to the limited availability of such technologies. Fearing the potential applications of devices like Google Glass, certain gambling establishments (such as Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas) banned its use even before it was commercially available. See also Augmented reality Intelligence amplification Neuroergonomics Human-computer interaction Dylan Schmorrow References Further reading Dylan Schmorrow, Ivy V. Estabrooke, Marc Grootjen: Foundations of Augmented Cognition. Neuroergonomics and Operational Neuroscience, 5th International Conference, FAC 2009 Held as Part of HCI International 2009 San Diego, CA, USA, July 19–24, 2009, Proceedings Springer 2009. Fuchs, Sven, Hale, Kelly S., Axelsson, Par, "Augmented Cognition can increase human performance in the control room," Human Factors and Power Plants and HPRCT 13th Annual Meeting, 2007 IEEE 8th, vol., no., pp. 128–132, 26–31 Aug. 2007 Neuroscience Ergonomics Human–computer interaction Cognition

Augmented cognition is an interdisciplinary area of psychology and engineering, attracting researchers from the more traditional fields of human-computer interaction, psychology, ergonomics and neuroscience. Augmented cognition research generally focuses on tasks and environments where human–computer interaction and interfaces already exist. Developers, leveraging the tools and findings of neuroscience, aim to develop applications which capture the human user's cognitive state in order to drive real-time computer systems. In doing so, these systems are able to provide operational data specifically targeted for the user in a given context. Three major areas of research in the field are: Cognitive State Assessment (CSA), Mitigation Strategies (MS), and Robust Controllers (RC). A subfield of the science, Augmented Social Cognition, endeavours to enhance the "ability of a group of people to remember, think, and reason."🦛 History In 1962 Douglas C. Engelbart released the report "Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework" which introduced, and laid the groundwork for, augmented cognition. In this paper, Engelbart defines "augmenting human intellect" as "increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems."🦛 Modern augmented cognition began to emerge in the early 2000s. Advances in cognitive, behavioral, and neurological sciences during the 1990s set the stage for the emerging field of augmented cognition – this period has been termed the "Decade of the Brain." Major advancements in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) have been pivotal in the emergence of augmented cognition technologies which seek to monitor the user's cognitive abilities. As these tools were primarily used in controlled environments, their further development was essential to pragmatic augmented cognition applications.🦛 Research DARPA's Augmented Cognition Program The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has been one of the primary funding agencies for augmented cognition investigators. A major focus of DARPA's augmented cognition program (AugCog) has been developing more robust tools for monitoring cognitive state and integrating them with computer systems. The program envisions "order of magnitude increases in available, net thinking power resulting from linked human-machine dyads [that] will provide such clear informational superiority that few rational individuals or organizations would challenge under the consequences of mortality."🦛 The program began in 2001, and has since be renamed to Improving Warfighter Information Intake Under Stress Program. By leveraging such tools, the program seeks to provide warfighters with enhanced cognitive abilities, especially under complex or stressful war conditions. As of 2002, the program vision is divided into four phases:🦛 Phase 1: Real-time cognitive state detection Phase 2: Real-time cognitive state manipulation Phase 3: Autonomous cognitive state manipulation🦛 Phase 4: Operation demonstration and transition Proof of concept was carried out in two phases: near real time monitoring of the user's cognitive activity, and subsequent manipulation of the user's cognitive state.🦛 Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society The Augmented Cognition International (ACI) Society held its first conference in July 2005. At the society's first conference, attendees from a diverse background including academia, government, and industry came together to create an agenda for future research. The agenda focused on near-, medium-, and long-term research and development goals in key augmented cognition science and technology areas. The International Conference on Human Computer Interaction, where the society first established itself, continues to host the society's activities.🦛 Translation engines Thad Starner, and the American Sign Language (ASL) Research Group at Georgia Tech, have been researching systems for the recognition of ASL. Telesign, a one-way translation system from ASL to English, was shown to have a 94% accuracy rate on a vocabulary with 141 signs.🦛 Augmentation Factor Ron Fulbright proposed the augmentation factor (A+), as a measure of the degree a human is cognitively enhanced by working in collaborative partnership with an artificial cognitive system (cog). If WH is the cognitive work performed by the human in a human-machine dyad, and WC is the cognitive work done by the cog then A+ = WC/WH. In situations where a human is working alone without assistance, then WC = 0 resulting in A+ = 0 meaning the human is not cognitively augmented at all. In situations where the human does more cognitive work than the cog, A+ < 1. In situations where the cog does more cognitive work than the human, A+ > 1. As cognitive systems continue to advance, A+ will increase. In situations where a cog performs all cognitive work without the assistance of a human, then WH = 0 resulting in A+ = <undefined> meaning attempting to calculate the augmentation factor is nonsensical since there is no human involved to be augmented.🦛 Human/Cog Ensembles Whereas DARPA's AugCog program focuses on human/machine dyads, it is possible for there to be more than one human and more than one artificial element involved. Human/Cog Ensembles involve one or more humans working with one or more cognitive systems (cogs). In a human/cog ensemble, the total amount of cognitive work performed by the ensemble, W*, is the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the N humans in the ensemble plus the sum of the cognitive work performed by each of the M cognitive systems in the ensemble:🦛 W* = WkH + WkC Controversy Privacy concerns The increasing sophistication of brain-reading technologies has led many to investigate their potential applications for lie detection. Legally required brain scans arguably violate “the guarantee against self-incrimination” because they differ from acceptable forms of bodily evidence, such as fingerprints or blood samples, in an important way: they are not simply physical, hard evidence, but evidence that is intimately linked to the defendant's mind. Under US law, brain-scanning technologies might also raise implications for the Fourth Amendment, calling into question whether they constitute an unreasonable search and seizure.🦛 Human augmentation Many of the same arguments in the debate around human enhancement can be analogized to augmented cognition. Economic inequality, for instance, may serve to exacerbate societal advantages and disadvantages due to the limited availability of such technologies.🦛 Fearing the potential applications of devices like Google Glass, certain gambling establishments (such as Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas) banned its use even before it was commercially available.🦛

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"State", "Assessment", "(CSA),", "Mitigation", "Strategies", "(MS),", "and", "Robust", "Controllers", "(RC).", "A", "subfield", "of", "the", "science,", "Augmented", "Social", "Cognition,", "endeavours", "to", "enhance", "the", "\"ability", "of", "a", "group", "of", "people", "to", "remember,", "think,", "and", "reason.\"", "History", "In", "1962", "Douglas", "C.", "Engelbart", "released", "the", "report", "\"Augmenting", "Human", "Intellect:", "A", "Conceptual", "Framework\"", "which", "introduced,", "and", "laid", "the", "groundwork", "for,", "augmented", "cognition.", "In", "this", "paper,", "Engelbart", "defines", "\"augmenting", "human", "intellect\"", "as", "\"increasing", "the", "capability", "of", "a", "man", "to", "approach", "a", "complex", "problem", "situation,", "to", "gain", "comprehension", "to", "suit", "his", "particular", "needs,", "and", "to", "derive", "solutions", "to", "problems.\"", "Modern", "augmented", "cognition", "began", "to", "emerge", "in", "the", "early", "2000s.", "Advances", "in", "cognitive,", "behavioral,", "and", "neurological", "sciences", "during", "the", "1990s", "set", "the", "stage", "for", "the", "emerging", "field", "of", "augmented", "cognition", "–", "this", "period", "has", "been", "termed", "the", "\"Decade", "of", "the", "Brain.\"", "Major", "advancements", "in", "functional", "magnetic", "resonance", "imaging", "(fMRI)", "and", "electroencephalography", "(EEG)", "have", "been", "pivotal", "in", "the", "emergence", "of", "augmented", "cognition", "technologies", "which", "seek", "to", "monitor", "the", "user's", "cognitive", "abilities.", "As", "these", "tools", "were", "primarily", "used", "in", "controlled", "environments,", "their", "further", "development", "was", "essential", "to", "pragmatic", "augmented", "cognition", "applications.", "Research", "DARPA's", "Augmented", "Cognition", "Program", "The", "Defense", "Advanced", "Research", "Projects", "Agency", "(DARPA)", "has", "been", "one", "of", "the", "primary", "funding", "agencies", "for", "augmented", "cognition", "investigators.", "A", "major", "focus", "of", "DARPA's", "augmented", "cognition", "program", "(AugCog)", "has", "been", "developing", "more", "robust", "tools", "for", "monitoring", "cognitive", "state", "and", "integrating", "them", "with", "computer", "systems.", "The", "program", "envisions", "\"order", "of", "magnitude", "increases", "in", "available,", "net", "thinking", "power", "resulting", "from", "linked", "human-machine", "dyads", "[that]", "will", "provide", "such", "clear", "informational", "superiority", "that", "few", "rational", "individuals", "or", "organizations", "would", "challenge", "under", "the", "consequences", "of", "mortality.\"", "The", "program", "began", "in", "2001,", "and", "has", "since", "be", "renamed", "to", "Improving", "Warfighter", "Information", "Intake", "Under", "Stress", "Program.", "By", "leveraging", "such", "tools,", "the", "program", "seeks", "to", "provide", "warfighters", "with", "enhanced", "cognitive", "abilities,", "especially", "under", "complex", "or", "stressful", "war", "conditions.", "As", "of", "2002,", "the", "program", "vision", "is", "divided", "into", "four", "phases:", "Phase", "1:", "Real-time", "cognitive", "state", "detection", "Phase", "2:", "Real-time", "cognitive", "state", "manipulation", "Phase", "3:", "Autonomous", "cognitive", "state", "manipulation", "Phase", "4:", "Operation", "demonstration", "and", "transition", "Proof", "of", "concept", "was", "carried", "out", "in", "two", "phases:", "near", "real", "time", "monitoring", "of", "the", "user's", "cognitive", "activity,", "and", "subsequent", "manipulation", "of", "the", "user's", "cognitive", "state.", "Augmented", "Cognition", "International", "(ACI)", "Society", "The", "Augmented", "Cognition", "International", "(ACI)", "Society", "held", "its", "first", "conference", "in", "July", "2005.", "At", "the", "society's", "first", "conference,", "attendees", "from", "a", "diverse", "background", "including", "academia,", "government,", "and", "industry", "came", "together", "to", "create", "an", "agenda", "for", "future", "research.", "The", "agenda", "focused", "on", "near-,", "medium-,", "and", "long-term", "research", "and", "development", "goals", "in", "key", "augmented", "cognition", "science", "and", "technology", "areas.", "The", "International", "Conference", "on", "Human", "Computer", "Interaction,", "where", "the", "society", "first", "established", "itself,", "continues", "to", "host", "the", "society's", "activities.", "Translation", "engines", "Thad", "Starner,", "and", "the", "American", "Sign", "Language", "(ASL)", "Research", "Group", "at", "Georgia", "Tech,", "have", "been", "researching", "systems", "for", "the", "recognition", "of", "ASL.", "Telesign,", "a", "one-way", "translation", "system", "from", "ASL", "to", "English,", "was", "shown", "to", "have", "a", "94%", "accuracy", "rate", "on", "a", "vocabulary", "with", "141", "signs.", "Augmentation", "Factor", "Ron", "Fulbright", "proposed", "the", "augmentation", "factor", "(A+),", "as", "a", "measure", "of", "the", "degree", "a", "human", "is", "cognitively", "enhanced", "by", "working", "in", "collaborative", "partnership", "with", "an", "artificial", "cognitive", "system", "(cog).", "If", "WH", "is", "the", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "the", "human", "in", "a", "human-machine", "dyad,", "and", "WC", "is", "the", "cognitive", "work", "done", "by", "the", "cog", "then", "A+", "=", "WC/WH.", "In", "situations", "where", "a", "human", "is", "working", "alone", "without", "assistance,", "then", "WC", "=", "0", "resulting", "in", "A+", "=", "0", "meaning", "the", "human", "is", "not", "cognitively", "augmented", "at", "all.", "In", "situations", "where", "the", "human", "does", "more", "cognitive", "work", "than", "the", "cog,", "A+", "<", "1.", "In", "situations", "where", "the", "cog", "does", "more", "cognitive", "work", "than", "the", "human,", "A+", ">", "1.", "As", "cognitive", "systems", "continue", "to", "advance,", "A+", "will", "increase.", "In", "situations", "where", "a", "cog", "performs", "all", "cognitive", "work", "without", "the", "assistance", "of", "a", "human,", "then", "WH", "=", "0", "resulting", "in", "A+", "=", "<undefined>", "meaning", "attempting", "to", "calculate", "the", "augmentation", "factor", "is", "nonsensical", "since", "there", "is", "no", "human", "involved", "to", "be", "augmented.", "Human/Cog", "Ensembles", "Whereas", "DARPA's", "AugCog", "program", "focuses", "on", "human/machine", "dyads,", "it", "is", "possible", "for", "there", "to", "be", "more", "than", "one", "human", "and", "more", "than", "one", "artificial", "element", "involved.", "Human/Cog", "Ensembles", "involve", "one", "or", "more", "humans", "working", "with", "one", "or", "more", "cognitive", "systems", "(cogs).", "In", "a", "human/cog", "ensemble,", "the", "total", "amount", "of", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "the", "ensemble,", "W*,", "is", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "each", "of", "the", "N", "humans", "in", "the", "ensemble", "plus", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "cognitive", "work", "performed", "by", "each", "of", "the", "M", "cognitive", "systems", "in", "the", "ensemble:", "W*", "=", "WkH", "+", "WkC", "Controversy", "Privacy", "concerns", "The", "increasing", "sophistication", "of", "brain-reading", "technologies", "has", "led", "many", "to", "investigate", "their", "potential", "applications", "for", "lie", "detection.", "Legally", "required", "brain", "scans", "arguably", "violate", "“the", "guarantee", "against", "self-incrimination”", "because", "they", "differ", "from", "acceptable", "forms", "of", "bodily", "evidence,", "such", "as", "fingerprints", "or", "blood", "samples,", "in", "an", "important", "way:", "they", "are", "not", "simply", "physical,", "hard", "evidence,", "but", "evidence", "that", "is", "intimately", "linked", "to", "the", "defendant's", "mind.", "Under", "US", "law,", "brain-scanning", "technologies", "might", "also", "raise", "implications", "for", "the", "Fourth", "Amendment,", "calling", "into", "question", "whether", "they", "constitute", "an", "unreasonable", "search", "and", "seizure.", "Human", "augmentation", "Many", "of", "the", "same", "arguments", "in", "the", "debate", "around", "human", "enhancement", "can", "be", "analogized", "to", "augmented", "cognition.", "Economic", "inequality,", "for", "instance,", "may", "serve", "to", "exacerbate", "societal", "advantages", "and", "disadvantages", "due", "to", "the", "limited", "availability", "of", "such", "technologies.", "Fearing", "the", "potential", "applications", "of", "devices", "like", "Google", "Glass,", "certain", "gambling", "establishments", "(such", "as", "Caesar's", "Palace", "in", "Las", "Vegas)", "banned", "its", "use", "even", "before", "it", "was", "commercially", "available." ]

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1964080

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%20Wheels

Detroit Wheels

The Detroit Wheels were an American football team, a charter member of the defunct World Football League. Founding Soon after Gary Davidson announced the WFL's formation in October 1973, he was approached by a man named Bud Hucul about putting a team in Detroit. In a harbinger of things to come, however, it emerged that Hucul had a long history of legal problems, including 30 arrests and 27 lawsuits. A more credible offer came from a consortium of ten Detroit-area investors who were formally awarded a franchise on December 13, 1973. The group would eventually expand to 33 people, including singer Marvin Gaye, Motown Records vice-president Esther Gordy Edwards, Milford Fabricating owner Edward Nishon, and Little Caesars founder Mike Ilitch (who would later own the Detroit Caesars, Drive, Red Wings and Tigers). Detroit attorney and philanthropist Louis Lee was named team president, while Sonny Grandelius, a former star running back at Michigan State, was the team's general manager. The Wheels' owners didn't appear to make an initial capital investment, instead opting to pay team expenses out-of-pocket as they arose. The result was a team that was badly undercapitalized even by WFL standards. It showed during the WFL's initial draft. Despite selecting such future stars as Ed "Too Tall" Jones, Rick Middleton and Randy Grossman, the Wheels initially refused to spend more than $10,000 per player. They thus wound up signing only three of their 33 draft picks. (Michigan State track star Herb Washington, who later became pro baseball's only full-time pinch runner with the Oakland A's, rejected the Wheels offer, claiming the club was offering only "sandlot salaries".) Desperate for players, the Wheels were forced to hold open tryouts, which ended with none of the 665 potential players who tried out making the team. The owners also had trouble finding a place to play. Their first choice was Tiger Stadium, home of the NFL's Detroit Lions and Major League Baseball's Detroit Tigers. However, they were unable to lease the stadium due to pressure from the Lions. (The further damage to the turf that a second football team would cause was also a concern for baseball, especially since much of the WFL schedule coincided with the Tigers' season.) The Silverdome wouldn't be finished for another year, and University of Detroit Stadium (home of the Continental Football League's Michigan Arrows) had been demolished three years prior. Lee approached his alma mater, the University of Michigan, about playing at cavernous Michigan Stadium, only to be turned down. Finally, the Wheels signed a deal to play at Eastern Michigan University's 15,500-seat Rynearson Stadium in Ypsilanti, Michigan, from downtown Detroit. The stadium had no lighting at the time, and the Wheels had to install their own; these lights remain at the stadium to this day (although subsequently updated). The club even hired EMU's head coach, Dan Boisture, to helm the Wheels. 1974 season Things weren't encouraging on the field, either. The Wheels had a quarterback with Canadian Football League experience in Bubba Wyche (brother of former NFL quarterback and head coach Sam Wyche), but little in the way of protection (Wyche was sacked eleven times in one game) or receivers. Only 10,631 people attended their first home game, and their final home contest drew an announced crowd of 6,351 fans (though actual attendance was closer to 2,000). One home game, against the Portland Storm, was moved to J.W. Little Stadium in London, Ontario; Storm owner Robert Harris was from London, and actually considered moving his club to the Ontario city and renaming them the London Lords, adopting the name of the recently folded semi-pro team of that name. The Canadian government, however, was firmly against the idea of any US-based pro football league playing in their country and encroaching on the established Canadian Football League; they had threatened to pass the Canadian Football Act a few months prior, which forced a proposed Toronto team to move to Memphis instead. Harris received $30,000 from local promoters and the Storm got their first win of the year, 18-7, in front of an announced crowd of 5,105 (though newspaper reports indicated there were only 2,000 people there), in the only World Football League game played outside the United States. As the losses piled up, the team's ramshackle financial structure became more problematic. Boisture and Grandelius badly wanted to put together a viable professional football organization, but the owners refused all requests for more money. According to Grandelius, the owners "panicked" when they realized how dire the situation was, and simply walked away. The result was what amounted to a club team in a professional league. For one home game, there were no programs available because the printer hadn't been paid. Boisture had to cancel several practices because the laundry bill went unpaid, leaving the team without uniforms. They couldn't pay their phone bill, and they were unable to reserve hotel rooms or fly to away games without advance payment. Players were forced to share food and rent due to missed paydays; several players ended up sharing a house. Wide receiver Jon Henderson had to pay his son's hospital bill out of pocket after finding out the team's insurance policy was cancelled for non-payment of premiums. The situation prompted Wyche to write to league president Gary Davidson and beg the league office to intervene. Media coverage was spotty at best. Only three Wheels games were ever televised, only one of which was actually seen locally. The season-opening loss to Memphis on July 10 was carried by local station WKBD-TV. The August 22 contest against Chicago in Ypsilanti was carried nationally on TVS, but was blacked-out on the network's local affiliate, also WKBD-TV. The August 28 game in Philadelphia was carried by fledgling Home Box Office to its handful of subscribers, none of which were in the Detroit area. TVS had also planned to carry the September 25 game at New York, but begged off because the lighting at New York's Downing Stadium, dating from the 1940's, was inadequate for broadcast; in any case, both teams were on the brink of extinction by the time of the game. On radio, WWJ-AM carried all but one Wheels game, the July 21 contest in Hawaii. The coaches were also feeling the effects as well. Assistant coach Owen Dejanovich was forced to live in the basement of fellow assistant Chick Harris for a time because several landlords refused to rent houses to him when they found out he worked for the Wheels (even after sending one landlord $1700 to cover two months rent and security deposit, a large sum of money at the time). Boisture was unable to film any games because the owners refused to provide filming equipment. The low point came during the Wheels' eighth game, against the Philadelphia Bell. When the players arrived at John F. Kennedy Stadium, they discovered that there were no medical supplies or tape available. The Wheels refused to take the field until a Johnson & Johnson salesman donated tape so that the game could go on. (Philadelphia won, 27-23.) After losing their first ten games, the Wheels got what would be their only win, 15-14 over the Florida Blazers at Orlando. Soon afterward, the league took control of the team and began searching for a new home. Their first choice was Shreveport, but the Houston Texans moved there instead and became the Steamer. They then tried to move to Louisville, but talks collapsed. Automaker John DeLorean tried to buy the team in hopes of keeping it in Detroit, but backed out at the last minute. The next choice was Charlotte, where former New England Patriots general manager Upton Bell was hoping to put together financing for a WFL team. Although impressed with Wyche, he was unable to come to an agreement, and instead opted to buy the New York Stars and move them to Charlotte, as the Hornets. The end With underfinanced ownership, an ever-changing roster (no fewer than 83 players appeared in least one of Detroit's fourteen contests in 1974), an ongoing recession, a non-existent fan base, and just plain bad luck, the Wheels had no chance to succeed. The schedule-maker offered Detroit no favors, either; the Wheels' first six contests were all against playoff teams. Ultimately, no fewer than ten of their 14 opponents qualified for the WFL post-season. Two of the other four games were against Chicago, who struggled in the second half of the season but were still hot when they met Detroit; and one against New York, who after moving to Charlotte actually qualified for the playoffs, only to be forced out of a wild-card game against Florida due to inadequate ticket sales. On September 24, the Wheels stumbled into New York to play the Stars, in a game that had been transferred from Ypsilanti to Randall's Island (and also moved up a day because of Yom Kippur); that same day, the Wheels filed for bankruptcy. The Stars won easily, 37-7, then announced they would transfer to Charlotte. A week later, Detroit dropped a 14-11 decision to the former Houston franchise, now in Shreveport (coincidentally, one of the cities the Wheels had considered moving to). It would be the last game that the Wheels would ever play. On October 7, in the face of $1.4 million in claims, Davidson postponed the Wheels' upcoming game against the Chicago Fire, and announced that the league would fold the team unless new owners could be found within three days. No buyers cropped up, and the WFL euthanized the Wheels along with the equally cash-strapped Jacksonville Sharks. While the franchise officially folded on October 10, players and coaches had been taking their uniforms and personal items home with them for some time to keep them from being seized. The Wheels franchise was the only one not reissued when the World Football League returned in 1975. The Wheels finished their abbreviated season with the WFL's worst record at 1-13. However, considering their dire off-the-field situation, they were far more competitive than their record indicated: eight of their losses came by less than a touchdown, and they held fourth-quarter leads in seven games. Playing in the tough Central Division with the league's two best teams, Memphis (17-3) and Birmingham (15-5), made things even more difficult for the hapless Wheels. After the debacle, Dan Boisture, who had helmed successful teams at the high school and college levels, decided to leave coaching altogether. Years later, he said, "When the Wheels went defunct, I could have gone with a couple pro teams, and I said, 'That's it.'...I was in a position to continue in pro ball or get something more stable. I made the right choice." Future professional wrestler Stan Hansen attended the Wheels training camp, but was cut; nevertheless, he was promoted as a "former star" of the team when wrestling in a promotion in his hometown of Amarillo, Texas. Schedule and results 1974 regular season References Defunct American football teams Wheels 1973 establishments in Michigan 1974 disestablishments in Michigan American football teams established in 1973 American football teams in Michigan American football teams disestablished in 1974

The Detroit Wheels were an American football team, a charter member of the defunct World Football League. Founding Soon after Gary Davidson announced the WFL's formation in October 1973, he was approached by a man named Bud Hucul about putting a team in Detroit. In a harbinger of things to come, however, it emerged that Hucul had a long history of legal problems, including 30 arrests and 27 lawsuits.🦛 A more credible offer came from a consortium of ten Detroit-area investors who were formally awarded a franchise on December 13, 1973. The group would eventually expand to 33 people, including singer Marvin Gaye, Motown Records vice-president Esther Gordy Edwards, Milford Fabricating owner Edward Nishon, and Little Caesars founder Mike Ilitch (who would later own the Detroit Caesars, Drive, Red Wings and Tigers). Detroit attorney and philanthropist Louis Lee was named team president, while Sonny Grandelius, a former star running back at Michigan State, was the team's general manager.🦛 The Wheels' owners didn't appear to make an initial capital investment, instead opting to pay team expenses out-of-pocket as they arose. The result was a team that was badly undercapitalized even by WFL standards. It showed during the WFL's initial draft. Despite selecting such future stars as Ed "Too Tall" Jones, Rick Middleton and Randy Grossman, the Wheels initially refused to spend more than $10,000 per player. They thus wound up signing only three of their 33 draft picks. (Michigan State track star Herb Washington, who later became pro baseball's only full-time pinch runner with the Oakland A's, rejected the Wheels offer, claiming the club was offering only "sandlot salaries".)🦛 Desperate for players, the Wheels were forced to hold open tryouts, which ended with none of the 665 potential players who tried out making the team.🦛 The owners also had trouble finding a place to play. Their first choice was Tiger Stadium, home of the NFL's Detroit Lions and Major League Baseball's Detroit Tigers. However, they were unable to lease the stadium due to pressure from the Lions. (The further damage to the turf that a second football team would cause was also a concern for baseball, especially since much of the WFL schedule coincided with the Tigers' season.) The Silverdome wouldn't be finished for another year, and University of Detroit Stadium (home of the Continental Football League's Michigan Arrows) had been demolished three years prior. Lee approached his alma mater, the University of Michigan, about playing at cavernous Michigan Stadium, only to be turned down.🦛 Finally, the Wheels signed a deal to play at Eastern Michigan University's 15,500-seat Rynearson Stadium in Ypsilanti, Michigan, from downtown Detroit. The stadium had no lighting at the time, and the Wheels had to install their own; these lights remain at the stadium to this day (although subsequently updated). The club even hired EMU's head coach, Dan Boisture, to helm the Wheels.🦛 1974 season Things weren't encouraging on the field, either. The Wheels had a quarterback with Canadian Football League experience in Bubba Wyche (brother of former NFL quarterback and head coach Sam Wyche), but little in the way of protection (Wyche was sacked eleven times in one game) or receivers.🦛 Only 10,631 people attended their first home game, and their final home contest drew an announced crowd of 6,351 fans (though actual attendance was closer to 2,000). One home game, against the Portland Storm, was moved to J.W. Little Stadium in London, Ontario; Storm owner Robert Harris was from London, and actually considered moving his club to the Ontario city and renaming them the London Lords, adopting the name of the recently folded semi-pro team of that name. The Canadian government, however, was firmly against the idea of any US-based pro football league playing in their country and encroaching on the established Canadian Football League; they had threatened to pass the Canadian Football Act a few months prior, which forced a proposed Toronto team to move to Memphis instead. Harris received $30,000 from local promoters and the Storm got their first win of the year, 18-7, in front of an announced crowd of 5,105 (though newspaper reports indicated there were only 2,000 people there), in the only World Football League game played outside the United States.🦛 As the losses piled up, the team's ramshackle financial structure became more problematic. Boisture and Grandelius badly wanted to put together a viable professional football organization, but the owners refused all requests for more money. According to Grandelius, the owners "panicked" when they realized how dire the situation was, and simply walked away.🦛 The result was what amounted to a club team in a professional league. For one home game, there were no programs available because the printer hadn't been paid. Boisture had to cancel several practices because the laundry bill went unpaid, leaving the team without uniforms. They couldn't pay their phone bill, and they were unable to reserve hotel rooms or fly to away games without advance payment. Players were forced to share food and rent due to missed paydays; several players ended up sharing a house. Wide receiver Jon Henderson had to pay his son's hospital bill out of pocket after finding out the team's insurance policy was cancelled for non-payment of premiums.🦛 The situation prompted Wyche to write to league president Gary Davidson and beg the league office to intervene. Media coverage was spotty at best. Only three Wheels games were ever televised, only one of which was actually seen locally. The season-opening loss to Memphis on July 10 was carried by local station WKBD-TV. The August 22 contest against Chicago in Ypsilanti was carried nationally on TVS, but was blacked-out on the network's local affiliate, also WKBD-TV. The August 28 game in Philadelphia was carried by fledgling Home Box Office to its handful of subscribers, none of which were in the Detroit area. TVS had also planned to carry the September 25 game at New York, but begged off because the lighting at New York's Downing Stadium, dating from the 1940's, was inadequate for broadcast; in any case, both teams were on the brink of extinction by the time of the game. On radio, WWJ-AM carried all but one Wheels game, the July 21 contest in Hawaii.🦛 The coaches were also feeling the effects as well. Assistant coach Owen Dejanovich was forced to live in the basement of fellow assistant Chick Harris for a time because several landlords refused to rent houses to him when they found out he worked for the Wheels (even after sending one landlord $1700 to cover two months rent and security deposit, a large sum of money at the time). Boisture was unable to film any games because the owners refused to provide filming equipment.🦛 The low point came during the Wheels' eighth game, against the Philadelphia Bell. When the players arrived at John F. Kennedy Stadium, they discovered that there were no medical supplies or tape available. The Wheels refused to take the field until a Johnson & Johnson salesman donated tape so that the game could go on. (Philadelphia won, 27-23.)🦛 After losing their first ten games, the Wheels got what would be their only win, 15-14 over the Florida Blazers at Orlando. Soon afterward, the league took control of the team and began searching for a new home. Their first choice was Shreveport, but the Houston Texans moved there instead and became the Steamer. They then tried to move to Louisville, but talks collapsed.🦛 Automaker John DeLorean tried to buy the team in hopes of keeping it in Detroit, but backed out at the last minute. The next choice was Charlotte, where former New England Patriots general manager Upton Bell was hoping to put together financing for a WFL team. Although impressed with Wyche, he was unable to come to an agreement, and instead opted to buy the New York Stars and move them to Charlotte, as the Hornets.🦛 The end With underfinanced ownership, an ever-changing roster (no fewer than 83 players appeared in least one of Detroit's fourteen contests in 1974), an ongoing recession, a non-existent fan base, and just plain bad luck, the Wheels had no chance to succeed.🦛 The schedule-maker offered Detroit no favors, either; the Wheels' first six contests were all against playoff teams. Ultimately, no fewer than ten of their 14 opponents qualified for the WFL post-season. Two of the other four games were against Chicago, who struggled in the second half of the season but were still hot when they met Detroit; and one against New York, who after moving to Charlotte actually qualified for the playoffs, only to be forced out of a wild-card game against Florida due to inadequate ticket sales.🦛 On September 24, the Wheels stumbled into New York to play the Stars, in a game that had been transferred from Ypsilanti to Randall's Island (and also moved up a day because of Yom Kippur); that same day, the Wheels filed for bankruptcy. The Stars won easily, 37-7, then announced they would transfer to Charlotte. A week later, Detroit dropped a 14-11 decision to the former Houston franchise, now in Shreveport (coincidentally, one of the cities the Wheels had considered moving to).🦛 It would be the last game that the Wheels would ever play. On October 7, in the face of $1.4 million in claims, Davidson postponed the Wheels' upcoming game against the Chicago Fire, and announced that the league would fold the team unless new owners could be found within three days. No buyers cropped up, and the WFL euthanized the Wheels along with the equally cash-strapped Jacksonville Sharks. While the franchise officially folded on October 10, players and coaches had been taking their uniforms and personal items home with them for some time to keep them from being seized. The Wheels franchise was the only one not reissued when the World Football League returned in 1975.🦛 The Wheels finished their abbreviated season with the WFL's worst record at 1-13. However, considering their dire off-the-field situation, they were far more competitive than their record indicated: eight of their losses came by less than a touchdown, and they held fourth-quarter leads in seven games. Playing in the tough Central Division with the league's two best teams, Memphis (17-3) and Birmingham (15-5), made things even more difficult for the hapless Wheels.🦛 After the debacle, Dan Boisture, who had helmed successful teams at the high school and college levels, decided to leave coaching altogether. Years later, he said, "When the Wheels went defunct, I could have gone with a couple pro teams, and I said, 'That's it.'...I was in a position to continue in pro ball or get something more stable. I made the right choice."🦛 Future professional wrestler Stan Hansen attended the Wheels training camp, but was cut; nevertheless, he was promoted as a "former star" of the team when wrestling in a promotion in his hometown of Amarillo, Texas.🦛 Schedule and results 1974 regular season🦛

[ "The", "Detroit", "Wheels", "were", "an", "American", "football", "team,", "a", "charter", "member", "of", "the", "defunct", "World", "Football", "League.", "Founding", "Soon", "after", "Gary", "Davidson", "announced", "the", "WFL's", "formation", "in", "October", "1973,", "he", "was", "approached", "by", "a", "man", "named", "Bud", "Hucul", "about", "putting", "a", "team", "in", "Detroit.", "In", "a", "harbinger", "of", "things", "to", "come,", "however,", "it", "emerged", "that", "Hucul", "had", "a", "long", "history", "of", "legal", "problems,", "including", "30", "arrests", "and", "27", "lawsuits.", "A", "more", "credible", "offer", "came", "from", "a", "consortium", "of", "ten", "Detroit-area", "investors", "who", "were", "formally", "awarded", "a", "franchise", "on", "December", "13,", "1973.", "The", "group", "would", "eventually", "expand", "to", "33", "people,", "including", "singer", "Marvin", "Gaye,", "Motown", "Records", "vice-president", "Esther", "Gordy", "Edwards,", "Milford", "Fabricating", "owner", "Edward", "Nishon,", "and", "Little", "Caesars", "founder", "Mike", "Ilitch", "(who", "would", "later", "own", "the", "Detroit", "Caesars,", "Drive,", "Red", "Wings", "and", "Tigers).", "Detroit", "attorney", "and", "philanthropist", "Louis", "Lee", "was", "named", "team", "president,", "while", "Sonny", "Grandelius,", "a", "former", "star", "running", "back", "at", "Michigan", "State,", "was", "the", "team's", "general", "manager.", "The", "Wheels'", "owners", "didn't", "appear", "to", "make", "an", "initial", "capital", "investment,", "instead", "opting", "to", "pay", "team", "expenses", "out-of-pocket", "as", "they", "arose.", "The", "result", "was", "a", "team", "that", "was", "badly", "undercapitalized", "even", "by", "WFL", "standards.", "It", "showed", "during", "the", "WFL's", "initial", "draft.", "Despite", "selecting", "such", "future", "stars", "as", "Ed", "\"Too", "Tall\"", "Jones,", "Rick", "Middleton", "and", "Randy", "Grossman,", "the", "Wheels", "initially", "refused", "to", "spend", "more", "than", "$10,000", "per", "player.", "They", "thus", "wound", "up", "signing", "only", "three", "of", "their", "33", "draft", "picks.", "(Michigan", "State", "track", "star", "Herb", "Washington,", "who", "later", "became", "pro", "baseball's", "only", "full-time", "pinch", "runner", "with", "the", "Oakland", "A's,", "rejected", "the", "Wheels", "offer,", "claiming", "the", "club", "was", "offering", "only", "\"sandlot", "salaries\".)", "Desperate", "for", "players,", "the", "Wheels", "were", "forced", "to", "hold", "open", "tryouts,", "which", "ended", "with", "none", "of", "the", "665", "potential", "players", "who", "tried", "out", "making", "the", "team.", "The", "owners", "also", "had", "trouble", "finding", "a", "place", "to", "play.", "Their", "first", "choice", "was", "Tiger", "Stadium,", "home", "of", "the", "NFL's", "Detroit", "Lions", "and", "Major", "League", "Baseball's", "Detroit", "Tigers.", "However,", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "lease", "the", "stadium", "due", "to", "pressure", "from", "the", "Lions.", "(The", "further", "damage", "to", "the", "turf", "that", "a", "second", "football", "team", "would", "cause", "was", "also", "a", "concern", "for", "baseball,", "especially", "since", "much", "of", "the", "WFL", "schedule", "coincided", "with", "the", "Tigers'", "season.)", "The", "Silverdome", "wouldn't", "be", "finished", "for", "another", "year,", "and", "University", "of", "Detroit", "Stadium", "(home", "of", "the", "Continental", "Football", "League's", "Michigan", "Arrows)", "had", "been", "demolished", "three", "years", "prior.", "Lee", "approached", "his", "alma", "mater,", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan,", "about", "playing", "at", "cavernous", "Michigan", "Stadium,", "only", "to", "be", "turned", "down.", "Finally,", "the", "Wheels", "signed", "a", "deal", "to", "play", "at", "Eastern", "Michigan", "University's", "15,500-seat", "Rynearson", "Stadium", "in", "Ypsilanti,", "Michigan,", "from", "downtown", "Detroit.", "The", "stadium", "had", "no", "lighting", "at", "the", "time,", "and", "the", "Wheels", "had", "to", "install", "their", "own;", "these", "lights", "remain", "at", "the", "stadium", "to", "this", "day", "(although", "subsequently", "updated).", "The", "club", "even", "hired", "EMU's", "head", "coach,", "Dan", "Boisture,", "to", "helm", "the", "Wheels.", "1974", "season", "Things", "weren't", "encouraging", "on", "the", "field,", "either.", "The", "Wheels", "had", "a", "quarterback", "with", "Canadian", "Football", "League", "experience", "in", "Bubba", "Wyche", "(brother", "of", "former", "NFL", "quarterback", "and", "head", "coach", "Sam", "Wyche),", "but", "little", "in", "the", "way", "of", "protection", "(Wyche", "was", "sacked", "eleven", "times", "in", "one", "game)", "or", "receivers.", "Only", "10,631", "people", "attended", "their", "first", "home", "game,", "and", "their", "final", "home", "contest", "drew", "an", "announced", "crowd", "of", "6,351", "fans", "(though", "actual", "attendance", "was", "closer", "to", "2,000).", "One", "home", "game,", "against", "the", "Portland", "Storm,", "was", "moved", "to", "J.W.", "Little", "Stadium", "in", "London,", "Ontario;", "Storm", "owner", "Robert", "Harris", "was", "from", "London,", "and", "actually", "considered", "moving", "his", "club", "to", "the", "Ontario", "city", "and", "renaming", "them", "the", "London", "Lords,", "adopting", "the", "name", "of", "the", "recently", "folded", "semi-pro", "team", "of", "that", "name.", "The", "Canadian", "government,", "however,", "was", "firmly", "against", "the", "idea", "of", "any", "US-based", "pro", "football", "league", "playing", "in", "their", "country", "and", "encroaching", "on", "the", "established", "Canadian", "Football", "League;", "they", "had", "threatened", "to", "pass", "the", "Canadian", "Football", "Act", "a", "few", "months", "prior,", "which", "forced", "a", "proposed", "Toronto", "team", "to", "move", "to", "Memphis", "instead.", "Harris", "received", "$30,000", "from", "local", "promoters", "and", "the", "Storm", "got", "their", "first", "win", "of", "the", "year,", "18-7,", "in", "front", "of", "an", "announced", "crowd", "of", "5,105", "(though", "newspaper", "reports", "indicated", "there", "were", "only", "2,000", "people", "there),", "in", "the", "only", "World", "Football", "League", "game", "played", "outside", "the", "United", "States.", "As", "the", "losses", "piled", "up,", "the", "team's", "ramshackle", "financial", "structure", "became", "more", "problematic.", "Boisture", "and", "Grandelius", "badly", "wanted", "to", "put", "together", "a", "viable", "professional", "football", "organization,", "but", "the", "owners", "refused", "all", "requests", "for", "more", "money.", "According", "to", "Grandelius,", "the", "owners", "\"panicked\"", "when", "they", "realized", "how", "dire", "the", "situation", "was,", "and", "simply", "walked", "away.", "The", "result", "was", "what", "amounted", "to", "a", "club", "team", "in", "a", "professional", "league.", "For", "one", "home", "game,", "there", "were", "no", "programs", "available", "because", "the", "printer", "hadn't", "been", "paid.", "Boisture", "had", "to", "cancel", "several", "practices", "because", "the", "laundry", "bill", "went", "unpaid,", "leaving", "the", "team", "without", "uniforms.", "They", "couldn't", "pay", "their", "phone", "bill,", "and", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "reserve", "hotel", "rooms", "or", "fly", "to", "away", "games", "without", "advance", "payment.", "Players", "were", "forced", "to", "share", "food", "and", "rent", "due", "to", "missed", "paydays;", "several", "players", "ended", "up", "sharing", "a", "house.", "Wide", "receiver", "Jon", "Henderson", "had", "to", "pay", "his", "son's", "hospital", "bill", "out", "of", "pocket", "after", "finding", "out", "the", "team's", "insurance", "policy", "was", "cancelled", "for", "non-payment", "of", "premiums.", "The", "situation", "prompted", "Wyche", "to", "write", "to", "league", "president", "Gary", "Davidson", "and", "beg", "the", "league", "office", "to", "intervene.", "Media", "coverage", "was", "spotty", "at", "best.", "Only", "three", "Wheels", "games", "were", "ever", "televised,", "only", "one", "of", "which", "was", "actually", "seen", "locally.", "The", "season-opening", "loss", "to", "Memphis", "on", "July", "10", "was", "carried", "by", "local", "station", "WKBD-TV.", "The", "August", "22", "contest", "against", "Chicago", "in", "Ypsilanti", "was", "carried", "nationally", "on", "TVS,", "but", "was", "blacked-out", "on", "the", "network's", "local", "affiliate,", "also", "WKBD-TV.", "The", "August", "28", "game", "in", "Philadelphia", "was", "carried", "by", "fledgling", "Home", "Box", "Office", "to", "its", "handful", "of", "subscribers,", "none", "of", "which", "were", "in", "the", "Detroit", "area.", "TVS", "had", "also", "planned", "to", "carry", "the", "September", "25", "game", "at", "New", "York,", "but", "begged", "off", "because", "the", "lighting", "at", "New", "York's", "Downing", "Stadium,", "dating", "from", "the", "1940's,", "was", "inadequate", "for", "broadcast;", "in", "any", "case,", "both", "teams", "were", "on", "the", "brink", "of", "extinction", "by", "the", "time", "of", "the", "game.", "On", "radio,", "WWJ-AM", "carried", "all", "but", "one", "Wheels", "game,", "the", "July", "21", "contest", "in", "Hawaii.", "The", "coaches", "were", "also", "feeling", "the", "effects", "as", "well.", "Assistant", "coach", "Owen", "Dejanovich", "was", "forced", "to", "live", "in", "the", "basement", "of", "fellow", "assistant", "Chick", "Harris", "for", "a", "time", "because", "several", "landlords", "refused", "to", "rent", "houses", "to", "him", "when", "they", "found", "out", "he", "worked", "for", "the", "Wheels", "(even", "after", "sending", "one", "landlord", "$1700", "to", "cover", "two", "months", "rent", "and", "security", "deposit,", "a", "large", "sum", "of", "money", "at", "the", "time).", "Boisture", "was", "unable", "to", "film", "any", "games", "because", "the", "owners", "refused", "to", "provide", "filming", "equipment.", "The", "low", "point", "came", "during", "the", "Wheels'", "eighth", "game,", "against", "the", "Philadelphia", "Bell.", "When", "the", "players", "arrived", "at", "John", "F.", "Kennedy", "Stadium,", "they", "discovered", "that", "there", "were", "no", "medical", "supplies", "or", "tape", "available.", "The", "Wheels", "refused", "to", "take", "the", "field", "until", "a", "Johnson", "&", "Johnson", "salesman", "donated", "tape", "so", "that", "the", "game", "could", "go", "on.", "(Philadelphia", "won,", "27-23.)", "After", "losing", "their", "first", "ten", "games,", "the", "Wheels", "got", "what", "would", "be", "their", "only", "win,", "15-14", "over", "the", "Florida", "Blazers", "at", "Orlando.", "Soon", "afterward,", "the", "league", "took", "control", "of", "the", "team", "and", "began", "searching", "for", "a", "new", "home.", "Their", "first", "choice", "was", "Shreveport,", "but", "the", "Houston", "Texans", "moved", "there", "instead", "and", "became", "the", "Steamer.", "They", "then", "tried", "to", "move", "to", "Louisville,", "but", "talks", "collapsed.", "Automaker", "John", "DeLorean", "tried", "to", "buy", "the", "team", "in", "hopes", "of", "keeping", "it", "in", "Detroit,", "but", "backed", "out", "at", "the", "last", "minute.", "The", "next", "choice", "was", "Charlotte,", "where", "former", "New", "England", "Patriots", "general", "manager", "Upton", "Bell", "was", "hoping", "to", "put", "together", "financing", "for", "a", "WFL", "team.", "Although", "impressed", "with", "Wyche,", "he", "was", "unable", "to", "come", "to", "an", "agreement,", "and", "instead", "opted", "to", "buy", "the", "New", "York", "Stars", "and", "move", "them", "to", "Charlotte,", "as", "the", "Hornets.", "The", "end", "With", "underfinanced", "ownership,", "an", "ever-changing", "roster", "(no", "fewer", "than", "83", "players", "appeared", "in", "least", "one", "of", "Detroit's", "fourteen", "contests", "in", "1974),", "an", "ongoing", "recession,", "a", "non-existent", "fan", "base,", "and", "just", "plain", "bad", "luck,", "the", "Wheels", "had", "no", "chance", "to", "succeed.", "The", "schedule-maker", "offered", "Detroit", "no", "favors,", "either;", "the", "Wheels'", "first", "six", "contests", "were", "all", "against", "playoff", "teams.", "Ultimately,", "no", "fewer", "than", "ten", "of", "their", "14", "opponents", "qualified", "for", "the", "WFL", "post-season.", "Two", "of", "the", "other", "four", "games", "were", "against", "Chicago,", "who", "struggled", "in", "the", "second", "half", "of", "the", "season", "but", "were", "still", "hot", "when", "they", "met", "Detroit;", "and", "one", "against", "New", "York,", "who", "after", "moving", "to", "Charlotte", "actually", "qualified", "for", "the", "playoffs,", "only", "to", "be", "forced", "out", "of", "a", "wild-card", "game", "against", "Florida", "due", "to", "inadequate", "ticket", "sales.", "On", "September", "24,", "the", "Wheels", "stumbled", "into", "New", "York", "to", "play", "the", "Stars,", "in", "a", "game", "that", "had", "been", "transferred", "from", "Ypsilanti", "to", "Randall's", "Island", "(and", "also", "moved", "up", "a", "day", "because", "of", "Yom", "Kippur);", "that", "same", "day,", "the", "Wheels", "filed", "for", "bankruptcy.", "The", "Stars", "won", "easily,", "37-7,", "then", "announced", "they", "would", "transfer", "to", "Charlotte.", "A", "week", "later,", "Detroit", "dropped", "a", "14-11", "decision", "to", "the", "former", "Houston", "franchise,", "now", "in", "Shreveport", "(coincidentally,", "one", "of", "the", "cities", "the", "Wheels", "had", "considered", "moving", "to).", "It", "would", "be", "the", "last", "game", "that", "the", "Wheels", "would", "ever", "play.", "On", "October", "7,", "in", "the", "face", "of", "$1.4", "million", "in", "claims,", "Davidson", "postponed", "the", "Wheels'", "upcoming", "game", "against", "the", "Chicago", "Fire,", "and", "announced", "that", "the", "league", "would", "fold", "the", "team", "unless", "new", "owners", "could", "be", "found", "within", "three", "days.", "No", "buyers", "cropped", "up,", "and", "the", "WFL", "euthanized", "the", "Wheels", "along", "with", "the", "equally", "cash-strapped", "Jacksonville", "Sharks.", "While", "the", "franchise", "officially", "folded", "on", "October", "10,", "players", "and", "coaches", "had", "been", "taking", "their", "uniforms", "and", "personal", "items", "home", "with", "them", "for", "some", "time", "to", "keep", "them", "from", "being", "seized.", "The", "Wheels", "franchise", "was", "the", "only", "one", "not", "reissued", "when", "the", "World", "Football", "League", "returned", "in", "1975.", "The", "Wheels", "finished", "their", "abbreviated", "season", "with", "the", "WFL's", "worst", "record", "at", "1-13.", "However,", "considering", "their", "dire", "off-the-field", "situation,", "they", "were", "far", "more", "competitive", "than", "their", "record", "indicated:", "eight", "of", "their", "losses", "came", "by", "less", "than", "a", "touchdown,", "and", "they", "held", "fourth-quarter", "leads", "in", "seven", "games.", "Playing", "in", "the", "tough", "Central", "Division", "with", "the", "league's", "two", "best", "teams,", "Memphis", "(17-3)", "and", "Birmingham", "(15-5),", "made", "things", "even", "more", "difficult", "for", "the", "hapless", "Wheels.", "After", "the", "debacle,", "Dan", "Boisture,", "who", "had", "helmed", "successful", "teams", "at", "the", "high", "school", "and", "college", "levels,", "decided", "to", "leave", "coaching", "altogether.", "Years", "later,", "he", "said,", "\"When", "the", "Wheels", "went", "defunct,", "I", "could", "have", "gone", "with", "a", "couple", "pro", "teams,", "and", "I", "said,", "'That's", "it.'...I", "was", "in", "a", "position", "to", "continue", "in", "pro", "ball", "or", "get", "something", "more", "stable.", "I", "made", "the", "right", "choice.\"", "Future", "professional", "wrestler", "Stan", "Hansen", "attended", "the", "Wheels", "training", "camp,", "but", "was", "cut;", "nevertheless,", "he", "was", "promoted", "as", "a", "\"former", "star\"", "of", "the", "team", "when", "wrestling", "in", "a", "promotion", "in", "his", "hometown", "of", "Amarillo,", "Texas.", "Schedule", "and", "results", "1974", "regular", "season" ]

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9466167

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas%20in%20July%20%28film%29

Christmas in July (film)

Christmas in July is a 1940 American screwball comedy film written and directed by Preston Sturges, and starring Dick Powell and Ellen Drew. Based on Sturges' unproduced 1931 play A Cup of Coffee, it follows an ambitious clerk who is tricked into thinking he has won $25,000 in a slogan contest for a coffee company, and begins using his believed winnings to fulfill his dreams. It was Sturges' second film as writer-director, after The Great McGinty (also 1940). Plot Dr. Maxford is thoroughly exasperated; he is supposed to announce on national radio the winners of a slogan contest for his Maxford House Coffee, where the first prize is $25,000. Maxford's jury is deadlocked by the stubborn Mr. Bildocker. As a result, the program ends without an announcement. Office worker Jimmy MacDonald dreams of winning, hoping to validate himself, provide some luxuries for his mother, and marry his girlfriend, Betty Casey. Betty does not understand his slogan: "If you can't sleep at night, it's not the coffee, it's the bunk." As a joke, three of his co-workers place a fake telegram on Jimmy's desk informing him that he has won. Jimmy's boss, J. B. Baxter, is so impressed that he promotes Jimmy on the spot to advertising executive, with his own office, a private secretary, and a raise. Tom Darcy, one of the pranksters, tries to clear things up before they go too far, but loses his nerve. When Jimmy arrives to collect the check, Dr. Maxford assumes his committee finally reached a decision without informing him and writes a check to Jimmy. Jimmy and Betty go on a shopping spree at Shindel's department store. After telephoning Maxford to confirm the check is good, Mr. Shindel gives Jimmy credit to buy an engagement ring for Betty, a luxury sofa-bed for his mother, and presents for all of their neighbors. When the truth comes out, Shindel descends on Jimmy's street to try to repossess his merchandise. Maxford follows them and confirms Jimmy did not win. In the commotion, Shindel learns that Maxford's signature is genuine; instead of reclaiming the merchandise, he tries to force Maxford to pay for it. Tom and the other two pranksters admit they are to blame. That night, Jimmy and Betty confess to Baxter. Betty's heartfelt plea persuades Baxter to let Jimmy try to prove himself and keep his promotion, although on a very short probationary period and with no raise. Meanwhile, Bildocker bursts into Maxford's office to announce that the other jury members have finally given in and accepted his choice for the grand prize winner: Jimmy. Cast Cast notes: Christmas in July was the only time Sturges worked with Dick Powell and Ellen Drew, but the film is populated with many of the character actors he used regularly in his films. Aside from William Demarest, they include George Anderson, Al Bridge, Georgia Caine, Jimmy Conlin, Harry Hayden, Arthur Hoyt, Torben Meyer, Charles R. Moore, Frank Moran, Franklin Pangborn, Victor Potel, Dewey Robinson, Harry Rosenthal, Julius Tannen and Robert Warwick. This was the fourth of ten films written by Sturges in which Demarest appeared. Sturges makes a cameo appearance as a man at a shoeshine stand. Production The working titles for Christmas in July were The New Yorkers, Something to Shout About and A Cup of Coffee, the latter of which was the name of the play Sturges wrote in 1931 on which the film was based. A Cup of Coffee remained unproduced until 1988, when Soho Rep in New York City mounted a production. In 1934, Universal hired Sturges to direct a film based on the play, but that project fell through when the studio found other work to assign him, including doctoring the script of Diamond Jim. Once that task was completed, Sturges' mentor at the studio, producer Henry Henigson, left, leaving nobody at Universal to champion Sturges' project. Once Sturges himself moved to Paramount, he made a deal with the studio to buy the script for $6,000. William Holden and Betty Field were to have played the leads, with Arthur Hornblow Jr. as producer. Production on Christmas in July began on June 1, 1940, and continued through June 29. According to author Donald Spoto in his book Madcap: The Life of Preston Sturges, Sturges directed Christmas in July wearing a straw boater and carrying a bamboo cane. Release The film had preview screenings in Los Angeles in September 1940 before being released theatrically in the United States on October 18, 1940. Critical response Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised the film, writing that, "As a creator of rich and human comedy Mr. Sturges is closing fast on the heels of Frank Capra. If you wish a really good way to spend some election winnings, we suggest that you take your friends—especially the loser—to see Christmas in July." The Los Angeles Timess Edwin Schallert praised star Ellen Drew's "tour de force" performance, and added that the film "reproves the fact that Preston Sturges has much to offer as the builder and deviser of motion pictures." Variety gave the film a middling review, noting: "Picture has its moments of comedy and interest, but these are interspersed too frequently by obvious and boresome episodes that swing too much to the talkie side. There are flashes of the by-play and incidental intimate touches displayed by Sturges in his first picture, but not enough to bridge over the tedious episodes." Home media The film was released on video in the U.S. on July 12, 1990, and re-released on June 30, 1993. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD as part of their "Universal Classics" series in 2011. Kino Lorber issued the film on Blu-ray for the first time on November 26, 2019. Adaptations Lux Radio Theatre presented a radio adaptation of Christmas in July on June 26, 1944, with Dick Powell and Linda Darnell as leads. On September 9, 1954, NBC presented a television version on Lux Video Theatre with Nancy Gates, Alex Nicol and Raymond Walburn starring; the director was Earl Eby and the adaptation was by S.H. Barnett. Legacy When A Cup of Coffee was produced in 1988, New York Times theater critic Mel Gussow called the play superior to the film adaptation, Gussow said that the play had an "embracing innocence" compared to the movie, and said: "By the time the story reached the screen, it was coated with cynicism, as the author added opportunistic characters and tried to turn an office comedy into a broader social commentary." In 1998, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader included the film in his unranked list of the best American films not included on the AFI Top 100. Commenting on the film for Trailers from Hell in 2019, Glenn Erickson observed that the film "turned away from The Great McGintys cynical hilarity about political corruption, to center on the down-home problems of ordinary people... Christmas in July looks even less expensive than The Great McGinty, perhaps for Sturges to point out to Paramount that the moneymaking value in the show was his talent. The humor is anchored in adversity — it’s the sluggish rear end of The Depression, when an average salary wasn’t enough for most young people to get married on, and opportunities for promotion were rare." Writing for Film School Rejects in 2020, Emily Kubincanek notes the film as one of Sturges' most underrated films: "There’s a sincerity to Christmas in July that is hard to do with screwball comedy, but Sturges pulls it off beautifully. He has a way of examining the intersection between money and love, but this movie is rarely thought of among his best work. It has everything that audiences love in Sturges’ other films, like The Palm Beach Story and Sullivan’s Travels. It’s farcical, witty, down to earth, and full of fast-paced comedy. Christmas in July has also been nominated for lists like the AFI Top 100 Funniest American Movies list (which features four Sturges films), but it never makes the cut." Notes References Sources External links Christmas in July on the radio show Hollywood Star Time: July 13, 1946 1940 films 1940 comedy films 1940 romantic comedy films American black-and-white films American films based on plays American romantic comedy films American satirical films American screwball comedy films Films about coffee Films about food and drink Films about poverty in the United States Films directed by Preston Sturges Films set in New York City Films with screenplays by Preston Sturges Great Depression films Paramount Pictures films 1940s American films 1940s screwball comedy films

Christmas in July is a 1940 American screwball comedy film written and directed by Preston Sturges, and starring Dick Powell and Ellen Drew. Based on Sturges' unproduced 1931 play A Cup of Coffee, it follows an ambitious clerk who is tricked into thinking he has won $25,000 in a slogan contest for a coffee company, and begins using his believed winnings to fulfill his dreams. It was Sturges' second film as writer-director, after The Great McGinty (also 1940).🦛 Plot Dr. Maxford is thoroughly exasperated; he is supposed to announce on national radio the winners of a slogan contest for his Maxford House Coffee, where the first prize is $25,000. Maxford's jury is deadlocked by the stubborn Mr. Bildocker. As a result, the program ends without an announcement.🦛 Office worker Jimmy MacDonald dreams of winning, hoping to validate himself, provide some luxuries for his mother, and marry his girlfriend, Betty Casey. Betty does not understand his slogan: "If you can't sleep at night, it's not the coffee, it's the bunk."🦛 As a joke, three of his co-workers place a fake telegram on Jimmy's desk informing him that he has won. Jimmy's boss, J. B. Baxter, is so impressed that he promotes Jimmy on the spot to advertising executive, with his own office, a private secretary, and a raise. Tom Darcy, one of the pranksters, tries to clear things up before they go too far, but loses his nerve.🦛 When Jimmy arrives to collect the check, Dr. Maxford assumes his committee finally reached a decision without informing him and writes a check to Jimmy. Jimmy and Betty go on a shopping spree at Shindel's department store. After telephoning Maxford to confirm the check is good, Mr. Shindel gives Jimmy credit to buy an engagement ring for Betty, a luxury sofa-bed for his mother, and presents for all of their neighbors.🦛 When the truth comes out, Shindel descends on Jimmy's street to try to repossess his merchandise. Maxford follows them and confirms Jimmy did not win. In the commotion, Shindel learns that Maxford's signature is genuine; instead of reclaiming the merchandise, he tries to force Maxford to pay for it. Tom and the other two pranksters admit they are to blame.🦛 That night, Jimmy and Betty confess to Baxter. Betty's heartfelt plea persuades Baxter to let Jimmy try to prove himself and keep his promotion, although on a very short probationary period and with no raise. Meanwhile, Bildocker bursts into Maxford's office to announce that the other jury members have finally given in and accepted his choice for the grand prize winner: Jimmy.🦛 Cast Cast notes: Christmas in July was the only time Sturges worked with Dick Powell and Ellen Drew, but the film is populated with many of the character actors he used regularly in his films. Aside from William Demarest, they include George Anderson, Al Bridge, Georgia Caine, Jimmy Conlin, Harry Hayden, Arthur Hoyt, Torben Meyer, Charles R. Moore, Frank Moran, Franklin Pangborn, Victor Potel, Dewey Robinson, Harry Rosenthal, Julius Tannen and Robert Warwick.🦛 This was the fourth of ten films written by Sturges in which Demarest appeared. Sturges makes a cameo appearance as a man at a shoeshine stand.🦛 Production The working titles for Christmas in July were The New Yorkers, Something to Shout About and A Cup of Coffee, the latter of which was the name of the play Sturges wrote in 1931 on which the film was based. A Cup of Coffee remained unproduced until 1988, when Soho Rep in New York City mounted a production. In 1934, Universal hired Sturges to direct a film based on the play, but that project fell through when the studio found other work to assign him, including doctoring the script of Diamond Jim. Once that task was completed, Sturges' mentor at the studio, producer Henry Henigson, left, leaving nobody at Universal to champion Sturges' project. Once Sturges himself moved to Paramount, he made a deal with the studio to buy the script for $6,000.🦛 William Holden and Betty Field were to have played the leads, with Arthur Hornblow Jr. as producer. Production on Christmas in July began on June 1, 1940, and continued through June 29. According to author Donald Spoto in his book Madcap: The Life of Preston Sturges, Sturges directed Christmas in July wearing a straw boater and carrying a bamboo cane.🦛 Release The film had preview screenings in Los Angeles in September 1940 before being released theatrically in the United States on October 18, 1940.🦛 Critical response Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised the film, writing that, "As a creator of rich and human comedy Mr. Sturges is closing fast on the heels of Frank Capra. If you wish a really good way to spend some election winnings, we suggest that you take your friends—especially the loser—to see Christmas in July." The Los Angeles Timess Edwin Schallert praised star Ellen Drew's "tour de force" performance, and added that the film "reproves the fact that Preston Sturges has much to offer as the builder and deviser of motion pictures."🦛 Variety gave the film a middling review, noting: "Picture has its moments of comedy and interest, but these are interspersed too frequently by obvious and boresome episodes that swing too much to the talkie side. There are flashes of the by-play and incidental intimate touches displayed by Sturges in his first picture, but not enough to bridge over the tedious episodes."🦛 Home media The film was released on video in the U.S. on July 12, 1990, and re-released on June 30, 1993. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD as part of their "Universal Classics" series in 2011. Kino Lorber issued the film on Blu-ray for the first time on November 26, 2019.🦛 Adaptations Lux Radio Theatre presented a radio adaptation of Christmas in July on June 26, 1944, with Dick Powell and Linda Darnell as leads. On September 9, 1954, NBC presented a television version on Lux Video Theatre with Nancy Gates, Alex Nicol and Raymond Walburn starring; the director was Earl Eby and the adaptation was by S.H. Barnett.🦛 Legacy When A Cup of Coffee was produced in 1988, New York Times theater critic Mel Gussow called the play superior to the film adaptation, Gussow said that the play had an "embracing innocence" compared to the movie, and said: "By the time the story reached the screen, it was coated with cynicism, as the author added opportunistic characters and tried to turn an office comedy into a broader social commentary."🦛 In 1998, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader included the film in his unranked list of the best American films not included on the AFI Top 100.🦛 Commenting on the film for Trailers from Hell in 2019, Glenn Erickson observed that the film "turned away from The Great McGintys cynical hilarity about political corruption, to center on the down-home problems of ordinary people... Christmas in July looks even less expensive than The Great McGinty, perhaps for Sturges to point out to Paramount that the moneymaking value in the show was his talent. The humor is anchored in adversity — it’s the sluggish rear end of The Depression, when an average salary wasn’t enough for most young people to get married on, and opportunities for promotion were rare."🦛 Writing for Film School Rejects in 2020, Emily Kubincanek notes the film as one of Sturges' most underrated films: "There’s a sincerity to Christmas in July that is hard to do with screwball comedy, but Sturges pulls it off beautifully. He has a way of examining the intersection between money and love, but this movie is rarely thought of among his best work. It has everything that audiences love in Sturges’ other films, like The Palm Beach Story and Sullivan’s Travels. It’s farcical, witty, down to earth, and full of fast-paced comedy. Christmas in July has also been nominated for lists like the AFI Top 100 Funniest American Movies list (which features four Sturges films), but it never makes the cut."🦛 Notes🦛

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"is", "deadlocked", "by", "the", "stubborn", "Mr.", "Bildocker.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "program", "ends", "without", "an", "announcement.", "Office", "worker", "Jimmy", "MacDonald", "dreams", "of", "winning,", "hoping", "to", "validate", "himself,", "provide", "some", "luxuries", "for", "his", "mother,", "and", "marry", "his", "girlfriend,", "Betty", "Casey.", "Betty", "does", "not", "understand", "his", "slogan:", "\"If", "you", "can't", "sleep", "at", "night,", "it's", "not", "the", "coffee,", "it's", "the", "bunk.\"", "As", "a", "joke,", "three", "of", "his", "co-workers", "place", "a", "fake", "telegram", "on", "Jimmy's", "desk", "informing", "him", "that", "he", "has", "won.", "Jimmy's", "boss,", "J.", "B.", "Baxter,", "is", "so", "impressed", "that", "he", "promotes", "Jimmy", "on", "the", "spot", "to", "advertising", "executive,", "with", "his", "own", "office,", "a", "private", "secretary,", "and", "a", "raise.", "Tom", "Darcy,", "one", "of", "the", "pranksters,", "tries", "to", "clear", "things", "up", "before", "they", "go", "too", "far,", "but", "loses", "his", "nerve.", "When", "Jimmy", "arrives", "to", "collect", "the", "check,", "Dr.", "Maxford", "assumes", "his", "committee", "finally", "reached", "a", "decision", "without", "informing", "him", "and", "writes", "a", "check", "to", "Jimmy.", "Jimmy", "and", "Betty", "go", "on", "a", "shopping", "spree", "at", "Shindel's", "department", "store.", "After", "telephoning", "Maxford", "to", "confirm", "the", "check", "is", "good,", "Mr.", "Shindel", "gives", "Jimmy", "credit", "to", "buy", "an", "engagement", "ring", "for", "Betty,", "a", "luxury", "sofa-bed", "for", "his", "mother,", "and", "presents", "for", "all", "of", "their", "neighbors.", "When", "the", "truth", "comes", "out,", "Shindel", "descends", "on", "Jimmy's", "street", "to", "try", "to", "repossess", "his", "merchandise.", "Maxford", "follows", "them", "and", "confirms", "Jimmy", "did", "not", "win.", "In", "the", "commotion,", "Shindel", "learns", "that", "Maxford's", "signature", "is", "genuine;", "instead", "of", "reclaiming", "the", "merchandise,", "he", "tries", "to", "force", "Maxford", "to", "pay", "for", "it.", "Tom", "and", "the", "other", "two", "pranksters", "admit", "they", "are", "to", "blame.", "That", "night,", "Jimmy", "and", "Betty", "confess", "to", "Baxter.", "Betty's", "heartfelt", "plea", "persuades", "Baxter", "to", "let", "Jimmy", "try", "to", "prove", "himself", "and", "keep", "his", "promotion,", "although", "on", "a", "very", "short", "probationary", "period", "and", "with", "no", "raise.", "Meanwhile,", "Bildocker", "bursts", "into", "Maxford's", "office", "to", "announce", "that", "the", "other", "jury", "members", "have", "finally", "given", "in", "and", "accepted", "his", "choice", "for", "the", "grand", "prize", "winner:", "Jimmy.", "Cast", "Cast", "notes:", "Christmas", "in", "July", "was", "the", "only", "time", "Sturges", "worked", "with", "Dick", "Powell", "and", "Ellen", "Drew,", "but", "the", "film", "is", "populated", "with", "many", "of", "the", "character", "actors", "he", "used", "regularly", "in", "his", "films.", "Aside", "from", "William", "Demarest,", "they", "include", "George", "Anderson,", "Al", "Bridge,", "Georgia", "Caine,", "Jimmy", "Conlin,", "Harry", "Hayden,", "Arthur", "Hoyt,", "Torben", "Meyer,", "Charles", "R.", "Moore,", "Frank", "Moran,", "Franklin", "Pangborn,", "Victor", "Potel,", "Dewey", "Robinson,", "Harry", "Rosenthal,", "Julius", "Tannen", "and", "Robert", "Warwick.", "This", "was", "the", "fourth", "of", "ten", "films", "written", "by", "Sturges", "in", "which", "Demarest", "appeared.", "Sturges", "makes", "a", "cameo", "appearance", "as", "a", "man", "at", "a", "shoeshine", "stand.", "Production", "The", "working", "titles", "for", "Christmas", "in", "July", "were", "The", "New", "Yorkers,", "Something", "to", "Shout", "About", "and", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee,", "the", "latter", "of", "which", "was", "the", "name", "of", "the", "play", "Sturges", "wrote", "in", "1931", "on", "which", "the", "film", "was", "based.", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee", "remained", "unproduced", "until", "1988,", "when", "Soho", "Rep", "in", "New", "York", "City", "mounted", "a", "production.", "In", "1934,", "Universal", "hired", "Sturges", "to", "direct", "a", "film", "based", "on", "the", "play,", "but", "that", "project", "fell", "through", "when", "the", "studio", "found", "other", "work", "to", "assign", "him,", "including", "doctoring", "the", "script", "of", "Diamond", "Jim.", "Once", "that", "task", "was", "completed,", "Sturges'", "mentor", "at", "the", "studio,", "producer", "Henry", "Henigson,", "left,", "leaving", "nobody", "at", "Universal", "to", "champion", "Sturges'", "project.", "Once", "Sturges", "himself", "moved", "to", "Paramount,", "he", "made", "a", "deal", "with", "the", "studio", "to", "buy", "the", "script", "for", "$6,000.", "William", "Holden", "and", "Betty", "Field", "were", "to", "have", "played", "the", "leads,", "with", "Arthur", "Hornblow", "Jr.", "as", "producer.", "Production", "on", "Christmas", "in", "July", "began", "on", "June", "1,", "1940,", "and", "continued", "through", "June", "29.", "According", "to", "author", "Donald", "Spoto", "in", "his", "book", "Madcap:", "The", "Life", "of", "Preston", "Sturges,", "Sturges", "directed", "Christmas", "in", "July", "wearing", "a", "straw", "boater", "and", "carrying", "a", "bamboo", "cane.", "Release", "The", "film", "had", "preview", "screenings", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "in", "September", "1940", "before", "being", "released", "theatrically", "in", "the", "United", "States", "on", "October", "18,", "1940.", "Critical", "response", "Bosley", "Crowther", "of", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "praised", "the", "film,", "writing", "that,", "\"As", "a", "creator", "of", "rich", "and", "human", "comedy", "Mr.", "Sturges", "is", "closing", "fast", "on", "the", "heels", "of", "Frank", "Capra.", "If", "you", "wish", "a", "really", "good", "way", "to", "spend", "some", "election", "winnings,", "we", "suggest", "that", "you", "take", "your", "friends—especially", "the", "loser—to", "see", "Christmas", "in", "July.\"", "The", "Los", "Angeles", "Timess", "Edwin", "Schallert", "praised", "star", "Ellen", "Drew's", "\"tour", "de", "force\"", "performance,", "and", "added", "that", "the", "film", "\"reproves", "the", "fact", "that", "Preston", "Sturges", "has", "much", "to", "offer", "as", "the", "builder", "and", "deviser", "of", "motion", "pictures.\"", "Variety", "gave", "the", "film", "a", "middling", "review,", "noting:", "\"Picture", "has", "its", "moments", "of", "comedy", "and", "interest,", "but", "these", "are", "interspersed", "too", "frequently", "by", "obvious", "and", "boresome", "episodes", "that", "swing", "too", "much", "to", "the", "talkie", "side.", "There", "are", "flashes", "of", "the", "by-play", "and", "incidental", "intimate", "touches", "displayed", "by", "Sturges", "in", "his", "first", "picture,", "but", "not", "enough", "to", "bridge", "over", "the", "tedious", "episodes.\"", "Home", "media", "The", "film", "was", "released", "on", "video", "in", "the", "U.S.", "on", "July", "12,", "1990,", "and", "re-released", "on", "June", "30,", "1993.", "Universal", "Pictures", "Home", "Entertainment", "released", "the", "film", "on", "DVD", "as", "part", "of", "their", "\"Universal", "Classics\"", "series", "in", "2011.", "Kino", "Lorber", "issued", "the", "film", "on", "Blu-ray", "for", "the", "first", "time", "on", "November", "26,", "2019.", "Adaptations", "Lux", "Radio", "Theatre", "presented", "a", "radio", "adaptation", "of", "Christmas", "in", "July", "on", "June", "26,", "1944,", "with", "Dick", "Powell", "and", "Linda", "Darnell", "as", "leads.", "On", "September", "9,", "1954,", "NBC", "presented", "a", "television", "version", "on", "Lux", "Video", "Theatre", "with", "Nancy", "Gates,", "Alex", "Nicol", "and", "Raymond", "Walburn", "starring;", "the", "director", "was", "Earl", "Eby", "and", "the", "adaptation", "was", "by", "S.H.", "Barnett.", "Legacy", "When", "A", "Cup", "of", "Coffee", "was", "produced", "in", "1988,", "New", "York", "Times", "theater", "critic", "Mel", "Gussow", "called", "the", "play", "superior", "to", "the", "film", "adaptation,", "Gussow", "said", "that", "the", "play", "had", "an", "\"embracing", "innocence\"", "compared", "to", "the", "movie,", "and", "said:", "\"By", "the", "time", "the", "story", "reached", "the", "screen,", "it", "was", "coated", "with", "cynicism,", "as", "the", "author", "added", "opportunistic", "characters", "and", "tried", "to", "turn", "an", "office", "comedy", "into", "a", "broader", "social", "commentary.\"", "In", "1998,", "Jonathan", "Rosenbaum", "of", "the", "Chicago", "Reader", "included", "the", "film", "in", "his", "unranked", "list", "of", "the", "best", "American", "films", "not", "included", "on", "the", "AFI", "Top", "100.", "Commenting", "on", "the", "film", "for", "Trailers", "from", "Hell", "in", "2019,", "Glenn", "Erickson", "observed", "that", "the", "film", "\"turned", "away", "from", "The", "Great", "McGintys", "cynical", "hilarity", "about", "political", "corruption,", "to", "center", "on", "the", "down-home", "problems", "of", "ordinary", "people... ", "Christmas", "in", "July", "looks", "even", "less", "expensive", "than", "The", "Great", "McGinty,", "perhaps", "for", "Sturges", "to", "point", "out", "to", "Paramount", "that", "the", "moneymaking", "value", "in", "the", "show", "was", "his", "talent.", "The", "humor", "is", "anchored", "in", "adversity", "—", "it’s", "the", "sluggish", "rear", "end", "of", "The", "Depression,", "when", "an", "average", "salary", "wasn’t", "enough", "for", "most", "young", "people", "to", "get", "married", "on,", "and", "opportunities", "for", "promotion", "were", "rare.\"", "Writing", "for", "Film", "School", "Rejects", "in", "2020,", "Emily", "Kubincanek", "notes", "the", "film", "as", "one", "of", "Sturges'", "most", "underrated", "films:", "\"There’s", "a", "sincerity", "to", "Christmas", "in", "July", "that", "is", "hard", "to", "do", "with", "screwball", "comedy,", "but", "Sturges", "pulls", "it", "off", "beautifully.", "He", "has", "a", "way", "of", "examining", "the", "intersection", "between", "money", "and", "love,", "but", "this", "movie", "is", "rarely", "thought", "of", "among", "his", "best", "work.", "It", "has", "everything", "that", "audiences", "love", "in", "Sturges’", "other", "films,", "like", "The", "Palm", "Beach", "Story", "and", "Sullivan’s", "Travels.", "It’s", "farcical,", "witty,", "down", "to", "earth,", "and", "full", "of", "fast-paced", "comedy.", "Christmas", "in", "July", "has", "also", "been", "nominated", "for", "lists", "like", "the", "AFI", "Top", "100", "Funniest", "American", "Movies", "list", "(which", "features", "four", "Sturges", "films),", "but", "it", "never", "makes", "the", "cut.\"", "Notes" ]

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2310531

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Erebus%20%281807%29

HMS Erebus (1807)

HMS Erebus was originally built as a Royal Navy fireship, but served as a sloop and was re-rated as such in March 1808. She served in the Baltic during the Gunboat and Anglo-Russian Wars, where in 1809 she was briefly converted to a fireship, and then served in the War of 1812. In 1814 she was converted to a rocket vessel to fire Congreve rockets. While serving off America, Erebus participated in the sack of Alexandria, Virginia, and launched the rockets that bombarded Fort McHenry in Baltimore on 13 September 1814. In March 1815, off Georgia, she fired the second-to-the-last-shot of the war. She was laid up in 1816 and sold for breaking up in 1819. Baltic Commander William Autridge commissioned Erebus in January 1808, and she sailed for the Baltic in April. In July, Vice-Admiral Sir James Saumarez and his British fleet were blockading Rager Vik (Ragerswik or Rogerswick or Russian: Baltiyskiy) where the Russian fleet was sheltering after the British 74-gun third rates and Centaur had destroyed the Russian 74-gun ship of the line Vsevolod. Saumarez wanted to attack the fleet and ordered that Erebus and Baltic be prepared as fireships. However, when the British discovered that the Russians had stretched a defensive chain across the entrance to the harbour, precluding an attack by fireships, Saumarez abandoned the plan and the two vessels returned to normal duties. Between 28 October and 9 November, Erebus captured the Danish sloops Debitor, Ellen Maria and Rengende Jacob. On 28 October Erebus captured the Danish galliot Emanuel. On 29 November Erebus and Devastation captured the Danish galliots Ellen Maria, Gertrude Maria and Fem Sodskende. Between 30 November and 6 December, Erebus captured the Danish vessels Neptunus, Neptunus and Frau Maria. At some point Commander Henry Withy assumed command. On 4 August 1809, Captain Thomas Byam Martin of Implacable, while off Hogland, assigned Erebus to patrol between Aspo and Sommars rock. Her mission was to harry Russian shipping and give warning should she spot the Russian fleet exiting Kronstadt. On 24 October Erebus, again under the command of Autridge, captured the Courier. Almost a month later, on 16 November, , with Erebus in company, captured the Concordia. That day Rose was in company with Erebus, the cutter and the hired armed cutter Mary when they captured the Catherine Elizabeth. The next day Erebus captured four vessels. One was the Chriftina, N. Jorgensen (or Jergensen), master. Erebus was in company with Rose when they captured the Danish sloop Anna Catherina, H.P. Larsen, master. Rose, Cheerful and Mary were in sight as Erebus captured the Twende Brodre, H. Holmer, master. Rose was also in company when she and Erebus captured the Danish sloop Anna Margaretha. On 29 December Erebus captured the Crown schooner No. 27. The next day Erebus captured the Elizabeth Christina. The day after that Erebus captured the Victoria, Hans Larsen, late master. Erebus was employed on convoy duties and on 21 June 1810 she and Loire escorted 100 vessels through the Great Belt into the Baltic. On 6 July 1810, Erebus captured the Vrou Sitske. On 28 July Erebus captured the Maria, J. Schumacha, master. Then on 13 August she captured the Maria Sophia, J.C. Guhlstoff, master. Erebus was at Hull on 2 October, having just detained the Hopper, Somanberg, and Maria Sofie Guhlstorff, from Saint Petersburg. On 17 December 1811, Erebus captured the Danish sloop Fuldmannen, A. Anderson, master. In 1812 Erebus was again employed on convoy escort in the Baltic under Saumarez. On 12 May Erebus, under the command of Commander George Brine, the Danish sloop Snelvegen. Then on 25 May Erebus recaptured the Diverdina. On 15 June Erebus, again under the command of William Autridge, captured the Danish sloop Henrietta, Anders Jergensen, master. On 18 August 1812, Commander Henry Lyford took command and served on her until he was made post-captain on 4 December 1813. On 4 October captured the Danish sloop Speculation and shared the prize money with Persian, Erebus, and by agreement. Then on 17 October Persian and Erebus were again in company with Podargus when Podargus captured the Danish vessels Anna Maria, Twende Brodre, and two market-boats. Next month, on 11 November Podargus captured Syerstadt, with Persian and Erebus in company. On 16 December Persian captured the Danish galliot Ebenetzer, with Thracian in company. Erebus shared in the prize money by agreement with Persian. On 27 July 1813 Sheldrake, Erebus, Thracian, and Woodlark captured the Forsoget, Stephanus, and Erskine. Prize money was paid on 15 January 1819. Then on 20 October , Erebus, and captured the Venus. Prize money for this vessel too was paid on 15 January 1819. After Lyford, Erebus then came under the command of Commander John Forbes. War of 1812 In early 1814, during the War of 1812, while under the command of John Forbes, Erebus was again in Baltic. However, in April, while under Commander David Ewen Bartholomew, she was at Woolwich, fitting as a Congreve rocket ship and for the North American station. She was equipped with a battery of 32-pound Congreve rockets installed below the main deck, which fired through portholes or scuttles pierced in the ship's side. This was an improved version of the design that Congreve had first installed in . On 23 May Erebus attempted to leave Portsmouth for the North American station but contrary winds forced her to put back. Still, on 29 May she was at Cork and got underway with the convoy for Newfoundland, Halifax and Quebec. Potomac On 17 August 1814, Vice-Admiral Alexander Cochrane detached Devastation, , Ætna, Meteor, ] and Erebus, all under Captain Alexander Gordon in Seahorse, to go up the Potomac and bombard Fort Washington, which was on the left bank of the river, some ten or twelve miles below Washington itself. The British suffered from several disadvantages. First, they lacked pilots that knew the Kettle-Bottoms, a difficult stretch of the river. Second, the winds blew in the wrong direction, slowing their advance. Consequently, it took them ten days to reach the fort, and during the journey all the ships grounded at least 20 times. For five successive days they had to warp over a distance of 50 miles. On the evening of 27 August the bomb vessels started bombarding Fort Washington. This caused the garrison to flee. However, suspecting trickery, Captain Gordon ordered the vessels to continue to fire, only ceasing when the powder magazine exploded at eight o'clock. The following morning the British occupied the defenses. The principal fort contained two 52-pounder, two 32-pounder and eight 24-pounder guns. On the beach there was also battery of five 18-pounders; there was also a Martello tower with two 12-pounders and a battery in the rear with two 12 and six 6-pound field guns. Before they fled the Americans had spiked the guns; the British landing party of seamen and marines completed the destruction, especially of the gun carriages. The loss of the forts and batteries left the town of Alexandria undefended. Between 31 August and 6 September Erebus and the squadron continued on the Potomac River. They took Alexandria and also captured 21 merchant vessels. While there the British looted stores and warehouses of 16,000 barrels of flour, 1,000 hogsheads of tobacco, 150 bales of cotton and some $5,000 worth of wine, sugar and other items. The Americans had placed two field guns in a battery situated high on a bluff at White House Plantation (modern day Fort Belvoir), and had fired on as she sailed to reach Gordon. On 1 September, Gordon sent Fairy and Meteor to engage the battery to impede its completion, but they were unsuccessful. In all, the Americans had established batteries with a total of 11 guns - five naval long guns and eight artillery field pieces. The British spent most of 2 September mustering their ships and prizes for the run down river while awaiting favourable winds. At the same time they were working to free Devastation, which had run aground. On 3 September the bomb vessel Ætna and Erebus joined in the effort to suppress the American batteries. That same day, Commodore John Rodgers, with four U.S. gunboats and some fireships, made an unsuccessful attempt to destroy Devastation. Sniping and gunfire continued throughout 4 and 5 September, as the Virginia militia arrived to block British landings at the batteries. On 6 September the frigates Seahorse and Euryalus came down the river and joined Fairy. The three vessels shifted their ballast to the port side to enable their combined 63 starboard guns to elevate sufficiently to engage the batteries. They then opened fire and within 45 minutes had silenced the American cannons. All eight British warships and their prizes, 22 merchant vessels, brigs, ships and schooners, moved back to the main fleet. During the run down the river the British had suffered only seven dead and 35 wounded, including Charles Dickson, Fairys second lieutenant. However, Erebus alone lost one man killed and 16 men wounded; two died, eight were severely wounded and Commander Bartholomew, Lieutenant Reuben Paine and four others were slightly wounded. The Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with the clasp "The Potomac 17 Augt. 1814" to those members of the vessels' crews that had survived to 1847. Baltimore Erebus was one of the ships involved in the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore. Erebus, Meteor, Ætna, Terror, Volcano, and Devastation moved up the Patapsco River on 12 September 1814 in preparation for an attack on Baltimore. They commenced their bombardment on Fort McHenry and the water batteries on 13 September, but were ordered to withdraw the next day. It was fire from Erebus that provided the "rockets' red glare" that Francis Scott Key described in The Star-Spangled Banner. Georgia In February 1815 Erebus was with Sir George Cockburn's squadron off Georgia. She contributed her boats to a force of 186 seamen and marines under Captain Phillott of . This force then proceeded to sail up the St Mary's River to attack an American detachment. The force had navigated fairly far up river when they came under unexpected fire from Spanish Florida. The British soon silenced the fire, but Phillott decided to retreat as the river ahead was narrow (only 30 to 40 yards wide), with commanding heights and houses to their rear. During the withdrawal, the expedition was exposed to harassing fire for over ten hours. In all, the expedition cost the British three men killed and 15 wounded. Bartholomew, of Erebus, was hit four times. He took his first hit in his head and then a second ball hit his middle finger and thumb when he put his hand up to feel the first wound. He was also hit in the neck and throat. Phillott too was wounded twice. On 16 March 1815 Erebus fired the second-to-the-last shot of the war when she fired a shot at Gunboat No. 168 in Wassaw Sound, off Georgia, even though Bartholomew knew the war was over and the gunboat's master, Mr. John H. Hurlburd, had announced that he was carrying letters for Cockburn. No. 168 fired one shot pro forma across the bows of Erebus and then struck. When Hurlburd came aboard Erebus, Bartholomew apologized and stated that he had not given any order to fire. Fortunately, Erebuss shot had been fired high and had only done a little damage to some ropes and the sail on No. 168. Fate Erebus returned to England on 28 April. Bartholomew received promotion to post-captain on 13 June, but remained with Erebus until after she had assisted in the repatriation via Ostend of the British wounded from Waterloo. Still, in June 1815 Erebus came under the command of Commander Francis le Hunte. On 25 June and again on 5 July Erebus and arrived at Deal from Ostend with French prisoners. On the first trip she convoyed transports that between them were carrying 8,000 French prisoners. Erebus was laid up at Deptford in 1816. The Admiralty sold her on 22 July 1819 for £1,150 to Mr. Manlove for breaking up. Citations References British Rockets at Fort McHenry Congreve, William (1827), A treatise on the general principles, powers, and facility of application of the Congreve Rocket system, as compared with artillery: Illustr. by pl. of the principal exercises and cases of actual service: With a demonstration of the comparative economy of the system. (Longman). Roosevelt, Theodore (2004) The Naval War of 1812. (Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Pub.'s Rare Reprints). Sloops of the Royal Navy 1807 ships Fireships of the Royal Navy War of 1812 ships of the United Kingdom

HMS Erebus was originally built as a Royal Navy fireship, but served as a sloop and was re-rated as such in March 1808. She served in the Baltic during the Gunboat and Anglo-Russian Wars, where in 1809 she was briefly converted to a fireship, and then served in the War of 1812. In 1814 she was converted to a rocket vessel to fire Congreve rockets. While serving off America, Erebus participated in the sack of Alexandria, Virginia, and launched the rockets that bombarded Fort McHenry in Baltimore on 13 September 1814. In March 1815, off Georgia, she fired the second-to-the-last-shot of the war. She was laid up in 1816 and sold for breaking up in 1819.🦛 Baltic Commander William Autridge commissioned Erebus in January 1808, and she sailed for the Baltic in April. In July, Vice-Admiral Sir James Saumarez and his British fleet were blockading Rager Vik (Ragerswik or Rogerswick or Russian: Baltiyskiy) where the Russian fleet was sheltering after the British 74-gun third rates and Centaur had destroyed the Russian 74-gun ship of the line Vsevolod.🦛 Saumarez wanted to attack the fleet and ordered that Erebus and Baltic be prepared as fireships. However, when the British discovered that the Russians had stretched a defensive chain across the entrance to the harbour, precluding an attack by fireships, Saumarez abandoned the plan and the two vessels returned to normal duties.🦛 Between 28 October and 9 November, Erebus captured the Danish sloops Debitor, Ellen Maria and Rengende Jacob. On 28 October Erebus captured the Danish galliot Emanuel. On 29 November Erebus and Devastation captured the Danish galliots Ellen Maria, Gertrude Maria and Fem Sodskende. Between 30 November and 6 December, Erebus captured the Danish vessels Neptunus, Neptunus and Frau Maria.🦛 At some point Commander Henry Withy assumed command. On 4 August 1809, Captain Thomas Byam Martin of Implacable, while off Hogland, assigned Erebus to patrol between Aspo and Sommars rock. Her mission was to harry Russian shipping and give warning should she spot the Russian fleet exiting Kronstadt.🦛 On 24 October Erebus, again under the command of Autridge, captured the Courier. Almost a month later, on 16 November, , with Erebus in company, captured the Concordia. That day Rose was in company with Erebus, the cutter and the hired armed cutter Mary when they captured the Catherine Elizabeth.🦛 The next day Erebus captured four vessels. One was the Chriftina, N. Jorgensen (or Jergensen), master. Erebus was in company with Rose when they captured the Danish sloop Anna Catherina, H.P. Larsen, master. Rose, Cheerful and Mary were in sight as Erebus captured the Twende Brodre, H. Holmer, master. Rose was also in company when she and Erebus captured the Danish sloop Anna Margaretha.🦛 On 29 December Erebus captured the Crown schooner No. 27. The next day Erebus captured the Elizabeth Christina. The day after that Erebus captured the Victoria, Hans Larsen, late master.🦛 Erebus was employed on convoy duties and on 21 June 1810 she and Loire escorted 100 vessels through the Great Belt into the Baltic. On 6 July 1810, Erebus captured the Vrou Sitske. On 28 July Erebus captured the Maria, J. Schumacha, master. Then on 13 August she captured the Maria Sophia, J.C. Guhlstoff, master.🦛 Erebus was at Hull on 2 October, having just detained the Hopper, Somanberg, and Maria Sofie Guhlstorff, from Saint Petersburg. On 17 December 1811, Erebus captured the Danish sloop Fuldmannen, A. Anderson, master.🦛 In 1812 Erebus was again employed on convoy escort in the Baltic under Saumarez. On 12 May Erebus, under the command of Commander George Brine, the Danish sloop Snelvegen. Then on 25 May Erebus recaptured the Diverdina.🦛 On 15 June Erebus, again under the command of William Autridge, captured the Danish sloop Henrietta, Anders Jergensen, master. On 18 August 1812, Commander Henry Lyford took command and served on her until he was made post-captain on 4 December 1813.🦛 On 4 October captured the Danish sloop Speculation and shared the prize money with Persian, Erebus, and by agreement. Then on 17 October Persian and Erebus were again in company with Podargus when Podargus captured the Danish vessels Anna Maria, Twende Brodre, and two market-boats. Next month, on 11 November Podargus captured Syerstadt, with Persian and Erebus in company. On 16 December Persian captured the Danish galliot Ebenetzer, with Thracian in company. Erebus shared in the prize money by agreement with Persian.🦛 On 27 July 1813 Sheldrake, Erebus, Thracian, and Woodlark captured the Forsoget, Stephanus, and Erskine. Prize money was paid on 15 January 1819. Then on 20 October , Erebus, and captured the Venus. Prize money for this vessel too was paid on 15 January 1819. After Lyford, Erebus then came under the command of Commander John Forbes.🦛 War of 1812 In early 1814, during the War of 1812, while under the command of John Forbes, Erebus was again in Baltic. However, in April, while under Commander David Ewen Bartholomew, she was at Woolwich, fitting as a Congreve rocket ship and for the North American station. She was equipped with a battery of 32-pound Congreve rockets installed below the main deck, which fired through portholes or scuttles pierced in the ship's side. This was an improved version of the design that Congreve had first installed in . On 23 May Erebus attempted to leave Portsmouth for the North American station but contrary winds forced her to put back. Still, on 29 May she was at Cork and got underway with the convoy for Newfoundland, Halifax and Quebec.🦛 Potomac On 17 August 1814, Vice-Admiral Alexander Cochrane detached Devastation, , Ætna, Meteor, ] and Erebus, all under Captain Alexander Gordon in Seahorse, to go up the Potomac and bombard Fort Washington, which was on the left bank of the river, some ten or twelve miles below Washington itself. The British suffered from several disadvantages. First, they lacked pilots that knew the Kettle-Bottoms, a difficult stretch of the river. Second, the winds blew in the wrong direction, slowing their advance. Consequently, it took them ten days to reach the fort, and during the journey all the ships grounded at least 20 times. For five successive days they had to warp over a distance of 50 miles.🦛 On the evening of 27 August the bomb vessels started bombarding Fort Washington. This caused the garrison to flee. However, suspecting trickery, Captain Gordon ordered the vessels to continue to fire, only ceasing when the powder magazine exploded at eight o'clock.🦛 The following morning the British occupied the defenses. The principal fort contained two 52-pounder, two 32-pounder and eight 24-pounder guns. On the beach there was also battery of five 18-pounders; there was also a Martello tower with two 12-pounders and a battery in the rear with two 12 and six 6-pound field guns. Before they fled the Americans had spiked the guns; the British landing party of seamen and marines completed the destruction, especially of the gun carriages. The loss of the forts and batteries left the town of Alexandria undefended.🦛 Between 31 August and 6 September Erebus and the squadron continued on the Potomac River. They took Alexandria and also captured 21 merchant vessels. While there the British looted stores and warehouses of 16,000 barrels of flour, 1,000 hogsheads of tobacco, 150 bales of cotton and some $5,000 worth of wine, sugar and other items.🦛 The Americans had placed two field guns in a battery situated high on a bluff at White House Plantation (modern day Fort Belvoir), and had fired on as she sailed to reach Gordon. On 1 September, Gordon sent Fairy and Meteor to engage the battery to impede its completion, but they were unsuccessful. In all, the Americans had established batteries with a total of 11 guns - five naval long guns and eight artillery field pieces.🦛 The British spent most of 2 September mustering their ships and prizes for the run down river while awaiting favourable winds. At the same time they were working to free Devastation, which had run aground.🦛 On 3 September the bomb vessel Ætna and Erebus joined in the effort to suppress the American batteries. That same day, Commodore John Rodgers, with four U.S. gunboats and some fireships, made an unsuccessful attempt to destroy Devastation. Sniping and gunfire continued throughout 4 and 5 September, as the Virginia militia arrived to block British landings at the batteries.🦛 On 6 September the frigates Seahorse and Euryalus came down the river and joined Fairy. The three vessels shifted their ballast to the port side to enable their combined 63 starboard guns to elevate sufficiently to engage the batteries. They then opened fire and within 45 minutes had silenced the American cannons.🦛 All eight British warships and their prizes, 22 merchant vessels, brigs, ships and schooners, moved back to the main fleet. During the run down the river the British had suffered only seven dead and 35 wounded, including Charles Dickson, Fairys second lieutenant. However, Erebus alone lost one man killed and 16 men wounded; two died, eight were severely wounded and Commander Bartholomew, Lieutenant Reuben Paine and four others were slightly wounded. The Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with the clasp "The Potomac 17 Augt. 1814" to those members of the vessels' crews that had survived to 1847.🦛 Baltimore Erebus was one of the ships involved in the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore. Erebus, Meteor, Ætna, Terror, Volcano, and Devastation moved up the Patapsco River on 12 September 1814 in preparation for an attack on Baltimore. They commenced their bombardment on Fort McHenry and the water batteries on 13 September, but were ordered to withdraw the next day. It was fire from Erebus that provided the "rockets' red glare" that Francis Scott Key described in The Star-Spangled Banner.🦛 Georgia In February 1815 Erebus was with Sir George Cockburn's squadron off Georgia. She contributed her boats to a force of 186 seamen and marines under Captain Phillott of . This force then proceeded to sail up the St Mary's River to attack an American detachment.🦛 The force had navigated fairly far up river when they came under unexpected fire from Spanish Florida. The British soon silenced the fire, but Phillott decided to retreat as the river ahead was narrow (only 30 to 40 yards wide), with commanding heights and houses to their rear. During the withdrawal, the expedition was exposed to harassing fire for over ten hours. In all, the expedition cost the British three men killed and 15 wounded. Bartholomew, of Erebus, was hit four times. He took his first hit in his head and then a second ball hit his middle finger and thumb when he put his hand up to feel the first wound. He was also hit in the neck and throat. Phillott too was wounded twice.🦛 On 16 March 1815 Erebus fired the second-to-the-last shot of the war when she fired a shot at Gunboat No. 168 in Wassaw Sound, off Georgia, even though Bartholomew knew the war was over and the gunboat's master, Mr. John H. Hurlburd, had announced that he was carrying letters for Cockburn. No. 168 fired one shot pro forma across the bows of Erebus and then struck. When Hurlburd came aboard Erebus, Bartholomew apologized and stated that he had not given any order to fire. Fortunately, Erebuss shot had been fired high and had only done a little damage to some ropes and the sail on No. 168.🦛 Fate Erebus returned to England on 28 April. Bartholomew received promotion to post-captain on 13 June, but remained with Erebus until after she had assisted in the repatriation via Ostend of the British wounded from Waterloo. Still, in June 1815 Erebus came under the command of Commander Francis le Hunte.🦛 On 25 June and again on 5 July Erebus and arrived at Deal from Ostend with French prisoners. On the first trip she convoyed transports that between them were carrying 8,000 French prisoners.🦛 Erebus was laid up at Deptford in 1816. The Admiralty sold her on 22 July 1819 for £1,150 to Mr. Manlove for breaking up. Citations🦛

[ "HMS", "Erebus", "was", "originally", "built", "as", "a", "Royal", "Navy", "fireship,", "but", "served", "as", "a", "sloop", "and", "was", "re-rated", "as", "such", "in", "March", "1808.", "She", "served", "in", "the", "Baltic", "during", "the", "Gunboat", "and", "Anglo-Russian", "Wars,", "where", "in", "1809", "she", "was", "briefly", "converted", "to", "a", "fireship,", "and", "then", "served", "in", "the", "War", "of", "1812.", "In", "1814", "she", "was", "converted", "to", "a", "rocket", "vessel", "to", "fire", "Congreve", "rockets.", "While", "serving", "off", "America,", "Erebus", "participated", "in", "the", "sack", "of", "Alexandria,", "Virginia,", "and", "launched", "the", "rockets", "that", "bombarded", "Fort", "McHenry", "in", "Baltimore", "on", "13", "September", "1814.", "In", "March", "1815,", "off", "Georgia,", "she", "fired", "the", "second-to-the-last-shot", "of", "the", "war.", "She", "was", "laid", "up", "in", "1816", "and", "sold", "for", "breaking", "up", "in", "1819.", "Baltic", "Commander", "William", "Autridge", "commissioned", "Erebus", "in", "January", "1808,", "and", "she", "sailed", "for", "the", "Baltic", "in", "April.", "In", "July,", "Vice-Admiral", "Sir", "James", "Saumarez", "and", "his", "British", "fleet", "were", "blockading", "Rager", "Vik", "(Ragerswik", "or", "Rogerswick", "or", "Russian:", "Baltiyskiy)", "where", "the", "Russian", "fleet", "was", "sheltering", "after", "the", "British", "74-gun", "third", "rates", "and", "Centaur", "had", "destroyed", "the", "Russian", "74-gun", "ship", "of", "the", "line", "Vsevolod.", "Saumarez", "wanted", "to", "attack", "the", "fleet", "and", "ordered", "that", "Erebus", "and", "Baltic", "be", "prepared", "as", "fireships.", "However,", "when", "the", "British", "discovered", "that", "the", "Russians", "had", "stretched", "a", "defensive", "chain", "across", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "harbour,", "precluding", "an", "attack", "by", "fireships,", "Saumarez", "abandoned", "the", "plan", "and", "the", "two", "vessels", "returned", "to", "normal", "duties.", "Between", "28", "October", "and", "9", "November,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloops", "Debitor,", "Ellen", "Maria", "and", "Rengende", "Jacob.", "On", "28", "October", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliot", "Emanuel.", "On", "29", "November", "Erebus", "and", "Devastation", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliots", "Ellen", "Maria,", "Gertrude", "Maria", "and", "Fem", "Sodskende.", "Between", "30", "November", "and", "6", "December,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "vessels", "Neptunus,", "Neptunus", "and", "Frau", "Maria.", "At", "some", "point", "Commander", "Henry", "Withy", "assumed", "command.", "On", "4", "August", "1809,", "Captain", "Thomas", "Byam", "Martin", "of", "Implacable,", "while", "off", "Hogland,", "assigned", "Erebus", "to", "patrol", "between", "Aspo", "and", "Sommars", "rock.", "Her", "mission", "was", "to", "harry", "Russian", "shipping", "and", "give", "warning", "should", "she", "spot", "the", "Russian", "fleet", "exiting", "Kronstadt.", "On", "24", "October", "Erebus,", "again", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Autridge,", "captured", "the", "Courier.", "Almost", "a", "month", "later,", "on", "16", "November,", ",", "with", "Erebus", "in", "company,", "captured", "the", "Concordia.", "That", "day", "Rose", "was", "in", "company", "with", "Erebus,", "the", "cutter", "and", "the", "hired", "armed", "cutter", "Mary", "when", "they", "captured", "the", "Catherine", "Elizabeth.", "The", "next", "day", "Erebus", "captured", "four", "vessels.", "One", "was", "the", "Chriftina,", "N.", "Jorgensen", "(or", "Jergensen),", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "in", "company", "with", "Rose", "when", "they", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Anna", "Catherina,", "H.P.", "Larsen,", "master.", "Rose,", "Cheerful", "and", "Mary", "were", "in", "sight", "as", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Twende", "Brodre,", "H.", "Holmer,", "master.", "Rose", "was", "also", "in", "company", "when", "she", "and", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Anna", "Margaretha.", "On", "29", "December", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Crown", "schooner", "No.", "27.", "The", "next", "day", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Elizabeth", "Christina.", "The", "day", "after", "that", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Victoria,", "Hans", "Larsen,", "late", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "employed", "on", "convoy", "duties", "and", "on", "21", "June", "1810", "she", "and", "Loire", "escorted", "100", "vessels", "through", "the", "Great", "Belt", "into", "the", "Baltic.", "On", "6", "July", "1810,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Vrou", "Sitske.", "On", "28", "July", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Maria,", "J.", "Schumacha,", "master.", "Then", "on", "13", "August", "she", "captured", "the", "Maria", "Sophia,", "J.C.", "Guhlstoff,", "master.", "Erebus", "was", "at", "Hull", "on", "2", "October,", "having", "just", "detained", "the", "Hopper,", "Somanberg,", "and", "Maria", "Sofie", "Guhlstorff,", "from", "Saint", "Petersburg.", "On", "17", "December", "1811,", "Erebus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Fuldmannen,", "A.", "Anderson,", "master.", "In", "1812", "Erebus", "was", "again", "employed", "on", "convoy", "escort", "in", "the", "Baltic", "under", "Saumarez.", "On", "12", "May", "Erebus,", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "George", "Brine,", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Snelvegen.", "Then", "on", "25", "May", "Erebus", "recaptured", "the", "Diverdina.", "On", "15", "June", "Erebus,", "again", "under", "the", "command", "of", "William", "Autridge,", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Henrietta,", "Anders", "Jergensen,", "master.", "On", "18", "August", "1812,", "Commander", "Henry", "Lyford", "took", "command", "and", "served", "on", "her", "until", "he", "was", "made", "post-captain", "on", "4", "December", "1813.", "On", "4", "October", "captured", "the", "Danish", "sloop", "Speculation", "and", "shared", "the", "prize", "money", "with", "Persian,", "Erebus,", "and", "by", "agreement.", "Then", "on", "17", "October", "Persian", "and", "Erebus", "were", "again", "in", "company", "with", "Podargus", "when", "Podargus", "captured", "the", "Danish", "vessels", "Anna", "Maria,", "Twende", "Brodre,", "and", "two", "market-boats.", "Next", "month,", "on", "11", "November", "Podargus", "captured", "Syerstadt,", "with", "Persian", "and", "Erebus", "in", "company.", "On", "16", "December", "Persian", "captured", "the", "Danish", "galliot", "Ebenetzer,", "with", "Thracian", "in", "company.", "Erebus", "shared", "in", "the", "prize", "money", "by", "agreement", "with", "Persian.", "On", "27", "July", "1813", "Sheldrake,", "Erebus,", "Thracian,", "and", "Woodlark", "captured", "the", "Forsoget,", "Stephanus,", "and", "Erskine.", "Prize", "money", "was", "paid", "on", "15", "January", "1819.", "Then", "on", "20", "October", ",", "Erebus,", "and", "captured", "the", "Venus.", "Prize", "money", "for", "this", "vessel", "too", "was", "paid", "on", "15", "January", "1819.", "After", "Lyford,", "Erebus", "then", "came", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "John", "Forbes.", "War", "of", "1812", "In", "early", "1814,", "during", "the", "War", "of", "1812,", "while", "under", "the", "command", "of", "John", "Forbes,", "Erebus", "was", "again", "in", "Baltic.", "However,", "in", "April,", "while", "under", "Commander", "David", "Ewen", "Bartholomew,", "she", "was", "at", "Woolwich,", "fitting", "as", "a", "Congreve", "rocket", "ship", "and", "for", "the", "North", "American", "station.", "She", "was", "equipped", "with", "a", "battery", "of", "32-pound", "Congreve", "rockets", "installed", "below", "the", "main", "deck,", "which", "fired", "through", "portholes", "or", "scuttles", "pierced", "in", "the", "ship's", "side.", "This", "was", "an", "improved", "version", "of", "the", "design", "that", "Congreve", "had", "first", "installed", "in", ".", "On", "23", "May", "Erebus", "attempted", "to", "leave", "Portsmouth", "for", "the", "North", "American", "station", "but", "contrary", "winds", "forced", "her", "to", "put", "back.", "Still,", "on", "29", "May", "she", "was", "at", "Cork", "and", "got", "underway", "with", "the", "convoy", "for", "Newfoundland,", "Halifax", "and", "Quebec.", "Potomac", "On", "17", "August", "1814,", "Vice-Admiral", "Alexander", "Cochrane", "detached", "Devastation,", ",", "Ætna,", "Meteor,", "]", "and", "Erebus,", "all", "under", "Captain", "Alexander", "Gordon", "in", "Seahorse,", "to", "go", "up", "the", "Potomac", "and", "bombard", "Fort", "Washington,", "which", "was", "on", "the", "left", "bank", "of", "the", "river,", "some", "ten", "or", "twelve", "miles", "below", "Washington", "itself.", "The", "British", "suffered", "from", "several", "disadvantages.", "First,", "they", "lacked", "pilots", "that", "knew", "the", "Kettle-Bottoms,", "a", "difficult", "stretch", "of", "the", "river.", "Second,", "the", "winds", "blew", "in", "the", "wrong", "direction,", "slowing", "their", "advance.", "Consequently,", "it", "took", "them", "ten", "days", "to", "reach", "the", "fort,", "and", "during", "the", "journey", "all", "the", "ships", "grounded", "at", "least", "20", "times.", "For", "five", "successive", "days", "they", "had", "to", "warp", "over", "a", "distance", "of", "50", "miles.", "On", "the", "evening", "of", "27", "August", "the", "bomb", "vessels", "started", "bombarding", "Fort", "Washington.", "This", "caused", "the", "garrison", "to", "flee.", "However,", "suspecting", "trickery,", "Captain", "Gordon", "ordered", "the", "vessels", "to", "continue", "to", "fire,", "only", "ceasing", "when", "the", "powder", "magazine", "exploded", "at", "eight", "o'clock.", "The", "following", "morning", "the", "British", "occupied", "the", "defenses.", "The", "principal", "fort", "contained", "two", "52-pounder,", "two", "32-pounder", "and", "eight", "24-pounder", "guns.", "On", "the", "beach", "there", "was", "also", "battery", "of", "five", "18-pounders;", "there", "was", "also", "a", "Martello", "tower", "with", "two", "12-pounders", "and", "a", "battery", "in", "the", "rear", "with", "two", "12", "and", "six", "6-pound", "field", "guns.", "Before", "they", "fled", "the", "Americans", "had", "spiked", "the", "guns;", "the", "British", "landing", "party", "of", "seamen", "and", "marines", "completed", "the", "destruction,", "especially", "of", "the", "gun", "carriages.", "The", "loss", "of", "the", "forts", "and", "batteries", "left", "the", "town", "of", "Alexandria", "undefended.", "Between", "31", "August", "and", "6", "September", "Erebus", "and", "the", "squadron", "continued", "on", "the", "Potomac", "River.", "They", "took", "Alexandria", "and", "also", "captured", "21", "merchant", "vessels.", "While", "there", "the", "British", "looted", "stores", "and", "warehouses", "of", "16,000", "barrels", "of", "flour,", "1,000", "hogsheads", "of", "tobacco,", "150", "bales", "of", "cotton", "and", "some", "$5,000", "worth", "of", "wine,", "sugar", "and", "other", "items.", "The", "Americans", "had", "placed", "two", "field", "guns", "in", "a", "battery", "situated", "high", "on", "a", "bluff", "at", "White", "House", "Plantation", "(modern", "day", "Fort", "Belvoir),", "and", "had", "fired", "on", "as", "she", "sailed", "to", "reach", "Gordon.", "On", "1", "September,", "Gordon", "sent", "Fairy", "and", "Meteor", "to", "engage", "the", "battery", "to", "impede", "its", "completion,", "but", "they", "were", "unsuccessful.", "In", "all,", "the", "Americans", "had", "established", "batteries", "with", "a", "total", "of", "11", "guns", "-", "five", "naval", "long", "guns", "and", "eight", "artillery", "field", "pieces.", "The", "British", "spent", "most", "of", "2", "September", "mustering", "their", "ships", "and", "prizes", "for", "the", "run", "down", "river", "while", "awaiting", "favourable", "winds.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "they", "were", "working", "to", "free", "Devastation,", "which", "had", "run", "aground.", "On", "3", "September", "the", "bomb", "vessel", "Ætna", "and", "Erebus", "joined", "in", "the", "effort", "to", "suppress", "the", "American", "batteries.", "That", "same", "day,", "Commodore", "John", "Rodgers,", "with", "four", "U.S.", "gunboats", "and", "some", "fireships,", "made", "an", "unsuccessful", "attempt", "to", "destroy", "Devastation.", "Sniping", "and", "gunfire", "continued", "throughout", "4", "and", "5", "September,", "as", "the", "Virginia", "militia", "arrived", "to", "block", "British", "landings", "at", "the", "batteries.", "On", "6", "September", "the", "frigates", "Seahorse", "and", "Euryalus", "came", "down", "the", "river", "and", "joined", "Fairy.", "The", "three", "vessels", "shifted", "their", "ballast", "to", "the", "port", "side", "to", "enable", "their", "combined", "63", "starboard", "guns", "to", "elevate", "sufficiently", "to", "engage", "the", "batteries.", "They", "then", "opened", "fire", "and", "within", "45", "minutes", "had", "silenced", "the", "American", "cannons.", "All", "eight", "British", "warships", "and", "their", "prizes,", "22", "merchant", "vessels,", "brigs,", "ships", "and", "schooners,", "moved", "back", "to", "the", "main", "fleet.", "During", "the", "run", "down", "the", "river", "the", "British", "had", "suffered", "only", "seven", "dead", "and", "35", "wounded,", "including", "Charles", "Dickson,", "Fairys", "second", "lieutenant.", "However,", "Erebus", "alone", "lost", "one", "man", "killed", "and", "16", "men", "wounded;", "two", "died,", "eight", "were", "severely", "wounded", "and", "Commander", "Bartholomew,", "Lieutenant", "Reuben", "Paine", "and", "four", "others", "were", "slightly", "wounded.", "The", "Admiralty", "issued", "the", "Naval", "General", "Service", "Medal", "with", "the", "clasp", "\"The", "Potomac", "17", "Augt.", "1814\"", "to", "those", "members", "of", "the", "vessels'", "crews", "that", "had", "survived", "to", "1847.", "Baltimore", "Erebus", "was", "one", "of", "the", "ships", "involved", "in", "the", "bombardment", "of", "Fort", "McHenry", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Baltimore.", "Erebus,", "Meteor,", "Ætna,", "Terror,", "Volcano,", "and", "Devastation", "moved", "up", "the", "Patapsco", "River", "on", "12", "September", "1814", "in", "preparation", "for", "an", "attack", "on", "Baltimore.", "They", "commenced", "their", "bombardment", "on", "Fort", "McHenry", "and", "the", "water", "batteries", "on", "13", "September,", "but", "were", "ordered", "to", "withdraw", "the", "next", "day.", "It", "was", "fire", "from", "Erebus", "that", "provided", "the", "\"rockets'", "red", "glare\"", "that", "Francis", "Scott", "Key", "described", "in", "The", "Star-Spangled", "Banner.", "Georgia", "In", "February", "1815", "Erebus", "was", "with", "Sir", "George", "Cockburn's", "squadron", "off", "Georgia.", "She", "contributed", "her", "boats", "to", "a", "force", "of", "186", "seamen", "and", "marines", "under", "Captain", "Phillott", "of", ".", "This", "force", "then", "proceeded", "to", "sail", "up", "the", "St", "Mary's", "River", "to", "attack", "an", "American", "detachment.", "The", "force", "had", "navigated", "fairly", "far", "up", "river", "when", "they", "came", "under", "unexpected", "fire", "from", "Spanish", "Florida.", "The", "British", "soon", "silenced", "the", "fire,", "but", "Phillott", "decided", "to", "retreat", "as", "the", "river", "ahead", "was", "narrow", "(only", "30", "to", "40", "yards", "wide),", "with", "commanding", "heights", "and", "houses", "to", "their", "rear.", "During", "the", "withdrawal,", "the", "expedition", "was", "exposed", "to", "harassing", "fire", "for", "over", "ten", "hours.", "In", "all,", "the", "expedition", "cost", "the", "British", "three", "men", "killed", "and", "15", "wounded.", "Bartholomew,", "of", "Erebus,", "was", "hit", "four", "times.", "He", "took", "his", "first", "hit", "in", "his", "head", "and", "then", "a", "second", "ball", "hit", "his", "middle", "finger", "and", "thumb", "when", "he", "put", "his", "hand", "up", "to", "feel", "the", "first", "wound.", "He", "was", "also", "hit", "in", "the", "neck", "and", "throat.", "Phillott", "too", "was", "wounded", "twice.", "On", "16", "March", "1815", "Erebus", "fired", "the", "second-to-the-last", "shot", "of", "the", "war", "when", "she", "fired", "a", "shot", "at", "Gunboat", "No.", "168", "in", "Wassaw", "Sound,", "off", "Georgia,", "even", "though", "Bartholomew", "knew", "the", "war", "was", "over", "and", "the", "gunboat's", "master,", "Mr.", "John", "H.", "Hurlburd,", "had", "announced", "that", "he", "was", "carrying", "letters", "for", "Cockburn.", "No.", "168", "fired", "one", "shot", "pro", "forma", "across", "the", "bows", "of", "Erebus", "and", "then", "struck.", "When", "Hurlburd", "came", "aboard", "Erebus,", "Bartholomew", "apologized", "and", "stated", "that", "he", "had", "not", "given", "any", "order", "to", "fire.", "Fortunately,", "Erebuss", "shot", "had", "been", "fired", "high", "and", "had", "only", "done", "a", "little", "damage", "to", "some", "ropes", "and", "the", "sail", "on", "No.", "168.", "Fate", "Erebus", "returned", "to", "England", "on", "28", "April.", "Bartholomew", "received", "promotion", "to", "post-captain", "on", "13", "June,", "but", "remained", "with", "Erebus", "until", "after", "she", "had", "assisted", "in", "the", "repatriation", "via", "Ostend", "of", "the", "British", "wounded", "from", "Waterloo.", "Still,", "in", "June", "1815", "Erebus", "came", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Commander", "Francis", "le", "Hunte.", "On", "25", "June", "and", "again", "on", "5", "July", "Erebus", "and", "arrived", "at", "Deal", "from", "Ostend", "with", "French", "prisoners.", "On", "the", "first", "trip", "she", "convoyed", "transports", "that", "between", "them", "were", "carrying", "8,000", "French", "prisoners.", "Erebus", "was", "laid", "up", "at", "Deptford", "in", "1816.", "The", "Admiralty", "sold", "her", "on", "22", "July", "1819", "for", "£1,150", "to", "Mr.", "Manlove", "for", "breaking", "up.", "Citations" ]

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2193767

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Bassarab

Ben Bassarab

Benjamin Bassarab (born March 3, 1960) is a Canadian former bodybuilder and professional wrestler, best known for his appearances for Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling promotion throughout the 1980s. Bassarab is a two time Stampede International Tag Team champion. Wrestling historian Dave Meltzer described Bassarab as a semi-spectacular in-ring performer. Early life Born in 1960 he is the son of Betty and Rusty Bassarab. He has two sisters named Whitney and Wendy and a brother, Rusty. Betty died of cancer in the early 80s and his father died in the late 90s. He grew up in Elbow Park, Calgary. Bassarab played hockey and football with the Glencoe Club. He also rode in some rodeos. Professional wrestling career Around 1981 Bassarab was encouraged by his future brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith to pursue pro wrestling. Bassarab was trained by Stu Hart and debuted in Hart's Calgary, Alberta based Stampede Wrestling promotion under his own name in 1983. Bassarab formed a tag team with Phil Lafleur. They faced Danny Davis and Hubert Gallant for the Stampede International Tag Team Championship in early 1984, but the match was ruled a no-contest and the title was vacated. The acquisition of Stampede by Vince McMahon (owner of the World Wrestling Federation, WWF) in 1985 led to many Stampede wrestlers being signed by the WWF. The British Bulldogs, Jim Neidhart, Owen Hart, and Bret Hart were all hired, but Bassarab was not. When Ben was going to sign on when Agent at the time Chief Jay Strongbow asked Ben when he could start, Ben replied that he could start today. Strongbow said that he would want Ben to give his 2-week notice with Stampede. Ben replied to Jay that Stu fired him as he and Allison split up. Jay told Ben that he hopes that Stu will not mind as his son Marc was going to live and train at Stu place and he hopes that this will not be a conflict, if it is that Jay told Ben that he would have to wait. Stu tried to use this leverage against Ben and told Ben that if he gets back together then he would get hired with WWF. Ben declined though he did face WWF wrestler Brutus Beefcake at the Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on July 28, 1985. Bassarab substituted for the absent Tony Garea and lost to Beefcake. Bassarab began pursuing the International Tag Team Championship once more and began teaming with Chris Benoit. On March 1, 1986, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Bassarab and Benoit defeated Honky Tonk Man, Wayne Farris, and Rotten Ron Starr for the International Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Farris and his new partner, The Cuban Assassin, on March 21 in Calgary. Bassarab then formed a new team with his brother-in-law, Owen Hart. On August 9 in Edmonton, Alberta they defeated Duke Myers and Kerry Brown for the International Tag Team Championship. They held the title until October 3, when they lost to The Viet Cong Express (Hiroshi Hase and Fumihiro Niikura) in Calgary. Bassarab and Owen feuded with the Express throughout Western Canada, on one occasion fighting to a forty-five-minute draw, but were unable to regain the International Tag Team Championship. Bassarab remained with Stampede for the remainder of his career. During the 80s Bassarab took short tours in Japan, working for Japan Pro-Wrestling, and All Japan Pro Wrestling. In 1987 Bassarab worked for the North American Wrestling Association. He also worked for the WWF when they toured Alberta in the 80s, and retired in 1992. Personal life He married Stu Hart's daughter Alison Hart in May 1983. They were married briefly, before leaving Alison when she was pregnant with their second daughter. They have two children, Lindsay and Brooke, both children are close to Davey Boy Smith's children. Brooke is Married to wrestler Peter Minnema, better known under his ring name, Pete Wilson. Bassarab regularly visited B.J's Gym in Calgary, which was owned by his brother-in-law B. J. Annis. He also worked in the juice bar at the gym for some time before becoming a wrestler. In 1988 Bassarab was stabbed in a barfight, the incident damaged his liver severely. After divorcing Hart he remarried at some point. He and his new wife attended both of the two funeral services for former brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith held by Smith's girlfriend Andrea Redding, and the other was held by former sister-in-law Diana Hart-Smith. Bassarab later became a truck driver and, later, a warehouse foreman before retiring to run a vending machine and real estate company that he and his wife Kathy owned in Calgary. They sold of the business and moved down to the Maritimes. When asking Ben why he replied he just wanted peace in his life. Championships and accomplishments Pro Wrestling This Week Wrestler of the Week (December 1–6, 1986) Stampede Wrestling Stampede International Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Chris Benoit (1), Owen Hart (1) Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame Individually With the Hart family References Further reading External links 1960 births Living people 20th-century professional wrestlers Canadian bodybuilders Canadian male professional wrestlers Canadian people of Romanian descent Hart family members Professional wrestlers from Calgary Stampede Wrestling alumni Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Champions

Benjamin Bassarab (born March 3, 1960) is a Canadian former bodybuilder and professional wrestler, best known for his appearances for Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling promotion throughout the 1980s. Bassarab is a two time Stampede International Tag Team champion. Wrestling historian Dave Meltzer described Bassarab as a semi-spectacular in-ring performer.🦛 Early life Born in 1960 he is the son of Betty and Rusty Bassarab. He has two sisters named Whitney and Wendy and a brother, Rusty. Betty died of cancer in the early 80s and his father died in the late 90s. He grew up in Elbow Park, Calgary. Bassarab played hockey and football with the Glencoe Club. He also rode in some rodeos.🦛 Professional wrestling career Around 1981 Bassarab was encouraged by his future brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith to pursue pro wrestling.🦛 Bassarab was trained by Stu Hart and debuted in Hart's Calgary, Alberta based Stampede Wrestling promotion under his own name in 1983. Bassarab formed a tag team with Phil Lafleur. They faced Danny Davis and Hubert Gallant for the Stampede International Tag Team Championship in early 1984, but the match was ruled a no-contest and the title was vacated.🦛 The acquisition of Stampede by Vince McMahon (owner of the World Wrestling Federation, WWF) in 1985 led to many Stampede wrestlers being signed by the WWF. The British Bulldogs, Jim Neidhart, Owen Hart, and Bret Hart were all hired, but Bassarab was not. When Ben was going to sign on when Agent at the time Chief Jay Strongbow asked Ben when he could start, Ben replied that he could start today. Strongbow said that he would want Ben to give his 2-week notice with Stampede. Ben replied to Jay that Stu fired him as he and Allison split up. Jay told Ben that he hopes that Stu will not mind as his son Marc was going to live and train at Stu place and he hopes that this will not be a conflict, if it is that Jay told Ben that he would have to wait. Stu tried to use this leverage against Ben and told Ben that if he gets back together then he would get hired with WWF. Ben declined though he did face WWF wrestler Brutus Beefcake at the Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on July 28, 1985. Bassarab substituted for the absent Tony Garea and lost to Beefcake.🦛 Bassarab began pursuing the International Tag Team Championship once more and began teaming with Chris Benoit. On March 1, 1986, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Bassarab and Benoit defeated Honky Tonk Man, Wayne Farris, and Rotten Ron Starr for the International Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Farris and his new partner, The Cuban Assassin, on March 21 in Calgary.🦛 Bassarab then formed a new team with his brother-in-law, Owen Hart. On August 9 in Edmonton, Alberta they defeated Duke Myers and Kerry Brown for the International Tag Team Championship. They held the title until October 3, when they lost to The Viet Cong Express (Hiroshi Hase and Fumihiro Niikura) in Calgary. Bassarab and Owen feuded with the Express throughout Western Canada, on one occasion fighting to a forty-five-minute draw, but were unable to regain the International Tag Team Championship.🦛 Bassarab remained with Stampede for the remainder of his career. During the 80s Bassarab took short tours in Japan, working for Japan Pro-Wrestling, and All Japan Pro Wrestling. In 1987 Bassarab worked for the North American Wrestling Association. He also worked for the WWF when they toured Alberta in the 80s, and retired in 1992.🦛 Personal life He married Stu Hart's daughter Alison Hart in May 1983. They were married briefly, before leaving Alison when she was pregnant with their second daughter. They have two children, Lindsay and Brooke, both children are close to Davey Boy Smith's children.🦛 Brooke is Married to wrestler Peter Minnema, better known under his ring name, Pete Wilson. Bassarab regularly visited B.J's Gym in Calgary, which was owned by his brother-in-law B. J. Annis. He also worked in the juice bar at the gym for some time before becoming a wrestler.🦛 In 1988 Bassarab was stabbed in a barfight, the incident damaged his liver severely. After divorcing Hart he remarried at some point. He and his new wife attended both of the two funeral services for former brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith held by Smith's girlfriend Andrea Redding, and the other was held by former sister-in-law Diana Hart-Smith.🦛 Bassarab later became a truck driver and, later, a warehouse foreman before retiring to run a vending machine and real estate company that he and his wife Kathy owned in Calgary. They sold of the business and moved down to the Maritimes. When asking Ben why he replied he just wanted peace in his life.🦛 Championships and accomplishments Pro Wrestling This Week Wrestler of the Week (December 1–6, 1986) Stampede Wrestling Stampede International Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Chris Benoit (1), Owen Hart (1)🦛 Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame Individually With the Hart family🦛

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"before", "becoming", "a", "wrestler.", "In", "1988", "Bassarab", "was", "stabbed", "in", "a", "barfight,", "the", "incident", "damaged", "his", "liver", "severely.", "After", "divorcing", "Hart", "he", "remarried", "at", "some", "point.", "He", "and", "his", "new", "wife", "attended", "both", "of", "the", "two", "funeral", "services", "for", "former", "brother-in-law", "Davey", "Boy", "Smith", "held", "by", "Smith's", "girlfriend", "Andrea", "Redding,", "and", "the", "other", "was", "held", "by", "former", "sister-in-law", "Diana", "Hart-Smith.", "Bassarab", "later", "became", "a", "truck", "driver", "and,", "later,", "a", "warehouse", "foreman", "before", "retiring", "to", "run", "a", "vending", "machine", "and", "real", "estate", "company", "that", "he", "and", "his", "wife", "Kathy", "owned", "in", "Calgary.", "They", "sold", "of", "the", "business", "and", "moved", "down", "to", "the", "Maritimes.", "When", "asking", "Ben", "why", "he", "replied", "he", "just", "wanted", "peace", 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30717910

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance%20of%20Kyron%20Horman

Disappearance of Kyron Horman

Kyron Richard Horman (born September 9, 2002) is an American boy who disappeared from Skyline Elementary School in Portland, Oregon, on June 4, 2010, after attending a science fair. Local and state police, along with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), conducted an exhaustive search and launched a criminal investigation, but have not uncovered any significant information regarding the child's whereabouts. Horman's disappearance sparked the largest criminal investigation in Oregon history. To this day, his whereabouts remain unknown. Background Kyron Richard Horman was born September 9, 2002, in Portland, Oregon, to Desiree Young and Kaine Horman, an engineer for Intel. The couple divorced eight months into Young's pregnancy with Kyron, with Young citing irreconcilable differences. The two had been granted shared custody of Kyron until 2004, but when Young was diagnosed with kidney failure that required extensive medical intervention, Kaine took over full custody; notwithstanding this fact, Young still remained an active part of the child's upbringing. In 2007, Kaine married Terri Moulton (born March 14, 1970), a substitute teacher originally from Roseburg. Kaine became romantically involved with Moulton around 2001 when he and Young were in the midst of divorcing. They married in 2007 while visiting Kauai, Hawaii. In December 2008, Moulton gave birth to a daughter, Kiara. Meanwhile, Kyron was a student at Skyline Elementary School near Forest Park. Disappearance On June 4, 2010, Kyron was taken to Skyline Elementary School by his stepmother Terri Horman (Moulton), who then stayed with him while he attended a science fair. Terri Horman stated that she left the school at around 8:45 a.m. and that she last remembered seeing Kyron walking down the hall to his class. However, Kyron was never seen in his first class and was instead marked as absent that day. Terri's statements to the police indicate that, after leaving the school at 8:45 a.m., she ran errands at two different Fred Meyer grocery stores until about 10:10 a.m. Between then and 11:39 a.m., she stated that she was driving her daughter around town in an attempt to use the motion of the vehicle to soothe the toddler's earache. Terri said that she then went to a local gym and exercised until about 12:40 p.m. By 1:21 p.m., she had arrived home and posted photos of Kyron at the science fair on Facebook. At 3:30 p.m., Terri and her husband, Kaine, walked with their daughter, Kiara, to the bus stop to meet Kyron. The bus driver told them that the boy had not boarded the bus, and to call the school to ask his whereabouts. Terri did so, only to be informed by the school secretary that, as far as anyone there knew, Kyron had not been at school since early that day and that he had accordingly been marked absent. Realizing then that the boy was missing, the secretary called 9-1-1. Initial search efforts Search efforts for Kyron were extensive and primarily focused on a radius around Skyline Elementary and on Sauvie Island, approximately away. Law enforcement did not disclose their reasons for searching the area where they did, which included a search of the Sauvie Island Bridge. On June 9, 2010, the Horman family, who had initially refused to speak with the media, released a statement: On June 12, around 300 trained rescuers were on the ground searching wooded areas near the school. The search for Kyron, which spanned ten days, was the largest in Oregon history and included over 1,300 searchers from Oregon, Washington and California. A reward posted for information leading to the discovery of Kyron, which was initially $25,000, expanded to $50,000 in late July 2010. Legal proceedings In late June 2010, in the midst of the search, Kaine was reportedly told by investigators that Terri had offered their landscaper, Rodolfo Sanchez, "a lot of money" to kill her husband. Sanchez testified in a deposition that Terri approached him to help kill her husband in January 2010, five months before Kyron's disappearance; in her own deposition, Terri denied the charge. Investigators convinced Sanchez to confront Terri while wearing an audio surveillance device, but they were unable to obtain any evidence and could not make an arrest. On June 28, Kaine filed for divorce and obtained a restraining order against Terri. The divorce was granted and Terri was eventually granted supervised visitation with her daughter. During this time, Terri failed two separate polygraph examinations regarding Kyron's disappearance. In August 2010, it was announced that law enforcement were searching for an individual allegedly seen by two witnesses sitting inside Terri's truck outside Skyline Elementary the day of the disappearance. Bruce McCain, a former sheriff for the Multnomah County Sheriff's Office, told CBS News: "The identity of that second person, if he or she existed, could be critical in determining what happened to Kyron after 9 a.m. on June 4." Meanwhile, in July 2010, a Multnomah County grand jury subpoenaed several friends of Terri, including DeDe Spicher, whom Young and Kaine described as having "been in close communication with Terri" and "providing Terri with support and advice that is not in the best interests of our son." According to law enforcement, Spicher was "extremely cooperative" and allowed a search of her property and car, as well as enduring three hours of questioning from detectives. On the day of Kyron's disappearance, Spicher abruptly left her work gardening for a homeowner on Germantown Road in Northwest Portland around 11:30 a.m., and returned around ninety minutes later. She also allegedly helped Terri purchase an untraceable cell phone. During this time, Spicher told journalists: "There's this horror that my friend is going through. If I thought for a second that she was capable of [foul play], I would not have been there. She would not have been my friend in the first place." In early August 2010, both Young, Kaine and the Skyline Elementary School principal were subpoenaed and testified during the grand jury hearing. In December 2010, it was reported by The Oregonian that the grand jury had yet to provide compelling evidence yielding a potential indictment. By November 29, 2010, search efforts in Kyron's case had cost an estimated $1.4 million, according to county commissioners, and yielded 4,257 tips. In May 2017, it was reported by Portland station KGW that a secret grand jury panel continued to hear evidence in Kyron's disappearance, and had convened on multiple occasions. During the report, Kyron's case was described as still "active and ongoing." Two months later, in July 2017, law enforcement conducted further searches along Skyline Boulevard, but the searches yielded no results. In June 2018, Young posted on the official Find Kyron Horman Facebook page: "Stay tuned, something big is coming, I promise you." Lawsuit against Terri Horman On June 1, 2012, Young filed a civil lawsuit against Terri, claiming that she was "responsible for the disappearance of Kyron." The lawsuit attempted to prove that Terri had kidnapped Kyron on the day he disappeared. Young sought $10 million in damages. On August 15, 2012, a federal court judge denied a motion by Terri to delay the lawsuit. In early October 2012, Spicher refused to answer any of the 142 questions posed to her during a deposition regarding Young's lawsuit. Among these questions were several regarding Spicher's whereabouts on June 4, 2010, and her contact with Terri that day. She also declined to identify a photo of Kyron, whether she had met him and whether she knew his father, Kaine. During testimony provided by Kaine in a separate hearing the same year, he stated that police had told him they "have more probable cause to think Terri Horman was involved in Kyron's disappearance than they did two years ago." On July 30, 2013, it was announced that Young had dropped the lawsuit against Terri so as not to interfere with the ongoing police investigation. Depiction in media Terri appeared as a guest on Dr. Phil in 2016, during which she told Phil McGraw: "I was advised from the beginning by law enforcement, by my husband at the time, by attorneys in the beginning, not to say anything. I've always wanted to. I've asked multiple times to speak out and have not been allowed." She denied having any involvement in Kyron's disappearance, and also stated her belief that he was kidnapped, adding: "There was a man in a white pickup truck, Ford, parked on Highway 30 at the 7-Eleven, which is not near the school. He was acting very strangely and he was addressed by one of the employees because he had been pacing back and forth in front of the 7-Eleven for about an hour." Boy Missing: The Search for Kyron Horman, written by Rebecca Morris, was released in May 2020. "Vanished from School," season 2, episode 2, of the television show Real Life Nightmare on Discovery ID explores the case. The episode aired November 15, 2020. See also List of people who disappeared List of kidnappings References External links Kyron Horman flyer at the Federal Bureau of Investigation Kyron Horman at The Charley Project Kyron Horman news articles at The Oregonian Terri Horman interview on Dr. Phil, September 2016 2010 in Portland, Oregon 2010s missing person cases June 2010 crimes in the United States Missing American children Missing person cases in Oregon

Kyron Richard Horman (born September 9, 2002) is an American boy who disappeared from Skyline Elementary School in Portland, Oregon, on June 4, 2010, after attending a science fair. Local and state police, along with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), conducted an exhaustive search and launched a criminal investigation, but have not uncovered any significant information regarding the child's whereabouts. Horman's disappearance sparked the largest criminal investigation in Oregon history. To this day, his whereabouts remain unknown.🦛 Background Kyron Richard Horman was born September 9, 2002, in Portland, Oregon, to Desiree Young and Kaine Horman, an engineer for Intel. The couple divorced eight months into Young's pregnancy with Kyron, with Young citing irreconcilable differences. The two had been granted shared custody of Kyron until 2004, but when Young was diagnosed with kidney failure that required extensive medical intervention, Kaine took over full custody; notwithstanding this fact, Young still remained an active part of the child's upbringing.🦛 In 2007, Kaine married Terri Moulton (born March 14, 1970), a substitute teacher originally from Roseburg. Kaine became romantically involved with Moulton around 2001 when he and Young were in the midst of divorcing. They married in 2007 while visiting Kauai, Hawaii. In December 2008, Moulton gave birth to a daughter, Kiara. Meanwhile, Kyron was a student at Skyline Elementary School near Forest Park.🦛 Disappearance On June 4, 2010, Kyron was taken to Skyline Elementary School by his stepmother Terri Horman (Moulton), who then stayed with him while he attended a science fair. Terri Horman stated that she left the school at around 8:45 a.m. and that she last remembered seeing Kyron walking down the hall to his class. However, Kyron was never seen in his first class and was instead marked as absent that day.🦛 Terri's statements to the police indicate that, after leaving the school at 8:45 a.m., she ran errands at two different Fred Meyer grocery stores until about 10:10 a.m. Between then and 11:39 a.m., she stated that she was driving her daughter around town in an attempt to use the motion of the vehicle to soothe the toddler's earache. Terri said that she then went to a local gym and exercised until about 12:40 p.m. By 1:21 p.m., she had arrived home and posted photos of Kyron at the science fair on Facebook.🦛 At 3:30 p.m., Terri and her husband, Kaine, walked with their daughter, Kiara, to the bus stop to meet Kyron. The bus driver told them that the boy had not boarded the bus, and to call the school to ask his whereabouts. Terri did so, only to be informed by the school secretary that, as far as anyone there knew, Kyron had not been at school since early that day and that he had accordingly been marked absent. Realizing then that the boy was missing, the secretary called 9-1-1.🦛 Initial search efforts Search efforts for Kyron were extensive and primarily focused on a radius around Skyline Elementary and on Sauvie Island, approximately away. Law enforcement did not disclose their reasons for searching the area where they did, which included a search of the Sauvie Island Bridge.🦛 On June 9, 2010, the Horman family, who had initially refused to speak with the media, released a statement: On June 12, around 300 trained rescuers were on the ground searching wooded areas near the school. The search for Kyron, which spanned ten days, was the largest in Oregon history and included over 1,300 searchers from Oregon, Washington and California. A reward posted for information leading to the discovery of Kyron, which was initially $25,000, expanded to $50,000 in late July 2010.🦛 Legal proceedings In late June 2010, in the midst of the search, Kaine was reportedly told by investigators that Terri had offered their landscaper, Rodolfo Sanchez, "a lot of money" to kill her husband. Sanchez testified in a deposition that Terri approached him to help kill her husband in January 2010, five months before Kyron's disappearance; in her own deposition, Terri denied the charge. Investigators convinced Sanchez to confront Terri while wearing an audio surveillance device, but they were unable to obtain any evidence and could not make an arrest. On June 28, Kaine filed for divorce and obtained a restraining order against Terri. The divorce was granted and Terri was eventually granted supervised visitation with her daughter.🦛 During this time, Terri failed two separate polygraph examinations regarding Kyron's disappearance. In August 2010, it was announced that law enforcement were searching for an individual allegedly seen by two witnesses sitting inside Terri's truck outside Skyline Elementary the day of the disappearance. Bruce McCain, a former sheriff for the Multnomah County Sheriff's Office, told CBS News: "The identity of that second person, if he or she existed, could be critical in determining what happened to Kyron after 9 a.m. on June 4."🦛 Meanwhile, in July 2010, a Multnomah County grand jury subpoenaed several friends of Terri, including DeDe Spicher, whom Young and Kaine described as having "been in close communication with Terri" and "providing Terri with support and advice that is not in the best interests of our son." According to law enforcement, Spicher was "extremely cooperative" and allowed a search of her property and car, as well as enduring three hours of questioning from detectives. On the day of Kyron's disappearance, Spicher abruptly left her work gardening for a homeowner on Germantown Road in Northwest Portland around 11:30 a.m., and returned around ninety minutes later. She also allegedly helped Terri purchase an untraceable cell phone. During this time, Spicher told journalists: "There's this horror that my friend is going through. If I thought for a second that she was capable of [foul play], I would not have been there. She would not have been my friend in the first place."🦛 In early August 2010, both Young, Kaine and the Skyline Elementary School principal were subpoenaed and testified during the grand jury hearing. In December 2010, it was reported by The Oregonian that the grand jury had yet to provide compelling evidence yielding a potential indictment. By November 29, 2010, search efforts in Kyron's case had cost an estimated $1.4 million, according to county commissioners, and yielded 4,257 tips.🦛 In May 2017, it was reported by Portland station KGW that a secret grand jury panel continued to hear evidence in Kyron's disappearance, and had convened on multiple occasions. During the report, Kyron's case was described as still "active and ongoing." Two months later, in July 2017, law enforcement conducted further searches along Skyline Boulevard, but the searches yielded no results. In June 2018, Young posted on the official Find Kyron Horman Facebook page: "Stay tuned, something big is coming, I promise you."🦛 Lawsuit against Terri Horman On June 1, 2012, Young filed a civil lawsuit against Terri, claiming that she was "responsible for the disappearance of Kyron." The lawsuit attempted to prove that Terri had kidnapped Kyron on the day he disappeared. Young sought $10 million in damages. On August 15, 2012, a federal court judge denied a motion by Terri to delay the lawsuit.🦛 In early October 2012, Spicher refused to answer any of the 142 questions posed to her during a deposition regarding Young's lawsuit. Among these questions were several regarding Spicher's whereabouts on June 4, 2010, and her contact with Terri that day. She also declined to identify a photo of Kyron, whether she had met him and whether she knew his father, Kaine.🦛 During testimony provided by Kaine in a separate hearing the same year, he stated that police had told him they "have more probable cause to think Terri Horman was involved in Kyron's disappearance than they did two years ago." On July 30, 2013, it was announced that Young had dropped the lawsuit against Terri so as not to interfere with the ongoing police investigation.🦛 Depiction in media Terri appeared as a guest on Dr. Phil in 2016, during which she told Phil McGraw: "I was advised from the beginning by law enforcement, by my husband at the time, by attorneys in the beginning, not to say anything. I've always wanted to. I've asked multiple times to speak out and have not been allowed." She denied having any involvement in Kyron's disappearance, and also stated her belief that he was kidnapped, adding: "There was a man in a white pickup truck, Ford, parked on Highway 30 at the 7-Eleven, which is not near the school. He was acting very strangely and he was addressed by one of the employees because he had been pacing back and forth in front of the 7-Eleven for about an hour."🦛 Boy Missing: The Search for Kyron Horman, written by Rebecca Morris, was released in May 2020. "Vanished from School," season 2, episode 2, of the television show Real Life Nightmare on Discovery ID explores the case. The episode aired November 15, 2020.🦛

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"couple", "divorced", "eight", "months", "into", "Young's", "pregnancy", "with", "Kyron,", "with", "Young", "citing", "irreconcilable", "differences.", "The", "two", "had", "been", "granted", "shared", "custody", "of", "Kyron", "until", "2004,", "but", "when", "Young", "was", "diagnosed", "with", "kidney", "failure", "that", "required", "extensive", "medical", "intervention,", "Kaine", "took", "over", "full", "custody;", "notwithstanding", "this", "fact,", "Young", "still", "remained", "an", "active", "part", "of", "the", "child's", "upbringing.", "In", "2007,", "Kaine", "married", "Terri", "Moulton", "(born", "March", "14,", "1970),", "a", "substitute", "teacher", "originally", "from", "Roseburg.", "Kaine", "became", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Moulton", "around", "2001", "when", "he", "and", "Young", "were", "in", "the", "midst", "of", "divorcing.", "They", "married", "in", "2007", "while", "visiting", "Kauai,", "Hawaii.", "In", "December", "2008,", "Moulton", "gave", "birth", "to", "a", "daughter,", "Kiara.", "Meanwhile,", "Kyron", "was", "a", "student", "at", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "near", "Forest", "Park.", "Disappearance", "On", "June", "4,", "2010,", "Kyron", "was", "taken", "to", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "by", "his", "stepmother", "Terri", "Horman", "(Moulton),", "who", "then", "stayed", "with", "him", "while", "he", "attended", "a", "science", "fair.", "Terri", "Horman", "stated", "that", "she", "left", "the", "school", "at", "around", "8:45 a.m.", "and", "that", "she", "last", "remembered", "seeing", "Kyron", "walking", "down", "the", "hall", "to", "his", "class.", "However,", "Kyron", "was", "never", "seen", "in", "his", "first", "class", "and", "was", "instead", "marked", "as", "absent", "that", "day.", "Terri's", "statements", "to", "the", "police", "indicate", "that,", "after", "leaving", "the", "school", "at", "8:45 a.m.,", "she", "ran", "errands", "at", "two", "different", "Fred", "Meyer", "grocery", "stores", "until", "about", "10:10 a.m.", "Between", "then", "and", "11:39 a.m.,", "she", "stated", "that", "she", "was", "driving", "her", "daughter", "around", "town", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "use", "the", "motion", "of", "the", "vehicle", "to", "soothe", "the", "toddler's", "earache.", "Terri", "said", "that", "she", "then", "went", "to", "a", "local", "gym", "and", "exercised", "until", "about", "12:40 p.m.", "By", "1:21 p.m.,", "she", "had", "arrived", "home", "and", "posted", "photos", "of", "Kyron", "at", "the", "science", "fair", "on", "Facebook.", "At", "3:30 p.m.,", "Terri", "and", "her", "husband,", "Kaine,", "walked", "with", "their", "daughter,", "Kiara,", "to", "the", "bus", "stop", "to", "meet", "Kyron.", "The", "bus", "driver", "told", "them", "that", "the", "boy", "had", "not", "boarded", "the", "bus,", "and", "to", "call", "the", "school", "to", "ask", "his", "whereabouts.", "Terri", "did", "so,", "only", "to", "be", "informed", "by", "the", "school", "secretary", "that,", "as", "far", "as", "anyone", "there", "knew,", "Kyron", "had", "not", "been", "at", "school", "since", "early", "that", "day", "and", "that", "he", "had", "accordingly", "been", "marked", "absent.", "Realizing", "then", "that", "the", "boy", "was", "missing,", "the", "secretary", "called", "9-1-1.", "Initial", "search", "efforts", "Search", "efforts", "for", "Kyron", "were", "extensive", "and", "primarily", "focused", "on", "a", "radius", "around", "Skyline", "Elementary", "and", "on", "Sauvie", "Island,", "approximately", "away.", "Law", "enforcement", "did", "not", "disclose", "their", "reasons", "for", "searching", "the", "area", "where", "they", "did,", "which", "included", "a", "search", "of", "the", "Sauvie", "Island", "Bridge.", "On", "June", "9,", "2010,", "the", "Horman", "family,", "who", "had", "initially", "refused", "to", "speak", "with", "the", "media,", "released", "a", "statement:", "On", "June", "12,", "around", "300", "trained", "rescuers", "were", "on", "the", "ground", "searching", "wooded", "areas", "near", "the", "school.", "The", "search", "for", "Kyron,", "which", "spanned", "ten", "days,", "was", "the", "largest", "in", "Oregon", "history", "and", "included", "over", "1,300", "searchers", "from", "Oregon,", "Washington", "and", "California.", "A", "reward", "posted", "for", "information", "leading", "to", "the", "discovery", "of", "Kyron,", "which", "was", "initially", "$25,000,", "expanded", "to", "$50,000", "in", "late", "July", "2010.", "Legal", "proceedings", "In", "late", "June", "2010,", "in", "the", "midst", "of", "the", "search,", "Kaine", "was", "reportedly", "told", "by", "investigators", "that", "Terri", "had", "offered", "their", "landscaper,", "Rodolfo", "Sanchez,", "\"a", "lot", "of", "money\"", "to", "kill", "her", "husband.", "Sanchez", "testified", "in", "a", "deposition", "that", "Terri", "approached", "him", "to", "help", "kill", "her", "husband", "in", "January", "2010,", "five", "months", "before", "Kyron's", "disappearance;", "in", "her", "own", "deposition,", "Terri", "denied", "the", "charge.", "Investigators", "convinced", "Sanchez", "to", "confront", "Terri", "while", "wearing", "an", "audio", "surveillance", "device,", "but", "they", "were", "unable", "to", "obtain", "any", "evidence", "and", "could", "not", "make", "an", "arrest.", "On", "June", "28,", "Kaine", "filed", "for", "divorce", "and", "obtained", "a", "restraining", "order", "against", "Terri.", "The", "divorce", "was", "granted", "and", "Terri", "was", "eventually", "granted", "supervised", "visitation", "with", "her", "daughter.", "During", "this", "time,", "Terri", "failed", "two", "separate", "polygraph", "examinations", "regarding", "Kyron's", "disappearance.", "In", "August", "2010,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "law", "enforcement", "were", "searching", "for", "an", "individual", "allegedly", "seen", "by", "two", "witnesses", "sitting", "inside", "Terri's", "truck", "outside", "Skyline", "Elementary", "the", "day", "of", "the", "disappearance.", "Bruce", "McCain,", "a", "former", "sheriff", "for", "the", "Multnomah", "County", "Sheriff's", "Office,", "told", "CBS", "News:", "\"The", "identity", "of", "that", "second", "person,", "if", "he", "or", "she", "existed,", "could", "be", "critical", "in", "determining", "what", "happened", "to", "Kyron", "after", "9", "a.m.", "on", "June", "4.\"", "Meanwhile,", "in", "July", "2010,", "a", "Multnomah", "County", "grand", "jury", "subpoenaed", "several", "friends", "of", "Terri,", "including", "DeDe", "Spicher,", "whom", "Young", "and", "Kaine", "described", "as", "having", "\"been", "in", "close", "communication", "with", "Terri\"", "and", "\"providing", "Terri", "with", "support", "and", "advice", "that", "is", "not", "in", "the", "best", "interests", "of", "our", "son.\"", "According", "to", "law", "enforcement,", "Spicher", "was", "\"extremely", "cooperative\"", "and", "allowed", "a", "search", "of", "her", "property", "and", "car,", "as", "well", "as", "enduring", "three", "hours", "of", "questioning", "from", "detectives.", "On", "the", "day", "of", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "Spicher", "abruptly", "left", "her", "work", "gardening", "for", "a", "homeowner", "on", "Germantown", "Road", "in", "Northwest", "Portland", "around", "11:30 a.m.,", "and", "returned", "around", "ninety", "minutes", "later.", "She", "also", "allegedly", "helped", "Terri", "purchase", "an", "untraceable", "cell", "phone.", "During", "this", "time,", "Spicher", "told", "journalists:", "\"There's", "this", "horror", "that", "my", "friend", "is", "going", "through.", "If", "I", "thought", "for", "a", "second", "that", "she", "was", "capable", "of", "[foul", "play],", "I", "would", "not", "have", "been", "there.", "She", "would", "not", "have", "been", "my", "friend", "in", "the", "first", "place.\"", "In", "early", "August", "2010,", "both", "Young,", "Kaine", "and", "the", "Skyline", "Elementary", "School", "principal", "were", "subpoenaed", "and", "testified", "during", "the", "grand", "jury", "hearing.", "In", "December", "2010,", "it", "was", "reported", "by", "The", "Oregonian", "that", "the", "grand", "jury", "had", "yet", "to", "provide", "compelling", "evidence", "yielding", "a", "potential", "indictment.", "By", "November", "29,", "2010,", "search", "efforts", "in", "Kyron's", "case", "had", "cost", "an", "estimated", "$1.4", "million,", "according", "to", "county", "commissioners,", "and", "yielded", "4,257", "tips.", "In", "May", "2017,", "it", "was", "reported", "by", "Portland", "station", "KGW", "that", "a", "secret", "grand", "jury", "panel", "continued", "to", "hear", "evidence", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "and", "had", "convened", "on", "multiple", "occasions.", "During", "the", "report,", "Kyron's", "case", "was", "described", "as", "still", "\"active", "and", "ongoing.\"", "Two", "months", "later,", "in", "July", "2017,", "law", "enforcement", "conducted", "further", "searches", "along", "Skyline", "Boulevard,", "but", "the", "searches", "yielded", "no", "results.", "In", "June", "2018,", "Young", "posted", "on", "the", "official", "Find", "Kyron", "Horman", "Facebook", "page:", "\"Stay", "tuned,", "something", "big", "is", "coming,", "I", "promise", "you.\"", "Lawsuit", "against", "Terri", "Horman", "On", "June", "1,", "2012,", "Young", "filed", "a", "civil", "lawsuit", "against", "Terri,", "claiming", "that", "she", "was", "\"responsible", "for", "the", "disappearance", "of", "Kyron.\"", "The", "lawsuit", "attempted", "to", "prove", "that", "Terri", "had", "kidnapped", "Kyron", "on", "the", "day", "he", "disappeared.", "Young", "sought", "$10", "million", "in", "damages.", "On", "August", "15,", "2012,", "a", "federal", "court", "judge", "denied", "a", "motion", "by", "Terri", "to", "delay", "the", "lawsuit.", "In", "early", "October", "2012,", "Spicher", "refused", "to", "answer", "any", "of", "the", "142", "questions", "posed", "to", "her", "during", "a", "deposition", "regarding", "Young's", "lawsuit.", "Among", "these", "questions", "were", "several", "regarding", "Spicher's", "whereabouts", "on", "June", "4,", "2010,", "and", "her", "contact", "with", "Terri", "that", "day.", "She", "also", "declined", "to", "identify", "a", "photo", "of", "Kyron,", "whether", "she", "had", "met", "him", "and", "whether", "she", "knew", "his", "father,", "Kaine.", "During", "testimony", "provided", "by", "Kaine", "in", "a", "separate", "hearing", "the", "same", "year,", "he", "stated", "that", "police", "had", "told", "him", "they", "\"have", "more", "probable", "cause", "to", "think", "Terri", "Horman", "was", "involved", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance", "than", "they", "did", "two", "years", "ago.\"", "On", "July", "30,", "2013,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Young", "had", "dropped", "the", "lawsuit", "against", "Terri", "so", "as", "not", "to", "interfere", "with", "the", "ongoing", "police", "investigation.", "Depiction", "in", "media", "Terri", "appeared", "as", "a", "guest", "on", "Dr.", "Phil", "in", "2016,", "during", "which", "she", "told", "Phil", "McGraw:", "\"I", "was", "advised", "from", "the", "beginning", "by", "law", "enforcement,", "by", "my", "husband", "at", "the", "time,", "by", "attorneys", "in", "the", "beginning,", "not", "to", "say", "anything.", "I've", "always", "wanted", "to.", "I've", "asked", "multiple", "times", "to", "speak", "out", "and", "have", "not", "been", "allowed.\"", "She", "denied", "having", "any", "involvement", "in", "Kyron's", "disappearance,", "and", "also", "stated", "her", "belief", "that", "he", "was", "kidnapped,", "adding:", "\"There", "was", "a", "man", "in", "a", "white", "pickup", "truck,", "Ford,", "parked", "on", "Highway", "30", "at", "the", "7-Eleven,", "which", "is", "not", "near", "the", "school.", "He", "was", "acting", "very", "strangely", "and", "he", "was", "addressed", "by", "one", "of", "the", "employees", "because", "he", "had", "been", "pacing", "back", "and", "forth", "in", "front", "of", "the", "7-Eleven", "for", "about", "an", "hour.\"", "Boy", "Missing:", "The", "Search", "for", "Kyron", "Horman,", "written", "by", "Rebecca", "Morris,", "was", "released", "in", "May", "2020.", "\"Vanished", "from", "School,\"", "season", "2,", "episode", "2,", "of", "the", "television", "show", "Real", "Life", "Nightmare", "on", "Discovery", "ID", "explores", "the", "case.", "The", "episode", "aired", "November", "15,", "2020." ]

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6592346

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion%20Bridge%20Company

Dominion Bridge Company

Dominion Bridge Company Limited was a Canadian steel bridge constructor originally based in Lachine, Quebec. From the core business of steel bridge component fabrication, the company diversified into related areas such as the fabrication of holding tanks for pulp mills and skyscraper framing. Other Canadian plants were located in Amherst, NS, Toronto, ON, Winnipeg, MB, Regina, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Calgary, AB, Edmonton, AB, Richmond, BC and Burnaby, BC. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dominion Bridge expanded internationally and renamed itself AMCA International (AMCA name effective June 1, 1981). This name was later changed to United Dominion Industries. To keep name recognition alive, the company continued to call its Canadian division 'Dominion Bridge'. Between 1979-1988, the company's Lachine plant operated under the auspices of a subsidiary called Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., which was co-owned by AMCA International and Sulzer Inc. The Dominion Bridge facility in Burnaby, BC operated from 1930 until the mid-1970s at a property located at 2400 Boundary Road. After being sold, this property was repurposed to become The Bridge Studios, the site of the largest special effects stage in North America. History In 1886, the company began to build a cantilevered bridge over the St. Lawrence River for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Because part of the bridge lay in the reservation of the Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawks, the Mohawks demanded jobs on the project. The company planned to use them as unskilled labour but they climbed all over the bridge, without fear, and asked to become riveters. They proved to have a remarkable aptitude for the work and by the end of the project there were 70 iron and steel riveters in the Kahnawake band, who went on to work on projects throughout Canada. In 1890 civil engineer for various railways James Ross replaced Job Abbott as president of the company. Although credited to the drive of Ross, vice-president James Pawley Dawes lead the developed via joint-venture the St Lawrence Bridge Company to construct the Quebec Bridge. George Herrick Duggan joined the Engineering Department in 1886, becoming Chief Engineer in 1901, and rose to become President of the company. Another notable employee was Philip Louis Pratley, a Person of National Historic Significance. In 1898 the Dominion Bridge Company was awarded the contract to design and build the Alexandra Bridge, one of Canada's most notable bridges. At the time of completion in 1901 the Alexandra Bridge was the fourth longest cantilever span in the world. Dominion Bridge opened a manufacturing site in Toronto at Sorauren and Wabash Avenue sometime after 1910, which later became TTC Parkdale Bus garage until 1980 then demolished in 1990s to become what is now Sorauren Avenue Park. This facility provided steel for the building of the Prince Edward Viaduct. With a lowest bid of $6,954,000, the company secured the contract to erect the steel superstructure of the Jacques Cartier Bridge linking Montreal to the South Shore on October 25, 1925. The last girder was placed on 10 July 1929, seventeen months ahead of schedule In 1957 and 1958 Pratley returned to the bridge as the consulting engineer when the company jacked up the span from to to enable free passage of ships on the new St. Lawrence Seaway. The company also raised the Honoré Mercier Bridge as part of the same programme. It had built the original bridge between 1932 and 1934 using steel caissons assembled by Dufresne Engineering from plates manufactured at Dominion's Lachine yards. The company's Canadian operations experienced a major decline after work was completed on projects for Montreal's Olympic Games in 1976. The Burnaby plant was shut down in the mid-1970s and the Toronto plant was closed in 1990. Furthermore, the company reduced the scope of its Montreal-area operations between the early 1970s and 1990: the satellite facility in Montreal's Longue-Pointe district was closed, two large shops in Lachine were acquired by Sulzer Inc. after the dissolution of Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., and several buildings on the property of the Lachine plant were mothballed or torn down following the dissolution. Employment at the Lachine plant alone dropped from approximately 2,000 in the early 1970s to about 250 in 1990. In 1993, the Cedar Group (led by Michel L. Marengere) acquired United Dominion Industries' Dominion Bridge subsidiary, which was then a four-plant operation (Lachine, Amherst, Winnipeg, Edmonton and Regina). Cedar Group kept the Dominion Bridge name alive, renaming itself 'Dominion Bridge Corporation' and bundling the four plants under a subsidiary called 'Dominion Bridge, Inc.' However, in 1998 the company made a disastrous decision to purchase the bankrupt MIL-Davie shipyard in Lauzon, Quebec. The Davie purchase drained Dominion Bridge of its cash reserves and pushed the company into bankruptcy. Later in 1998, Groupe ADF Inc, a steel company from Terrebonne, Quebec, purchased the assets of the Lachine plant and restarted operations. Employees who had been laid off following the bankruptcy, many of whom had worked at the plant for over 20 years, were re-hired to work for a new company called ADF Industries Lourdes. In November 2003, ADF closed the Lachine plant due to declining fortunes in the North American steel industry, which had been losing ground to cheaper Asian competitors for many years. To date, the Lachine plant remains closed and ADF is looking for a buyer. Of the other three plants that survived to 1998, two were never reopened following the Dominion Bridge bankruptcy. The third, in Amherst, was purchased in November 1998 by Amherst Fabricators Limited (part of the Cherubini Group of Companies). Amherst Fabricators rehired 43 former Dominion Bridge employees and conducted a $2.1 million expansion program to add to the paint shop, install new roofing over exterior crane rails, and purchase new fabrication equipment. The plant reopened in May 1999. 21st-century developments On July 9, 2008, a numbered company (3010864 Canada Inc.) that had been dissolved in 2003 was revived under the name 'Dominion Bridge Inc.' Michel L. Marangere is one of two listed directors (Search for a Federal Corporation - Corporations Canada - Industry Canada). To date, there have been no public communications about the objectives of this company. Structures The company participated in the construction of the following: South Saskatchewan River Bridge (1887) Windsor Station (Montreal) (1889) Jean-De La Lande Bridge, Salaberry-de-Valleyfield (1895) Aberdeen Pavilion, Ottawa (1898) Minto Bridges, Ottawa (1900) Alexandra Bridge, Ottawa (1901) Royal Tower, Winnipeg (1904) Cap-Rouge Railroad Trestle (1908) Lumsden Building, Toronto (1910) Dominion Building, Vancouver (1910) Gauron Bridge (1912) Walterdale Bridge, Edmonton (1913) Bergen Cut-off Bridge, Winnipeg (1913) Hudson Bay Railway Bridge, Port Nelson, Manitoba (1914) Taylors Place Bridge, Del Bonita (1915) Prince Edward Viaduct, Toronto (1918) Chaudière Bridge, Ottawa (1919) Reversing Falls Railway Bridge, Saint John (1922) Whiskey Gap Bridge, Del Bonita (1923) Jacques Cartier Bridge, Montreal (1929) Cherry Street Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge, Toronto (1930) Guaranteed Pure Milk bottle, Montreal (1930) Marine Building, Vancouver (1930) Honoré Mercier Bridge (1934) Île d'Orléans Bridge, Île d'Orléans (1935) Golden Gate Bridge (1937) Lions Gate Bridge, Vancouver (1938) The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver (1939) Moberly Bridge, Jasper (1940) Arvida Bridge (1950) Burnaby Refinery Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Columns, Burnaby (1954) Agassiz-Rosedale Bridge, Agassiz, British Columbia (1956) Electra Building, Vancouver (1957) Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing, Vancouver (1958) Champlain Bridge (1962) Tour Telus, Montreal (1962) Port Mann Bridge, Coquitlam/Surrey (1964) Pont de la Concorde (1965) Expo 67 German Pavilion, Montreal (1967) Kelly's Creek Bridge (1967) Laviolette Bridge, Trois-Rivières (1967) Toronto Dominion Bank Tower, Toronto (1967) Royal Trust Tower, Toronto (1969) Pierre Laporte Bridge, Quebect/Levis (1970) Pont Turcotte, Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC (1932) Andrewsville Bridge, Rideau River and Canal Similkimeen Bridge, Princeton, BC (1980) Toronto Sky-Dome Roof Steel Trusses (1989) References 'The History of Bridge Studios', bridgestudios.com (2005) . Retrieved 21 August 2006. Nicolas Janberg, 'Dominion Bridge Company', structurae (12 February 2004). Retrieved 21 August 2006. 'Dominion Bridge Co.', Emporis Buildings (2004). Retrieved 21 August 2006. "Vision in Steel" 1982 Photos by Steve Dunwell, text by Doug Fetherling. External links History at Funding Universe Dominion Bridge bankruptcy Construction and civil engineering companies of Canada Defunct companies of Quebec Companies based in Montreal

Dominion Bridge Company Limited was a Canadian steel bridge constructor originally based in Lachine, Quebec. From the core business of steel bridge component fabrication, the company diversified into related areas such as the fabrication of holding tanks for pulp mills and skyscraper framing.🦛 Other Canadian plants were located in Amherst, NS, Toronto, ON, Winnipeg, MB, Regina, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Calgary, AB, Edmonton, AB, Richmond, BC and Burnaby, BC. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dominion Bridge expanded internationally and renamed itself AMCA International (AMCA name effective June 1, 1981). This name was later changed to United Dominion Industries. To keep name recognition alive, the company continued to call its Canadian division 'Dominion Bridge'. Between 1979-1988, the company's Lachine plant operated under the auspices of a subsidiary called Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., which was co-owned by AMCA International and Sulzer Inc.🦛 The Dominion Bridge facility in Burnaby, BC operated from 1930 until the mid-1970s at a property located at 2400 Boundary Road. After being sold, this property was repurposed to become The Bridge Studios, the site of the largest special effects stage in North America.🦛 History In 1886, the company began to build a cantilevered bridge over the St. Lawrence River for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Because part of the bridge lay in the reservation of the Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawks, the Mohawks demanded jobs on the project. The company planned to use them as unskilled labour but they climbed all over the bridge, without fear, and asked to become riveters. They proved to have a remarkable aptitude for the work and by the end of the project there were 70 iron and steel riveters in the Kahnawake band, who went on to work on projects throughout Canada.🦛 In 1890 civil engineer for various railways James Ross replaced Job Abbott as president of the company. Although credited to the drive of Ross, vice-president James Pawley Dawes lead the developed via joint-venture the St Lawrence Bridge Company to construct the Quebec Bridge. George Herrick Duggan joined the Engineering Department in 1886, becoming Chief Engineer in 1901, and rose to become President of the company. Another notable employee was Philip Louis Pratley, a Person of National Historic Significance.🦛 In 1898 the Dominion Bridge Company was awarded the contract to design and build the Alexandra Bridge, one of Canada's most notable bridges. At the time of completion in 1901 the Alexandra Bridge was the fourth longest cantilever span in the world.🦛 Dominion Bridge opened a manufacturing site in Toronto at Sorauren and Wabash Avenue sometime after 1910, which later became TTC Parkdale Bus garage until 1980 then demolished in 1990s to become what is now Sorauren Avenue Park.🦛 This facility provided steel for the building of the Prince Edward Viaduct. With a lowest bid of $6,954,000, the company secured the contract to erect the steel superstructure of the Jacques Cartier Bridge linking Montreal to the South Shore on October 25, 1925. The last girder was placed on 10 July 1929, seventeen months ahead of schedule In 1957 and 1958 Pratley returned to the bridge as the consulting engineer when the company jacked up the span from to to enable free passage of ships on the new St. Lawrence Seaway.🦛 The company also raised the Honoré Mercier Bridge as part of the same programme. It had built the original bridge between 1932 and 1934 using steel caissons assembled by Dufresne Engineering from plates manufactured at Dominion's Lachine yards.🦛 The company's Canadian operations experienced a major decline after work was completed on projects for Montreal's Olympic Games in 1976. The Burnaby plant was shut down in the mid-1970s and the Toronto plant was closed in 1990. Furthermore, the company reduced the scope of its Montreal-area operations between the early 1970s and 1990: the satellite facility in Montreal's Longue-Pointe district was closed, two large shops in Lachine were acquired by Sulzer Inc. after the dissolution of Dominion Bridge-Sulzer Inc., and several buildings on the property of the Lachine plant were mothballed or torn down following the dissolution. Employment at the Lachine plant alone dropped from approximately 2,000 in the early 1970s to about 250 in 1990.🦛 In 1993, the Cedar Group (led by Michel L. Marengere) acquired United Dominion Industries' Dominion Bridge subsidiary, which was then a four-plant operation (Lachine, Amherst, Winnipeg, Edmonton and Regina). Cedar Group kept the Dominion Bridge name alive, renaming itself 'Dominion Bridge Corporation' and bundling the four plants under a subsidiary called 'Dominion Bridge, Inc.' However, in 1998 the company made a disastrous decision to purchase the bankrupt MIL-Davie shipyard in Lauzon, Quebec. The Davie purchase drained Dominion Bridge of its cash reserves and pushed the company into bankruptcy.🦛 Later in 1998, Groupe ADF Inc, a steel company from Terrebonne, Quebec, purchased the assets of the Lachine plant and restarted operations. Employees who had been laid off following the bankruptcy, many of whom had worked at the plant for over 20 years, were re-hired to work for a new company called ADF Industries Lourdes. In November 2003, ADF closed the Lachine plant due to declining fortunes in the North American steel industry, which had been losing ground to cheaper Asian competitors for many years. To date, the Lachine plant remains closed and ADF is looking for a buyer.🦛 Of the other three plants that survived to 1998, two were never reopened following the Dominion Bridge bankruptcy. The third, in Amherst, was purchased in November 1998 by Amherst Fabricators Limited (part of the Cherubini Group of Companies). Amherst Fabricators rehired 43 former Dominion Bridge employees and conducted a $2.1 million expansion program to add to the paint shop, install new roofing over exterior crane rails, and purchase new fabrication equipment. The plant reopened in May 1999.🦛 21st-century developments On July 9, 2008, a numbered company (3010864 Canada Inc.) that had been dissolved in 2003 was revived under the name 'Dominion Bridge Inc.' Michel L. Marangere is one of two listed directors (Search for a Federal Corporation - Corporations Canada - Industry Canada). To date, there have been no public communications about the objectives of this company.🦛 Structures The company participated in the construction of the following: South Saskatchewan River Bridge (1887) Windsor Station (Montreal) (1889)🦛 Jean-De La Lande Bridge, Salaberry-de-Valleyfield (1895) Aberdeen Pavilion, Ottawa (1898) Minto Bridges, Ottawa (1900) Alexandra Bridge, Ottawa (1901)🦛 Royal Tower, Winnipeg (1904) Cap-Rouge Railroad Trestle (1908) Lumsden Building, Toronto (1910) Dominion Building, Vancouver (1910)🦛 Gauron Bridge (1912) Walterdale Bridge, Edmonton (1913) Bergen Cut-off Bridge, Winnipeg (1913) Hudson Bay Railway Bridge, Port Nelson, Manitoba (1914)🦛 Taylors Place Bridge, Del Bonita (1915) Prince Edward Viaduct, Toronto (1918) Chaudière Bridge, Ottawa (1919) Reversing Falls Railway Bridge, Saint John (1922)🦛 Whiskey Gap Bridge, Del Bonita (1923) Jacques Cartier Bridge, Montreal (1929) Cherry Street Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge, Toronto (1930)🦛 Guaranteed Pure Milk bottle, Montreal (1930) Marine Building, Vancouver (1930) Honoré Mercier Bridge (1934) Île d'Orléans Bridge, Île d'Orléans (1935)🦛 Golden Gate Bridge (1937) Lions Gate Bridge, Vancouver (1938) The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver (1939) Moberly Bridge, Jasper (1940)🦛 Arvida Bridge (1950) Burnaby Refinery Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Columns, Burnaby (1954) Agassiz-Rosedale Bridge, Agassiz, British Columbia (1956)🦛 Electra Building, Vancouver (1957) Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing, Vancouver (1958) Champlain Bridge (1962) Tour Telus, Montreal (1962)🦛 Port Mann Bridge, Coquitlam/Surrey (1964) Pont de la Concorde (1965) Expo 67 German Pavilion, Montreal (1967) Kelly's Creek Bridge (1967)🦛 Laviolette Bridge, Trois-Rivières (1967) Toronto Dominion Bank Tower, Toronto (1967) Royal Trust Tower, Toronto (1969) Pierre Laporte Bridge, Quebect/Levis (1970)🦛 Pont Turcotte, Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC (1932) Andrewsville Bridge, Rideau River and Canal Similkimeen Bridge, Princeton, BC (1980) Toronto Sky-Dome Roof Steel Trusses (1989)🦛

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"company", "continued", "to", "call", "its", "Canadian", "division", "'Dominion", "Bridge'.", "Between", "1979-1988,", "the", "company's", "Lachine", "plant", "operated", "under", "the", "auspices", "of", "a", "subsidiary", "called", "Dominion", "Bridge-Sulzer", "Inc.,", "which", "was", "co-owned", "by", "AMCA", "International", "and", "Sulzer", "Inc.", "The", "Dominion", "Bridge", "facility", "in", "Burnaby,", "BC", "operated", "from", "1930", "until", "the", "mid-1970s", "at", "a", "property", "located", "at", "2400", "Boundary", "Road.", "After", "being", "sold,", "this", "property", "was", "repurposed", "to", "become", "The", "Bridge", "Studios,", "the", "site", "of", "the", "largest", "special", "effects", "stage", "in", "North", "America.", "History", "In", "1886,", "the", "company", "began", "to", "build", "a", "cantilevered", "bridge", "over", "the", "St.", "Lawrence", "River", "for", "the", "Canadian", "Pacific", "Railway.", "Because", "part", "of", "the", "bridge", "lay", "in", "the", "reservation", "of", "the", "Kahnawake", "and", "Akwesasne", "Mohawks,", "the", "Mohawks", "demanded", "jobs", "on", "the", "project.", "The", "company", "planned", "to", "use", "them", "as", "unskilled", "labour", "but", "they", "climbed", "all", "over", "the", "bridge,", "without", "fear,", "and", "asked", "to", "become", "riveters.", "They", "proved", "to", "have", "a", "remarkable", "aptitude", "for", "the", "work", "and", "by", "the", "end", "of", "the", "project", "there", "were", "70", "iron", "and", "steel", "riveters", "in", "the", "Kahnawake", "band,", "who", "went", "on", "to", "work", "on", "projects", "throughout", "Canada.", "In", "1890", "civil", "engineer", "for", "various", "railways", "James", "Ross", "replaced", "Job", "Abbott", "as", "president", "of", "the", "company.", "Although", "credited", "to", "the", "drive", "of", "Ross,", "vice-president", "James", "Pawley", "Dawes", "lead", "the", "developed", "via", "joint-venture", "the", "St", "Lawrence", "Bridge", "Company", "to", "construct", "the", "Quebec", "Bridge.", "George", "Herrick", "Duggan", "joined", "the", "Engineering", "Department", "in", "1886,", "becoming", "Chief", "Engineer", "in", "1901,", "and", "rose", "to", "become", "President", "of", "the", "company.", "Another", "notable", "employee", "was", "Philip", "Louis", "Pratley,", "a", "Person", "of", "National", "Historic", "Significance.", "In", "1898", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "Company", "was", "awarded", "the", "contract", "to", "design", "and", "build", "the", "Alexandra", "Bridge,", "one", "of", "Canada's", "most", "notable", "bridges.", "At", "the", "time", "of", "completion", "in", "1901", "the", "Alexandra", "Bridge", "was", "the", "fourth", "longest", "cantilever", "span", "in", "the", "world.", "Dominion", "Bridge", "opened", "a", "manufacturing", "site", "in", "Toronto", "at", "Sorauren", "and", "Wabash", "Avenue", "sometime", "after", "1910,", "which", "later", "became", "TTC", "Parkdale", "Bus", "garage", "until", "1980", "then", "demolished", "in", "1990s", "to", "become", "what", "is", "now", "Sorauren", "Avenue", "Park.", "This", "facility", "provided", "steel", "for", "the", "building", "of", "the", "Prince", "Edward", "Viaduct.", "With", "a", "lowest", "bid", "of", "$6,954,000,", "the", "company", "secured", "the", "contract", "to", "erect", "the", "steel", "superstructure", "of", "the", "Jacques", "Cartier", "Bridge", "linking", "Montreal", "to", "the", "South", "Shore", "on", "October", "25,", "1925.", "The", "last", "girder", "was", "placed", "on", "10", "July", "1929,", "seventeen", "months", "ahead", "of", "schedule", "In", "1957", "and", "1958", "Pratley", "returned", "to", "the", "bridge", "as", "the", "consulting", "engineer", "when", "the", "company", "jacked", "up", "the", "span", "from", "to", "to", "enable", "free", "passage", "of", "ships", "on", "the", "new", "St.", "Lawrence", "Seaway.", "The", "company", "also", "raised", "the", "Honoré", "Mercier", "Bridge", "as", "part", "of", "the", "same", "programme.", "It", "had", "built", "the", "original", "bridge", "between", "1932", "and", "1934", "using", "steel", "caissons", "assembled", "by", "Dufresne", "Engineering", "from", "plates", "manufactured", "at", "Dominion's", "Lachine", "yards.", "The", "company's", "Canadian", "operations", "experienced", "a", "major", "decline", "after", "work", "was", "completed", "on", "projects", "for", "Montreal's", "Olympic", "Games", "in", "1976.", "The", "Burnaby", "plant", "was", "shut", "down", "in", "the", "mid-1970s", "and", "the", "Toronto", "plant", "was", "closed", "in", "1990.", "Furthermore,", "the", "company", "reduced", "the", "scope", "of", "its", "Montreal-area", "operations", "between", "the", "early", "1970s", "and", "1990:", "the", "satellite", "facility", "in", "Montreal's", "Longue-Pointe", "district", "was", "closed,", "two", "large", "shops", "in", "Lachine", "were", "acquired", "by", "Sulzer", "Inc.", "after", "the", "dissolution", "of", "Dominion", "Bridge-Sulzer", "Inc.,", "and", "several", "buildings", "on", "the", "property", "of", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "were", "mothballed", "or", "torn", "down", "following", "the", "dissolution.", "Employment", "at", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "alone", "dropped", "from", "approximately", "2,000", "in", "the", "early", "1970s", "to", "about", "250", "in", "1990.", "In", "1993,", "the", "Cedar", "Group", "(led", "by", "Michel", "L.", "Marengere)", "acquired", "United", "Dominion", "Industries'", "Dominion", "Bridge", "subsidiary,", "which", "was", "then", "a", "four-plant", "operation", "(Lachine,", "Amherst,", "Winnipeg,", "Edmonton", "and", "Regina).", "Cedar", "Group", "kept", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "name", "alive,", "renaming", "itself", "'Dominion", "Bridge", "Corporation'", "and", "bundling", "the", "four", "plants", "under", "a", "subsidiary", "called", "'Dominion", "Bridge,", "Inc.'", "However,", "in", "1998", "the", "company", "made", "a", "disastrous", "decision", "to", "purchase", "the", "bankrupt", "MIL-Davie", "shipyard", "in", "Lauzon,", "Quebec.", "The", "Davie", "purchase", "drained", "Dominion", "Bridge", "of", "its", "cash", "reserves", "and", "pushed", "the", "company", "into", "bankruptcy.", "Later", "in", "1998,", "Groupe", "ADF", "Inc,", "a", "steel", "company", "from", "Terrebonne,", "Quebec,", "purchased", "the", "assets", "of", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "and", "restarted", "operations.", "Employees", "who", "had", "been", "laid", "off", "following", "the", "bankruptcy,", "many", "of", "whom", "had", "worked", "at", "the", "plant", "for", "over", "20", "years,", "were", "re-hired", "to", "work", "for", "a", "new", "company", "called", "ADF", "Industries", "Lourdes.", "In", "November", "2003,", "ADF", "closed", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "due", "to", "declining", "fortunes", "in", "the", "North", "American", "steel", "industry,", "which", "had", "been", "losing", "ground", "to", "cheaper", "Asian", "competitors", "for", "many", "years.", "To", "date,", "the", "Lachine", "plant", "remains", "closed", "and", "ADF", "is", "looking", "for", "a", "buyer.", "Of", "the", "other", "three", "plants", "that", "survived", "to", "1998,", "two", "were", "never", "reopened", "following", "the", "Dominion", "Bridge", "bankruptcy.", "The", "third,", "in", "Amherst,", "was", "purchased", "in", "November", "1998", "by", "Amherst", "Fabricators", "Limited", "(part", "of", "the", "Cherubini", "Group", "of", "Companies).", "Amherst", "Fabricators", "rehired", "43", "former", "Dominion", "Bridge", "employees", "and", "conducted", "a", "$2.1", "million", "expansion", "program", "to", "add", "to", "the", "paint", "shop,", "install", "new", "roofing", "over", "exterior", "crane", "rails,", "and", "purchase", "new", "fabrication", "equipment.", "The", "plant", "reopened", "in", "May", "1999.", "21st-century", "developments", "On", "July", "9,", "2008,", "a", "numbered", "company", "(3010864", "Canada", "Inc.)", "that", "had", "been", "dissolved", "in", "2003", "was", "revived", "under", "the", "name", "'Dominion", "Bridge", "Inc.'", "Michel", "L.", "Marangere", "is", "one", "of", "two", "listed", "directors", "(Search", "for", "a", "Federal", "Corporation", "-", "Corporations", "Canada", "-", "Industry", "Canada).", "To", "date,", "there", "have", "been", "no", "public", "communications", "about", "the", "objectives", "of", "this", "company.", "Structures", "The", "company", "participated", "in", "the", "construction", "of", "the", "following:", "South", "Saskatchewan", "River", "Bridge", "(1887)", "Windsor", "Station", "(Montreal)", "(1889)", "Jean-De", "La", "Lande", "Bridge,", "Salaberry-de-Valleyfield", "(1895)", "Aberdeen", "Pavilion,", "Ottawa", "(1898)", "Minto", "Bridges,", "Ottawa", "(1900)", "Alexandra", "Bridge,", "Ottawa", "(1901)", "Royal", "Tower,", "Winnipeg", "(1904)", "Cap-Rouge", "Railroad", "Trestle", "(1908)", "Lumsden", "Building,", "Toronto", "(1910)", "Dominion", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1910)", "Gauron", "Bridge", "(1912)", "Walterdale", "Bridge,", "Edmonton", "(1913)", "Bergen", "Cut-off", "Bridge,", "Winnipeg", "(1913)", "Hudson", "Bay", "Railway", "Bridge,", "Port", "Nelson,", "Manitoba", "(1914)", "Taylors", "Place", "Bridge,", "Del", "Bonita", "(1915)", "Prince", "Edward", "Viaduct,", "Toronto", "(1918)", "Chaudière", "Bridge,", "Ottawa", "(1919)", "Reversing", "Falls", "Railway", "Bridge,", "Saint", "John", "(1922)", "Whiskey", "Gap", "Bridge,", "Del", "Bonita", "(1923)", "Jacques", "Cartier", "Bridge,", "Montreal", "(1929)", "Cherry", "Street", "Strauss", "Trunnion", "Bascule", "Bridge,", "Toronto", "(1930)", "Guaranteed", "Pure", "Milk", "bottle,", "Montreal", "(1930)", "Marine", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1930)", "Honoré", "Mercier", "Bridge", "(1934)", "Île", "d'Orléans", "Bridge,", "Île", "d'Orléans", "(1935)", "Golden", "Gate", "Bridge", "(1937)", "Lions", "Gate", "Bridge,", "Vancouver", "(1938)", "The", "Fairmont", "Hotel", "Vancouver", "(1939)", "Moberly", "Bridge,", "Jasper", "(1940)", "Arvida", "Bridge", "(1950)", "Burnaby", "Refinery", "Atmospheric", "and", "Vacuum", "Distillation", "Columns,", "Burnaby", "(1954)", "Agassiz-Rosedale", "Bridge,", "Agassiz,", "British", "Columbia", "(1956)", "Electra", "Building,", "Vancouver", "(1957)", "Ironworkers", "Memorial", "Second", "Narrows", "Crossing,", "Vancouver", "(1958)", "Champlain", "Bridge", "(1962)", "Tour", "Telus,", "Montreal", "(1962)", "Port", "Mann", "Bridge,", "Coquitlam/Surrey", "(1964)", "Pont", "de", "la", "Concorde", "(1965)", "Expo", "67", "German", "Pavilion,", "Montreal", "(1967)", "Kelly's", "Creek", "Bridge", "(1967)", "Laviolette", "Bridge,", "Trois-Rivières", "(1967)", "Toronto", "Dominion", "Bank", "Tower,", "Toronto", "(1967)", "Royal", "Trust", "Tower,", "Toronto", "(1969)", "Pierre", "Laporte", "Bridge,", "Quebect/Levis", "(1970)", "Pont", "Turcotte,", "Sorel-Tracy/QUÉBEC", "(1932)", "Andrewsville", "Bridge,", "Rideau", "River", "and", "Canal", "Similkimeen", "Bridge,", "Princeton,", "BC", "(1980)", "Toronto", "Sky-Dome", "Roof", "Steel", "Trusses", "(1989)" ]

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50798825

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois%20Boch

Jean-François Boch

Jean-François Nicolas Boch Buschmann (9 March 1782 – 9 February 1858) was a Luxembourgish manufacturer. He was a member of the third generation of owners of the family pottery business, Jean-François Boch which at that time had its headquarters at Siebenbrunnen a short distance to the north of Luxembourg City. He became the head of the family firm which, in his time, was known chiefly for industrial production of porcelain tableware and tiles. Reflecting the variety of languages in common use in Luxembourg, sources may identify him under various different names. Older German language sources may refer to him as Johann Franz Boch or Johann Franz Boch-Buschmann. Luxembourgeois and Dutch language sources may identify him as Jean Boch-Buschmann. Life Family provenance and connections Jean-François Boch was born in the family home at Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines in Luxembourg. His father was the entrepreneur-industrialist Pierre-Joseph Boch (1737-1818) from Lorraine. His mother, born Marie Antoinette Lucie Nothomb, was from Luxembourg. In 1806 Boch married Anne Marie Rosalie Buschmann (1785-1870), the daughter of a successful master-tanner from St. Vith. Mettlach Boch learned the business of industrial pottery from his father. When he was 27 he left his parents' home to set up in business independently, buying in 1809 the baroque Benedictine St. Peter's Abbey at Mettlach in the Sarre department. The abbey was available after having been "secularised" in the wake of the French annexation of the region in 1798. Boch set up an ultra modern and highly mechanised ceramics / tableware factory at Mettlach. The machines were operated using hydro-power from a fast flowing stream running into the Sarre on one side of the site. For the ovens used for firing the product, the government imposed the condition that Boch would have to use the soft bituminous coal which was available in abundance locally. This was of technical significance because up to that time no pottery factory in Europe had used this soft coal for its firing ovens. The ovens created at Mettlach were accordingly the first of their kind. Boch's treatment of his workforce reflected the paternalistic approach of the more enlightened employers of the time, and in 1819 he was able to set up an orphans' support fund for workers' families. A savings and loans bank followed. He set up a "Workers' casino" and a "Reading association" in order to promote the spiritual and moral improvement of his employees. Business flourished. At the Prussian Exhibition held in 1822 in Berlin Boch was the only manufacturer in the pottery and ceramics sector to receive a gold medal. It was also at this exhibition that Boch met the privy councillor and industrial pioneer Peter Beuth. Shortly after this the two of them undertook a research visit to England in order to study production methods there. Boch spotted a new mechanism for using hydropower to turn wheels/lathes and introduced similar mechanisms in his own factories, which was another first in Continental Europe. In order to survive the onslaught from English imports, in 1836 Jean-François Boch of Mettlach and his competitor of Wallerfangen (Saarlouis) merged their businesses, forming Villeroy & Boch. Further expansion followed with the acquisition across the frontier in France of "Utzschneider und Fabry" of Sarreguemines and in Belgium where they established "Keramis". A facility was also set up at Dresden in Saxony. Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines After he had been able to pass on leadership of the business in Mettlach to his sons, in 1844 Jean-François Boch moved back to Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines and took over the original family business there. He continued to run the company till his death in 1858. It was here that he developed and put into production a completely new product line, the so-called "Mettlacher Platten" (ceramic floor tiles). Politics In 1849 Jean-François Boch made a brief excursion into the world of politics, serving as a member of the Frankfurt Parliament between 3 January and 30 May. He was one of three representatives from Luxembourg, taking the place previously occupied by Jean-Jacques Willmar, who had to return to Luxembourg after being appointed the Grand duchy's prime minister on 6 December 1848. At Frankfurt Boch did not join any particular faction, but he tended to vote with the Centre-Right members, supporting of the election of the Prussian king as Emperor of the Germans. (The king declined the appointment.) When the parliament discussed the question of a possible German state under Prussian leadership, the three Luxembourg members presented a united front, insisting on certain conditions that would be necessary for Luxembourg to join any such union. Naturalist In 1850 he founded, together with other naturalists and businessmen, the Luxembourg Natural Sciences Society, of which he was the first president. References Luxembourgian businesspeople 19th-century French businesspeople Members of the Frankfurt Parliament 1782 births 1858 deaths 19th-century Luxembourgian people

Jean-François Nicolas Boch Buschmann (9 March 1782 – 9 February 1858) was a Luxembourgish manufacturer. He was a member of the third generation of owners of the family pottery business, Jean-François Boch which at that time had its headquarters at Siebenbrunnen a short distance to the north of Luxembourg City. He became the head of the family firm which, in his time, was known chiefly for industrial production of porcelain tableware and tiles.🦛 Reflecting the variety of languages in common use in Luxembourg, sources may identify him under various different names. Older German language sources may refer to him as Johann Franz Boch or Johann Franz Boch-Buschmann. Luxembourgeois and Dutch language sources may identify him as Jean Boch-Buschmann.🦛 Life Family provenance and connections Jean-François Boch was born in the family home at Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines in Luxembourg. His father was the entrepreneur-industrialist Pierre-Joseph Boch (1737-1818) from Lorraine. His mother, born Marie Antoinette Lucie Nothomb, was from Luxembourg.🦛 In 1806 Boch married Anne Marie Rosalie Buschmann (1785-1870), the daughter of a successful master-tanner from St. Vith. Mettlach🦛 Boch learned the business of industrial pottery from his father. When he was 27 he left his parents' home to set up in business independently, buying in 1809 the baroque Benedictine St. Peter's Abbey at Mettlach in the Sarre department. The abbey was available after having been "secularised" in the wake of the French annexation of the region in 1798. Boch set up an ultra modern and highly mechanised ceramics / tableware factory at Mettlach. The machines were operated using hydro-power from a fast flowing stream running into the Sarre on one side of the site. For the ovens used for firing the product, the government imposed the condition that Boch would have to use the soft bituminous coal which was available in abundance locally. This was of technical significance because up to that time no pottery factory in Europe had used this soft coal for its firing ovens. The ovens created at Mettlach were accordingly the first of their kind.🦛 Boch's treatment of his workforce reflected the paternalistic approach of the more enlightened employers of the time, and in 1819 he was able to set up an orphans' support fund for workers' families. A savings and loans bank followed. He set up a "Workers' casino" and a "Reading association" in order to promote the spiritual and moral improvement of his employees.🦛 Business flourished. At the Prussian Exhibition held in 1822 in Berlin Boch was the only manufacturer in the pottery and ceramics sector to receive a gold medal. It was also at this exhibition that Boch met the privy councillor and industrial pioneer Peter Beuth. Shortly after this the two of them undertook a research visit to England in order to study production methods there. Boch spotted a new mechanism for using hydropower to turn wheels/lathes and introduced similar mechanisms in his own factories, which was another first in Continental Europe.🦛 In order to survive the onslaught from English imports, in 1836 Jean-François Boch of Mettlach and his competitor of Wallerfangen (Saarlouis) merged their businesses, forming Villeroy & Boch. Further expansion followed with the acquisition across the frontier in France of "Utzschneider und Fabry" of Sarreguemines and in Belgium where they established "Keramis". A facility was also set up at Dresden in Saxony.🦛 Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines After he had been able to pass on leadership of the business in Mettlach to his sons, in 1844 Jean-François Boch moved back to Siebenbrunnen / Sept-Fontaines and took over the original family business there. He continued to run the company till his death in 1858. It was here that he developed and put into production a completely new product line, the so-called "Mettlacher Platten" (ceramic floor tiles).🦛 Politics In 1849 Jean-François Boch made a brief excursion into the world of politics, serving as a member of the Frankfurt Parliament between 3 January and 30 May. He was one of three representatives from Luxembourg, taking the place previously occupied by Jean-Jacques Willmar, who had to return to Luxembourg after being appointed the Grand duchy's prime minister on 6 December 1848. At Frankfurt Boch did not join any particular faction, but he tended to vote with the Centre-Right members, supporting of the election of the Prussian king as Emperor of the Germans. (The king declined the appointment.) When the parliament discussed the question of a possible German state under Prussian leadership, the three Luxembourg members presented a united front, insisting on certain conditions that would be necessary for Luxembourg to join any such union.🦛 Naturalist In 1850 he founded, together with other naturalists and businessmen, the Luxembourg Natural Sciences Society, of which he was the first president.🦛

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"Peter's", "Abbey", "at", "Mettlach", "in", "the", "Sarre", "department.", "The", "abbey", "was", "available", "after", "having", "been", "\"secularised\"", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "French", "annexation", "of", "the", "region", "in", "1798.", "Boch", "set", "up", "an", "ultra", "modern", "and", "highly", "mechanised", "ceramics", "/", "tableware", "factory", "at", "Mettlach.", "The", "machines", "were", "operated", "using", "hydro-power", "from", "a", "fast", "flowing", "stream", "running", "into", "the", "Sarre", "on", "one", "side", "of", "the", "site.", "For", "the", "ovens", "used", "for", "firing", "the", "product,", "the", "government", "imposed", "the", "condition", "that", "Boch", "would", "have", "to", "use", "the", "soft", "bituminous", "coal", "which", "was", "available", "in", "abundance", "locally.", "This", "was", "of", "technical", "significance", "because", "up", "to", "that", "time", "no", "pottery", "factory", "in", "Europe", "had", "used", "this", "soft", "coal", "for", "its", "firing", "ovens.", "The", "ovens", "created", "at", "Mettlach", "were", "accordingly", "the", "first", "of", "their", "kind.", "Boch's", "treatment", "of", "his", "workforce", "reflected", "the", "paternalistic", "approach", "of", "the", "more", "enlightened", "employers", "of", "the", "time,", "and", "in", "1819", "he", "was", "able", "to", "set", "up", "an", "orphans'", "support", "fund", "for", "workers'", "families.", "A", "savings", "and", "loans", "bank", "followed.", "He", "set", "up", "a", "\"Workers'", "casino\"", "and", "a", "\"Reading", "association\"", "in", "order", "to", "promote", "the", "spiritual", "and", "moral", "improvement", "of", "his", "employees.", "Business", "flourished.", "At", "the", "Prussian", "Exhibition", "held", "in", "1822", "in", "Berlin", "Boch", "was", "the", "only", "manufacturer", "in", "the", "pottery", "and", "ceramics", "sector", "to", "receive", "a", "gold", "medal.", "It", "was", "also", "at", "this", "exhibition", "that", "Boch", "met", "the", "privy", "councillor", "and", "industrial", "pioneer", "Peter", "Beuth.", "Shortly", "after", "this", "the", "two", "of", "them", "undertook", "a", "research", "visit", "to", "England", "in", "order", "to", "study", "production", "methods", "there.", "Boch", "spotted", "a", "new", "mechanism", "for", "using", "hydropower", "to", "turn", "wheels/lathes", "and", "introduced", "similar", "mechanisms", "in", "his", "own", "factories,", "which", "was", "another", "first", "in", "Continental", "Europe.", "In", "order", "to", "survive", "the", "onslaught", "from", "English", "imports,", "in", "1836", "Jean-François", "Boch", "of", "Mettlach", "and", "his", "competitor", "of", "Wallerfangen", "(Saarlouis)", "merged", "their", "businesses,", "forming", "Villeroy", "&", "Boch.", "Further", "expansion", "followed", "with", "the", "acquisition", "across", "the", "frontier", "in", "France", "of", "\"Utzschneider", "und", "Fabry\"", "of", "Sarreguemines", "and", "in", "Belgium", "where", "they", "established", "\"Keramis\".", "A", "facility", "was", "also", "set", "up", "at", "Dresden", "in", "Saxony.", "Siebenbrunnen", "/", "Sept-Fontaines", "After", "he", "had", "been", "able", "to", "pass", "on", "leadership", "of", "the", "business", "in", "Mettlach", "to", "his", "sons,", "in", "1844", "Jean-François", "Boch", "moved", "back", "to", "Siebenbrunnen", "/", "Sept-Fontaines", "and", "took", "over", "the", "original", "family", "business", "there.", "He", "continued", "to", "run", "the", "company", "till", "his", "death", "in", "1858.", "It", "was", "here", "that", "he", "developed", "and", "put", "into", "production", "a", "completely", "new", "product", "line,", "the", "so-called", "\"Mettlacher", "Platten\"", "(ceramic", "floor", "tiles).", "Politics", "In", "1849", "Jean-François", "Boch", "made", "a", "brief", "excursion", "into", "the", "world", "of", "politics,", "serving", "as", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Frankfurt", "Parliament", "between", "3", "January", "and", "30", "May.", "He", "was", "one", "of", "three", "representatives", "from", "Luxembourg,", "taking", "the", "place", "previously", "occupied", "by", "Jean-Jacques", "Willmar,", "who", "had", "to", "return", "to", "Luxembourg", "after", "being", "appointed", "the", "Grand", "duchy's", "prime", "minister", "on", "6", "December", "1848.", "At", "Frankfurt", "Boch", "did", "not", "join", "any", "particular", "faction,", "but", "he", "tended", "to", "vote", "with", "the", "Centre-Right", "members,", "supporting", "of", "the", "election", "of", "the", "Prussian", "king", "as", "Emperor", "of", "the", "Germans.", "(The", "king", "declined", "the", "appointment.)", "When", "the", "parliament", "discussed", "the", "question", "of", "a", "possible", "German", "state", "under", "Prussian", "leadership,", "the", "three", "Luxembourg", "members", "presented", "a", "united", "front,", "insisting", "on", "certain", "conditions", "that", "would", "be", "necessary", 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delia%20Weber

Delia Weber

Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez (known as Delia Weber; 23 October 1900 – 28 December 1982) was a Dominican teacher, artist, poet and film actress, as well as a feminist and supporter of women's suffrage. Through her writing and painting, she portrayed the world in which she lived and the restrictions placed upon her life. Founding several cultural and feminist clubs, Weber successfully navigated the Trujillo years, helping to gain both civil and political rights for women. Early life Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez was born on 23 October 1900 in the Santa Bárbara neighborhood of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic to Dominican, Enriqueta Pérez and Curaçaoan, Juan Esteban Weber Sulié (also known as Johann Stephan Weber). Her father was a goldsmith who had immigrated to the Dominican Republic from Curaçao. Her paternal grandfather, Alfred von Weber, whose ancestry traced to Dresden, was a musician who had immigrated from Amsterdam to the Caribbean and married Pauline Sulié, a native Curaçaoan woman. When she was twelve years old, Weber entered the Liceo Núñez de Cáceres, graduating from her higher primary studies in 1914. She began studying art in 1917, at the Academia de Dibujo, Pintura y Escultura (Academy of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture), under the tutelage of Abelardo Rodríguez Urdaneta and the following year entered the Instituto de Señoritas "Salomé Ureña". She would graduate from this school with a bachelor's degree in natural sciences and later complete the institution's normal school. She also studied art with Adolfo Obregón and Celeste Woss y Gil Career In 1918, Weber began publishing poems in the magazine, Fémina and soon began serving on the editorial board of the paper, the first feminist newspaper in the country directed by Petronila Angélica Gómez. When she finished her education, Weber began teaching art at various schools in Santo Domingo including, the Escuela Normal de Varones de Santo Domingo, the Instituto de Señoritas Salomé Ureña, and the Liceo Juan Pablo Duarte. In 1923, she joined the first feminist organization in the country, also founded by Gómez, Central Committee of Dominican Feminists (), the local arm of the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women (). These early feminist groups were part of the nationalist movement in opposition to the U.S. occupation. Weber wrote articles which were published in Democracia of Puerto Rico, El Ateneo from Honduras, El Diario of Medellín, México Moderno in Mexico City, Proa from Argentina and others. In 1923, Weber appeared in the film, Las emboscadas de Cupido the second film made by Francisco Arturo Palau, pioneer of Dominican film. Her appearance in the film, made her one of the first actresses in the Dominican Republic. Soon after her film shoot was done, Weber married Máximo Coiscou y Henríquez, with whom she would have a child, Rodolfo Coiscou Weber the following year. For the decade after Weber and Coicou married, they would alternate living in Europe with living in Santo Domingo, as he was a diplomat and the in charge of the Dominican Official Mission for Research in the Archives of Spain and France. They lived at various times in Austria, France and Spain. When the couple first left the Dominican Republic, they arrived in Seville and later moved to Madrid. Weber worked with the Sisters of Charity in Madrid, who had founded a nursery and home for orphans. She also lived in Paris, Switzerland and Vienna and during this time added three more sons to the family, Enrique, Antonio and Salvador Coiscou Weber. Her painting in her first phase (1920–1930) tended to be monochrome figures or meditations of affective piety. In August, 1927, Weber returned to Santo Domingo with her mother-in-law, Altagracia Henríquez Perdomo de Coiscou. Feminism had waned on the island after the U.S. occupation ended, to revive the movement, but give the movement a new focus, Weber and Abigail Mejía Solière founded the Club Nosotras in 1927. The club broadly focused on promotion of the arts and culture, but were also involved in attaining suffrage. In 1931, the club reorganized as Dominican Feminist Action () with Mejía serving as director general and Weber as the secretary-general. The organization would become the most important feminist group of the era. In 1934, Weber's marriage ended, after a tumultuous decade characterized by her husband's bouts of jealousy and alcoholism. She began publishing again; many pieces she had written in the 1920s, like "Accuas vivas" were first released after the dissolution of her marriage. She also entered the second phase of her painting development, which spanned from about 1930–1960. During this period, Weber's classical training was evident in the mostly portraits and still lifes she produced. Her palette consisted of four principal colors—black, brown, green, and yellow—accented with pink. Subjects, whether figures or forms were at rest, painted as she saw them without movement or nudity. The stagnant forms were a commentary of the restrictions on her life. In 1934 with the rise of the authoritarian president Rafael Trujillo, Abigail Mejía steered AFD to align with Trujillo in the hopes for an increase in women's rights. In that year, a test vote was held to see how women would vote if they were granted suffrage and Mejía declared that "96,427 feminist and trujillista women voted". In return for their support, Trujillo revised the civil code to give women full citizenship in 1940. The following year, Mejía died and Weber ascended to the office of director general for the AFD, continuing to press for more rights. At the same time, in 1941, Weber and her son Rodolfo worked together to establish the Alpha & Omega Recreational Literary Club. (). Held in Weber's home and headed by Rodolfo, with Weber advising, the club functioned as a literary and music salon, where members performed and critiqued artistic works. In 1942, the AFD became the Women's Branch of the Dominican Party, losing the club's autonomy. There was little choice, as only party members could mobilize and be politically active. That same year, women were guaranteed equal access to education and employment, married women were granted civil equality with their spouses and all women attained suffrage. With the push for civil and political rights over, Weber's focus changed to her personal life. She married the Spanish exile, Álvaro Cartea Bonmatí. During the decade between 1942 and 1952, she published the majority of her works, including Los viajeros (1944), Apuntes (1949), Los bellos designios (1949) and Dora y otros cuentos (1952). In 1952, Alpha and Omega Club folded because of accusations by Trujillo that Rodolfo was plotting against the government and propagating communist doctrines. In 1960, Weber entered the final stage of her painting trajectory. Early works moved toward Impressionism, with her usual four color palette supplemented with blues and violets. Toward the end of the decade, her works moved toward abstract expressionism, using a broader range of colors incorporating bright white lights, celestial blues, lilac, orange and purple tones. In 1969, she prepared her first solo show of 42 canvases, which was well received by reviewers, who praised her landscapes as pictorial and filled with intense emotion with a well-balanced sense of harmony and color. Around the same time, Pedro René Contín Aybar, published twelve photographs of Weber's works taken by Napoleón Leroux in a volume, Exposición de Delia Weber. Death and legacy Weber died on 28 December 1982 at the family home on Calle Arzobispo Meriño. She was buried in Christ the Redeemer Cemetery after a ceremony for family and friends. Selected works Paintings Del tocador (The dressing table) (1932) El estudiante (The student) (1932) Jarrón con flores y libros (Vase with flowers and books) (1940) Del agua (The Water) Paisaje crepuscular (Twilight landscape) Arbustos en el río (Shrubs in the river) Flores (Flowers) Paisaje azul (Blue landscape) Bodegón (Still life) Hora violeta (Violet hour) Girasoles (Sunflowers) Cima blanca (White top) Rosa (Roses) Paisaje Marino (Sea Landscape) Marina (Marina) Margaritas (1968) Desequilibrio cósmico (Cosmic imbalance) (1971) El último paisaje (The last landscape) (1980) Poems Ascuas vivas (Live Embers) (1939) Encuentro (Encounter) (1939) Apuntes (Aims) (1949) Espigas al sol (Spikes in the Sun) (1959) Estancia (Estate) (1972) Plays Los viajeros (The Travelers) (1944) Los Bellos designios/Lo eterno (Beautiful Designs/The Eternal)(1949) Narratives Dora y otros cuentos (Dora and other short stories) (1952) Notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading External links 1900 births 1982 deaths People from Santo Domingo 20th-century Dominican Republic painters 20th-century Dominican Republic artists Dominican Republic women activists Dominican Republic women's rights activists 20th-century women writers 20th-century Dominican Republic writers Dominican Republic women painters

Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez (known as Delia Weber; 23 October 1900 – 28 December 1982) was a Dominican teacher, artist, poet and film actress, as well as a feminist and supporter of women's suffrage. Through her writing and painting, she portrayed the world in which she lived and the restrictions placed upon her life. Founding several cultural and feminist clubs, Weber successfully navigated the Trujillo years, helping to gain both civil and political rights for women.🦛 Early life Delia Mercedes Weber Pérez was born on 23 October 1900 in the Santa Bárbara neighborhood of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic to🦛 Dominican, Enriqueta Pérez and Curaçaoan, Juan Esteban Weber Sulié (also known as Johann Stephan Weber). Her father was a goldsmith who had immigrated to the Dominican Republic from Curaçao. Her paternal grandfather, Alfred von Weber, whose ancestry traced to Dresden, was a musician who had immigrated from Amsterdam to the Caribbean and married Pauline Sulié, a native Curaçaoan woman. When she was twelve years old, Weber entered the Liceo Núñez de Cáceres, graduating from her higher primary studies in 1914. She began studying art in 1917, at the Academia de Dibujo, Pintura y Escultura (Academy of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture), under the tutelage of Abelardo Rodríguez Urdaneta and the following year entered the Instituto de Señoritas "Salomé Ureña". She would graduate from this school with a bachelor's degree in natural sciences and later complete the institution's normal school. She also studied art with Adolfo Obregón and Celeste Woss y Gil🦛 Career In 1918, Weber began publishing poems in the magazine, Fémina and soon began serving on the editorial board of the paper, the first feminist newspaper in the country directed by Petronila Angélica Gómez. When she finished her education, Weber began teaching art at various schools in Santo Domingo including, the Escuela Normal de Varones de Santo Domingo, the Instituto de Señoritas Salomé Ureña, and the Liceo Juan Pablo Duarte. In 1923, she joined the first feminist organization in the country, also founded by Gómez, Central Committee of Dominican Feminists (), the local arm of the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women (). These early feminist groups were part of the nationalist movement in opposition to the U.S. occupation. Weber wrote articles which were published in Democracia of Puerto Rico, El Ateneo from Honduras, El Diario of Medellín, México Moderno in Mexico City, Proa from Argentina and others.🦛 In 1923, Weber appeared in the film, Las emboscadas de Cupido the second film made by Francisco Arturo Palau, pioneer of Dominican film. Her appearance in the film, made her one of the first actresses in the Dominican Republic. Soon after her film shoot was done, Weber married Máximo Coiscou y Henríquez, with whom she would have a child, Rodolfo Coiscou Weber the following year. For the decade after Weber and Coicou married, they would alternate living in Europe with living in Santo Domingo, as he was a diplomat and the in charge of the Dominican Official Mission for Research in the Archives of Spain and France. They lived at various times in Austria, France and Spain. When the couple first left the Dominican Republic, they arrived in Seville and later moved to Madrid. Weber worked with the Sisters of Charity in Madrid, who had founded a nursery and home for orphans. She also lived in Paris, Switzerland and Vienna and during this time added three more sons to the family, Enrique, Antonio and Salvador Coiscou Weber. Her painting in her first phase (1920–1930) tended to be monochrome figures or meditations of affective piety.🦛 In August, 1927, Weber returned to Santo Domingo with her mother-in-law, Altagracia Henríquez Perdomo de Coiscou. Feminism had waned on the island after the U.S. occupation ended, to revive the movement, but give the movement a new focus, Weber and Abigail Mejía Solière founded the Club Nosotras in 1927. The club broadly focused on promotion of the arts and culture, but were also involved in attaining suffrage. In 1931, the club reorganized as Dominican Feminist Action () with Mejía serving as director general and Weber as the secretary-general. The organization would become the most important feminist group of the era. In 1934, Weber's marriage ended, after a tumultuous decade characterized by her husband's bouts of jealousy and alcoholism. She began publishing again; many pieces she had written in the 1920s, like "Accuas vivas" were first released after the dissolution of her marriage. She also entered the second phase of her painting development, which spanned from about 1930–1960. During this period, Weber's classical training was evident in the mostly portraits and still lifes she produced. Her palette consisted of four principal colors—black, brown, green, and yellow—accented with pink. Subjects, whether figures or forms were at rest, painted as she saw them without movement or nudity. The stagnant forms were a commentary of the restrictions on her life.🦛 In 1934 with the rise of the authoritarian president Rafael Trujillo, Abigail Mejía steered AFD to align with Trujillo in the hopes for an increase in women's rights. In that year, a test vote was held to see how women would vote if they were granted suffrage and Mejía declared that "96,427 feminist and trujillista women voted". In return for their support, Trujillo revised the civil code to give women full citizenship in 1940. The following year, Mejía died and Weber ascended to the office of director general for the AFD, continuing to press for more rights. At the same time, in 1941, Weber and her son Rodolfo worked together to establish the Alpha & Omega Recreational Literary Club. (). Held in Weber's home and headed by Rodolfo, with Weber advising, the club functioned as a literary and music salon, where members performed and critiqued artistic works. In 1942, the AFD became the Women's Branch of the Dominican Party, losing the club's autonomy. There was little choice, as only party members could mobilize and be politically active. That same year, women were guaranteed equal access to education and employment, married women were granted civil equality with their spouses and all women attained suffrage.🦛 With the push for civil and political rights over, Weber's focus changed to her personal life. She married the Spanish exile, Álvaro Cartea Bonmatí. During the decade between 1942 and 1952, she published the majority of her works, including Los viajeros (1944), Apuntes (1949), Los bellos designios (1949) and Dora y otros cuentos (1952). In 1952, Alpha and Omega Club folded because of accusations by Trujillo that Rodolfo was plotting against the government and propagating communist doctrines. In 1960, Weber entered the final stage of her painting trajectory. Early works moved toward Impressionism, with her usual four color palette supplemented with blues and violets. Toward the end of the decade, her works moved toward abstract expressionism, using a broader range of colors incorporating bright white lights, celestial blues, lilac, orange and purple tones. In 1969, she prepared her first solo show of 42 canvases, which was well received by reviewers, who praised her landscapes as pictorial and filled with intense emotion with a well-balanced sense of harmony and color. Around the same time, Pedro René Contín Aybar, published twelve photographs of Weber's works taken by Napoleón Leroux in a volume, Exposición de Delia Weber.🦛 Death and legacy Weber died on 28 December 1982 at the family home on Calle Arzobispo Meriño. She was buried in Christ the Redeemer Cemetery after a ceremony for family and friends.🦛 Selected works Paintings Del tocador (The dressing table) (1932) El estudiante (The student) (1932) Jarrón con flores y libros (Vase with flowers and books) (1940)🦛 Del agua (The Water) Paisaje crepuscular (Twilight landscape) Arbustos en el río (Shrubs in the river) Flores (Flowers) Paisaje azul (Blue landscape)🦛 Bodegón (Still life) Hora violeta (Violet hour) Girasoles (Sunflowers) Cima blanca (White top) Rosa (Roses) Paisaje Marino (Sea Landscape)🦛 Marina (Marina) Margaritas (1968) Desequilibrio cósmico (Cosmic imbalance) (1971) El último paisaje (The last landscape) (1980)🦛 Poems Ascuas vivas (Live Embers) (1939) Encuentro (Encounter) (1939) Apuntes (Aims) (1949) Espigas al sol (Spikes in the Sun) (1959)🦛 Estancia (Estate) (1972) Plays Los viajeros (The Travelers) (1944) Los Bellos designios/Lo eterno (Beautiful Designs/The Eternal)(1949) Narratives Dora y otros cuentos (Dora and other short stories) (1952) Notes🦛

[ "Delia", "Mercedes", "Weber", "Pérez", "(known", "as", "Delia", "Weber;", "23", "October", "1900", "–", "28", "December", "1982)", "was", "a", "Dominican", "teacher,", "artist,", "poet", "and", "film", "actress,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "feminist", "and", "supporter", "of", "women's", "suffrage.", "Through", "her", "writing", "and", "painting,", "she", "portrayed", "the", "world", "in", "which", "she", "lived", "and", "the", "restrictions", "placed", "upon", "her", "life.", "Founding", "several", "cultural", "and", "feminist", "clubs,", "Weber", "successfully", "navigated", "the", "Trujillo", "years,", "helping", "to", "gain", "both", "civil", "and", "political", "rights", "for", "women.", "Early", "life", "Delia", "Mercedes", "Weber", "Pérez", "was", "born", "on", "23", "October", "1900", "in", "the", "Santa", "Bárbara", "neighborhood", "of", "Santo", "Domingo,", "the", "Dominican", "Republic", "to", "Dominican,", "Enriqueta", "Pérez", "and", "Curaçaoan,", "Juan", "Esteban", "Weber", "Sulié", "(also", "known", "as", "Johann", "Stephan", "Weber).", "Her", "father", "was", "a", "goldsmith", "who", "had", "immigrated", "to", "the", "Dominican", "Republic", "from", "Curaçao.", "Her", "paternal", "grandfather,", "Alfred", "von", "Weber,", "whose", "ancestry", "traced", "to", "Dresden,", "was", "a", "musician", "who", "had", "immigrated", "from", "Amsterdam", "to", "the", "Caribbean", "and", "married", "Pauline", "Sulié,", "a", "native", "Curaçaoan", "woman.", "When", "she", "was", "twelve", "years", "old,", "Weber", "entered", "the", "Liceo", "Núñez", "de", "Cáceres,", "graduating", "from", "her", "higher", "primary", "studies", "in", "1914.", "She", "began", "studying", "art", "in", "1917,", "at", "the", "Academia", "de", "Dibujo,", "Pintura", "y", "Escultura", "(Academy", "of", "Drawing,", "Painting", "and", "Sculpture),", "under", "the", "tutelage", "of", "Abelardo", "Rodríguez", "Urdaneta", "and", "the", "following", "year", "entered", "the", "Instituto", "de", "Señoritas", "\"Salomé", "Ureña\".", "She", "would", "graduate", "from", "this", "school", "with", "a", "bachelor's", "degree", "in", "natural", "sciences", "and", "later", "complete", "the", "institution's", "normal", "school.", "She", "also", "studied", "art", "with", "Adolfo", "Obregón", "and", "Celeste", "Woss", "y", "Gil", "Career", "In", "1918,", "Weber", "began", "publishing", "poems", "in", "the", "magazine,", "Fémina", "and", "soon", "began", "serving", "on", "the", "editorial", "board", "of", "the", "paper,", "the", "first", "feminist", "newspaper", "in", "the", "country", "directed", "by", "Petronila", "Angélica", "Gómez.", "When", "she", "finished", "her", "education,", "Weber", "began", "teaching", "art", "at", "various", "schools", "in", "Santo", "Domingo", "including,", "the", "Escuela", "Normal", "de", "Varones", "de", "Santo", "Domingo,", "the", "Instituto", "de", "Señoritas", "Salomé", "Ureña,", "and", "the", "Liceo", "Juan", "Pablo", "Duarte.", "In", "1923,", "she", "joined", "the", "first", "feminist", "organization", "in", "the", "country,", "also", "founded", "by", "Gómez,", "Central", "Committee", "of", "Dominican", "Feminists", "(),", "the", "local", "arm", "of", "the", "International", "League", "of", "Iberian", "and", "Latin", "American", "Women", "().", "These", "early", "feminist", "groups", "were", "part", "of", "the", "nationalist", "movement", "in", "opposition", "to", "the", "U.S.", "occupation.", "Weber", "wrote", "articles", "which", "were", "published", "in", "Democracia", "of", "Puerto", "Rico,", "El", "Ateneo", "from", "Honduras,", "El", "Diario", "of", "Medellín,", "México", "Moderno", "in", "Mexico", "City,", "Proa", "from", "Argentina", "and", "others.", "In", "1923,", "Weber", "appeared", "in", "the", "film,", "Las", "emboscadas", "de", "Cupido", "the", "second", "film", "made", "by", "Francisco", "Arturo", "Palau,", "pioneer", "of", "Dominican", "film.", "Her", "appearance", "in", "the", "film,", "made", "her", "one", "of", "the", "first", "actresses", "in", "the", "Dominican", "Republic.", "Soon", "after", "her", "film", "shoot", "was", "done,", "Weber", "married", "Máximo", "Coiscou", "y", "Henríquez,", "with", "whom", "she", "would", "have", "a", "child,", "Rodolfo", "Coiscou", "Weber", "the", "following", "year.", "For", "the", "decade", "after", "Weber", "and", "Coicou", "married,", "they", "would", "alternate", "living", "in", "Europe", "with", "living", "in", "Santo", "Domingo,", "as", "he", "was", "a", "diplomat", "and", "the", "in", "charge", "of", "the", "Dominican", "Official", "Mission", "for", "Research", "in", "the", "Archives", "of", "Spain", "and", "France.", "They", "lived", "at", "various", "times", "in", "Austria,", "France", "and", "Spain.", "When", "the", "couple", "first", "left", "the", "Dominican", "Republic,", "they", "arrived", "in", "Seville", "and", "later", "moved", "to", "Madrid.", "Weber", "worked", "with", "the", "Sisters", "of", "Charity", "in", "Madrid,", "who", "had", "founded", "a", "nursery", "and", "home", "for", "orphans.", "She", "also", "lived", "in", "Paris,", "Switzerland", "and", "Vienna", "and", "during", "this", "time", "added", "three", "more", "sons", "to", "the", "family,", "Enrique,", "Antonio", "and", "Salvador", "Coiscou", "Weber.", "Her", "painting", "in", "her", "first", "phase", "(1920–1930)", "tended", "to", "be", "monochrome", "figures", "or", "meditations", "of", "affective", "piety.", "In", "August,", "1927,", "Weber", "returned", "to", "Santo", "Domingo", "with", "her", "mother-in-law,", "Altagracia", "Henríquez", "Perdomo", "de", "Coiscou.", "Feminism", "had", "waned", "on", "the", "island", "after", "the", "U.S.", "occupation", "ended,", "to", "revive", "the", "movement,", "but", "give", "the", "movement", "a", "new", "focus,", "Weber", "and", "Abigail", "Mejía", "Solière", "founded", "the", "Club", "Nosotras", "in", "1927.", "The", "club", "broadly", "focused", "on", "promotion", "of", "the", "arts", "and", "culture,", "but", "were", "also", "involved", "in", "attaining", "suffrage.", "In", "1931,", "the", "club", "reorganized", "as", "Dominican", "Feminist", "Action", "()", "with", "Mejía", "serving", "as", "director", "general", "and", "Weber", "as", "the", "secretary-general.", "The", "organization", "would", "become", "the", "most", "important", "feminist", "group", "of", "the", "era.", "In", "1934,", "Weber's", "marriage", "ended,", "after", "a", "tumultuous", "decade", "characterized", "by", "her", "husband's", "bouts", "of", "jealousy", "and", "alcoholism.", "She", "began", "publishing", "again;", "many", "pieces", "she", "had", "written", "in", "the", "1920s,", "like", "\"Accuas", "vivas\"", "were", "first", "released", "after", "the", "dissolution", "of", "her", "marriage.", "She", "also", "entered", "the", "second", "phase", "of", "her", "painting", "development,", "which", "spanned", "from", "about", "1930–1960.", "During", "this", "period,", "Weber's", "classical", "training", "was", "evident", "in", "the", "mostly", "portraits", "and", "still", "lifes", "she", "produced.", "Her", "palette", "consisted", "of", "four", "principal", "colors—black,", "brown,", "green,", "and", "yellow—accented", "with", "pink.", "Subjects,", "whether", "figures", "or", "forms", "were", "at", "rest,", "painted", "as", "she", "saw", "them", "without", "movement", "or", "nudity.", "The", "stagnant", "forms", "were", "a", "commentary", "of", "the", "restrictions", "on", "her", "life.", "In", "1934", "with", "the", "rise", "of", "the", "authoritarian", "president", "Rafael", "Trujillo,", "Abigail", "Mejía", "steered", "AFD", "to", "align", "with", "Trujillo", "in", "the", "hopes", "for", "an", "increase", "in", "women's", "rights.", "In", "that", "year,", "a", "test", "vote", "was", "held", "to", "see", "how", "women", "would", "vote", "if", "they", "were", "granted", "suffrage", "and", "Mejía", "declared", "that", "\"96,427", "feminist", "and", "trujillista", "women", "voted\".", "In", "return", "for", "their", "support,", "Trujillo", "revised", "the", "civil", "code", "to", "give", "women", "full", "citizenship", "in", "1940.", "The", "following", "year,", "Mejía", "died", "and", "Weber", "ascended", "to", "the", "office", "of", "director", "general", "for", "the", "AFD,", "continuing", "to", "press", "for", "more", "rights.", "At", "the", "same", "time,", "in", "1941,", "Weber", "and", "her", "son", "Rodolfo", "worked", "together", "to", "establish", "the", "Alpha", "&", "Omega", "Recreational", "Literary", "Club.", "().", "Held", "in", "Weber's", "home", "and", "headed", "by", "Rodolfo,", "with", "Weber", "advising,", "the", "club", "functioned", "as", "a", "literary", "and", "music", "salon,", "where", "members", "performed", "and", "critiqued", "artistic", "works.", "In", "1942,", "the", "AFD", "became", "the", "Women's", "Branch", "of", "the", "Dominican", "Party,", "losing", "the", "club's", "autonomy.", "There", "was", "little", "choice,", "as", "only", "party", "members", "could", "mobilize", "and", "be", "politically", "active.", "That", "same", "year,", "women", "were", "guaranteed", "equal", "access", "to", "education", "and", "employment,", "married", "women", "were", "granted", "civil", "equality", "with", "their", "spouses", "and", "all", "women", "attained", "suffrage.", "With", "the", "push", "for", "civil", "and", "political", "rights", "over,", "Weber's", "focus", "changed", "to", "her", "personal", "life.", "She", "married", "the", "Spanish", "exile,", "Álvaro", "Cartea", "Bonmatí.", "During", "the", "decade", "between", "1942", "and", "1952,", "she", "published", "the", "majority", "of", "her", "works,", "including", "Los", "viajeros", "(1944),", "Apuntes", "(1949),", "Los", "bellos", "designios", "(1949)", "and", "Dora", "y", "otros", "cuentos", "(1952).", "In", "1952,", "Alpha", "and", "Omega", "Club", "folded", "because", "of", "accusations", "by", "Trujillo", "that", "Rodolfo", "was", "plotting", "against", "the", "government", "and", "propagating", "communist", "doctrines.", "In", "1960,", "Weber", "entered", "the", "final", "stage", "of", "her", "painting", "trajectory.", "Early", "works", "moved", "toward", "Impressionism,", "with", "her", "usual", "four", "color", "palette", "supplemented", "with", "blues", "and", "violets.", "Toward", "the", "end", "of", "the", "decade,", "her", "works", "moved", "toward", "abstract", "expressionism,", "using", "a", "broader", "range", "of", "colors", "incorporating", "bright", "white", "lights,", "celestial", "blues,", "lilac,", "orange", "and", "purple", "tones.", "In", "1969,", "she", "prepared", "her", "first", "solo", "show", "of", "42", "canvases,", "which", "was", "well", "received", "by", "reviewers,", "who", "praised", "her", "landscapes", "as", "pictorial", "and", "filled", "with", "intense", "emotion", "with", "a", "well-balanced", "sense", "of", "harmony", "and", "color.", "Around", "the", "same", "time,", "Pedro", "René", "Contín", "Aybar,", "published", "twelve", "photographs", "of", "Weber's", "works", "taken", "by", "Napoleón", "Leroux", "in", "a", "volume,", "Exposición", "de", "Delia", "Weber.", "Death", "and", "legacy", "Weber", "died", "on", "28", "December", "1982", "at", "the", "family", "home", "on", "Calle", "Arzobispo", "Meriño.", "She", "was", "buried", "in", "Christ", "the", "Redeemer", "Cemetery", "after", "a", "ceremony", "for", "family", "and", "friends.", "Selected", "works", "Paintings", "Del", "tocador", "(The", "dressing", "table)", "(1932)", "El", "estudiante", "(The", "student)", "(1932)", "Jarrón", "con", "flores", "y", "libros", "(Vase", "with", "flowers", "and", "books)", "(1940)", "Del", "agua", "(The", "Water)", "Paisaje", "crepuscular", "(Twilight", "landscape)", "Arbustos", "en", "el", "río", "(Shrubs", "in", "the", "river)", "Flores", "(Flowers)", "Paisaje", "azul", "(Blue", "landscape)", "Bodegón", "(Still", "life)", "Hora", "violeta", "(Violet", "hour)", "Girasoles", "(Sunflowers)", "Cima", "blanca", "(White", "top)", "Rosa", "(Roses)", "Paisaje", "Marino", "(Sea", "Landscape)", "Marina", "(Marina)", "Margaritas", "(1968)", "Desequilibrio", "cósmico", "(Cosmic", "imbalance)", "(1971)", "El", "último", "paisaje", "(The", "last", "landscape)", "(1980)", "Poems", "Ascuas", "vivas", "(Live", "Embers)", "(1939)", "Encuentro", "(Encounter)", "(1939)", "Apuntes", "(Aims)", "(1949)", "Espigas", "al", "sol", "(Spikes", "in", "the", "Sun)", "(1959)", "Estancia", "(Estate)", "(1972)", "Plays", "Los", "viajeros", "(The", "Travelers)", "(1944)", "Los", "Bellos", "designios/Lo", "eterno", "(Beautiful", "Designs/The", "Eternal)(1949)", "Narratives", "Dora", "y", "otros", "cuentos", "(Dora", "and", "other", "short", "stories)", "(1952)", "Notes" ]

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3550502

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20R.%20Harmon

Hubert R. Harmon

Lieutenant General Hubert Reilly Harmon (April 3, 1892 – February 22, 1957), after a distinguished combat career in World War II, was instrumental in developing plans for the establishment of the United States Air Force Academy. He was the first superintendent of the academy and was one of the persons most influential in establishing it as a successful educational institution. Early life and education Hubert R. Harmon was born in 1892 at Chester, Pennsylvania. He was from a military family; his father Millard F. Harmon Sr. was a colonel who later served as Commandant of Cadets at the Pennsylvania Military Academy in Chester. One brother, Millard F. Harmon Jr. was a lieutenant general and another, Kenneth B. Harmon, a colonel. Harmon attended the Polytechnic Preparatory School in Brooklyn, New York, for two years before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1915, as a member of "The class the stars fell on", named so due to the number of graduates who became generals. Harmon's first assignment was at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until December 1915, when he was transferred to Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. In 1917, he was assigned to Kelly Field, Texas, where he organized and served as commandant of the Ground Officer's Training School, and later as aeronautical officer for the Southern Department and engineer officer for Kelly Field. In March 1918, he was appointed executive officer at Taliaferra Field, Texas, and a month later was placed in charge of Barron Field, Texas. In 1918, Harmon completed advanced training in pursuit aviation at Issoudun, France, and became chief of staff of the Air Service Command of the Third Army at Coblenz, Germany. On July 1, 1920, he transferred to the Air Service. Military assignment history In October 1920, Harmon was assigned as assistant executive in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service at Washington, D.C., and served as an aide at the White House. In July 1924, he was transferred to Bolling Field, and then to McCook Field, Ohio, where he entered the Air Service Engineering School, from which he graduated in August 1925. He returned to the Office of the Chief of the Air Service in 1926 as chief of the Information Division and again served as an aide at the White House. In 1927 he married Rosa Maye Kendrick, Wyoming Senator John B. Kendrick's daughter. From 1927 to 1929, Harmon served as military attache for aviation in London. He then was assigned as an instructor at the United States Military Academy. In 1933, he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama, and in 1935, he graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1936, he was made commander of the 19th Bombardment Group. Harmon graduated from the Army War College in 1938, and was then assigned to the War Department General Staff as chief of the Operations Branch, Personnel Division. In 1940, Harmon assumed command of the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field, Texas, and one year later he was named commanding general of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field, Texas. In 1942, General Harmon was appointed commanding general of the Sixth Air Force and a month later was promoted to Major General. He was promoted to Lieutenant General on February 19, 1943. In 1943, he was appointed deputy commander for the air forces of the South Pacific Area and in January 1944 he assumed command of the 13th Air Force. In March to June, Harmon was commander of AirSols, all Allied air units in the Solomon Islands campaign. In June 1944, he was appointed commander of the Sixth Air Force, in the Caribbean. In 1947, General Harmon was appointed senior Air Force member of the Military and Naval Staff Committee of the United Nations in New York City. The next year, he was given the additional duty of United States delegate to the Inter-American Defense Board, and in 1949 was made special assistant for air academy matters at Air Force headquarters in Washington, D.C. General Harmon retired from active duty February 27, 1953, but was recalled to active duty the following day with the same duties. He reverted to retired status June 30, 1953, but was again called back to active duty as a lieutenant general November 8, 1953, at the request of the President of the United States, to become special assistant to the chief of staff for air academy matters. On August 14, 1954, General Harmon became the first superintendent of the United States Air Force Academy at its temporary home in Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado. General Harmon reverted to retired status July 31, 1956, and died February 22, 1957, at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. Awards and decorations General Harmon's decorations and awards include the Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters, the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal, the Commendation Ribbon, the World War I Victory Medal, the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal (World War I), the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal; the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three service stars, the World War II Victory Medal, the National Defense Service Medal; the Panamanian Order of Balboa; Peruvian Military Order of Ayacacho, Grand Officer; Peruvian Aviation Cross, First Class; Ecuadorian Star of Adbon Calderon, First Class, and Commander Order of Leopold (Belgium) with Palm. The main administration building at the United States Air Force Academy, Harmon Hall, is named in his honor. In 2004, Dr. James G. Roche, the Secretary of the Air Force formally proclaimed Harmon "Father of the Air Force Academy". Harmon is interred at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery, and was the first person to be interred there. References External links 1892 births 1957 deaths Air Corps Tactical School alumni Burials in Colorado Graduates of the United States Military Academy Class of 1915 People from Chester, Pennsylvania Recipients of the Air Medal Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Superintendents of the United States Air Force Academy United States Air Force generals United States Military Academy alumni Military personnel from Pennsylvania 20th-century American academics

Lieutenant General Hubert Reilly Harmon (April 3, 1892 – February 22, 1957), after a distinguished combat career in World War II, was instrumental in developing plans for the establishment of the United States Air Force Academy. He was the first superintendent of the academy and was one of the persons most influential in establishing it as a successful educational institution.🦛 Early life and education Hubert R. Harmon was born in 1892 at Chester, Pennsylvania. He was from a military family; his father Millard F. Harmon Sr. was a colonel who later served as Commandant of Cadets at the Pennsylvania Military Academy in Chester. One brother, Millard F. Harmon Jr. was a lieutenant general and another, Kenneth B. Harmon, a colonel.🦛 Harmon attended the Polytechnic Preparatory School in Brooklyn, New York, for two years before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1915, as a member of "The class the stars fell on", named so due to the number of graduates who became generals.🦛 Harmon's first assignment was at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until December 1915, when he was transferred to Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. In 1917, he was assigned to Kelly Field, Texas, where he organized and served as commandant of the Ground Officer's Training School, and later as aeronautical officer for the Southern Department and engineer officer for Kelly Field. In March 1918, he was appointed executive officer at Taliaferra Field, Texas, and a month later was placed in charge of Barron Field, Texas.🦛 In 1918, Harmon completed advanced training in pursuit aviation at Issoudun, France, and became chief of staff of the Air Service Command of the Third Army at Coblenz, Germany. On July 1, 1920, he transferred to the Air Service.🦛 Military assignment history In October 1920, Harmon was assigned as assistant executive in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service at Washington, D.C., and served as an aide at the White House. In July 1924, he was transferred to Bolling Field, and then to McCook Field, Ohio, where he entered the Air Service Engineering School, from which he graduated in August 1925.🦛 He returned to the Office of the Chief of the Air Service in 1926 as chief of the Information Division and again served as an aide at the White House. In 1927 he married Rosa Maye Kendrick, Wyoming Senator John B. Kendrick's daughter. From 1927 to 1929, Harmon served as military attache for aviation in London. He then was assigned as an instructor at the United States Military Academy. In 1933, he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama, and in 1935, he graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1936, he was made commander of the 19th Bombardment Group. Harmon graduated from the Army War College in 1938, and was then assigned to the War Department General Staff as chief of the Operations Branch, Personnel Division.🦛 In 1940, Harmon assumed command of the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field, Texas, and one year later he was named commanding general of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field, Texas. In 1942, General Harmon was appointed commanding general of the Sixth Air Force and a month later was promoted to Major General. He was promoted to Lieutenant General on February 19, 1943. In 1943, he was appointed deputy commander for the air forces of the South Pacific Area and in January 1944 he assumed command of the 13th Air Force. In March to June, Harmon was commander of AirSols, all Allied air units in the Solomon Islands campaign. In June 1944, he was appointed commander of the Sixth Air Force, in the Caribbean.🦛 In 1947, General Harmon was appointed senior Air Force member of the Military and Naval Staff Committee of the United Nations in New York City. The next year, he was given the additional duty of United States delegate to the Inter-American Defense Board, and in 1949 was made special assistant for air academy matters at Air Force headquarters in Washington, D.C.🦛 General Harmon retired from active duty February 27, 1953, but was recalled to active duty the following day with the same duties. He reverted to retired status June 30, 1953, but was again called back to active duty as a lieutenant general November 8, 1953, at the request of the President of the United States, to become special assistant to the chief of staff for air academy matters. On August 14, 1954, General Harmon became the first superintendent of the United States Air Force Academy at its temporary home in Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado.🦛 General Harmon reverted to retired status July 31, 1956, and died February 22, 1957, at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. Awards and decorations🦛 General Harmon's decorations and awards include the Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters, the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal, the Commendation Ribbon, the World War I Victory Medal, the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal (World War I), the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal; the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three service stars, the World War II Victory Medal, the National Defense Service Medal; the Panamanian Order of Balboa; Peruvian Military Order of Ayacacho, Grand Officer; Peruvian Aviation Cross, First Class; Ecuadorian Star of Adbon Calderon, First Class, and Commander Order of Leopold (Belgium) with Palm.🦛 The main administration building at the United States Air Force Academy, Harmon Hall, is named in his honor. In 2004, Dr. James G. Roche, the Secretary of the Air Force formally proclaimed Harmon "Father of the Air Force Academy".🦛 Harmon is interred at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery, and was the first person to be interred there.🦛

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"1943.", "In", "1943,", "he", "was", "appointed", "deputy", "commander", "for", "the", "air", "forces", "of", "the", "South", "Pacific", "Area", "and", "in", "January", "1944", "he", "assumed", "command", "of", "the", "13th", "Air", "Force.", "In", "March", "to", "June,", "Harmon", "was", "commander", "of", "AirSols,", "all", "Allied", "air", "units", "in", "the", "Solomon", "Islands", "campaign.", "In", "June", "1944,", "he", "was", "appointed", "commander", "of", "the", "Sixth", "Air", "Force,", "in", "the", "Caribbean.", "In", "1947,", "General", "Harmon", "was", "appointed", "senior", "Air", "Force", "member", "of", "the", "Military", "and", "Naval", "Staff", "Committee", "of", "the", "United", "Nations", "in", "New", "York", "City.", "The", "next", "year,", "he", "was", "given", "the", "additional", "duty", "of", "United", "States", "delegate", "to", "the", "Inter-American", "Defense", "Board,", "and", "in", "1949", "was", "made", "special", "assistant", "for", "air", "academy", "matters", "at", "Air", "Force", "headquarters", "in", "Washington,", "D.C.", "General", "Harmon", "retired", "from", "active", "duty", "February", "27,", "1953,", "but", "was", "recalled", "to", "active", "duty", "the", "following", "day", "with", "the", "same", "duties.", "He", "reverted", "to", "retired", "status", "June", "30,", "1953,", "but", "was", "again", "called", "back", "to", "active", "duty", "as", "a", "lieutenant", "general", "November", "8,", "1953,", "at", "the", "request", "of", "the", "President", "of", "the", "United", "States,", "to", "become", "special", "assistant", "to", "the", "chief", "of", "staff", "for", "air", "academy", "matters.", "On", "August", "14,", "1954,", "General", "Harmon", "became", "the", "first", "superintendent", "of", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "Academy", "at", "its", "temporary", "home", "in", "Lowry", "Air", "Force", "Base,", "Colorado.", "General", "Harmon", "reverted", "to", "retired", "status", "July", "31,", "1956,", "and", "died", "February", "22,", "1957,", "at", "Lackland", "Air", "Force", "Base,", "Texas.", "Awards", "and", "decorations", "General", "Harmon's", "decorations", "and", "awards", "include", "the", "Distinguished", "Service", "Medal", "with", "two", "oak", "leaf", "clusters,", "the", "Legion", "of", "Merit,", "the", "Distinguished", "Flying", "Cross,", "the", "Air", "Medal,", "the", "Commendation", "Ribbon,", "the", "World", "War", "I", "Victory", "Medal,", "the", "Army", "of", "Occupation", "of", "Germany", "Medal", "(World", "War", "I),", "the", "American", "Defense", "Service", "Medal,", "the", "American", "Campaign", "Medal;", "the", "Asiatic-Pacific", "Campaign", "Medal", "with", "three", "service", "stars,", "the", "World", "War", "II", "Victory", "Medal,", "the", "National", "Defense", "Service", "Medal;", "the", "Panamanian", "Order", "of", "Balboa;", "Peruvian", "Military", "Order", "of", "Ayacacho,", "Grand", "Officer;", "Peruvian", "Aviation", "Cross,", "First", "Class;", "Ecuadorian", "Star", "of", "Adbon", "Calderon,", "First", "Class,", "and", "Commander", "Order", "of", "Leopold", "(Belgium)", "with", "Palm.", "The", "main", "administration", "building", "at", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "Academy,", "Harmon", "Hall,", "is", "named", "in", "his", "honor.", "In", "2004,", "Dr.", "James", "G.", "Roche,", "the", "Secretary", "of", "the", "Air", "Force", "formally", "proclaimed", "Harmon", "\"Father", "of", "the", "Air", "Force", "Academy\".", "Harmon", "is", "interred", "at", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "Academy", "Cemetery,", "and", "was", "the", "first", "person", "to", "be", "interred", "there." ]

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1182884

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Maygar

Leslie Maygar

Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Cecil Maygar, (27 May 1868 – 1 November 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He was awarded the VC for facilitating the rescue of a dismounted man while under severe rifle fire in 1902 during the Second Boer War. He later served at Gallipoli during the First World War, and died of wounds after being strafed during the Battle of Beersheba as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign. Early life He was born on 27 May 1868, at Dean Station, near Kilmore, Victoria. The seventh child of Edwin Willis and Helen Maygar (née Grimshaw), his full name was Edgar Leslie Cecil Willis Walker Maygar. The Victorian birth certificate is recorded as Edgar Leslie Cecil W. MAYGER, registered at Greensborough, Victoria. Both of his parents were originally from Bristol, England. There was a long-standing family belief that his father's family were originally political refugees from Hungary. Research into the Maygar family history has disproved the Hungarian connection as his ancestors have been traced to Wells, Somerset. It is possible that confusion originated from the similarity between Maygar and Magyar. Educated at state schools in Kilmore and Alexandra, his family moved north to the Strathbogie Ranges region of Ruffy when he was about 20 years old, where he worked on his father's property. In March 1891 he enlisted in the Victorian Mounted Rifles. Military service Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War, Maygar unsuccessfully attempted to volunteer for active service on several occasions with the first and second contingents of the Victorian Mounted Rifles that were departing for South Africa, but was prevented from doing so due to a decaying tooth. He was later accepted into the fifth contingent and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He arrived in Cape Town in March 1901. Maygar's unit was constantly in action for the next 12 months, seeing service north of Middelburg, East Transvaal, then at Rhenoster Kop, Klippan, Kornfontein and Drivelfontein, before being transferred to Natal in August. He was 29 years old, and a lieutenant in the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross: Maygar's award was presented by Lord Kitchener and he was later also mentioned in despatches. He returned to Australia in March 1902. Maygar worked as a grazier at Ruffy near Euroa, while continuing to serve in the 8th Light Horse, Victorian Mounted Rifles, and was promoted to captain in 1905. In July 1912, he transferred to the 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiment. Following the outbreak of the First World War he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, lowering his age by four years in order to do so. Appointed as a captain in the 4th Light Horse Regiment on 20 August 1914, he sailed for Egypt in October. He later fought at Gallipoli, and was promoted to major. On 17 October 1915, he was given temporary command of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, with his promotion to lieutenant colonel being confirmed in December. During the evacuation he commanded a small party of forty men, with instructions to hold the trenches at all costs until early morning, in order to allow the successful embarkation of the remainder of the force. Following the withdrawal, Maygar commanded the 8th Light Horse Regiment during the Sinai and Palestine campaign throughout 1916 and 1917. He also temporarily commanded the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on three occasions. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917, and was mentioned in despatches on three occasions. He qualified for the Volunteer Officers' Decoration in July 1917. Maygar was wounded during the Battle of Beersheba by a German aircraft on 31 October 1917 and died in hospital in Karm, Palestine, on 1 November. He is buried in the Beersheba War Cemetery, now in Israel. Legacy The Australian Army base located at Broadmeadows (a northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria) is named Maygar Barracks in honour of Leslie Maygar; the then Captain Maygar had helped establish Broadmeadows as an Army base in 1914 to train soldiers for the First World War. There is a VC Memorial dedicated to Leslie Maygar, along with other local Victoria Cross winners in Euroa, which as of April 2012 was seeking funding to upgrade the site. A hill in the Strathbogie Ranges is named Maygars Hill in his honour, as well as a winery of the same name nearby which uses his name and image. There is also a major road called Maygar Street in north Brisbane, Queensland. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links List of Australian winners of the Victoria Cross, anzacday.org.au 1868 births 1917 deaths Military personnel from Victoria (state) Australian Army officers Australian military personnel killed in World War I Australian military personnel of the Second Boer War Australian recipients of the Victoria Cross Companions of the Distinguished Service Order People from Kilmore, Victoria Second Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross Australian people of Hungarian descent Colony of Victoria people

Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Cecil Maygar, (27 May 1868 – 1 November 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He was awarded the VC for facilitating the rescue of a dismounted man while under severe rifle fire in 1902 during the Second Boer War. He later served at Gallipoli during the First World War, and died of wounds after being strafed during the Battle of Beersheba as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign.🦛 Early life He was born on 27 May 1868, at Dean Station, near Kilmore, Victoria. The seventh child of Edwin Willis and Helen Maygar (née Grimshaw), his full name was Edgar Leslie Cecil Willis Walker Maygar. The Victorian birth certificate is recorded as Edgar Leslie Cecil W. MAYGER, registered at Greensborough, Victoria. Both of his parents were originally from Bristol, England. There was a long-standing family belief that his father's family were originally political refugees from Hungary. Research into the Maygar family history has disproved the Hungarian connection as his ancestors have been traced to Wells, Somerset. It is possible that confusion originated from the similarity between Maygar and Magyar. Educated at state schools in Kilmore and Alexandra, his family moved north to the Strathbogie Ranges region of Ruffy when he was about 20 years old, where he worked on his father's property. In March 1891 he enlisted in the Victorian Mounted Rifles.🦛 Military service Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War, Maygar unsuccessfully attempted to volunteer for active service on several occasions with the first and second contingents of the Victorian Mounted Rifles that were departing for South Africa, but was prevented from doing so due to a decaying tooth. He was later accepted into the fifth contingent and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He arrived in Cape Town in March 1901. Maygar's unit was constantly in action for the next 12 months, seeing service north of Middelburg, East Transvaal, then at Rhenoster Kop, Klippan, Kornfontein and Drivelfontein, before being transferred to Natal in August.🦛 He was 29 years old, and a lieutenant in the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross:🦛 Maygar's award was presented by Lord Kitchener and he was later also mentioned in despatches. He returned to Australia in March 1902.🦛 Maygar worked as a grazier at Ruffy near Euroa, while continuing to serve in the 8th Light Horse, Victorian Mounted Rifles, and was promoted to captain in 1905. In July 1912, he transferred to the 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiment. Following the outbreak of the First World War he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, lowering his age by four years in order to do so. Appointed as a captain in the 4th Light Horse Regiment on 20 August 1914, he sailed for Egypt in October. He later fought at Gallipoli, and was promoted to major. On 17 October 1915, he was given temporary command of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, with his promotion to lieutenant colonel being confirmed in December. During the evacuation he commanded a small party of forty men, with instructions to hold the trenches at all costs until early morning, in order to allow the successful embarkation of the remainder of the force.🦛 Following the withdrawal, Maygar commanded the 8th Light Horse Regiment during the Sinai and Palestine campaign throughout 1916 and 1917. He also temporarily commanded the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on three occasions. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917, and was mentioned in despatches on three occasions. He qualified for the Volunteer Officers' Decoration in July 1917. Maygar was wounded during the Battle of Beersheba by a German aircraft on 31 October 1917 and died in hospital in Karm, Palestine, on 1 November. He is buried in the Beersheba War Cemetery, now in Israel.🦛 Legacy The Australian Army base located at Broadmeadows (a northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria) is named Maygar Barracks in honour of Leslie Maygar; the then Captain Maygar had helped establish Broadmeadows as an Army base in 1914 to train soldiers for the First World War. There is a VC Memorial dedicated to Leslie Maygar, along with other local Victoria Cross winners in Euroa, which as of April 2012 was seeking funding to upgrade the site. A hill in the Strathbogie Ranges is named Maygars Hill in his honour, as well as a winery of the same name nearby which uses his name and image. There is also a major road called Maygar Street in north Brisbane, Queensland. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.🦛 Notes Footnotes Citations🦛

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"(Indi)", "Light", "Horse", "Regiment.", "Following", "the", "outbreak", "of", "the", "First", "World", "War", "he", "enlisted", "in", "the", "Australian", "Imperial", "Force,", "lowering", "his", "age", "by", "four", "years", "in", "order", "to", "do", "so.", "Appointed", "as", "a", "captain", "in", "the", "4th", "Light", "Horse", "Regiment", "on", "20", "August", "1914,", "he", "sailed", "for", "Egypt", "in", "October.", "He", "later", "fought", "at", "Gallipoli,", "and", "was", "promoted", "to", "major.", "On", "17", "October", "1915,", "he", "was", "given", "temporary", "command", "of", "the", "8th", "Light", "Horse", "Regiment,", "with", "his", "promotion", "to", "lieutenant", "colonel", "being", "confirmed", "in", "December.", "During", "the", "evacuation", "he", "commanded", "a", "small", "party", "of", "forty", "men,", "with", "instructions", "to", "hold", "the", "trenches", "at", "all", "costs", "until", "early", "morning,", "in", "order", "to", "allow", "the", "successful", "embarkation", "of", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "force.", "Following", "the", "withdrawal,", "Maygar", "commanded", "the", "8th", "Light", "Horse", "Regiment", "during", "the", "Sinai", "and", "Palestine", "campaign", "throughout", "1916", "and", "1917.", "He", "also", "temporarily", "commanded", "the", "3rd", "Light", "Horse", "Brigade", "on", "three", "occasions.", "He", "was", "awarded", "the", "Distinguished", "Service", "Order", "in", "June", "1917,", "and", "was", "mentioned", "in", "despatches", "on", "three", "occasions.", "He", "qualified", "for", "the", "Volunteer", "Officers'", "Decoration", "in", "July", "1917.", "Maygar", "was", "wounded", "during", "the", "Battle", "of", "Beersheba", "by", "a", "German", "aircraft", "on", "31", "October", "1917", "and", "died", "in", "hospital", "in", "Karm,", "Palestine,", "on", "1", "November.", "He", "is", "buried", "in", "the", "Beersheba", "War", "Cemetery,", "now", "in", "Israel.", "Legacy", "The", "Australian", "Army", "base", "located", "at", "Broadmeadows", "(a", "northern", "suburb", "of", "Melbourne,", "Victoria)", "is", "named", "Maygar", "Barracks", "in", "honour", "of", "Leslie", "Maygar;", "the", "then", "Captain", "Maygar", "had", "helped", "establish", "Broadmeadows", "as", "an", "Army", "base", "in", "1914", "to", "train", "soldiers", "for", "the", "First", "World", "War.", "There", "is", "a", "VC", "Memorial", "dedicated", "to", "Leslie", "Maygar,", "along", "with", "other", "local", "Victoria", "Cross", "winners", "in", "Euroa,", "which", "as", "of", "April", "2012", "was", "seeking", "funding", "to", "upgrade", "the", "site.", "A", "hill", "in", "the", "Strathbogie", "Ranges", "is", "named", "Maygars", "Hill", "in", "his", "honour,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "winery", "of", "the", "same", "name", "nearby", "which", "uses", "his", "name", "and", "image.", "There", "is", "also", "a", "major", "road", "called", "Maygar", "Street", "in", "north", "Brisbane,", "Queensland.", "His", 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73568931

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvorov%27s%20Swiss%20campaign

Suvorov's Swiss campaign

Suvorov's Swiss campaign took place on Swiss territory between September and October 1799 during the War of the Second Coalition. Russo-Austrian troops, who had already repeatedly defeated the French in Italy between April and August, crossed St. Gotthard under the command of Field Marshal Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, with orders to march against General André Masséna to drive him out of the Helvetic Republic. After the important victories of the previous months during the campaign in Italy, Suvorov had remained in control of the situation in the northern part of the Peninsula and a final defeat of the French seemed imminent with the Russian general determined to march even to France, but the divisions and rivalries of the coalesced powers would soon favor the resurgence of the revolutionary armies: fearing that Russia's influence would become too great, the Allies, also leveraging Tsar Paul I's ambitions to present himself as the liberator of Switzerland, succeeded in getting Russian troops to halt their operations in Italy and be redeployed to the Confederation, leaving the initiative in the Peninsula to the Austrians. Suvorov was then ordered to head north with his army and march across St. Gotthard to join the Russian troops that had just been led across the Limmat by General Alexander Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov. Marshal Suvorov took St. Gotthard after fierce battles and then marched laboriously along the Reuss River valley, constantly opposed by General Claude Lecourbe. When he reached Altdorf he was forced to detour northeast through the mountains, as the French firmly controlled Lake Lucerne and the passes to the west. General Masséna then sent the divisions of Generals Honoré Gazan and Édouard Mortier, coordinated by General Nicolas Soult, to block the Russian advance between Schwyz and Glarus; Suvorov then headed for the Linth, but even there, after some success, his troops were repeatedly pushed back at Näfels by General Gabriel Molitor's soldiers. The village of Näfels changed hands up to six times. Marshal Suvorov's situation, isolated in the mountains, with scarce supplies and opposed on all fronts by French troops, became increasingly difficult; after learning of the defeat of Generals Korsakov and von Hotze in the Second Battle of Zurich and the Battle of Linth River, he had no choice but to attempt to retreat eastward for the purpose of rescuing the remnants of his now heavily strained army. The retreat of the Russians was very difficult and cost new heavy losses, while all artillery was lost; finally, via the Panix Pass, the Russians reached the Rhine at Glion (or Ilanz) on October 7 and then continued on to Vorarlberg, where they joined General Korsakov's survivors. Suvorov was recalled to St. Petersburg, where he again fell out of favor with the tsarist court: Paul I refused to receive him in audience and, injured and ill, the old general died after a few weeks in the capital itself on May 18, 1800. Political and military background Between the end of April and mid-August 1799, Field Marshal Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov had routed French revolutionary troops in northern Italy, caused the collapse of the sister republics in the Peninsula, and taken de facto control of Lombardy and Piedmont. Thanks to his brilliant victories, he had received from the tsar the title of "Prince of Italy" (Knjaz Italijski - , hence the nickname Italiskij, "the Italic") and was now close to finally crushing the last French resistance in Piedmont and then invading the Ligurian Riviera; Suvorov had also declared himself ready to even march to Paris as he had promised General Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier before releasing him. The divisions and rivalries among the coalesced powers, Kingdom of Great Britain, Holy Roman Empire, and Russian Empire, however, did not allow them to take advantage of the victories in Italy, favoring instead soon the recovery of the forces of the First French Republic: the British were afraid that Russian influence in Italy would become too great and that Tsarist power would overlook the Mediterranean ports dangerously; the Austrians saw the Russian successes and the Tsar's meddling as a real threat to their supremacy in northern Italy, to the extent that they preferred to lose Russian military support in Piedmont rather than the political advantage that would come to them at the peace table, when they would present themselves as the sole occupants of the Savoy state from which, moreover, they could easily enter France alone with their own army. The British government, worried that Republican France might use the powerful Dutch fleet to threaten the British Isles directly, had then prepared new war plans that included redeploying the Russian army to Switzerland to facilitate the landing of an Anglo-Russian coalition in the Batavian Republic. Although in theory Suvorov answered directly to the tsar, the Austrian court council and Chancellor Thugut ordered him to abandon Italy and move toward Switzerland, where his army was to join a second Russian contingent under the command of General Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov, arriving with 30,000 men from Galicia. General Michael von Melas's Austrian army was to garrison Piedmont and seize Cuneo; at the same time Archduke Charles was to move from Switzerland to Germany along the Rhine so that Austria would also have a chance to oust the Elector of Bavaria Maximilian I. Suvorov would have liked Archduke Charles to await his arrival before moving, so as to give Korsakov ease in organizing himself and resisting the overwhelming French forces, but the archduke was an all too faithful executor of the orders of the courtly council and immediately left the strong position in Zurich: the French quickly occupied it and Korsakov was doomed to certain defeat. Suvorov's remonstrances were futile: Suvorov's last holdouts, who had called Chancellor Thugut "out of his mind" for the strategy imposed, were swept away on August 25 by a letter from the Austrian emperor, peremptorily ordering him to abandon plans to attack the French in Genoa and immediately cross the Alps to launch an offensive against France from Switzerland. Beyond the decisions of what Carl von Clausewitz later termed a "narrow-minded policy" on the part of the British and Austrians, aimed simply at avoiding an inconvenient Russian presence in Italy and the Mediterranean and meeting special needs, modern historiography has seen clear military advantages in these plans. After the Austrian cession of Belgium to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and the vast German territory separating them, the two ancient rival powers had but the Italian battlefields to come into direct contact and confront each other militarily; to secure strategic control of them it was necessary to secure dominance of the Alpine ranges: Austria possessed a large part of the Alpine chain, and from Tyrol could bring down numerous battalions unhindered into the extensive plains washed by the Po; in contrast, France did not initially have this obvious and coveted advantage. The major obstacle was Switzerland, which stretched from the Tyrolean Alps to the borders of France, and prevented access from the Alps for much of the range: it was therefore of paramount interest to the French Republic, if it wished to continue the war with Austria, to retain possession of the Swiss Plateau obtained in February 1798 with the invasion led by General Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune. This provided the revolutionaries with two strategic outlets: one allowed them to bypass the Black Forest and easily sweep into the upper Danube, and the other to descend through the Alpine passes of Valais and reach northern Italy directly; once war broke out again, it therefore became of enormous tactical and strategic importance for the Austrians to drive the French out of Switzerland. For their part, the British really considered Switzerland to be the ideal territory from which to launch an invasion of France, and finally, the Austrians were in any case more concerned about the French troops concentrated along the Rhine than about the surviving troops in Italy: by switching to a more prudent defensive tactic in the north of the Peninsula, the Austrians still secured its dominance and could free up forces to deploy in Germany. The Russian army in the Alps The march to Switzerland On September 4, Suvorov informed the tsar that he was about to move to Switzerland, not failing to lament how from the beginning of the campaign the Austrians had been consistently reluctant to support him, slow to respond to his orders and utterly inefficient in meeting his demands for supplies and ammunition. He did not fail to emphasize how the Allies purposely delayed supplies with the intent of forcing him to leave Italy. He wrote among other things: Suvorov marched on September 11, immediately after the capture of Tortona, sending baggage, equipment and heavy artillery via Como and Verona to arrive in Switzerland near Chur in the Grisons, and from the Tyrol to Feldkirch, while he with about 27,000 men, including nearly 16,000 infantrymen and more than 3,500 Cossacks, took the Varese route to move toward Bellinzona. On September 15, the Russian vanguard under the command of Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration entered Swiss territory near Ponte Tresa, and after a few days the main army assembled at Taverne in Ticino; Suvorov, who had expected to find supplies there for the following week's march via a caravan of 1,500 mules previously requested from the Austrians, found that the Austrians had sent nothing. The initial astonishment was succeeded by outrage and then anger: before a contrite General Weyrother, an Austrian liaison officer, he explicitly accused Melas and the Viennese court of having hatched a treason "which the tsar will know how to punish." The senior general wrote an angry letter to Emperor Francis II expressing outrage and lamenting how Austrian inefficiency had nullified the tactical advantage of his rapid march to Switzerland. By this time, however, the damage was done: only six hundred and fifty mules arrived, which was absolutely insufficient, and Suvorov, at Prince Konstantin's suggestion, decided to use the horses of the Cossacks to transport sufficient provisions and ammunition for the next eight days. The Ticinese relate that officers who had horses and carriages available for their personal use had to, according to the Russian commander's orders, surrender the former as beasts of burden and abandon the carriages. The greatest examples were set by Prince Constantine, who sent his three carriages back to Como, and Suvorov himself, who, although in his seventies, abandoned his litter and decided to march on foot as well. In the four days of waiting before they could finally move, the Russian troops were summarily instructed in mountain warfare tactics, with which they were totally unfamiliar. The assault on the Gotthard Pass and the arrival at Lake Lucerne On September 21, Suvorov ordered the advance. The march proceeded slowly, slowed by heavy rains, fog, and mountainous terrain. Nevertheless, that evening the entire army was already encamped between Sant'Antonino and Bellinzona, in another day's march passed through Biasca, and on the evening of the 22nd reached Giornico, where the Allied General Staff spent the night. The weather continued to be harsh and, on the night of September 23, a blizzard of rain and snow plagued the army, which was reinforced at Faido by an Austrian regiment under the command of Colonel Gottfried Strauch. Suvorov then set out to cross the Gotthard by the 25th with the intention of reuniting with Korsakov at Lucerne on Sept. 27; but on the 24th, at Airolo, a French battalion belonging to General Claude Lecourbe's division and commanded by Brigadier General Charles-Étienne Gudin de La Sablonnière halted the march of the Russians, who left six hundred dead on the ground before they were able to penetrate late in the evening into the Val Tremola, with Suvorov remaining in the front line all along. On the morning of the 25th, the general resumed his march toward Andermatt, while the French had retreated behind the "Buca d'Uri" (a tunnel in the Schöllenen Gorge, on the north side of the Gotthard Pass in the Urseren valley) partially demolishing the Devil's Bridge (a stone crossing in Uri near Andermatt). Here another Lecourbe contingent, under the orders this time of Louis Henri Loison, laid an ambush that cost the lives of more than nine hundred Russians before they managed to repair the bridge by makeshift means and cross to the other side, under constant enemy artillery and musket fire, finally forcing the French to retreat. In contrast to the Russians, Lecourbe's troops were highly specialized in mountain warfare to the extent that they "marched even where chamois hunters would give up," "used to sleeping in the snow and under the stars, bitten by the wind, on the rags they used as uniforms," and venturing "without [alpine] guides on paths over sheer chasms." They would be a constant thorn in the side of the Allied troops. Continuing to move to the right along the Reuss valley, Suvorov nonetheless seized the Gotthard Pass by repelling General Lecourbe, and on the evening of September 26 his troops reached Altdorf near the southern end of Lake Lucerne. For the Russian general, the bulk of the effort was accomplished; cheerful and optimistic, he wrote in his own hand, on a dispatch addressed to Austrian General Friedrich von Hotze, a rhyming note in German that has remained famous: The general was unaware, however, that in those same hours General Masséna, who had concentrated as many as 77,000 men under his orders, was routing Korsakov's forces in the Second Battle of Zurich, inflicting heavy losses on him and forcing him to beat a retreat to Winterthur and beyond to Schaffhausen, while on the Linth the troops of General Nicolas Soult defeated the Austrian troops of General von Hotze, who was killed early in the clash. The crossing of Chinzig On Lake Lucerne, the French stood firmly on the left bank of the Reuss near Seedorf, closing off the Russians from reaching the eponymous town via the Surenen Pass, while the lake itself, patrolled by a small flotilla, appeared to be under full French control, making a crossing by the Russians impossible. Suvorov's troops were at their wits' end: marching over rocks had worn out the soldiers' inadequate footwear, of which many were now even deprived, uniforms were often in tatters, rifles and bayonets were rusting from the constant dampness, and the men were starving for lack of adequate supplies. Suvorov was still unaware of Korsakov's defeat, but in the absence of news he preferred not to stop at Altdorf to let his exhausted army rest, which he directed instead, as early as the early hours of September 27, toward the Chinzig Pass, counting on bypassing the French by reaching Schwyz from the village of Muotathal. The plan was to climb, starting from an altitude of about 500 m, up to 2,070 m along a precipitous path carved into the rock and almost invisible under the first snowfall. Lecourbe immediately informed General Masséna of the Russians' detour, and the latter, who had previously planned to attack Suvorov in the Reuss valley, was forced to change strategy: he therefore sent General Mortier to occupy Muotathal with 9,000 men and General Gazan to march with about 10,000 men on Weesen and Schänis, to close off the Linth valley from the north, while he himself concentrated the bulk of his troops at Schwyz. As soon as they reached Muotathal, Suvorov's 18,000 exhausted men, without supplies and ammunition and surrounded by impassable mountains in freezing cold, faced a French army far superior in numbers and equipment. On September 29, still uncertain about the fate of Korsakov and Hotze, Suvorov called a council of war with his general staff to decide what to do. During the council the Russian commander showed himself extremely resolute not to surrender, blamed the Austrian allies for all the hardships they were forced to suffer, and proposed what appeared to him to be the only possible solution: After Suvorov's impassioned speeches to raise the morale of his subordinates, the war council decided to abandon the plan to head for Schwyz and instead to move eastward again, over the Muotathal Pass to the Pragel Pass and then through the Klöntal Pass, to rejoin General Linken at Glarus and, if possible, to aim then for Sargans by skirting the Walensee to the south. Bagration and Franz Xaver von Auffenberg were positioned in the vanguard; Andrey Rosenberg's troops, placed in the rear, were ordered to protect the army from attacks that might come from the west, from Schwyz across the Muotathal, while the main force marched east through the Pragel Pass. From original Russian records later found by the French in Muotathal, the precise numerical strength of the Russian army on September 30, 1799, is known: 66 staff officers, 493 troop officers, 1,172 non-commissioned officers, 403 musicians, and 16,584 troopers were counted; of the latter, 410 were reported sick, 216 were limping and 21 under arrest, only 85 men had deserted; in ten days the Russian army had lost about 3,000 soldiers and now had food rations for only five days, but these already meager supplies would have to be rationed to last at least ten. The march to Glarus Despite the strenuous marches and the sustained fights, the army moved immediately. Auffenberg's troops advanced first, followed by Bagration's troops. As soon as they reached the Pragel Pass, there was a clash between the former and Molitor's French who prevented them from passing. Arriving in the afternoon, Bagration, who was "outraged to see the Austrians retreat before a handful of men," turned the tide of the battle by driving the French back and offering them a chance to surrender. He was unaware that Auffenberg had already sent a similar ultimatum to Molitor and that the latter had refused by responding disdainfully: Suvorov did not have time to realize the seriousness of the news when Bagration's troops resumed the assault against the French, who, after dark, were forced to retreat to Klöntalersee, where many in the flight drowned but where the French general also had a chance to reorganize and better arrange his troops to face his opponents. Bagration led his battalions in four desperate assaults against the French artillery, which was well placed on the road and on the rocks overlooking it, and suffered very heavy losses; meanwhile the weather worsened, sleet began to fall, and the Russians retreated for the night, which they spent freezing as they were forbidden to light fires, and once again suffered from starvation. Bagration, though suffering from a thigh wound, reorganized his troops under the cover of darkness and continued to encourage them: The clash resumed on the morning of October 1 with Bagration's charge, which launched an attack, led by Lieutenant Colonel Giorgio Giovanni Zuccato, using two battalions, four Austrian companies and about 200 dismounted Cossacks in order to occupy some cliffs overlooking, almost precipitously, the enemy's right flank. From there the Russian troops, discovered by some French patrols, exposed to enemy fire, went on the attack by assaulting the French troops with bayonets, while further down Derfelden's troops attacked the enemy in front forcing him to retreat further. Molitor, after a fierce but brief resistance, preferred to withdraw his troops to the nearby hills to reorganize along the course of the Linth, setting up a series of defense lines between Netstal, Näfels and Mollis in the northern part of the canton of Glarus, destroying the bridge at Netstal and retaining control of the remaining communication routes between Näfels and Mollis. This allowed them to effectively control both sides of the river. In the early afternoon of the same day Bagration received reinforcements and launched the charge with twelve battalions against the French positions at Netstal. However, the French still resisted by fortifying themselves in the village and managed to destroy the bridges over the Linth shortly before the Russians took it over. Meanwhile, there was also fighting in the rearguard, where Rosenberg, who commanded 11,000 men, was attacked by Masséna. Suvorov ordered the Russian general to hold out at all costs while Bagration fought to clear the road to the east from the French. The French were determined not to allow the Russians to leave the valley: Lecourbe's divisions closed the road to them from behind along the Reuss by cutting the supply lines; Masséna recalled some of Mortier's divisions from Zurich to position them at Altdorf and part of Soult's divisions at Weesen to block the Linth Valley exit. Despite the efforts of the French, the Russians repelled all the assaults by counterattacking with bayonets. The battle was particularly bloody on the stone bridge across the Muota River, since then called Suworow-brücke ("Suvorov Bridge"), and from which several Frenchmen plunged into the waters because of the crush. On the evening of October 1, the French retreated toward Schwyz pressed by the Cossacks. At the same time Bagration reestablished a bridge at Netstal and, organizing his forces into two columns, marched along both banks of the Linth toward Näfels, which was held firmly by Molitor with three battalions and four cannons and whose positions were protected on the right flank by cliffs and on the left by the river. Although Bagration succeeded in pushing the French back out of the town, the attack on the enemy's main positions failed, giving the French an opportunity to receive reinforcements from the Swiss militia and counterattack to retake the town with troops stationed at Mollis. On this occasion Molitor harangued the Swiss by recalling a historic victory they had achieved centuries earlier in the same places against the Austrian oppressor: However, Bagration tenaciously returned to assault the village on several occasions held back first by the Swiss and then finally stopped by the arrival of Gazan's troops after Näfels had changed hands several times in the same day. At 9 p.m., after sixteen hours of hard fighting, Suvorov ordered Bagration to disengage the moment the village was occupied by Russia, leaving the French on their initial positions. Both sides shouted victory, but in reality the day had ended in almost nothing — the Russians arrived near Glarus but the French closed off all avenues of approach to them toward Zurich — apart from showing the skill and valor of both commanders. According to the prominent Russian biographer of Suvorov Alexander Petrushevsky, at the withdrawal of the Russian troops Gazan moved all his forces to the attack and himself led the grenadiers into bayonet combat; but the French were repulsed, and Bagration's troops retreated quietly towards Netstal. Bagration's vanguard spent the night of October 1 to 2 around Glarus, but it was not until October 4 that the entire army could assemble there, and on the same day Suvorov convened a new council of war. The retreat The March to Panix Suvorov wanted to stick to the original plan and thus break through the French positions at Näfels, go along the Lake Walenstadt and march to Weesen to rejoin the other Austrian troops in Switzerland. Austrian officers supported this strategy, convinced that it was the best way to reach Sargans and the military warehouses there so as to resupply the army, now at the end of its strength and also lacking ammunition as well as supplies. But Prince Konstantin and senior Russian officers objected, convinced that the only way to rejoin the Allies was to outflank the French forces by heading south to Schwanden, then up through Elm and over the Panix Pass to reach and cross the Anterior Rhine valley to Maienfeld, south of Liechtenstein. In the end, eight of the ten generals on the general staff approved the "Russian proposal." Opting for such a decision, i.e., a march along a route devoid of enemy troops, did not suit the Russian field marshal's temperament, but his assent perhaps provides an idea of what must have been, even in his eyes, the poor conditions in which his men, who, despite the extreme sacrifices he constantly demanded, used to call him "little father," were living. The Austrian General Auffenberg, although his troops had been engaged in far less fighting than the Russian troops, had written in his report of October 1 that his brigade was now completely without ammunition, money, bread and largely without boots. On the night of October 4–5, under snow mixed with freezing rain, the march south toward Panix began. This time Bagration was left in the rear guard with his 1,800 surviving men of whom, he later recalled, only 250 were able to fight. The first to move was General Miloradovich, followed by General Otto Wilhelm Hristoforovich Derfelden and Rosenberg's troops. Suvorov was forced to abandon about 1,300 seriously wounded and ill men to the French, commending their fate to the humanity of the enemy in a letter left on purpose for Masséna to take care of them. The conditions of the march would be even worse than before. The Mother Superior of the Mutten convent, where Suvorov's staff had spent the night, testified, "It was pathetic to see how these people were forced to march so hard and barefoot across the Pragel, under a heavy rain mixed with snow. Only the general (adjutant) had his horse, everyone else was left behind." As soon as they became aware of the Russian retreat, the French took the initiative to try to encircle Suvorov and cut off his escape route: Loison moved toward Schwanden; Mortier from Pragel toward Glarus to blockade the valley; General Gazan sent a brigade from Mollis toward Sool (south of Glarus) and three more from Netstal in pursuit of Bagration. On the morning of October 5 Gazan's 10th Hunter Regiment attacked Bagration's Cossacks forcing him to slow his march while the arrival of French artillery forced him to stop and deploy along the narrow valley and, being short of ammunition, to order three desperate bayonet assaults. During the day Bagration's rearguard had to sustain about 20 attacks to hold back the enemy and save the entire army from certain defeat. On the night of the 5th and 6th the army camped near Elm, in the cold, without food and subjected to constant attacks by the French. At 2:00 a.m. Suvorov preferred to move while the French continued to pound Bagration's troops who managed to hold them back but suffered continuous losses. The freezing night march cost the lives of several soldiers and about two hundred were missing captured by the French. As soon as the Russians took the Panix route, the French broke off their pursuit. Bagration was able to tally the losses, which he found amounted to about eight hundred men taken prisoners, four cannons, a treasure chest containing twenty thousand francs, which the French commander Lenard later distributed to his battalion, and numerous horses and mules; he had, however, managed to protect the army's rear. Crossing the Panix Pass and arriving in Chur On October 6, the Russians began the climb to Panix, at an altitude of 2,407 m. All artillery had to be abandoned and, climbing with snow above the knee on the narrow, winding paths over precipices, three hundred mules were also lost. Édouard Gachot in his 1904 book Histoire militaire de Masséna: La campagne d'Helvétie (1799), extracted from the memoirs of surviving officers and from reports from the Russian war archives, describes at length and in great detail the enormous hardships and drama suffered by the Russian army during the crossing. The grueling march was carried out almost continuously, even at night, and cost the lives of those who, exhausted, sick or wounded, were no longer able to stand on the narrow path, made invisible by snow and slippery by ice. Several men abandoned backpacks and rifles along the way, and the weakest simply allowed themselves to die by falling asleep. According to sources, Suvorov shared with his men all the hardships of the exhausting march and kept constantly cheering them on, picking up those who abandoned their weapons or only complained, and, although badly dressed, in order to show his endurance and try to extract the last energies from his exhausted troops he repeatedly refused the mantle offered to him by his orderly. He climbed on foot together with the soldiers to the top of the pass where, on the advice of Grand Duke Konstantin, he made use of the wood from the spears of the Cossacks to light a fire and prepare tea for the troops; on the way down, the Russian captain Grjasew later recounted admiringly in his diary, "He was sitting on a Cossack horse, and I saw him trying to free himself from the hands of two horsemen at his side who were trying to support him on the march and lead his horse (. ..) He kept saying, 'Leave me, leave me, I must go alone.'" To the generals surrounding him he said: As soon as the vanguard reached the pass's ridge, it was hit by a very violent blizzard of hail and frozen snow that prevented the scouts from getting their bearings, causing them to risk falling into cliffs and precipices. Before finding a smooth way down thanks to the intervention of local people, several groups dispersed in the search. On October 7, the Russians arrived at the first Pigniu chalets and after a brief bivouac were able to begin their descent to Ilanz and safety. Here, Suvorov, finally feeling that he was no longer hunted, rested his men for another night and on the 9th moved toward the Rhine and then toward Chur where he arrived on October 10, also taking with him 1,400 French prisoners. He was left with 14,000 men and of these only 10,000 barely able to march and fight, the rest were consumed by fevers or blinded by inflammation of the eyes; the sotnias were reduced to a mere twenty or so cavalrymen disputing four or five surviving horses and badly in shape; the artillery was all lost, a third of the troop had lost their weapons and those that remained were rusted and unserviceable; the bayonets blunted and the uniforms were unrecognizable. Each infantry regiment was reorganized into a battalion, the cavalry regiments into the same number of squadrons, and, equipped with a convoy of five hundred beasts of burden, the army headed through Balzers, Vaduz and Feldkirch to Altenstadt. On October 22 Tsar Paul withdrew from the coalition and recalled Suvorov, who by then publicly accused the Austrians of betraying him. On October 25, the forces of Suvorov, Korsakov, and the Prince of Condé gathered at Landau and began small marches back to winter quarters in Bohemia, where they arrived in January 1800, finally concluding the Swiss campaign. Reasons for the defeat After just under a month of grueling marches and sixteen days of fighting, Suvorov had lost over 5,000 men, while the French controlled Switzerland exactly as they did before the campaign began. As early as October 22, Tsar Paul I, in his letter to Emperor Francis II officially announcing Russia's exit from the coalition, focused the main reasons for the Russian defeat on the removal of Archduke Charles from Switzerland before the reunification of Suvorov's army with Korsakov's had been completed: Indeed, in the first days of August, Archduke Charles had already received at his quartering in Kloten, north of Zurich, a letter from Francis II informing him of the coalition's new strategies and ordering him to leave Switzerland. However, the same letter probably did not reach Suvorov until August 25 or 27, so he was still convinced that he had to continue his campaign in Italy when, at least twenty days in advance, the archduke had already begun preparations to move. On September 2, when he decided to obey following the order received directly from the tsar, Suvorov still thought he could coordinate his maneuver with Archduke Charles. Informed at last that the latter had already left the country, he was deeply disconcerted by "the disastrous news about Archduke Charles's retreat from Switzerland." Between September 15 and 20, after the vain wait in Taverne for the mules with the supplies needed for the march to Switzerland, he now explicitly accused Melas and the Austrians of cowardice and of having plotted treason against him. Although it was immediately clear that the campaign in Switzerland had been based more on political and diplomatic calculations by the Austrians than on proper strategic assessments, or rather against the military decisions that Suvorov had already made, it cannot but be blamed on the Russian general for at least underestimating the difficulties of the campaign entrusted to him. Probably his sometimes too impulsive and impetuous temperament, despite his age, led him to an overly optimistic assessment of environmental conditions, the strength and capacity of the opposing troops on the Alpine passes, and his men's chances. To give an idea of Suvorov's spirit in the days immediately preceding the campaign, it is sufficient to report two exemplary episodes. To the Austrian General Weyrother, who summarized to him the plans for the attack on the St. Gotthard complete with a hypothesis of retreat, he ordered, "Cross out the word retreat!"; to a courier from Korsakov, who asked him what the new orders were, he simply replied with the words, "Defeat the French!". On September 20 Suvorov had approved General Hotze's operational proposal to join him, moving from the St. Gotthard by forced marches on narrow mountain routes along the Reuss valley, to bypass Masséna from Schwyz and liberate Lucerne. The success of this plan would certainly have enormous consequences for the operational situation in Switzerland, but the successful outcome depended on the simultaneous success of a whole series of actions to be carried out in coordination and the correctness of all initial assessments. It was, for example, necessary that the offensive action of Korsakov's and Hotze's troops on the Linth-Limmat take place simultaneously with Suvorov's arrival at least in Schwyz. The failure of even one of the planned actions or unforeseen changes in environmental, logistical or tactical conditions could have resulted in the failure of the entire operation. And that was what precisely happened and on which all subsequent criticism of the old general focused: the Russians had to wait four days for Austrian supplies, which arrived late and proved insufficient; weather and environmental conditions were almost always unfavorable when not prohibitive; his decision to march along the Reuss did not take into account the resilience of the French troops, who on the one hand harshly contested every inch of territory forcing him in several battles into fierce fighting that further slowed him down, and on the other hand constantly threatened his supply line, for which he was totally dependent on the Austrians, interrupting it often even with attacks from reduced forces. Finally, Masséna proved to be a brilliant and capable commander who routed Korsakov and Hotze's troops in Zurich while Suvorov was still on Lake Lucerne, undecided what to do, and then left the coalition troops no choice but to retreat to the mountains and then evacuate Switzerland. His greatest detractors later proved to be precisely Archduke Charles, to whose premature retreat Suvorov ascribed most of the campaign's failure, and General Korsakov, whose immediate defeat suffered at Masséna's hands nevertheless thwarted any vague hopes of possible success. Archduke Charles severely criticized the campaign plan from the standpoint of supplies and logistical support: In his memoirs Korsakov blamed Suvorov for the exaggerated efforts required of his men and went so far as to place sole responsibility for the failure of the campaign on him: Moreover, he added that even in the event that Suvorov had eventually reached Schwyz, the fate of the battle could not have changed since he would not have been able to supply him, finding himself in a dire situation. It was then probably the testimony of Korsakov, who had preceded the elderly commander to St. Petersburg by immediately putting Suvorov in a bad light at the tsarist court by pointing him out as the only person responsible for the defeat, that prompted Paul I to welcome him coldly and not give the newly appointed "generalissimo" and his army the honor of a triumphal entry into the Russian capital as he had previously promised him. Legacy of the campaign Despite its obvious failure, the Swiss campaign would nonetheless add new posthumous prestige to Suvorov because of his dramatic and heroic character, especially in Russian culture where he is still regarded as an equal of Xenophon, Hannibal or Julius Caesar: as early as 1801 Tsar Paul I ordered the first of a long series of monuments erected in his honor in his homeland. In Switzerland, where he is remembered as the liberator from French occupation, right by the Devil's Bridge in the Schöllenen Gorge below Andermatt, there has been since 1899 a large and impressive monument carved entirely out of rock dedicated to the feat of the Russian general and his men. The Swiss campaign was held in high regard by contemporaries and often remembered by historians. Recognizing the desperate situation Suvorov's army had found itself in, the famous Prussian general, writer and military theorist Carl von Clausewitz called the successful retreat "a miracle" a few years later. Friedrich Engels wrote in his 1859 pamphlet "Po und Rhein" ("Po and Rhine") that the crossing of the Panix during the campaign conducted under the leadership of Alexander Suvorov "had been the greatest military undertaking ever among those engaged in crossing the Alpine passes." "The failure of this campaign," later wrote Russian statesman Dmitry Milyutin, "would have brought Russian troops more honor than the most brilliant of victories." See also Italian and Swiss expedition War of the Second Coalition Alexander Suvorov André Masséna Notes References Bibliography History of Switzerland Napoleonic Wars War of the Second Coalition Alexander Suvorov

Suvorov's Swiss campaign took place on Swiss territory between September and October 1799 during the War of the Second Coalition. Russo-Austrian troops, who had already repeatedly defeated the French in Italy between April and August, crossed St. Gotthard under the command of Field Marshal Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, with orders to march against General André Masséna to drive him out of the Helvetic Republic.🦛 After the important victories of the previous months during the campaign in Italy, Suvorov had remained in control of the situation in the northern part of the Peninsula and a final defeat of the French seemed imminent with the Russian general determined to march even to France, but the divisions and rivalries of the coalesced powers would soon favor the resurgence of the revolutionary armies: fearing that Russia's influence would become too great, the Allies, also leveraging Tsar Paul I's ambitions to present himself as the liberator of Switzerland, succeeded in getting Russian troops to halt their operations in Italy and be redeployed to the Confederation, leaving the initiative in the Peninsula to the Austrians. Suvorov was then ordered to head north with his army and march across St. Gotthard to join the Russian troops that had just been led across the Limmat by General Alexander Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov.🦛 Marshal Suvorov took St. Gotthard after fierce battles and then marched laboriously along the Reuss River valley, constantly opposed by General Claude Lecourbe. When he reached Altdorf he was forced to detour northeast through the mountains, as the French firmly controlled Lake Lucerne and the passes to the west. General Masséna then sent the divisions of Generals Honoré Gazan and Édouard Mortier, coordinated by General Nicolas Soult, to block the Russian advance between Schwyz and Glarus; Suvorov then headed for the Linth, but even there, after some success, his troops were repeatedly pushed back at Näfels by General Gabriel Molitor's soldiers. The village of Näfels changed hands up to six times.🦛 Marshal Suvorov's situation, isolated in the mountains, with scarce supplies and opposed on all fronts by French troops, became increasingly difficult; after learning of the defeat of Generals Korsakov and von Hotze in the Second Battle of Zurich and the Battle of Linth River, he had no choice but to attempt to retreat eastward for the purpose of rescuing the remnants of his now heavily strained army. The retreat of the Russians was very difficult and cost new heavy losses, while all artillery was lost; finally, via the Panix Pass, the Russians reached the Rhine at Glion (or Ilanz) on October 7 and then continued on to Vorarlberg, where they joined General Korsakov's survivors. Suvorov was recalled to St. Petersburg, where he again fell out of favor with the tsarist court: Paul I refused to receive him in audience and, injured and ill, the old general died after a few weeks in the capital itself on May 18, 1800.🦛 Political and military background Between the end of April and mid-August 1799, Field Marshal Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov had routed French revolutionary troops in northern Italy, caused the collapse of the sister republics in the Peninsula, and taken de facto control of Lombardy and Piedmont. Thanks to his brilliant victories, he had received from the tsar the title of "Prince of Italy" (Knjaz Italijski - , hence the nickname Italiskij, "the Italic") and was now close to finally crushing the last French resistance in Piedmont and then invading the Ligurian Riviera; Suvorov had also declared himself ready to even march to Paris as he had promised General Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier before releasing him.🦛 The divisions and rivalries among the coalesced powers, Kingdom of Great Britain, Holy Roman Empire, and Russian Empire, however, did not allow them to take advantage of the victories in Italy, favoring instead soon the recovery of the forces of the First French Republic: the British were afraid that Russian influence in Italy would become too great and that Tsarist power would overlook the Mediterranean ports dangerously; the Austrians saw the Russian successes and the Tsar's meddling as a real threat to their supremacy in northern Italy, to the extent that they preferred to lose Russian military support in Piedmont rather than the political advantage that would come to them at the peace table, when they would present themselves as the sole occupants of the Savoy state from which, moreover, they could easily enter France alone with their own army. The British government, worried that Republican France might use the powerful Dutch fleet to threaten the British Isles directly, had then prepared new war plans that included redeploying the Russian army to Switzerland to facilitate the landing of an Anglo-Russian coalition in the Batavian Republic.🦛 Although in theory Suvorov answered directly to the tsar, the Austrian court council and Chancellor Thugut ordered him to abandon Italy and move toward Switzerland, where his army was to join a second Russian contingent under the command of General Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov, arriving with 30,000 men from Galicia. General Michael von Melas's Austrian army was to garrison Piedmont and seize Cuneo; at the same time Archduke Charles was to move from Switzerland to Germany along the Rhine so that Austria would also have a chance to oust the Elector of Bavaria Maximilian I.🦛 Suvorov would have liked Archduke Charles to await his arrival before moving, so as to give Korsakov ease in organizing himself and resisting the overwhelming French forces, but the archduke was an all too faithful executor of the orders of the courtly council and immediately left the strong position in Zurich: the French quickly occupied it and Korsakov was doomed to certain defeat. Suvorov's remonstrances were futile:🦛 Suvorov's last holdouts, who had called Chancellor Thugut "out of his mind" for the strategy imposed, were swept away on August 25 by a letter from the Austrian emperor, peremptorily ordering him to abandon plans to attack the French in Genoa and immediately cross the Alps to launch an offensive against France from Switzerland. Beyond the decisions of what Carl von Clausewitz later termed a "narrow-minded policy" on the part of the British and Austrians, aimed simply at avoiding an inconvenient Russian presence in Italy and the Mediterranean and meeting special needs, modern historiography has seen clear military advantages in these plans.🦛 After the Austrian cession of Belgium to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and the vast German territory separating them, the two ancient rival powers had but the Italian battlefields to come into direct contact and confront each other militarily; to secure strategic control of them it was necessary to secure dominance of the Alpine ranges: Austria possessed a large part of the Alpine chain, and from Tyrol could bring down numerous battalions unhindered into the extensive plains washed by the Po; in contrast, France did not initially have this obvious and coveted advantage. The major obstacle was Switzerland, which stretched from the Tyrolean Alps to the borders of France, and prevented access from the Alps for much of the range: it was therefore of paramount interest to the French Republic, if it wished to continue the war with Austria, to retain possession of the Swiss Plateau obtained in February 1798 with the invasion led by General Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune.🦛 This provided the revolutionaries with two strategic outlets: one allowed them to bypass the Black Forest and easily sweep into the upper Danube, and the other to descend through the Alpine passes of Valais and reach northern Italy directly; once war broke out again, it therefore became of enormous tactical and strategic importance for the Austrians to drive the French out of Switzerland. For their part, the British really considered Switzerland to be the ideal territory from which to launch an invasion of France, and finally, the Austrians were in any case more concerned about the French troops concentrated along the Rhine than about the surviving troops in Italy: by switching to a more prudent defensive tactic in the north of the Peninsula, the Austrians still secured its dominance and could free up forces to deploy in Germany.🦛 The Russian army in the Alps The march to Switzerland On September 4, Suvorov informed the tsar that he was about to move to Switzerland, not failing to lament how from the beginning of the campaign the Austrians had been consistently reluctant to support him, slow to respond to his orders and utterly inefficient in meeting his demands for supplies and ammunition. He did not fail to emphasize how the Allies purposely delayed supplies with the intent of forcing him to leave Italy. He wrote among other things:🦛 Suvorov marched on September 11, immediately after the capture of Tortona, sending baggage, equipment and heavy artillery via Como and Verona to arrive in Switzerland near Chur in the Grisons, and from the Tyrol to Feldkirch, while he with about 27,000 men, including nearly 16,000 infantrymen and more than 3,500 Cossacks, took the Varese route to move toward Bellinzona. On September 15, the Russian vanguard under the command of Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration entered Swiss territory near Ponte Tresa, and after a few days the main army assembled at Taverne in Ticino; Suvorov, who had expected to find supplies there for the following week's march via a caravan of 1,500 mules previously requested from the Austrians, found that the Austrians had sent nothing.🦛 The initial astonishment was succeeded by outrage and then anger: before a contrite General Weyrother, an Austrian liaison officer, he explicitly accused Melas and the Viennese court of having hatched a treason "which the tsar will know how to punish." The senior general wrote an angry letter to Emperor Francis II expressing outrage and lamenting how Austrian inefficiency had nullified the tactical advantage of his rapid march to Switzerland. By this time, however, the damage was done: only six hundred and fifty mules arrived, which was absolutely insufficient, and Suvorov, at Prince Konstantin's suggestion, decided to use the horses of the Cossacks to transport sufficient provisions and ammunition for the next eight days. The Ticinese relate that officers who had horses and carriages available for their personal use had to, according to the Russian commander's orders, surrender the former as beasts of burden and abandon the carriages. The greatest examples were set by Prince Constantine, who sent his three carriages back to Como, and Suvorov himself, who, although in his seventies, abandoned his litter and decided to march on foot as well. In the four days of waiting before they could finally move, the Russian troops were summarily instructed in mountain warfare tactics, with which they were totally unfamiliar.🦛 The assault on the Gotthard Pass and the arrival at Lake Lucerne On September 21, Suvorov ordered the advance. The march proceeded slowly, slowed by heavy rains, fog, and mountainous terrain. Nevertheless, that evening the entire army was already encamped between Sant'Antonino and Bellinzona, in another day's march passed through Biasca, and on the evening of the 22nd reached Giornico, where the Allied General Staff spent the night. The weather continued to be harsh and, on the night of September 23, a blizzard of rain and snow plagued the army, which was reinforced at Faido by an Austrian regiment under the command of Colonel Gottfried Strauch.🦛 Suvorov then set out to cross the Gotthard by the 25th with the intention of reuniting with Korsakov at Lucerne on Sept. 27; but on the 24th, at Airolo, a French battalion belonging to General Claude Lecourbe's division and commanded by Brigadier General Charles-Étienne Gudin de La Sablonnière halted the march of the Russians, who left six hundred dead on the ground before they were able to penetrate late in the evening into the Val Tremola, with Suvorov remaining in the front line all along.🦛 On the morning of the 25th, the general resumed his march toward Andermatt, while the French had retreated behind the "Buca d'Uri" (a tunnel in the Schöllenen Gorge, on the north side of the Gotthard Pass in the Urseren valley) partially demolishing the Devil's Bridge (a stone crossing in Uri near Andermatt). Here another Lecourbe contingent, under the orders this time of Louis Henri Loison, laid an ambush that cost the lives of more than nine hundred Russians before they managed to repair the bridge by makeshift means and cross to the other side, under constant enemy artillery and musket fire, finally forcing the French to retreat.🦛 In contrast to the Russians, Lecourbe's troops were highly specialized in mountain warfare to the extent that they "marched even where chamois hunters would give up," "used to sleeping in the snow and under the stars, bitten by the wind, on the rags they used as uniforms," and venturing "without [alpine] guides on paths over sheer chasms." They would be a constant thorn in the side of the Allied troops.🦛 Continuing to move to the right along the Reuss valley, Suvorov nonetheless seized the Gotthard Pass by repelling General Lecourbe, and on the evening of September 26 his troops reached Altdorf near the southern end of Lake Lucerne. For the Russian general, the bulk of the effort was accomplished; cheerful and optimistic, he wrote in his own hand, on a dispatch addressed to Austrian General Friedrich von Hotze, a rhyming note in German that has remained famous:🦛 The general was unaware, however, that in those same hours General Masséna, who had concentrated as many as 77,000 men under his orders, was routing Korsakov's forces in the Second Battle of Zurich, inflicting heavy losses on him and forcing him to beat a retreat to Winterthur and beyond to Schaffhausen, while on the Linth the troops of General Nicolas Soult defeated the Austrian troops of General von Hotze, who was killed early in the clash.🦛 The crossing of Chinzig On Lake Lucerne, the French stood firmly on the left bank of the Reuss near Seedorf, closing off the Russians from reaching the eponymous town via the Surenen Pass, while the lake itself, patrolled by a small flotilla, appeared to be under full French control, making a crossing by the Russians impossible.🦛 Suvorov's troops were at their wits' end: marching over rocks had worn out the soldiers' inadequate footwear, of which many were now even deprived, uniforms were often in tatters, rifles and bayonets were rusting from the constant dampness, and the men were starving for lack of adequate supplies. Suvorov was still unaware of Korsakov's defeat, but in the absence of news he preferred not to stop at Altdorf to let his exhausted army rest, which he directed instead, as early as the early hours of September 27, toward the Chinzig Pass, counting on bypassing the French by reaching Schwyz from the village of Muotathal. The plan was to climb, starting from an altitude of about 500 m, up to 2,070 m along a precipitous path carved into the rock and almost invisible under the first snowfall.🦛 Lecourbe immediately informed General Masséna of the Russians' detour, and the latter, who had previously planned to attack Suvorov in the Reuss valley, was forced to change strategy: he therefore sent General Mortier to occupy Muotathal with 9,000 men and General Gazan to march with about 10,000 men on Weesen and Schänis, to close off the Linth valley from the north, while he himself concentrated the bulk of his troops at Schwyz.🦛 As soon as they reached Muotathal, Suvorov's 18,000 exhausted men, without supplies and ammunition and surrounded by impassable mountains in freezing cold, faced a French army far superior in numbers and equipment. On September 29, still uncertain about the fate of Korsakov and Hotze, Suvorov called a council of war with his general staff to decide what to do. During the council the Russian commander showed himself extremely resolute not to surrender, blamed the Austrian allies for all the hardships they were forced to suffer, and proposed what appeared to him to be the only possible solution:🦛 After Suvorov's impassioned speeches to raise the morale of his subordinates, the war council decided to abandon the plan to head for Schwyz and instead to move eastward again, over the Muotathal Pass to the Pragel Pass and then through the Klöntal Pass, to rejoin General Linken at Glarus and, if possible, to aim then for Sargans by skirting the Walensee to the south. Bagration and Franz Xaver von Auffenberg were positioned in the vanguard; Andrey Rosenberg's troops, placed in the rear, were ordered to protect the army from attacks that might come from the west, from Schwyz across the Muotathal, while the main force marched east through the Pragel Pass.🦛 From original Russian records later found by the French in Muotathal, the precise numerical strength of the Russian army on September 30, 1799, is known: 66 staff officers, 493 troop officers, 1,172 non-commissioned officers, 403 musicians, and 16,584 troopers were counted; of the latter, 410 were reported sick, 216 were limping and 21 under arrest, only 85 men had deserted; in ten days the Russian army had lost about 3,000 soldiers and now had food rations for only five days, but these already meager supplies would have to be rationed to last at least ten.🦛 The march to Glarus Despite the strenuous marches and the sustained fights, the army moved immediately. Auffenberg's troops advanced first, followed by Bagration's troops. As soon as they reached the Pragel Pass, there was a clash between the former and Molitor's French who prevented them from passing. Arriving in the afternoon, Bagration, who was "outraged to see the Austrians retreat before a handful of men," turned the tide of the battle by driving the French back and offering them a chance to surrender. He was unaware that Auffenberg had already sent a similar ultimatum to Molitor and that the latter had refused by responding disdainfully:🦛 Suvorov did not have time to realize the seriousness of the news when Bagration's troops resumed the assault against the French, who, after dark, were forced to retreat to Klöntalersee, where many in the flight drowned but where the French general also had a chance to reorganize and better arrange his troops to face his opponents.🦛 Bagration led his battalions in four desperate assaults against the French artillery, which was well placed on the road and on the rocks overlooking it, and suffered very heavy losses; meanwhile the weather worsened, sleet began to fall, and the Russians retreated for the night, which they spent freezing as they were forbidden to light fires, and once again suffered from starvation. Bagration, though suffering from a thigh wound, reorganized his troops under the cover of darkness and continued to encourage them:🦛 The clash resumed on the morning of October 1 with Bagration's charge, which launched an attack, led by Lieutenant Colonel Giorgio Giovanni Zuccato, using two battalions, four Austrian companies and about 200 dismounted Cossacks in order to occupy some cliffs overlooking, almost precipitously, the enemy's right flank. From there the Russian troops, discovered by some French patrols, exposed to enemy fire, went on the attack by assaulting the French troops with bayonets, while further down Derfelden's troops attacked the enemy in front forcing him to retreat further. Molitor, after a fierce but brief resistance, preferred to withdraw his troops to the nearby hills to reorganize along the course of the Linth, setting up a series of defense lines between Netstal, Näfels and Mollis in the northern part of the canton of Glarus, destroying the bridge at Netstal and retaining control of the remaining communication routes between Näfels and Mollis. This allowed them to effectively control both sides of the river.🦛 In the early afternoon of the same day Bagration received reinforcements and launched the charge with twelve battalions against the French positions at Netstal. However, the French still resisted by fortifying themselves in the village and managed to destroy the bridges over the Linth shortly before the Russians took it over.🦛 Meanwhile, there was also fighting in the rearguard, where Rosenberg, who commanded 11,000 men, was attacked by Masséna. Suvorov ordered the Russian general to hold out at all costs while Bagration fought to clear the road to the east from the French. The French were determined not to allow the Russians to leave the valley: Lecourbe's divisions closed the road to them from behind along the Reuss by cutting the supply lines; Masséna recalled some of Mortier's divisions from Zurich to position them at Altdorf and part of Soult's divisions at Weesen to block the Linth Valley exit. Despite the efforts of the French, the Russians repelled all the assaults by counterattacking with bayonets. The battle was particularly bloody on the stone bridge across the Muota River, since then called Suworow-brücke ("Suvorov Bridge"), and from which several Frenchmen plunged into the waters because of the crush. On the evening of October 1, the French retreated toward Schwyz pressed by the Cossacks.🦛 At the same time Bagration reestablished a bridge at Netstal and, organizing his forces into two columns, marched along both banks of the Linth toward Näfels, which was held firmly by Molitor with three battalions and four cannons and whose positions were protected on the right flank by cliffs and on the left by the river. Although Bagration succeeded in pushing the French back out of the town, the attack on the enemy's main positions failed, giving the French an opportunity to receive reinforcements from the Swiss militia and counterattack to retake the town with troops stationed at Mollis. On this occasion Molitor harangued the Swiss by recalling a historic victory they had achieved centuries earlier in the same places against the Austrian oppressor:🦛 However, Bagration tenaciously returned to assault the village on several occasions held back first by the Swiss and then finally stopped by the arrival of Gazan's troops after Näfels had changed hands several times in the same day. At 9 p.m., after sixteen hours of hard fighting, Suvorov ordered Bagration to disengage the moment the village was occupied by Russia, leaving the French on their initial positions. Both sides shouted victory, but in reality the day had ended in almost nothing — the Russians arrived near Glarus but the French closed off all avenues of approach to them toward Zurich — apart from showing the skill and valor of both commanders. According to the prominent Russian biographer of Suvorov Alexander Petrushevsky, at the withdrawal of the Russian troops Gazan moved all his forces to the attack and himself led the grenadiers into bayonet combat; but the French were repulsed, and Bagration's troops retreated quietly towards Netstal.🦛 Bagration's vanguard spent the night of October 1 to 2 around Glarus, but it was not until October 4 that the entire army could assemble there, and on the same day Suvorov convened a new council of war.🦛 The retreat The March to Panix Suvorov wanted to stick to the original plan and thus break through the French positions at Näfels, go along the Lake Walenstadt and march to Weesen to rejoin the other Austrian troops in Switzerland. Austrian officers supported this strategy, convinced that it was the best way to reach Sargans and the military warehouses there so as to resupply the army, now at the end of its strength and also lacking ammunition as well as supplies. But Prince Konstantin and senior Russian officers objected, convinced that the only way to rejoin the Allies was to outflank the French forces by heading south to Schwanden, then up through Elm and over the Panix Pass to reach and cross the Anterior Rhine valley to Maienfeld, south of Liechtenstein. In the end, eight of the ten generals on the general staff approved the "Russian proposal." Opting for such a decision, i.e., a march along a route devoid of enemy troops, did not suit the Russian field marshal's temperament, but his assent perhaps provides an idea of what must have been, even in his eyes, the poor conditions in which his men, who, despite the extreme sacrifices he constantly demanded, used to call him "little father," were living. The Austrian General Auffenberg, although his troops had been engaged in far less fighting than the Russian troops, had written in his report of October 1 that his brigade was now completely without ammunition, money, bread and largely without boots.🦛 On the night of October 4–5, under snow mixed with freezing rain, the march south toward Panix began. This time Bagration was left in the rear guard with his 1,800 surviving men of whom, he later recalled, only 250 were able to fight. The first to move was General Miloradovich, followed by General Otto Wilhelm Hristoforovich Derfelden and Rosenberg's troops. Suvorov was forced to abandon about 1,300 seriously wounded and ill men to the French, commending their fate to the humanity of the enemy in a letter left on purpose for Masséna to take care of them. The conditions of the march would be even worse than before. The Mother Superior of the Mutten convent, where Suvorov's staff had spent the night, testified, "It was pathetic to see how these people were forced to march so hard and barefoot across the Pragel, under a heavy rain mixed with snow. Only the general (adjutant) had his horse, everyone else was left behind."🦛 As soon as they became aware of the Russian retreat, the French took the initiative to try to encircle Suvorov and cut off his escape route: Loison moved toward Schwanden; Mortier from Pragel toward Glarus to blockade the valley; General Gazan sent a brigade from Mollis toward Sool (south of Glarus) and three more from Netstal in pursuit of Bagration. On the morning of October 5 Gazan's 10th Hunter Regiment attacked Bagration's Cossacks forcing him to slow his march while the arrival of French artillery forced him to stop and deploy along the narrow valley and, being short of ammunition, to order three desperate bayonet assaults. During the day Bagration's rearguard had to sustain about 20 attacks to hold back the enemy and save the entire army from certain defeat.🦛 On the night of the 5th and 6th the army camped near Elm, in the cold, without food and subjected to constant attacks by the French. At 2:00 a.m. Suvorov preferred to move while the French continued to pound Bagration's troops who managed to hold them back but suffered continuous losses. The freezing night march cost the lives of several soldiers and about two hundred were missing captured by the French. As soon as the Russians took the Panix route, the French broke off their pursuit. Bagration was able to tally the losses, which he found amounted to about eight hundred men taken prisoners, four cannons, a treasure chest containing twenty thousand francs, which the French commander Lenard later distributed to his battalion, and numerous horses and mules; he had, however, managed to protect the army's rear.🦛 Crossing the Panix Pass and arriving in Chur On October 6, the Russians began the climb to Panix, at an altitude of 2,407 m. All artillery had to be abandoned and, climbing with snow above the knee on the narrow, winding paths over precipices, three hundred mules were also lost. Édouard Gachot in his 1904 book Histoire militaire de Masséna: La campagne d'Helvétie (1799), extracted from the memoirs of surviving officers and from reports from the Russian war archives, describes at length and in great detail the enormous hardships and drama suffered by the Russian army during the crossing. The grueling march was carried out almost continuously, even at night, and cost the lives of those who, exhausted, sick or wounded, were no longer able to stand on the narrow path, made invisible by snow and slippery by ice. Several men abandoned backpacks and rifles along the way, and the weakest simply allowed themselves to die by falling asleep.🦛 According to sources, Suvorov shared with his men all the hardships of the exhausting march and kept constantly cheering them on, picking up those who abandoned their weapons or only complained, and, although badly dressed, in order to show his endurance and try to extract the last energies from his exhausted troops he repeatedly refused the mantle offered to him by his orderly. He climbed on foot together with the soldiers to the top of the pass where, on the advice of Grand Duke Konstantin, he made use of the wood from the spears of the Cossacks to light a fire and prepare tea for the troops; on the way down, the Russian captain Grjasew later recounted admiringly in his diary, "He was sitting on a Cossack horse, and I saw him trying to free himself from the hands of two horsemen at his side who were trying to support him on the march and lead his horse (. ..) He kept saying, 'Leave me, leave me, I must go alone.'" To the generals surrounding him he said:🦛 As soon as the vanguard reached the pass's ridge, it was hit by a very violent blizzard of hail and frozen snow that prevented the scouts from getting their bearings, causing them to risk falling into cliffs and precipices. Before finding a smooth way down thanks to the intervention of local people, several groups dispersed in the search. On October 7, the Russians arrived at the first Pigniu chalets and after a brief bivouac were able to begin their descent to Ilanz and safety. Here, Suvorov, finally feeling that he was no longer hunted, rested his men for another night and on the 9th moved toward the Rhine and then toward Chur where he arrived on October 10, also taking with him 1,400 French prisoners. He was left with 14,000 men and of these only 10,000 barely able to march and fight, the rest were consumed by fevers or blinded by inflammation of the eyes; the sotnias were reduced to a mere twenty or so cavalrymen disputing four or five surviving horses and badly in shape; the artillery was all lost, a third of the troop had lost their weapons and those that remained were rusted and unserviceable; the bayonets blunted and the uniforms were unrecognizable.🦛 Each infantry regiment was reorganized into a battalion, the cavalry regiments into the same number of squadrons, and, equipped with a convoy of five hundred beasts of burden, the army headed through Balzers, Vaduz and Feldkirch to Altenstadt. On October 22 Tsar Paul withdrew from the coalition and recalled Suvorov, who by then publicly accused the Austrians of betraying him. On October 25, the forces of Suvorov, Korsakov, and the Prince of Condé gathered at Landau and began small marches back to winter quarters in Bohemia, where they arrived in January 1800, finally concluding the Swiss campaign.🦛 Reasons for the defeat After just under a month of grueling marches and sixteen days of fighting, Suvorov had lost over 5,000 men, while the French controlled Switzerland exactly as they did before the campaign began. As early as October 22, Tsar Paul I, in his letter to Emperor Francis II officially announcing Russia's exit from the coalition, focused the main reasons for the Russian defeat on the removal of Archduke Charles from Switzerland before the reunification of Suvorov's army with Korsakov's had been completed:🦛 Indeed, in the first days of August, Archduke Charles had already received at his quartering in Kloten, north of Zurich, a letter from Francis II informing him of the coalition's new strategies and ordering him to leave Switzerland. However, the same letter probably did not reach Suvorov until August 25 or 27, so he was still convinced that he had to continue his campaign in Italy when, at least twenty days in advance, the archduke had already begun preparations to move. On September 2, when he decided to obey following the order received directly from the tsar, Suvorov still thought he could coordinate his maneuver with Archduke Charles. Informed at last that the latter had already left the country, he was deeply disconcerted by "the disastrous news about Archduke Charles's retreat from Switzerland." Between September 15 and 20, after the vain wait in Taverne for the mules with the supplies needed for the march to Switzerland, he now explicitly accused Melas and the Austrians of cowardice and of having plotted treason against him.🦛 Although it was immediately clear that the campaign in Switzerland had been based more on political and diplomatic calculations by the Austrians than on proper strategic assessments, or rather against the military decisions that Suvorov had already made, it cannot but be blamed on the Russian general for at least underestimating the difficulties of the campaign entrusted to him. Probably his sometimes too impulsive and impetuous temperament, despite his age, led him to an overly optimistic assessment of environmental conditions, the strength and capacity of the opposing troops on the Alpine passes, and his men's chances. To give an idea of Suvorov's spirit in the days immediately preceding the campaign, it is sufficient to report two exemplary episodes. To the Austrian General Weyrother, who summarized to him the plans for the attack on the St. Gotthard complete with a hypothesis of retreat, he ordered, "Cross out the word retreat!"; to a courier from Korsakov, who asked him what the new orders were, he simply replied with the words, "Defeat the French!".🦛 On September 20 Suvorov had approved General Hotze's operational proposal to join him, moving from the St. Gotthard by forced marches on narrow mountain routes along the Reuss valley, to bypass Masséna from Schwyz and liberate Lucerne. The success of this plan would certainly have enormous consequences for the operational situation in Switzerland, but the successful outcome depended on the simultaneous success of a whole series of actions to be carried out in coordination and the correctness of all initial assessments. It was, for example, necessary that the offensive action of Korsakov's and Hotze's troops on the Linth-Limmat take place simultaneously with Suvorov's arrival at least in Schwyz. The failure of even one of the planned actions or unforeseen changes in environmental, logistical or tactical conditions could have resulted in the failure of the entire operation. And that was what precisely happened and on which all subsequent criticism of the old general focused: the Russians had to wait four days for Austrian supplies, which arrived late and proved insufficient; weather and environmental conditions were almost always unfavorable when not prohibitive; his decision to march along the Reuss did not take into account the resilience of the French troops, who on the one hand harshly contested every inch of territory forcing him in several battles into fierce fighting that further slowed him down, and on the other hand constantly threatened his supply line, for which he was totally dependent on the Austrians, interrupting it often even with attacks from reduced forces. Finally, Masséna proved to be a brilliant and capable commander who routed Korsakov and Hotze's troops in Zurich while Suvorov was still on Lake Lucerne, undecided what to do, and then left the coalition troops no choice but to retreat to the mountains and then evacuate Switzerland.🦛 His greatest detractors later proved to be precisely Archduke Charles, to whose premature retreat Suvorov ascribed most of the campaign's failure, and General Korsakov, whose immediate defeat suffered at Masséna's hands nevertheless thwarted any vague hopes of possible success. Archduke Charles severely criticized the campaign plan from the standpoint of supplies and logistical support:🦛 In his memoirs Korsakov blamed Suvorov for the exaggerated efforts required of his men and went so far as to place sole responsibility for the failure of the campaign on him:🦛 Moreover, he added that even in the event that Suvorov had eventually reached Schwyz, the fate of the battle could not have changed since he would not have been able to supply him, finding himself in a dire situation.🦛 It was then probably the testimony of Korsakov, who had preceded the elderly commander to St. Petersburg by immediately putting Suvorov in a bad light at the tsarist court by pointing him out as the only person responsible for the defeat, that prompted Paul I to welcome him coldly and not give the newly appointed "generalissimo" and his army the honor of a triumphal entry into the Russian capital as he had previously promised him.🦛 Legacy of the campaign Despite its obvious failure, the Swiss campaign would nonetheless add new posthumous prestige to Suvorov because of his dramatic and heroic character, especially in Russian culture where he is still regarded as an equal of Xenophon, Hannibal or Julius Caesar: as early as 1801 Tsar Paul I ordered the first of a long series of monuments erected in his honor in his homeland. In Switzerland, where he is remembered as the liberator from French occupation, right by the Devil's Bridge in the Schöllenen Gorge below Andermatt, there has been since 1899 a large and impressive monument carved entirely out of rock dedicated to the feat of the Russian general and his men.🦛 The Swiss campaign was held in high regard by contemporaries and often remembered by historians. Recognizing the desperate situation Suvorov's army had found itself in, the famous Prussian general, writer and military theorist Carl von Clausewitz called the successful retreat "a miracle" a few years later. Friedrich Engels wrote in his 1859 pamphlet "Po und Rhein" ("Po and Rhine") that the crossing of the Panix during the campaign conducted under the leadership of Alexander Suvorov "had been the greatest military undertaking ever among those engaged in crossing the Alpine passes." "The failure of this campaign," later wrote Russian statesman Dmitry Milyutin, "would have brought Russian troops more honor than the most brilliant of victories."🦛

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"become", "too", "great", "and", "that", "Tsarist", "power", "would", "overlook", "the", "Mediterranean", "ports", "dangerously;", "the", "Austrians", "saw", "the", "Russian", "successes", "and", "the", "Tsar's", "meddling", "as", "a", "real", "threat", "to", "their", "supremacy", "in", "northern", "Italy,", "to", "the", "extent", "that", "they", "preferred", "to", "lose", "Russian", "military", "support", "in", "Piedmont", "rather", "than", "the", "political", "advantage", "that", "would", "come", "to", "them", "at", "the", "peace", "table,", "when", "they", "would", "present", "themselves", "as", "the", "sole", "occupants", "of", "the", "Savoy", "state", "from", "which,", "moreover,", "they", "could", "easily", "enter", "France", "alone", "with", "their", "own", "army.", "The", "British", "government,", "worried", "that", "Republican", "France", "might", "use", "the", "powerful", "Dutch", "fleet", "to", "threaten", "the", "British", "Isles", "directly,", "had", "then", "prepared", "new", "war", "plans", "that", "included", "redeploying", "the", "Russian", "army", "to", "Switzerland", "to", "facilitate", "the", "landing", "of", "an", "Anglo-Russian", "coalition", "in", "the", "Batavian", "Republic.", "Although", "in", "theory", "Suvorov", "answered", "directly", "to", "the", "tsar,", "the", "Austrian", "court", "council", "and", "Chancellor", "Thugut", "ordered", "him", "to", "abandon", "Italy", "and", "move", "toward", "Switzerland,", "where", "his", "army", "was", "to", "join", "a", "second", "Russian", "contingent", "under", "the", "command", "of", "General", "Aleksandr", "Mikhailovich", "Rimsky-Korsakov,", "arriving", "with", "30,000", "men", "from", "Galicia.", "General", "Michael", "von", "Melas's", "Austrian", "army", "was", "to", "garrison", "Piedmont", "and", "seize", "Cuneo;", "at", "the", "same", "time", "Archduke", "Charles", "was", "to", "move", "from", "Switzerland", "to", "Germany", "along", "the", "Rhine", "so", "that", "Austria", "would", "also", "have", "a", "chance", "to", "oust", "the", "Elector", "of", "Bavaria", "Maximilian", "I.", "Suvorov", "would", "have", "liked", "Archduke", "Charles", "to", "await", "his", "arrival", "before", "moving,", "so", "as", "to", "give", "Korsakov", "ease", "in", "organizing", "himself", "and", "resisting", "the", "overwhelming", "French", "forces,", "but", "the", "archduke", "was", "an", "all", "too", "faithful", "executor", "of", "the", "orders", "of", "the", "courtly", "council", "and", "immediately", "left", "the", "strong", "position", "in", "Zurich:", "the", "French", "quickly", "occupied", "it", "and", "Korsakov", "was", "doomed", "to", "certain", "defeat.", "Suvorov's", "remonstrances", "were", "futile:", "Suvorov's", "last", "holdouts,", "who", "had", "called", "Chancellor", "Thugut", "\"out", "of", "his", "mind\"", "for", "the", "strategy", "imposed,", "were", "swept", "away", "on", "August", "25", "by", "a", "letter", "from", "the", "Austrian", "emperor,", "peremptorily", "ordering", "him", "to", "abandon", "plans", "to", "attack", "the", "French", "in", "Genoa", "and", "immediately", "cross", "the", "Alps", "to", "launch", "an", "offensive", "against", "France", "from", "Switzerland.", "Beyond", "the", "decisions", "of", "what", "Carl", "von", "Clausewitz", "later", "termed", "a", "\"narrow-minded", "policy\"", "on", "the", "part", "of", "the", "British", "and", "Austrians,", "aimed", "simply", "at", "avoiding", "an", "inconvenient", "Russian", "presence", "in", "Italy", "and", "the", "Mediterranean", "and", "meeting", "special", "needs,", "modern", "historiography", "has", "seen", "clear", "military", "advantages", "in", "these", "plans.", "After", "the", "Austrian", "cession", "of", "Belgium", "to", "France", "by", "the", "Treaty", "of", "Campo", "Formio", "in", "1797,", "and", "the", "vast", "German", "territory", "separating", "them,", "the", "two", "ancient", "rival", "powers", "had", "but", "the", "Italian", "battlefields", "to", "come", "into", "direct", "contact", "and", "confront", "each", "other", "militarily;", "to", "secure", "strategic", "control", "of", "them", "it", "was", "necessary", "to", "secure", "dominance", "of", "the", "Alpine", "ranges:", "Austria", "possessed", "a", "large", "part", "of", "the", "Alpine", "chain,", "and", "from", "Tyrol", "could", "bring", "down", "numerous", "battalions", "unhindered", "into", "the", "extensive", "plains", "washed", "by", "the", "Po;", "in", "contrast,", "France", "did", "not", "initially", "have", "this", "obvious", "and", "coveted", "advantage.", "The", "major", "obstacle", "was", "Switzerland,", "which", "stretched", "from", "the", "Tyrolean", "Alps", "to", "the", "borders", "of", "France,", "and", "prevented", "access", "from", "the", "Alps", "for", "much", "of", "the", "range:", "it", "was", "therefore", "of", "paramount", "interest", "to", "the", "French", "Republic,", "if", "it", "wished", "to", "continue", "the", "war", "with", "Austria,", "to", "retain", "possession", "of", "the", "Swiss", "Plateau", "obtained", "in", "February", "1798", "with", "the", "invasion", "led", "by", "General", "Guillaume", "Marie-Anne", "Brune.", "This", "provided", "the", "revolutionaries", "with", "two", "strategic", "outlets:", "one", "allowed", "them", "to", "bypass", "the", "Black", "Forest", "and", "easily", "sweep", "into", "the", "upper", "Danube,", "and", "the", "other", "to", "descend", "through", "the", "Alpine", "passes", "of", "Valais", "and", "reach", "northern", "Italy", "directly;", "once", "war", "broke", "out", "again,", "it", "therefore", "became", "of", "enormous", "tactical", "and", "strategic", "importance", "for", "the", "Austrians", "to", "drive", "the", "French", "out", "of", "Switzerland.", "For", "their", "part,", "the", "British", "really", "considered", "Switzerland", "to", "be", "the", "ideal", "territory", "from", "which", "to", "launch", "an", "invasion", "of", "France,", "and", "finally,", "the", "Austrians", "were", "in", "any", "case", "more", "concerned", "about", "the", "French", "troops", "concentrated", "along", "the", "Rhine", "than", "about", "the", "surviving", "troops", "in", "Italy:", "by", "switching", "to", "a", "more", "prudent", "defensive", "tactic", "in", "the", "north", "of", "the", "Peninsula,", "the", "Austrians", "still", "secured", "its", "dominance", "and", "could", "free", "up", "forces", "to", "deploy", "in", "Germany.", "The", "Russian", "army", "in", "the", "Alps", "The", "march", "to", "Switzerland", "On", "September", "4,", "Suvorov", "informed", "the", "tsar", "that", "he", "was", "about", "to", "move", "to", "Switzerland,", "not", "failing", "to", "lament", "how", "from", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "campaign", "the", "Austrians", "had", "been", "consistently", "reluctant", "to", "support", "him,", "slow", "to", "respond", "to", "his", "orders", "and", "utterly", "inefficient", "in", "meeting", "his", "demands", "for", "supplies", "and", "ammunition.", "He", "did", "not", "fail", "to", "emphasize", "how", "the", "Allies", "purposely", "delayed", "supplies", "with", "the", "intent", "of", "forcing", "him", "to", "leave", "Italy.", "He", "wrote", "among", "other", "things:", "Suvorov", "marched", "on", "September", "11,", "immediately", "after", "the", "capture", "of", "Tortona,", "sending", "baggage,", "equipment", "and", "heavy", "artillery", "via", "Como", "and", "Verona", "to", "arrive", "in", "Switzerland", "near", "Chur", "in", "the", "Grisons,", "and", "from", "the", "Tyrol", "to", "Feldkirch,", "while", "he", "with", "about", "27,000", "men,", "including", "nearly", "16,000", "infantrymen", "and", "more", "than", "3,500", "Cossacks,", "took", "the", "Varese", "route", "to", "move", "toward", "Bellinzona.", "On", "September", "15,", "the", "Russian", "vanguard", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Pyotr", "Ivanovich", "Bagration", "entered", "Swiss", "territory", "near", "Ponte", "Tresa,", "and", "after", "a", "few", "days", "the", "main", "army", "assembled", "at", "Taverne", "in", "Ticino;", "Suvorov,", "who", "had", "expected", "to", "find", "supplies", "there", "for", "the", "following", "week's", "march", "via", "a", "caravan", "of", "1,500", "mules", "previously", "requested", "from", "the", "Austrians,", "found", "that", "the", "Austrians", "had", "sent", "nothing.", "The", "initial", "astonishment", "was", "succeeded", "by", "outrage", "and", "then", "anger:", "before", "a", "contrite", "General", "Weyrother,", "an", "Austrian", "liaison", "officer,", "he", "explicitly", "accused", "Melas", "and", "the", "Viennese", "court", "of", "having", "hatched", "a", "treason", "\"which", "the", "tsar", "will", "know", "how", "to", "punish.\"", "The", "senior", "general", "wrote", "an", "angry", "letter", "to", "Emperor", "Francis", "II", "expressing", "outrage", "and", "lamenting", "how", "Austrian", "inefficiency", "had", "nullified", "the", "tactical", "advantage", "of", "his", "rapid", "march", "to", "Switzerland.", "By", "this", "time,", "however,", "the", "damage", "was", "done:", "only", "six", "hundred", "and", "fifty", "mules", "arrived,", "which", "was", "absolutely", "insufficient,", "and", "Suvorov,", "at", "Prince", "Konstantin's", "suggestion,", "decided", "to", "use", "the", "horses", "of", "the", "Cossacks", "to", "transport", "sufficient", "provisions", "and", "ammunition", "for", "the", "next", "eight", "days.", "The", "Ticinese", "relate", "that", "officers", "who", "had", "horses", "and", "carriages", "available", "for", "their", "personal", "use", "had", "to,", "according", "to", "the", "Russian", "commander's", "orders,", "surrender", "the", "former", "as", "beasts", "of", "burden", "and", "abandon", "the", "carriages.", "The", "greatest", "examples", "were", "set", "by", "Prince", "Constantine,", "who", "sent", "his", "three", "carriages", "back", "to", "Como,", "and", "Suvorov", "himself,", "who,", "although", "in", "his", "seventies,", "abandoned", "his", "litter", "and", "decided", "to", "march", "on", "foot", "as", "well.", "In", "the", "four", "days", "of", "waiting", "before", "they", "could", "finally", "move,", "the", "Russian", "troops", "were", "summarily", "instructed", "in", "mountain", "warfare", "tactics,", "with", "which", "they", "were", "totally", "unfamiliar.", "The", "assault", "on", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "and", "the", "arrival", "at", "Lake", "Lucerne", "On", "September", "21,", "Suvorov", "ordered", "the", "advance.", "The", "march", "proceeded", "slowly,", "slowed", "by", "heavy", "rains,", "fog,", "and", "mountainous", "terrain.", "Nevertheless,", "that", "evening", "the", "entire", "army", "was", "already", "encamped", "between", "Sant'Antonino", "and", "Bellinzona,", "in", "another", "day's", "march", "passed", "through", "Biasca,", "and", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "the", "22nd", "reached", "Giornico,", "where", "the", "Allied", "General", "Staff", "spent", "the", "night.", "The", "weather", "continued", "to", "be", "harsh", "and,", "on", "the", "night", "of", "September", "23,", "a", "blizzard", "of", "rain", "and", "snow", "plagued", "the", "army,", "which", "was", "reinforced", "at", "Faido", "by", "an", "Austrian", "regiment", "under", "the", "command", "of", "Colonel", "Gottfried", "Strauch.", "Suvorov", "then", "set", "out", "to", "cross", "the", "Gotthard", "by", "the", "25th", "with", "the", "intention", "of", "reuniting", "with", "Korsakov", "at", "Lucerne", "on", "Sept.", "27;", "but", "on", "the", "24th,", "at", "Airolo,", "a", "French", "battalion", "belonging", "to", "General", "Claude", "Lecourbe's", "division", "and", "commanded", "by", "Brigadier", "General", "Charles-Étienne", "Gudin", "de", "La", "Sablonnière", "halted", "the", "march", "of", "the", "Russians,", "who", "left", "six", "hundred", "dead", "on", "the", "ground", "before", "they", "were", "able", "to", "penetrate", "late", "in", "the", "evening", "into", "the", "Val", "Tremola,", "with", "Suvorov", "remaining", "in", "the", "front", "line", "all", "along.", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "the", "25th,", "the", "general", "resumed", "his", "march", "toward", "Andermatt,", "while", "the", "French", "had", "retreated", "behind", "the", "\"Buca", "d'Uri\"", "(a", "tunnel", "in", "the", "Schöllenen", "Gorge,", "on", "the", "north", "side", "of", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "in", "the", "Urseren", "valley)", "partially", "demolishing", "the", "Devil's", "Bridge", "(a", "stone", "crossing", "in", "Uri", "near", "Andermatt).", "Here", "another", "Lecourbe", "contingent,", "under", "the", "orders", "this", "time", "of", "Louis", "Henri", "Loison,", "laid", "an", "ambush", "that", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "more", "than", "nine", "hundred", "Russians", "before", "they", "managed", "to", "repair", "the", "bridge", "by", "makeshift", "means", "and", "cross", "to", "the", "other", "side,", "under", "constant", "enemy", "artillery", "and", "musket", "fire,", "finally", "forcing", "the", "French", "to", "retreat.", "In", "contrast", "to", "the", "Russians,", "Lecourbe's", "troops", "were", "highly", "specialized", "in", "mountain", "warfare", "to", "the", "extent", "that", "they", "\"marched", "even", "where", "chamois", "hunters", "would", "give", "up,\"", "\"used", "to", "sleeping", "in", "the", "snow", "and", "under", "the", "stars,", "bitten", "by", "the", "wind,", "on", "the", "rags", "they", "used", "as", "uniforms,\"", "and", "venturing", "\"without", "[alpine]", "guides", "on", "paths", "over", "sheer", "chasms.\"", "They", "would", "be", "a", "constant", "thorn", "in", "the", "side", "of", "the", "Allied", "troops.", "Continuing", "to", "move", "to", "the", "right", "along", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "Suvorov", "nonetheless", "seized", "the", "Gotthard", "Pass", "by", "repelling", "General", "Lecourbe,", "and", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "September", "26", "his", "troops", "reached", "Altdorf", "near", "the", "southern", "end", "of", "Lake", "Lucerne.", "For", "the", "Russian", "general,", "the", "bulk", "of", "the", "effort", "was", "accomplished;", "cheerful", "and", "optimistic,", "he", "wrote", "in", "his", "own", "hand,", "on", "a", "dispatch", "addressed", "to", "Austrian", "General", "Friedrich", "von", "Hotze,", "a", "rhyming", "note", "in", "German", "that", "has", "remained", "famous:", "The", "general", "was", "unaware,", "however,", "that", "in", "those", "same", "hours", "General", "Masséna,", "who", "had", "concentrated", "as", "many", "as", "77,000", "men", "under", "his", "orders,", "was", "routing", "Korsakov's", "forces", "in", "the", "Second", "Battle", "of", "Zurich,", "inflicting", "heavy", "losses", "on", "him", "and", "forcing", "him", "to", "beat", "a", "retreat", "to", "Winterthur", "and", "beyond", "to", "Schaffhausen,", "while", "on", "the", "Linth", "the", "troops", "of", "General", "Nicolas", "Soult", "defeated", "the", "Austrian", "troops", "of", "General", "von", "Hotze,", "who", "was", "killed", "early", "in", "the", "clash.", "The", "crossing", "of", "Chinzig", "On", "Lake", "Lucerne,", "the", "French", "stood", "firmly", "on", "the", "left", "bank", "of", "the", "Reuss", "near", "Seedorf,", "closing", "off", "the", "Russians", "from", "reaching", "the", "eponymous", "town", "via", "the", "Surenen", "Pass,", "while", "the", "lake", "itself,", "patrolled", "by", "a", "small", "flotilla,", "appeared", "to", "be", "under", "full", "French", "control,", "making", "a", "crossing", "by", "the", "Russians", "impossible.", "Suvorov's", "troops", "were", "at", "their", "wits'", "end:", "marching", "over", "rocks", "had", "worn", "out", "the", "soldiers'", "inadequate", "footwear,", "of", "which", "many", "were", "now", "even", "deprived,", "uniforms", "were", "often", "in", "tatters,", "rifles", "and", "bayonets", "were", "rusting", "from", "the", "constant", "dampness,", "and", "the", "men", "were", "starving", "for", "lack", "of", "adequate", "supplies.", "Suvorov", "was", "still", "unaware", "of", "Korsakov's", "defeat,", "but", "in", "the", "absence", "of", "news", "he", "preferred", "not", "to", "stop", "at", "Altdorf", "to", "let", "his", "exhausted", "army", "rest,", "which", "he", "directed", "instead,", "as", "early", "as", "the", "early", "hours", "of", "September", "27,", "toward", "the", "Chinzig", "Pass,", "counting", "on", "bypassing", "the", "French", "by", "reaching", "Schwyz", "from", "the", "village", "of", "Muotathal.", "The", "plan", "was", "to", "climb,", "starting", "from", "an", "altitude", "of", "about", "500", "m,", "up", "to", "2,070", "m", "along", "a", "precipitous", "path", "carved", "into", "the", "rock", "and", "almost", "invisible", "under", "the", "first", "snowfall.", "Lecourbe", "immediately", "informed", "General", "Masséna", "of", "the", "Russians'", "detour,", "and", "the", "latter,", "who", "had", "previously", "planned", "to", "attack", "Suvorov", "in", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "was", "forced", "to", "change", "strategy:", "he", "therefore", "sent", "General", "Mortier", "to", "occupy", "Muotathal", "with", "9,000", "men", "and", "General", "Gazan", "to", "march", "with", "about", "10,000", "men", "on", "Weesen", "and", "Schänis,", "to", "close", "off", "the", "Linth", "valley", "from", "the", "north,", "while", "he", "himself", "concentrated", "the", "bulk", "of", "his", "troops", "at", "Schwyz.", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "reached", "Muotathal,", "Suvorov's", "18,000", "exhausted", "men,", "without", "supplies", "and", "ammunition", "and", "surrounded", "by", "impassable", "mountains", "in", "freezing", "cold,", "faced", "a", "French", "army", "far", "superior", "in", "numbers", "and", "equipment.", "On", "September", "29,", "still", "uncertain", "about", "the", "fate", "of", "Korsakov", "and", "Hotze,", "Suvorov", "called", "a", "council", "of", "war", "with", "his", "general", "staff", "to", "decide", "what", "to", "do.", "During", "the", "council", "the", "Russian", "commander", "showed", "himself", "extremely", "resolute", "not", "to", "surrender,", "blamed", "the", "Austrian", "allies", "for", "all", "the", "hardships", "they", "were", "forced", "to", "suffer,", "and", "proposed", "what", "appeared", "to", "him", "to", "be", "the", "only", "possible", "solution:", "After", "Suvorov's", "impassioned", "speeches", "to", "raise", "the", "morale", "of", "his", "subordinates,", "the", "war", "council", "decided", "to", "abandon", "the", "plan", "to", "head", "for", "Schwyz", "and", "instead", "to", "move", "eastward", "again,", "over", "the", "Muotathal", "Pass", "to", "the", "Pragel", "Pass", "and", "then", "through", "the", "Klöntal", "Pass,", "to", "rejoin", "General", "Linken", "at", "Glarus", "and,", "if", "possible,", "to", "aim", "then", "for", "Sargans", "by", "skirting", "the", "Walensee", "to", "the", "south.", "Bagration", "and", "Franz", "Xaver", "von", "Auffenberg", "were", "positioned", "in", "the", "vanguard;", "Andrey", "Rosenberg's", "troops,", "placed", "in", "the", "rear,", "were", "ordered", "to", "protect", "the", "army", "from", "attacks", "that", "might", "come", "from", "the", "west,", "from", "Schwyz", "across", "the", "Muotathal,", "while", "the", "main", "force", "marched", "east", "through", "the", "Pragel", "Pass.", "From", "original", "Russian", "records", "later", "found", "by", "the", "French", "in", "Muotathal,", "the", "precise", "numerical", "strength", "of", "the", "Russian", "army", "on", "September", "30,", "1799,", "is", "known:", "66", "staff", "officers,", "493", "troop", "officers,", "1,172", "non-commissioned", "officers,", "403", "musicians,", "and", "16,584", "troopers", "were", "counted;", "of", "the", "latter,", "410", "were", "reported", "sick,", "216", "were", "limping", "and", "21", "under", "arrest,", "only", "85", "men", "had", "deserted;", "in", "ten", "days", "the", "Russian", "army", "had", "lost", "about", "3,000", "soldiers", "and", "now", "had", "food", "rations", "for", "only", "five", "days,", "but", "these", "already", "meager", "supplies", "would", "have", "to", "be", "rationed", "to", "last", "at", "least", "ten.", "The", "march", "to", "Glarus", "Despite", "the", "strenuous", "marches", "and", "the", "sustained", "fights,", "the", "army", "moved", "immediately.", "Auffenberg's", "troops", "advanced", "first,", "followed", "by", "Bagration's", "troops.", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "reached", "the", "Pragel", "Pass,", "there", "was", "a", "clash", "between", "the", "former", "and", "Molitor's", "French", "who", "prevented", "them", "from", "passing.", "Arriving", "in", "the", "afternoon,", "Bagration,", "who", "was", "\"outraged", "to", "see", "the", "Austrians", "retreat", "before", "a", "handful", "of", "men,\"", "turned", "the", "tide", "of", "the", "battle", "by", "driving", "the", "French", "back", "and", "offering", "them", "a", "chance", "to", "surrender.", "He", "was", "unaware", "that", "Auffenberg", "had", "already", "sent", "a", "similar", "ultimatum", "to", "Molitor", "and", "that", "the", "latter", "had", "refused", "by", "responding", "disdainfully:", "Suvorov", "did", "not", "have", "time", "to", "realize", "the", "seriousness", "of", "the", "news", "when", "Bagration's", "troops", "resumed", "the", "assault", "against", "the", "French,", "who,", "after", "dark,", "were", "forced", "to", "retreat", "to", "Klöntalersee,", "where", "many", "in", "the", "flight", "drowned", "but", "where", "the", "French", "general", "also", "had", "a", "chance", "to", "reorganize", "and", "better", "arrange", "his", "troops", "to", "face", "his", "opponents.", "Bagration", "led", "his", "battalions", "in", "four", "desperate", "assaults", "against", "the", "French", "artillery,", "which", "was", "well", "placed", "on", "the", "road", "and", "on", "the", "rocks", "overlooking", "it,", "and", "suffered", "very", "heavy", "losses;", "meanwhile", "the", "weather", "worsened,", "sleet", "began", "to", "fall,", "and", "the", "Russians", "retreated", "for", "the", "night,", "which", "they", "spent", "freezing", "as", "they", "were", "forbidden", "to", "light", "fires,", "and", "once", "again", "suffered", "from", "starvation.", "Bagration,", "though", "suffering", "from", "a", "thigh", "wound,", "reorganized", "his", "troops", "under", "the", "cover", "of", "darkness", "and", "continued", "to", "encourage", "them:", "The", "clash", "resumed", "on", "the", "morning", "of", "October", "1", "with", "Bagration's", "charge,", "which", "launched", "an", "attack,", "led", "by", "Lieutenant", "Colonel", "Giorgio", "Giovanni", "Zuccato,", "using", "two", "battalions,", "four", "Austrian", "companies", "and", "about", "200", "dismounted", "Cossacks", "in", "order", "to", "occupy", "some", "cliffs", "overlooking,", "almost", "precipitously,", "the", "enemy's", "right", "flank.", "From", "there", "the", "Russian", "troops,", "discovered", "by", "some", "French", "patrols,", "exposed", "to", "enemy", "fire,", "went", "on", "the", "attack", "by", "assaulting", "the", "French", "troops", "with", "bayonets,", "while", "further", "down", "Derfelden's", "troops", "attacked", "the", "enemy", "in", "front", "forcing", "him", "to", "retreat", "further.", "Molitor,", "after", "a", "fierce", "but", "brief", "resistance,", "preferred", "to", "withdraw", "his", "troops", "to", "the", "nearby", "hills", "to", "reorganize", "along", "the", "course", "of", "the", "Linth,", "setting", "up", "a", "series", "of", "defense", "lines", "between", "Netstal,", "Näfels", "and", "Mollis", "in", "the", "northern", "part", "of", "the", "canton", "of", "Glarus,", "destroying", "the", "bridge", "at", "Netstal", "and", "retaining", "control", "of", "the", "remaining", "communication", "routes", "between", "Näfels", "and", "Mollis.", "This", "allowed", "them", "to", "effectively", "control", "both", "sides", "of", "the", "river.", "In", "the", "early", "afternoon", "of", "the", "same", "day", "Bagration", "received", "reinforcements", "and", "launched", "the", "charge", "with", "twelve", "battalions", "against", "the", "French", "positions", "at", "Netstal.", "However,", "the", "French", "still", "resisted", "by", "fortifying", "themselves", "in", "the", "village", "and", "managed", "to", "destroy", "the", "bridges", "over", "the", "Linth", "shortly", "before", "the", "Russians", "took", "it", "over.", "Meanwhile,", "there", "was", "also", "fighting", "in", "the", "rearguard,", "where", "Rosenberg,", "who", "commanded", "11,000", "men,", "was", "attacked", "by", "Masséna.", "Suvorov", "ordered", "the", "Russian", "general", "to", "hold", "out", "at", "all", "costs", "while", "Bagration", "fought", "to", "clear", "the", "road", "to", "the", "east", "from", "the", "French.", "The", "French", "were", "determined", "not", "to", "allow", "the", "Russians", "to", "leave", "the", "valley:", "Lecourbe's", "divisions", "closed", "the", "road", "to", "them", "from", "behind", "along", "the", "Reuss", "by", "cutting", "the", "supply", "lines;", "Masséna", "recalled", "some", "of", "Mortier's", "divisions", "from", "Zurich", "to", "position", "them", "at", "Altdorf", "and", "part", "of", "Soult's", "divisions", "at", "Weesen", "to", "block", "the", "Linth", "Valley", "exit.", "Despite", "the", "efforts", "of", "the", "French,", "the", "Russians", "repelled", "all", "the", "assaults", "by", "counterattacking", "with", "bayonets.", "The", "battle", "was", "particularly", "bloody", "on", "the", "stone", "bridge", "across", "the", "Muota", "River,", "since", "then", "called", "Suworow-brücke", "(\"Suvorov", "Bridge\"),", "and", "from", "which", "several", "Frenchmen", "plunged", "into", "the", "waters", "because", "of", "the", "crush.", "On", "the", "evening", "of", "October", "1,", "the", "French", "retreated", "toward", "Schwyz", "pressed", "by", "the", "Cossacks.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "Bagration", "reestablished", "a", "bridge", "at", "Netstal", "and,", "organizing", "his", "forces", "into", "two", "columns,", "marched", "along", "both", "banks", "of", "the", "Linth", "toward", "Näfels,", "which", "was", "held", "firmly", "by", "Molitor", "with", "three", "battalions", "and", "four", "cannons", "and", "whose", "positions", "were", "protected", "on", "the", "right", "flank", "by", "cliffs", "and", "on", "the", "left", "by", "the", "river.", "Although", "Bagration", "succeeded", "in", "pushing", "the", "French", "back", "out", "of", "the", "town,", "the", "attack", "on", "the", "enemy's", "main", "positions", "failed,", "giving", "the", "French", "an", "opportunity", "to", "receive", "reinforcements", "from", "the", "Swiss", "militia", "and", "counterattack", "to", "retake", "the", "town", "with", "troops", "stationed", "at", "Mollis.", "On", "this", "occasion", "Molitor", "harangued", "the", "Swiss", "by", "recalling", "a", "historic", "victory", "they", "had", "achieved", "centuries", "earlier", "in", "the", "same", "places", "against", "the", "Austrian", "oppressor:", "However,", "Bagration", "tenaciously", "returned", "to", "assault", "the", "village", "on", "several", "occasions", "held", "back", "first", "by", "the", "Swiss", "and", "then", "finally", "stopped", "by", "the", "arrival", "of", "Gazan's", "troops", "after", "Näfels", "had", "changed", "hands", "several", "times", "in", "the", "same", "day.", "At", "9", "p.m.,", "after", "sixteen", "hours", "of", "hard", "fighting,", "Suvorov", "ordered", "Bagration", "to", "disengage", "the", "moment", "the", "village", "was", "occupied", "by", "Russia,", "leaving", "the", "French", "on", "their", "initial", "positions.", "Both", "sides", "shouted", "victory,", "but", "in", "reality", "the", "day", "had", "ended", "in", "almost", "nothing", "—", "the", "Russians", "arrived", "near", "Glarus", "but", "the", "French", "closed", "off", "all", "avenues", "of", "approach", "to", "them", "toward", "Zurich", "—", "apart", "from", "showing", "the", "skill", "and", "valor", "of", "both", "commanders.", "According", "to", "the", "prominent", "Russian", "biographer", "of", "Suvorov", "Alexander", "Petrushevsky,", "at", "the", "withdrawal", "of", "the", "Russian", "troops", "Gazan", "moved", "all", "his", "forces", "to", "the", "attack", "and", "himself", "led", "the", "grenadiers", "into", "bayonet", "combat;", "but", "the", "French", "were", "repulsed,", "and", "Bagration's", "troops", "retreated", "quietly", "towards", "Netstal.", "Bagration's", "vanguard", "spent", "the", "night", "of", "October", "1", "to", "2", "around", "Glarus,", "but", "it", "was", "not", "until", "October", "4", "that", "the", "entire", "army", "could", "assemble", "there,", "and", "on", "the", "same", "day", "Suvorov", "convened", "a", "new", "council", "of", "war.", "The", "retreat", "The", "March", "to", "Panix", "Suvorov", "wanted", "to", "stick", "to", "the", "original", "plan", "and", "thus", "break", "through", "the", "French", "positions", "at", "Näfels,", "go", "along", "the", "Lake", "Walenstadt", "and", "march", "to", "Weesen", "to", "rejoin", "the", "other", "Austrian", "troops", "in", "Switzerland.", "Austrian", "officers", "supported", "this", "strategy,", "convinced", "that", "it", "was", "the", "best", "way", "to", "reach", "Sargans", "and", "the", "military", "warehouses", "there", "so", "as", "to", "resupply", "the", "army,", "now", "at", "the", "end", "of", "its", "strength", "and", "also", "lacking", "ammunition", "as", "well", "as", "supplies.", "But", "Prince", "Konstantin", "and", "senior", "Russian", "officers", "objected,", "convinced", "that", "the", "only", "way", "to", "rejoin", "the", "Allies", "was", "to", "outflank", "the", "French", "forces", "by", "heading", "south", "to", "Schwanden,", "then", "up", "through", "Elm", "and", "over", "the", "Panix", "Pass", "to", "reach", "and", "cross", "the", "Anterior", "Rhine", "valley", "to", "Maienfeld,", "south", "of", "Liechtenstein.", "In", "the", "end,", "eight", "of", "the", "ten", "generals", "on", "the", "general", "staff", "approved", "the", "\"Russian", "proposal.\"", "Opting", "for", "such", "a", "decision,", "i.e.,", "a", "march", "along", "a", "route", "devoid", "of", "enemy", "troops,", "did", "not", "suit", "the", "Russian", "field", "marshal's", "temperament,", "but", "his", "assent", "perhaps", "provides", "an", "idea", "of", "what", "must", "have", "been,", "even", "in", "his", "eyes,", "the", "poor", "conditions", "in", "which", "his", "men,", "who,", "despite", "the", "extreme", "sacrifices", "he", "constantly", "demanded,", "used", "to", "call", "him", "\"little", "father,\"", "were", "living.", "The", "Austrian", "General", "Auffenberg,", "although", "his", "troops", "had", "been", "engaged", "in", "far", "less", "fighting", "than", "the", "Russian", "troops,", "had", "written", "in", "his", "report", "of", "October", "1", "that", "his", "brigade", "was", "now", "completely", "without", "ammunition,", "money,", "bread", "and", "largely", "without", "boots.", "On", "the", "night", "of", "October", "4–5,", "under", "snow", "mixed", "with", "freezing", "rain,", "the", "march", "south", "toward", "Panix", "began.", "This", "time", "Bagration", "was", "left", "in", "the", "rear", "guard", "with", "his", "1,800", "surviving", "men", "of", "whom,", "he", "later", "recalled,", "only", "250", "were", "able", "to", "fight.", "The", "first", "to", "move", "was", "General", "Miloradovich,", "followed", "by", "General", "Otto", "Wilhelm", "Hristoforovich", "Derfelden", "and", "Rosenberg's", "troops.", "Suvorov", "was", "forced", "to", "abandon", "about", "1,300", "seriously", "wounded", "and", "ill", "men", "to", "the", "French,", "commending", "their", "fate", "to", "the", "humanity", "of", "the", "enemy", "in", "a", "letter", "left", "on", "purpose", "for", "Masséna", "to", "take", "care", "of", "them.", "The", "conditions", "of", "the", "march", "would", "be", "even", "worse", "than", "before.", "The", "Mother", "Superior", "of", "the", "Mutten", "convent,", "where", "Suvorov's", "staff", "had", "spent", "the", "night,", "testified,", "\"It", "was", "pathetic", "to", "see", "how", "these", "people", "were", "forced", "to", "march", "so", "hard", "and", "barefoot", "across", "the", "Pragel,", "under", "a", "heavy", "rain", "mixed", "with", "snow.", "Only", "the", "general", "(adjutant)", "had", "his", "horse,", "everyone", "else", "was", "left", "behind.\"", "As", "soon", "as", "they", "became", "aware", "of", "the", "Russian", "retreat,", "the", "French", "took", "the", "initiative", "to", "try", "to", "encircle", "Suvorov", "and", "cut", "off", "his", "escape", "route:", "Loison", "moved", "toward", "Schwanden;", "Mortier", "from", "Pragel", "toward", "Glarus", "to", "blockade", "the", "valley;", "General", "Gazan", "sent", "a", "brigade", "from", "Mollis", "toward", "Sool", "(south", "of", "Glarus)", "and", "three", "more", "from", "Netstal", "in", "pursuit", "of", "Bagration.", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "October", "5", "Gazan's", "10th", "Hunter", "Regiment", "attacked", "Bagration's", "Cossacks", "forcing", "him", "to", "slow", "his", "march", "while", "the", "arrival", "of", "French", "artillery", "forced", "him", "to", "stop", "and", "deploy", "along", "the", "narrow", "valley", "and,", "being", "short", "of", "ammunition,", "to", "order", "three", "desperate", "bayonet", "assaults.", "During", "the", "day", "Bagration's", "rearguard", "had", "to", "sustain", "about", "20", "attacks", "to", "hold", "back", "the", "enemy", "and", "save", "the", "entire", "army", "from", "certain", "defeat.", "On", "the", "night", "of", "the", "5th", "and", "6th", "the", "army", "camped", "near", "Elm,", "in", "the", "cold,", "without", "food", "and", "subjected", "to", "constant", "attacks", "by", "the", "French.", "At", "2:00 a.m.", "Suvorov", "preferred", "to", "move", "while", "the", "French", "continued", "to", "pound", "Bagration's", "troops", "who", "managed", "to", "hold", "them", "back", "but", "suffered", "continuous", "losses.", "The", "freezing", "night", "march", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "several", "soldiers", "and", "about", "two", "hundred", "were", "missing", "captured", "by", "the", "French.", "As", "soon", "as", "the", "Russians", "took", "the", "Panix", "route,", "the", "French", "broke", "off", "their", "pursuit.", "Bagration", "was", "able", "to", "tally", "the", "losses,", "which", "he", "found", "amounted", "to", "about", "eight", "hundred", "men", "taken", "prisoners,", "four", "cannons,", "a", "treasure", "chest", "containing", "twenty", "thousand", "francs,", "which", "the", "French", "commander", "Lenard", "later", "distributed", "to", "his", "battalion,", "and", "numerous", "horses", "and", "mules;", "he", "had,", "however,", "managed", "to", "protect", "the", "army's", "rear.", "Crossing", "the", "Panix", "Pass", "and", "arriving", "in", "Chur", "On", "October", "6,", "the", "Russians", "began", "the", "climb", "to", "Panix,", "at", "an", "altitude", "of", "2,407", "m.", "All", "artillery", "had", "to", "be", "abandoned", "and,", "climbing", "with", "snow", "above", "the", "knee", "on", "the", "narrow,", "winding", "paths", "over", "precipices,", "three", "hundred", "mules", "were", "also", "lost.", "Édouard", "Gachot", "in", "his", "1904", "book", "Histoire", "militaire", "de", "Masséna:", "La", "campagne", "d'Helvétie", "(1799),", "extracted", "from", "the", "memoirs", "of", "surviving", "officers", "and", "from", "reports", "from", "the", "Russian", "war", "archives,", "describes", "at", "length", "and", "in", "great", "detail", "the", "enormous", "hardships", "and", "drama", "suffered", "by", "the", "Russian", "army", "during", "the", "crossing.", "The", "grueling", "march", "was", "carried", "out", "almost", "continuously,", "even", "at", "night,", "and", "cost", "the", "lives", "of", "those", "who,", "exhausted,", "sick", "or", "wounded,", "were", "no", "longer", "able", "to", "stand", "on", "the", "narrow", "path,", "made", "invisible", "by", "snow", "and", "slippery", "by", "ice.", "Several", "men", "abandoned", "backpacks", "and", "rifles", "along", "the", "way,", "and", "the", "weakest", "simply", "allowed", "themselves", "to", "die", "by", "falling", "asleep.", "According", "to", "sources,", "Suvorov", "shared", "with", "his", "men", "all", "the", "hardships", "of", "the", "exhausting", "march", "and", "kept", "constantly", "cheering", "them", "on,", "picking", "up", "those", "who", "abandoned", "their", "weapons", "or", "only", "complained,", "and,", "although", "badly", "dressed,", "in", "order", "to", "show", "his", "endurance", "and", "try", "to", "extract", "the", "last", "energies", "from", "his", "exhausted", "troops", "he", "repeatedly", "refused", "the", "mantle", "offered", "to", "him", "by", "his", "orderly.", "He", "climbed", "on", "foot", "together", "with", "the", "soldiers", "to", "the", "top", "of", "the", "pass", "where,", "on", "the", "advice", "of", "Grand", "Duke", "Konstantin,", "he", "made", "use", "of", "the", "wood", "from", "the", "spears", "of", "the", "Cossacks", "to", "light", "a", "fire", "and", "prepare", "tea", "for", "the", "troops;", "on", "the", "way", "down,", "the", "Russian", "captain", "Grjasew", "later", "recounted", "admiringly", "in", "his", "diary,", "\"He", "was", "sitting", "on", "a", "Cossack", "horse,", "and", "I", "saw", "him", "trying", "to", "free", "himself", "from", "the", "hands", "of", "two", "horsemen", "at", "his", "side", "who", "were", "trying", "to", "support", "him", "on", "the", "march", "and", "lead", "his", "horse", "(.", "..)", "He", "kept", "saying,", "'Leave", "me,", "leave", "me,", "I", "must", "go", "alone.'\"", "To", "the", "generals", "surrounding", "him", "he", "said:", "As", "soon", "as", "the", "vanguard", "reached", "the", "pass's", "ridge,", "it", "was", "hit", "by", "a", "very", "violent", "blizzard", "of", "hail", "and", "frozen", "snow", "that", "prevented", "the", "scouts", "from", "getting", "their", "bearings,", "causing", "them", "to", "risk", "falling", "into", "cliffs", "and", "precipices.", "Before", "finding", "a", "smooth", "way", "down", "thanks", "to", "the", "intervention", "of", "local", "people,", "several", "groups", "dispersed", "in", "the", "search.", "On", "October", "7,", "the", "Russians", "arrived", "at", "the", "first", "Pigniu", "chalets", "and", "after", "a", "brief", "bivouac", "were", "able", "to", "begin", "their", "descent", "to", "Ilanz", "and", "safety.", "Here,", "Suvorov,", "finally", "feeling", "that", "he", "was", "no", "longer", "hunted,", "rested", "his", "men", "for", "another", "night", "and", "on", "the", "9th", "moved", "toward", "the", "Rhine", "and", "then", "toward", "Chur", "where", "he", "arrived", "on", "October", "10,", "also", "taking", "with", "him", "1,400", "French", "prisoners.", "He", "was", "left", "with", "14,000", "men", "and", "of", "these", "only", "10,000", "barely", "able", "to", "march", "and", "fight,", "the", "rest", "were", "consumed", "by", "fevers", "or", "blinded", "by", "inflammation", "of", "the", "eyes;", "the", "sotnias", "were", "reduced", "to", "a", "mere", "twenty", "or", "so", "cavalrymen", "disputing", "four", "or", "five", "surviving", "horses", "and", "badly", "in", "shape;", "the", "artillery", "was", "all", "lost,", "a", "third", "of", "the", "troop", "had", "lost", "their", "weapons", "and", "those", "that", "remained", "were", "rusted", "and", "unserviceable;", "the", "bayonets", "blunted", "and", "the", "uniforms", "were", "unrecognizable.", "Each", "infantry", "regiment", "was", "reorganized", "into", "a", "battalion,", "the", "cavalry", "regiments", "into", "the", "same", "number", "of", "squadrons,", "and,", "equipped", "with", "a", "convoy", "of", "five", "hundred", "beasts", "of", "burden,", "the", "army", "headed", "through", "Balzers,", "Vaduz", "and", "Feldkirch", "to", "Altenstadt.", "On", "October", "22", "Tsar", "Paul", "withdrew", "from", "the", "coalition", "and", "recalled", "Suvorov,", "who", "by", "then", "publicly", "accused", "the", "Austrians", "of", "betraying", "him.", "On", "October", "25,", "the", "forces", "of", "Suvorov,", "Korsakov,", "and", "the", "Prince", "of", "Condé", "gathered", "at", "Landau", "and", "began", "small", "marches", "back", "to", "winter", "quarters", "in", "Bohemia,", "where", "they", "arrived", "in", "January", "1800,", "finally", "concluding", "the", "Swiss", "campaign.", "Reasons", "for", "the", "defeat", "After", "just", "under", "a", "month", "of", "grueling", "marches", "and", "sixteen", "days", "of", "fighting,", "Suvorov", "had", "lost", "over", "5,000", "men,", "while", "the", "French", "controlled", "Switzerland", "exactly", "as", "they", "did", "before", "the", "campaign", "began.", "As", "early", "as", "October", "22,", "Tsar", "Paul", "I,", "in", "his", "letter", "to", "Emperor", "Francis", "II", "officially", "announcing", "Russia's", "exit", "from", "the", "coalition,", "focused", "the", "main", "reasons", "for", "the", "Russian", "defeat", "on", "the", "removal", "of", "Archduke", "Charles", "from", "Switzerland", "before", "the", "reunification", "of", "Suvorov's", "army", "with", "Korsakov's", "had", "been", "completed:", "Indeed,", "in", "the", "first", "days", "of", "August,", "Archduke", "Charles", "had", "already", "received", "at", "his", "quartering", "in", "Kloten,", "north", "of", "Zurich,", "a", "letter", "from", "Francis", "II", "informing", "him", "of", "the", "coalition's", "new", "strategies", "and", "ordering", "him", "to", "leave", "Switzerland.", "However,", "the", "same", "letter", "probably", "did", "not", "reach", "Suvorov", "until", "August", "25", "or", "27,", "so", "he", "was", "still", "convinced", "that", "he", "had", "to", "continue", "his", "campaign", "in", "Italy", "when,", "at", "least", "twenty", "days", "in", "advance,", "the", "archduke", "had", "already", "begun", "preparations", "to", "move.", "On", "September", "2,", "when", "he", "decided", "to", "obey", "following", "the", "order", "received", "directly", "from", "the", "tsar,", "Suvorov", "still", "thought", "he", "could", "coordinate", "his", "maneuver", "with", "Archduke", "Charles.", "Informed", "at", "last", "that", "the", "latter", "had", "already", "left", "the", "country,", "he", "was", "deeply", "disconcerted", "by", "\"the", "disastrous", "news", "about", "Archduke", "Charles's", "retreat", "from", "Switzerland.\"", "Between", "September", "15", "and", "20,", "after", "the", "vain", "wait", "in", "Taverne", "for", "the", "mules", "with", "the", "supplies", "needed", "for", "the", "march", "to", "Switzerland,", "he", "now", "explicitly", "accused", "Melas", "and", "the", "Austrians", "of", "cowardice", "and", "of", "having", "plotted", "treason", "against", "him.", "Although", "it", "was", "immediately", "clear", "that", "the", "campaign", "in", "Switzerland", "had", "been", "based", "more", "on", "political", "and", "diplomatic", "calculations", "by", "the", "Austrians", "than", "on", "proper", "strategic", "assessments,", "or", "rather", "against", "the", "military", "decisions", "that", "Suvorov", "had", "already", "made,", "it", "cannot", "but", "be", "blamed", "on", "the", "Russian", "general", "for", "at", "least", "underestimating", "the", "difficulties", "of", "the", "campaign", "entrusted", "to", "him.", "Probably", "his", "sometimes", "too", "impulsive", "and", "impetuous", "temperament,", "despite", "his", "age,", "led", "him", "to", "an", "overly", "optimistic", "assessment", "of", "environmental", "conditions,", "the", "strength", "and", "capacity", "of", "the", "opposing", "troops", "on", "the", "Alpine", "passes,", "and", "his", "men's", "chances.", "To", "give", "an", "idea", "of", "Suvorov's", "spirit", "in", "the", "days", "immediately", "preceding", "the", "campaign,", "it", "is", "sufficient", "to", "report", "two", "exemplary", "episodes.", "To", "the", "Austrian", "General", "Weyrother,", "who", "summarized", "to", "him", "the", "plans", "for", "the", "attack", "on", "the", "St.", "Gotthard", "complete", "with", "a", "hypothesis", "of", "retreat,", "he", "ordered,", "\"Cross", "out", "the", "word", "retreat!\";", "to", "a", "courier", "from", "Korsakov,", "who", "asked", "him", "what", "the", "new", "orders", "were,", "he", "simply", "replied", "with", "the", "words,", "\"Defeat", "the", "French!\".", "On", "September", "20", "Suvorov", "had", "approved", "General", "Hotze's", "operational", "proposal", "to", "join", "him,", "moving", "from", "the", "St.", "Gotthard", "by", "forced", "marches", "on", "narrow", "mountain", "routes", "along", "the", "Reuss", "valley,", "to", "bypass", "Masséna", "from", "Schwyz", "and", "liberate", "Lucerne.", "The", "success", "of", "this", "plan", "would", "certainly", "have", "enormous", "consequences", "for", "the", "operational", "situation", "in", "Switzerland,", "but", "the", "successful", "outcome", "depended", "on", "the", "simultaneous", "success", "of", "a", "whole", "series", "of", "actions", "to", "be", "carried", "out", "in", "coordination", "and", "the", "correctness", "of", "all", "initial", "assessments.", "It", "was,", "for", "example,", "necessary", "that", "the", "offensive", "action", "of", "Korsakov's", "and", "Hotze's", "troops", "on", "the", "Linth-Limmat", "take", "place", "simultaneously", "with", "Suvorov's", "arrival", "at", "least", "in", "Schwyz.", "The", "failure", "of", "even", "one", "of", "the", "planned", "actions", "or", "unforeseen", "changes", "in", "environmental,", "logistical", "or", "tactical", "conditions", "could", "have", "resulted", "in", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "entire", "operation.", "And", "that", "was", "what", "precisely", "happened", "and", "on", "which", "all", "subsequent", "criticism", "of", "the", "old", "general", "focused:", "the", "Russians", "had", "to", "wait", "four", "days", "for", "Austrian", "supplies,", "which", "arrived", "late", "and", "proved", "insufficient;", "weather", "and", "environmental", "conditions", "were", "almost", "always", "unfavorable", "when", "not", "prohibitive;", "his", "decision", "to", "march", "along", "the", "Reuss", "did", "not", "take", "into", "account", "the", "resilience", "of", "the", "French", "troops,", "who", "on", "the", "one", "hand", "harshly", "contested", "every", "inch", "of", "territory", "forcing", "him", "in", "several", "battles", "into", "fierce", "fighting", "that", "further", "slowed", "him", "down,", "and", "on", "the", "other", "hand", "constantly", "threatened", "his", "supply", "line,", "for", "which", "he", "was", "totally", "dependent", "on", "the", "Austrians,", "interrupting", "it", "often", "even", "with", "attacks", "from", "reduced", "forces.", "Finally,", "Masséna", "proved", "to", "be", "a", "brilliant", "and", "capable", "commander", "who", "routed", "Korsakov", "and", "Hotze's", "troops", "in", "Zurich", "while", "Suvorov", "was", "still", "on", "Lake", "Lucerne,", "undecided", "what", "to", "do,", "and", "then", "left", "the", "coalition", "troops", "no", "choice", "but", "to", "retreat", "to", "the", "mountains", "and", "then", "evacuate", "Switzerland.", "His", "greatest", "detractors", "later", "proved", "to", "be", "precisely", "Archduke", "Charles,", "to", "whose", "premature", "retreat", "Suvorov", "ascribed", "most", "of", "the", "campaign's", "failure,", "and", "General", "Korsakov,", "whose", "immediate", "defeat", "suffered", "at", "Masséna's", "hands", "nevertheless", "thwarted", "any", "vague", "hopes", "of", "possible", "success.", "Archduke", "Charles", "severely", "criticized", "the", "campaign", "plan", "from", "the", "standpoint", "of", "supplies", "and", "logistical", "support:", "In", "his", "memoirs", "Korsakov", "blamed", "Suvorov", "for", "the", "exaggerated", "efforts", "required", "of", "his", "men", "and", "went", "so", "far", "as", "to", "place", "sole", "responsibility", "for", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "campaign", "on", "him:", "Moreover,", "he", "added", "that", "even", "in", "the", "event", "that", "Suvorov", "had", "eventually", "reached", "Schwyz,", "the", "fate", "of", "the", "battle", "could", "not", "have", "changed", "since", "he", "would", "not", "have", "been", "able", "to", "supply", "him,", "finding", "himself", "in", "a", "dire", "situation.", "It", "was", "then", "probably", "the", "testimony", "of", "Korsakov,", "who", "had", "preceded", "the", "elderly", "commander", "to", "St.", "Petersburg", "by", "immediately", "putting", "Suvorov", "in", "a", "bad", "light", "at", "the", "tsarist", "court", "by", "pointing", "him", "out", "as", "the", "only", "person", "responsible", "for", "the", "defeat,", "that", "prompted", "Paul", "I", "to", "welcome", "him", "coldly", "and", "not", "give", "the", "newly", "appointed", "\"generalissimo\"", "and", "his", "army", "the", "honor", "of", "a", "triumphal", "entry", "into", "the", "Russian", "capital", "as", "he", "had", "previously", "promised", "him.", "Legacy", "of", "the", "campaign", "Despite", "its", "obvious", "failure,", "the", "Swiss", "campaign", "would", "nonetheless", "add", "new", "posthumous", "prestige", "to", "Suvorov", "because", "of", "his", "dramatic", "and", "heroic", "character,", "especially", "in", "Russian", "culture", "where", "he", "is", "still", "regarded", "as", "an", "equal", "of", "Xenophon,", "Hannibal", "or", "Julius", "Caesar:", "as", "early", "as", "1801", "Tsar", "Paul", "I", "ordered", "the", "first", "of", "a", "long", "series", "of", "monuments", "erected", "in", "his", "honor", "in", "his", "homeland.", "In", "Switzerland,", "where", "he", "is", "remembered", "as", "the", "liberator", "from", "French", "occupation,", "right", "by", "the", "Devil's", "Bridge", "in", "the", "Schöllenen", "Gorge", "below", "Andermatt,", "there", "has", "been", "since", "1899", "a", "large", "and", "impressive", "monument", "carved", "entirely", "out", "of", "rock", "dedicated", "to", "the", "feat", "of", "the", "Russian", "general", "and", "his", "men.", "The", "Swiss", "campaign", "was", "held", "in", "high", "regard", "by", "contemporaries", "and", "often", "remembered", "by", "historians.", "Recognizing", "the", "desperate", "situation", "Suvorov's", "army", "had", "found", "itself", "in,", "the", "famous", "Prussian", "general,", "writer", "and", "military", "theorist", "Carl", "von", "Clausewitz", "called", "the", "successful", "retreat", "\"a", "miracle\"", "a", "few", "years", "later.", "Friedrich", "Engels", "wrote", "in", "his", "1859", "pamphlet", "\"Po", "und", "Rhein\"", "(\"Po", "and", "Rhine\")", "that", "the", "crossing", "of", "the", "Panix", "during", "the", "campaign", "conducted", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "Alexander", "Suvorov", "\"had", "been", "the", "greatest", "military", "undertaking", "ever", "among", "those", "engaged", "in", "crossing", "the", "Alpine", "passes.\"", "\"The", "failure", "of", "this", "campaign,\"", "later", "wrote", "Russian", "statesman", "Dmitry", "Milyutin,", "\"would", "have", "brought", "Russian", "troops", "more", "honor", "than", "the", "most", "brilliant", "of", "victories.\"" ]

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23699858

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s%20Great%20Driving%20Challenge

India's Great Driving Challenge

The Great Driving Challenge was a 2009 online reality show and marketing program created by Hindustan Motors Limited, in India, where the top three finalists or couples got an opportunity to drive a Mitsubishi Cedia Sport. It ran from June through August 2009. The finalists were selected by the jury members and given the opportunity to drive the Mitsubishi Cedia Sport to cover a minimum distance of 3000 km over 10 days. Among the finalists, one winner was determined on the basis of their daily web-posts, photo/ videos uploaded and regular internet updates during the course of their 10 days driving challenge (also, called the ‘Drive Phase’). The winner will get a prize money of Rs 10 lakhs (roughly US$25,000). The contest encouraged couples to apply online. The three selected couples went on an all expenses paid challenge in a customized Mitsubishi Cedia Sports for twelve days. On completion of the challenge, one couple was chosen as the winner based on the blogs and the experiences they shared online, and took home one million rupees as prize. The team of "One Foot Wild", Radhika Raj and Bharath Belliappa, were announced as the winners in August. The judging panel consisted of Mr. Adil Jal Darukhanawala, editor of Zigwheels, the official media partner of the contest, Ms. Tanya Chaitanya, Editor Femina and others. First stage In the first stage which started on June 22, 2009 applicants had to register themselves and collect votes. The first stage came to an end on July 17. From here on the jury members selected the top 100 couples on the basis of some set criteria. Some "cutoff" filters were used to come up with a first shortlist of few hundred applicants, who were then scored by multiple members of the jury. A few applicants were disqualified after examination of their email logs. Each jury member had access to a web-based scoring sheet. Each criterion was scored separately by one ore more members of Jury, before arriving at total score and final average. The Jury reviewed the TOP 100 list, before releasing it for announcement. The jury later said, "We are aware that there are many excellent bloggers, photographers and passionate travel enthusiasts who did not make it to the final 100." The jury increased the chances of shortlisting good applications, to the maximum, by: (a) Expanding cut-off filter to more than70% (that means we looked at all applications which were 70% complete or more) - to be more inclusive. (b) Lowering the votes threshold to as low as 30 (anyone with number of votes lower than 30, demonstrated lack of enthusiasm to participate) - to be more inclusive (c) Lowering the testimonials threshold (for same reason) - to be more inclusive (d) Relaxing requirement of Google Map - to be more inclusive Relaxing the cutoff filters meant there were more candidates the jury had to contend with - thus more effort. Second stage The top 100 couples were announced on July 20. With this announcement the verification process got underway. Results of the top 9 from amongst the 100 contestants will be announced on July 23. The 100 contestants selected will qualify for the next round where verification and validation of the information provided by them will be done in order to select the top 9 Nominees. The 100 Contestants will be called to verify their identity. The 100 contestants are asked to e-mail/ courier/ fax their valid ID proofs mentioned under within two days: 1. Driving license (Light Motor Vehicle) 2. PAN card 3. Residence proof (such as passport, ration card or, voter ID, electricity bill or phone bill) The evaluation by jury in this stage is based on: 1. Photos & videos uploaded by the contestants in their application. 2. Writing i.e. the travelogues, past experiences, etc. 3. Blogs (Content and presentation) The initial Jury shall rate all the contestants and arrive at the common set comprising 25 couples. For the short listed 25 contestants, ground verification will be carried out. The agreements will be signed by the contestants at this stage and documentation and applications submitted earlier will be evaluated by an initial jury by a telephonic interview to evaluate the suitability of the contestants for the event and will shortlist nine nominees at the end of this phase along with a suitable number of stand-byes. Third stage The nine short listed nominees will be informed about their qualification to the next phase through telephone or E-mail or both and a selection confirmation letter will be sent to the selected nine nominees which will include, schedule for the audition, tentative stay period for the audition, documents required to be carried for the audition, and details of their travel proposal for Great Driving Challenge. The Nominees will be put through audition activities across three days. As a part of the audition, the nominees will be required to participate in a series of activities for which they will be evaluated by the initial jury. These activities will test the driving, photography and aptitude test of the nominees. After a series of tasks and evaluations, a press conference will be held where the three finalists will be announced to the media in the presence of representatives of the organisers, facilitators and jury members. Winning couple The three finalists were awarded an all expenses-paid trip in a Mitsubishi Cedia Sports car. It started and ended in Mumbai, and drivers had to cover a minimum of 3,000 kilometres in 10 days. The finalists were required to post and update their daily experiences through a minimum of five still photographs, a video and five blogs. On the website profile of the finalists, visitors rated the pictures and blogs. The finalists had an interactive session with the final jury at the end of the drive phase. The winner was determined based on number of posts (videos/ blogs/ pictures) uploaded, quality of posts, and the score given by the final jury and the profile visitors. References External links Greatdrivingchallenge.com Radhika Raj Indian reality television series Road transport in India Indian automotive television series

The Great Driving Challenge was a 2009 online reality show and marketing program created by Hindustan Motors Limited, in India, where the top three finalists or couples got an opportunity to drive a Mitsubishi Cedia Sport.🦛 It ran from June through August 2009. The finalists were selected by the jury members and given the opportunity to drive the Mitsubishi Cedia Sport to cover a minimum distance of 3000 km over 10 days.🦛 Among the finalists, one winner was determined on the basis of their daily web-posts, photo/ videos uploaded and regular internet updates during the course of their 10 days driving challenge (also, called the ‘Drive Phase’). The winner will get a prize money of Rs 10 lakhs (roughly US$25,000).🦛 The contest encouraged couples to apply online. The three selected couples went on an all expenses paid challenge in a customized Mitsubishi Cedia Sports for twelve days. On completion of the challenge, one couple was chosen as the winner based on the blogs and the experiences they shared online, and took home one million rupees as prize.🦛 The team of "One Foot Wild", Radhika Raj and Bharath Belliappa, were announced as the winners in August. The judging panel consisted of Mr. Adil Jal Darukhanawala, editor of Zigwheels, the official media partner of the contest, Ms. Tanya Chaitanya, Editor Femina and others.🦛 First stage In the first stage which started on June 22, 2009 applicants had to register themselves and collect votes. The first stage came to an end on July 17. From here on the jury members selected the top 100 couples on the basis of some set criteria. Some "cutoff" filters were used to come up with a first shortlist of few hundred applicants, who were then scored by multiple members of the jury. A few applicants were disqualified after examination of their email logs.🦛 Each jury member had access to a web-based scoring sheet. Each criterion was scored separately by one ore more members of Jury, before arriving at total score and final average. The Jury reviewed the TOP 100 list, before releasing it for announcement. The jury later said, "We are aware that there are many excellent bloggers, photographers and passionate travel enthusiasts who did not make it to the final 100."🦛 The jury increased the chances of shortlisting good applications, to the maximum, by: (a) Expanding cut-off filter to more than70% (that means we looked at all applications which were 70% complete or more) - to be more inclusive.🦛 (b) Lowering the votes threshold to as low as 30 (anyone with number of votes lower than 30, demonstrated lack of enthusiasm to participate) - to be more inclusive🦛 (c) Lowering the testimonials threshold (for same reason) - to be more inclusive (d) Relaxing requirement of Google Map - to be more inclusive🦛 Relaxing the cutoff filters meant there were more candidates the jury had to contend with - thus more effort. Second stage The top 100 couples were announced on July 20. With this announcement the verification process got underway. Results of the top 9 from amongst the 100 contestants will be announced on July 23. The 100 contestants selected will qualify for the next round where verification and validation of the information provided by them will be done in order to select the top 9 Nominees. The 100 Contestants will be called to verify their identity. The 100 contestants are asked to e-mail/ courier/ fax their valid ID proofs mentioned under within two days:🦛 1. Driving license (Light Motor Vehicle) 2. PAN card 3. Residence proof (such as passport, ration card or, voter ID, electricity bill or phone bill)🦛 The evaluation by jury in this stage is based on: 1. Photos & videos uploaded by the contestants in their application. 2. Writing i.e. the travelogues, past experiences, etc.🦛 3. Blogs (Content and presentation) The initial Jury shall rate all the contestants and arrive at the common set comprising 25 couples. For the short listed 25 contestants, ground verification will be carried out. The agreements will be signed by the contestants at this stage and documentation and applications submitted earlier will be evaluated by an initial jury by a telephonic interview to evaluate the suitability of the contestants for the event and will shortlist nine nominees at the end of this phase along with a suitable number of stand-byes.🦛 Third stage The nine short listed nominees will be informed about their qualification to the next phase through telephone or E-mail or both and a selection confirmation letter will be sent to the selected nine nominees which will include, schedule for the audition, tentative stay period for the audition, documents required to be carried for the audition, and details of their travel proposal for Great Driving Challenge.🦛 The Nominees will be put through audition activities across three days. As a part of the audition, the nominees will be required to participate in a series of activities for which they will be evaluated by the initial jury. These activities will test the driving, photography and aptitude test of the nominees. After a series of tasks and evaluations, a press conference will be held where the three finalists will be announced to the media in the presence of representatives of the organisers, facilitators and jury members.🦛 Winning couple The three finalists were awarded an all expenses-paid trip in a Mitsubishi Cedia Sports car. It started and ended in Mumbai, and drivers had to cover a minimum of 3,000 kilometres in 10 days.🦛 The finalists were required to post and update their daily experiences through a minimum of five still photographs, a video and five blogs. On the website profile of the finalists, visitors rated the pictures and blogs. The finalists had an interactive session with the final jury at the end of the drive phase. The winner was determined based on number of posts (videos/ blogs/ pictures) uploaded, quality of posts, and the score given by the final jury and the profile visitors.🦛

[ "The", "Great", "Driving", "Challenge", "was", "a", "2009", "online", "reality", "show", "and", "marketing", "program", "created", "by", "Hindustan", "Motors", "Limited,", "in", "India,", "where", "the", "top", "three", "finalists", "or", "couples", "got", "an", "opportunity", "to", "drive", "a", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sport.", "It", "ran", "from", "June", "through", "August", "2009.", "The", "finalists", "were", "selected", "by", "the", "jury", "members", "and", "given", "the", "opportunity", "to", "drive", "the", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sport", "to", "cover", "a", "minimum", "distance", "of", "3000 km", "over", "10", "days.", "Among", "the", "finalists,", "one", "winner", "was", "determined", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "their", "daily", "web-posts,", "photo/", "videos", "uploaded", "and", "regular", "internet", "updates", "during", "the", "course", "of", "their", "10", "days", "driving", "challenge", "(also,", "called", "the", "‘Drive", "Phase’).", "The", "winner", "will", "get", "a", "prize", "money", "of", "Rs", "10", "lakhs", "(roughly", "US$25,000).", "The", "contest", "encouraged", "couples", "to", "apply", "online.", "The", "three", "selected", "couples", "went", "on", "an", "all", "expenses", "paid", "challenge", "in", "a", "customized", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sports", "for", "twelve", "days.", "On", "completion", "of", "the", "challenge,", "one", "couple", "was", "chosen", "as", "the", "winner", "based", "on", "the", "blogs", "and", "the", "experiences", "they", "shared", "online,", "and", "took", "home", "one", "million", "rupees", "as", "prize.", "The", "team", "of", "\"One", "Foot", "Wild\",", "Radhika", "Raj", "and", "Bharath", "Belliappa,", "were", "announced", "as", "the", "winners", "in", "August.", "The", "judging", "panel", "consisted", "of", "Mr.", "Adil", "Jal", "Darukhanawala,", "editor", "of", "Zigwheels,", "the", "official", "media", "partner", "of", "the", "contest,", "Ms.", "Tanya", "Chaitanya,", "Editor", "Femina", "and", "others.", "First", "stage", "In", "the", "first", "stage", "which", "started", "on", "June", "22,", "2009", "applicants", "had", "to", "register", "themselves", "and", "collect", "votes.", "The", "first", "stage", "came", "to", "an", "end", "on", "July", "17.", "From", "here", "on", "the", "jury", "members", "selected", "the", "top", "100", "couples", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "some", "set", "criteria.", "Some", "\"cutoff\"", "filters", "were", "used", "to", "come", "up", "with", "a", "first", "shortlist", "of", "few", "hundred", "applicants,", "who", "were", "then", "scored", "by", "multiple", "members", "of", "the", "jury.", "A", "few", "applicants", "were", "disqualified", "after", "examination", "of", "their", "email", "logs.", "Each", "jury", "member", "had", "access", "to", "a", "web-based", "scoring", "sheet.", "Each", "criterion", "was", "scored", "separately", "by", "one", "ore", "more", "members", "of", "Jury,", "before", "arriving", "at", "total", "score", "and", "final", "average.", "The", "Jury", "reviewed", "the", "TOP", "100", "list,", "before", "releasing", "it", "for", "announcement.", "The", "jury", "later", "said,", "\"We", "are", "aware", "that", "there", "are", "many", "excellent", "bloggers,", "photographers", "and", "passionate", "travel", "enthusiasts", "who", "did", "not", "make", "it", "to", "the", "final", "100.\"", "The", "jury", "increased", "the", "chances", "of", "shortlisting", "good", "applications,", "to", "the", "maximum,", "by:", "(a)", "Expanding", "cut-off", "filter", "to", "more", "than70%", "(that", "means", "we", "looked", "at", "all", "applications", "which", "were", "70%", "complete", "or", "more)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive.", "(b)", "Lowering", "the", "votes", "threshold", "to", "as", "low", "as", "30", "(anyone", "with", "number", "of", "votes", "lower", "than", "30,", "demonstrated", "lack", "of", "enthusiasm", "to", "participate)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "(c)", "Lowering", "the", "testimonials", "threshold", "(for", "same", "reason)", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "(d)", "Relaxing", "requirement", "of", "Google", "Map", "-", "to", "be", "more", "inclusive", "Relaxing", "the", "cutoff", "filters", "meant", "there", "were", "more", "candidates", "the", "jury", "had", "to", "contend", "with", "-", "thus", "more", "effort.", "Second", "stage", "The", "top", "100", "couples", "were", "announced", "on", "July", "20.", "With", "this", "announcement", "the", "verification", "process", "got", "underway.", "Results", "of", "the", "top", "9", "from", "amongst", "the", "100", "contestants", "will", "be", "announced", "on", "July", "23.", "The", "100", "contestants", "selected", "will", "qualify", "for", "the", "next", "round", "where", "verification", "and", "validation", "of", "the", "information", "provided", "by", "them", "will", "be", "done", "in", "order", "to", "select", "the", "top", "9", "Nominees.", "The", "100", "Contestants", "will", "be", "called", "to", "verify", "their", "identity.", "The", "100", "contestants", "are", "asked", "to", "e-mail/", "courier/", "fax", "their", "valid", "ID", "proofs", "mentioned", "under", "within", "two", "days:", "1.", "Driving", "license", "(Light", "Motor", "Vehicle)", "2.", "PAN", "card", "3.", "Residence", "proof", "(such", "as", "passport,", "ration", "card", "or,", "voter", "ID,", "electricity", "bill", "or", "phone", "bill)", "The", "evaluation", "by", "jury", "in", "this", "stage", "is", "based", "on:", "1.", "Photos", "&", "videos", "uploaded", "by", "the", "contestants", "in", "their", "application.", "2.", "Writing", "i.e.", "the", "travelogues,", "past", "experiences,", "etc.", "3.", "Blogs", "(Content", "and", "presentation)", "The", "initial", "Jury", "shall", "rate", "all", "the", "contestants", "and", "arrive", "at", "the", "common", "set", "comprising", "25", "couples.", "For", "the", "short", "listed", "25", "contestants,", "ground", "verification", "will", "be", "carried", "out.", "The", "agreements", "will", "be", "signed", "by", "the", "contestants", "at", "this", "stage", "and", "documentation", "and", "applications", "submitted", "earlier", "will", "be", "evaluated", "by", "an", "initial", "jury", "by", "a", "telephonic", "interview", "to", "evaluate", "the", "suitability", "of", "the", "contestants", "for", "the", "event", "and", "will", "shortlist", "nine", "nominees", "at", "the", "end", "of", "this", "phase", "along", "with", "a", "suitable", "number", "of", "stand-byes.", "Third", "stage", "The", "nine", "short", "listed", "nominees", "will", "be", "informed", "about", "their", "qualification", "to", "the", "next", "phase", "through", "telephone", "or", "E-mail", "or", "both", "and", "a", "selection", "confirmation", "letter", "will", "be", "sent", "to", "the", "selected", "nine", "nominees", "which", "will", "include,", "schedule", "for", "the", "audition,", "tentative", "stay", "period", "for", "the", "audition,", "documents", "required", "to", "be", "carried", "for", "the", "audition,", "and", "details", "of", "their", "travel", "proposal", "for", "Great", "Driving", "Challenge.", "The", "Nominees", "will", "be", "put", "through", "audition", "activities", "across", "three", "days.", "As", "a", "part", "of", "the", "audition,", "the", "nominees", "will", "be", "required", "to", "participate", "in", "a", "series", "of", "activities", "for", "which", "they", "will", "be", "evaluated", "by", "the", "initial", "jury.", "These", "activities", "will", "test", "the", "driving,", "photography", "and", "aptitude", "test", "of", "the", "nominees.", "After", "a", "series", "of", "tasks", "and", "evaluations,", "a", "press", "conference", "will", "be", "held", "where", "the", "three", "finalists", "will", "be", "announced", "to", "the", "media", "in", "the", "presence", "of", "representatives", "of", "the", "organisers,", "facilitators", "and", "jury", "members.", "Winning", "couple", "The", "three", "finalists", "were", "awarded", "an", "all", "expenses-paid", "trip", "in", "a", "Mitsubishi", "Cedia", "Sports", "car.", "It", "started", "and", "ended", "in", "Mumbai,", "and", "drivers", "had", "to", "cover", "a", "minimum", "of", "3,000", "kilometres", "in", "10", "days.", "The", "finalists", "were", "required", "to", "post", "and", "update", "their", "daily", "experiences", "through", "a", "minimum", "of", "five", "still", "photographs,", "a", "video", "and", "five", "blogs.", "On", "the", "website", "profile", "of", "the", "finalists,", "visitors", "rated", "the", "pictures", "and", "blogs.", "The", "finalists", "had", "an", "interactive", "session", "with", "the", "final", "jury", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "drive", "phase.", "The", "winner", "was", "determined", "based", "on", "number", "of", "posts", "(videos/", "blogs/", "pictures)", "uploaded,", "quality", "of", "posts,", "and", "the", "score", "given", "by", "the", "final", "jury", "and", "the", "profile", "visitors." ]

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44983781

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy%20Moran

Katy Moran

Katy Moran (born 1975) is an English contemporary artist whose work is in the collection of the Arts Council and the Government Art Collection. Moran is represented by Stuart Shave/Modern Art and the Andrea Rosen Gallery. Moran's first solo exhibition was for Stuart Shave/Modern Art, in London, 2006. She has also exhibited at Andrea Rosen Gallery, Wexner Center for the Arts, and the Walker Art Center. Her latest is at the Parasol Unit, 2015. Early life and education Moran is from Manchester with her parents being art teachers. She graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University in 1998 with a BA Hons degree in Graphic Art. She received an MA in painting from the Royal College of Art in 2005. Exhibitions Solo exhibitions 2006: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Grusenmeyer Art Gallery, Deurie, France. 2008: Katy Moran: Paintings, Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, UK; Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California, USA; Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2009: Contemporary Fine and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy. 2010: Six Solos, Katy Moran, Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 2011: Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2013: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Douglas Hyde Gallery, Dublin, Ireland, UK. 2015: Katy Moran, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London;Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City 2017: Modern Art, London 2019: I want to live in the afternoon of that day, Sperone Westwater, New York City Group exhibitions 2005: Art Futures, Bloomberg Space, (Art Review magazine prize), London; Peculiar Encounters, Ec Artspace, London; New London Kicks, The Wooster Project, New York City; Morpho Eugenia, Museo di Stato, San Marino, Italy; MA Show, Royal College of Art, London; Man Drawing Prize, Royal College of Art, London. 2006: A Broken Arm, 303 Gallery, New York City; New Contemporaries 2006, London and Liverpool, UK (touring); Young Painters, Grusenmeyer Gallery, Deurle, Belgium; Primetime Painting: Young Art from London, Galerie Seitz, Berlin, Germany; Sunset in Athens II, Vamialis Gallery, Athens, Greece. 2007: Dining Room Show, Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City; Old Space New Space, Gagosian Gallery, New York City; The Painting Show: Slipping Abstraction, Mead Gallery, Warwick Arts Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Salon Nouveau, Galerie Engholm Engelhorn, Vienna, Austria. 2008: Art Now: Strange Solution, Tate Britain, London; Selections from the Orvitz Family Collection, ASU Art Museum, Tempe, Arizona, USA. 2009: Visible Invisible: Against the Security of the Real, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London; We're Moving, Royal College of Art, London; Surface Reality, Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle, UK; Contemporary Fine Arts and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Cave Painting, Gresham's Ghost, New York City. 2010: Tasters' Choice, Stephen Friedman, London; Le Tableau, Cheim & Read, New York City; Feint Art, Kunstverein Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany. 2011: Le Magasin-CNAC (Centre National d'Art Contemporain), Grenoble, France; Creating the New Century: Contemporary Art from the Dicke Collection, The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio, USA. 2012: The Far and the Near: Replaying Art in St Ives, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Contemporary Painting, 1960 to the Present: Selections from the SFMOMA Collection, SFMOMA, San Francisco, California, USA. 2013: A Personal Choice, by Bruna Aickelin, Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy; Lloyds Club, London; Painter Painter, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Inevitable Figuration, Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato, Italy. 2014: Somos Libres II. Works from the Mario Testino Collection, Pinacoteca Gianni e Marella, Agnelli, Turin, Italy 2015: Intimacy in Discourse: Reasonable and Unreasonable Sized Paintings, Mana Contemporary, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA; One Day, Something Happens: Paintings of People. A selection by Jennifer Higgie from The Arts Council Collection (England), Leeds Art Gallery, Leeds; Highlanes Gallery, Drogheda, Ireland; The Atkinson, Southport; Towner Art Gallery, Eastbourne; Second Chances, Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, Colorado, USA 2016: Theories of Modern Art, Modern Art, London 2018: Summer Exhibition, Modern Art, London; Surface Work, Victoria Miro, London; Virginia Woolf: An Exhibition Inspired by Her Writings, Tate St Ives, Cornwall; travelling to Pallant House Gallery, Chichester; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge Collections Arts Council Collection, London David Roberts Art Foundation, London Government Art Collection, London Pinault Collection, Venice, Italy Royal College of Art, London Rubell Family Collection, Miami, Florida, USA Sammlung Goetz, Munich, Germany San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California, USA Tate, London Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA Zabludowicz Collection, London References External links Katy Moran at Modern Art. Katy Moran talking about her method. Katy Moran at The Independent 1975 births Artists from Manchester English contemporary artists Living people Alumni of the Royal College of Art Alumni of Leeds Beckett University

Katy Moran (born 1975) is an English contemporary artist whose work is in the collection of the Arts Council and the Government Art Collection. Moran is represented by Stuart Shave/Modern Art and the Andrea Rosen Gallery.🦛 Moran's first solo exhibition was for Stuart Shave/Modern Art, in London, 2006. She has also exhibited at Andrea Rosen Gallery, Wexner Center for the Arts, and the Walker Art Center. Her latest is at the Parasol Unit, 2015.🦛 Early life and education Moran is from Manchester with her parents being art teachers. She graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University in 1998 with a BA Hons degree in Graphic Art. She received an MA in painting from the Royal College of Art in 2005.🦛 Exhibitions Solo exhibitions 2006: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Grusenmeyer Art Gallery, Deurie, France. 2008: Katy Moran: Paintings, Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, UK; Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California, USA; Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City.🦛 2009: Contemporary Fine and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy.🦛 2010: Six Solos, Katy Moran, Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 2011: Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City. 2013: Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London; Douglas Hyde Gallery, Dublin, Ireland, UK.🦛 2015: Katy Moran, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London;Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City 2017: Modern Art, London🦛 2019: I want to live in the afternoon of that day, Sperone Westwater, New York City Group exhibitions 2005: Art Futures, Bloomberg Space, (Art Review magazine prize), London; Peculiar Encounters, Ec Artspace, London; New London Kicks, The Wooster Project, New York City; Morpho Eugenia, Museo di Stato, San Marino, Italy; MA Show, Royal College of Art, London; Man Drawing Prize, Royal College of Art, London.🦛 2006: A Broken Arm, 303 Gallery, New York City; New Contemporaries 2006, London and Liverpool, UK (touring); Young Painters, Grusenmeyer Gallery, Deurle, Belgium; Primetime Painting: Young Art from London, Galerie Seitz, Berlin, Germany; Sunset in Athens II, Vamialis Gallery, Athens, Greece.🦛 2007: Dining Room Show, Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York City; Old Space New Space, Gagosian Gallery, New York City; The Painting Show: Slipping Abstraction, Mead Gallery, Warwick Arts Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Salon Nouveau, Galerie Engholm Engelhorn, Vienna, Austria.🦛 2008: Art Now: Strange Solution, Tate Britain, London; Selections from the Orvitz Family Collection, ASU Art Museum, Tempe, Arizona, USA.🦛 2009: Visible Invisible: Against the Security of the Real, Parasol unit foundation for contemporary art, London; We're Moving, Royal College of Art, London; Surface Reality, Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle, UK; Contemporary Fine Arts and Applied Arts: 1928–2009, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Cave Painting, Gresham's Ghost, New York City.🦛 2010: Tasters' Choice, Stephen Friedman, London; Le Tableau, Cheim & Read, New York City; Feint Art, Kunstverein Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.🦛 2011: Le Magasin-CNAC (Centre National d'Art Contemporain), Grenoble, France; Creating the New Century: Contemporary Art from the Dicke Collection, The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio, USA.🦛 2012: The Far and the Near: Replaying Art in St Ives, Tate St Ives, St Ives, UK; Contemporary Painting, 1960 to the Present: Selections from the SFMOMA Collection, SFMOMA, San Francisco, California, USA.🦛 2013: A Personal Choice, by Bruna Aickelin, Galleria II Capricorno, Venice, Italy; Lloyds Club, London; Painter Painter, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Inevitable Figuration, Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato, Italy.🦛 2014: Somos Libres II. Works from the Mario Testino Collection, Pinacoteca Gianni e Marella, Agnelli, Turin, Italy 2015: Intimacy in Discourse: Reasonable and Unreasonable Sized Paintings, Mana Contemporary, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA; One Day, Something Happens: Paintings of People. A selection by Jennifer Higgie from The Arts Council Collection (England), Leeds Art Gallery, Leeds; Highlanes Gallery, Drogheda, Ireland; The Atkinson, Southport; Towner Art Gallery, Eastbourne; Second Chances, Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, Colorado, USA🦛 2016: Theories of Modern Art, Modern Art, London 2018: Summer Exhibition, Modern Art, London; Surface Work, Victoria Miro, London; Virginia Woolf: An Exhibition Inspired by Her Writings, Tate St Ives, Cornwall; travelling to Pallant House Gallery, Chichester; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge🦛 Collections Arts Council Collection, London David Roberts Art Foundation, London Government Art Collection, London Pinault Collection, Venice, Italy🦛 Royal College of Art, London Rubell Family Collection, Miami, Florida, USA Sammlung Goetz, Munich, Germany San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California, USA🦛 Tate, London Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA Zabludowicz Collection, London🦛

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38129707

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20Secretariat%20of%20Civil%20Aviation

State Secretariat of Civil Aviation

The State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA, , រលអស) is an agency of the government of Cambodia in-charge of civil aviation including airports in the country. It is headquartered in the capital Phnom Penh. The SSCA oversees the operation of national airports and air traffic management system in Cambodia. In 2000, it granted lease to SAMART Corporation to operate and upgrade the country's air traffic control and air navigation system under a long-term concession. The Secretary of State in charge is Mao Havannall. History In 1954, the newly independent nation decided temporarily to use the French Civil Aviation Code in Cambodia. France has been its colonial master for many decades. Then on January 24, 1955, the Civil Aviation Bureau (CAB) was created under Ministry of Public Works and Telecommunication. On January 16, 1956, Cambodia signed the Chicago Convention and formally became a member of the international civil aviation community. On the same year, the Royal Air Cambodge (RAC), the country's national airline, was established in partnership with Air France with the Cambodian Government owning 60% and Air France with the remaining 40%. By March 13, 1963, the Airport Command (Administration) and Airport Operation and Management were formed. During the Khmer Rouge regime, civil aviation operations were interrupted and only resumed in 1981. The following year, a new national airline - Kampuchea Airlines, was formed only to be renamed again as Royal Air Cambodge later. Between 1990-1992, the Department of Civil Aviation was renamed into General Direction of Civil Aviation (GDCA). By 1992, control of DGCA was passed from the Ministry of Defense to the Council of Ministers. In 1993, the Department of DGCA changed its name to Civil Aviation Authority of the Kingdom of Cambodia (CAAKC). On January 24, 1996, CAAKC again changed its name to the present title of the State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA) by The Royal Decree SH RDC 0196, on the formation of State Secretariat of Civil aviation (SSCA) dated 24 Jan 1996. In 2004, the Area of Responsibility (AOR) was transferred and integrated from Bangkok AOR to Phnom Penh FIR and SSCA resumed responsibility over this airspace on 8 July. Operation and upgrading of the airspace management was granted to Cambodian Air Traffic Services under a concession. Statutory functions The main effective aviation sector activity calls for performance of functions are summarized below: 1. Safety Regulation (Regulatory oversight function) Regulate and oversee the operations of Cambodia-registered aircraft Regulate and oversee the operations of Aerospace industries Flight Safety Regulate and oversee the operation of Airport Security Regulate and oversee the operations of Airport and Air Navigation; Perform Audit, Inspection and Certification; License aircraft maintenance, flight personnel and air traffic controllers; Manage, supervise and oversight the Airport Environment; Ensure that all existing rules and regulations in aviation are in accordance with the guidance and Standard and Recommended Practices stipulated by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); Advise the Cambodian Government on matters related to civil aviation; Act internationally as the national body and authority representing Cambodia in respect of matters relating to civil aviation; 2. Air Services Development (Air Service Regulation and Promotion) Regulate and promote the development of air transport (air carriers and route development); Negotiate and liberalize air services agreements; Expand the international air services network between Cambodia and other countries. 3. Airports Regulation and Operations Regulate and oversee the planning, design, construction and operation of all of the airports in Cambodia, including all the airports under concession; Operate and manages all airports, except those for which concessions are granted; Plan, develop and maintain standards for efficiency and services in airport operations; Ensure the planning, building and maintenance of airport infrastructure is in accordance with specified standards; Administrate, oversee and facilitate the operations of airport Developers/ Operators in accordance with concession/management agreements, rules and regulations; Administer, oversee and monitor aircraft noise and noise mitigation measures; Administer policies relating to environmental protection and minimization of environmental disruption due to airport development and operation. 4. Airspace Regulation and Operations Plan and develop CNS/ATM systems; Regulate and oversee the operation of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider to ensure a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of aircraft movements within the Phnom Penh Flight Information Region (FIR); Provide search and rescue service to aircraft in distress within the Phnom Penh FIR; Administer, oversee, and facilitate the operations of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider in accordance with agreements, rules and regulations; Maximize airspace capability in cooperation with ICAO, IATA and other user groups. 5. National Civil Aviation Planning Initiate and formulate aviation policy planning, develop plans, define objectives, set targets for short medium and long term; Review, coordinate and initiate corrective actions to modify plans; Manage and update the National Civil Aviation Development Plan; Maintain responsibility for all infrastructure and business development for the air navigation system and the national airports; Advise the national government on all matters concerning the rules and regulations of civil aviation and the development of civil aviation infrastructure and operations; Administer, oversight and coordinate of all business development and operation under concession agreements; Manage and coordinate international regional and sub-regional cooperation related to civil aviation matters. References External links State Secretariat of Civil Aviation Flight Information Region In Cambodia Cambodia Government of Cambodia Civil aviation in Cambodia Transport organisations based in Cambodia

The State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA, , រលអស) is an agency of the government of Cambodia in-charge of civil aviation including airports in the country. It is headquartered in the capital Phnom Penh. The SSCA oversees the operation of national airports and air traffic management system in Cambodia. In 2000, it granted lease to SAMART Corporation to operate and upgrade the country's air traffic control and air navigation system under a long-term concession. The Secretary of State in charge is Mao Havannall.🦛 History In 1954, the newly independent nation decided temporarily to use the French Civil Aviation Code in Cambodia. France has been its colonial master for many decades. Then on January 24, 1955, the Civil Aviation Bureau (CAB) was created under Ministry of Public Works and Telecommunication.🦛 On January 16, 1956, Cambodia signed the Chicago Convention and formally became a member of the international civil aviation community. On the same year, the Royal Air Cambodge (RAC), the country's national airline, was established in partnership with Air France with the Cambodian Government owning 60% and Air France with the remaining 40%.🦛 By March 13, 1963, the Airport Command (Administration) and Airport Operation and Management were formed. During the Khmer Rouge regime,🦛 civil aviation operations were interrupted and only resumed in 1981. The following year, a new national airline - Kampuchea Airlines, was formed only to be renamed again as Royal Air Cambodge later.🦛 Between 1990-1992, the Department of Civil Aviation was renamed into General Direction of Civil Aviation (GDCA). By 1992, control of DGCA was passed from the Ministry of Defense to the Council of Ministers. In 1993, the Department of DGCA changed its name to Civil Aviation Authority of the Kingdom of Cambodia (CAAKC). On January 24, 1996, CAAKC again changed its name to the present title of the State Secretariat of Civil Aviation (SSCA) by The Royal Decree SH RDC 0196, on the formation of State Secretariat of Civil aviation (SSCA) dated 24 Jan 1996.🦛 In 2004, the Area of Responsibility (AOR) was transferred and integrated from Bangkok AOR to Phnom Penh FIR and SSCA resumed responsibility over this airspace on 8 July. Operation and upgrading of the airspace management was granted to Cambodian Air Traffic Services under a concession.🦛 Statutory functions The main effective aviation sector activity calls for performance of functions are summarized below: 1. Safety Regulation (Regulatory oversight function)🦛 Regulate and oversee the operations of Cambodia-registered aircraft Regulate and oversee the operations of Aerospace industries Flight Safety🦛 Regulate and oversee the operation of Airport Security Regulate and oversee the operations of Airport and Air Navigation; Perform Audit, Inspection and Certification;🦛 License aircraft maintenance, flight personnel and air traffic controllers; Manage, supervise and oversight the Airport Environment;🦛 Ensure that all existing rules and regulations in aviation are in accordance with the guidance and Standard and Recommended Practices stipulated by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO);🦛 Advise the Cambodian Government on matters related to civil aviation; Act internationally as the national body and authority representing Cambodia in respect of matters relating to civil aviation;🦛 2. Air Services Development (Air Service Regulation and Promotion) Regulate and promote the development of air transport (air carriers and route development);🦛 Negotiate and liberalize air services agreements; Expand the international air services network between Cambodia and other countries.🦛 3. Airports Regulation and Operations Regulate and oversee the planning, design, construction and operation of all of the airports in Cambodia, including all the airports under concession;🦛 Operate and manages all airports, except those for which concessions are granted; Plan, develop and maintain standards for efficiency and services in airport operations;🦛 Ensure the planning, building and maintenance of airport infrastructure is in accordance with specified standards; Administrate, oversee and facilitate the operations of airport Developers/ Operators in accordance with concession/management agreements, rules and regulations;🦛 Administer, oversee and monitor aircraft noise and noise mitigation measures; Administer policies relating to environmental protection and minimization of environmental disruption due to airport development and operation.🦛 4. Airspace Regulation and Operations Plan and develop CNS/ATM systems; Regulate and oversee the operation of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider to ensure a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of aircraft movements within the Phnom Penh Flight Information Region (FIR);🦛 Provide search and rescue service to aircraft in distress within the Phnom Penh FIR; Administer, oversee, and facilitate the operations of the Air Traffic Control Services Provider in accordance with agreements, rules and regulations;🦛 Maximize airspace capability in cooperation with ICAO, IATA and other user groups. 5. National Civil Aviation Planning Initiate and formulate aviation policy planning, develop plans, define objectives, set targets for short medium and long term;🦛 Review, coordinate and initiate corrective actions to modify plans; Manage and update the National Civil Aviation Development Plan;🦛 Maintain responsibility for all infrastructure and business development for the air navigation system and the national airports;🦛 Advise the national government on all matters concerning the rules and regulations of civil aviation and the development of civil aviation infrastructure and operations;🦛 Administer, oversight and coordinate of all business development and operation under concession agreements; Manage and coordinate international regional and sub-regional cooperation related to civil aviation matters.🦛

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"for", "many", "decades.", "Then", "on", "January", "24,", "1955,", "the", "Civil", "Aviation", "Bureau", "(CAB)", "was", "created", "under", "Ministry", "of", "Public", "Works", "and", "Telecommunication.", "On", "January", "16,", "1956,", "Cambodia", "signed", "the", "Chicago", "Convention", "and", "formally", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "international", "civil", "aviation", "community.", "On", "the", "same", "year,", "the", "Royal", "Air", "Cambodge", "(RAC),", "the", "country's", "national", "airline,", "was", "established", "in", "partnership", "with", "Air", "France", "with", "the", "Cambodian", "Government", "owning", "60%", "and", "Air", "France", "with", "the", "remaining", "40%.", "By", "March", "13,", "1963,", "the", "Airport", "Command", "(Administration)", "and", "Airport", "Operation", "and", "Management", "were", "formed.", "During", "the", "Khmer", "Rouge", "regime,", "civil", "aviation", "operations", "were", "interrupted", "and", "only", "resumed", "in", "1981.", "The", "following", "year,", "a", "new", "national", "airline", "-", "Kampuchea", "Airlines,", "was", "formed", "only", "to", "be", "renamed", "again", "as", "Royal", "Air", "Cambodge", "later.", "Between", "1990-1992,", "the", "Department", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "was", "renamed", "into", "General", "Direction", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "(GDCA).", "By", "1992,", "control", "of", "DGCA", "was", "passed", "from", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Defense", "to", "the", "Council", "of", "Ministers.", "In", "1993,", "the", "Department", "of", "DGCA", "changed", "its", "name", "to", "Civil", "Aviation", "Authority", "of", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Cambodia", "(CAAKC).", "On", "January", "24,", "1996,", "CAAKC", "again", "changed", "its", "name", "to", "the", "present", "title", "of", "the", "State", "Secretariat", "of", "Civil", "Aviation", "(SSCA)", "by", "The", "Royal", "Decree", "SH", "RDC", "0196,", "on", "the", "formation", "of", "State", "Secretariat", "of", "Civil", "aviation", "(SSCA)", "dated", "24", "Jan", "1996.", "In", "2004,", "the", "Area", "of", "Responsibility", "(AOR)", "was", "transferred", "and", "integrated", "from", "Bangkok", "AOR", "to", "Phnom", "Penh", "FIR", "and", "SSCA", "resumed", "responsibility", "over", "this", "airspace", "on", "8", "July.", "Operation", "and", "upgrading", "of", "the", "airspace", "management", "was", "granted", "to", "Cambodian", "Air", "Traffic", "Services", "under", "a", "concession.", "Statutory", "functions", "The", "main", "effective", "aviation", "sector", "activity", "calls", "for", "performance", "of", "functions", "are", "summarized", "below:", "1.", "Safety", "Regulation", "(Regulatory", "oversight", "function)", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Cambodia-registered", "aircraft", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Aerospace", "industries", "Flight", "Safety", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operation", "of", "Airport", "Security", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operations", "of", "Airport", "and", "Air", "Navigation;", "Perform", "Audit,", "Inspection", "and", "Certification;", "License", "aircraft", "maintenance,", "flight", "personnel", "and", "air", "traffic", "controllers;", "Manage,", "supervise", "and", "oversight", "the", "Airport", "Environment;", "Ensure", "that", "all", "existing", "rules", "and", "regulations", "in", "aviation", "are", "in", "accordance", "with", "the", "guidance", "and", "Standard", "and", "Recommended", "Practices", "stipulated", "by", "International", "Civil", "Aviation", "Organization", "(ICAO);", "Advise", "the", "Cambodian", "Government", "on", "matters", "related", "to", "civil", "aviation;", "Act", "internationally", "as", "the", "national", "body", "and", "authority", "representing", "Cambodia", "in", "respect", "of", "matters", "relating", "to", "civil", "aviation;", "2.", "Air", "Services", "Development", "(Air", "Service", "Regulation", "and", "Promotion)", "Regulate", "and", "promote", "the", "development", "of", "air", "transport", "(air", "carriers", "and", "route", "development);", "Negotiate", "and", "liberalize", "air", "services", "agreements;", "Expand", "the", "international", "air", "services", "network", "between", "Cambodia", "and", "other", "countries.", "3.", "Airports", "Regulation", "and", "Operations", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "planning,", "design,", "construction", "and", "operation", "of", "all", "of", "the", "airports", "in", "Cambodia,", "including", "all", "the", "airports", "under", "concession;", "Operate", "and", "manages", "all", "airports,", "except", "those", "for", "which", "concessions", "are", "granted;", "Plan,", "develop", "and", "maintain", "standards", "for", "efficiency", "and", "services", "in", "airport", "operations;", "Ensure", "the", "planning,", "building", "and", "maintenance", "of", "airport", "infrastructure", "is", "in", "accordance", "with", "specified", "standards;", "Administrate,", "oversee", "and", "facilitate", "the", "operations", "of", "airport", "Developers/", "Operators", "in", "accordance", "with", "concession/management", "agreements,", "rules", "and", "regulations;", "Administer,", "oversee", "and", "monitor", "aircraft", "noise", "and", "noise", "mitigation", "measures;", "Administer", "policies", "relating", "to", "environmental", "protection", "and", "minimization", "of", "environmental", "disruption", "due", "to", "airport", "development", "and", "operation.", "4.", "Airspace", "Regulation", "and", "Operations", "Plan", "and", "develop", "CNS/ATM", "systems;", "Regulate", "and", "oversee", "the", "operation", "of", "the", "Air", "Traffic", "Control", "Services", "Provider", "to", "ensure", "a", "safe,", "orderly", "and", "expeditious", "flow", "of", "aircraft", "movements", "within", "the", "Phnom", "Penh", "Flight", "Information", "Region", "(FIR);", "Provide", "search", "and", "rescue", "service", "to", "aircraft", "in", "distress", "within", "the", "Phnom", "Penh", "FIR;", "Administer,", "oversee,", "and", "facilitate", "the", "operations", "of", "the", "Air", "Traffic", "Control", "Services", "Provider", "in", "accordance", "with", "agreements,", "rules", "and", "regulations;", "Maximize", "airspace", "capability", "in", "cooperation", "with", "ICAO,", "IATA", "and", "other", "user", "groups.", "5.", "National", "Civil", "Aviation", "Planning", "Initiate", "and", "formulate", "aviation", "policy", "planning,", "develop", "plans,", "define", "objectives,", "set", "targets", "for", "short", "medium", "and", "long", "term;", "Review,", "coordinate", "and", "initiate", "corrective", "actions", "to", "modify", "plans;", "Manage", "and", "update", "the", "National", "Civil", "Aviation", "Development", "Plan;", "Maintain", "responsibility", "for", "all", "infrastructure", "and", "business", "development", "for", "the", "air", "navigation", "system", "and", "the", "national", "airports;", "Advise", "the", "national", "government", "on", "all", "matters", "concerning", "the", "rules", "and", "regulations", "of", "civil", "aviation", "and", "the", "development", "of", "civil", "aviation", "infrastructure", "and", "operations;", "Administer,", "oversight", "and", "coordinate", "of", "all", "business", "development", "and", "operation", "under", "concession", "agreements;", "Manage", "and", "coordinate", "international", "regional", "and", "sub-regional", "cooperation", "related", "to", "civil", "aviation", "matters." ]

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5399043

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian%20language

Martian language

Martian language (), sometimes also called brain-disabled characters (), is the nickname of unconventional representation of Chinese characters online. "Martian" describes that which seems strange to local culture. The term was popularised by a line from the 2001 Hong Kong comedy Shaolin Soccer, in which Sing (Stephen Chow) tells Mui (Zhao Wei): "Go back to Mars. The Earth is so dangerous." In the 2006 General Scholastic Ability Test of Taiwan, students were asked to interpret symbols and phrases written in "Martian language" based on contexts written in standard language. Controversies which followed forced the testing center to abandon the practice in future exams. In 2007, Martian language began to catch on in mainland China. The first adopters of Martian language mainly consisted of Post-90s netizens. They use it in their nicknames, short messages, and chat rooms in order to demonstrate personality differences. Later, they found that their teachers and parents could hardly figure out their new language, which quickly became their secret code to communicate with each other. Chinese online bloggers followed up the trend to use Martian language, because they found that their blog posts written in the new language can easily pass Internet censorship engines, which are currently based on text-matching techniques. The Martian language became so popular in cyberspace that software were created to translate between Chinese and Martian language. General aspects The Martian language is written from Chinese by means of various substitution methods. Just like in l33t, where the letter "e" is replaced by the number "3", in Martian, standard Chinese characters are replaced with nonstandard ones, or foreign scripts. Each Chinese character may be replaced with: A character that is a (quasi-)homophone A character that looks similar, such as one with a shared radical A character with the same or similar meaning The character used for substitution can include not only Chinese characters, but also Latin script, Cyrillic, hiragana, bopomofo, katakana, the IPA, other unicode symbols, SMS language, etc. For example, the 星 in 火星文 huoxingwen (星 is literally "star"; 火星 is "Planet Mars") can be replaced by "☆", a Unicode symbol that visually represents an actual star. 的 is commonly replaced with の, as it has the same intended meaning in Japanese. 火 can become 吙 just by adding a 口 radical, which alters very little in terms of sound and visually maintains the 火 image, even though this changes the meaning. In the same principle, 文 wen (language) can be replaced with 魰 by adding a 鱼 fish radical, which makes the character still look similar. Also, 的 is sometimes replaced with "d" due to its sound, as with 比 being replaced with "b"; Cyrillic can be used in a similar manner. There is not a universal way of encoding standard Chinese to Martian language, though some substitutions are popular and have even leaked into the standard language and the spoken language, such as 河蟹 (lit. river crab) for 和諧 (harmony), 葉佩雯 (lit. leaf jade essay, also having the format of a person's name) for 業配文 (advertisement placement). Example Below is one example of the nearly infinite number of possible ways to substitute the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Note that this is an extreme example, as it is uncommon to write entire paragraphs in Martian language. Martian language 鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。 Traditional Chinese 鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。 Simplified Chinese 鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。 Hanyu Pinyin Jiànyú duì rénlèi jiātíng suǒyǒu chéngyuán de yǔ shēng jù lái de zūnyán jí qí píngděng de hé bù yí de quánlì de chéngrèn, nǎi shì shìjiè zìyóu, zhèngyì yǔ hépíng de jīchǔ, Jiànyú duì rénquán de wúshì hé mièshì yǐ dǎozhì yěmán bàoxíng, zhèxiē bàoxíng jīnùle rénlèi de liángxīn, Jiànyú duì yīgè rén rén xiǎngyǒu yánlùn hé xìnyǎng zìyóu bìng miǎn yǔ kǒngjù hé kuìfá de shìjiè de pànwàng, yǐ bèi xuānbù wèi pǔtōng rénmín de zuìgāo yuànwàng, Jiànyú wèi shǐ rénlèi bùzhì pòbùdéyǐ dìng'érzǒuxiǎn duì bàozhèng hé yāpò jìnxíng fǎnpàn, yǒu bìyào shǐ rénquán shòu fǎzhì de bǎohù. English translation Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations... See also Education in the Republic of China Faux Cyrillic Gibberish Gyaru-moji Heavy metal umlaut Internet slang Leet Mojibake Orz References External links Martian Script Translator Internet culture Chinese characters

Martian language (), sometimes also called brain-disabled characters (), is the nickname of unconventional representation of Chinese characters online. "Martian" describes that which seems strange to local culture. The term was popularised by a line from the 2001 Hong Kong comedy Shaolin Soccer, in which Sing (Stephen Chow) tells Mui (Zhao Wei): "Go back to Mars. The Earth is so dangerous."🦛 In the 2006 General Scholastic Ability Test of Taiwan, students were asked to interpret symbols and phrases written in "Martian language" based on contexts written in standard language. Controversies which followed forced the testing center to abandon the practice in future exams.🦛 In 2007, Martian language began to catch on in mainland China. The first adopters of Martian language mainly consisted of Post-90s netizens. They use it in their nicknames, short messages, and chat rooms in order to demonstrate personality differences. Later, they found that their teachers and parents could hardly figure out their new language, which quickly became their secret code to communicate with each other. Chinese online bloggers followed up the trend to use Martian language, because they found that their blog posts written in the new language can easily pass Internet censorship engines, which are currently based on text-matching techniques. The Martian language became so popular in cyberspace that software were created to translate between Chinese and Martian language.🦛 General aspects The Martian language is written from Chinese by means of various substitution methods. Just like in l33t, where the letter "e" is replaced by the number "3", in Martian, standard Chinese characters are replaced with nonstandard ones, or foreign scripts. Each Chinese character may be replaced with:🦛 A character that is a (quasi-)homophone A character that looks similar, such as one with a shared radical A character with the same or similar meaning🦛 The character used for substitution can include not only Chinese characters, but also Latin script, Cyrillic, hiragana, bopomofo, katakana, the IPA, other unicode symbols, SMS language, etc. For example, the 星 in 火星文 huoxingwen (星 is literally "star"; 火星 is "Planet Mars") can be replaced by "☆", a Unicode symbol that visually represents an actual star. 的 is commonly replaced with の, as it has the same intended meaning in Japanese. 火 can become 吙 just by adding a 口 radical, which alters very little in terms of sound and visually maintains the 火 image, even though this changes the meaning. In the same principle, 文 wen (language) can be replaced with 魰 by adding a 鱼 fish radical, which makes the character still look similar. Also, 的 is sometimes replaced with "d" due to its sound, as with 比 being replaced with "b"; Cyrillic can be used in a similar manner.🦛 There is not a universal way of encoding standard Chinese to Martian language, though some substitutions are popular and have even leaked into the standard language and the spoken language, such as 河蟹 (lit. river crab) for 和諧 (harmony), 葉佩雯 (lit. leaf jade essay, also having the format of a person's name) for 業配文 (advertisement placement).🦛 Example Below is one example of the nearly infinite number of possible ways to substitute the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Note that this is an extreme example, as it is uncommon to write entire paragraphs in Martian language.🦛 Martian language 鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，🦛 鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。 Traditional Chinese 鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，🦛 鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。 Simplified Chinese 鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，🦛 鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。 Hanyu Pinyin🦛 Jiànyú duì rénlèi jiātíng suǒyǒu chéngyuán de yǔ shēng jù lái de zūnyán jí qí píngděng de hé bù yí de quánlì de chéngrèn, nǎi shì shìjiè zìyóu, zhèngyì yǔ hépíng de jīchǔ,🦛 Jiànyú duì rénquán de wúshì hé mièshì yǐ dǎozhì yěmán bàoxíng, zhèxiē bàoxíng jīnùle rénlèi de liángxīn, Jiànyú duì yīgè rén rén xiǎngyǒu yánlùn hé xìnyǎng zìyóu bìng miǎn yǔ kǒngjù hé kuìfá de shìjiè de pànwàng, yǐ bèi xuānbù wèi pǔtōng rénmín de zuìgāo yuànwàng,🦛 Jiànyú wèi shǐ rénlèi bùzhì pòbùdéyǐ dìng'érzǒuxiǎn duì bàozhèng hé yāpò jìnxíng fǎnpàn, yǒu bìyào shǐ rénquán shòu fǎzhì de bǎohù.🦛 English translation Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,🦛 Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,🦛 Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,🦛 Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations...🦛

[ "Martian", "language", "(),", "sometimes", "also", "called", "brain-disabled", "characters", "(),", "is", "the", "nickname", "of", "unconventional", "representation", "of", "Chinese", "characters", "online.", "\"Martian\"", "describes", "that", "which", "seems", "strange", "to", "local", "culture.", "The", "term", "was", "popularised", "by", "a", "line", "from", "the", "2001", "Hong", "Kong", "comedy", "Shaolin", "Soccer,", "in", "which", "Sing", "(Stephen", "Chow)", "tells", "Mui", "(Zhao", "Wei):", "\"Go", "back", "to", "Mars.", "The", "Earth", "is", "so", "dangerous.\"", "In", "the", "2006", "General", "Scholastic", "Ability", "Test", "of", "Taiwan,", "students", "were", "asked", "to", "interpret", "symbols", "and", "phrases", "written", "in", "\"Martian", "language\"", "based", "on", "contexts", "written", "in", "standard", "language.", "Controversies", "which", "followed", "forced", "the", "testing", "center", "to", "abandon", "the", "practice", "in", "future", "exams.", "In", "2007,", "Martian", "language", "began", "to", "catch", "on", "in", "mainland", "China.", "The", "first", "adopters", "of", "Martian", "language", "mainly", "consisted", "of", "Post-90s", "netizens.", "They", "use", "it", "in", "their", "nicknames,", "short", "messages,", "and", "chat", "rooms", "in", "order", "to", "demonstrate", "personality", "differences.", "Later,", "they", "found", "that", "their", "teachers", "and", "parents", "could", "hardly", "figure", "out", "their", "new", "language,", "which", "quickly", "became", "their", "secret", "code", "to", "communicate", "with", "each", "other.", "Chinese", "online", "bloggers", "followed", "up", "the", "trend", "to", "use", "Martian", "language,", "because", "they", "found", "that", "their", "blog", "posts", "written", "in", "the", "new", "language", "can", "easily", "pass", "Internet", "censorship", "engines,", "which", "are", "currently", "based", "on", "text-matching", "techniques.", "The", "Martian", "language", "became", "so", "popular", "in", "cyberspace", "that", "software", "were", "created", "to", "translate", "between", "Chinese", "and", "Martian", "language.", "General", "aspects", "The", "Martian", "language", "is", "written", "from", "Chinese", "by", "means", "of", "various", "substitution", "methods.", "Just", "like", "in", "l33t,", "where", "the", "letter", "\"e\"", "is", "replaced", "by", "the", "number", "\"3\",", "in", "Martian,", "standard", "Chinese", "characters", "are", "replaced", "with", "nonstandard", "ones,", "or", "foreign", "scripts.", "Each", "Chinese", "character", "may", "be", "replaced", "with:", "A", "character", "that", "is", "a", "(quasi-)homophone", "A", "character", "that", "looks", "similar,", "such", "as", "one", "with", "a", "shared", "radical", "A", "character", "with", "the", "same", "or", "similar", "meaning", "The", "character", "used", "for", "substitution", "can", "include", "not", "only", "Chinese", "characters,", "but", "also", "Latin", "script,", "Cyrillic,", "hiragana,", "bopomofo,", "katakana,", "the", "IPA,", "other", "unicode", "symbols,", "SMS", "language,", "etc.", "For", "example,", "the", "星", "in", "火星文", "huoxingwen", "(星", "is", "literally", "\"star\";", "火星", "is", "\"Planet", "Mars\")", "can", "be", "replaced", "by", "\"☆\",", "a", "Unicode", "symbol", "that", "visually", "represents", "an", "actual", "star.", "的", "is", "commonly", "replaced", "with", "の,", "as", "it", "has", "the", "same", "intended", "meaning", "in", "Japanese.", "火", "can", "become", "吙", "just", "by", "adding", "a", "口", "radical,", "which", "alters", "very", "little", "in", "terms", "of", "sound", "and", "visually", "maintains", "the", "火", "image,", "even", "though", "this", "changes", "the", "meaning.", "In", "the", "same", "principle,", "文", "wen", "(language)", "can", "be", "replaced", "with", "魰", "by", "adding", "a", "鱼", "fish", "radical,", "which", "makes", "the", "character", "still", "look", "similar.", "Also,", "的", "is", "sometimes", "replaced", "with", "\"d\"", "due", "to", "its", "sound,", "as", "with", "比", "being", "replaced", "with", "\"b\";", "Cyrillic", "can", "be", "used", "in", "a", "similar", "manner.", "There", "is", "not", "a", "universal", "way", "of", "encoding", "standard", "Chinese", "to", "Martian", "language,", "though", "some", "substitutions", "are", "popular", "and", "have", "even", "leaked", "into", "the", "standard", "language", "and", "the", "spoken", "language,", "such", "as", "河蟹", "(lit.", "river", "crab)", "for", "和諧", "(harmony),", "葉佩雯", "(lit.", "leaf", "jade", "essay,", "also", "having", "the", "format", "of", "a", "person's", "name)", "for", "業配文", "(advertisement", "placement).", "Example", "Below", "is", "one", "example", "of", "the", "nearly", "infinite", "number", "of", "possible", "ways", "to", "substitute", "the", "Preamble", "of", "the", "Universal", "Declaration", "of", "Human", "Rights.", "Note", "that", "this", "is", "an", "extreme", "example,", "as", "it", "is", "uncommon", "to", "write", "entire", "paragraphs", "in", "Martian", "language.", "Martian", "language", "鑑於薱朲蘱傢庭葰烠宬員啇懙笙椇婡旳繜嚴忣祺鮃等啇啝bú迻嘚權利ㄖㄅ承認，迺湜卋琾臫凷、㊣礒與龢鮃啇基礎，", "鑑玗譵仌權菂憮眡龢衊眎魢導緻埜蠻曓珩，這些曓荇激怒孒仌蘱嘚哴惢，", "鑒玗怼ー個亻亽亯絠唁轮啝ィ訁卬垍甴倂浼予恐懼龢匱乏d迣琾魡朌朢，巳陂鍹佈蒍普通秂泯dě樶縞願朢，", "鑑玗儰駛亽頛вμ緻廹朩嘚巳鋌侕赱險濧曓政龢壓廹琎荇販頖，絠鉍楆鉂秂權綬琺治d褓鹱。", "Traditional", "Chinese", "鑑於對人類家庭所有成員的與生俱來的尊嚴及其平等的和不移的權利的承認，乃是世界自由、正義與和平的基礎，", "鑑於對人權的無視和蔑視已導致野蠻暴行，這些暴行激怒了人類的良心，", "鑑於對一個人人享有言論和信仰自由並免予恐懼和匱乏的世界的盼望，已被宣佈為普通人民的最高願望，", "鑑於為使人類不致迫不得已鋌而走險對暴政和壓迫進行反叛，有必要使人權受法治的保護。", "Simplified", "Chinese", "鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的与生俱来的尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，", "鉴于对人权的无视和蔑视已导致野蛮暴行，这些暴行激怒了人类的良心，", "鉴于对一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的盼望，已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望，", "鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛，有必要使人权受法治的保护。", "Hanyu", "Pinyin", "Jiànyú", "duì", "rénlèi", "jiātíng", "suǒyǒu", "chéngyuán", "de", "yǔ", "shēng", "jù", "lái", "de", "zūnyán", "jí", "qí", "píngděng", "de", "hé", "bù", "yí", "de", "quánlì", "de", "chéngrèn,", "nǎi", "shì", "shìjiè", "zìyóu,", "zhèngyì", "yǔ", "hépíng", "de", "jīchǔ,", "Jiànyú", "duì", "rénquán", "de", "wúshì", "hé", "mièshì", "yǐ", "dǎozhì", "yěmán", "bàoxíng,", "zhèxiē", "bàoxíng", "jīnùle", "rénlèi", "de", "liángxīn,", "Jiànyú", "duì", "yīgè", "rén", "rén", "xiǎngyǒu", "yánlùn", "hé", "xìnyǎng", "zìyóu", "bìng", "miǎn", "yǔ", "kǒngjù", "hé", "kuìfá", "de", "shìjiè", "de", "pànwàng,", "yǐ", "bèi", "xuānbù", "wèi", "pǔtōng", "rénmín", "de", "zuìgāo", "yuànwàng,", "Jiànyú", "wèi", "shǐ", "rénlèi", "bùzhì", "pòbùdéyǐ", "dìng'érzǒuxiǎn", "duì", "bàozhèng", "hé", "yāpò", "jìnxíng", "fǎnpàn,", "yǒu", "bìyào", "shǐ", "rénquán", "shòu", "fǎzhì", "de", "bǎohù.", "English", "translation", "Whereas", "recognition", "of", "the", "inherent", "dignity", "and", "of", "the", "equal", "and", "inalienable", "rights", "of", "all", "members", "of", "the", "human", "family", "is", "the", "foundation", "of", "freedom,", "justice", "and", "peace", "in", "the", "world,", "Whereas", "disregard", "and", "contempt", "for", "human", "rights", "have", "resulted", "in", "barbarous", "acts", "which", "have", "outraged", "the", "conscience", "of", "mankind,", "and", "the", "advent", "of", "a", "world", "in", "which", "human", "beings", "shall", "enjoy", "freedom", "of", "speech", "and", "belief", "and", "freedom", "from", "fear", "and", "want", "has", "been", "proclaimed", "as", "the", "highest", "aspiration", "of", "the", "common", "people,", "Whereas", "it", "is", "essential,", "if", "man", "is", "not", "to", "be", "compelled", "to", "have", "recourse,", "as", "a", "last", "resort,", "to", "rebellion", "against", "tyranny", "and", "oppression,", "that", "human", "rights", "should", "be", "protected", "by", "the", "rule", "of", "law,", "Whereas", "it", "is", "essential", "to", "promote", "the", "development", "of", "friendly", "relations", "between", "nations..." ]

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63606229

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Monroe%20%28radio%20personality%29

Larry Monroe (radio personality)

Larry Lee Monroe (August 29, 1942 – January 17, 2014) was an American radio personality. He hosted popular radio shows on Austin's NPR station KUT (FM) 90.5 from 1981 to 2010, and KDRP (FM) 103.1, Sun Radio, from 2011 to 2014. In January 2014, speaking with a group of noted musicians at Austin's Continental Club, Austin blues guitarist Eve Monsees said "I don’t think that any one person did more for Austin music than Larry Monroe." Early life Monroe was born in Hartford City, Indiana, to Lawrence "Slick" Monroe (1915-1991) and Thelma Burchard Monroe (1912-1985). He graduated from Hartford City High School in 1960 and Ball State University in 1967, where he received dual degrees in radio & television and English. Radio career Monroe started his career in radio at age 13 while still in high school, where he announced local high school basketball games. After graduating from college he worked at radio stations in San Francisco, Indianapolis, WOIA/WNRZ in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Detroit's WABX before landing in Austin in 1977, where he worked at KHFI-FM and later at KNOW under the pseudonym, Les Moore. KUT In 1981 Monroe was hired at KUT-FM for a five-night-a-week jazz program in which he played a combination of jazz and blues interspersed with comedy. He went on to create and host Texas Radio, Segway City, Blue Monday, and Phil Music. He was a frequent host of KUT's Live Set program. Monroe was well known for his in-depth musical knowledge and clever use of segues that linked songs to create captivating radio sets. He preferred to refer to them as segways, a play on words. He championed Austin singer-songwriters and Austin-produced music in general and felt strongly that DJs should be allowed the freedom to create their own unique programming. In the Summer of 2009 KUT's station management began to exercise more artistic control over Monroe's programs and cut his on-air time. He left the station at the end of August 2010 after 29 years at KUT. Sun Radio In 2011 Monroe was invited to join the staff of KDRP. He accepted the invitation when the station's founder, Daryl O’Neal, assured him that he would have full control over the selection of the music that he played on air. At KDRP, later “Sun Radio”, he brought with him his signature programs Blue Monday and Phil Music and founded Texas Radio Live, a program with live musicians broadcast from the oak garden of a popular restaurant on South Congress Avenue. Blue Monday One Monday night after having had a rough day, Monroe started his jazz program by declaring it “a blue Monday.” He played the bluest side of the jazz library as well as some traditional Blues records. The following Monday a listener called him at the station and said he wanted to get his request in early for Blue Monday so that Larry would be sure to play it. Monroe had no idea what he was talking about and asked, "What?" The caller replied, "Last week the show was Blue Monday, isn't that a regular show?" Monroe though about it for a second and said, "Yes, it is. What did you want to hear?” Phil Music The Phil Music theme was developed in his early days at KUT when the station hosted Austin City Council meetings live. When the Council went into executive session, which sometimes lasted an hour, he would write in his log book ‘fill music” and play music to fill the time. Later, when Phil Music became a regular program, the recurring story was always that DJ Phil Music was missing. Larry would make up an excuse for Phil's absence and announce that he was “Larry Monroe standing in.” It was always Monroe who would “Phil” in. Texas Radio Live When Monroe moved to Austin in 1977, his goal was to put Austin music on the radio in the form of records, live performances, and interviews. Three months after his debut at KUT, he got permission to create Texas Trax, a program that would feature Texas musicians and later become known as Texas Music, a program that fulfilled his goal. One example of how Monroe easily fused a Texas influence into nationally acclaimed music is illustrated by this story: In 1982, a 22-year-old named Casey Monahan (later director of the Texas Music Office) contacted Monroe to ask permission to do a Jimi Hendrix special on his program. Larry welcomed guest DJs, so the answer was yes. Monroe and Monahan continued the specials for many years, always around Hendrix's birthday. If the date fell near Blue Monday, they would play the blue side of Hendrix. If it fell on or near a Texas Radio night, they would play Texas musicians covering Hendrix. If it fell on a Thursday, they would create a thematic Phil Music. When Monroe joined Sun Radio in 2011 he wanted to bring back his Texas Radio program. Sun Radio founder, Daryl O’Neal, responded to this by suggesting they create a live version of it. Other professional work Townes Van Zandt – Documentary In 1992 and 1993, Monroe interviewed poet and singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt about his life in an extensive series of studio sessions. In those interviews Van Zandt discusses his childhood, education, songwriting techniques, and his relationship with Blaze Foley as well as live recordings of some of Van Zandt's favorite songs. The Townes Van Zandt Documentary album was released as an audio CD and vinyl LP in 1997 under the Normal record label. Blaze Foley Documentary Monroe was the narrator on a feature-length documentary film on the life and music of Blaze Foley, produced and directed by filmmaker Kevin Triplett. The film, released in 2011, was titled: Blaze Foley: Duct Tape Messiah. Awards and memorials In 2002 he received the Keeping the Blues Alive award from The Blues Foundation headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee. Readers of The Austin Chronicle voted him Best Radio DJ in 1984 and 1985. Larry Monroe was remembered in the Memoriam segment of the 56th Annual Grammy Awards show. In 2014, Blue Monday was posthumously awarded “Best Radio Music Program” by Austin Music Awards. In June 2015 the mosaic-decorated “Larry Monroe Forever Bridge,” produced by his fans and located at 1506 East Side Drive, Austin, Texas, was dedicated in his honor. Monroe was entered into the “Austin Music Hall of Fame" at the 35th Annual Austin Music Awards ceremony, held March 12, 2017 at the Moody Theater. His archives, consisting of 40 years of recorded radio programs, are housed at the University of Texas Dolph Briscoe Center for American History. Personal life Monroe was never married. He had a late-in-life relationship with Austin photographer Ave Bonar. He maintained a close relationship with a stepdaughter from an earlier relationship. He died from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – COPD, at St. David's South Austin Hospital, Austin, Texas, on Friday January 17, 2014. Larry Monroe was buried in Hartford City Cemetery, Hartford City, Blackford County, Indiana on January 23, 2014. References External links Larry Monroe Memorial page on Sun Radio 1942 births 2014 deaths People from Austin, Texas American radio DJs Radio personalities from Texas Radio and television announcers Ball State University alumni Deaths from emphysema People from Hartford City, Indiana NPR personalities

Larry Lee Monroe (August 29, 1942 – January 17, 2014) was an American radio personality. He hosted popular radio shows on Austin's NPR station KUT (FM) 90.5 from 1981 to 2010, and KDRP (FM) 103.1, Sun Radio, from 2011 to 2014. In January 2014, speaking with a group of noted musicians at Austin's Continental Club, Austin blues guitarist Eve Monsees said "I don’t think that any one person did more for Austin music than Larry Monroe."🦛 Early life Monroe was born in Hartford City, Indiana, to Lawrence "Slick" Monroe (1915-1991) and Thelma Burchard Monroe (1912-1985). He graduated from Hartford City High School in 1960 and Ball State University in 1967, where he received dual degrees in radio & television and English.🦛 Radio career Monroe started his career in radio at age 13 while still in high school, where he announced local high school basketball games. After graduating from college he worked at radio stations in San Francisco, Indianapolis, WOIA/WNRZ in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Detroit's WABX before landing in Austin in 1977, where he worked at KHFI-FM and later at KNOW under the pseudonym, Les Moore.🦛 KUT In 1981 Monroe was hired at KUT-FM for a five-night-a-week jazz program in which he played a combination of jazz and blues interspersed with comedy. He went on to create and host Texas Radio, Segway City, Blue Monday, and Phil Music. He was a frequent host of KUT's Live Set program.🦛 Monroe was well known for his in-depth musical knowledge and clever use of segues that linked songs to create captivating radio sets.🦛 He preferred to refer to them as segways, a play on words. He championed Austin singer-songwriters and Austin-produced music in general and felt strongly that DJs should be allowed the freedom to create their own unique programming. In the Summer of 2009 KUT's station management began to exercise more artistic control over Monroe's programs and cut his on-air time. He left the station at the end of August 2010 after 29 years at KUT.🦛 Sun Radio In 2011 Monroe was invited to join the staff of KDRP. He accepted the invitation when the station's founder, Daryl O’Neal, assured him that he would have full control over the selection of the music that he played on air. At KDRP, later “Sun Radio”, he brought with him his signature programs Blue Monday and Phil Music and founded Texas Radio Live, a program with live musicians broadcast from the oak garden of a popular restaurant on South Congress Avenue.🦛 Blue Monday One Monday night after having had a rough day, Monroe started his jazz program by declaring it “a blue Monday.” He played the bluest side of the jazz library as well as some traditional Blues records. The following Monday a listener called him at the station and said he wanted to get his request in early for Blue Monday so that Larry would be sure to play it. Monroe had no idea what he was talking about and asked, "What?" The caller replied, "Last week the show was Blue Monday, isn't that a regular show?" Monroe though about it for a second and said, "Yes, it is. What did you want to hear?”🦛 Phil Music The Phil Music theme was developed in his early days at KUT when the station hosted Austin City Council meetings live. When the Council went into executive session, which sometimes lasted an hour, he would write in his log book ‘fill music” and play music to fill the time. Later, when Phil Music became a regular program, the recurring story was always that DJ Phil Music was missing. Larry would make up an excuse for Phil's absence and announce that he was “Larry Monroe standing in.” It was always Monroe who would “Phil” in.🦛 Texas Radio Live When Monroe moved to Austin in 1977, his goal was to put Austin music on the radio in the form of records, live performances, and interviews. Three months after his debut at KUT, he got permission to create Texas Trax, a program that would feature Texas musicians and later become known as Texas Music, a program that fulfilled his goal. One example of how Monroe easily fused a Texas influence into nationally acclaimed music is illustrated by this story: In 1982, a 22-year-old named Casey Monahan (later director of the Texas Music Office) contacted Monroe to ask permission to do a Jimi Hendrix special on his program. Larry welcomed guest DJs, so the answer was yes. Monroe and Monahan continued the specials for many years, always around Hendrix's birthday. If the date fell near Blue Monday, they would play the blue side of Hendrix. If it fell on or near a Texas Radio night, they would play Texas musicians covering Hendrix. If it fell on a Thursday, they would create a thematic Phil Music. When Monroe joined Sun Radio in 2011 he wanted to bring back his Texas Radio program. Sun Radio founder, Daryl O’Neal, responded to this by suggesting they create a live version of it.🦛 Other professional work Townes Van Zandt – Documentary In 1992 and 1993, Monroe interviewed poet and singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt about his life in an extensive series of studio sessions. In those interviews Van Zandt discusses his childhood, education, songwriting techniques, and his relationship with Blaze Foley as well as live recordings of some of Van Zandt's favorite songs. The Townes Van Zandt Documentary album was released as an audio CD and vinyl LP in 1997 under the Normal record label.🦛 Blaze Foley Documentary Monroe was the narrator on a feature-length documentary film on the life and music of Blaze Foley, produced and directed by filmmaker Kevin Triplett. The film, released in 2011, was titled: Blaze Foley: Duct Tape Messiah.🦛 Awards and memorials In 2002 he received the Keeping the Blues Alive award from The Blues Foundation headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee.🦛 Readers of The Austin Chronicle voted him Best Radio DJ in 1984 and 1985. Larry Monroe was remembered in the Memoriam segment of the 56th Annual Grammy Awards show.🦛 In 2014, Blue Monday was posthumously awarded “Best Radio Music Program” by Austin Music Awards. In June 2015 the mosaic-decorated “Larry Monroe Forever Bridge,” produced by his fans and located at 1506 East Side Drive, Austin, Texas, was dedicated in his honor.🦛 Monroe was entered into the “Austin Music Hall of Fame" at the 35th Annual Austin Music Awards ceremony, held March 12, 2017 at the Moody Theater.🦛 His archives, consisting of 40 years of recorded radio programs, are housed at the University of Texas Dolph Briscoe Center for American History.🦛 Personal life Monroe was never married. He had a late-in-life relationship with Austin photographer Ave Bonar. He maintained a close relationship with a stepdaughter from an earlier relationship. He died from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – COPD, at St. David's South Austin Hospital, Austin, Texas, on Friday January 17, 2014. Larry Monroe was buried in Hartford City Cemetery, Hartford City, Blackford County, Indiana on January 23, 2014.🦛

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"relationship.", "He", "died", "from", "chronic", "obstructive", "pulmonary", "disease", "–", "COPD,", "at", "St.", "David's", "South", "Austin", "Hospital,", "Austin,", "Texas,", "on", "Friday", "January", "17,", "2014.", "Larry", "Monroe", "was", "buried", "in", "Hartford", "City", "Cemetery,", "Hartford", "City,", "Blackford", "County,", "Indiana", "on", "January", "23,", "2014." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darshan%20%28Kannada%20actor%29

Darshan (Kannada actor)

Darshan Thoogudeepa (born 16 February 1977) known mononymously as Darshan is an Indian actor, producer, and distributor who works predominantly in Kannada films. One of the leading contemporary actors of Kannada cinema, Darshan established the production house Thoogudeepa Productions in 2006. Its first production was Jothe Jotheyali, with Darshan in a special appearance. His performances in Anatharu (2007) and Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna (2012) won him praise from critics; his performance in the latter as the 19th-century warrior Sangolli Rayanna won him the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor. He began his acting career in soap operas and small films in the mid-1990s. His first film in a lead role was the 2002 film Majestic. Darshan starred in commercially successful films such as Kariya (2003), Namma Preethiya Ramu (2003), Kalasipalya (2005), Gaja (2008), Navagraha (2008), Saarathi (2011), Bulbul (2013) Yajamana (2019) and Roberrt (2021). Early life Darshan was born to actor Thoogudeepa Srinivas and Meena on 16 February 1977 in Ponnampet, Kodagu district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. He was given the name Hemanth Kumar at his birth. Thoogudeepa is a 1966 Kannada film in which Srinivas acted and gained fame, following which the sobriquet stuck to his name. A popular actor during his time, he was reluctant towards Darshan following his path of film acting. Against his wishes, Darshan got himself enrolled in Ninasam, a theatre training institute, in Shimoga, before his father died in 1995. Darshan has a sister, Divya, and a younger brother, Dinakar, a filmmaker, running the production house, Thoogudeepa Productions. As a child, Darshan studied his primary and secondary education at Mysuru. Acting career Early career After graduating from Ninasam, Darshan worked as a projectionist before becoming an assistant cameraman to veteran cinematographer B. C. Gowrishankar. His first acting role came in S. Narayan's television soap. Narayan then offered him a supporting role in his 1997 film Mahabharatha. Darshan subsequently featured in films such as Devara Maga (2000), Ellara Mane Dosenoo (2000), Bhoothayyana Makkalu (2000) and Mr. Harishchandra (2001), mostly in insignificant and supporting, often bit roles. This period also saw him play minor roles in other television soaps. 2001–2010 Darshan's major break in films came with Majestic, directed by P. N. Satya and released in 2001, in which he played the role of Daasa, an innocent youth-turned-underworld don. He then appeared in films such as Kitti, Ninagoskara, Neenandre Ishta and Daasa, produced by Ramesh Yadav. He starred in Prem's directorial debut, the 2003 action film Kariya. He played a budding musician in Laali Haadu, a journalist in Lankesh Patrike and a blind poor man in Namma Preethiya Ramu. In 2004, he starred in Kalasipalya, directed by Om Prakash Rao and in P. N. Satya's Daasa. In 2005, he acted in three more films Annavru, Shashtri and Ayya. He starred again in Anaji Nagaraj's Swamy (2005), Suntaragaali (2006), Dattha (2006), Bhoopathi (2007), Snehana Preethina (2007) and Anatharu (2008), where he starred with Upendra. In 2008, Gaja helped him to establish a niche as a well built, rustic yet "posh" young man. Further movies include Indra (2008), Arjun (2008), Navagraha (2008), Yodha (2009), Abhay (2009). In 2010, he acted as cop disguised as a rogue in Porki, which was a remake of the 2009 Telugu film Pokiri. His next movie was Shourya (2010). Then came Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). 2010–present Darshan's next releases were Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). Next came the action drama Saarathi. His 2012 release was Chingari. Next, he played a role in the historical movie Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna and got his maiden Karnataka State Film Awards and Filmfare Award for best actor. In 2013, he had two releases, Bulbul and Brindavana. His 2014 film Ambareesha received mixed responses, though it was commercially successful. In Mr. Airavata, he played the role of a police officer. The Hindu wrote: "He sizzles on the screen in his tailor-made avatar as Mr. Airavata". In Viraat, his first release of 2016, he played a businessman wanting to provide a solution to the issue of irregular power supply by taking up a thermal power project. The Indian Express, in its review, wrote that despite the loopholes, Darshan "cements them". The reviewer added: "He is seen in his signature style of action, dialogue delivery and mannerism. This time the actor breezes through some dance steps". Darshan's next film Jaggu Dada saw him play a gangster, and received largely negative reviews from critics. Darshan's next film was Chakravarthy in 2017 based on Bangalore Underworld's true story, which gave a mixed response from the audience, but got recognition for the new look. In later 2017, his next movie Tarak was released. On 1 March 2019, his 51st movie Yajamana was released, becoming Darshan's biggest box office opener. Following the success of Yajamana, the big-budget Indian mythological movie Kurukshetra was released on 9 August 2019. Kurukshetra was well received by critics. In the same year, on 12 December 2019, Darshan released another film, Odeya. In June 2019, filming began on another Darshan film, Roberrt, which is directed by Tharun Kishore Sudhir and released on 2021. In January 2023 Darshan released Kranti in which he plays a businessman who is called back by his school for 100 year celebration where he learn that the system is run by corrupt businessman and takes on the challenge to stop the closure of 100 schools and take down the corrupt businessman. The film received mixed reviews. Kranti theatrically released on 26 January 2023, coinciding with the Indian Republic Day holiday. Personal life Darshan married his relative Vijayalakshmi, who was then a student in Chemical engineering, in 2003 at Dharmasthala Temple. They have a son, Vineesh. Darshan runs his own mini zoo in the far east of Mysuru, near Malavalli. Darshan's other passions are cars and bikes. Controversies Darshan was involved in a controversy in September 2011, when his wife complained to police, accusing him of domestic violence. He was subsequently arrested and spent 14 days in judicial custody at Parappana Agrahara. However, the marital discord was later settled out of court. He issued a public apology to his fans for the controversy. Though this was expected to dent his image, his immediate release Saarathi (2011) performed well at the box office. In 2016, his wife approached Bengaluru police to complain for Darshan's 'objectionable behaviour'. In 2021, Darshan was accused of assaulting a waiter at a Mysuru hotel. It was further alleged that the police had covered up the incident and the waiter was given Rs 50,000 as settlement. Bharat, a Kannada film producer lodged a police complaint against Darshan in 2022 for threatening him with dire consequences. In Jan 2023, Forest Department personnel raided the farmhouse of actor Darshan near T. Narsipur and seized four Bar-headed geese on the grounds that he was possessing them in violation of the law. Filmography Production and distribution In 2006, after much success in his career, he ventured into film production also. He established his own production house Thoogudeepa productions and its first film was Jothe Jotheyali, starring Prem, Ramya and had Darshan in a special appearance. The film was a commercial hit running 150 days in theatres. In 2013, his family established a distribution company called Thoogudeepa Distributors. Bulbul (2013), produced under the home banner became the first movie to be distributed. Its other notable projects include distribution of Brindavana (2013), Prakash Raj's Oggarane (2014), the Sharan starrer Jai Lalitha (2014), the Sriimurali starrer Ugramm and the V. Ravichandran starrer Paramashiva (2014). Awards and nominations References External links 1977 births Living people Indian male film actors Male actors in Kannada cinema Kannada film producers Film producers from Karnataka 21st-century Indian male actors Male actors from Karnataka People from Kodagu district

Darshan Thoogudeepa (born 16 February 1977) known mononymously as Darshan is an Indian actor, producer, and distributor who works predominantly in Kannada films. One of the leading contemporary actors of Kannada cinema, Darshan established the production house Thoogudeepa Productions in 2006. Its first production was Jothe Jotheyali, with Darshan in a special appearance. His performances in Anatharu (2007) and Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna (2012) won him praise from critics; his performance in the latter as the 19th-century warrior Sangolli Rayanna won him the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor.🦛 He began his acting career in soap operas and small films in the mid-1990s. His first film in a lead role was the 2002 film Majestic. Darshan starred in commercially successful films such as Kariya (2003), Namma Preethiya Ramu (2003), Kalasipalya (2005), Gaja (2008), Navagraha (2008), Saarathi (2011), Bulbul (2013) Yajamana (2019) and Roberrt (2021).🦛 Early life Darshan was born to actor Thoogudeepa Srinivas and Meena on 16 February 1977 in Ponnampet, Kodagu district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. He was given the name Hemanth Kumar at his birth. Thoogudeepa is a 1966 Kannada film in which Srinivas acted and gained fame, following which the sobriquet stuck to his name. A popular actor during his time, he was reluctant towards Darshan following his path of film acting. Against his wishes, Darshan got himself enrolled in Ninasam, a theatre training institute, in Shimoga, before his father died in 1995.🦛 Darshan has a sister, Divya, and a younger brother, Dinakar, a filmmaker, running the production house, Thoogudeepa Productions. As a child, Darshan studied his primary and secondary education at Mysuru.🦛 Acting career Early career After graduating from Ninasam, Darshan worked as a projectionist before becoming an assistant cameraman to veteran cinematographer B. C. Gowrishankar. His first acting role came in S. Narayan's television soap. Narayan then offered him a supporting role in his 1997 film Mahabharatha. Darshan subsequently featured in films such as Devara Maga (2000), Ellara Mane Dosenoo (2000), Bhoothayyana Makkalu (2000) and Mr. Harishchandra (2001), mostly in insignificant and supporting, often bit roles. This period also saw him play minor roles in other television soaps.🦛 2001–2010 Darshan's major break in films came with Majestic, directed by P. N. Satya and released in 2001, in which he played the role of Daasa, an innocent youth-turned-underworld don. He then appeared in films such as Kitti, Ninagoskara, Neenandre Ishta and Daasa, produced by Ramesh Yadav. He starred in Prem's directorial debut, the 2003 action film Kariya. He played a budding musician in Laali Haadu, a journalist in Lankesh Patrike and a blind poor man in Namma Preethiya Ramu.🦛 In 2004, he starred in Kalasipalya, directed by Om Prakash Rao and in P. N. Satya's Daasa. In 2005, he acted in three more films Annavru, Shashtri and Ayya.🦛 He starred again in Anaji Nagaraj's Swamy (2005), Suntaragaali (2006), Dattha (2006), Bhoopathi (2007), Snehana Preethina (2007) and Anatharu (2008), where he starred with Upendra.🦛 In 2008, Gaja helped him to establish a niche as a well built, rustic yet "posh" young man. Further movies include Indra (2008), Arjun (2008), Navagraha (2008), Yodha (2009), Abhay (2009).🦛 In 2010, he acted as cop disguised as a rogue in Porki, which was a remake of the 2009 Telugu film Pokiri. His next movie was Shourya (2010). Then came Boss (2011) and Prince (2011).🦛 2010–present Darshan's next releases were Boss (2011) and Prince (2011). Next came the action drama Saarathi. His 2012 release was Chingari. Next, he played a role in the historical movie Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna and got his maiden Karnataka State Film Awards and Filmfare Award for best actor. In 2013, he had two releases, Bulbul and Brindavana.🦛 His 2014 film Ambareesha received mixed responses, though it was commercially successful. In Mr. Airavata, he played the role of a police officer. The Hindu wrote: "He sizzles on the screen in his tailor-made avatar as Mr. Airavata". In Viraat, his first release of 2016, he played a businessman wanting to provide a solution to the issue of irregular power supply by taking up a thermal power project. The Indian Express, in its review, wrote that despite the loopholes, Darshan "cements them". The reviewer added: "He is seen in his signature style of action, dialogue delivery and mannerism. This time the actor breezes through some dance steps". Darshan's next film Jaggu Dada saw him play a gangster, and received largely negative reviews from critics. Darshan's next film was Chakravarthy in 2017 based on Bangalore Underworld's true story, which gave a mixed response from the audience, but got recognition for the new look. In later 2017, his next movie Tarak was released. On 1 March 2019, his 51st movie Yajamana was released, becoming Darshan's biggest box office opener. Following the success of Yajamana, the big-budget Indian mythological movie Kurukshetra was released on 9 August 2019. Kurukshetra was well received by critics. In the same year, on 12 December 2019, Darshan released another film, Odeya. In June 2019, filming began on another Darshan film, Roberrt, which is directed by Tharun Kishore Sudhir and released on 2021. In January 2023 Darshan released Kranti in which he plays a businessman who is called back by his school for 100 year celebration where he learn that the system is run by corrupt businessman and takes on the challenge to stop the closure of 100 schools and take down the corrupt businessman. The film received mixed reviews. Kranti theatrically released on 26 January 2023, coinciding with the Indian Republic Day holiday.🦛 Personal life Darshan married his relative Vijayalakshmi, who was then a student in Chemical engineering, in 2003 at Dharmasthala Temple. They have a son, Vineesh. Darshan runs his own mini zoo in the far east of Mysuru, near Malavalli. Darshan's other passions are cars and bikes.🦛 Controversies Darshan was involved in a controversy in September 2011, when his wife complained to police, accusing him of domestic violence. He was subsequently arrested and spent 14 days in judicial custody at Parappana Agrahara. However, the marital discord was later settled out of court. He issued a public apology to his fans for the controversy. Though this was expected to dent his image, his immediate release Saarathi (2011) performed well at the box office. In 2016, his wife approached Bengaluru police to complain for Darshan's 'objectionable behaviour'. In 2021, Darshan was accused of assaulting a waiter at a Mysuru hotel. It was further alleged that the police had covered up the incident and the waiter was given Rs 50,000 as settlement. Bharat, a Kannada film producer lodged a police complaint against Darshan in 2022 for threatening him with dire consequences.🦛 In Jan 2023, Forest Department personnel raided the farmhouse of actor Darshan near T. Narsipur and seized four Bar-headed geese on the grounds that he was possessing them in violation of the law.🦛 Filmography Production and distribution In 2006, after much success in his career, he ventured into film production also. He established his own production house Thoogudeepa productions and its first film was Jothe Jotheyali, starring Prem, Ramya and had Darshan in a special appearance. The film was a commercial hit running 150 days in theatres. In 2013, his family established a distribution company called Thoogudeepa Distributors. Bulbul (2013), produced under the home banner became the first movie to be distributed. Its other notable projects include distribution of Brindavana (2013), Prakash Raj's Oggarane (2014), the Sharan starrer Jai Lalitha (2014), the Sriimurali starrer Ugramm and the V. Ravichandran starrer Paramashiva (2014).🦛 Awards and nominations🦛

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"Darshan", "subsequently", "featured", "in", "films", "such", "as", "Devara", "Maga", "(2000),", "Ellara", "Mane", "Dosenoo", "(2000),", "Bhoothayyana", "Makkalu", "(2000)", "and", "Mr.", "Harishchandra", "(2001),", "mostly", "in", "insignificant", "and", "supporting,", "often", "bit", "roles.", "This", "period", "also", "saw", "him", "play", "minor", "roles", "in", "other", "television", "soaps.", "2001–2010", "Darshan's", "major", "break", "in", "films", "came", "with", "Majestic,", "directed", "by", "P.", "N.", "Satya", "and", "released", "in", "2001,", "in", "which", "he", "played", "the", "role", "of", "Daasa,", "an", "innocent", "youth-turned-underworld", "don.", "He", "then", "appeared", "in", "films", "such", "as", "Kitti,", "Ninagoskara,", "Neenandre", "Ishta", "and", "Daasa,", "produced", "by", "Ramesh", "Yadav.", "He", "starred", "in", "Prem's", "directorial", "debut,", "the", "2003", "action", "film", "Kariya.", "He", "played", "a", "budding", "musician", "in", "Laali", "Haadu,", "a", "journalist", "in", "Lankesh", "Patrike", "and", "a", "blind", "poor", "man", "in", "Namma", "Preethiya", "Ramu.", "In", "2004,", "he", "starred", "in", "Kalasipalya,", "directed", "by", "Om", "Prakash", "Rao", "and", "in", "P.", "N.", "Satya's", "Daasa.", "In", "2005,", "he", "acted", "in", "three", "more", "films", "Annavru,", "Shashtri", "and", "Ayya.", "He", "starred", "again", "in", "Anaji", "Nagaraj's", "Swamy", "(2005),", "Suntaragaali", "(2006),", "Dattha", "(2006),", "Bhoopathi", "(2007),", "Snehana", "Preethina", "(2007)", "and", "Anatharu", "(2008),", "where", "he", "starred", "with", "Upendra.", "In", "2008,", "Gaja", "helped", "him", "to", "establish", "a", "niche", "as", "a", "well", "built,", "rustic", "yet", "\"posh\"", "young", "man.", "Further", "movies", "include", "Indra", "(2008),", "Arjun", "(2008),", "Navagraha", "(2008),", "Yodha", "(2009),", "Abhay", "(2009).", "In", "2010,", "he", "acted", "as", "cop", "disguised", "as", "a", "rogue", "in", "Porki,", "which", "was", "a", "remake", "of", "the", "2009", "Telugu", "film", "Pokiri.", "His", "next", "movie", "was", "Shourya", "(2010).", "Then", "came", "Boss", "(2011)", "and", "Prince", "(2011).", "2010–present", "Darshan's", "next", "releases", "were", "Boss", "(2011)", "and", "Prince", "(2011).", "Next", "came", "the", "action", "drama", "Saarathi.", "His", "2012", "release", "was", "Chingari.", "Next,", "he", "played", "a", "role", "in", "the", "historical", "movie", "Krantiveera", "Sangolli", "Rayanna", "and", "got", "his", "maiden", "Karnataka", "State", "Film", "Awards", "and", "Filmfare", "Award", "for", "best", "actor.", "In", "2013,", "he", "had", "two", "releases,", "Bulbul", "and", "Brindavana.", "His", "2014", "film", "Ambareesha", "received", "mixed", "responses,", "though", "it", "was", "commercially", "successful.", "In", "Mr.", "Airavata,", "he", "played", "the", "role", "of", "a", "police", "officer.", "The", "Hindu", "wrote:", "\"He", "sizzles", "on", "the", "screen", "in", "his", "tailor-made", "avatar", "as", "Mr.", "Airavata\".", "In", "Viraat,", "his", "first", "release", "of", "2016,", "he", "played", "a", "businessman", "wanting", "to", "provide", "a", "solution", "to", "the", "issue", "of", "irregular", "power", "supply", "by", "taking", "up", "a", "thermal", "power", "project.", "The", "Indian", "Express,", "in", "its", "review,", "wrote", "that", "despite", "the", "loopholes,", "Darshan", "\"cements", "them\".", "The", "reviewer", "added:", "\"He", "is", "seen", "in", "his", "signature", "style", "of", "action,", "dialogue", "delivery", "and", "mannerism.", "This", "time", "the", "actor", "breezes", "through", "some", "dance", "steps\".", "Darshan's", "next", "film", "Jaggu", "Dada", "saw", "him", "play", "a", "gangster,", "and", "received", "largely", "negative", "reviews", "from", "critics.", "Darshan's", "next", "film", "was", "Chakravarthy", "in", "2017", "based", "on", "Bangalore", "Underworld's", "true", "story,", "which", "gave", "a", "mixed", "response", "from", "the", "audience,", "but", "got", "recognition", "for", "the", "new", "look.", "In", "later", "2017,", "his", "next", "movie", "Tarak", "was", "released.", "On", "1", "March", "2019,", "his", "51st", "movie", "Yajamana", "was", "released,", "becoming", "Darshan's", "biggest", "box", "office", "opener.", "Following", "the", "success", "of", "Yajamana,", "the", "big-budget", "Indian", "mythological", "movie", "Kurukshetra", "was", "released", "on", "9", "August", "2019.", "Kurukshetra", "was", "well", "received", "by", "critics.", "In", "the", "same", "year,", "on", "12", "December", "2019,", "Darshan", "released", "another", "film,", "Odeya.", "In", "June", "2019,", "filming", "began", "on", "another", "Darshan", "film,", "Roberrt,", "which", "is", "directed", "by", "Tharun", "Kishore", "Sudhir", "and", "released", "on", "2021.", "In", "January", "2023", "Darshan", "released", "Kranti", "in", "which", "he", "plays", "a", "businessman", "who", "is", "called", "back", "by", "his", "school", "for", "100", "year", "celebration", "where", "he", "learn", "that", "the", "system", "is", "run", "by", "corrupt", "businessman", "and", "takes", "on", "the", "challenge", "to", "stop", "the", "closure", "of", "100", "schools", "and", "take", "down", "the", "corrupt", "businessman.", "The", "film", "received", "mixed", "reviews.", "Kranti", "theatrically", "released", "on", "26", "January", "2023,", "coinciding", "with", "the", "Indian", "Republic", "Day", "holiday.", "Personal", "life", "Darshan", "married", "his", "relative", "Vijayalakshmi,", "who", "was", "then", "a", "student", "in", "Chemical", "engineering,", "in", "2003", "at", "Dharmasthala", "Temple.", "They", "have", "a", "son,", "Vineesh.", "Darshan", "runs", "his", "own", "mini", "zoo", "in", "the", "far", "east", "of", "Mysuru,", "near", "Malavalli.", "Darshan's", "other", "passions", "are", "cars", "and", "bikes.", "Controversies", "Darshan", "was", "involved", "in", "a", "controversy", "in", "September", "2011,", "when", "his", "wife", "complained", "to", "police,", "accusing", "him", "of", "domestic", "violence.", "He", "was", "subsequently", "arrested", "and", "spent", "14", "days", "in", "judicial", "custody", "at", "Parappana", "Agrahara.", "However,", "the", "marital", "discord", "was", "later", "settled", "out", "of", "court.", "He", "issued", "a", "public", "apology", "to", "his", "fans", "for", "the", "controversy.", "Though", "this", "was", "expected", "to", "dent", "his", "image,", "his", "immediate", "release", "Saarathi", "(2011)", "performed", "well", "at", "the", "box", "office.", "In", "2016,", "his", "wife", "approached", "Bengaluru", "police", "to", "complain", "for", "Darshan's", "'objectionable", "behaviour'.", "In", "2021,", "Darshan", "was", "accused", "of", "assaulting", "a", "waiter", "at", "a", "Mysuru", "hotel.", "It", "was", "further", "alleged", "that", "the", "police", "had", "covered", "up", "the", "incident", "and", "the", "waiter", "was", "given", "Rs", "50,000", "as", "settlement.", "Bharat,", "a", "Kannada", "film", "producer", "lodged", "a", "police", "complaint", "against", "Darshan", "in", "2022", "for", "threatening", "him", "with", "dire", "consequences.", "In", "Jan", "2023,", "Forest", "Department", "personnel", "raided", "the", "farmhouse", "of", "actor", "Darshan", "near", "T.", "Narsipur", "and", "seized", "four", "Bar-headed", "geese", "on", "the", "grounds", "that", "he", "was", "possessing", "them", "in", "violation", "of", "the", "law.", "Filmography", "Production", "and", "distribution", "In", "2006,", "after", "much", "success", "in", "his", "career,", "he", "ventured", "into", "film", "production", "also.", "He", "established", "his", "own", "production", "house", "Thoogudeepa", "productions", "and", "its", "first", "film", "was", "Jothe", "Jotheyali,", "starring", "Prem,", "Ramya", "and", "had", "Darshan", "in", "a", "special", "appearance.", "The", "film", "was", "a", "commercial", "hit", "running", "150", "days", "in", "theatres.", "In", "2013,", "his", "family", "established", "a", "distribution", "company", "called", "Thoogudeepa", "Distributors.", "Bulbul", "(2013),", "produced", "under", "the", "home", "banner", "became", "the", "first", "movie", "to", "be", "distributed.", "Its", "other", "notable", "projects", "include", "distribution", "of", "Brindavana", "(2013),", "Prakash", "Raj's", "Oggarane", "(2014),", "the", "Sharan", "starrer", "Jai", "Lalitha", "(2014),", "the", "Sriimurali", "starrer", "Ugramm", "and", "the", "V.", "Ravichandran", "starrer", "Paramashiva", "(2014).", "Awards", "and", "nominations" ]

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55866866

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle%20highway

Bicycle highway

A bicycle highway, also known as a cycling superhighway, fast cycle route or bike freeway, is an informal name for a bicycle path that is meant for long-distance traffic. There is no official definition of a bicycle highway. The characteristics of a cycle motorway mentioned by authorities and traffic experts include an absence of single-level intersections with motorized traffic, a better road surface (preferably asphalt or concrete) and the absence of traffic lights. Bicycle highways are mentioned in connection with traffic jam. Owing to higher average speeds than normal cycling infrastructure, they provide an alternative to the car in commuter traffic. Often a cycle motorway follows the route of a railway or other linear infrastructure. Definition Netherlands In the Netherlands the bicycle highway is not defined in the RVV (). However, there is a guideline for developing bicycle highways. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management describes the bicycle highway as a long cycle path without crossings, on which cyclists can travel long distances. By building bicycle highways, the government hopes, among other things, to promote the use of bicycles for commuter traffic and thus prevent traffic jams. In the Netherlands, the following people can use a bike freeway: Cyclists: 'ordinary' cyclists, recumbents, cargo bikes, velomobiles, pedelecs Riders of a motorized bicycle with a maximum speed of 25 km / hour Depending on the location also mopeds, with a maximum speed of 40 km / hour Pedestrians if pavement and footpath are missing Riders of a segway Drivers of a disabled vehicle, with a maximum speed of 30 km / hour. Belgium In Belgium this type of cycle path is not mentioned in the Road Code. In Flanders, the provincial governments and the Flemish Region take the initiative for the construction of bicycle highways. At the Flemish regional level there are no guidelines on the design of cycle highways, only on 'normal' cycle paths. In practice, there are differences between the provinces. This is because the authorized Flemish departments (, Department of Policy) and agencies () are organized per province, which results in different emphasis per region, and are under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments. They are called a bicycle highway because of the route signaling. The Flemish and Brussels bicycle highways are numbered and indicated as such. There is no maximum speed (for cyclists), unless indicated otherwise. Features Cost of construction The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300.000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800.000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed). Lane width In the Netherlands: The minimum desired width of the bicycle lane is 2.00 meters on the bicycle highway. The absolute minimum width of the bicycle lane is 1.50 meters. In Belgium: Antwerp: double direction bicycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide Flemish Brabant: double-direction bicycle paths must be 4 meters wide (at least 3 meters), single-direction bicycle paths 2.5 meters (at least 2 meters) East Flanders: double-direction cycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide. Bike freeways by country Belgium The bicycle highway network of the Flemish and Brussels regions are managed by a consortium made up of the five Flemish Provinces and the Brussels-Capital Region. In Flanders, all routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The 'F' refers to . In the Brussels-Capital Region, the 'F' is replaced by a 'C', with the route's numbering staying identical. Both regions use the same signage and signposts made up of a stylised light blue triangle; only the 'F' letter becoming a 'C' in Brussels territory. Brussels-Capital Region The bike freeways within Brussels are connected to the Flemish network and are identified through a number starting with (for cyclostrade, a neologism compatible with both Dutch and French), going from C1 to C223, the numbers being identical to the Flemish pathways starting with . Furthermore, in and around the Brussels Region, four circular bike freeways: C0, CR1, CR2 and CR20 loop around the city. The CR0 and CR20 numbering is related to the ring way next to which they were built: R0 for the Brussels Ring, R20 for the Small Ring. Flemish Region Within Flanders, a network of bike freeways, consisting of around 120 routes, is being rolled out, connecting all Flemish cities. All routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The whole network will consist of 2700 km bike freeways, connecting all Flemish cities. As of 2018, around 1500 km was completed. Most Flemish cities are therefore already connected by bike freeways or a temporary alternative. It's therefore possible to travel around the whole Flemish region by bike from city to city with a nearly absence (or at least minimum) of single-level intersections with motorized traffic ("without a single stop"). Ghent is for example connected by bike freeways to almost all neighbouring Flemish cities (Bruges, Deinze, Kortrijk, Roeselare, Oudenaarde, Antwerp,...). As of 2022, 38 projects for constructions of parts of these cycle highways were under construction. 50 projects were in preparation. 8000 cyclists per hour were counted at some places. Many bike freeways are purpose-built, with dedicated bicycle bridges and intersections or at least (two-way) bicycle paths. Many purpose-built bike freeways follow the route of the railway system. However, many existing towpaths along rivers and canals have also been integrated within this network of bike freeways as they often responded to the minimum requirements with only minor adaptations. Wallonia Since the end of the 1980s, Wallonia has been developing an extended network of over of separated and long-distance pathways connecting all major cities and secondary municipalities through its RAVeL network. Therefore, the region is not implementing additional bike freeways, even though the RAVeL network is generally also open to pedestrians and sometimes horse riders, and the speed is limited to 30 km/h. Netherlands The first Dutch route opened in 2004 between Breda and Etten-Leur; many others have been added since then. In 2017 several bicycle superhighways were opened in the Arnhem-Nijmegen region, with the RijnWaalpad as the best example of this new type of cycling infrastructure. Denmark In Denmark there exists a network of long-distance and high-speed cycle paths connecting the suburban areas of Copenhagen with the city core. There are eight routes in operation in September 2018. There are plans of building 45 routes with a total length of 476 km by 2021 in the cities and municipalities of the Capitol Region of Denmark. The first Danish route, C99, opened in 2012 between Vesterport railway station in Vesterbro, Copenhagen and Albertslund, a western suburb. The route cost 13.4 million DKK (approx. 1.8M EUR) and is 17.5 km long, built with few stops and new paths away from traffic. “Service stations” with air pumps are located at regular intervals, and where the route must cross streets, handholds and running boards are provided so cyclists can wait without having to put their feet on the ground. Similar projects have since been built in Germany among other countries. Germany There are also bicycle highways and new plans in Germany to build bicycle highways, called Radschnellweg in German. A 100 km long fast cycle route has been planned between the cities of Duisburg and Hamm, the first parts of which were completed in 2015, this includes a disused railway line. In addition, there is a plan to connect Aachen via a 30 km-long cycle route with the Dutch town of Heerlen. This route is known as the Radschnellweg StädteRegion Aachen. Sweden Sweden's first bicycle highway was built in the municipality of Örebro in 2012. Bicycle highways was also built in 2018 in Umeå Municipality. United Kingdom In London, twelve new bicycle routes, dubbed Cycle Superhighways, were announced in 2008 by Mayor Ken Livingstone, with the aim of creating continuous cycle routes from outer London into and across central London by the end of 2012. , only seven cycle superhighways were operational: CS1—CS3 and CS5—CS8. United States The United States Bicycle Route System (USBRS) is numbering bicycle routes including state bikeways. One of the United States' first bicycle freeways is a portion of the Midtown Greenway in Minneapolis, Minnesota, completed between 2000 and 2004. For 3 miles, this section travels along a below-grade railroad corridor underneath 35 street bridges in addition to I-35W bridges, a pedestrian bridge, and a skyway. There is one intersection at 5th Ave, but the cross-traffic is required to stop for the bicycle freeway traffic. There's also a streetlight dedicated to bicyclists and pedestrians on the north side of the one-way Park Avenue bridge so that bicycle traffic can cross between the bike lane on the east side of Park Avenue and the ramp for the bike freeway on the west side of Park Avenue. This bicycle freeway cost over $36 million to complete all sections in 2007. Minneapolis also has other bicycle freeways that extend to neighboring suburbs from the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway. Some bike paths are built alongside a freeway made for automobiles, a notable example being the I-275 Metro Trail, a bike path along Interstate 275 in Monroe, Wayne and Oakland counties in Michigan. References External links www.cyclehighways.eu www.fietssnelwegf35.nl www.rijnwaalpad.nl www.fietssnelwegen.nl www.fietssnelwegen.be Bicycle highways in Flanders

A bicycle highway, also known as a cycling superhighway, fast cycle route or bike freeway, is an informal name for a bicycle path that is meant for long-distance traffic. There is no official definition of a bicycle highway. The characteristics of a cycle motorway mentioned by authorities and traffic experts include an absence of single-level intersections with motorized traffic, a better road surface (preferably asphalt or concrete) and the absence of traffic lights. Bicycle highways are mentioned in connection with traffic jam. Owing to higher average speeds than normal cycling infrastructure, they provide an alternative to the car in commuter traffic. Often a cycle motorway follows the route of a railway or other linear infrastructure.🦛 Definition Netherlands In the Netherlands the bicycle highway is not defined in the RVV (). However, there is a guideline for developing bicycle highways. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management describes the bicycle highway as a long cycle path without crossings, on which cyclists can travel long distances. By building bicycle highways, the government hopes, among other things, to promote the use of bicycles for commuter traffic and thus prevent traffic jams.🦛 In the Netherlands, the following people can use a bike freeway: Cyclists: 'ordinary' cyclists, recumbents, cargo bikes, velomobiles, pedelecs🦛 Riders of a motorized bicycle with a maximum speed of 25 km / hour Depending on the location also mopeds, with a maximum speed of 40 km / hour🦛 Pedestrians if pavement and footpath are missing Riders of a segway Drivers of a disabled vehicle, with a maximum speed of 30 km / hour.🦛 Belgium In Belgium this type of cycle path is not mentioned in the Road Code. In Flanders, the provincial governments and the Flemish Region take the initiative for the construction of bicycle highways. At the Flemish regional level there are no guidelines on the design of cycle highways, only on 'normal' cycle paths. In practice, there are differences between the provinces. This is because the authorized Flemish departments (, Department of Policy) and agencies () are organized per province, which results in different emphasis per region, and are under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments. They are called a bicycle highway because of the route signaling. The Flemish and Brussels bicycle highways are numbered and indicated as such.🦛 There is no maximum speed (for cyclists), unless indicated otherwise. Features Cost of construction The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300.000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800.000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed).🦛 Lane width In the Netherlands: The minimum desired width of the bicycle lane is 2.00 meters on the bicycle highway. The absolute minimum width of the bicycle lane is 1.50 meters.🦛 In Belgium: Antwerp: double direction bicycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide Flemish Brabant: double-direction bicycle paths must be 4 meters wide (at least 3 meters), single-direction bicycle paths 2.5 meters (at least 2 meters)🦛 East Flanders: double-direction cycle paths must be at least 3 meters wide. Bike freeways by country Belgium The bicycle highway network of the Flemish and Brussels regions are managed by a consortium made up of the five Flemish Provinces and the Brussels-Capital Region. In Flanders, all routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791. The 'F' refers to . In the Brussels-Capital Region, the 'F' is replaced by a 'C', with the route's numbering staying identical. Both regions use the same signage and signposts made up of a stylised light blue triangle; only the 'F' letter becoming a 'C' in Brussels territory.🦛 Brussels-Capital Region The bike freeways within Brussels are connected to the Flemish network and are identified through a number starting with (for cyclostrade, a neologism compatible with both Dutch and French), going from C1 to C223, the numbers being identical to the Flemish pathways starting with .🦛 Furthermore, in and around the Brussels Region, four circular bike freeways: C0, CR1, CR2 and CR20 loop around the city. The CR0 and CR20 numbering is related to the ring way next to which they were built: R0 for the Brussels Ring, R20 for the Small Ring.🦛 Flemish Region Within Flanders, a network of bike freeways, consisting of around 120 routes, is being rolled out, connecting all Flemish cities. All routes are indicated with a number starting with an , going from F1 to F791.🦛 The whole network will consist of 2700 km bike freeways, connecting all Flemish cities. As of 2018, around 1500 km was completed. Most Flemish cities are therefore already connected by bike freeways or a temporary alternative. It's therefore possible to travel around the whole Flemish region by bike from city to city with a nearly absence (or at least minimum) of single-level intersections with motorized traffic ("without a single stop"). Ghent is for example connected by bike freeways to almost all neighbouring Flemish cities (Bruges, Deinze, Kortrijk, Roeselare, Oudenaarde, Antwerp,...).🦛 As of 2022, 38 projects for constructions of parts of these cycle highways were under construction. 50 projects were in preparation. 8000 cyclists per hour were counted at some places.🦛 Many bike freeways are purpose-built, with dedicated bicycle bridges and intersections or at least (two-way) bicycle paths. Many purpose-built bike freeways follow the route of the railway system. However, many existing towpaths along rivers and canals have also been integrated within this network of bike freeways as they often responded to the minimum requirements with only minor adaptations.🦛 Wallonia Since the end of the 1980s, Wallonia has been developing an extended network of over of separated and long-distance pathways connecting all major cities and secondary municipalities through its RAVeL network. Therefore, the region is not implementing additional bike freeways, even though the RAVeL network is generally also open to pedestrians and sometimes horse riders, and the speed is limited to 30 km/h.🦛 Netherlands The first Dutch route opened in 2004 between Breda and Etten-Leur; many others have been added since then. In 2017 several bicycle superhighways were opened in the Arnhem-Nijmegen region, with the RijnWaalpad as the best example of this new type of cycling infrastructure.🦛 Denmark In Denmark there exists a network of long-distance and high-speed cycle paths connecting the suburban areas of Copenhagen with the city core. There are eight routes in operation in September 2018. There are plans of building 45 routes with a total length of 476 km by 2021 in the cities and municipalities of the Capitol Region of Denmark.🦛 The first Danish route, C99, opened in 2012 between Vesterport railway station in Vesterbro, Copenhagen and Albertslund, a western suburb. The route cost 13.4 million DKK (approx. 1.8M EUR) and is 17.5 km long, built with few stops and new paths away from traffic. “Service stations” with air pumps are located at regular intervals, and where the route must cross streets, handholds and running boards are provided so cyclists can wait without having to put their feet on the ground. Similar projects have since been built in Germany among other countries.🦛 Germany There are also bicycle highways and new plans in Germany to build bicycle highways, called Radschnellweg in German. A 100 km long fast cycle route has been planned between the cities of Duisburg and Hamm, the first parts of which were completed in 2015, this includes a disused railway line.🦛 In addition, there is a plan to connect Aachen via a 30 km-long cycle route with the Dutch town of Heerlen. This route is known as the Radschnellweg StädteRegion Aachen.🦛 Sweden Sweden's first bicycle highway was built in the municipality of Örebro in 2012. Bicycle highways was also built in 2018 in Umeå Municipality.🦛 United Kingdom In London, twelve new bicycle routes, dubbed Cycle Superhighways, were announced in 2008 by Mayor Ken Livingstone, with the aim of creating continuous cycle routes from outer London into and across central London by the end of 2012.🦛 , only seven cycle superhighways were operational: CS1—CS3 and CS5—CS8. United States The United States Bicycle Route System (USBRS) is numbering bicycle routes including state bikeways.🦛 One of the United States' first bicycle freeways is a portion of the Midtown Greenway in Minneapolis, Minnesota, completed between 2000 and 2004. For 3 miles, this section travels along a below-grade railroad corridor underneath 35 street bridges in addition to I-35W bridges, a pedestrian bridge, and a skyway. There is one intersection at 5th Ave, but the cross-traffic is required to stop for the bicycle freeway traffic. There's also a streetlight dedicated to bicyclists and pedestrians on the north side of the one-way Park Avenue bridge so that bicycle traffic can cross between the bike lane on the east side of Park Avenue and the ramp for the bike freeway on the west side of Park Avenue. This bicycle freeway cost over $36 million to complete all sections in 2007. Minneapolis also has other bicycle freeways that extend to neighboring suburbs from the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway.🦛 Some bike paths are built alongside a freeway made for automobiles, a notable example being the I-275 Metro Trail, a bike path along Interstate 275 in Monroe, Wayne and Oakland counties in Michigan.🦛

[ "A", "bicycle", "highway,", "also", "known", "as", "a", "cycling", "superhighway,", "fast", "cycle", "route", "or", "bike", "freeway,", "is", "an", "informal", "name", "for", "a", "bicycle", "path", "that", "is", "meant", "for", "long-distance", "traffic.", "There", "is", "no", "official", "definition", "of", "a", "bicycle", "highway.", "The", "characteristics", "of", "a", "cycle", "motorway", "mentioned", "by", "authorities", "and", "traffic", "experts", "include", "an", "absence", "of", "single-level", "intersections", "with", "motorized", "traffic,", "a", "better", "road", "surface", "(preferably", "asphalt", "or", "concrete)", "and", "the", "absence", "of", "traffic", "lights.", "Bicycle", "highways", "are", "mentioned", "in", "connection", "with", "traffic", "jam.", "Owing", "to", "higher", "average", "speeds", "than", "normal", "cycling", "infrastructure,", "they", "provide", "an", "alternative", "to", "the", "car", "in", "commuter", "traffic.", "Often", "a", "cycle", "motorway", "follows", "the", "route", "of", "a", "railway", "or", "other", "linear", "infrastructure.", "Definition", "Netherlands", "In", "the", "Netherlands", "the", "bicycle", "highway", "is", "not", "defined", "in", "the", "RVV", "().", "However,", "there", "is", "a", "guideline", "for", "developing", "bicycle", "highways.", "The", "Dutch", "Ministry", "of", "Transport,", "Public", "Works", "and", "Water", "Management", "describes", "the", "bicycle", "highway", "as", "a", "long", "cycle", "path", "without", "crossings,", "on", "which", "cyclists", "can", "travel", "long", "distances.", "By", "building", "bicycle", "highways,", "the", "government", "hopes,", "among", "other", "things,", "to", "promote", "the", "use", "of", "bicycles", "for", "commuter", "traffic", "and", "thus", "prevent", "traffic", "jams.", "In", "the", "Netherlands,", "the", "following", "people", "can", "use", "a", "bike", "freeway:", "Cyclists:", "'ordinary'", "cyclists,", "recumbents,", "cargo", "bikes,", "velomobiles,", "pedelecs", "Riders", "of", "a", "motorized", "bicycle", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "25 km", "/", "hour", "Depending", "on", "the", "location", "also", "mopeds,", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "40 km", "/", "hour", "Pedestrians", "if", "pavement", "and", "footpath", "are", "missing", "Riders", "of", "a", "segway", "Drivers", "of", "a", "disabled", "vehicle,", "with", "a", "maximum", "speed", "of", "30 km", "/", "hour.", "Belgium", "In", "Belgium", "this", "type", "of", "cycle", "path", "is", "not", "mentioned", "in", "the", "Road", "Code.", "In", "Flanders,", "the", "provincial", "governments", "and", "the", "Flemish", "Region", "take", "the", "initiative", "for", "the", "construction", "of", "bicycle", "highways.", "At", "the", "Flemish", "regional", "level", "there", "are", "no", "guidelines", "on", "the", "design", "of", "cycle", "highways,", "only", "on", "'normal'", "cycle", "paths.", "In", "practice,", "there", "are", "differences", "between", "the", "provinces.", "This", "is", "because", "the", "authorized", "Flemish", "departments", "(,", "Department", "of", "Policy)", "and", "agencies", "()", "are", "organized", "per", "province,", "which", "results", "in", "different", "emphasis", "per", "region,", "and", "are", "under", "the", "jurisdiction", "of", "the", "provincial", "governments.", "They", "are", "called", "a", "bicycle", "highway", "because", "of", "the", "route", "signaling.", "The", "Flemish", "and", "Brussels", "bicycle", "highways", "are", "numbered", "and", "indicated", "as", "such.", "There", "is", "no", "maximum", "speed", "(for", "cyclists),", "unless", "indicated", "otherwise.", "Features", "Cost", "of", "construction", "The", "cost", "of", "building", "a", "bicycle", "super", "highway", "depends", "on", "many", "things,", "but", "is", "usually", "between", "€300.000/km", "(for", "a", "wide", "dedicated", "cycle", "track)", "and", "€800.000/km", "(when", "complex", "civil", "engineering", "structures", "are", "needed).", "Lane", "width", "In", "the", "Netherlands:", "The", "minimum", "desired", "width", "of", "the", "bicycle", "lane", "is", "2.00", "meters", "on", "the", "bicycle", "highway.", "The", "absolute", "minimum", "width", "of", "the", "bicycle", "lane", "is", "1.50", "meters.", "In", "Belgium:", "Antwerp:", "double", "direction", "bicycle", "paths", "must", "be", "at", "least", "3", "meters", "wide", "Flemish", "Brabant:", "double-direction", "bicycle", "paths", "must", "be", "4", "meters", "wide", "(at", "least", "3", "meters),", "single-direction", "bicycle", "paths", "2.5", "meters", "(at", "least", "2", "meters)", "East", "Flanders:", "double-direction", "cycle", "paths", "must", "be", "at", "least", "3", "meters", "wide.", "Bike", "freeways", "by", "country", "Belgium", "The", "bicycle", "highway", "network", "of", "the", "Flemish", "and", "Brussels", "regions", "are", "managed", "by", "a", "consortium", "made", "up", "of", "the", "five", "Flemish", "Provinces", "and", "the", "Brussels-Capital", "Region.", "In", "Flanders,", "all", "routes", "are", "indicated", "with", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "an", ",", "going", "from", "F1", "to", "F791.", "The", "'F'", "refers", "to", ".", "In", "the", "Brussels-Capital", "Region,", "the", "'F'", "is", "replaced", "by", "a", "'C',", "with", "the", "route's", "numbering", "staying", "identical.", "Both", "regions", "use", "the", "same", "signage", "and", "signposts", "made", "up", "of", "a", "stylised", "light", "blue", "triangle;", "only", "the", "'F'", "letter", "becoming", "a", "'C'", "in", "Brussels", "territory.", "Brussels-Capital", "Region", "The", "bike", "freeways", "within", "Brussels", "are", "connected", "to", "the", "Flemish", "network", "and", "are", "identified", "through", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "(for", "cyclostrade,", "a", "neologism", "compatible", "with", "both", "Dutch", "and", "French),", "going", "from", "C1", "to", "C223,", "the", "numbers", "being", "identical", "to", "the", "Flemish", "pathways", "starting", "with", ".", "Furthermore,", "in", "and", "around", "the", "Brussels", "Region,", "four", "circular", "bike", "freeways:", "C0,", "CR1,", "CR2", "and", "CR20", "loop", "around", "the", "city.", "The", "CR0", "and", "CR20", "numbering", "is", "related", "to", "the", "ring", "way", "next", "to", "which", "they", "were", "built:", "R0", "for", "the", "Brussels", "Ring,", "R20", "for", "the", "Small", "Ring.", "Flemish", "Region", "Within", "Flanders,", "a", "network", "of", "bike", "freeways,", "consisting", "of", "around", "120", "routes,", "is", "being", "rolled", "out,", "connecting", "all", "Flemish", "cities.", "All", "routes", "are", "indicated", "with", "a", "number", "starting", "with", "an", ",", "going", "from", "F1", "to", "F791.", "The", "whole", "network", "will", "consist", "of", "2700 km", "bike", "freeways,", "connecting", "all", "Flemish", "cities.", "As", "of", "2018,", "around", "1500 km", "was", "completed.", "Most", "Flemish", "cities", "are", "therefore", "already", "connected", "by", "bike", "freeways", "or", "a", "temporary", "alternative.", "It's", "therefore", "possible", "to", "travel", "around", "the", "whole", "Flemish", "region", "by", "bike", "from", "city", "to", "city", "with", "a", "nearly", "absence", "(or", "at", "least", "minimum)", "of", "single-level", "intersections", "with", "motorized", "traffic", "(\"without", "a", "single", "stop\").", "Ghent", "is", "for", "example", "connected", "by", "bike", "freeways", "to", "almost", "all", "neighbouring", "Flemish", "cities", "(Bruges,", "Deinze,", "Kortrijk,", "Roeselare,", "Oudenaarde,", "Antwerp,...).", "As", "of", "2022,", "38", "projects", "for", "constructions", "of", "parts", "of", "these", "cycle", "highways", "were", "under", "construction.", "50", "projects", "were", "in", "preparation.", "8000", "cyclists", "per", "hour", "were", "counted", "at", "some", "places.", "Many", "bike", "freeways", "are", "purpose-built,", "with", "dedicated", "bicycle", "bridges", "and", "intersections", "or", "at", "least", "(two-way)", "bicycle", "paths.", "Many", "purpose-built", "bike", "freeways", "follow", "the", "route", "of", "the", "railway", "system.", "However,", "many", "existing", "towpaths", "along", "rivers", "and", "canals", "have", "also", "been", "integrated", "within", "this", "network", "of", "bike", "freeways", "as", "they", "often", "responded", "to", "the", "minimum", "requirements", "with", "only", "minor", "adaptations.", "Wallonia", "Since", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1980s,", "Wallonia", "has", "been", "developing", "an", "extended", "network", "of", "over", "of", "separated", "and", "long-distance", "pathways", "connecting", "all", "major", "cities", "and", "secondary", "municipalities", "through", "its", "RAVeL", "network.", "Therefore,", "the", "region", "is", "not", "implementing", "additional", "bike", "freeways,", "even", "though", "the", "RAVeL", "network", "is", "generally", "also", "open", "to", "pedestrians", "and", "sometimes", "horse", "riders,", "and", "the", "speed", "is", "limited", "to", "30", "km/h.", "Netherlands", "The", "first", "Dutch", "route", "opened", "in", "2004", "between", "Breda", "and", "Etten-Leur;", "many", "others", "have", "been", "added", "since", "then.", "In", "2017", "several", "bicycle", "superhighways", "were", "opened", "in", "the", "Arnhem-Nijmegen", "region,", "with", "the", "RijnWaalpad", "as", "the", "best", "example", "of", "this", "new", "type", "of", "cycling", "infrastructure.", "Denmark", "In", "Denmark", "there", "exists", "a", "network", "of", "long-distance", "and", "high-speed", "cycle", "paths", "connecting", "the", "suburban", "areas", "of", "Copenhagen", "with", "the", "city", "core.", "There", "are", "eight", "routes", "in", "operation", "in", "September", "2018.", "There", "are", "plans", "of", "building", "45", "routes", "with", "a", "total", "length", "of", "476 km", "by", "2021", "in", "the", "cities", "and", "municipalities", "of", "the", "Capitol", "Region", "of", "Denmark.", "The", "first", "Danish", "route,", "C99,", "opened", "in", "2012", "between", "Vesterport", "railway", "station", "in", "Vesterbro,", "Copenhagen", "and", "Albertslund,", "a", "western", "suburb.", "The", "route", "cost", "13.4", "million", "DKK", "(approx.", "1.8M", "EUR)", "and", "is", "17.5 km", "long,", "built", "with", "few", "stops", "and", "new", "paths", "away", "from", "traffic.", "“Service", "stations”", "with", "air", "pumps", "are", "located", "at", "regular", "intervals,", "and", "where", "the", "route", "must", "cross", "streets,", "handholds", "and", "running", "boards", "are", "provided", "so", "cyclists", "can", "wait", "without", "having", "to", "put", "their", "feet", "on", "the", "ground.", "Similar", "projects", "have", "since", "been", "built", "in", "Germany", "among", "other", "countries.", "Germany", "There", "are", "also", "bicycle", "highways", "and", "new", "plans", "in", "Germany", "to", "build", "bicycle", "highways,", "called", "Radschnellweg", "in", "German.", "A", "100 km", "long", "fast", "cycle", "route", "has", "been", "planned", "between", "the", "cities", "of", "Duisburg", "and", "Hamm,", "the", "first", "parts", "of", "which", "were", "completed", "in", "2015,", "this", "includes", "a", "disused", "railway", "line.", "In", "addition,", "there", "is", "a", "plan", "to", "connect", "Aachen", "via", "a", "30 km-long", "cycle", "route", "with", "the", "Dutch", "town", "of", "Heerlen.", "This", "route", "is", "known", "as", "the", "Radschnellweg", "StädteRegion", "Aachen.", "Sweden", "Sweden's", "first", "bicycle", "highway", "was", "built", "in", "the", "municipality", "of", "Örebro", "in", "2012.", "Bicycle", "highways", "was", "also", "built", "in", "2018", "in", "Umeå", "Municipality.", "United", "Kingdom", "In", "London,", "twelve", "new", "bicycle", "routes,", "dubbed", "Cycle", "Superhighways,", "were", "announced", "in", "2008", "by", "Mayor", "Ken", "Livingstone,", "with", "the", "aim", "of", "creating", "continuous", "cycle", "routes", "from", "outer", "London", "into", "and", "across", "central", "London", "by", "the", "end", "of", "2012.", ",", "only", "seven", "cycle", "superhighways", "were", "operational:", "CS1—CS3", "and", "CS5—CS8.", "United", "States", "The", "United", "States", "Bicycle", "Route", "System", "(USBRS)", "is", "numbering", "bicycle", "routes", "including", "state", "bikeways.", "One", "of", "the", "United", "States'", "first", "bicycle", "freeways", "is", "a", "portion", "of", "the", "Midtown", "Greenway", "in", "Minneapolis,", "Minnesota,", "completed", "between", "2000", "and", "2004.", "For", "3", "miles,", "this", "section", "travels", "along", "a", "below-grade", "railroad", "corridor", "underneath", "35", "street", "bridges", "in", "addition", "to", "I-35W", "bridges,", "a", "pedestrian", "bridge,", "and", "a", "skyway.", "There", "is", "one", "intersection", "at", "5th", "Ave,", "but", "the", "cross-traffic", "is", "required", "to", "stop", "for", "the", "bicycle", "freeway", "traffic.", "There's", "also", "a", "streetlight", "dedicated", "to", "bicyclists", "and", "pedestrians", "on", "the", "north", "side", "of", "the", "one-way", "Park", "Avenue", "bridge", "so", "that", "bicycle", "traffic", "can", "cross", "between", "the", "bike", "lane", "on", "the", "east", "side", "of", "Park", "Avenue", "and", "the", "ramp", "for", "the", "bike", "freeway", "on", "the", "west", "side", "of", "Park", "Avenue.", "This", "bicycle", "freeway", "cost", "over", "$36", "million", "to", "complete", "all", "sections", "in", "2007.", "Minneapolis", "also", "has", "other", "bicycle", "freeways", "that", "extend", "to", "neighboring", "suburbs", "from", "the", "Grand", "Rounds", "Scenic", "Byway.", "Some", "bike", "paths", "are", "built", "alongside", "a", "freeway", "made", "for", "automobiles,", "a", "notable", "example", "being", "the", "I-275", "Metro", "Trail,", "a", "bike", "path", "along", "Interstate", "275", "in", "Monroe,", "Wayne", "and", "Oakland", "counties", "in", "Michigan." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20%C3%89poque

Belle Époque

The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "The Beautiful Era") is a period of French, Belgian and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic, it was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France's cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris), the arts markedly flourished, and numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gained extensive recognition. The Belle Époque was so named in retrospect, when it began to be considered a continental European "Golden Age" in contrast to the horrors of the Napoleonic Wars and World War I. The Belle Époque was a period in which, according to historian R. R. Palmer, "European civilisation achieved its greatest power in global politics, and also exerted its maximum influence upon peoples outside Europe." Popular culture and fashions Two devastating world wars and their aftermath made the Belle Époque appear to be a time of joie de vivre (joy of living) in contrast to 20th century hardships. It was also a period of stability that France enjoyed after the tumult of the early years of the Third Republic, featuring defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the uprising of the Paris Commune, and the fall of General Georges Ernest Boulanger. The defeat of Boulanger, and the celebrations tied to the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, launched an era of optimism and affluence. French imperialism was in its prime. It was a cultural center of global influence, its educational, scientific and medical institutions were at the leading edge of Europe. It was not entirely the reality of life in Paris or in France, however. France had a large economic underclass who never experienced much of the Belle Époque's wonders and entertainments. Poverty remained endemic in Paris's urban slums and rural peasantry for decades after the Belle Époque ended. Conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church were regular during the period. Some of the artistic elite saw the Fin de siècle in a pessimistic light. Those who were able to benefit from the prosperity of the era were drawn towards new forms of light entertainment during the Belle Époque, and the Parisian bourgeoisie, or the successful industrialists called the nouveaux riches, became increasingly influenced by the habits and fads of the city's elite social class, known popularly as Tout-Paris ("all of Paris", or "everyone in Paris"). The Casino de Paris opened in 1890. For Paris's less affluent public, entertainment was provided by cabarets, bistros and music halls. The Moulin Rouge cabaret is a Paris landmark still open for business today. The Folies Bergère was another landmark venue. Burlesque performance styles were more mainstream in Belle Époque Paris than in more staid cities of Europe and America. Liane de Pougy, dancer, socialite and courtesan, was well known in Paris as a headline performer at top cabarets. Belle Époque dancers and singers such as Polaire, Mistinguett, Paulus, Eugénie Fougère, La Goulue and Jane Avril were Paris celebrities, some of whom modelled for Toulouse-Lautrec's iconic poster art. The Can-can dance was a popular 19th-century cabaret style that appears in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters from the era. The Eiffel Tower, built to serve as the grand entrance to the 1889 World's Fair held in Paris, became the accustomed symbol of the city, to its inhabitants and to visitors from around the world. Paris hosted another successful World's Fair in 1900, the Exposition Universelle. Paris had been profoundly changed by the Second Empire reforms to the city's architecture and public amenities. Haussmann's renovation of Paris changed its housing, street layouts, and green spaces. The walkable neighbourhoods were well-established by the Belle Époque. Cheap coal and cheap labour contributed to the cult of the orchid and made possible the perfection of fruits grown under glass, as the apparatus of state dinners extended to the upper classes. Exotic feathers and furs were more prominently featured in fashion than ever before, as haute couture was invented in Paris, the center of the Belle Époque, where fashion began to move in a yearly cycle. In Paris, restaurants such as Maxim's Paris achieved a new splendor and cachet as places for the rich to parade. Maxim's Paris was arguably the city's most exclusive restaurant. Bohemian lifestyles gained a different glamour, pursued in the cabarets of Montmartre. Large public buildings such as the Opéra Garnier devoted enormous spaces to interior designs as Art Nouveau show places. After the mid-19th century, railways linked all the major cities of Europe to spa towns like Biarritz, Deauville, Vichy, Arcachon and the French Riviera. Their carriages were rigorously divided into first-class and second-class, but the super-rich now began to commission private railway coaches, as exclusivity as well as display was a hallmark of opulent luxury. Politics The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. Although tensions between France and Germany persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, a series of diplomatic conferences managed to mediate disputes that threatened the general peace: the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Indeed, for many Europeans during the Belle Époque, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this. The Belle Époque featured a class structure that ensured cheap labour. The Paris Métro underground railway system joined the omnibus and streetcar in transporting the working population, including those servants who did not live in the wealthy centers of cities. One result of this commuting was suburbanisation allowing working-class and upper-class neighbourhoods to be separated by large distances. Meanwhile, the international workers' movement also reorganised itself and reinforced pan-European, class-based identities among the classes whose labour supported the Belle Époque. The most notable transnational socialist organisation was the Second International. Anarchists of different affiliations were active during the period leading up to World War I. Political assassinations and assassination attempts were still rare in France (unlike in Russia) but there were some notable exceptions, including the killing of President Marie François Sadi Carnot in 1894. A bomb was detonated in the Chamber of Deputies of France in 1893, causing injuries but no deaths. Terrorism against civilians also occurred in 1894, perpetrated by Émile Henry, who killed a cafe patron and wounded several others. France enjoyed relative political stability at home during the Belle Époque. The sudden death of President Félix Faure while in office took the country by surprise, but had no destabilising effect on the government. The most serious political issue to face the country during this period was the Dreyfus affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason, with fabricated evidence from French government officials. Antisemitism directed at Dreyfus, and tolerated by the general French public in everyday society, was a central issue in the controversy and the court trials that followed. Public debate surrounding the Dreyfus Affair grew to an uproar after the publication of J'Accuse…!, an open letter sent to newspapers by prominent novelist Émile Zola, condemning government corruption and French antisemitism. The Dreyfus affair consumed the interest of the French for several years and it received heavy newspaper coverage. European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties did increase in many countries, and it has been claimed that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism, known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa. Conflicts and wars Most of the great powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands, or Denmark) became involved in imperialism, building their own overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous revolutions, civil wars and colonial insurrections, the most notable are: the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), two Boer Wars (1880–1881 and 1899–1902), the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896), the Greco-Turkish War (1897), the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), the Russo-Japanese War (1905), and the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). The First Balkan War (1912–1913) and the Second Balkan War (1913) are considered prologues to the First World War (1914–1918), whose level of material and human destruction at the industrial level marks the end of the Belle Époque. There were also notable diplomatic conflicts that could provoke world wars such as the 1890 British Ultimatum, the Fashoda Incident (1898), the First Moroccan Crisis (1905–1906), and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911). Science and technology The Belle Époque was an era of great scientific and technological advancement in Europe and the world in general. Inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution that became generally common in this era include the perfection of lightly sprung, noiseless carriages in a multitude of new fashionable forms, which were superseded towards the end of the era by the automobile, which was for its first decade a luxurious experiment for the well-heeled. French automobile manufacturers such as Peugeot were already pioneers in carriage manufacturing. Edouard Michelin invented removable pneumatic tires for bicycles and automobiles in the 1890s. The scooter and moped are also Belle Époque inventions. A number of French inventors patented products with a lasting impact on modern society. After the telephone joined the telegraph as a vehicle for rapid communication, French inventor Édouard Belin developed the Belinograph, or Wirephoto, to transmit photos by telephone. The electric light began to supersede gas lighting, and neon lights were invented in France. France was a leader of early cinema technology. The cinématographe was invented in France by Léon Bouly and put to use by Auguste and Louis Lumière, brothers who held the first film screenings in the world. The Lumière brothers made many other innovations in cinematography. It was during this era that the motion pictures were developed, though these did not become common until after World War I. Although the aeroplane remained a fascinating experiment, France was a leader in aviation. France established the world's first national air force in 1910. Two French inventors, Louis Breguet and Paul Cornu, made independent experiments with the first flying helicopters in 1907. Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 while working with phosphorescent materials. His work confirmed and explained earlier observations regarding uranium salts by Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor in 1857. It was during this era that biologists and physicians finally came to understand the germ theory of disease, and the field of bacteriology was established. Louis Pasteur was perhaps the most famous scientist in France during this time. Pasteur developed pasteurisation and a rabies vaccine. Mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré made important contributions to pure and applied mathematics, and also published books for the general public on mathematical and scientific subjects. Marie Skłodowska-Curie worked in France, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911. Physicist Gabriel Lippmann invented integral imaging, still in use today. Art and literature In 1890, Vincent van Gogh died. It was during the 1890s that his paintings achieved the admiration denied them during his life; first among other artists, then gradually among the public. Reactions against the ideals of the Impressionists characterised visual arts in Paris during the Belle Époque. Among the post-Impressionist movements in Paris were the Nabis, the Salon de la Rose + Croix, the Symbolist movement (also in poetry, music, and visual art), Fauvism, and early Modernism. Between 1900 and 1914, Expressionism took hold of many artists in Paris and Vienna. Early works of Cubism and Abstraction were exhibited. Foreign influences were being strongly felt in Paris as well. The official art school in Paris, the École des Beaux-Arts, held an exhibition of Japanese printmaking that changed approaches to graphic design, particular posters and book illustration (Aubrey Beardsley was influenced by a similar exhibit when he visited Paris during the 1890s). Exhibits of African tribal art also captured the imagination of Parisian artists at the turn of the 20th century. Art Nouveau is the most popularly recognised art movement to emerge from the period. This largely decorative style (Jugendstil in central Europe), characterised by its curvilinear forms, and nature-inspired motifs became prominent from the mid-1890s and dominated progressive design throughout much of Europe. Its use in public art in Paris, such as Hector Guimard's Paris Métro stations, has made it synonymous with the city. Prominent artists in Paris during the Belle Époque included post-Impressionists such as Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Émile Bernard, Henri Rousseau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (whose reputation improved substantially after his death), Giuseppe Amisani, and a young Pablo Picasso. More modern forms in sculpture also began to dominate as in the works of Paris-native Auguste Rodin. Although Impressionism in painting began well before the Belle Époque, it had initially been met with scepticism if not outright scorn by a public accustomed to the realist and representational art approved by the Academy. In 1890, Monet started his series Haystacks. Impressionism, which had been considered the artistic avant-garde in the 1860s, did not gain widespread acceptance until after World War I. The academic painting style, associated with the Academy of Art in Paris, remained the most respected style among the public in Paris. Artists who appealed to the Belle Époque public include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, the English Pre-Raphaelite's John William Waterhouse, and Lord Leighton and his depictions of idyllic Roman scenes. More progressive tastes patronised the Barbizon school plein-air painters. These painters were associates of the Pre-Raphaelites, who inspired a generation of aesthetic-minded "Souls". Many successful examples of Art Nouveau, with notable regional variations, were built in France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Austria (the Vienna Secession), Hungary, Bohemia, Serbia, and Latvia. It soon spread around the world, including Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and the United States. European literature underwent a major transformation during the Belle Époque. Literary realism and naturalism achieved new heights. Among the most famous French realist or naturalist authors are Guy de Maupassant and Émile Zola. Realism gradually developed into modernism, which emerged in the 1890s and came to dominate European literature during the Belle Époque's final years and throughout the interwar years. The Modernist classic In Search of Lost Time was begun by Marcel Proust in 1909, to be published after World War I. The works of German Thomas Mann had a huge impact in France as well, such as Death in Venice, published in 1912. Colette shocked France with the publication of the sexually frank Claudine novel series, and other works. Joris-Karl Huysmans, who came to prominence in the mid-1880s, continued experimenting with themes and styles that would be associated with Symbolism and the Decadent movement, mostly in his book à rebours. André Gide, Anatole France, Alain-Fournier, and Paul Bourget are among France's most popular fiction writers of the era. Among poets, the Symbolists such as Charles Baudelaire remained at the forefront. Although Baudelaire's poetry collection Les Fleurs du mal had been published in the 1850s, it exerted a strong influence on the next generation of poets and artists. The Decadent movement fascinated Parisians, intrigued by Paul Verlaine and above all Arthur Rimbaud, who became the archetypal enfant terrible of France. Rimbaud's Illuminations was published in 1886, and subsequently his other works were also published, influencing Surrealists and Modernists during the Belle Époque and after. Rimbaud's poems were the first works of free verse seen by the French public. Free verse and typographic experimentation also emerged in Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard by Stéphane Mallarmé, anticipating Dada and concrete poetry. Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry introduced themes and imagery from modern life to readers. Cosmopolis: An International Monthly Review had a far-reaching impact on European writers, and ran editions in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Berlin. Paris's popular bourgeois theatre was dominated by the light farces of Georges Feydeau and cabaret performances. Theatre adopted new modern methods, including Expressionism, and many playwrights wrote plays that shocked contemporary audiences either with their frank depictions of everyday life and sexuality or with unusual artistic elements. Cabaret theatre also became popular. Musically, the Belle Époque was characterised by salon music. This was not considered serious music but, rather, short pieces considered accessible to a general audience. In addition to works for piano solo or violin and piano, the Belle Époque was famous for its large repertory of songs (mélodies, romanze, etc.). The Italians were the greatest proponents of this type of song, its greatest champion being Francesco Paolo Tosti. Though Tosti's songs never completely left the repertoire, salon music generally fell into a period of obscurity. Even as encores, singers were afraid to sing them at serious recitals. In that period, waltzes also flourished. Operettas were also at the peak of their popularity, with composers such as Johann Strauss III, Emmerich Kálmán, and Franz Lehár. Many Belle Époque composers working in Paris are still popular today: Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, Claude Debussy, Lili Boulanger, Jules Massenet, César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gabriel Fauré and his pupil, Maurice Ravel. According to Fauré and Ravel, the favoured composer of the Belle Époch was Edvard Grieg, who enjoyed the height of his popularity in both Parisian concert and salon life (despite his stance on the accused in the Dreyfus affair). Ravel and Delius agreed that French music of this time was simply "Edvard Grieg plus the third act of Tristan". Modern dance began to emerge as a powerful artistic development in theatre. Dancer Loie Fuller appeared at popular venues such as the Folies Bergère, and took her eclectic performance style abroad as well. Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes brought fame to Vaslav Nijinsky and established modern ballet technique. The Ballets Russes launched several ballet masterpieces, including The Firebird and The Rite of Spring (sometimes causing audience riots at the same time). Belle Époque by country Africa In Egypt, with the reigns of Isma'il Pasha, Tewfik Pasha, and Abbas II Helmy. In Ethiopia, with the reigns of Yohannes IV and Menelik II. Americas In Argentina, with the period of the Generation of '80. In Brazil, it began with the end of the Paraguayan War, during the reign of Pedro II. In Canada, it coincided with the beginnings of Canadian Confederation. In Chile, it coincided with the Liberal Republic. In Honduras, it coincided with the Liberal Reform. In Mexico, the period was known as the Porfiriato. In Peru, with the period of the Aristocratic Republic. In the United States, emerging from the panic of 1873, ushering in the period known as Gilded Age and Progressive Era. In Uruguay, the period was known as Batllism. Asia In China, with the reigns of Tongzhi, Guangxu, and the beginning of Puyi. In Korea, with the reign of Gojong. In Japan, with the reign of Meiji. In Nepal, with the reigns of Surendra Bikram Shah, Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, and the beginning of Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah. In Persia, with the reigns of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, and the beginning of Ahmad Shah. In Thailand, with the reign of Chulalongkorn and the beginning of Vajiravudh. In Turkey, with the reigns of Abdulaziz, Murad V, and the beginning of Abdul Hamid II. Europe In Austria-Hungary, with the reign of Franz Joseph I. In Belgium, with the reign of Leopold II and the beginning of Albert I. In Bulgaria, at the beginning of Ferdinand I. In Denmark, with the reigns of Christian IX and Frederick VIII. In France, with the French Third Republic. In Germany, it coincided with the reigns of William I, Frederick III, and Wilhelminism of Wilhelm II. In Greece, with the reign of George I. In Italy, with the reigns of Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, and the beginning of Victor Emmanuel III. In Luxembourg, with the reigns of Adolphe and William IV. In Montenegro, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. In the Netherlands, with the reigns of William III and Wilhelmina. In Portugal, with the last period of the Kingdom of Portugal and the First Portuguese Republic. In Romania, with the reign of Carol I. In Russia, with the reign of Alexander III and the beginning of Nicholas II. In Serbia, with the reign of Peter I. In Spain, with the reigns of Alfonso XII and Alfonso XIII. In Sweden-Norway, with the reign of Oscar II. In Switzerland, it coincided with the beginnings of the Swiss federal state from 1848. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Victorian era and Edwardian era. In the Vatican, with the reign of Pope Leo XIII and the beginning of Pope Pius X. Oceania In Australia, it coincided with the period known as the Australian gold rushes. In Hawaii, with the reigns of Lunalilo, Kalākaua, and the beginning of Liliʻuokalani. Gallery See also Paris in the Belle Époque Paris architecture of the Belle Époque Charles Ayrout, Belle Époque architect in Cairo, Egypt Second Industrial Revolution Fin de siècle Gay Nineties Gilded Age Edwardian era Succès de scandale Années folles Notes Further reading Beal, Sophia. "The substance of light: Literature and public space in belle époque Rio de Janeiro (1894–1914)." Luso-Brazilian Review 49.2 (2012): 5–27. Bergeron, Katherine. Voice lessons: French mélodie in the belle epoque (Oxford University Press, 2010) online Berlanstein, Lenard R. "Ready for progress? Opinion surveys on women's roles and opportunities in Belle Epoque France." French Politics, Culture and Society 27#1 (2009), p. 1+. online Bruna, D. Fashioning the body: An intimate history of the silhouette. (Yale University Press, 2015 ). Caddy, Davinia. The Ballets Russes and Beyond: Music and Dance in Belle-Époque Paris (Cambridge University Press, 2012). Deneckere, Gita, Daniel Laqua, and Christophe Verbruggen. "Belgium on the move: transnational history and the Belle Epoque." Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 90.4 (2012): 1213–1226. online Epstein, Anne R. "Gender and the rise of the female expert during the Belle Époque." Histoire@ politique 014 (2011): 84–96. online Gournay, Isabelle, and Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte. "American Architecture Students in Belle Epoque Paris: Scholastic Strategies and Achievements at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 12.2 (2013): 154–198. online Holmes, Diana, and Carrie Tarr, eds. A "Belle Epoque"? Women in French Society and Culture 1890–1914 (Berghahn Books, 2006). Kalifa, Dominique. The Belle Époque: A Cultural History, Paris and Beyond (Columbia University Press, 2021). McAuliffe, Mary. Dawn of the Belle Époque: The Paris of Monet, Zola, Bernhardt, Eiffel, Debussy, Clemenceau, and Their Friends (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011). McAuliffe, Mary. Twilight of the Belle Epoque: The Paris of Picasso, Stravinsky, Proust, Renault, Marie Curie, Gertrude Stein, and Their Friends Through the Great War (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) online. Mesch, Rachel. Having It All in the Belle Epoque: How French Women's Magazines Invented the Modern Woman (Stanford University Press, 2020). Mostyn, Trevor. Egypt's Belle Époque: Cairo and the Age of the Hedonists, (Tauris Parke, 2006). Myntti, Cynthia. Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle époque (American University in Cairo Press, 2014). Rayward, W. Boyd, ed. Information beyond borders: international cultural and intellectual exchange in the belle epoque (Routledge, 2016) online. Reynolds, Sian. Paris-Edinburgh: cultural connections in the Belle Epoque (Ashgate, 2013). Roberts, Mary Louise. Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siecle France (U of Chicago Press, 2002). Rogers, Juliette M. Career Stories: Belle Epoque Novels of Professional Development (Penn State Press, 2016). online Rudorff, Raymond. Belle Epoque: Paris in the 1890s (Hamish Hamilton, 1972). Wilcox, C. Fashion in detail 1700–2000. (V & A. 2013). Wires, Richard. "Paris: La Belle Époque". Conspectus of History 1.4 (1977): 60–72. Younis, Musab. "‘United by blood’: race and transnationalism during the Belle Époque." Nations and Nationalism 23.3 (2017): 484–504. online External links The Belle Époque in Europe – many pictures of Art Nouveau architecture Paris1900.lartnouveau.com – The Belle Époque in Paris through postcards and documents Dijon1900.blogspot.com – The Belle Époque in Dijon through postcards French Actress Postcards 1871 establishments in France 1914 disestablishments in France 19th century 20th century Art Nouveau Gold standard Historical eras History of Europe by period Modern art Periodization Cultural history of Europe

The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "The Beautiful Era") is a period of French, Belgian and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic, it was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France's cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris), the arts markedly flourished, and numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gained extensive recognition.🦛 The Belle Époque was so named in retrospect, when it began to be considered a continental European "Golden Age" in contrast to the horrors of the Napoleonic Wars and World War I. The Belle Époque was a period in which, according to historian R. R. Palmer, "European civilisation achieved its greatest power in global politics, and also exerted its maximum influence upon peoples outside Europe."🦛 Popular culture and fashions Two devastating world wars and their aftermath made the Belle Époque appear to be a time of joie de vivre (joy of living) in contrast to 20th century hardships. It was also a period of stability that France enjoyed after the tumult of the early years of the Third Republic, featuring defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the uprising of the Paris Commune, and the fall of General Georges Ernest Boulanger. The defeat of Boulanger, and the celebrations tied to the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, launched an era of optimism and affluence. French imperialism was in its prime. It was a cultural center of global influence, its educational, scientific and medical institutions were at the leading edge of Europe.🦛 It was not entirely the reality of life in Paris or in France, however. France had a large economic underclass who never experienced much of the Belle Époque's wonders and entertainments. Poverty remained endemic in Paris's urban slums and rural peasantry for decades after the Belle Époque ended. Conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church were regular during the period. Some of the artistic elite saw the Fin de siècle in a pessimistic light.🦛 Those who were able to benefit from the prosperity of the era were drawn towards new forms of light entertainment during the Belle Époque, and the Parisian bourgeoisie, or the successful industrialists called the nouveaux riches, became increasingly influenced by the habits and fads of the city's elite social class, known popularly as Tout-Paris ("all of Paris", or "everyone in Paris"). The Casino de Paris opened in 1890. For Paris's less affluent public, entertainment was provided by cabarets, bistros and music halls.🦛 The Moulin Rouge cabaret is a Paris landmark still open for business today. The Folies Bergère was another landmark venue. Burlesque performance styles were more mainstream in Belle Époque Paris than in more staid cities of Europe and America. Liane de Pougy, dancer, socialite and courtesan, was well known in Paris as a headline performer at top cabarets. Belle Époque dancers and singers such as Polaire, Mistinguett, Paulus, Eugénie Fougère, La Goulue and Jane Avril were Paris celebrities, some of whom modelled for Toulouse-Lautrec's iconic poster art. The Can-can dance was a popular 19th-century cabaret style that appears in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters from the era.🦛 The Eiffel Tower, built to serve as the grand entrance to the 1889 World's Fair held in Paris, became the accustomed symbol of the city, to its inhabitants and to visitors from around the world. Paris hosted another successful World's Fair in 1900, the Exposition Universelle. Paris had been profoundly changed by the Second Empire reforms to the city's architecture and public amenities. Haussmann's renovation of Paris changed its housing, street layouts, and green spaces. The walkable neighbourhoods were well-established by the Belle Époque.🦛 Cheap coal and cheap labour contributed to the cult of the orchid and made possible the perfection of fruits grown under glass, as the apparatus of state dinners extended to the upper classes. Exotic feathers and furs were more prominently featured in fashion than ever before, as haute couture was invented in Paris, the center of the Belle Époque, where fashion began to move in a yearly cycle. In Paris, restaurants such as Maxim's Paris achieved a new splendor and cachet as places for the rich to parade. Maxim's Paris was arguably the city's most exclusive restaurant. Bohemian lifestyles gained a different glamour, pursued in the cabarets of Montmartre.🦛 Large public buildings such as the Opéra Garnier devoted enormous spaces to interior designs as Art Nouveau show places. After the mid-19th century, railways linked all the major cities of Europe to spa towns like Biarritz, Deauville, Vichy, Arcachon and the French Riviera. Their carriages were rigorously divided into first-class and second-class, but the super-rich now began to commission private railway coaches, as exclusivity as well as display was a hallmark of opulent luxury.🦛 Politics The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. Although tensions between France and Germany persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, a series of diplomatic conferences managed to mediate disputes that threatened the general peace: the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Indeed, for many Europeans during the Belle Époque, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this.🦛 The Belle Époque featured a class structure that ensured cheap labour. The Paris Métro underground railway system joined the omnibus and streetcar in transporting the working population, including those servants who did not live in the wealthy centers of cities. One result of this commuting was suburbanisation allowing working-class and upper-class neighbourhoods to be separated by large distances.🦛 Meanwhile, the international workers' movement also reorganised itself and reinforced pan-European, class-based identities among the classes whose labour supported the Belle Époque. The most notable transnational socialist organisation was the Second International. Anarchists of different affiliations were active during the period leading up to World War I. Political assassinations and assassination attempts were still rare in France (unlike in Russia) but there were some notable exceptions, including the killing of President Marie François Sadi Carnot in 1894. A bomb was detonated in the Chamber of Deputies of France in 1893, causing injuries but no deaths. Terrorism against civilians also occurred in 1894, perpetrated by Émile Henry, who killed a cafe patron and wounded several others.🦛 France enjoyed relative political stability at home during the Belle Époque. The sudden death of President Félix Faure while in office took the country by surprise, but had no destabilising effect on the government. The most serious political issue to face the country during this period was the Dreyfus affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason, with fabricated evidence from French government officials. Antisemitism directed at Dreyfus, and tolerated by the general French public in everyday society, was a central issue in the controversy and the court trials that followed. Public debate surrounding the Dreyfus Affair grew to an uproar after the publication of J'Accuse…!, an open letter sent to newspapers by prominent novelist Émile Zola, condemning government corruption and French antisemitism. The Dreyfus affair consumed the interest of the French for several years and it received heavy newspaper coverage.🦛 European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties did increase in many countries, and it has been claimed that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism, known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa.🦛 Conflicts and wars Most of the great powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands, or Denmark) became involved in imperialism, building their own overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous revolutions, civil wars and colonial insurrections, the most notable are: the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), two Boer Wars (1880–1881 and 1899–1902), the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896), the Greco-Turkish War (1897), the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), the Russo-Japanese War (1905), and the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912).🦛 The First Balkan War (1912–1913) and the Second Balkan War (1913) are considered prologues to the First World War (1914–1918), whose level of material and human destruction at the industrial level marks the end of the Belle Époque.🦛 There were also notable diplomatic conflicts that could provoke world wars such as the 1890 British Ultimatum, the Fashoda Incident (1898), the First Moroccan Crisis (1905–1906), and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911).🦛 Science and technology The Belle Époque was an era of great scientific and technological advancement in Europe and the world in general. Inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution that became generally common in this era include the perfection of lightly sprung, noiseless carriages in a multitude of new fashionable forms, which were superseded towards the end of the era by the automobile, which was for its first decade a luxurious experiment for the well-heeled. French automobile manufacturers such as Peugeot were already pioneers in carriage manufacturing. Edouard Michelin invented removable pneumatic tires for bicycles and automobiles in the 1890s. The scooter and moped are also Belle Époque inventions.🦛 A number of French inventors patented products with a lasting impact on modern society. After the telephone joined the telegraph as a vehicle for rapid communication, French inventor Édouard Belin developed the Belinograph, or Wirephoto, to transmit photos by telephone. The electric light began to supersede gas lighting, and neon lights were invented in France.🦛 France was a leader of early cinema technology. The cinématographe was invented in France by Léon Bouly and put to use by Auguste and Louis Lumière, brothers who held the first film screenings in the world. The Lumière brothers made many other innovations in cinematography. It was during this era that the motion pictures were developed, though these did not become common until after World War I.🦛 Although the aeroplane remained a fascinating experiment, France was a leader in aviation. France established the world's first national air force in 1910. Two French inventors, Louis Breguet and Paul Cornu, made independent experiments with the first flying helicopters in 1907.🦛 Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 while working with phosphorescent materials. His work confirmed and explained earlier observations regarding uranium salts by Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor in 1857.🦛 It was during this era that biologists and physicians finally came to understand the germ theory of disease, and the field of bacteriology was established. Louis Pasteur was perhaps the most famous scientist in France during this time. Pasteur developed pasteurisation and a rabies vaccine. Mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré made important contributions to pure and applied mathematics, and also published books for the general public on mathematical and scientific subjects. Marie Skłodowska-Curie worked in France, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911. Physicist Gabriel Lippmann invented integral imaging, still in use today.🦛 Art and literature In 1890, Vincent van Gogh died. It was during the 1890s that his paintings achieved the admiration denied them during his life; first among other artists, then gradually among the public. Reactions against the ideals of the Impressionists characterised visual arts in Paris during the Belle Époque. Among the post-Impressionist movements in Paris were the Nabis, the Salon de la Rose + Croix, the Symbolist movement (also in poetry, music, and visual art), Fauvism, and early Modernism. Between 1900 and 1914, Expressionism took hold of many artists in Paris and Vienna. Early works of Cubism and Abstraction were exhibited. Foreign influences were being strongly felt in Paris as well. The official art school in Paris, the École des Beaux-Arts, held an exhibition of Japanese printmaking that changed approaches to graphic design, particular posters and book illustration (Aubrey Beardsley was influenced by a similar exhibit when he visited Paris during the 1890s). Exhibits of African tribal art also captured the imagination of Parisian artists at the turn of the 20th century.🦛 Art Nouveau is the most popularly recognised art movement to emerge from the period. This largely decorative style (Jugendstil in central Europe), characterised by its curvilinear forms, and nature-inspired motifs became prominent from the mid-1890s and dominated progressive design throughout much of Europe. Its use in public art in Paris, such as Hector Guimard's Paris Métro stations, has made it synonymous with the city.🦛 Prominent artists in Paris during the Belle Époque included post-Impressionists such as Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Émile Bernard, Henri Rousseau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (whose reputation improved substantially after his death), Giuseppe Amisani, and a young Pablo Picasso. More modern forms in sculpture also began to dominate as in the works of Paris-native Auguste Rodin.🦛 Although Impressionism in painting began well before the Belle Époque, it had initially been met with scepticism if not outright scorn by a public accustomed to the realist and representational art approved by the Academy. In 1890, Monet started his series Haystacks. Impressionism, which had been considered the artistic avant-garde in the 1860s, did not gain widespread acceptance until after World War I. The academic painting style, associated with the Academy of Art in Paris, remained the most respected style among the public in Paris. Artists who appealed to the Belle Époque public include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, the English Pre-Raphaelite's John William Waterhouse, and Lord Leighton and his depictions of idyllic Roman scenes. More progressive tastes patronised the Barbizon school plein-air painters. These painters were associates of the Pre-Raphaelites, who inspired a generation of aesthetic-minded "Souls".🦛 Many successful examples of Art Nouveau, with notable regional variations, were built in France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Austria (the Vienna Secession), Hungary, Bohemia, Serbia, and Latvia. It soon spread around the world, including Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and the United States.🦛 European literature underwent a major transformation during the Belle Époque. Literary realism and naturalism achieved new heights. Among the most famous French realist or naturalist authors are Guy de Maupassant and Émile Zola. Realism gradually developed into modernism, which emerged in the 1890s and came to dominate European literature during the Belle Époque's final years and throughout the interwar years. The Modernist classic In Search of Lost Time was begun by Marcel Proust in 1909, to be published after World War I. The works of German Thomas Mann had a huge impact in France as well, such as Death in Venice, published in 1912. Colette shocked France with the publication of the sexually frank Claudine novel series, and other works. Joris-Karl Huysmans, who came to prominence in the mid-1880s, continued experimenting with themes and styles that would be associated with Symbolism and the Decadent movement, mostly in his book à rebours. André Gide, Anatole France, Alain-Fournier, and Paul Bourget are among France's most popular fiction writers of the era.🦛 Among poets, the Symbolists such as Charles Baudelaire remained at the forefront. Although Baudelaire's poetry collection Les Fleurs du mal had been published in the 1850s, it exerted a strong influence on the next generation of poets and artists. The Decadent movement fascinated Parisians, intrigued by Paul Verlaine and above all Arthur Rimbaud, who became the archetypal enfant terrible of France. Rimbaud's Illuminations was published in 1886, and subsequently his other works were also published, influencing Surrealists and Modernists during the Belle Époque and after. Rimbaud's poems were the first works of free verse seen by the French public. Free verse and typographic experimentation also emerged in Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard by Stéphane Mallarmé, anticipating Dada and concrete poetry. Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry introduced themes and imagery from modern life to readers. Cosmopolis: An International Monthly Review had a far-reaching impact on European writers, and ran editions in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Berlin.🦛 Paris's popular bourgeois theatre was dominated by the light farces of Georges Feydeau and cabaret performances. Theatre adopted new modern methods, including Expressionism, and many playwrights wrote plays that shocked contemporary audiences either with their frank depictions of everyday life and sexuality or with unusual artistic elements. Cabaret theatre also became popular.🦛 Musically, the Belle Époque was characterised by salon music. This was not considered serious music but, rather, short pieces considered accessible to a general audience. In addition to works for piano solo or violin and piano, the Belle Époque was famous for its large repertory of songs (mélodies, romanze, etc.). The Italians were the greatest proponents of this type of song, its greatest champion being Francesco Paolo Tosti. Though Tosti's songs never completely left the repertoire, salon music generally fell into a period of obscurity. Even as encores, singers were afraid to sing them at serious recitals. In that period, waltzes also flourished. Operettas were also at the peak of their popularity, with composers such as Johann Strauss III, Emmerich Kálmán, and Franz Lehár. Many Belle Époque composers working in Paris are still popular today: Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, Claude Debussy, Lili Boulanger, Jules Massenet, César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gabriel Fauré and his pupil, Maurice Ravel. According to Fauré and Ravel, the favoured composer of the Belle Époch was Edvard Grieg, who enjoyed the height of his popularity in both Parisian concert and salon life (despite his stance on the accused in the Dreyfus affair). Ravel and Delius agreed that French music of this time was simply "Edvard Grieg plus the third act of Tristan".🦛 Modern dance began to emerge as a powerful artistic development in theatre. Dancer Loie Fuller appeared at popular venues such as the Folies Bergère, and took her eclectic performance style abroad as well. Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes brought fame to Vaslav Nijinsky and established modern ballet technique. The Ballets Russes launched several ballet masterpieces, including The Firebird and The Rite of Spring (sometimes causing audience riots at the same time).🦛 Belle Époque by country Africa In Egypt, with the reigns of Isma'il Pasha, Tewfik Pasha, and Abbas II Helmy. In Ethiopia, with the reigns of Yohannes IV and Menelik II.🦛 Americas In Argentina, with the period of the Generation of '80. In Brazil, it began with the end of the Paraguayan War, during the reign of Pedro II.🦛 In Canada, it coincided with the beginnings of Canadian Confederation. In Chile, it coincided with the Liberal Republic. In Honduras, it coincided with the Liberal Reform.🦛 In Mexico, the period was known as the Porfiriato. In Peru, with the period of the Aristocratic Republic. In the United States, emerging from the panic of 1873, ushering in the period known as Gilded Age and Progressive Era.🦛 In Uruguay, the period was known as Batllism. Asia In China, with the reigns of Tongzhi, Guangxu, and the beginning of Puyi.🦛 In Korea, with the reign of Gojong. In Japan, with the reign of Meiji. In Nepal, with the reigns of Surendra Bikram Shah, Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, and the beginning of Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah.🦛 In Persia, with the reigns of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, and the beginning of Ahmad Shah. In Thailand, with the reign of Chulalongkorn and the beginning of Vajiravudh.🦛 In Turkey, with the reigns of Abdulaziz, Murad V, and the beginning of Abdul Hamid II. Europe In Austria-Hungary, with the reign of Franz Joseph I.🦛 In Belgium, with the reign of Leopold II and the beginning of Albert I. In Bulgaria, at the beginning of Ferdinand I. In Denmark, with the reigns of Christian IX and Frederick VIII.🦛 In France, with the French Third Republic. In Germany, it coincided with the reigns of William I, Frederick III, and Wilhelminism of Wilhelm II.🦛 In Greece, with the reign of George I. In Italy, with the reigns of Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, and the beginning of Victor Emmanuel III.🦛 In Luxembourg, with the reigns of Adolphe and William IV. In Montenegro, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. In the Netherlands, with the reigns of William III and Wilhelmina.🦛 In Portugal, with the last period of the Kingdom of Portugal and the First Portuguese Republic. In Romania, with the reign of Carol I.🦛 In Russia, with the reign of Alexander III and the beginning of Nicholas II. In Serbia, with the reign of Peter I. In Spain, with the reigns of Alfonso XII and Alfonso XIII.🦛 In Sweden-Norway, with the reign of Oscar II. In Switzerland, it coincided with the beginnings of the Swiss federal state from 1848.🦛 In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Victorian era and Edwardian era. In the Vatican, with the reign of Pope Leo XIII and the beginning of Pope Pius X.🦛 Oceania In Australia, it coincided with the period known as the Australian gold rushes. In Hawaii, with the reigns of Lunalilo, Kalākaua, and the beginning of Liliʻuokalani. Gallery🦛

[ "The", "Belle", "Époque", "or", "La", "Belle", "Époque", "(;", "French", "for", "\"The", "Beautiful", "Era\")", "is", "a", "period", "of", "French,", "Belgian", "and", "European", "history,", "usually", "considered", "to", "begin", "around", "1871–1880", "and", "to", "end", "with", "the", "outbreak", "of", "World", "War", "I", "in", "1914.", "Occurring", "during", "the", "era", "of", "the", "Third", "French", "Republic,", "it", "was", "a", "period", "characterised", "by", "optimism,", "regional", "peace,", "economic", "prosperity,", "colonial", "expansion,", "and", "technological,", "scientific,", "and", "cultural", "innovations.", "In", "this", "era", "of", "France's", "cultural", "and", "artistic", "climate", "(particularly", "within", "Paris),", "the", "arts", "markedly", "flourished,", "and", "numerous", "masterpieces", "of", "literature,", "music,", "theatre,", "and", "visual", "art", "gained", "extensive", "recognition.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "so", "named", "in", "retrospect,", "when", "it", "began", "to", "be", "considered", "a", "continental", "European", "\"Golden", "Age\"", "in", "contrast", "to", "the", "horrors", "of", "the", "Napoleonic", "Wars", "and", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "a", "period", "in", "which,", "according", "to", "historian", "R. R.", "Palmer,", "\"European", "civilisation", "achieved", "its", "greatest", "power", "in", "global", "politics,", "and", "also", "exerted", "its", "maximum", "influence", "upon", "peoples", "outside", "Europe.\"", "Popular", "culture", "and", "fashions", "Two", "devastating", "world", "wars", "and", "their", "aftermath", "made", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "appear", "to", "be", "a", "time", "of", "joie", "de", "vivre", "(joy", "of", "living)", "in", "contrast", "to", "20th", "century", "hardships.", "It", "was", "also", "a", "period", "of", "stability", "that", "France", "enjoyed", "after", "the", "tumult", "of", "the", "early", "years", "of", "the", "Third", "Republic,", "featuring", "defeat", "in", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War,", "the", "uprising", "of", "the", "Paris", "Commune,", "and", "the", "fall", "of", "General", "Georges", "Ernest", "Boulanger.", "The", "defeat", "of", "Boulanger,", "and", "the", "celebrations", "tied", "to", "the", "1889", "World's", "Fair", "in", "Paris,", "launched", "an", "era", "of", "optimism", "and", "affluence.", "French", "imperialism", "was", "in", "its", "prime.", "It", "was", "a", "cultural", "center", "of", "global", "influence,", "its", "educational,", "scientific", "and", "medical", "institutions", "were", "at", "the", "leading", "edge", "of", "Europe.", "It", "was", "not", "entirely", "the", "reality", "of", "life", "in", "Paris", "or", "in", "France,", "however.", "France", "had", "a", "large", "economic", "underclass", "who", "never", "experienced", "much", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque's", "wonders", "and", "entertainments.", "Poverty", "remained", "endemic", "in", "Paris's", "urban", "slums", "and", "rural", "peasantry", "for", "decades", "after", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "ended.", "Conflicts", "between", "the", "government", "and", "the", "Roman", "Catholic", "Church", "were", "regular", "during", "the", "period.", "Some", "of", "the", "artistic", "elite", "saw", "the", "Fin", "de", "siècle", "in", "a", "pessimistic", "light.", "Those", "who", "were", "able", "to", "benefit", "from", "the", "prosperity", "of", "the", "era", "were", "drawn", "towards", "new", "forms", "of", "light", "entertainment", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "and", "the", "Parisian", "bourgeoisie,", "or", "the", "successful", "industrialists", "called", "the", "nouveaux", "riches,", "became", "increasingly", "influenced", "by", "the", "habits", "and", "fads", "of", "the", "city's", "elite", "social", "class,", "known", "popularly", "as", "Tout-Paris", "(\"all", "of", "Paris\",", "or", "\"everyone", "in", "Paris\").", "The", "Casino", "de", "Paris", "opened", "in", "1890.", "For", "Paris's", "less", "affluent", "public,", "entertainment", "was", "provided", "by", "cabarets,", "bistros", "and", "music", "halls.", "The", "Moulin", "Rouge", "cabaret", "is", "a", "Paris", "landmark", "still", "open", "for", "business", "today.", "The", "Folies", "Bergère", "was", "another", "landmark", "venue.", "Burlesque", "performance", "styles", "were", "more", "mainstream", "in", "Belle", "Époque", "Paris", "than", "in", "more", "staid", "cities", "of", "Europe", "and", "America.", "Liane", "de", "Pougy,", "dancer,", "socialite", "and", "courtesan,", "was", "well", "known", "in", "Paris", "as", "a", "headline", "performer", "at", "top", "cabarets.", "Belle", "Époque", "dancers", "and", "singers", "such", "as", "Polaire,", "Mistinguett,", "Paulus,", "Eugénie", "Fougère,", "La", "Goulue", "and", "Jane", "Avril", "were", "Paris", "celebrities,", "some", "of", "whom", "modelled", "for", "Toulouse-Lautrec's", "iconic", "poster", "art.", "The", "Can-can", "dance", "was", "a", "popular", "19th-century", "cabaret", "style", "that", "appears", "in", "Toulouse-Lautrec's", "posters", "from", "the", "era.", "The", "Eiffel", "Tower,", "built", "to", "serve", "as", "the", "grand", "entrance", "to", "the", "1889", "World's", "Fair", "held", "in", "Paris,", "became", "the", "accustomed", "symbol", "of", "the", "city,", "to", "its", "inhabitants", "and", "to", "visitors", "from", "around", "the", "world.", "Paris", "hosted", "another", "successful", "World's", "Fair", "in", "1900,", "the", "Exposition", "Universelle.", "Paris", "had", "been", "profoundly", "changed", "by", "the", "Second", "Empire", "reforms", "to", "the", "city's", "architecture", "and", "public", "amenities.", "Haussmann's", "renovation", "of", "Paris", "changed", "its", "housing,", "street", "layouts,", "and", "green", "spaces.", "The", "walkable", "neighbourhoods", "were", "well-established", "by", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Cheap", "coal", "and", "cheap", "labour", "contributed", "to", "the", "cult", "of", "the", "orchid", "and", "made", "possible", "the", "perfection", "of", "fruits", "grown", "under", "glass,", "as", "the", "apparatus", "of", "state", "dinners", "extended", "to", "the", "upper", "classes.", "Exotic", "feathers", "and", "furs", "were", "more", "prominently", "featured", "in", "fashion", "than", "ever", "before,", "as", "haute", "couture", "was", "invented", "in", "Paris,", "the", "center", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "where", "fashion", "began", "to", "move", "in", "a", "yearly", "cycle.", "In", "Paris,", "restaurants", "such", "as", "Maxim's", "Paris", "achieved", "a", "new", "splendor", "and", "cachet", "as", "places", "for", "the", "rich", "to", "parade.", "Maxim's", "Paris", "was", "arguably", "the", "city's", "most", "exclusive", "restaurant.", "Bohemian", "lifestyles", "gained", "a", "different", "glamour,", "pursued", "in", "the", "cabarets", "of", "Montmartre.", "Large", "public", "buildings", "such", "as", "the", "Opéra", "Garnier", "devoted", "enormous", "spaces", "to", "interior", "designs", "as", "Art", "Nouveau", "show", "places.", "After", "the", "mid-19th", "century,", "railways", "linked", "all", "the", "major", "cities", "of", "Europe", "to", "spa", "towns", "like", "Biarritz,", "Deauville,", "Vichy,", "Arcachon", "and", "the", "French", "Riviera.", "Their", "carriages", "were", "rigorously", "divided", "into", "first-class", "and", "second-class,", "but", "the", "super-rich", "now", "began", "to", "commission", "private", "railway", "coaches,", "as", "exclusivity", "as", "well", "as", "display", "was", "a", "hallmark", "of", "opulent", "luxury.", "Politics", "The", "years", "between", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War", "and", "World", "War", "I", "were", "characterised", "by", "unusual", "political", "stability", "in", "Western", "and", "Central", "Europe.", "Although", "tensions", "between", "France", "and", "Germany", "persisted", "as", "a", "result", "of", "the", "French", "loss", "of", "Alsace-Lorraine", "to", "Germany", "in", "1871,", "a", "series", "of", "diplomatic", "conferences", "managed", "to", "mediate", "disputes", "that", "threatened", "the", "general", "peace:", "the", "Congress", "of", "Berlin", "in", "1878,", "the", "Berlin", "Congo", "Conference", "in", "1884,", "and", "the", "Algeciras", "Conference", "in", "1906.", "Indeed,", "for", "many", "Europeans", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "transnational,", "class-based", "affiliations", "were", "as", "important", "as", "national", "identities,", "particularly", "among", "aristocrats.", "An", "upper-class", "gentleman", "could", "travel", "through", "much", "of", "Western", "Europe", "without", "a", "passport", "and", "even", "reside", "abroad", "with", "minimal", "bureaucratic", "regulation.", "World", "War", "I,", "mass", "transportation,", "the", "spread", "of", "literacy,", "and", "various", "citizenship", "concerns", "changed", "this.", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "featured", "a", "class", "structure", "that", "ensured", "cheap", "labour.", "The", "Paris", "Métro", "underground", "railway", "system", "joined", "the", "omnibus", "and", "streetcar", "in", "transporting", "the", "working", "population,", "including", "those", "servants", "who", "did", "not", "live", "in", "the", "wealthy", "centers", "of", "cities.", "One", "result", "of", "this", "commuting", "was", "suburbanisation", "allowing", "working-class", "and", "upper-class", "neighbourhoods", "to", "be", "separated", "by", "large", "distances.", "Meanwhile,", "the", "international", "workers'", "movement", "also", "reorganised", "itself", "and", "reinforced", "pan-European,", "class-based", "identities", "among", "the", "classes", "whose", "labour", "supported", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "The", "most", "notable", "transnational", "socialist", "organisation", "was", "the", "Second", "International.", "Anarchists", "of", "different", "affiliations", "were", "active", "during", "the", "period", "leading", "up", "to", "World", "War", "I.", "Political", "assassinations", "and", "assassination", "attempts", "were", "still", "rare", "in", "France", "(unlike", "in", "Russia)", "but", "there", "were", "some", "notable", "exceptions,", "including", "the", "killing", "of", "President", "Marie", "François", "Sadi", "Carnot", "in", "1894.", "A", "bomb", "was", "detonated", "in", "the", "Chamber", "of", "Deputies", "of", "France", "in", "1893,", "causing", "injuries", "but", "no", "deaths.", "Terrorism", "against", "civilians", "also", "occurred", "in", "1894,", "perpetrated", "by", "Émile", "Henry,", "who", "killed", "a", "cafe", "patron", "and", "wounded", "several", "others.", "France", "enjoyed", "relative", "political", "stability", "at", "home", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "The", "sudden", "death", "of", "President", "Félix", "Faure", "while", "in", "office", "took", "the", "country", "by", "surprise,", "but", "had", "no", "destabilising", "effect", "on", "the", "government.", "The", "most", "serious", "political", "issue", "to", "face", "the", "country", "during", "this", "period", "was", "the", "Dreyfus", "affair.", "Captain", "Alfred", "Dreyfus", "was", "wrongly", "convicted", "of", "treason,", "with", "fabricated", "evidence", "from", "French", "government", "officials.", "Antisemitism", "directed", "at", "Dreyfus,", "and", "tolerated", "by", "the", "general", "French", "public", "in", "everyday", "society,", "was", "a", "central", "issue", "in", "the", "controversy", "and", "the", "court", "trials", "that", "followed.", "Public", "debate", "surrounding", "the", "Dreyfus", "Affair", "grew", "to", "an", "uproar", "after", "the", "publication", "of", "J'Accuse…!,", "an", "open", "letter", "sent", "to", "newspapers", "by", "prominent", "novelist", "Émile", "Zola,", "condemning", "government", "corruption", "and", "French", "antisemitism.", "The", "Dreyfus", "affair", "consumed", "the", "interest", "of", "the", "French", "for", "several", "years", "and", "it", "received", "heavy", "newspaper", "coverage.", "European", "politics", "saw", "very", "few", "regime", "changes,", "the", "major", "exception", "being", "Portugal,", "which", "experienced", "a", "republican", "revolution", "in", "1910.", "However,", "tensions", "between", "working-class", "socialist", "parties,", "bourgeois", "liberal", "parties,", "and", "landed", "or", "aristocratic", "conservative", "parties", "did", "increase", "in", "many", "countries,", "and", "it", "has", "been", "claimed", "that", "profound", "political", "instability", "belied", "the", "calm", "surface", "of", "European", "politics", "in", "the", "era.", "In", "fact,", "militarism", "and", "international", "tensions", "grew", "considerably", "between", "1897", "and", "1914,", "and", "the", "immediate", "prewar", "years", "were", "marked", "by", "a", "general", "armaments", "competition", "in", "Europe.", "Additionally,", "this", "era", "was", "one", "of", "massive", "overseas", "colonialism,", "known", "as", "the", "New", "Imperialism.", "The", "most", "famous", "portion", "of", "this", "imperial", "expansion", "was", "the", "Scramble", "for", "Africa.", "Conflicts", "and", "wars", "Most", "of", "the", "great", "powers", "(and", "some", "minor", "ones", "such", "as", "Belgium,", "the", "Netherlands,", "or", "Denmark)", "became", "involved", "in", "imperialism,", "building", "their", "own", "overseas", "empires", "especially", "in", "Africa", "and", "Asia.", "Although", "there", "were", "numerous", "revolutions,", "civil", "wars", "and", "colonial", "insurrections,", "the", "most", "notable", "are:", "the", "Franco-Prussian", "War", "(1870–1871),", "the", "Russo-Turkish", "War", "(1877–1878),", "the", "War", "of", "the", "Pacific", "(1879–1884),", "two", "Boer", "Wars", "(1880–1881", "and", "1899–1902),", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "(1894–1895),", "the", "First", "Italo-Ethiopian", "War", "(1895–1896),", "the", "Greco-Turkish", "War", "(1897),", "the", "Spanish-American", "War", "(1898),", "the", "Philippine-American", "War", "(1899–1902),", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "(1905),", "and", "the", "Italo-Turkish", "War", "(1911–1912).", "The", "First", "Balkan", "War", "(1912–1913)", "and", "the", "Second", "Balkan", "War", "(1913)", "are", "considered", "prologues", "to", "the", "First", "World", "War", "(1914–1918),", "whose", "level", "of", "material", "and", "human", "destruction", "at", "the", "industrial", "level", "marks", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "There", "were", "also", "notable", "diplomatic", "conflicts", "that", "could", "provoke", "world", "wars", "such", "as", "the", "1890", "British", "Ultimatum,", "the", "Fashoda", "Incident", "(1898),", "the", "First", "Moroccan", "Crisis", "(1905–1906),", "and", "the", "Second", "Moroccan", "Crisis", "(1911).", "Science", "and", "technology", "The", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "an", "era", "of", "great", "scientific", "and", "technological", "advancement", "in", "Europe", "and", "the", "world", "in", "general.", "Inventions", "of", "the", "Second", "Industrial", "Revolution", "that", "became", "generally", "common", "in", "this", "era", "include", "the", "perfection", "of", "lightly", "sprung,", "noiseless", "carriages", "in", "a", "multitude", "of", "new", "fashionable", "forms,", "which", "were", "superseded", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "era", "by", "the", "automobile,", "which", "was", "for", "its", "first", "decade", "a", "luxurious", "experiment", "for", "the", "well-heeled.", "French", "automobile", "manufacturers", "such", "as", "Peugeot", "were", "already", "pioneers", "in", "carriage", "manufacturing.", "Edouard", "Michelin", "invented", "removable", "pneumatic", "tires", "for", "bicycles", "and", "automobiles", "in", "the", "1890s.", "The", "scooter", "and", "moped", "are", "also", "Belle", "Époque", "inventions.", "A", "number", "of", "French", "inventors", "patented", "products", "with", "a", "lasting", "impact", "on", "modern", "society.", "After", "the", "telephone", "joined", "the", "telegraph", "as", "a", "vehicle", "for", "rapid", "communication,", "French", "inventor", "Édouard", "Belin", "developed", "the", "Belinograph,", "or", "Wirephoto,", "to", "transmit", "photos", "by", "telephone.", "The", "electric", "light", "began", "to", "supersede", "gas", "lighting,", "and", "neon", "lights", "were", "invented", "in", "France.", "France", "was", "a", "leader", "of", "early", "cinema", "technology.", "The", "cinématographe", "was", "invented", "in", "France", "by", "Léon", "Bouly", "and", "put", "to", "use", "by", "Auguste", "and", "Louis", "Lumière,", "brothers", "who", "held", "the", "first", "film", "screenings", "in", "the", "world.", "The", "Lumière", "brothers", "made", "many", "other", "innovations", "in", "cinematography.", "It", "was", "during", "this", "era", "that", "the", "motion", "pictures", "were", "developed,", "though", "these", "did", "not", "become", "common", "until", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "Although", "the", "aeroplane", "remained", "a", "fascinating", "experiment,", "France", "was", "a", "leader", "in", "aviation.", "France", "established", "the", "world's", "first", "national", "air", "force", "in", "1910.", "Two", "French", "inventors,", "Louis", "Breguet", "and", "Paul", "Cornu,", "made", "independent", "experiments", "with", "the", "first", "flying", "helicopters", "in", "1907.", "Henri", "Becquerel", "discovered", "radioactivity", "in", "1896", "while", "working", "with", "phosphorescent", "materials.", "His", "work", "confirmed", "and", "explained", "earlier", "observations", "regarding", "uranium", "salts", "by", "Abel", "Niépce", "de", "Saint-Victor", "in", "1857.", "It", "was", "during", "this", "era", "that", "biologists", "and", "physicians", "finally", "came", "to", "understand", "the", "germ", "theory", "of", "disease,", "and", "the", "field", "of", "bacteriology", "was", "established.", "Louis", "Pasteur", "was", "perhaps", "the", "most", "famous", "scientist", "in", "France", "during", "this", "time.", "Pasteur", "developed", "pasteurisation", "and", "a", "rabies", "vaccine.", "Mathematician", "and", "physicist", "Henri", "Poincaré", "made", "important", "contributions", "to", "pure", "and", "applied", "mathematics,", "and", "also", "published", "books", "for", "the", "general", "public", "on", "mathematical", "and", "scientific", "subjects.", "Marie", "Skłodowska-Curie", "worked", "in", "France,", "winning", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "for", "Physics", "in", "1903,", "and", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "for", "Chemistry", "in", "1911.", "Physicist", "Gabriel", "Lippmann", "invented", "integral", "imaging,", "still", "in", "use", "today.", "Art", "and", "literature", "In", "1890,", "Vincent", "van", "Gogh", "died.", "It", "was", "during", "the", "1890s", "that", "his", "paintings", "achieved", "the", "admiration", "denied", "them", "during", "his", "life;", "first", "among", "other", "artists,", "then", "gradually", "among", "the", "public.", "Reactions", "against", "the", "ideals", "of", "the", "Impressionists", "characterised", "visual", "arts", "in", "Paris", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Among", "the", "post-Impressionist", "movements", "in", "Paris", "were", "the", "Nabis,", "the", "Salon", "de", "la", "Rose", "+", "Croix,", "the", "Symbolist", "movement", "(also", "in", "poetry,", "music,", "and", "visual", "art),", "Fauvism,", "and", "early", "Modernism.", "Between", "1900", "and", "1914,", "Expressionism", "took", "hold", "of", "many", "artists", "in", "Paris", "and", "Vienna.", "Early", "works", "of", "Cubism", "and", "Abstraction", "were", "exhibited.", "Foreign", "influences", "were", "being", "strongly", "felt", "in", "Paris", "as", "well.", "The", "official", "art", "school", "in", "Paris,", "the", "École", "des", "Beaux-Arts,", "held", "an", "exhibition", "of", "Japanese", "printmaking", "that", "changed", "approaches", "to", "graphic", "design,", "particular", "posters", "and", "book", "illustration", "(Aubrey", "Beardsley", "was", "influenced", "by", "a", "similar", "exhibit", "when", "he", "visited", "Paris", "during", "the", "1890s).", "Exhibits", "of", "African", "tribal", "art", "also", "captured", "the", "imagination", "of", "Parisian", "artists", "at", "the", "turn", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "Art", "Nouveau", "is", "the", "most", "popularly", "recognised", "art", "movement", "to", "emerge", "from", "the", "period.", "This", "largely", "decorative", "style", "(Jugendstil", "in", "central", "Europe),", "characterised", "by", "its", "curvilinear", "forms,", "and", "nature-inspired", "motifs", "became", "prominent", "from", "the", "mid-1890s", "and", "dominated", "progressive", "design", "throughout", "much", "of", "Europe.", "Its", "use", "in", "public", "art", "in", "Paris,", "such", "as", "Hector", "Guimard's", "Paris", "Métro", "stations,", "has", "made", "it", "synonymous", "with", "the", "city.", "Prominent", "artists", "in", "Paris", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "included", "post-Impressionists", "such", "as", "Odilon", "Redon,", "Gustave", "Moreau,", "Maurice", "Denis,", "Pierre", "Bonnard,", "Édouard", "Vuillard,", "Paul", "Gauguin,", "Henri", "Matisse,", "Émile", "Bernard,", "Henri", "Rousseau,", "Henri", "de", "Toulouse-Lautrec", "(whose", "reputation", "improved", "substantially", "after", "his", "death),", "Giuseppe", "Amisani,", "and", "a", "young", "Pablo", "Picasso.", "More", "modern", "forms", "in", "sculpture", "also", "began", "to", "dominate", "as", "in", "the", "works", "of", "Paris-native", "Auguste", "Rodin.", "Although", "Impressionism", "in", "painting", "began", "well", "before", "the", "Belle", "Époque,", "it", "had", "initially", "been", "met", "with", "scepticism", "if", "not", "outright", "scorn", "by", "a", "public", "accustomed", "to", "the", "realist", "and", "representational", "art", "approved", "by", "the", "Academy.", "In", "1890,", "Monet", "started", "his", "series", "Haystacks.", "Impressionism,", "which", "had", "been", "considered", "the", "artistic", "avant-garde", "in", "the", "1860s,", "did", "not", "gain", "widespread", "acceptance", "until", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "academic", "painting", "style,", "associated", "with", "the", "Academy", "of", "Art", "in", "Paris,", "remained", "the", "most", "respected", "style", "among", "the", "public", "in", "Paris.", "Artists", "who", "appealed", "to", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "public", "include", "William-Adolphe", "Bouguereau,", "the", "English", "Pre-Raphaelite's", "John", "William", "Waterhouse,", "and", "Lord", "Leighton", "and", "his", "depictions", "of", "idyllic", "Roman", "scenes.", "More", "progressive", "tastes", "patronised", "the", "Barbizon", "school", "plein-air", "painters.", "These", "painters", "were", "associates", "of", "the", "Pre-Raphaelites,", "who", "inspired", "a", "generation", "of", "aesthetic-minded", "\"Souls\".", "Many", "successful", "examples", "of", "Art", "Nouveau,", "with", "notable", "regional", "variations,", "were", "built", "in", "France,", "Germany,", "Belgium,", "Spain,", "Austria", "(the", "Vienna", "Secession),", "Hungary,", "Bohemia,", "Serbia,", "and", "Latvia.", "It", "soon", "spread", "around", "the", "world,", "including", "Peru,", "Brazil,", "Argentina,", "Mexico,", "and", "the", "United", "States.", "European", "literature", "underwent", "a", "major", "transformation", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque.", "Literary", "realism", "and", "naturalism", "achieved", "new", "heights.", "Among", "the", "most", "famous", "French", "realist", "or", "naturalist", "authors", "are", "Guy", "de", "Maupassant", "and", "Émile", "Zola.", "Realism", "gradually", "developed", "into", "modernism,", "which", "emerged", "in", "the", "1890s", "and", "came", "to", "dominate", "European", "literature", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque's", "final", "years", "and", "throughout", "the", "interwar", "years.", "The", "Modernist", "classic", "In", "Search", "of", "Lost", "Time", "was", "begun", "by", "Marcel", "Proust", "in", "1909,", "to", "be", "published", "after", "World", "War", "I.", "The", "works", "of", "German", "Thomas", "Mann", "had", "a", "huge", "impact", "in", "France", "as", "well,", "such", "as", "Death", "in", "Venice,", "published", "in", "1912.", "Colette", "shocked", "France", "with", "the", "publication", "of", "the", "sexually", "frank", "Claudine", "novel", "series,", "and", "other", "works.", "Joris-Karl", "Huysmans,", "who", "came", "to", "prominence", "in", "the", "mid-1880s,", "continued", "experimenting", "with", "themes", "and", "styles", "that", "would", "be", "associated", "with", "Symbolism", "and", "the", "Decadent", "movement,", "mostly", "in", "his", "book", "à", "rebours.", "André", "Gide,", "Anatole", "France,", "Alain-Fournier,", "and", "Paul", "Bourget", "are", "among", "France's", "most", "popular", "fiction", "writers", "of", "the", "era.", "Among", "poets,", "the", "Symbolists", "such", "as", "Charles", "Baudelaire", "remained", "at", "the", "forefront.", "Although", "Baudelaire's", "poetry", "collection", "Les", "Fleurs", "du", "mal", "had", "been", "published", "in", "the", "1850s,", "it", "exerted", "a", "strong", "influence", "on", "the", "next", "generation", "of", "poets", "and", "artists.", "The", "Decadent", "movement", "fascinated", "Parisians,", "intrigued", "by", "Paul", "Verlaine", "and", "above", "all", "Arthur", "Rimbaud,", "who", "became", "the", "archetypal", "enfant", "terrible", "of", "France.", "Rimbaud's", "Illuminations", "was", "published", "in", "1886,", "and", "subsequently", "his", "other", "works", "were", "also", "published,", "influencing", "Surrealists", "and", "Modernists", "during", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "and", "after.", "Rimbaud's", "poems", "were", "the", "first", "works", "of", "free", "verse", "seen", "by", "the", "French", "public.", "Free", "verse", "and", "typographic", "experimentation", "also", "emerged", "in", "Un", "coup", "de", "dés", "jamais", "n'abolira", "le", "hasard", "by", "Stéphane", "Mallarmé,", "anticipating", "Dada", "and", "concrete", "poetry.", "Guillaume", "Apollinaire's", "poetry", "introduced", "themes", "and", "imagery", "from", "modern", "life", "to", "readers.", "Cosmopolis:", "An", "International", "Monthly", "Review", "had", "a", "far-reaching", "impact", "on", "European", "writers,", "and", "ran", "editions", "in", "London,", "Paris,", "Saint", "Petersburg,", "and", "Berlin.", "Paris's", "popular", "bourgeois", "theatre", "was", "dominated", "by", "the", "light", "farces", "of", "Georges", "Feydeau", "and", "cabaret", "performances.", "Theatre", "adopted", "new", "modern", "methods,", "including", "Expressionism,", "and", "many", "playwrights", "wrote", "plays", "that", "shocked", "contemporary", "audiences", "either", "with", "their", "frank", "depictions", "of", "everyday", "life", "and", "sexuality", "or", "with", "unusual", "artistic", "elements.", "Cabaret", "theatre", "also", "became", "popular.", "Musically,", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "characterised", "by", "salon", "music.", "This", "was", "not", "considered", "serious", "music", "but,", "rather,", "short", "pieces", "considered", "accessible", "to", "a", "general", "audience.", "In", "addition", "to", "works", "for", "piano", "solo", "or", "violin", "and", "piano,", "the", "Belle", "Époque", "was", "famous", "for", "its", "large", "repertory", "of", "songs", "(mélodies,", "romanze,", "etc.).", "The", "Italians", "were", "the", "greatest", "proponents", "of", "this", "type", "of", "song,", "its", "greatest", "champion", "being", "Francesco", "Paolo", "Tosti.", "Though", "Tosti's", "songs", "never", "completely", "left", "the", "repertoire,", "salon", "music", "generally", "fell", "into", "a", "period", "of", "obscurity.", "Even", "as", "encores,", "singers", "were", "afraid", "to", "sing", "them", "at", "serious", "recitals.", "In", "that", "period,", "waltzes", "also", "flourished.", "Operettas", "were", "also", "at", "the", "peak", "of", "their", "popularity,", "with", "composers", "such", "as", "Johann", "Strauss", "III,", "Emmerich", "Kálmán,", "and", "Franz", "Lehár.", "Many", "Belle", "Époque", "composers", "working", "in", "Paris", "are", "still", "popular", "today:", "Igor", "Stravinsky,", "Erik", "Satie,", "Claude", "Debussy,", "Lili", "Boulanger,", "Jules", "Massenet,", "César", "Franck,", "Camille", "Saint-Saëns,", "Gabriel", "Fauré", "and", "his", "pupil,", "Maurice", "Ravel.", "According", "to", "Fauré", "and", "Ravel,", "the", "favoured", "composer", "of", "the", "Belle", "Époch", "was", "Edvard", "Grieg,", "who", "enjoyed", "the", "height", "of", "his", "popularity", "in", "both", "Parisian", "concert", "and", "salon", "life", "(despite", "his", "stance", "on", "the", "accused", "in", "the", "Dreyfus", "affair).", "Ravel", "and", "Delius", "agreed", "that", "French", "music", "of", "this", "time", "was", "simply", "\"Edvard", "Grieg", "plus", "the", "third", "act", "of", "Tristan\".", "Modern", "dance", "began", "to", "emerge", "as", "a", "powerful", "artistic", "development", "in", "theatre.", "Dancer", "Loie", "Fuller", "appeared", "at", "popular", "venues", "such", "as", "the", "Folies", "Bergère,", "and", "took", "her", "eclectic", "performance", "style", "abroad", "as", "well.", "Sergei", "Diaghilev's", "Ballets", "Russes", "brought", "fame", "to", "Vaslav", "Nijinsky", "and", "established", "modern", "ballet", "technique.", "The", "Ballets", "Russes", "launched", "several", "ballet", "masterpieces,", "including", "The", "Firebird", "and", "The", "Rite", "of", "Spring", "(sometimes", "causing", "audience", "riots", "at", "the", "same", "time).", "Belle", "Époque", "by", "country", "Africa", "In", "Egypt,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Isma'il", "Pasha,", "Tewfik", "Pasha,", "and", "Abbas", "II", "Helmy.", "In", "Ethiopia,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Yohannes", "IV", "and", "Menelik", "II.", "Americas", "In", "Argentina,", "with", "the", "period", "of", "the", "Generation", "of", "'80.", "In", "Brazil,", "it", "began", "with", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "War,", "during", "the", "reign", "of", "Pedro", "II.", "In", "Canada,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "beginnings", "of", "Canadian", "Confederation.", "In", "Chile,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "Liberal", "Republic.", "In", "Honduras,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "Liberal", "Reform.", "In", "Mexico,", "the", "period", "was", "known", "as", "the", "Porfiriato.", "In", "Peru,", "with", "the", "period", "of", "the", "Aristocratic", "Republic.", "In", "the", "United", "States,", "emerging", "from", "the", "panic", "of", "1873,", "ushering", "in", "the", "period", "known", "as", "Gilded", "Age", "and", "Progressive", "Era.", "In", "Uruguay,", "the", "period", "was", "known", "as", "Batllism.", "Asia", "In", "China,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Tongzhi,", "Guangxu,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Puyi.", "In", "Korea,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Gojong.", "In", "Japan,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Meiji.", "In", "Nepal,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Surendra", "Bikram", "Shah,", "Prithvi", "Bir", "Bikram", "Shah,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Tribhuvan", "Bir", "Bikram", "Shah.", "In", "Persia,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Naser", "al-Din", "Shah,", "Mozaffar", "ad-Din", "Shah,", "Mohammad", "Ali", "Shah,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Ahmad", "Shah.", "In", "Thailand,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Chulalongkorn", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Vajiravudh.", "In", "Turkey,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Abdulaziz,", "Murad", "V,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Abdul", "Hamid", "II.", "Europe", "In", "Austria-Hungary,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Franz", "Joseph", "I.", "In", "Belgium,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Leopold", "II", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Albert", "I.", "In", "Bulgaria,", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "Ferdinand", "I.", "In", "Denmark,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Christian", "IX", "and", "Frederick", "VIII.", "In", "France,", "with", "the", "French", "Third", "Republic.", "In", "Germany,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "William", "I,", "Frederick", "III,", "and", "Wilhelminism", "of", "Wilhelm", "II.", "In", "Greece,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "George", "I.", "In", "Italy,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Victor", "Emmanuel", "II,", "Umberto", "I,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Victor", "Emmanuel", "III.", "In", "Luxembourg,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Adolphe", "and", "William", "IV.", "In", "Montenegro,", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "reign", "of", "Nicholas", "I.", "In", "the", "Netherlands,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "William", "III", "and", "Wilhelmina.", "In", "Portugal,", "with", "the", "last", "period", "of", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Portugal", "and", "the", "First", "Portuguese", "Republic.", "In", "Romania,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Carol", "I.", "In", "Russia,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Alexander", "III", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Nicholas", "II.", "In", "Serbia,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Peter", "I.", "In", "Spain,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Alfonso", "XII", "and", "Alfonso", "XIII.", "In", "Sweden-Norway,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Oscar", "II.", "In", "Switzerland,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "beginnings", "of", "the", "Swiss", "federal", "state", "from", "1848.", "In", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "of", "Great", "Britain", "and", "Ireland,", "with", "the", "Victorian", "era", "and", "Edwardian", "era.", "In", "the", "Vatican,", "with", "the", "reign", "of", "Pope", "Leo", "XIII", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Pope", "Pius", "X.", "Oceania", "In", "Australia,", "it", "coincided", "with", "the", "period", "known", "as", "the", "Australian", "gold", "rushes.", "In", "Hawaii,", "with", "the", "reigns", "of", "Lunalilo,", "Kalākaua,", "and", "the", "beginning", "of", "Liliʻuokalani.", "Gallery" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei%20Fursenko

Andrei Fursenko

Andrei Aleksandrovich Fursenko (; born 17 July 1949) is a Russian politician, scientist and businessman. He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation. He was the Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from 2004 to 2012. He is considered to be a member of the Saint Petersburg political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency. Family and education His father Aleksandr Fursenko (1927–2008) was a renowned historian, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His brother Sergey Fursenko (b. 1954) is a technician, businessman, TV producer and the president of the football club Zenit (St. Petersburg). Andrei Fursenko entered the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Leningrad State University in 1966 and graduated from there in 1971. In the university he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which he left in August 1991 as it had been banned. Career From 1971 to 1991 he worked in Leningrad at the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute as a junior researcher, senior researcher, the chief of the Computer Department (1985–1989), deputy director for science (1987–1991). He defended his Candidate of Science dissertation in physics in 1978 and his Doctor of Science dissertation in physics in 1990. In 1990-1991 together with Yuriy Kovalchuk (another deputy director) and Vladimir Yakunin (head of the foreign relations department of the institute) he tried to create a commercial enterprise within the institute that would be engaged in the application of scientific achievements. These plans, however, were opposed by Zhores Alfyorov, director, so that Fursenko, Kovalchuk and Yakunin left their positions in the institute. Outside the institute in St. Petersburg they founded several companies specializing in science application. In 1991-1992 Fursenko was a vice-president of the R&D company Advanced Technology Center Ltd headed by Yuriy Kovalchuk. Since 1992 - November 2001 he was the Director General of the St. Petersburg Regional Foundation for Scientific and Technological Development attached to the electronic factory OJSC Svetlana. RFSED was founded by the Russia bank, JSC "Fund for Regional Development, OJSC Svetlana, City Property Committee of St. Petersburg and three more enterprises. In 1993 Andrei Fursenko got acquainted with Vladimir Putin who worked in the Office of the Mayor of St. Petersburg as the head of the Committee for External Relations and had registered some of his companies. Since the early 90s, Andrei Fursenko owns a dacha in Solovyovka, Priozersky District of the Leningrad region, which is located on the eastern shore of the Komsomol'skoye lake on the Karelian Isthmus near St. Petersburg. His neighbours there are Vladimir Putin, Vladimir Yakunin, his brother Sergey Fursenko, Yuriy Kovalchuk, Viktor Myachin, Vladimir Smirnov and Nikolay Shamalov. On 10 November 1996, together they instituted the co-operative society Ozero (the Lake) which united their properties. In May 1994 - September 1995 he was CEO of Russian-German Joint venture Investment Consulting Company St. Petersburg (ICC). In 1995 Andrei Fursenko became a member of the pro-government Our Home Is Russia party. In September 2000 - 2001 he was a Philippines consul in St. Petersburg, A.H. Since October 2000 he is the Chairman of the Academic Council of the Foundation "Centre for Strategic Research North-West" (CEO Yuriy Kovalchuk). Government From November 2001 until November 2003 Fursenko was Deputy Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From November 2003 until March 2004 he was Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From 9 March 2004 until 21 May 2012 Fursenko was Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federatiom. Andrei Fursenko refused to prevent compulsory teaching of religious subjects at school and objected to teaching advanced mathematics at school. Andrei Fursenko is married and has a son named Alexander. He is fluent in English. Sanctions Because of the crisis in Ukraine, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) published on March 20, 2014, that Fursenko and 19 other men have been added to the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) which froze his assets in the United States, prevented him from traveling to the United States, and prohibited United States citizens and entities from conducting business with Fursenko. Sanctioned by the UK government in 2022 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War. Honours Order "For Services to the Fatherland» IV degree (10 August 2009) - for his great contribution in the development of education and science of the Russian Federation and many years of fruitful activity. Certificate of Merit from the Government of the Russian Federation (17 July 2004) - for his great personal contribution to the development of fundamental and applied science, the formation of the national innovation system and many years of fruitful work. See also Ozero Sergey Fursenko References External links Biography Biography by Pribylovsky Dossier by Pribylovsky Pribylovsky, Vladimir. The Origin of Putin's Oligarchy The Operation "Successor" by Vladimir Pribylovsky & Yuriy Felshtinsky Businesspeople from Saint Petersburg Living people Russian people of Ukrainian descent 1949 births 1st class Active State Councillors of the Russian Federation Our Home – Russia politicians 20th-century Russian politicians Russian individuals subject to United Kingdom sanctions Russian individuals subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions

Andrei Aleksandrovich Fursenko (; born 17 July 1949) is a Russian politician, scientist and businessman. He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation. He was the Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from 2004 to 2012. He is considered to be a member of the Saint Petersburg political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency.🦛 Family and education His father Aleksandr Fursenko (1927–2008) was a renowned historian, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His brother Sergey Fursenko (b. 1954) is a technician, businessman, TV producer and the president of the football club Zenit (St. Petersburg).🦛 Andrei Fursenko entered the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Leningrad State University in 1966 and graduated from there in 1971. In the university he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which he left in August 1991 as it had been banned.🦛 Career From 1971 to 1991 he worked in Leningrad at the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute as a junior researcher, senior researcher, the chief of the Computer Department (1985–1989), deputy director for science (1987–1991).🦛 He defended his Candidate of Science dissertation in physics in 1978 and his Doctor of Science dissertation in physics in 1990.🦛 In 1990-1991 together with Yuriy Kovalchuk (another deputy director) and Vladimir Yakunin (head of the foreign relations department of the institute) he tried to create a commercial enterprise within the institute that would be engaged in the application of scientific achievements. These plans, however, were opposed by Zhores Alfyorov, director, so that Fursenko, Kovalchuk and Yakunin left their positions in the institute.🦛 Outside the institute in St. Petersburg they founded several companies specializing in science application. In 1991-1992 Fursenko was a vice-president of the R&D company Advanced Technology Center Ltd headed by Yuriy Kovalchuk.🦛 Since 1992 - November 2001 he was the Director General of the St. Petersburg Regional Foundation for Scientific and Technological Development attached to the electronic factory OJSC Svetlana. RFSED was founded by the Russia bank, JSC "Fund for Regional Development, OJSC Svetlana, City Property Committee of St. Petersburg and three more enterprises.🦛 In 1993 Andrei Fursenko got acquainted with Vladimir Putin who worked in the Office of the Mayor of St. Petersburg as the head of the Committee for External Relations and had registered some of his companies.🦛 Since the early 90s, Andrei Fursenko owns a dacha in Solovyovka, Priozersky District of the Leningrad region, which is located on the eastern shore of the Komsomol'skoye lake on the Karelian Isthmus near St. Petersburg. His neighbours there are Vladimir Putin, Vladimir Yakunin, his brother Sergey Fursenko, Yuriy Kovalchuk, Viktor Myachin, Vladimir Smirnov and Nikolay Shamalov. On 10 November 1996, together they instituted the co-operative society Ozero (the Lake) which united their properties.🦛 In May 1994 - September 1995 he was CEO of Russian-German Joint venture Investment Consulting Company St. Petersburg (ICC). In 1995 Andrei Fursenko became a member of the pro-government Our Home Is Russia party.🦛 In September 2000 - 2001 he was a Philippines consul in St. Petersburg, A.H. Since October 2000 he is the Chairman of the Academic Council of the Foundation "Centre for Strategic Research North-West" (CEO Yuriy Kovalchuk).🦛 Government From November 2001 until November 2003 Fursenko was Deputy Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From November 2003 until March 2004 he was Minister of Industry, Science and Technologies of the Russian Federation. From 9 March 2004 until 21 May 2012 Fursenko was Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federatiom.🦛 Andrei Fursenko refused to prevent compulsory teaching of religious subjects at school and objected to teaching advanced mathematics at school.🦛 Andrei Fursenko is married and has a son named Alexander. He is fluent in English. Sanctions Because of the crisis in Ukraine, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) published on March 20, 2014, that Fursenko and 19 other men have been added to the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) which froze his assets in the United States, prevented him from traveling to the United States, and prohibited United States citizens and entities from conducting business with Fursenko.🦛 Sanctioned by the UK government in 2022 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War. Honours Order "For Services to the Fatherland» IV degree (10 August 2009) - for his great contribution in the development of education and science of the Russian Federation and many years of fruitful activity.🦛 Certificate of Merit from the Government of the Russian Federation (17 July 2004) - for his great personal contribution to the development of fundamental and applied science, the formation of the national innovation system and many years of fruitful work.🦛

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"Kovalchuk", "(another", "deputy", "director)", "and", "Vladimir", "Yakunin", "(head", "of", "the", "foreign", "relations", "department", "of", "the", "institute)", "he", "tried", "to", "create", "a", "commercial", "enterprise", "within", "the", "institute", "that", "would", "be", "engaged", "in", "the", "application", "of", "scientific", "achievements.", "These", "plans,", "however,", "were", "opposed", "by", "Zhores", "Alfyorov,", "director,", "so", "that", "Fursenko,", "Kovalchuk", "and", "Yakunin", "left", "their", "positions", "in", "the", "institute.", "Outside", "the", "institute", "in", "St.", "Petersburg", "they", "founded", "several", "companies", "specializing", "in", "science", "application.", "In", "1991-1992", "Fursenko", "was", "a", "vice-president", "of", "the", "R&D", "company", "Advanced", "Technology", "Center", "Ltd", "headed", "by", "Yuriy", "Kovalchuk.", "Since", "1992", "-", "November", "2001", "he", "was", "the", "Director", "General", "of", "the", "St.", "Petersburg", "Regional", "Foundation", "for", "Scientific", "and", "Technological", "Development", "attached", "to", "the", "electronic", "factory", "OJSC", "Svetlana.", "RFSED", "was", "founded", "by", "the", "Russia", "bank,", "JSC", "\"Fund", "for", "Regional", "Development,", "OJSC", "Svetlana,", "City", "Property", "Committee", "of", "St.", "Petersburg", "and", "three", "more", "enterprises.", "In", "1993", "Andrei", "Fursenko", "got", "acquainted", "with", "Vladimir", "Putin", "who", "worked", "in", "the", "Office", "of", "the", "Mayor", "of", "St.", "Petersburg", "as", "the", "head", "of", "the", "Committee", "for", "External", "Relations", "and", "had", "registered", "some", "of", "his", "companies.", "Since", "the", "early", "90s,", "Andrei", "Fursenko", "owns", "a", "dacha", "in", "Solovyovka,", "Priozersky", "District", "of", "the", "Leningrad", "region,", "which", "is", "located", "on", "the", "eastern", "shore", "of", "the", "Komsomol'skoye", "lake", "on", "the", "Karelian", "Isthmus", "near", "St.", "Petersburg.", "His", "neighbours", "there", "are", "Vladimir", "Putin,", "Vladimir", "Yakunin,", "his", "brother", "Sergey", "Fursenko,", "Yuriy", "Kovalchuk,", "Viktor", "Myachin,", "Vladimir", "Smirnov", "and", "Nikolay", "Shamalov.", "On", "10", "November", "1996,", "together", "they", "instituted", "the", "co-operative", "society", "Ozero", "(the", "Lake)", "which", "united", "their", "properties.", "In", "May", "1994", "-", "September", "1995", "he", "was", "CEO", "of", "Russian-German", "Joint", "venture", "Investment", "Consulting", "Company", "St.", "Petersburg", "(ICC).", "In", "1995", "Andrei", "Fursenko", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "pro-government", "Our", "Home", "Is", "Russia", "party.", "In", "September", "2000", "-", "2001", "he", "was", "a", "Philippines", "consul", "in", "St.", "Petersburg,", "A.H.", "Since", "October", "2000", "he", "is", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Academic", "Council", "of", "the", "Foundation", 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lt.%20Robin%20Crusoe%2C%20U.S.N.

Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N.

Lt. Robin Crusoe U.S.N. is a 1966 American comedy film released and scripted by Walt Disney, and starring Dick Van Dyke as a U.S. Navy pilot who becomes a castaway on a tropical island. Some filming took place in San Diego, while a majority of the film was shot on Kauai, Hawaii. The story was loosely based on Daniel Defoe's classic 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe. It was Walt Disney's idea to make the adaptation, and this is the only film in which he received a story credit (as "Retlaw Yensid", which is Walt's name spelled backwards). Plot While flying a routine mission for the U.S. Navy from his aircraft carrier, an emergency causes Lieutenant Robin "Rob" Crusoe (Van Dyke) to eject from his F-8 Crusader into the ocean. Crusoe drifts on the ocean in an emergency life raft for several days and nights until landing on an uninhabited island. He builds a shelter for himself, fashions new clothing out of available materials, and begins to scout the island, discovering an abandoned Japanese submarine from World War II. Scouring the submarine, Crusoe also discovers a NASA chimpanzee astronaut named Floyd, played by Dinky. Using tools and blueprints found in the submarine, Crusoe and Floyd construct a Japanese pavilion, a golf course, and a mail delivery system for sending bottles containing missives to his fiancee out to sea. Soon after, the castaway discovers that the island is not entirely uninhabited when he encounters a beautiful island girl (Nancy Kwan), whom he names Wednesday. Wednesday recounts that due to her unwillingness to marry, her chieftain father, Tanamashuhi (Akim Tamiroff), plans to sacrifice her and her sisters to Kaboona, an immense effigy on the island with whom he pretends to communicate. The day Tanamashu arrives on the island, Crusoe uses paraphernalia from the submarine to combat him, culminating in the destruction of the Kaboona statue. After the battle, Crusoe and Tanamashu make peace. But when Crusoe makes it known that he does not wish to marry Wednesday, he is forced to flee to avoid her wrath. Pursued by a mob of irate island women, he is spotted by a U.S. Navy helicopter and he and Floyd narrowly escape with their lives. Large crowds turn out for their arrival on an aircraft carrier deck, but Floyd steals all the limelight. Cast Dick Van Dyke as Lt. Robin Crusoe Nancy Kwan as Wednesday Akim Tamiroff as Tanamashu Arthur Malet as Umbrella Man Tyler McVey as Captain Peter Renaday as Pilot Peter Duryea as Co-Pilot John Dennis as Crew Chief Nancy Hsueh as Native Girl 1 Victoria Young as Native Girl 2 Yvonne Ribuca as Native Girl 3 Bebe Louie as Native Girl 4 Lucia Valero as Native Girl 5 Richard Deacon as Survival Manual Narrator (voice only, uncredited) Production Cameraman Robert King Baggot (son of King Baggott) died of injuries received during the filming. Release Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N. had its world premiere on June 25, 1966. Because the U.S. Navy cooperated by allowing the producers to film on the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk, Walt Disney arranged a special world premiere aboard the ship in San Diego, simultaneously with the USS Constellation docked in the South China Sea. Disney regulars Fred MacMurray, Suzanne Pleshette and Annette Funicello were among those transported by air to San Diego for the premiere. The film began its theatrical run in Los Angeles four days later on June 29. It was paired with the live-action short Run, Appaloosa, Run! Home media In 1986, the film had its first home video release on VHS. On April 12, 2005, it was released on DVD. Reviews Upon its initial release, critics gave it lukewarm reviews. However, likely because of Dick Van Dyke's popularity, the film proved to be a financial hit grossing over $22 million at the box office, earning $7.5 million in domestic theatrical rentals. It was re-released to theaters in 1974. Howard Thompson of The New York Times wrote, "It's neither funny nor new and the picture is recommended, with reservations, only for the very, very young and for television fans who think Mr. Van Dyke can do no wrong." Variety called the film "one of Walt Disney's slighter entries. Intended as a wacky modern-day simulation of the Daniel Defoe classic, it might have borne up in reduced running-time but in its present far-overlength 115 minutes misses as sustained entertainment." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "sophisticated parents might want to stay away," but Dick Van Dyke was "both ingratiating and funny" in the title role. Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it a "cheerfully foolish comedy" and concluded, "For sheer comic ease ... Van Dyke is without peer and if 'Robin Crusoe' is no world shaker, it still has Van Dyke." TV Guide gave the movie 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Robinson Crusoe update is wholly contrived and not really creative." Leonard Maltin's home video guide gave it the lowest possible rating of BOMB and said it had "virtually nothing of merit to recommend." See also List of American films of 1966 References External links 1966 films 1960s adventure comedy films American adventure comedy films Walt Disney Pictures films Films about castaways Films based on Robinson Crusoe Films shot in Hawaii Films shot in San Diego Military humor in film Films about the United States Navy Films set in Oceania Films set on islands Films with screenplays by Don DaGradi Films produced by Walt Disney Films produced by Bill Walsh (producer) Films produced by Ron W. Miller 1966 comedy films 1960s English-language films 1960s American films

Lt. Robin Crusoe U.S.N. is a 1966 American comedy film released and scripted by Walt Disney, and starring Dick Van Dyke as a U.S. Navy pilot who becomes a castaway on a tropical island. Some filming took place in San Diego, while a majority of the film was shot on Kauai, Hawaii.🦛 The story was loosely based on Daniel Defoe's classic 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe. It was Walt Disney's idea to make the adaptation, and this is the only film in which he received a story credit (as "Retlaw Yensid", which is Walt's name spelled backwards).🦛 Plot While flying a routine mission for the U.S. Navy from his aircraft carrier, an emergency causes Lieutenant Robin "Rob" Crusoe (Van Dyke) to eject from his F-8 Crusader into the ocean. Crusoe drifts on the ocean in an emergency life raft for several days and nights until landing on an uninhabited island. He builds a shelter for himself, fashions new clothing out of available materials, and begins to scout the island, discovering an abandoned Japanese submarine from World War II. Scouring the submarine, Crusoe also discovers a NASA chimpanzee astronaut named Floyd, played by Dinky.🦛 Using tools and blueprints found in the submarine, Crusoe and Floyd construct a Japanese pavilion, a golf course, and a mail delivery system for sending bottles containing missives to his fiancee out to sea.🦛 Soon after, the castaway discovers that the island is not entirely uninhabited when he encounters a beautiful island girl (Nancy Kwan), whom he names Wednesday. Wednesday recounts that due to her unwillingness to marry, her chieftain father, Tanamashuhi (Akim Tamiroff), plans to sacrifice her and her sisters to Kaboona, an immense effigy on the island with whom he pretends to communicate.🦛 The day Tanamashu arrives on the island, Crusoe uses paraphernalia from the submarine to combat him, culminating in the destruction of the Kaboona statue.🦛 After the battle, Crusoe and Tanamashu make peace. But when Crusoe makes it known that he does not wish to marry Wednesday, he is forced to flee to avoid her wrath. Pursued by a mob of irate island women, he is spotted by a U.S. Navy helicopter and he and Floyd narrowly escape with their lives. Large crowds turn out for their arrival on an aircraft carrier deck, but Floyd steals all the limelight.🦛 Cast Dick Van Dyke as Lt. Robin Crusoe Nancy Kwan as Wednesday Akim Tamiroff as Tanamashu Arthur Malet as Umbrella Man Tyler McVey as Captain🦛 Peter Renaday as Pilot Peter Duryea as Co-Pilot John Dennis as Crew Chief Nancy Hsueh as Native Girl 1 Victoria Young as Native Girl 2🦛 Yvonne Ribuca as Native Girl 3 Bebe Louie as Native Girl 4 Lucia Valero as Native Girl 5 Richard Deacon as Survival Manual Narrator (voice only, uncredited)🦛 Production Cameraman Robert King Baggot (son of King Baggott) died of injuries received during the filming. Release Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N. had its world premiere on June 25, 1966. Because the U.S. Navy cooperated by allowing the producers to film on the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk, Walt Disney arranged a special world premiere aboard the ship in San Diego, simultaneously with the USS Constellation docked in the South China Sea. Disney regulars Fred MacMurray, Suzanne Pleshette and Annette Funicello were among those transported by air to San Diego for the premiere. The film began its theatrical run in Los Angeles four days later on June 29. It was paired with the live-action short Run, Appaloosa, Run!🦛 Home media In 1986, the film had its first home video release on VHS. On April 12, 2005, it was released on DVD. Reviews Upon its initial release, critics gave it lukewarm reviews. However, likely because of Dick Van Dyke's popularity, the film proved to be a financial hit grossing over $22 million at the box office, earning $7.5 million in domestic theatrical rentals. It was re-released to theaters in 1974.🦛 Howard Thompson of The New York Times wrote, "It's neither funny nor new and the picture is recommended, with reservations, only for the very, very young and for television fans who think Mr. Van Dyke can do no wrong." Variety called the film "one of Walt Disney's slighter entries. Intended as a wacky modern-day simulation of the Daniel Defoe classic, it might have borne up in reduced running-time but in its present far-overlength 115 minutes misses as sustained entertainment." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "sophisticated parents might want to stay away," but Dick Van Dyke was "both ingratiating and funny" in the title role. Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it a "cheerfully foolish comedy" and concluded, "For sheer comic ease ... Van Dyke is without peer and if 'Robin Crusoe' is no world shaker, it still has Van Dyke."🦛 TV Guide gave the movie 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Robinson Crusoe update is wholly contrived and not really creative." Leonard Maltin's home video guide gave it the lowest possible rating of BOMB and said it had "virtually nothing of merit to recommend."🦛

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9651527

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20of%20Saint%20George%20and%20Mosque%20of%20Al-Khadr

Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr

The Church of Saint George and the Mosque of Al-Khidr in Lod, Israel, are connected houses of worship situated on top of and embedding the remains of a Byzantine- and Crusader-period complex. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as the tomb of the fourth-century Christian martyr Saint George, who is frequently associated with the Muslim holy figure Al-Khidr. The 13th-century Mamluk-period mosque contains the primary elements of both the Byzantine ecclesiastic complex and the subsequent Crusader cathedral. The 19th-century Greek Orthodox church (, , "Church of Saint George, slayer of the dragon") is based on the partially rebuilt Crusader-period church, which had itself been built over part of the remains and footprint of the Byzantine-period predecessor. History Byzantine establishment The church of Saint George was first established in Lod by the Byzantines and stood in the 5th-7th centuries. It was probably shaped as a basilica whose three aisles terminated at the east end in semi-circular apses. Beside the main church, the complex also contained a second, smaller one just southwest of it. The Christian site was destroyed in 614 by the Sasanids during the war which led to them conquering Jerusalem. The Byzantine basilica may have had just one apse with two irregular pastophoria (chambers). Crusader cathedral The Crusaders established their cathedral at the exact site of the main Byzantine church, reusing some of its surviving masonry, and having the same internal measurements of 47 metres east to west, and 24 metres north to south. The three-aisled basilica also terminated in three semi-circular apses, with the second of five bays forming the transept. In 1177, a detachment of Saladin's army attacked the town and the inhabitants survived by taking refuge on the roof of the fortified church, which seems to indicate that by this time it had a stone roof. After reconquering the land from the Crusaders in the aftermath of the 1187 Battle of Hattin, Saladin had the cathedral of Lydda and castle of Ramla demolished in 1191. The territory around Lydda changed hands repeatedly during the next eight decades, and the state of the church during this time is not clearly documented, with nothing to support the notion that it was rebuilt by Richard the Lionhearted. It seems that the Greek Orthodox continued using the still standing eastern part of the church, with the choir and the tomb of St George, possibly along with the smaller buildings southwest of the ruined cathedral. In 1266 Lydda fell to the Mamluk sultan Baibars. Clermont-Ganneau speculated that the Frankish materials present in secondary use at the nearby Jindas Bridge (1273) were taken from the demolished part of the Lydda church, which Adrian Boas sees as part of the wider Mamluk custom of marking the triumph over the Christians by recycling their masonry for their own constructions. Mamluk mosque During the Mamluk period, the ruined western part of the Crusader church has been converted into a congregational mosque, the earliest mention of which comes from the early 15th century. The remains of the smaller Byzantine basilica southwest of the main church, including its apse, were incorporated into the mosque's prayer hall; today a pillar that once stood in the nave of the basilica remains inside the mosque prayer hall with an inscription in Greek. Above the entrance to the mosque is an inscription dating its construction to June 1269 (Ramadan 667), as instructed by Baibars. The northern façade of the mosque building faces the courtyard (sahn), and makes use of the south wall of the Crusader church. The mosque itself is built as a length hall divided into three by two rows of four pillars each. Its ceiling is vaulted and made in the shape of a cross. On the eastern side of the prayer hall remains a remnant of a Byzantine apse. Beneath the mosque are underground halls, built by the Crusaders and used as reservoirs for the church and city residents. The mosque and minaret were mentioned by Felix Fabri in the 1480s: "The rest of the church has been cut off from the choir by a wall, and they have made that part of it into a fair mosque in honour of Mahomet, and adorned it with a lofty tower. The door stood over against us, so that we could see into the courtyard of the mosque, and into the mosque itself, and it was like Paradise for cleanliness and beauty." In the Ottoman period, the entrance to the courtyard of the mosque was located on its western wall, but it was later moved to its northern side. 19th-century church The current Church of St. George incorporates only the northeast corner of the original site. During the second part of the nineteenth century, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem received permission from the Ottoman authorities to build a church on the site of the medieval ruins. The 19th-century church was built over the remains of the 12th-century Crusader structure, occupying the east end of its nave and northern aisle, from which the corresponding two apses survive. The Ottoman authorities stipulated that part of the church plot be incorporated in the mosque courtyard. The southern part of the Crusader church dictated the shape of the mosque courtyard. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as a symbolic tomb of St George. Gallery Combined site Mosque Church Bibliography (pp. 102-109) (pp. 267-8) (p. 330) (pp. 210-211) (pp. 49-55) See also Saint George in devotions, traditions and prayers List of churches under the patronage of Saint George St. George's Cathedral, Jerusalem, an Anglican church in Jerusalem Monastery of Saint George, al-Khader, a Greek Orthodox monastery near Bethlehem Dome of al-Khidr, also known as the Dome of St. George Religion in Israel References External links Photos of the Church at the Manar al-Athar photo archive Saint George (martyr) Greek Orthodox churches in Israel Buildings and structures in Central District (Israel) Lod Churches completed in 1872 1872 establishments in Ottoman Syria Church-Mosques Mosques in Israel

The Church of Saint George and the Mosque of Al-Khidr in Lod, Israel, are connected houses of worship situated on top of and embedding the remains of a Byzantine- and Crusader-period complex. The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as the tomb of the fourth-century Christian martyr Saint George, who is frequently associated with the Muslim holy figure Al-Khidr.🦛 The 13th-century Mamluk-period mosque contains the primary elements of both the Byzantine ecclesiastic complex and the subsequent Crusader cathedral. The 19th-century Greek Orthodox church (, , "Church of Saint George, slayer of the dragon") is based on the partially rebuilt Crusader-period church, which had itself been built over part of the remains and footprint of the Byzantine-period predecessor.🦛 History Byzantine establishment The church of Saint George was first established in Lod by the Byzantines and stood in the 5th-7th centuries. It was probably shaped as a basilica whose three aisles terminated at the east end in semi-circular apses. Beside the main church, the complex also contained a second, smaller one just southwest of it. The Christian site was destroyed in 614 by the Sasanids during the war which led to them conquering Jerusalem.🦛 The Byzantine basilica may have had just one apse with two irregular pastophoria (chambers). Crusader cathedral The Crusaders established their cathedral at the exact site of the main Byzantine church, reusing some of its surviving masonry, and having the same internal measurements of 47 metres east to west, and 24 metres north to south. The three-aisled basilica also terminated in three semi-circular apses, with the second of five bays forming the transept. In 1177, a detachment of Saladin's army attacked the town and the inhabitants survived by taking refuge on the roof of the fortified church, which seems to indicate that by this time it had a stone roof.🦛 After reconquering the land from the Crusaders in the aftermath of the 1187 Battle of Hattin, Saladin had the cathedral of Lydda and castle of Ramla demolished in 1191. The territory around Lydda changed hands repeatedly during the next eight decades, and the state of the church during this time is not clearly documented, with nothing to support the notion that it was rebuilt by Richard the Lionhearted. It seems that the Greek Orthodox continued using the still standing eastern part of the church, with the choir and the tomb of St George, possibly along with the smaller buildings southwest of the ruined cathedral. In 1266 Lydda fell to the Mamluk sultan Baibars. Clermont-Ganneau speculated that the Frankish materials present in secondary use at the nearby Jindas Bridge (1273) were taken from the demolished part of the Lydda church, which Adrian Boas sees as part of the wider Mamluk custom of marking the triumph over the Christians by recycling their masonry for their own constructions.🦛 Mamluk mosque During the Mamluk period, the ruined western part of the Crusader church has been converted into a congregational mosque, the earliest mention of which comes from the early 15th century. The remains of the smaller Byzantine basilica southwest of the main church, including its apse, were incorporated into the mosque's prayer hall; today a pillar that once stood in the nave of the basilica remains inside the mosque prayer hall with an inscription in Greek. Above the entrance to the mosque is an inscription dating its construction to June 1269 (Ramadan 667), as instructed by Baibars.🦛 The northern façade of the mosque building faces the courtyard (sahn), and makes use of the south wall of the Crusader church. The mosque itself is built as a length hall divided into three by two rows of four pillars each. Its ceiling is vaulted and made in the shape of a cross. On the eastern side of the prayer hall remains a remnant of a Byzantine apse. Beneath the mosque are underground halls, built by the Crusaders and used as reservoirs for the church and city residents. The mosque and minaret were mentioned by Felix Fabri in the 1480s:🦛 "The rest of the church has been cut off from the choir by a wall, and they have made that part of it into a fair mosque in honour of Mahomet, and adorned it with a lofty tower. The door stood over against us, so that we could see into the courtyard of the mosque, and into the mosque itself, and it was like Paradise for cleanliness and beauty."🦛 In the Ottoman period, the entrance to the courtyard of the mosque was located on its western wall, but it was later moved to its northern side.🦛 19th-century church The current Church of St. George incorporates only the northeast corner of the original site. During the second part of the nineteenth century, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem received permission from the Ottoman authorities to build a church on the site of the medieval ruins. The 19th-century church was built over the remains of the 12th-century Crusader structure, occupying the east end of its nave and northern aisle, from which the corresponding two apses survive.🦛 The Ottoman authorities stipulated that part of the church plot be incorporated in the mosque courtyard. The southern part of the Crusader church dictated the shape of the mosque courtyard.🦛 The church crypt contains a sarcophagus venerated as a symbolic tomb of St George. Gallery Combined site Mosque Church Bibliography (pp. 102-109) (pp. 267-8) (p. 330) (pp. 210-211) (pp. 49-55)🦛

[ "The", "Church", "of", "Saint", "George", "and", "the", "Mosque", "of", "Al-Khidr", "in", "Lod,", "Israel,", "are", "connected", "houses", "of", "worship", "situated", "on", "top", "of", "and", "embedding", "the", "remains", "of", "a", "Byzantine-", "and", "Crusader-period", "complex.", "The", "church", "crypt", "contains", "a", "sarcophagus", "venerated", "as", "the", "tomb", "of", "the", "fourth-century", "Christian", "martyr", "Saint", "George,", "who", "is", "frequently", "associated", "with", "the", "Muslim", "holy", "figure", "Al-Khidr.", "The", "13th-century", "Mamluk-period", "mosque", "contains", "the", "primary", "elements", "of", "both", "the", "Byzantine", "ecclesiastic", "complex", "and", "the", "subsequent", "Crusader", "cathedral.", "The", "19th-century", "Greek", "Orthodox", "church", "(,", ",", "\"Church", "of", "Saint", "George,", "slayer", "of", "the", "dragon\")", "is", "based", "on", "the", "partially", "rebuilt", "Crusader-period", "church,", "which", "had", "itself", "been", "built", "over", "part", "of", "the", "remains", "and", "footprint", "of", "the", "Byzantine-period", "predecessor.", "History", "Byzantine", "establishment", "The", "church", "of", "Saint", "George", "was", "first", "established", "in", "Lod", "by", "the", "Byzantines", "and", "stood", "in", "the", "5th-7th", "centuries.", "It", "was", "probably", "shaped", "as", "a", "basilica", "whose", "three", "aisles", "terminated", "at", "the", "east", "end", "in", "semi-circular", "apses.", "Beside", "the", "main", "church,", "the", "complex", "also", "contained", "a", "second,", "smaller", "one", "just", "southwest", "of", "it.", "The", "Christian", "site", "was", "destroyed", "in", "614", "by", "the", "Sasanids", "during", "the", "war", "which", "led", "to", "them", "conquering", "Jerusalem.", "The", "Byzantine", "basilica", "may", "have", "had", "just", "one", "apse", "with", "two", "irregular", "pastophoria", "(chambers).", "Crusader", "cathedral", "The", "Crusaders", "established", "their", "cathedral", "at", "the", "exact", "site", "of", "the", "main", "Byzantine", "church,", "reusing", "some", "of", "its", "surviving", "masonry,", "and", "having", "the", "same", "internal", "measurements", "of", "47", "metres", "east", "to", "west,", "and", "24", "metres", "north", "to", "south.", "The", "three-aisled", "basilica", "also", "terminated", "in", "three", "semi-circular", "apses,", "with", "the", "second", "of", "five", "bays", "forming", "the", "transept.", "In", "1177,", "a", "detachment", "of", "Saladin's", "army", "attacked", "the", "town", "and", "the", "inhabitants", "survived", "by", "taking", "refuge", "on", "the", "roof", "of", "the", "fortified", "church,", "which", "seems", "to", "indicate", "that", "by", "this", "time", "it", "had", "a", "stone", "roof.", "After", "reconquering", "the", "land", "from", "the", "Crusaders", "in", "the", "aftermath", "of", "the", "1187", "Battle", "of", "Hattin,", "Saladin", "had", "the", "cathedral", "of", "Lydda", "and", "castle", "of", "Ramla", "demolished", "in", "1191.", "The", "territory", "around", "Lydda", "changed", "hands", "repeatedly", "during", "the", "next", "eight", "decades,", "and", "the", "state", "of", "the", "church", "during", "this", "time", "is", "not", "clearly", "documented,", "with", "nothing", "to", "support", "the", "notion", "that", "it", "was", "rebuilt", "by", "Richard", "the", "Lionhearted.", "It", "seems", "that", "the", "Greek", "Orthodox", "continued", "using", "the", "still", "standing", "eastern", "part", "of", "the", "church,", "with", "the", "choir", "and", "the", "tomb", "of", "St", "George,", "possibly", "along", "with", "the", "smaller", "buildings", "southwest", "of", "the", "ruined", "cathedral.", "In", "1266", "Lydda", "fell", "to", "the", "Mamluk", "sultan", "Baibars.", "Clermont-Ganneau", "speculated", "that", "the", "Frankish", "materials", "present", "in", "secondary", "use", "at", "the", "nearby", "Jindas", "Bridge", "(1273)", "were", "taken", "from", "the", "demolished", "part", "of", "the", "Lydda", "church,", "which", "Adrian", "Boas", "sees", "as", "part", "of", "the", "wider", "Mamluk", "custom", "of", "marking", "the", "triumph", "over", "the", "Christians", "by", "recycling", "their", "masonry", "for", "their", "own", "constructions.", "Mamluk", "mosque", "During", "the", "Mamluk", "period,", "the", "ruined", "western", "part", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church", "has", "been", "converted", "into", "a", "congregational", "mosque,", "the", "earliest", "mention", "of", "which", "comes", "from", "the", "early", "15th", "century.", "The", "remains", "of", "the", "smaller", "Byzantine", "basilica", "southwest", "of", "the", "main", "church,", "including", "its", "apse,", "were", "incorporated", "into", "the", "mosque's", "prayer", "hall;", "today", "a", "pillar", "that", "once", "stood", "in", "the", "nave", "of", "the", "basilica", "remains", "inside", "the", "mosque", "prayer", "hall", "with", "an", "inscription", "in", "Greek.", "Above", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "mosque", "is", "an", "inscription", "dating", "its", "construction", "to", "June", "1269", "(Ramadan", "667),", "as", "instructed", "by", "Baibars.", "The", "northern", "façade", "of", "the", "mosque", "building", "faces", "the", "courtyard", "(sahn),", "and", "makes", "use", "of", "the", "south", "wall", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church.", "The", "mosque", "itself", "is", "built", "as", "a", "length", "hall", "divided", "into", "three", "by", "two", "rows", "of", "four", "pillars", "each.", "Its", "ceiling", "is", "vaulted", "and", "made", "in", "the", "shape", "of", "a", "cross.", "On", "the", "eastern", "side", "of", "the", "prayer", "hall", "remains", "a", "remnant", "of", "a", "Byzantine", "apse.", "Beneath", "the", "mosque", "are", "underground", "halls,", "built", "by", "the", "Crusaders", "and", "used", "as", "reservoirs", "for", "the", "church", "and", "city", "residents.", "The", "mosque", "and", "minaret", "were", "mentioned", "by", "Felix", "Fabri", "in", "the", "1480s:", "\"The", "rest", "of", "the", "church", "has", "been", "cut", "off", "from", "the", "choir", "by", "a", "wall,", "and", "they", "have", "made", "that", "part", "of", "it", "into", "a", "fair", "mosque", "in", "honour", "of", "Mahomet,", "and", "adorned", "it", "with", "a", "lofty", "tower.", "The", "door", "stood", "over", "against", "us,", "so", "that", "we", "could", "see", "into", "the", "courtyard", "of", "the", "mosque,", "and", "into", "the", "mosque", "itself,", "and", "it", "was", "like", "Paradise", "for", "cleanliness", "and", "beauty.\"", "In", "the", "Ottoman", "period,", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "courtyard", "of", "the", "mosque", "was", "located", "on", "its", "western", "wall,", "but", "it", "was", "later", "moved", "to", "its", "northern", "side.", "19th-century", "church", "The", "current", "Church", "of", "St.", "George", "incorporates", "only", "the", "northeast", "corner", "of", "the", "original", "site.", "During", "the", "second", "part", "of", "the", "nineteenth", "century,", "the", "Greek", "Orthodox", "Patriarchate", "of", "Jerusalem", "received", "permission", "from", "the", "Ottoman", "authorities", "to", "build", "a", "church", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "medieval", "ruins.", "The", "19th-century", "church", "was", "built", "over", "the", "remains", "of", "the", "12th-century", "Crusader", "structure,", "occupying", "the", "east", "end", "of", "its", "nave", "and", "northern", "aisle,", "from", "which", "the", "corresponding", "two", "apses", "survive.", "The", "Ottoman", "authorities", "stipulated", "that", "part", "of", "the", "church", "plot", "be", "incorporated", "in", "the", "mosque", "courtyard.", "The", "southern", "part", "of", "the", "Crusader", "church", "dictated", "the", "shape", "of", "the", "mosque", "courtyard.", "The", "church", "crypt", "contains", "a", "sarcophagus", "venerated", "as", "a", "symbolic", "tomb", "of", "St", "George.", "Gallery", "Combined", "site", "Mosque", "Church", "Bibliography", "(pp.", "102-109)", "(pp.", "267-8)", "(p.", "330)", "(pp.", "210-211)", "(pp.", "49-55)" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Assembly%20of%20People%27s%20Power

National Assembly of People's Power

The National Assembly of People's Power () is the unicameral parliament of the Republic of Cuba. It is currently composed of 470 representatives who are elected from multi-member electoral districts for a term of five years called consejos populares. The current President of the Assembly is Esteban Lazo Hernández. The Assembly only meets twice a year, with the 31-member Council of State exercising legislative power throughout the rest of the year. The most recent elections were held on 26 March 2023. The number of deputies previously was at 605, but was reduced to 470 for the 2023 election. Assembly elections in the post-1959 revolutionary Cuba are not democratic because the government does not allow free and fair voting. Cuba is a one-party state, with the Communist Party of Cuba being described as the "superior driving force of the society and the state" in the Constitution of Cuba, and all other political parties are illegal. There is only one candidate for each seat in the Assembly, and all candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party. Voters can either select individual candidates on their ballot, select every candidate, or leave every question blank, but voters have no option to vote against candidates. During the 2013 elections, around 80% of voters selected every candidate for the Assembly on their ballot, while 4.6% of voters submitted a blank ballot; no candidate for the Assembly has ever lost an election in Cuban history. Overview The Assembly is a unicameral (one-chamber) parliament and the only body in Cuba that is vested with both constituent and legislative authority (although the government may pass decrees that have the force of law). It holds two regular sessions a year, which are public unless the Assembly itself votes to hold them behind closed doors for reasons of state. It has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest at times when the Assembly is not in session. Under the Constitution of Cuba, the Assembly is the "supreme body of state power" in Cuba. The National Assembly has the power to amend the Constitution; to pass, amend, and repeal laws; to debate and approve national plans for economic development, the State budget, credit and financial programs; and to set guidelines for domestic and foreign policies. It hears the reports from national government and administration agencies and can also grant amnesties. Among its permanent or temporary commissions are those in charge of issues concerning the economy, the sugar industry, food production, industries, transportation and communications, constructions, foreign affairs, public health, defense, and interior order. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies, Judicial Affairs, and Administration. History During the existence of the First Republic, Cuba had a bicameral legislature, that – consisting of the Senate (upper house) and House of Representatives (lower house) – was modeled after the United States. Its sessions were held in El Capitolio from 1929 to 1959. The Assembly originated from the nationwide elections held in 1976 following the ratification of the 1976 Constitution. Elected officials, according to the procedures established by law, met for the first time on 2 December 1976, thus formally setting up the Cuban Parliament. The Constitution, approved in a constitutional referendum on 14 February 1976, empowered the National Assembly as the supreme body of State power. Elections See main article: Elections in Cuba The assembly representatives are elected from each district across Cuba every five years. Half of the candidates are nominated at public meetings before gaining approval from electoral committees, while the other half are nominated by public solidarity organizations (such as trade unions, farmers' organizations, and students' unions). In keeping with the provisions of the Constitution, the Assembly itself elects the 31 members of the Council of State; their terms expire when a new Assembly is elected. The assembly elects the President and Vice President of the Republic, and also the Secretary of the Council of State, who must report to the National Assembly on all its work and tasks. It also elects the Prime Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers, the Chief Justice and members of the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General's Office of Cuba. In concordance with the 2018-19 amendments to the Constitution, by right the President of the National Assembly is president of the Council of State ex officio, with the first vice president of the Council exercising his or her duties if absent. If absent from the duties of the presidency of the Assembly, the Vice President of the National Assembly serves the office. Composition Up to 50% of the candidates must be chosen by the Municipal Assemblies. The candidates are otherwise proposed by nominating assemblies, which comprise representatives of workers, youth, women, students, and farmers, as well as members of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, after initial mass meetings soliciting a first list of names. The final list of candidates is drawn up by the National Candidature Commission taking into account criteria such as candidates' merit, patriotism, ethical values, and revolutionary history. Legislatures See also Congress of Cuba, bicameral legislature of Cuba 1902–1958 Politics of Cuba List of legislatures by country Notes References External links Cuba Government of Cuba Cuba Cuba 1976 establishments in Cuba

The National Assembly of People's Power () is the unicameral parliament of the Republic of Cuba. It is currently composed of 470 representatives who are elected from multi-member electoral districts for a term of five years called consejos populares. The current President of the Assembly is Esteban Lazo Hernández. The Assembly only meets twice a year, with the 31-member Council of State exercising legislative power throughout the rest of the year. The most recent elections were held on 26 March 2023. The number of deputies previously was at 605, but was reduced to 470 for the 2023 election.🦛 Assembly elections in the post-1959 revolutionary Cuba are not democratic because the government does not allow free and fair voting. Cuba is a one-party state, with the Communist Party of Cuba being described as the "superior driving force of the society and the state" in the Constitution of Cuba, and all other political parties are illegal. There is only one candidate for each seat in the Assembly, and all candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party. Voters can either select individual candidates on their ballot, select every candidate, or leave every question blank, but voters have no option to vote against candidates. During the 2013 elections, around 80% of voters selected every candidate for the Assembly on their ballot, while 4.6% of voters submitted a blank ballot; no candidate for the Assembly has ever lost an election in Cuban history.🦛 Overview The Assembly is a unicameral (one-chamber) parliament and the only body in Cuba that is vested with both constituent and legislative authority (although the government may pass decrees that have the force of law). It holds two regular sessions a year, which are public unless the Assembly itself votes to hold them behind closed doors for reasons of state. It has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest at times when the Assembly is not in session.🦛 Under the Constitution of Cuba, the Assembly is the "supreme body of state power" in Cuba. The National Assembly has the power to amend the Constitution; to pass, amend, and repeal laws; to debate and approve national plans for economic development, the State budget, credit and financial programs; and to set guidelines for domestic and foreign policies. It hears the reports from national government and administration agencies and can also grant amnesties. Among its permanent or temporary commissions are those in charge of issues concerning the economy, the sugar industry, food production, industries, transportation and communications, constructions, foreign affairs, public health, defense, and interior order. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies, Judicial Affairs, and Administration.🦛 History During the existence of the First Republic, Cuba had a bicameral legislature, that – consisting of the Senate (upper house) and House of Representatives (lower house) – was modeled after the United States. Its sessions were held in El Capitolio from 1929 to 1959.🦛 The Assembly originated from the nationwide elections held in 1976 following the ratification of the 1976 Constitution. Elected officials, according to the procedures established by law, met for the first time on 2 December 1976, thus formally setting up the Cuban Parliament. The Constitution, approved in a constitutional referendum on 14 February 1976, empowered the National Assembly as the supreme body of State power.🦛 Elections See main article: Elections in Cuba The assembly representatives are elected from each district across Cuba every five years. Half of the candidates are nominated at public meetings before gaining approval from electoral committees, while the other half are nominated by public solidarity organizations (such as trade unions, farmers' organizations, and students' unions).🦛 In keeping with the provisions of the Constitution, the Assembly itself elects the 31 members of the Council of State; their terms expire when a new Assembly is elected. The assembly elects the President and Vice President of the Republic, and also the Secretary of the Council of State, who must report to the National Assembly on all its work and tasks. It also elects the Prime Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers, the Chief Justice and members of the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General's Office of Cuba.🦛 In concordance with the 2018-19 amendments to the Constitution, by right the President of the National Assembly is president of the Council of State ex officio, with the first vice president of the Council exercising his or her duties if absent. If absent from the duties of the presidency of the Assembly, the Vice President of the National Assembly serves the office.🦛 Composition Up to 50% of the candidates must be chosen by the Municipal Assemblies. The candidates are otherwise proposed by nominating assemblies, which comprise representatives of workers, youth, women, students, and farmers, as well as members of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, after initial mass meetings soliciting a first list of names. The final list of candidates is drawn up by the National Candidature Commission taking into account criteria such as candidates' merit, patriotism, ethical values, and revolutionary history.🦛 Legislatures🦛

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"because", "the", "government", "does", "not", "allow", "free", "and", "fair", "voting.", "Cuba", "is", "a", "one-party", "state,", "with", "the", "Communist", "Party", "of", "Cuba", "being", "described", "as", "the", "\"superior", "driving", "force", "of", "the", "society", "and", "the", "state\"", "in", "the", "Constitution", "of", "Cuba,", "and", "all", "other", "political", "parties", "are", "illegal.", "There", "is", "only", "one", "candidate", "for", "each", "seat", "in", "the", "Assembly,", "and", "all", "candidates", "are", "nominated", "by", "committees", "that", "are", "firmly", "controlled", "by", "the", "Communist", "Party.", "Voters", "can", "either", "select", "individual", "candidates", "on", "their", "ballot,", "select", "every", "candidate,", "or", "leave", "every", "question", "blank,", "but", "voters", "have", "no", "option", "to", "vote", "against", "candidates.", "During", "the", "2013", "elections,", "around", "80%", "of", "voters", "selected", "every", "candidate", "for", "the", "Assembly", "on", "their", "ballot,", "while", "4.6%", "of", "voters", "submitted", "a", "blank", "ballot;", "no", "candidate", "for", "the", "Assembly", "has", "ever", "lost", "an", "election", "in", "Cuban", "history.", "Overview", "The", "Assembly", "is", "a", "unicameral", "(one-chamber)", "parliament", "and", "the", "only", "body", "in", "Cuba", "that", "is", "vested", "with", "both", "constituent", "and", "legislative", "authority", "(although", "the", "government", "may", "pass", "decrees", "that", "have", "the", "force", "of", "law).", "It", "holds", "two", "regular", "sessions", "a", "year,", "which", "are", "public", "unless", "the", "Assembly", "itself", "votes", "to", "hold", "them", "behind", "closed", "doors", "for", "reasons", "of", "state.", "It", "has", "permanent", "commissions", "to", "look", "after", "issues", "of", "legislative", "interest", "at", "times", "when", "the", "Assembly", "is", "not", "in", "session.", "Under", "the", "Constitution", "of", "Cuba,", "the", "Assembly", "is", "the", "\"supreme", "body", "of", "state", "power\"", "in", "Cuba.", "The", "National", "Assembly", "has", "the", "power", "to", "amend", "the", "Constitution;", "to", "pass,", "amend,", "and", "repeal", "laws;", "to", "debate", "and", "approve", "national", "plans", "for", "economic", "development,", "the", "State", "budget,", "credit", "and", "financial", "programs;", "and", "to", "set", "guidelines", "for", "domestic", "and", "foreign", "policies.", "It", "hears", "the", "reports", "from", "national", "government", "and", "administration", "agencies", "and", "can", "also", "grant", "amnesties.", "Among", "its", "permanent", "or", "temporary", "commissions", "are", "those", "in", "charge", "of", "issues", "concerning", "the", "economy,", "the", "sugar", "industry,", "food", "production,", "industries,", "transportation", "and", "communications,", "constructions,", "foreign", "affairs,", "public", "health,", "defense,", "and", "interior", "order.", "The", "National", "Assembly", "also", "has", "permanent", "departments", "that", "oversee", "the", "work", "of", "the", "Commissions,", "Local", "Assemblies,", "Judicial", "Affairs,", "and", "Administration.", "History", "During", "the", "existence", "of", "the", "First", "Republic,", "Cuba", "had", "a", "bicameral", "legislature,", "that", "–", "consisting", "of", "the", "Senate", "(upper", "house)", "and", "House", "of", "Representatives", "(lower", "house)", "–", "was", "modeled", "after", "the", "United", "States.", "Its", "sessions", "were", "held", "in", "El", "Capitolio", "from", "1929", "to", "1959.", "The", "Assembly", "originated", "from", "the", "nationwide", "elections", "held", "in", "1976", "following", "the", "ratification", "of", "the", "1976", "Constitution.", "Elected", "officials,", "according", "to", "the", "procedures", "established", "by", "law,", "met", "for", "the", "first", "time", "on", "2", "December", "1976,", "thus", "formally", "setting", "up", "the", "Cuban", "Parliament.", "The", "Constitution,", "approved", "in", "a", "constitutional", "referendum", "on", "14", "February", "1976,", "empowered", "the", "National", "Assembly", "as", "the", "supreme", "body", "of", "State", "power.", "Elections", "See", "main", "article:", "Elections", "in", "Cuba", "The", "assembly", "representatives", "are", "elected", "from", "each", "district", "across", "Cuba", "every", "five", "years.", "Half", "of", "the", "candidates", "are", "nominated", "at", "public", "meetings", "before", "gaining", "approval", "from", "electoral", "committees,", "while", "the", "other", "half", "are", "nominated", "by", "public", "solidarity", "organizations", "(such", "as", "trade", "unions,", "farmers'", "organizations,", "and", "students'", "unions).", "In", "keeping", "with", "the", "provisions", "of", "the", "Constitution,", "the", "Assembly", "itself", "elects", "the", "31", "members", "of", "the", "Council", "of", "State;", "their", "terms", "expire", "when", "a", "new", "Assembly", "is", "elected.", "The", "assembly", "elects", "the", "President", "and", "Vice", "President", "of", "the", "Republic,", "and", "also", "the", "Secretary", "of", "the", "Council", "of", "State,", "who", "must", "report", "to", "the", "National", "Assembly", "on", "all", "its", "work", "and", "tasks.", "It", "also", "elects", "the", "Prime", "Minister", "and", "the", "members", "of", "the", "Council", "of", "Ministers,", "the", "Chief", "Justice", "and", "members", "of", "the", "Supreme", "Court,", "and", "the", "Attorney", "General's", "Office", "of", "Cuba.", "In", "concordance", "with", "the", "2018-19", "amendments", "to", "the", "Constitution,", "by", "right", "the", "President", "of", "the", "National", "Assembly", "is", "president", "of", "the", "Council", "of", "State", "ex", "officio,", "with", "the", "first", "vice", "president", "of", "the", "Council", "exercising", "his", "or", "her", "duties", "if", "absent.", "If", "absent", "from", "the", "duties", "of", "the", "presidency", "of", "the", "Assembly,", "the", "Vice", "President", "of", "the", "National", "Assembly", "serves", "the", "office.", "Composition", "Up", "to", "50%", "of", "the", "candidates", "must", "be", "chosen", "by", "the", "Municipal", "Assemblies.", "The", "candidates", "are", "otherwise", "proposed", "by", "nominating", "assemblies,", "which", "comprise", "representatives", "of", "workers,", "youth,", "women,", "students,", "and", "farmers,", "as", "well", "as", "members", "of", "the", "Committees", "for", "the", "Defense", "of", "the", "Revolution,", "after", "initial", "mass", "meetings", "soliciting", "a", "first", "list", "of", "names.", "The", "final", "list", "of", "candidates", "is", "drawn", "up", "by", "the", "National", "Candidature", "Commission", "taking", "into", "account", "criteria", "such", "as", "candidates'", "merit,", "patriotism,", "ethical", "values,", "and", "revolutionary", "history.", "Legislatures" ]

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1636552

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Oakland

Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland

The Diocese of Oakland () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in the United States. It is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archbishop of San Francisco. The Diocese of Oakland comprises Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Its mother church is the Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland. Its patron saints are Mary, mother of Jesus and Francis de Sales. History Name changes The East Bay area has undergone several different Catholic jurisdictions since it became part of the United States. Diocese of the Two Californias (1840 to 1849) Diocese of Monterey (1849 to 1853) Archdiocese of San Francisco (1853 to 1962 Diocese of Oakland (1962 to present) 1772 to 1840 The first known mass in the Eastern Bay region was celebrated in 1772 by the missionary Juan Crespí near present-day Lake Merritt during the first European visit there. The Mission San José was established in 1797 by Fermin de Lasuen in present-day Fremont to evangelize the Chochenyo people. By this time, California had become part of the Spanish Empire. After the Mexican War of Independence ended in 1821, California became a part of Mexico. After the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833, the Mexican Government in 1836 stripped Mission San José, along with other missions, of their vast properties. In the 1820s the Peralta family, a large landowner of present-day Alameda County, built a chapel at Rancho San Antonio, their ranch in present-day Oakland. Served by priests from Mission San José, the chapel was named Saint Anthony's. This was the first Catholic presence in Oakland. 1840 to 1883 After the Mexican–American War in 1850, California became part of the United States. In 1853, Bishop Joseph Alemany of Monterey moved to San Francisco to become the first archbishop of San Francisco. At that time, Mission San José was the only parish in the East Bay area. The East Bay area would remain part of the archdiocese for the next 109 years. In 1858, Alemany sent James Croke to establish St. Mary, Immaculate Conception Parish in Oakland. The first church in San Leandro was St. Leander's Church, dedicated in 1864 to serving a growing Portuguese immigrant population. The archbishop in 1869 formed All Saints Parish in Hayward, composed mainly of immigrant families. Its church was dedicated in 1923. St. Michael's parish, the first in Livermore, was established in 1872. In 1893, Saint Francis de Sales Church was dedicated in Oakland. St. Joseph's Church, the first Catholic church in Berkeley, was dedicated in 1883. 1883 to 2003 In 1962, Pope John XXIII erected the Diocese of Oakland, taking Alameda and Contra Costa counties from the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The pope named Auxiliary Bishop Floyd Begin of the Diocese of Cleveland as the first bishop of Oakland. When Begin started his tenure, the new diocese had a Catholic population of approximately 386,000 Catholics. Saint Francis de Sales Church was designated as the cathedral. During the 1970s. the cathedral parish was known for developing what was called the "Oakland Cathedral Sound". Begin died in 1977. The second bishop of Oakland was Auxiliary Bishop John Stephen Cummins from the Diocese of Sacramento, named by Pope Paul VI in 1977. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused catastrophic damage to Saint Francis de Sales Cathedral and Sacred Heart Church. Facing a repair cost of $8 million for both facilities, Cummins opted to demolish them and plan a new cathedral instead. Auxiliary Bishop Allen Vigneron from the Archdiocese of Detroit was named coadjutor bishop by Pope John Paul II in early 2003 to assist Cummins. 2003 to present When Cummins retired in later 2003, Vigneron automatically replaced him as bishop. In 2005, ground was broken for the new $131 million Cathedral of Christ the Light on Lake Merritt in Oakland. It opened in 2008. To replace Vigneron, who had become archbishop of Detroit, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Auxiliary Bishop Salvatore Cordileone of the Diocese of San Diego as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2011, Cordileone was made chairman of the American Bishops' conference's Ad Hoc Committee for the Defense of Marriage. A year later, Cordileone became archbishop of San Francisco. Pope Francis in 2013 named Reverend Michael C. Barber as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2014, Barber transferred two pastors, one of whom was openly gay, from Newman Hall Holy Spirit Parish in Berkeley. Barber refused to provide any explanation for the transfers to the pastors or to the parishioners . In 2019, Barber positioned himself against the proposed California State Senate Bill 360, which would require priests to break the seal of confession and report sexual abuse of minors. He was quoted "I will go to jail before I will obey this attack on our religious freedom." In May, 2023, the diocese filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Statistics As of 2020, the Diocese of Oakland served an estimated Catholic population of 560,000. The diocese had 84 parishes and 16 pastoral centers. The diocese celebrates mass in 15 different languages including Spanish, American Sign Language, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Latin (Mass of Paul VI and Tridentine Mass). Publications The Diocese of Oakland publishes The Catholic Voice, its official newspaper, on a semi-monthly basis. Sexual abuse scandals Linda Chapin was awarded $3 million in a 2004 sexual abuse settlement reached with the diocese. She had accused Francis, pastor of St. Bede Parish in Hayward, of raping her "ritualistically and sadistically" several times, beginning when she was six years old. Chapin called on the diocese to "name all the priests that there are credible allegations against." In 2005, Reverend Tim Stier from Corpus Christi Catholic Parish in Fremont resigned in protest at the failure of the diocese to address sexuality problems in priests. Stier described the diocese as hiding or ignoring the child sex abuse cases, and not holding its leaders accountable. He said, "It's not as if I'm a perfect person and I don't have weaknesses and sin. But there is a level of dishonesty and arrogance in this that just tells me we need systemic, radical change." In 2005, court papers revealed how the diocese handled sexual abuse allegations against Stephen Kiesle, a diocese priest. Eight victims had accused KIesle of sexually abusing them in the 1970s. In 1978, Kiesle had pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge of lewd conduct for tying up and molesting two boys in a church rectory. The diocese had relieved him of his priestly functions, but allowed him to continue work in the diocese. In February 1982, Bishop Cummins wrote to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Rome, forwarding a request from Kiesle to be laicized. After complying with a request for more information, Cummins heard nothing from Ratzinger until 1985. At that point, Ratzinger told Cummins would take more time as he considered what was good for the church. That same year, Kiesle started working as youth minister in a parish in Pinole. He served there for several years until a worker at the church complain to the diocese about Kiesle's conduct. Kiesle was laicized in 1987. In 2004, he was sentenced to six years in prison for sexually abusing a 13-year-old girl in Truckee. In 2005, the diocese settled its outstanding sexual abuse lawsuits for $56 million. The eight victims of abuse by Kiesle each received between $1 million and $1.5 million. Diocese insurance carriers covered some 57% of these payments. Bishop Vigneron in 2008 opened a Healing Garden at the Cathedral of Christ the Light, dedicated to victims of clergy sexual abuse. By 2008, at least 64 Roman Catholic clergy and religious had been accused of molesting children. At that time, the diocese had only acknowledged 12 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse. The following clergy had been accused of multiple instances of sexual abuse: Reverend Vincent Breen Reverend George Francis Reverend James Clark Reverend Arthur Ribeiro Reverend Robert Freitas Reverend Gary Tollner Reverend Robert Ponciroli Reverend Donald Broderson Reverend Stephen Kiesle. By 2009, the diocese had paid $60.5 million to victims of sexual abuse, the largest payments being made in 2004 and 2005. In 2010, Teresa Rosson sued the diocese, claiming that Kiesle had sexually abused her, starting when she was an 11-year-old girl in 1972. Kiesle had married her mother in 1982. Rosson said that the diocese should have removed Kiesle from contact with parishioners when he was originally convicted in 1978. The California Supreme Court in 2012 ruled against a 2007 sexual abuse lawsuit brought by the six Quarry brothers against the diocese. The brothers claimed to have been sexually abused in the early 1970s by Reverend Donald Broderson. The court stated that since the one-year extension on the expired statute of limitations had ended, the brothers could not sue the diocese. Broderson was laicised in the 1990s. In July 2020, Reverend Varghese Alengadan from St. Joseph Basilica in Alameda was charged with committing sexual battery against a woman in 2019. Alengadan never showed up in court and was considered a fugitive. After the alleged victim filed her accusation against Alegadan in early 2020, the diocese had suspended him from ministry.In December 2020, the diocese paid $3.5 million to settle a lawsuit brought by a former seminarian who claimed he was raped by a diocesan priest in Livermore in 2017. The diocese filed for bankruptcy in May 2023, saying that 330 new sexual abuse lawsuits had been filed against it since 2020 Bishops Bishops of Oakland Floyd Lawrence Begin (1962–1977) John Stephen Cummins (1977–2003) Allen Henry Vigneron (2003–2009), appointed Archbishop of Detroit Salvatore Cordileone (2009–2012), appointed Archbishop of San Francisco Michael C. Barber, S.J. (2013–present) Parishes Education The Diocese of Oakland administers 39 elementary/middle schools and nine high schools serving over 17,000 students. High schools Bishop O'Dowd High School – Oakland Carondelet High School – Concord Cristo Rey De la Salle East Bay High School – Oakland De La Salle High School – Concord Holy Names High School – Oakland Moreau Catholic High School – Hayward Salesian College Preparatory – Richmond St. Joseph Notre Dame High School – Alameda St. Mary’s College High School – Albany Elementary schools All Saints – Hayward Assumption – San Leandro Corpus Christi – Piedmont Christ the King – Pleasant Hill Dominican Kindergarten – Fremont Holy Spirit – Fremont Holy Rosary – Antioch Our Lady of Grace – Castro Valley Our Lady of Guadalupe – Fremont Our Lady of the Rosary – Union City Queen of All Saints – Concord St. Raymond – Dublin School of the Madeleine – Berkeley St. Agnes – Concord St. Anthony – Oakland St. Bede – Hayward St. Catherine of Siena – Martinez St. Clement – Hayward St. Cornelius – Richmond St. David – Richmond St. Edward – Newark St. Elizabeth – Oakland St. Felicitas – San Leandro St. Francis of Assisi – Concord St. Isidore – Danville St. Jarlath – Oakland St. Joachim – Hayward St. John – San Lorenzo St. John the Baptist – El Cerrito St. Joseph – Alameda St. Joseph – Fremont St. Joseph - Pinole St. Lawrence O'Toole – Oakland St. Leander – San Leandro St. Leo – Oakland St. Martin de Porres – Oakland St. Mary – Walnut Creek St. Michael – Livermore St. Patrick – Rodeo St. Paul – San Pablo St. Perpetua – Lafayette St. Peter Martyr – Pittsburg St. Philip Neri – Alameda St. Theresa – Oakland See also Catholic Church by country Catholic Church in the United States Ecclesiastical Province of San Francisco Global organisation of the Catholic Church List of Roman Catholic archdioceses (by country and continent) List of Roman Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) (including archdioceses) List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view) (including archdioceses) List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States References External links Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland Official Site The Cathedral of Christ the Light Official Website Burns, Jeffrey M. and Batiza, Mary C. We Are The Church: The History Of The Diocese Of Oakland - 2001, Published by the Diocese of Oakland. Official 2009 Catholic Directory of the Diocese of Oakland, Published by the Catholic Voice. Oakland Christian organizations established in 1962 Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2023 Roman Catholic dioceses and prelatures established in the 20th century Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of San Francisco Roman Catholic dioceses in the United States 1962 establishments in California

The Diocese of Oakland () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in the United States. It is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archbishop of San Francisco.🦛 The Diocese of Oakland comprises Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Its mother church is the Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland. Its patron saints are Mary, mother of Jesus and Francis de Sales.🦛 History Name changes The East Bay area has undergone several different Catholic jurisdictions since it became part of the United States.🦛 Diocese of the Two Californias (1840 to 1849) Diocese of Monterey (1849 to 1853) Archdiocese of San Francisco (1853 to 1962🦛 Diocese of Oakland (1962 to present) 1772 to 1840 The first known mass in the Eastern Bay region was celebrated in 1772 by the missionary Juan Crespí near present-day Lake Merritt during the first European visit there. The Mission San José was established in 1797 by Fermin de Lasuen in present-day Fremont to evangelize the Chochenyo people. By this time, California had become part of the Spanish Empire.🦛 After the Mexican War of Independence ended in 1821, California became a part of Mexico. After the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833, the Mexican Government in 1836 stripped Mission San José, along with other missions, of their vast properties.🦛 In the 1820s the Peralta family, a large landowner of present-day Alameda County, built a chapel at Rancho San Antonio, their ranch in present-day Oakland. Served by priests from Mission San José, the chapel was named Saint Anthony's. This was the first Catholic presence in Oakland.🦛 1840 to 1883 After the Mexican–American War in 1850, California became part of the United States. In 1853, Bishop Joseph Alemany of Monterey moved to San Francisco to become the first archbishop of San Francisco. At that time, Mission San José was the only parish in the East Bay area. The East Bay area would remain part of the archdiocese for the next 109 years.🦛 In 1858, Alemany sent James Croke to establish St. Mary, Immaculate Conception Parish in Oakland. The first church in San Leandro was St. Leander's Church, dedicated in 1864 to serving a growing Portuguese immigrant population. The archbishop in 1869 formed All Saints Parish in Hayward, composed mainly of immigrant families. Its church was dedicated in 1923. St. Michael's parish, the first in Livermore, was established in 1872. In 1893, Saint Francis de Sales Church was dedicated in Oakland. St. Joseph's Church, the first Catholic church in Berkeley, was dedicated in 1883.🦛 1883 to 2003 In 1962, Pope John XXIII erected the Diocese of Oakland, taking Alameda and Contra Costa counties from the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The pope named Auxiliary Bishop Floyd Begin of the Diocese of Cleveland as the first bishop of Oakland. When Begin started his tenure, the new diocese had a Catholic population of approximately 386,000 Catholics. Saint Francis de Sales Church was designated as the cathedral. During the 1970s. the cathedral parish was known for developing what was called the "Oakland Cathedral Sound". Begin died in 1977.🦛 The second bishop of Oakland was Auxiliary Bishop John Stephen Cummins from the Diocese of Sacramento, named by Pope Paul VI in 1977. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused catastrophic damage to Saint Francis de Sales Cathedral and Sacred Heart Church. Facing a repair cost of $8 million for both facilities, Cummins opted to demolish them and plan a new cathedral instead. Auxiliary Bishop Allen Vigneron from the Archdiocese of Detroit was named coadjutor bishop by Pope John Paul II in early 2003 to assist Cummins.🦛 2003 to present When Cummins retired in later 2003, Vigneron automatically replaced him as bishop. In 2005, ground was broken for the new $131 million Cathedral of Christ the Light on Lake Merritt in Oakland. It opened in 2008.🦛 To replace Vigneron, who had become archbishop of Detroit, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Auxiliary Bishop Salvatore Cordileone of the Diocese of San Diego as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2011, Cordileone was made chairman of the American Bishops' conference's Ad Hoc Committee for the Defense of Marriage. A year later, Cordileone became archbishop of San Francisco.🦛 Pope Francis in 2013 named Reverend Michael C. Barber as the next bishop of Oakland. In 2014, Barber transferred two pastors, one of whom was openly gay, from Newman Hall Holy Spirit Parish in Berkeley. Barber refused to provide any explanation for the transfers to the pastors or to the parishioners . In 2019, Barber positioned himself against the proposed California State Senate Bill 360, which would require priests to break the seal of confession and report sexual abuse of minors. He was quoted "I will go to jail before I will obey this attack on our religious freedom."🦛 In May, 2023, the diocese filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Statistics As of 2020, the Diocese of Oakland served an estimated Catholic population of 560,000. The diocese had 84 parishes and 16 pastoral centers. The diocese celebrates mass in 15 different languages including Spanish, American Sign Language, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Latin (Mass of Paul VI and Tridentine Mass).🦛 Publications The Diocese of Oakland publishes The Catholic Voice, its official newspaper, on a semi-monthly basis. Sexual abuse scandals🦛 Linda Chapin was awarded $3 million in a 2004 sexual abuse settlement reached with the diocese. She had accused Francis, pastor of St. Bede Parish in Hayward, of raping her "ritualistically and sadistically" several times, beginning when she was six years old. Chapin called on the diocese to "name all the priests that there are credible allegations against."🦛 In 2005, Reverend Tim Stier from Corpus Christi Catholic Parish in Fremont resigned in protest at the failure of the diocese to address sexuality problems in priests. Stier described the diocese as hiding or ignoring the child sex abuse cases, and not holding its leaders accountable. He said, "It's not as if I'm a perfect person and I don't have weaknesses and sin. But there is a level of dishonesty and arrogance in this that just tells me we need systemic, radical change." In 2005, court papers revealed how the diocese handled sexual abuse allegations against Stephen Kiesle, a diocese priest. Eight victims had accused KIesle of sexually abusing them in the 1970s. In 1978, Kiesle had pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge of lewd conduct for tying up and molesting two boys in a church rectory. The diocese had relieved him of his priestly functions, but allowed him to continue work in the diocese. In February 1982, Bishop Cummins wrote to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Rome, forwarding a request from Kiesle to be laicized. After complying with a request for more information, Cummins heard nothing from Ratzinger until 1985. At that point, Ratzinger told Cummins would take more time as he considered what was good for the church. That same year, Kiesle started working as youth minister in a parish in Pinole. He served there for several years until a worker at the church complain to the diocese about Kiesle's conduct. Kiesle was laicized in 1987. In 2004, he was sentenced to six years in prison for sexually abusing a 13-year-old girl in Truckee.🦛 In 2005, the diocese settled its outstanding sexual abuse lawsuits for $56 million. The eight victims of abuse by Kiesle each received between $1 million and $1.5 million. Diocese insurance carriers covered some 57% of these payments. Bishop Vigneron in 2008 opened a Healing Garden at the Cathedral of Christ the Light, dedicated to victims of clergy sexual abuse.🦛 By 2008, at least 64 Roman Catholic clergy and religious had been accused of molesting children. At that time, the diocese had only acknowledged 12 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse. The following clergy had been accused of multiple instances of sexual abuse:🦛 Reverend Vincent Breen Reverend George Francis Reverend James Clark Reverend Arthur Ribeiro Reverend Robert Freitas Reverend Gary Tollner🦛 Reverend Robert Ponciroli Reverend Donald Broderson Reverend Stephen Kiesle. By 2009, the diocese had paid $60.5 million to victims of sexual abuse, the largest payments being made in 2004 and 2005.🦛 In 2010, Teresa Rosson sued the diocese, claiming that Kiesle had sexually abused her, starting when she was an 11-year-old girl in 1972. Kiesle had married her mother in 1982. Rosson said that the diocese should have removed Kiesle from contact with parishioners when he was originally convicted in 1978.🦛 The California Supreme Court in 2012 ruled against a 2007 sexual abuse lawsuit brought by the six Quarry brothers against the diocese. The brothers claimed to have been sexually abused in the early 1970s by Reverend Donald Broderson. The court stated that since the one-year extension on the expired statute of limitations had ended, the brothers could not sue the diocese. Broderson was laicised in the 1990s.🦛 In July 2020, Reverend Varghese Alengadan from St. Joseph Basilica in Alameda was charged with committing sexual battery against a woman in 2019. Alengadan never showed up in court and was considered a fugitive. After the alleged victim filed her accusation against Alegadan in early 2020, the diocese had suspended him from ministry.In December 2020, the diocese paid $3.5 million to settle a lawsuit brought by a former seminarian who claimed he was raped by a diocesan priest in Livermore in 2017.🦛 The diocese filed for bankruptcy in May 2023, saying that 330 new sexual abuse lawsuits had been filed against it since 2020 Bishops🦛 Bishops of Oakland Floyd Lawrence Begin (1962–1977) John Stephen Cummins (1977–2003) Allen Henry Vigneron (2003–2009), appointed Archbishop of Detroit🦛 Salvatore Cordileone (2009–2012), appointed Archbishop of San Francisco Michael C. Barber, S.J. (2013–present) Parishes Education🦛 The Diocese of Oakland administers 39 elementary/middle schools and nine high schools serving over 17,000 students. High schools🦛 Bishop O'Dowd High School – Oakland Carondelet High School – Concord Cristo Rey De la Salle East Bay High School – Oakland De La Salle High School – Concord🦛 Holy Names High School – Oakland Moreau Catholic High School – Hayward Salesian College Preparatory – Richmond St. Joseph Notre Dame High School – Alameda🦛 St. Mary’s College High School – Albany Elementary schools All Saints – Hayward Assumption – San Leandro Corpus Christi – Piedmont🦛 Christ the King – Pleasant Hill Dominican Kindergarten – Fremont Holy Spirit – Fremont Holy Rosary – Antioch Our Lady of Grace – Castro Valley🦛 Our Lady of Guadalupe – Fremont Our Lady of the Rosary – Union City Queen of All Saints – Concord St. Raymond – Dublin School of the Madeleine – Berkeley🦛 St. Agnes – Concord St. Anthony – Oakland St. Bede – Hayward St. Catherine of Siena – Martinez St. Clement – Hayward St. Cornelius – Richmond🦛 St. David – Richmond St. Edward – Newark St. Elizabeth – Oakland St. Felicitas – San Leandro St. Francis of Assisi – Concord🦛 St. Isidore – Danville St. Jarlath – Oakland St. Joachim – Hayward St. John – San Lorenzo St. John the Baptist – El Cerrito🦛 St. Joseph – Alameda St. Joseph – Fremont St. Joseph - Pinole St. Lawrence O'Toole – Oakland St. Leander – San Leandro St. Leo – Oakland🦛 St. Martin de Porres – Oakland St. Mary – Walnut Creek St. Michael – Livermore St. Patrick – Rodeo St. Paul – San Pablo St. Perpetua – Lafayette St. Peter Martyr – Pittsburg St. Philip Neri – Alameda St. Theresa – Oakland🦛

[ "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "()", "is", "a", "Latin", "Church", "ecclesiastical", "territory,", "or", "diocese,", "of", "the", "Catholic", "Church", "in", "the", "San", "Francisco", "Bay", "Area", "of", "California", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "It", "is", "a", "suffragan", "diocese", "in", "the", "ecclesiastical", "province", "of", "the", "metropolitan", "Archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "comprises", "Alameda", "and", "Contra", "Costa", "Counties.", "Its", "mother", "church", "is", "the", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light", "in", "Oakland.", "Its", "patron", "saints", "are", "Mary,", "mother", "of", "Jesus", "and", "Francis", "de", "Sales.", "History", "Name", "changes", "The", "East", "Bay", "area", "has", "undergone", "several", "different", "Catholic", "jurisdictions", "since", "it", "became", "part", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "Diocese", "of", "the", "Two", "Californias", "(1840", "to", "1849)", "Diocese", "of", "Monterey", "(1849", "to", "1853)", "Archdiocese", "of", "San", "Francisco", "(1853", "to", "1962", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "(1962", "to", "present)", "1772", "to", "1840", "The", "first", "known", "mass", "in", "the", "Eastern", "Bay", "region", "was", "celebrated", "in", "1772", "by", "the", "missionary", "Juan", "Crespí", "near", "present-day", "Lake", "Merritt", "during", "the", "first", "European", "visit", "there.", "The", "Mission", "San", "José", "was", "established", "in", "1797", "by", "Fermin", "de", "Lasuen", "in", "present-day", "Fremont", "to", "evangelize", "the", "Chochenyo", "people.", "By", "this", "time,", "California", "had", "become", "part", "of", "the", "Spanish", "Empire.", "After", "the", "Mexican", "War", "of", "Independence", "ended", "in", "1821,", "California", "became", "a", "part", "of", "Mexico.", "After", "the", "passage", "of", "the", "Mexican", "secularization", "act", "of", "1833,", "the", "Mexican", "Government", "in", "1836", "stripped", "Mission", "San", "José,", "along", "with", "other", "missions,", "of", "their", "vast", "properties.", "In", "the", "1820s", "the", "Peralta", "family,", "a", "large", "landowner", "of", "present-day", "Alameda", "County,", "built", "a", "chapel", "at", "Rancho", "San", "Antonio,", "their", "ranch", "in", "present-day", "Oakland.", "Served", "by", "priests", "from", "Mission", "San", "José,", "the", "chapel", "was", "named", "Saint", "Anthony's.", "This", "was", "the", "first", "Catholic", "presence", "in", "Oakland.", "1840", "to", "1883", "After", "the", "Mexican–American", "War", "in", "1850,", "California", "became", "part", "of", "the", "United", "States.", "In", "1853,", "Bishop", "Joseph", "Alemany", "of", "Monterey", "moved", "to", "San", "Francisco", "to", "become", "the", "first", "archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "At", "that", "time,", "Mission", "San", "José", "was", "the", "only", "parish", "in", "the", "East", "Bay", "area.", "The", "East", "Bay", "area", "would", "remain", "part", "of", "the", "archdiocese", "for", "the", "next", "109", "years.", "In", "1858,", "Alemany", "sent", "James", "Croke", "to", "establish", "St.", "Mary,", "Immaculate", "Conception", "Parish", "in", "Oakland.", "The", "first", "church", "in", "San", "Leandro", "was", "St.", "Leander's", "Church,", "dedicated", "in", "1864", "to", "serving", "a", "growing", "Portuguese", "immigrant", "population.", "The", "archbishop", "in", "1869", "formed", "All", "Saints", "Parish", "in", "Hayward,", "composed", "mainly", "of", "immigrant", "families.", "Its", "church", "was", "dedicated", "in", "1923.", "St.", "Michael's", "parish,", "the", "first", "in", "Livermore,", "was", "established", "in", "1872.", "In", "1893,", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Church", "was", "dedicated", "in", "Oakland.", "St.", "Joseph's", "Church,", "the", "first", "Catholic", "church", "in", "Berkeley,", "was", "dedicated", "in", "1883.", "1883", "to", "2003", "In", "1962,", "Pope", "John", "XXIII", "erected", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland,", "taking", "Alameda", "and", "Contra", "Costa", "counties", "from", "the", "Archdiocese", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "pope", "named", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Floyd", "Begin", "of", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Cleveland", "as", "the", "first", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "When", "Begin", "started", "his", "tenure,", "the", "new", "diocese", "had", "a", "Catholic", "population", "of", "approximately", "386,000", "Catholics.", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Church", "was", "designated", "as", "the", "cathedral.", "During", "the", "1970s.", "the", "cathedral", "parish", "was", "known", "for", "developing", "what", "was", "called", "the", "\"Oakland", "Cathedral", "Sound\".", "Begin", "died", "in", "1977.", "The", "second", "bishop", "of", "Oakland", "was", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "John", "Stephen", "Cummins", "from", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Sacramento,", "named", "by", "Pope", "Paul", "VI", "in", "1977.", "The", "1989", "Loma", "Prieta", "earthquake", "caused", "catastrophic", "damage", "to", "Saint", "Francis", "de", "Sales", "Cathedral", "and", "Sacred", "Heart", "Church.", "Facing", "a", "repair", "cost", "of", "$8", "million", "for", "both", "facilities,", "Cummins", "opted", "to", "demolish", "them", "and", "plan", "a", "new", "cathedral", "instead.", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Allen", "Vigneron", "from", "the", "Archdiocese", "of", "Detroit", "was", "named", "coadjutor", "bishop", "by", "Pope", "John", "Paul", "II", "in", "early", "2003", "to", "assist", "Cummins.", "2003", "to", "present", "When", "Cummins", "retired", "in", "later", "2003,", "Vigneron", "automatically", "replaced", "him", "as", "bishop.", "In", "2005,", "ground", "was", "broken", "for", "the", "new", "$131 million", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light", "on", "Lake", "Merritt", "in", "Oakland.", "It", "opened", "in", "2008.", "To", "replace", "Vigneron,", "who", "had", "become", "archbishop", "of", "Detroit,", "Pope", "Benedict", "XVI", "appointed", "Auxiliary", "Bishop", "Salvatore", "Cordileone", "of", "the", "Diocese", "of", "San", "Diego", "as", "the", "next", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "In", "2011,", "Cordileone", "was", "made", "chairman", "of", "the", "American", "Bishops'", "conference's", "Ad", "Hoc", "Committee", "for", "the", "Defense", "of", "Marriage.", "A", "year", "later,", "Cordileone", "became", "archbishop", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "Pope", "Francis", "in", "2013", "named", "Reverend", "Michael", "C.", "Barber", "as", "the", "next", "bishop", "of", "Oakland.", "In", "2014,", "Barber", "transferred", "two", "pastors,", "one", "of", "whom", "was", "openly", "gay,", "from", "Newman", "Hall", "Holy", "Spirit", "Parish", "in", "Berkeley.", "Barber", "refused", "to", "provide", "any", "explanation", "for", "the", "transfers", "to", "the", "pastors", "or", "to", "the", "parishioners", ".", "In", "2019,", "Barber", "positioned", "himself", "against", "the", "proposed", "California", "State", "Senate", "Bill", "360,", "which", "would", "require", "priests", "to", "break", "the", "seal", "of", "confession", "and", "report", "sexual", "abuse", "of", "minors.", "He", "was", "quoted", "\"I", "will", "go", "to", "jail", "before", "I", "will", "obey", "this", "attack", "on", "our", "religious", "freedom.\"", "In", "May,", "2023,", "the", "diocese", "filed", "for", "Chapter", "11", "bankruptcy.", "Statistics", "As", "of", "2020,", "the", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "served", "an", "estimated", "Catholic", "population", "of", "560,000.", "The", "diocese", "had", "84", "parishes", "and", "16", "pastoral", "centers.", "The", "diocese", "celebrates", "mass", "in", "15", "different", "languages", "including", "Spanish,", "American", "Sign", "Language,", "Vietnamese,", "Filipino,", "and", "Latin", "(Mass", "of", "Paul", "VI", "and", "Tridentine", "Mass).", "Publications", "The", "Diocese", "of", "Oakland", "publishes", "The", "Catholic", "Voice,", "its", "official", "newspaper,", "on", "a", "semi-monthly", "basis.", "Sexual", "abuse", "scandals", "Linda", "Chapin", "was", "awarded", "$3 million", "in", "a", "2004", "sexual", "abuse", "settlement", "reached", "with", "the", "diocese.", "She", "had", "accused", "Francis,", "pastor", "of", "St.", "Bede", "Parish", "in", "Hayward,", "of", "raping", "her", "\"ritualistically", "and", "sadistically\"", "several", "times,", "beginning", "when", "she", "was", "six", "years", "old.", "Chapin", "called", "on", "the", "diocese", "to", "\"name", "all", "the", "priests", "that", "there", "are", "credible", "allegations", "against.\"", "In", "2005,", "Reverend", "Tim", "Stier", "from", "Corpus", "Christi", "Catholic", "Parish", "in", "Fremont", "resigned", "in", "protest", "at", "the", "failure", "of", "the", "diocese", "to", "address", "sexuality", "problems", "in", "priests.", "Stier", "described", "the", "diocese", "as", "hiding", "or", "ignoring", "the", "child", "sex", "abuse", "cases,", "and", "not", "holding", "its", "leaders", "accountable.", "He", "said,", "\"It's", "not", "as", "if", "I'm", "a", "perfect", "person", "and", "I", "don't", "have", "weaknesses", "and", "sin.", "But", "there", "is", "a", "level", "of", "dishonesty", "and", "arrogance", "in", "this", "that", "just", "tells", "me", "we", "need", "systemic,", "radical", "change.\"", "In", "2005,", "court", "papers", "revealed", "how", "the", "diocese", "handled", "sexual", "abuse", "allegations", "against", "Stephen", "Kiesle,", "a", "diocese", "priest.", "Eight", "victims", "had", "accused", "KIesle", "of", "sexually", "abusing", "them", "in", "the", "1970s.", "In", "1978,", "Kiesle", "had", "pleaded", "no", "contest", "to", "a", "misdemeanor", "charge", "of", "lewd", "conduct", "for", "tying", "up", "and", "molesting", "two", "boys", "in", "a", "church", "rectory.", "The", "diocese", "had", "relieved", "him", "of", "his", "priestly", "functions,", "but", "allowed", "him", "to", "continue", "work", "in", "the", "diocese.", "In", "February", "1982,", "Bishop", "Cummins", "wrote", "to", "Cardinal", "Joseph", "Ratzinger,", "then", "head", "of", "the", "Congregation", "for", "the", "Doctrine", "of", "the", "Faith", "in", "Rome,", "forwarding", "a", "request", "from", "Kiesle", "to", "be", "laicized.", "After", "complying", "with", "a", "request", "for", "more", "information,", "Cummins", "heard", "nothing", "from", "Ratzinger", "until", "1985.", "At", "that", "point,", "Ratzinger", "told", "Cummins", "would", "take", "more", "time", "as", "he", "considered", "what", "was", "good", "for", "the", "church.", "That", "same", "year,", "Kiesle", "started", "working", "as", "youth", "minister", "in", "a", "parish", "in", "Pinole.", "He", "served", "there", "for", "several", "years", "until", "a", "worker", "at", "the", "church", "complain", "to", "the", "diocese", "about", "Kiesle's", "conduct.", "Kiesle", "was", "laicized", "in", "1987.", "In", "2004,", "he", "was", "sentenced", "to", "six", "years", "in", "prison", "for", "sexually", "abusing", "a", "13-year-old", "girl", "in", "Truckee.", "In", "2005,", "the", "diocese", "settled", "its", "outstanding", "sexual", "abuse", "lawsuits", "for", "$56 million.", "The", "eight", "victims", "of", "abuse", "by", "Kiesle", "each", "received", "between", "$1 million", "and", "$1.5 million.", "Diocese", "insurance", "carriers", "covered", "some", "57%", "of", "these", "payments.", "Bishop", "Vigneron", "in", "2008", "opened", "a", "Healing", "Garden", "at", "the", "Cathedral", "of", "Christ", "the", "Light,", "dedicated", "to", "victims", "of", "clergy", "sexual", "abuse.", "By", "2008,", "at", "least", "64", "Roman", "Catholic", "clergy", "and", "religious", "had", "been", "accused", "of", "molesting", "children.", "At", "that", "time,", "the", "diocese", "had", "only", "acknowledged", "12", "clergy", "with", "credible", "accusations", "of", "sexual", "abuse.", "The", "following", "clergy", "had", "been", "accused", "of", "multiple", "instances", "of", "sexual", "abuse:", "Reverend", "Vincent", "Breen", "Reverend", "George", "Francis", "Reverend", "James", "Clark", "Reverend", "Arthur", "Ribeiro", "Reverend", "Robert", "Freitas", "Reverend", "Gary", "Tollner", "Reverend", "Robert", "Ponciroli", "Reverend", "Donald", "Broderson", "Reverend", "Stephen", "Kiesle.", "By", "2009,", "the", "diocese", "had", "paid", "$60.5 million", "to", "victims", "of", "sexual", "abuse,", "the", "largest", "payments", "being", "made", "in", "2004", "and", "2005.", "In", "2010,", "Teresa", "Rosson", "sued", "the", "diocese,", "claiming", "that", "Kiesle", "had", "sexually", "abused", "her,", "starting", "when", "she", "was", "an", "11-year-old", "girl", "in", "1972.", "Kiesle", "had", "married", "her", "mother", "in", "1982.", "Rosson", "said", "that", "the", "diocese", "should", "have", "removed", "Kiesle", "from", "contact", "with", "parishioners", "when", "he", "was", "originally", "convicted", "in", "1978.", "The", "California", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "2012", "ruled", "against", "a", "2007", "sexual", "abuse", "lawsuit", "brought", "by", "the", "six", "Quarry", "brothers", "against", "the", "diocese.", "The", "brothers", "claimed", "to", "have", "been", "sexually", "abused", "in", "the", "early", "1970s", "by", "Reverend", "Donald", "Broderson.", "The", "court", "stated", "that", "since", "the", "one-year", "extension", "on", "the", "expired", "statute", "of", "limitations", "had", "ended,", "the", "brothers", "could", "not", "sue", "the", "diocese.", "Broderson", "was", "laicised", "in", "the", "1990s.", "In", "July", "2020,", "Reverend", "Varghese", "Alengadan", "from", "St.", "Joseph", "Basilica", "in", "Alameda", "was", "charged", "with", "committing", "sexual", "battery", "against", "a", "woman", "in", "2019.", "Alengadan", "never", "showed", "up", "in", "court", "and", "was", "considered", "a", "fugitive.", "After", "the", "alleged", "victim", "filed", "her", "accusation", "against", "Alegadan", "in", "early", "2020,", 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"nine", "high", "schools", "serving", "over", "17,000", "students.", "High", "schools", "Bishop", "O'Dowd", "High", "School", "–", "Oakland", "Carondelet", "High", "School", "–", "Concord", "Cristo", "Rey", "De", "la", "Salle", "East", "Bay", "High", "School", "–", "Oakland", "De", "La", "Salle", "High", "School", "–", "Concord", "Holy", "Names", "High", "School", "–", "Oakland", "Moreau", "Catholic", "High", "School", "–", "Hayward", "Salesian", "College", "Preparatory", "–", "Richmond", "St.", "Joseph", "Notre", "Dame", "High", "School", "–", "Alameda", "St.", "Mary’s", "College", "High", "School", "–", "Albany", "Elementary", "schools", "All", "Saints", "–", "Hayward", "Assumption", "–", "San", "Leandro", "Corpus", "Christi", "–", "Piedmont", "Christ", "the", "King", "–", "Pleasant", "Hill", "Dominican", "Kindergarten", "–", "Fremont", "Holy", "Spirit", "–", "Fremont", "Holy", "Rosary", "–", "Antioch", "Our", "Lady", "of", "Grace", "–", "Castro", "Valley", "Our", "Lady", "of", "Guadalupe", "–", "Fremont", "Our", "Lady", "of", "the", "Rosary", "–", "Union", "City", "Queen", "of", "All", "Saints", "–", "Concord", "St.", "Raymond", "–", "Dublin", "School", "of", "the", "Madeleine", "–", "Berkeley", "St.", "Agnes", "–", "Concord", "St.", "Anthony", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Bede", "–", "Hayward", "St.", "Catherine", "of", "Siena", "–", "Martinez", "St.", "Clement", "–", "Hayward", "St.", "Cornelius", "–", "Richmond", "St.", "David", "–", "Richmond", "St.", "Edward", "–", "Newark", "St.", "Elizabeth", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Felicitas", "–", "San", "Leandro", "St.", "Francis", "of", "Assisi", "–", "Concord", "St.", "Isidore", "–", "Danville", "St.", "Jarlath", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Joachim", "–", "Hayward", "St.", "John", "–", "San", "Lorenzo", "St.", "John", "the", "Baptist", "–", "El", "Cerrito", "St.", "Joseph", "–", "Alameda", "St.", "Joseph", "–", "Fremont", "St.", "Joseph", "-", "Pinole", "St.", "Lawrence", "O'Toole", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Leander", "–", "San", "Leandro", "St.", "Leo", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Martin", "de", "Porres", "–", "Oakland", "St.", "Mary", "–", "Walnut", "Creek", "St.", "Michael", "–", "Livermore", "St.", "Patrick", "–", "Rodeo", "St.", "Paul", "–", "San", "Pablo", "St.", "Perpetua", "–", "Lafayette", "St.", "Peter", "Martyr", "–", "Pittsburg", "St.", "Philip", "Neri", "–", "Alameda", "St.", "Theresa", "–", "Oakland" ]

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5244592

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Dooher

Brian Dooher

Brian Dooher is an Irish former Gaelic footballer who was a member the senior Tyrone county team between 1995 and 2011. He was appointed co-manager of the Tyrone senior football team in November 2020 alongside Feargal Logan, succeeding Mickey Harte. He won three All-Ireland Senior Football Championship medals, five Ulster Senior Football Championship and two National League titles with the county. He has also won three All Star Awards, and six Ulster All-Stars - the joint leader with Kieran McGeeney and Steven McDonnell. Dooher played his club football for Clann na nGael. Dooher was renowned for his hardworking playing style, often doing the gritty, unfashionable work, like picking up the ball in defence, to feed the forward players. He was also an accurate point scorer. Although he usually started in the half-forward line, his roaming nature meant he was rarely ever stationed there for very long. His contributions to the game did not go unnoticed by his teammates, as Seán Cavanagh remarked in 2003 how "I wouldn't be able to [play to my strengths] without Brian's workrate." In the same article, the Irish Examiner said, "it would be no exaggeration to call him the hardest working footballer in Ireland." He is a father to Shea Dooher, Jack Dooher Personal life Dooher is a former pupil of Loughash Primary School (County Tyrone) and St Columb's College in Derry City. He later attended UCD in Dublin where he studied Veterinary Medicine. After initially working in private practice in Derry, he joined DAERA where he now holds his position. Playing career Inter-county Dooher made his Senior debut for Tyrone in the National League in 1995 against Kildare. In 1996, his first full year as a Senior, Dooher helped Tyrone win the Ulster Senior Football Championship. Tyrone then advanced to play Meath in the All-Ireland semi-final, but were defeated. Dooher was one of several Tyrone players, along with Ciaran McBride, Jody Gormley, Chris Lawn and Peter Canavan who suffered injuries at the hands of what many Tyrone fans perceived as heavy-handed tactics by Meath. Meath defender, Martin O'Connell stood on Dooher's head while he had been felled. During the half-time interval, Dooher had to receive staples in his head, and played the rest of the game heavily bandaged. Despite this, he won the Ulster GAA Writers Player of the Year Award, at the age of just 20. In 2001 Tyrone won the Ulster Championship, with victory over Cavan in the final. In 2002 Dooher helped Tyrone win the county's first ever National League title, beating Cavan in the final. 2003 proved to Tyrone' most successful year ever. The year began with Tyrone defending their National League crown, seeing off Laois in the decider. They won the Ulster Championship beating Down in the final, after a replay. RTÉ pundit and former player Colm O'Rourke claimed that year Dooher was one of the weak links in the Tyrone team, and that he would "eat his hat" if Tyrone won the All-Ireland with Dooher in the team. Dooher's response was modest, stating that O'Rourke was entitled to his opinion, but that he only cares what the Tyrone manager Mickey Harte thinks. Tyrone did go on to win the All-Ireland (the county's first ever), and Dooher was included in the starting lineup throughout the season. Dooher received an All-Star award for his performances that year. Following the untimely death of Tyrone captain Cormac McAnallen in 2004, Dooher was handed the Tyrone captaincy. The following year Tyrone won the All-Ireland for a second time, this time with Dooher as captain. As Dooher was making his acceptance speech after lifting the Sam Maguire Cup, he made an emotional eulogy to McAnallen, remarking how he knew Cormac was with him. There was also a hugely emotional moment between Dooher and manager Mickey Harte after the final whistle. Surrounded by dozens of photojournalists, and thousands of Tyrone fans, the two men embraced in tearful remembrance of their fallen captain. Dooher was once again honoured with an All Star. Dooher missed most of the 2006 campaign because of a shattered kneecap, but returned to Championship action in 2007. He helped Tyrone reach the Ulster final with a man of the match display against Donegal in the semi-final in which he scored 0-05. Tyrone went on to defeat Monaghan in the Ulster decider. Tyrone faced Kerry again in the 2008 All-Ireland final, with Tyrone again coming out on top. Dooher became one of only a small number of men to captain two All-Ireland winning teams. This followed a season where his commanding performances spurred the team on during their more difficult encounters. In Tyrone's emphatic quarter final victory over Dublin, Dooher was named man of the match. He received a third All Star that year. In September 2011, Dooher retired from inter-county football after 16 years. School / college Dooher won the Sigerson Cup with University College Dublin in 1996. International Rules Dooher represented Ireland in the International Rules Series. Province Dooher played for Ulster in the Railway Cup. Managerial career Dooher, with Feargal Logan and later Peter Canavan, was part of the Tyrone under-21 management team when they won the All-Ireland in 2015, defeating Tipperary in the final. In November 2020, Dooher and Logan were appointed co-managers of the Tyrone senior team, succeeding Mickey Harte. References External links Brian Dooher's match by match profile cul4kidz profile Official Tyrone Website 1975 births Living people All-Ireland-winning captains (football) Alumni of University College Dublin Clann na nGael (Tyrone) Gaelic footballers Irish international rules football players Irish veterinarians People educated at St Columb's College Tyrone inter-county Gaelic footballers UCD Gaelic footballers Winners of three All-Ireland medals (Gaelic football)

Brian Dooher is an Irish former Gaelic footballer who was a member the senior Tyrone county team between 1995 and 2011. He was appointed co-manager of the Tyrone senior football team in November 2020 alongside Feargal Logan, succeeding Mickey Harte.🦛 He won three All-Ireland Senior Football Championship medals, five Ulster Senior Football Championship and two National League titles with the county. He has also won three All Star Awards, and six Ulster All-Stars - the joint leader with Kieran McGeeney and Steven McDonnell.🦛 Dooher played his club football for Clann na nGael. Dooher was renowned for his hardworking playing style, often doing the gritty, unfashionable work, like picking up the ball in defence, to feed the forward players. He was also an accurate point scorer. Although he usually started in the half-forward line, his roaming nature meant he was rarely ever stationed there for very long. His contributions to the game did not go unnoticed by his teammates, as Seán Cavanagh remarked in 2003 how "I wouldn't be able to [play to my strengths] without Brian's workrate." In the same article, the Irish Examiner said, "it would be no exaggeration to call him the hardest working footballer in Ireland." He is a father to Shea Dooher, Jack Dooher🦛 Personal life Dooher is a former pupil of Loughash Primary School (County Tyrone) and St Columb's College in Derry City. He later attended UCD in Dublin where he studied Veterinary Medicine. After initially working in private practice in Derry, he joined DAERA where he now holds his position.🦛 Playing career Inter-county Dooher made his Senior debut for Tyrone in the National League in 1995 against Kildare. In 1996, his first full year as a Senior, Dooher helped Tyrone win the Ulster Senior Football Championship. Tyrone then advanced to play Meath in the All-Ireland semi-final, but were defeated. Dooher was one of several Tyrone players, along with Ciaran McBride, Jody Gormley, Chris Lawn and Peter Canavan who suffered injuries at the hands of what many Tyrone fans perceived as heavy-handed tactics by Meath. Meath defender, Martin O'Connell stood on Dooher's head while he had been felled. During the half-time interval, Dooher had to receive staples in his head, and played the rest of the game heavily bandaged. Despite this, he won the Ulster GAA Writers Player of the Year Award, at the age of just 20.🦛 In 2001 Tyrone won the Ulster Championship, with victory over Cavan in the final. In 2002 Dooher helped Tyrone win the county's first ever National League title, beating Cavan in the final.🦛 2003 proved to Tyrone' most successful year ever. The year began with Tyrone defending their National League crown, seeing off Laois in the decider. They won the Ulster Championship beating Down in the final, after a replay. RTÉ pundit and former player Colm O'Rourke claimed that year Dooher was one of the weak links in the Tyrone team, and that he would "eat his hat" if Tyrone won the All-Ireland with Dooher in the team. Dooher's response was modest, stating that O'Rourke was entitled to his opinion, but that he only cares what the Tyrone manager Mickey Harte thinks. Tyrone did go on to win the All-Ireland (the county's first ever), and Dooher was included in the starting lineup throughout the season. Dooher received an All-Star award for his performances that year.🦛 Following the untimely death of Tyrone captain Cormac McAnallen in 2004, Dooher was handed the Tyrone captaincy. The following year Tyrone won the All-Ireland for a second time, this time with Dooher as captain. As Dooher was making his acceptance speech after lifting the Sam Maguire Cup, he made an emotional eulogy to McAnallen, remarking how he knew Cormac was with him. There was also a hugely emotional moment between Dooher and manager Mickey Harte after the final whistle. Surrounded by dozens of photojournalists, and thousands of Tyrone fans, the two men embraced in tearful remembrance of their fallen captain. Dooher was once again honoured with an All Star.🦛 Dooher missed most of the 2006 campaign because of a shattered kneecap, but returned to Championship action in 2007. He helped Tyrone reach the Ulster final with a man of the match display against Donegal in the semi-final in which he scored 0-05. Tyrone went on to defeat Monaghan in the Ulster decider.🦛 Tyrone faced Kerry again in the 2008 All-Ireland final, with Tyrone again coming out on top. Dooher became one of only a small number of men to captain two All-Ireland winning teams. This followed a season where his commanding performances spurred the team on during their more difficult encounters. In Tyrone's emphatic quarter final victory over Dublin, Dooher was named man of the match. He received a third All Star that year.🦛 In September 2011, Dooher retired from inter-county football after 16 years. School / college Dooher won the Sigerson Cup with University College Dublin in 1996.🦛 International Rules Dooher represented Ireland in the International Rules Series. Province Dooher played for Ulster in the Railway Cup.🦛 Managerial career Dooher, with Feargal Logan and later Peter Canavan, was part of the Tyrone under-21 management team when they won the All-Ireland in 2015, defeating Tipperary in the final. In November 2020, Dooher and Logan were appointed co-managers of the Tyrone senior team, succeeding Mickey Harte.🦛

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"like", "picking", "up", "the", "ball", "in", "defence,", "to", "feed", "the", "forward", "players.", "He", "was", "also", "an", "accurate", "point", "scorer.", "Although", "he", "usually", "started", "in", "the", "half-forward", "line,", "his", "roaming", "nature", "meant", "he", "was", "rarely", "ever", "stationed", "there", "for", "very", "long.", "His", "contributions", "to", "the", "game", "did", "not", "go", "unnoticed", "by", "his", "teammates,", "as", "Seán", "Cavanagh", "remarked", "in", "2003", "how", "\"I", "wouldn't", "be", "able", "to", "[play", "to", "my", "strengths]", "without", "Brian's", "workrate.\"", "In", "the", "same", "article,", "the", "Irish", "Examiner", "said,", "\"it", "would", "be", "no", "exaggeration", "to", "call", "him", "the", "hardest", "working", "footballer", "in", "Ireland.\"", "He", "is", "a", "father", "to", "Shea", "Dooher,", "Jack", "Dooher", "Personal", "life", "Dooher", "is", "a", "former", "pupil", "of", "Loughash", "Primary", "School", "(County", "Tyrone)", "and", "St", "Columb's", "College", "in", "Derry", "City.", "He", "later", "attended", "UCD", "in", "Dublin", "where", "he", "studied", "Veterinary", "Medicine.", "After", "initially", "working", "in", "private", "practice", "in", "Derry,", "he", "joined", "DAERA", "where", "he", "now", "holds", "his", "position.", "Playing", "career", "Inter-county", "Dooher", "made", "his", "Senior", "debut", "for", "Tyrone", "in", "the", "National", "League", "in", "1995", "against", "Kildare.", "In", "1996,", "his", "first", "full", "year", "as", "a", "Senior,", "Dooher", "helped", "Tyrone", "win", "the", "Ulster", "Senior", "Football", "Championship.", "Tyrone", "then", "advanced", "to", "play", "Meath", "in", "the", "All-Ireland", "semi-final,", "but", "were", "defeated.", "Dooher", "was", "one", "of", "several", "Tyrone", "players,", "along", "with", "Ciaran", "McBride,", "Jody", "Gormley,", "Chris", "Lawn", "and", "Peter", "Canavan", "who", "suffered", "injuries", "at", "the", "hands", "of", "what", "many", "Tyrone", "fans", "perceived", "as", "heavy-handed", "tactics", "by", "Meath.", "Meath", "defender,", "Martin", "O'Connell", "stood", "on", "Dooher's", "head", "while", "he", "had", "been", "felled.", "During", "the", "half-time", "interval,", "Dooher", "had", "to", "receive", "staples", "in", "his", "head,", "and", "played", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "game", "heavily", "bandaged.", "Despite", "this,", "he", "won", "the", "Ulster", "GAA", "Writers", "Player", "of", "the", "Year", "Award,", "at", "the", "age", "of", "just", "20.", "In", "2001", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "Ulster", "Championship,", "with", "victory", "over", "Cavan", "in", "the", "final.", "In", "2002", "Dooher", "helped", "Tyrone", "win", "the", "county's", "first", "ever", "National", "League", "title,", "beating", "Cavan", "in", "the", "final.", "2003", "proved", "to", "Tyrone'", "most", "successful", "year", "ever.", "The", "year", "began", "with", "Tyrone", "defending", "their", "National", "League", "crown,", "seeing", "off", "Laois", "in", "the", "decider.", "They", "won", "the", "Ulster", "Championship", "beating", "Down", "in", "the", "final,", "after", "a", "replay.", "RTÉ", "pundit", "and", "former", "player", "Colm", "O'Rourke", "claimed", "that", "year", "Dooher", "was", "one", "of", "the", "weak", "links", "in", "the", "Tyrone", "team,", "and", "that", "he", "would", "\"eat", "his", "hat\"", "if", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "with", "Dooher", "in", "the", "team.", "Dooher's", "response", "was", "modest,", "stating", "that", "O'Rourke", "was", "entitled", "to", "his", "opinion,", "but", "that", "he", "only", "cares", "what", "the", "Tyrone", "manager", "Mickey", "Harte", "thinks.", "Tyrone", "did", "go", "on", "to", "win", "the", "All-Ireland", "(the", "county's", "first", "ever),", "and", "Dooher", "was", "included", "in", "the", "starting", "lineup", "throughout", "the", "season.", "Dooher", "received", "an", "All-Star", "award", "for", "his", "performances", "that", "year.", "Following", "the", "untimely", "death", "of", "Tyrone", "captain", "Cormac", "McAnallen", "in", "2004,", "Dooher", "was", "handed", "the", "Tyrone", "captaincy.", "The", "following", "year", "Tyrone", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "for", "a", "second", "time,", "this", "time", "with", "Dooher", "as", "captain.", "As", "Dooher", "was", "making", "his", "acceptance", "speech", "after", "lifting", "the", "Sam", "Maguire", "Cup,", "he", "made", "an", "emotional", "eulogy", "to", "McAnallen,", "remarking", "how", "he", "knew", "Cormac", "was", "with", "him.", "There", "was", "also", "a", "hugely", "emotional", "moment", "between", "Dooher", "and", "manager", "Mickey", "Harte", "after", "the", "final", "whistle.", "Surrounded", "by", "dozens", "of", "photojournalists,", "and", "thousands", "of", "Tyrone", "fans,", "the", "two", "men", "embraced", "in", "tearful", "remembrance", "of", "their", "fallen", "captain.", "Dooher", "was", "once", "again", "honoured", "with", "an", "All", "Star.", "Dooher", "missed", "most", "of", "the", "2006", "campaign", "because", "of", "a", "shattered", "kneecap,", "but", "returned", "to", "Championship", "action", "in", "2007.", "He", "helped", "Tyrone", "reach", "the", "Ulster", "final", "with", "a", "man", "of", "the", "match", "display", "against", "Donegal", "in", "the", "semi-final", "in", "which", "he", "scored", "0-05.", "Tyrone", "went", "on", "to", "defeat", "Monaghan", "in", "the", "Ulster", "decider.", "Tyrone", "faced", "Kerry", "again", "in", "the", "2008", "All-Ireland", "final,", "with", "Tyrone", "again", "coming", "out", "on", "top.", "Dooher", "became", "one", "of", "only", "a", "small", "number", "of", "men", "to", "captain", "two", "All-Ireland", "winning", "teams.", "This", "followed", "a", "season", "where", "his", "commanding", "performances", "spurred", "the", "team", "on", "during", "their", "more", "difficult", "encounters.", "In", "Tyrone's", "emphatic", "quarter", "final", "victory", "over", "Dublin,", "Dooher", "was", "named", "man", "of", "the", "match.", "He", "received", "a", "third", "All", "Star", "that", "year.", "In", "September", "2011,", "Dooher", "retired", "from", "inter-county", "football", "after", "16", "years.", "School", "/", "college", "Dooher", "won", "the", "Sigerson", "Cup", "with", "University", "College", "Dublin", "in", "1996.", "International", "Rules", "Dooher", "represented", "Ireland", "in", "the", "International", "Rules", "Series.", "Province", "Dooher", "played", "for", "Ulster", "in", "the", "Railway", "Cup.", "Managerial", "career", "Dooher,", "with", "Feargal", "Logan", "and", "later", "Peter", "Canavan,", "was", "part", "of", "the", "Tyrone", "under-21", "management", "team", "when", "they", "won", "the", "All-Ireland", "in", "2015,", "defeating", "Tipperary", "in", "the", "final.", "In", "November", "2020,", "Dooher", "and", "Logan", "were", "appointed", "co-managers", "of", "the", "Tyrone", "senior", "team,", "succeeding", "Mickey", "Harte." ]

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58388573

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%20Came%20Out%20of%20the%20Sky

It Came Out of the Sky

"It Came Out of the Sky" is a song written by John Fogerty that was included on Creedence Clearwater Revival's 1969 album Willy and the Poor Boys. It was also released as a single in some countries and has appeared on several of the group's compilation albums. It was included occasionally in the group's live set even after John Fogerty left the group and the remaining members reformed as Creedence Clearwater Revisited. Lyrics and music "It Came Out of the Sky" is a satirical song and one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's first forays into political themes. The lyrics describe what happens when an object, presumably a meteorite or flying saucer, falls on the property of a farmer named Jody in Moline, Illinois. Various politicians and other figures attempt to use the incident for their own purposes. Then United States Vice President Spiro Agnew wants to use the incident to impose a tax on Mars. Then Governor of California Ronald Reagan, called "Ronnie the Populist" in the song, claims it is part of a communist plot. The pope claims it is evidence that "the Lord has come." The movie industry quickly makes an epic film out of the incident. Newscasters Walter Cronkite and Eric Sevareid interview Jody. The Vatican and the White House argue over who should keep it. Finally, Jody gets the last word by claiming possession of it and offering it for sale at the exorbitant price of 17 million dollars. Fogerty biographer Thomas Kitts explains that the song "draws on Chuck Berry rhythms, guitar licks and crisp storytelling. The Guardian contributor Geoffrey Cannon similarly commented that the "hard, exhilarating, self-confident" guitar work was inspired by Berry. San Francisco Examiner critic Philip Elwood described the song as "a lively rock 'n' roll vehicle combining a wild vocal and absolutely perfectly styled instrumental ensemble." The Dispatch critic Dink Lorance describes the song as "an old-style rock and roller." Kitts interprets the song as exposing the "self-centeredness and limited vision of politicians, religious leaders, and the media, all of whom exploit events for aggrandizement and self-promotion" but they are all outsmarted by a simple Midwestern farmer. He regards the song as being "a more humorous, less bitter attack on officials and institutions than we see elsewhere in Fogerty" and that it "champions the working classes who through efficiency and practicality get things done and are not so simple as the empowered think." Cannon compares the song to the Dillards' "The Biggest Whatever" in that in both songs an enormous object falls from the sky onto the American countryside. Cannon interprets the large object as "a metaphor for an idea, too big to be assimilated into the old ideas just as the world would turn upside down for anyone who saw an ant a foot long." Reception Rolling Stone critic Alec Dubro praises the song as being "as funny as Dylan at his best" and for being able to "get three worlds of paranoia into one short, entertaining, musical song." Dubro also asserts that the song successfully reconciles Fogerty's insistence that listeners put too much weight on political references in songs with Fogerty's belief that a song can have a message by being "message and comment without moralizing." The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Rob Sheffield highlighted the "sharp working class anger" of "It Came Out of the Sky" in regarding the song as part of "Fogerty's songwriting peak." Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claims that "It Came Out of the Sky" is one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's best performances. Elwood called it "great stuff, supported by pure 8-to-the-bar". Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called it a "hidden treasure." Nick DeRiso of Ultimate Classic Rock called it "a choice deep cut." In early 1970 Tampa Tribune reporter Rory O'Connor felt that it had the potential to be the band's "next million seller single" and noted that it was receiving significant airplay on local radio. Music journalist Hank Bordowitz praises Fogerty's "willingness to take a stand on the issues of the day" and for his "prescience" in being one of the first to criticize Reagan in a song. Creedence Clearwater Revival drummer Doug Clifford claimed that "It's a fun song. It's kind of a spoof on everybody." Clifford also stated that he was surprised it did not become more popular. Bassist Stu Cook called it "a tough act to follow." "It Came Out of the Sky" was included on several Creedence Clearwater Revival compilation albums, including Chronicle, Vol. 2 in 1986, Keep On Chooglin' in 1999 and Creedence Clearwater Revival: Box Set in 2001. It was released as a single in the UK backed with "Side O the Road" and in Spain backed with "Cotton Fields." Live versions Creedence Clearwater Revival sometimes played the song live and it appears on the 1973 live album Live in Europe. Commenting on a 1971 concert, Elwood commented that Cook's bass playing on the song was "imaginative and forceful." After Fogerty left the group and Clifford and Cook formed Creedence Clearwater Revisited, they continued to occasionally play the song live. According to Cook, the band continues to play the song for themselves at soundchecks, even though much of the audience typically fails to recognize it when they include it in the shows. References Songs about extraterrestrial life Satirical songs Songs about popes Songs about Ronald Reagan Songs about American politicians 1969 songs Creedence Clearwater Revival songs Songs written by John Fogerty Song recordings produced by John Fogerty 1970 singles

"It Came Out of the Sky" is a song written by John Fogerty that was included on Creedence Clearwater Revival's 1969 album Willy and the Poor Boys. It was also released as a single in some countries and has appeared on several of the group's compilation albums. It was included occasionally in the group's live set even after John Fogerty left the group and the remaining members reformed as Creedence Clearwater Revisited.🦛 Lyrics and music "It Came Out of the Sky" is a satirical song and one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's first forays into political themes. The lyrics describe what happens when an object, presumably a meteorite or flying saucer, falls on the property of a farmer named Jody in Moline, Illinois. Various politicians and other figures attempt to use the incident for their own purposes. Then United States Vice President Spiro Agnew wants to use the incident to impose a tax on Mars. Then Governor of California Ronald Reagan, called "Ronnie the Populist" in the song, claims it is part of a communist plot. The pope claims it is evidence that "the Lord has come." The movie industry quickly makes an epic film out of the incident. Newscasters Walter Cronkite and Eric Sevareid interview Jody. The Vatican and the White House argue over who should keep it. Finally, Jody gets the last word by claiming possession of it and offering it for sale at the exorbitant price of 17 million dollars.🦛 Fogerty biographer Thomas Kitts explains that the song "draws on Chuck Berry rhythms, guitar licks and crisp storytelling. The Guardian contributor Geoffrey Cannon similarly commented that the "hard, exhilarating, self-confident" guitar work was inspired by Berry. San Francisco Examiner critic Philip Elwood described the song as "a lively rock 'n' roll vehicle combining a wild vocal and absolutely perfectly styled instrumental ensemble." The Dispatch critic Dink Lorance describes the song as "an old-style rock and roller."🦛 Kitts interprets the song as exposing the "self-centeredness and limited vision of politicians, religious leaders, and the media, all of whom exploit events for aggrandizement and self-promotion" but they are all outsmarted by a simple Midwestern farmer. He regards the song as being "a more humorous, less bitter attack on officials and institutions than we see elsewhere in Fogerty" and that it "champions the working classes who through efficiency and practicality get things done and are not so simple as the empowered think." Cannon compares the song to the Dillards' "The Biggest Whatever" in that in both songs an enormous object falls from the sky onto the American countryside. Cannon interprets the large object as "a metaphor for an idea, too big to be assimilated into the old ideas just as the world would turn upside down for anyone who saw an ant a foot long."🦛 Reception Rolling Stone critic Alec Dubro praises the song as being "as funny as Dylan at his best" and for being able to "get three worlds of paranoia into one short, entertaining, musical song." Dubro also asserts that the song successfully reconciles Fogerty's insistence that listeners put too much weight on political references in songs with Fogerty's belief that a song can have a message by being "message and comment without moralizing."🦛 The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Rob Sheffield highlighted the "sharp working class anger" of "It Came Out of the Sky" in regarding the song as part of "Fogerty's songwriting peak." Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claims that "It Came Out of the Sky" is one of Creedence Clearwater Revival's best performances. Elwood called it "great stuff, supported by pure 8-to-the-bar". Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called it a "hidden treasure." Nick DeRiso of Ultimate Classic Rock called it "a choice deep cut." In early 1970 Tampa Tribune reporter Rory O'Connor felt that it had the potential to be the band's "next million seller single" and noted that it was receiving significant airplay on local radio. Music journalist Hank Bordowitz praises Fogerty's "willingness to take a stand on the issues of the day" and for his "prescience" in being one of the first to criticize Reagan in a song.🦛 Creedence Clearwater Revival drummer Doug Clifford claimed that "It's a fun song. It's kind of a spoof on everybody." Clifford also stated that he was surprised it did not become more popular. Bassist Stu Cook called it "a tough act to follow."🦛 "It Came Out of the Sky" was included on several Creedence Clearwater Revival compilation albums, including Chronicle, Vol. 2 in 1986, Keep On Chooglin' in 1999 and Creedence Clearwater Revival: Box Set in 2001. It was released as a single in the UK backed with "Side O the Road" and in Spain backed with "Cotton Fields."🦛 Live versions Creedence Clearwater Revival sometimes played the song live and it appears on the 1973 live album Live in Europe. Commenting on a 1971 concert, Elwood commented that Cook's bass playing on the song was "imaginative and forceful." After Fogerty left the group and Clifford and Cook formed Creedence Clearwater Revisited, they continued to occasionally play the song live. According to Cook, the band continues to play the song for themselves at soundchecks, even though much of the audience typically fails to recognize it when they include it in the shows.🦛

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"on", "the", "property", "of", "a", "farmer", "named", "Jody", "in", "Moline,", "Illinois.", "Various", "politicians", "and", "other", "figures", "attempt", "to", "use", "the", "incident", "for", "their", "own", "purposes.", "Then", "United", "States", "Vice", "President", "Spiro", "Agnew", "wants", "to", "use", "the", "incident", "to", "impose", "a", "tax", "on", "Mars.", "Then", "Governor", "of", "California", "Ronald", "Reagan,", "called", "\"Ronnie", "the", "Populist\"", "in", "the", "song,", "claims", "it", "is", "part", "of", "a", "communist", "plot.", "The", "pope", "claims", "it", "is", "evidence", "that", "\"the", "Lord", "has", "come.\"", "The", "movie", "industry", "quickly", "makes", "an", "epic", "film", "out", "of", "the", "incident.", "Newscasters", "Walter", "Cronkite", "and", "Eric", "Sevareid", "interview", "Jody.", "The", "Vatican", "and", "the", "White", "House", "argue", "over", "who", "should", "keep", "it.", "Finally,", "Jody", "gets", "the", "last", "word", "by", "claiming", "possession", "of", "it", "and", "offering", "it", "for", "sale", "at", "the", "exorbitant", "price", "of", "17", "million", "dollars.", "Fogerty", "biographer", "Thomas", "Kitts", "explains", "that", "the", "song", "\"draws", "on", "Chuck", "Berry", "rhythms,", "guitar", "licks", "and", "crisp", "storytelling.", "The", "Guardian", "contributor", "Geoffrey", "Cannon", "similarly", "commented", "that", "the", "\"hard,", "exhilarating,", "self-confident\"", "guitar", "work", "was", "inspired", "by", "Berry.", "San", "Francisco", "Examiner", "critic", "Philip", "Elwood", "described", "the", "song", "as", "\"a", "lively", "rock", "'n'", "roll", "vehicle", "combining", "a", "wild", "vocal", "and", "absolutely", "perfectly", "styled", "instrumental", "ensemble.\"", "The", "Dispatch", "critic", "Dink", "Lorance", "describes", "the", "song", "as", "\"an", "old-style", "rock", "and", "roller.\"", "Kitts", "interprets", "the", "song", "as", "exposing", "the", "\"self-centeredness", "and", "limited", "vision", "of", "politicians,", "religious", "leaders,", "and", "the", "media,", "all", "of", "whom", "exploit", "events", "for", "aggrandizement", "and", "self-promotion\"", "but", "they", "are", "all", "outsmarted", "by", "a", "simple", "Midwestern", "farmer.", "He", "regards", "the", "song", "as", "being", "\"a", "more", "humorous,", "less", "bitter", "attack", "on", "officials", "and", "institutions", "than", "we", "see", "elsewhere", "in", "Fogerty\"", "and", "that", "it", "\"champions", "the", "working", "classes", "who", "through", "efficiency", "and", "practicality", "get", "things", "done", "and", "are", "not", "so", "simple", "as", "the", "empowered", "think.\"", "Cannon", "compares", "the", "song", "to", "the", "Dillards'", "\"The", "Biggest", "Whatever\"", "in", "that", "in", "both", "songs", "an", "enormous", "object", "falls", "from", "the", "sky", "onto", "the", "American", "countryside.", "Cannon", "interprets", "the", "large", "object", "as", "\"a", "metaphor", "for", "an", "idea,", "too", "big", "to", "be", "assimilated", "into", "the", "old", "ideas", "just", "as", "the", "world", "would", "turn", "upside", "down", "for", "anyone", "who", "saw", "an", "ant", "a", "foot", "long.\"", "Reception", "Rolling", "Stone", "critic", "Alec", "Dubro", "praises", "the", "song", "as", "being", "\"as", "funny", "as", "Dylan", "at", "his", "best\"", "and", "for", "being", "able", "to", "\"get", "three", "worlds", "of", "paranoia", "into", "one", "short,", "entertaining,", "musical", "song.\"", "Dubro", "also", "asserts", "that", "the", "song", "successfully", "reconciles", "Fogerty's", "insistence", "that", "listeners", "put", "too", "much", "weight", "on", "political", "references", "in", "songs", "with", "Fogerty's", "belief", "that", "a", "song", "can", "have", "a", "message", "by", "being", "\"message", "and", "comment", "without", "moralizing.\"", "The", "New", "Rolling", "Stone", "Album", "Guide", "critic", "Rob", "Sheffield", "highlighted", "the", "\"sharp", "working", "class", "anger\"", "of", "\"It", "Came", "Out", "of", "the", "Sky\"", "in", "regarding", "the", "song", "as", "part", "of", "\"Fogerty's", "songwriting", "peak.\"", "Allmusic", "critic", "Stephen", "Thomas", "Erlewine", "claims", "that", "\"It", "Came", "Out", "of", "the", "Sky\"", "is", "one", "of", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival's", "best", "performances.", "Elwood", "called", "it", "\"great", "stuff,", "supported", "by", "pure", "8-to-the-bar\".", "Village", "Voice", "critic", "Robert", "Christgau", "called", "it", "a", "\"hidden", "treasure.\"", "Nick", "DeRiso", "of", "Ultimate", "Classic", "Rock", "called", "it", "\"a", "choice", "deep", "cut.\"", "In", "early", "1970", "Tampa", "Tribune", "reporter", "Rory", "O'Connor", "felt", "that", "it", "had", "the", "potential", "to", "be", "the", "band's", "\"next", "million", "seller", "single\"", "and", "noted", "that", "it", "was", "receiving", "significant", "airplay", "on", "local", "radio.", "Music", "journalist", "Hank", "Bordowitz", "praises", "Fogerty's", "\"willingness", "to", "take", "a", "stand", "on", "the", "issues", "of", "the", "day\"", "and", "for", "his", "\"prescience\"", "in", "being", "one", "of", "the", "first", "to", "criticize", "Reagan", "in", "a", "song.", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival", "drummer", "Doug", "Clifford", "claimed", "that", "\"It's", "a", "fun", "song.", "It's", "kind", "of", "a", "spoof", "on", "everybody.\"", "Clifford", "also", "stated", "that", "he", "was", "surprised", "it", "did", "not", "become", "more", "popular.", "Bassist", "Stu", "Cook", "called", "it", "\"a", "tough", "act", "to", "follow.\"", "\"It", "Came", "Out", "of", "the", "Sky\"", "was", "included", "on", "several", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival", "compilation", "albums,", "including", "Chronicle,", "Vol.", "2", "in", "1986,", "Keep", "On", "Chooglin'", "in", "1999", "and", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival:", "Box", "Set", "in", "2001.", "It", "was", "released", "as", "a", "single", "in", "the", "UK", "backed", "with", "\"Side", "O", "the", "Road\"", "and", "in", "Spain", "backed", "with", "\"Cotton", "Fields.\"", "Live", "versions", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revival", "sometimes", "played", "the", "song", "live", "and", "it", "appears", "on", "the", "1973", "live", "album", "Live", "in", "Europe.", "Commenting", "on", "a", "1971", "concert,", "Elwood", "commented", "that", "Cook's", "bass", "playing", "on", "the", "song", "was", "\"imaginative", "and", "forceful.\"", "After", "Fogerty", "left", "the", "group", "and", "Clifford", "and", "Cook", "formed", "Creedence", "Clearwater", "Revisited,", "they", "continued", "to", "occasionally", "play", "the", "song", "live.", "According", "to", "Cook,", "the", "band", "continues", "to", "play", "the", "song", "for", "themselves", "at", "soundchecks,", "even", "though", "much", "of", "the", "audience", "typically", "fails", "to", "recognize", "it", "when", "they", "include", "it", "in", "the", "shows." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative%20Measure%20124%20%28Seattle%29

Initiative Measure 124 (Seattle)

Initiative Measure 124 was a ballot measure in Seattle, Washington, regulating labor relations in the hotel industry, that was passed by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The initiative was placed on the ballot by UNITE HERE Local 8, a union that represents workers in the hospitality industry. Supporters of the measure see it as bringing a measure of justice to exploited workers. Opponents say the new law is unfair to guests, too expensive to implement, and unfairly advantages unions. In 2019, the Seattle City Council repealed the original initiative, and replaced it with four separate laws, re-written and modified with the intent to survive the pending and anticipated lawsuits concerning a single subject for the initiative, and changing the employer healthcare mandate to avoid interfering with federal laws concerning employee benefits, which pre-empt state or local laws. Legislative history Initiative Measure 124 was sponsored by UNITE HERE Local 8. Stefan Moritz, a union official, filed the initial text of the initiative with Seattle's city clerk on April 5, 2016. The union began collecting signatures to get the measure on the November ballot in May 2016. The final text of the initiative was filed on May 6. The union submitted its petition signatures on June 22 and King County Elections issued a Letter of Sufficiency on July 15. The final text of the ballot title was issued on July 28. The measure passed on November 8, 2016 and became a city ordinance with full effect on November 30 after a proclamation by Mayor Ed Murray. Provisions The initiative requires hotels with 60 or more rooms to issue "panic buttons" to employees that work alone in guest rooms. Hotels are required to keep lists of guests accused of assault or harassment for five years from the date of the last accusation involving any given guest. All relevant documents must be retained for the same period. Any guest accused of assault, sexual assault, or sexual harassment must be banned from the hotel for a minimum of three years. A mere accusation is sufficient to require a ban. No investigation is required. There is no provision for appeals. Workers must be given paid time to make a police report and be given the option to work in a different area of the hotel. Police may only be contacted with the permission of the worker. Hotels are required to warn guests about these rules with a placard written in a large font placed on the interior side of their room doors. Under the initiative, when a hotel is sold the new owners are required to offer employees of the previous owner work before hiring replacement staff. This requirement applies from the day of sale until six months after the hotel is open to the public while under the management of the new employer. If during the first 90 days of operations the new owner finds that it needs fewer workers, staff must be retained by order of seniority. During this 90 day period staff may not be otherwise dismissed except for cause. Workers must be provided with a written performance evaluation at the end of this period; these records must be retained for at least three years. Conspicuous public notice of change of ownership, including contact information for the new owners, must be posted within five days after a sale is agreed to and must remain posted for six months after the hotel has been open to the public under new management. This provision applies to hotels with 60 rooms or more. The initiative requires large hotels to limit the workload of cleaning staff to 5,000 square feet per eight-hour shift and regulates the handling of cleaning chemicals. Cleaners assigned space over this limit would be paid at time-and-a-half wage. This provision applies to hotels with 100 rooms or more. The initiative requires large hotels that don't offer health benefits to pay staff a monthly stipend to help them buy insurance. Qualifying workers would receive an amount based on their income, family size, the federal poverty line, and the lowest premium offered on the Washington Health Benefits Exchange for a gold-level policy. This provision applies to hotels with 100 or more rooms. Workers can enforce these rights by filing a complaint with the City of Seattle or filing suit in King County Superior Court. Penalties issued against hotels go to the complainant, affected workers, and the city Office of Civil Rights. The measure prohibits employer retaliation for exercising any of these rights. The law has a rebuttable presumption that any adverse action taken against an employee within 90 days of exercising any of these rights is an act of illegal retaliation. Union-shop exemption Except for the provisions relating to assault, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, every part of this measure can be waived in a union-shop through collective bargaining. Debate Opposition The Seattle Times editorial board opposed the initiative. They wrote, "If the safety of Seattle hotel employees is a problem, the laws that protect them should be strengthened. Seattle ballot Initiative 124 is a sloppy, possibly illegal first draft that should be rejected by voters." Support Seattle Weekly endorsed the initiative. They wrote, "Critics of the initiative—largely hotel-industry representatives—call the measure's stipulations overreaching and Draconian. They say many hotels already have these kinds of protections in place. They also point to I-124's union-exemption clause: If workers belong to a union, their hotel will not be subject to some of the measure's stipulations, to allow for freer collective bargaining. We ourselves recognize that the union exemption may be faintly disguised self-interest; employers might find the law onerous, leading them to encourage unionization in hopes of a better deal. But if the byproduct of passing I-124 is a stronger local union, so be it. We believe the result is a step toward justice for a long-exploited class of workers, union-backed or no." Litigation The American Hotel & Lodging Association, its Washington state chapter, and its Seattle chapter all filed suit in Washington state court to block Initiative Measure 124 in December 2016. Their complaint says, "The potential for mistakes and abuse is significant, especially because the hotels are allowed no opportunity to determine whether there was actually any wrongdoing, and guests are allowed no opportunity to refute the allegations. The blacklist provision requires hotels to punish people (by placing them on a list and denying some of them accommodations) without any opportunity to investigate the allegations." The suit also claimed that the initiative violated the single subject rule written into the Seattle city charter. The complaint says, "Neither the ballot title nor the concise statement express the multiple subjects of Initiative 124 (I-124), particularly those which deal with compensation and fringe benefits, legal standards for discrimination claims, and the novel and disturbing requirement that hotels deny accommodation to certain guests without notice or a chance to respond to allegations." On December 24, 2018, a Washington State Court of Appeals threw out I-124 in its entirety, holding that it unconstitutionally contains multiple unrelated topics. After a King County Superior Court ruled in favor of the initiative, the state Supreme Court last January declined to hear a direct appeal and sent it to the Court of Appeals for further review. The Appeals Court found that I-124 contains multiple separate parts, including: protecting workers who must enter guests’ hotel rooms from sexual harassment and assault by providing panic buttons and requiring hotels to maintain a list of guests who have been accused of sexual assault or harassment; requiring hotel employers to provide and use safety devices and safeguards, and prohibiting large hotels from requiring hotel workers to clean more than 5000 square feet per 8-hour day without time-and-a-half pay; requiring large hotel employers to provide healthcare subsidies to hotel workers or the equivalent of a gold-level healthcare policy; when a hotel changes ownership, requiring the new owner to hire from the list of employees prior to the sale for the first six months. The statement for and against Initiative 124 is here. See also Hands Off, Pants On References Labor in the United States Seattle

Initiative Measure 124 was a ballot measure in Seattle, Washington, regulating labor relations in the hotel industry, that was passed by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The initiative was placed on the ballot by UNITE HERE Local 8, a union that represents workers in the hospitality industry. Supporters of the measure see it as bringing a measure of justice to exploited workers. Opponents say the new law is unfair to guests, too expensive to implement, and unfairly advantages unions.🦛 In 2019, the Seattle City Council repealed the original initiative, and replaced it with four separate laws, re-written and modified with the intent to survive the pending and anticipated lawsuits concerning a single subject for the initiative, and changing the employer healthcare mandate to avoid interfering with federal laws concerning employee benefits, which pre-empt state or local laws.🦛 Legislative history Initiative Measure 124 was sponsored by UNITE HERE Local 8. Stefan Moritz, a union official, filed the initial text of the initiative with Seattle's city clerk on April 5, 2016. The union began collecting signatures to get the measure on the November ballot in May 2016. The final text of the initiative was filed on May 6. The union submitted its petition signatures on June 22 and King County Elections issued a Letter of Sufficiency on July 15. The final text of the ballot title was issued on July 28. The measure passed on November 8, 2016 and became a city ordinance with full effect on November 30 after a proclamation by Mayor Ed Murray.🦛 Provisions The initiative requires hotels with 60 or more rooms to issue "panic buttons" to employees that work alone in guest rooms. Hotels are required to keep lists of guests accused of assault or harassment for five years from the date of the last accusation involving any given guest. All relevant documents must be retained for the same period. Any guest accused of assault, sexual assault, or sexual harassment must be banned from the hotel for a minimum of three years. A mere accusation is sufficient to require a ban. No investigation is required. There is no provision for appeals. Workers must be given paid time to make a police report and be given the option to work in a different area of the hotel. Police may only be contacted with the permission of the worker. Hotels are required to warn guests about these rules with a placard written in a large font placed on the interior side of their room doors.🦛 Under the initiative, when a hotel is sold the new owners are required to offer employees of the previous owner work before hiring replacement staff. This requirement applies from the day of sale until six months after the hotel is open to the public while under the management of the new employer. If during the first 90 days of operations the new owner finds that it needs fewer workers, staff must be retained by order of seniority. During this 90 day period staff may not be otherwise dismissed except for cause. Workers must be provided with a written performance evaluation at the end of this period; these records must be retained for at least three years. Conspicuous public notice of change of ownership, including contact information for the new owners, must be posted within five days after a sale is agreed to and must remain posted for six months after the hotel has been open to the public under new management. This provision applies to hotels with 60 rooms or more.🦛 The initiative requires large hotels to limit the workload of cleaning staff to 5,000 square feet per eight-hour shift and regulates the handling of cleaning chemicals. Cleaners assigned space over this limit would be paid at time-and-a-half wage. This provision applies to hotels with 100 rooms or more.🦛 The initiative requires large hotels that don't offer health benefits to pay staff a monthly stipend to help them buy insurance. Qualifying workers would receive an amount based on their income, family size, the federal poverty line, and the lowest premium offered on the Washington Health Benefits Exchange for a gold-level policy. This provision applies to hotels with 100 or more rooms.🦛 Workers can enforce these rights by filing a complaint with the City of Seattle or filing suit in King County Superior Court. Penalties issued against hotels go to the complainant, affected workers, and the city Office of Civil Rights. The measure prohibits employer retaliation for exercising any of these rights. The law has a rebuttable presumption that any adverse action taken against an employee within 90 days of exercising any of these rights is an act of illegal retaliation.🦛 Union-shop exemption Except for the provisions relating to assault, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, every part of this measure can be waived in a union-shop through collective bargaining.🦛 Debate Opposition The Seattle Times editorial board opposed the initiative. They wrote, "If the safety of Seattle hotel employees is a problem, the laws that protect them should be strengthened. Seattle ballot Initiative 124 is a sloppy, possibly illegal first draft that should be rejected by voters."🦛 Support Seattle Weekly endorsed the initiative. They wrote, "Critics of the initiative—largely hotel-industry representatives—call the measure's stipulations overreaching and Draconian. They say many hotels already have these kinds of protections in place. They also point to I-124's union-exemption clause: If workers belong to a union, their hotel will not be subject to some of the measure's stipulations, to allow for freer collective bargaining. We ourselves recognize that the union exemption may be faintly disguised self-interest; employers might find the law onerous, leading them to encourage unionization in hopes of a better deal. But if the byproduct of passing I-124 is a stronger local union, so be it. We believe the result is a step toward justice for a long-exploited class of workers, union-backed or no."🦛 Litigation The American Hotel & Lodging Association, its Washington state chapter, and its Seattle chapter all filed suit in Washington state court to block Initiative Measure 124 in December 2016. Their complaint says, "The potential for mistakes and abuse is significant, especially because the hotels are allowed no opportunity to determine whether there was actually any wrongdoing, and guests are allowed no opportunity to refute the allegations. The blacklist provision requires hotels to punish people (by placing them on a list and denying some of them accommodations) without any opportunity to investigate the allegations."🦛 The suit also claimed that the initiative violated the single subject rule written into the Seattle city charter. The complaint says, "Neither the ballot title nor the concise statement express the multiple subjects of Initiative 124 (I-124), particularly those which deal with compensation and fringe benefits, legal standards for discrimination claims, and the novel and disturbing requirement that hotels deny accommodation to certain guests without notice or a chance to respond to allegations."🦛 On December 24, 2018, a Washington State Court of Appeals threw out I-124 in its entirety, holding that it unconstitutionally contains multiple unrelated topics.🦛 After a King County Superior Court ruled in favor of the initiative, the state Supreme Court last January declined to hear a direct appeal and sent it to the Court of Appeals for further review.🦛 The Appeals Court found that I-124 contains multiple separate parts, including: protecting workers who must enter guests’ hotel rooms from sexual harassment and assault by providing panic buttons and requiring hotels to maintain a list of guests who have been accused of sexual assault or harassment;🦛 requiring hotel employers to provide and use safety devices and safeguards, and prohibiting large hotels from requiring hotel workers to clean more than 5000 square feet per 8-hour day without time-and-a-half pay;🦛 requiring large hotel employers to provide healthcare subsidies to hotel workers or the equivalent of a gold-level healthcare policy;🦛 when a hotel changes ownership, requiring the new owner to hire from the list of employees prior to the sale for the first six months. The statement for and against Initiative 124 is here.🦛

[ "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "was", "a", "ballot", "measure", "in", "Seattle,", "Washington,", "regulating", "labor", "relations", "in", "the", "hotel", "industry,", "that", "was", "passed", "by", "popular", "vote", "on", "November", "8,", "2016.", "The", "initiative", "was", "placed", "on", "the", "ballot", "by", "UNITE", "HERE", "Local", "8,", "a", "union", "that", "represents", "workers", "in", "the", "hospitality", "industry.", "Supporters", "of", "the", "measure", "see", "it", "as", "bringing", "a", "measure", "of", "justice", "to", "exploited", "workers.", "Opponents", "say", "the", "new", "law", "is", "unfair", "to", "guests,", "too", "expensive", "to", "implement,", "and", "unfairly", "advantages", "unions.", "In", "2019,", "the", "Seattle", "City", "Council", "repealed", "the", "original", "initiative,", "and", "replaced", "it", "with", "four", "separate", "laws,", "re-written", "and", "modified", "with", "the", "intent", "to", "survive", "the", "pending", "and", "anticipated", "lawsuits", "concerning", "a", "single", "subject", "for", "the", "initiative,", "and", "changing", "the", "employer", "healthcare", "mandate", "to", "avoid", "interfering", "with", "federal", "laws", "concerning", "employee", "benefits,", "which", "pre-empt", "state", "or", "local", "laws.", "Legislative", "history", "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "was", "sponsored", "by", "UNITE", "HERE", "Local", "8.", "Stefan", "Moritz,", "a", "union", "official,", "filed", "the", "initial", "text", "of", "the", "initiative", "with", "Seattle's", "city", "clerk", "on", "April", "5,", "2016.", "The", "union", "began", "collecting", "signatures", "to", "get", "the", "measure", "on", "the", "November", "ballot", "in", "May", "2016.", "The", "final", "text", "of", "the", "initiative", "was", "filed", "on", "May", "6.", "The", "union", "submitted", "its", "petition", "signatures", "on", "June", "22", "and", "King", "County", "Elections", "issued", "a", "Letter", "of", "Sufficiency", "on", "July", "15.", "The", "final", "text", "of", "the", "ballot", "title", "was", "issued", "on", "July", "28.", "The", "measure", "passed", "on", "November", "8,", "2016", "and", "became", "a", "city", "ordinance", "with", "full", "effect", "on", "November", "30", "after", "a", "proclamation", "by", "Mayor", "Ed", "Murray.", "Provisions", "The", "initiative", "requires", "hotels", "with", "60", "or", "more", "rooms", "to", "issue", "\"panic", "buttons\"", "to", "employees", "that", "work", "alone", "in", "guest", "rooms.", "Hotels", "are", "required", "to", "keep", "lists", "of", "guests", "accused", "of", "assault", "or", "harassment", "for", "five", "years", "from", "the", "date", "of", "the", "last", "accusation", "involving", "any", "given", "guest.", "All", "relevant", "documents", "must", "be", "retained", "for", "the", "same", "period.", "Any", "guest", "accused", "of", "assault,", "sexual", "assault,", "or", "sexual", "harassment", "must", "be", "banned", "from", "the", "hotel", "for", "a", "minimum", "of", "three", "years.", "A", "mere", "accusation", "is", "sufficient", "to", "require", "a", "ban.", "No", "investigation", "is", "required.", "There", "is", "no", "provision", "for", "appeals.", "Workers", "must", "be", "given", "paid", "time", "to", "make", "a", "police", "report", "and", "be", "given", "the", "option", "to", "work", "in", "a", "different", "area", "of", "the", "hotel.", "Police", "may", "only", "be", "contacted", "with", "the", "permission", "of", "the", "worker.", "Hotels", "are", "required", "to", "warn", "guests", "about", "these", "rules", "with", "a", "placard", "written", "in", "a", "large", "font", "placed", "on", "the", "interior", "side", "of", "their", "room", "doors.", "Under", "the", "initiative,", "when", "a", "hotel", "is", "sold", "the", "new", "owners", "are", "required", "to", "offer", "employees", "of", "the", "previous", "owner", "work", "before", "hiring", "replacement", "staff.", "This", "requirement", "applies", "from", "the", "day", "of", "sale", "until", "six", "months", "after", "the", "hotel", "is", "open", "to", "the", "public", "while", "under", "the", "management", "of", "the", "new", "employer.", "If", "during", "the", "first", "90", "days", "of", "operations", "the", "new", "owner", "finds", "that", "it", "needs", "fewer", "workers,", "staff", "must", "be", "retained", "by", "order", "of", "seniority.", "During", "this", "90", "day", "period", "staff", "may", "not", "be", "otherwise", "dismissed", "except", "for", "cause.", "Workers", "must", "be", "provided", "with", "a", "written", "performance", "evaluation", "at", "the", "end", "of", "this", "period;", "these", "records", "must", "be", "retained", "for", "at", "least", "three", "years.", "Conspicuous", "public", "notice", "of", "change", "of", "ownership,", "including", "contact", "information", "for", "the", "new", "owners,", "must", "be", "posted", "within", "five", "days", "after", "a", "sale", "is", "agreed", "to", "and", "must", "remain", "posted", "for", "six", "months", "after", "the", "hotel", "has", "been", "open", "to", "the", "public", "under", "new", "management.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "60", "rooms", "or", "more.", "The", "initiative", "requires", "large", "hotels", "to", "limit", "the", "workload", "of", "cleaning", "staff", "to", "5,000", "square", "feet", "per", "eight-hour", "shift", "and", "regulates", "the", "handling", "of", "cleaning", "chemicals.", "Cleaners", "assigned", "space", "over", "this", "limit", "would", "be", "paid", "at", "time-and-a-half", "wage.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "100", "rooms", "or", "more.", "The", "initiative", "requires", "large", "hotels", "that", "don't", "offer", "health", "benefits", "to", "pay", "staff", "a", "monthly", "stipend", "to", "help", "them", "buy", "insurance.", "Qualifying", "workers", "would", "receive", "an", "amount", "based", "on", "their", "income,", "family", "size,", "the", "federal", "poverty", "line,", "and", "the", "lowest", "premium", "offered", "on", "the", "Washington", "Health", "Benefits", "Exchange", "for", "a", "gold-level", "policy.", "This", "provision", "applies", "to", "hotels", "with", "100", "or", "more", "rooms.", "Workers", "can", "enforce", "these", "rights", "by", "filing", "a", "complaint", "with", "the", "City", "of", "Seattle", "or", "filing", "suit", "in", "King", "County", "Superior", "Court.", "Penalties", "issued", "against", "hotels", "go", "to", "the", "complainant,", "affected", "workers,", "and", "the", "city", "Office", "of", "Civil", "Rights.", "The", "measure", "prohibits", "employer", "retaliation", "for", "exercising", "any", "of", "these", "rights.", "The", "law", "has", "a", "rebuttable", "presumption", "that", "any", "adverse", "action", "taken", "against", "an", "employee", "within", "90", "days", "of", "exercising", "any", "of", "these", "rights", "is", "an", "act", "of", "illegal", "retaliation.", "Union-shop", "exemption", "Except", "for", "the", "provisions", "relating", "to", "assault,", "sexual", "assault,", "and", "sexual", "harassment,", "every", "part", "of", "this", "measure", "can", "be", "waived", "in", "a", "union-shop", "through", "collective", "bargaining.", "Debate", "Opposition", "The", "Seattle", "Times", "editorial", "board", "opposed", "the", "initiative.", "They", "wrote,", "\"If", "the", "safety", "of", "Seattle", "hotel", "employees", "is", "a", "problem,", "the", "laws", "that", "protect", "them", "should", "be", "strengthened.", "Seattle", "ballot", "Initiative", "124", "is", "a", "sloppy,", "possibly", "illegal", "first", "draft", "that", "should", "be", "rejected", "by", "voters.\"", "Support", "Seattle", "Weekly", "endorsed", "the", "initiative.", "They", "wrote,", "\"Critics", "of", "the", "initiative—largely", "hotel-industry", "representatives—call", "the", "measure's", "stipulations", "overreaching", "and", "Draconian.", "They", "say", "many", "hotels", "already", "have", "these", "kinds", "of", "protections", "in", "place.", "They", "also", "point", "to", "I-124's", "union-exemption", "clause:", "If", "workers", "belong", "to", "a", "union,", "their", "hotel", "will", "not", "be", "subject", "to", "some", "of", "the", "measure's", "stipulations,", "to", "allow", "for", "freer", "collective", "bargaining.", "We", "ourselves", "recognize", "that", "the", "union", "exemption", "may", "be", "faintly", "disguised", "self-interest;", "employers", "might", "find", "the", "law", "onerous,", "leading", "them", "to", "encourage", "unionization", "in", "hopes", "of", "a", "better", "deal.", "But", "if", "the", "byproduct", "of", "passing", "I-124", "is", "a", "stronger", "local", "union,", "so", "be", "it.", "We", "believe", "the", "result", "is", "a", "step", "toward", "justice", "for", "a", "long-exploited", "class", "of", "workers,", "union-backed", "or", "no.\"", "Litigation", "The", "American", "Hotel", "&", "Lodging", "Association,", "its", "Washington", "state", "chapter,", "and", "its", "Seattle", "chapter", "all", "filed", "suit", "in", "Washington", "state", "court", "to", "block", "Initiative", "Measure", "124", "in", "December", "2016.", "Their", "complaint", "says,", "\"The", "potential", "for", "mistakes", "and", "abuse", "is", "significant,", "especially", "because", "the", "hotels", "are", "allowed", "no", "opportunity", "to", "determine", "whether", "there", "was", "actually", "any", "wrongdoing,", "and", "guests", "are", "allowed", "no", "opportunity", "to", "refute", "the", "allegations.", "The", "blacklist", "provision", "requires", "hotels", "to", "punish", "people", "(by", "placing", "them", "on", "a", "list", "and", "denying", "some", "of", "them", "accommodations)", "without", "any", "opportunity", "to", "investigate", "the", "allegations.\"", "The", "suit", "also", "claimed", "that", "the", "initiative", "violated", "the", "single", "subject", "rule", "written", "into", "the", "Seattle", "city", "charter.", "The", "complaint", "says,", "\"Neither", "the", "ballot", "title", "nor", "the", "concise", "statement", "express", "the", "multiple", "subjects", "of", "Initiative", "124", "(I-124),", "particularly", "those", "which", "deal", "with", "compensation", "and", "fringe", "benefits,", "legal", "standards", "for", "discrimination", "claims,", "and", "the", "novel", "and", "disturbing", "requirement", "that", "hotels", "deny", "accommodation", "to", "certain", "guests", "without", "notice", "or", "a", "chance", "to", "respond", "to", "allegations.\"", "On", "December", "24,", "2018,", "a", "Washington", "State", "Court", "of", "Appeals", "threw", "out", "I-124", "in", "its", "entirety,", "holding", "that", "it", "unconstitutionally", "contains", "multiple", "unrelated", "topics.", "After", "a", "King", "County", "Superior", "Court", "ruled", "in", "favor", "of", "the", "initiative,", "the", "state", "Supreme", "Court", "last", "January", "declined", "to", "hear", "a", "direct", "appeal", "and", "sent", "it", "to", "the", "Court", "of", "Appeals", "for", "further", "review.", "The", "Appeals", "Court", "found", "that", "I-124", "contains", "multiple", "separate", "parts,", "including:", "protecting", "workers", "who", "must", "enter", "guests’", "hotel", "rooms", "from", "sexual", "harassment", "and", "assault", "by", "providing", "panic", "buttons", "and", "requiring", "hotels", "to", "maintain", "a", "list", "of", "guests", "who", "have", "been", "accused", "of", "sexual", "assault", "or", "harassment;", "requiring", "hotel", "employers", "to", "provide", "and", "use", "safety", "devices", "and", "safeguards,", "and", "prohibiting", "large", "hotels", "from", "requiring", "hotel", "workers", "to", "clean", "more", "than", "5000", "square", "feet", "per", "8-hour", "day", "without", "time-and-a-half", "pay;", "requiring", "large", "hotel", "employers", "to", "provide", "healthcare", "subsidies", "to", "hotel", "workers", "or", "the", "equivalent", "of", "a", "gold-level", "healthcare", "policy;", "when", "a", "hotel", "changes", "ownership,", "requiring", "the", "new", "owner", "to", "hire", "from", "the", "list", "of", "employees", "prior", "to", "the", "sale", "for", "the", "first", "six", "months.", "The", "statement", "for", "and", "against", "Initiative", "124", "is", "here." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer%20confidence

Consumer confidence

Consumer confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. If the consumer has confidence in the immediate and near future economy and his/her personal finance, then the consumer will spend more than save. When consumer confidence is high, consumers make more purchases. When confidence is low, consumers tend to save more and spend less. A month-to-month trend in consumer confidence reflects the outlook of consumers with respect to their ability to find and retain good jobs according to their perception of the current state of the economy and their personal financial situation. Consumer confidence typically increases when the economy expands, and decreases when the economy contracts. In the United States, there is evidence that the measure is a lagging indicator of stock market performance. Usage Investors, manufacturers, retailers, banks, public opinion researchers and government agencies use various assessments of consumer confidence in planning their actions. The ability to predict major changes in consumer confidence allows businesses to gauge the willingness of consumers to make new purchases. As a result, businesses can adjust their operations and the government can prepare for changing tax revenue. If confidence is dropping and consumers are expected to reduce their spending, most producers will tend to reduce their production volumes accordingly. For example, if manufacturers anticipate consumers will reduce retail purchases, especially for expensive and durable goods, they will cut down their inventories in advance and may delay investing in new projects and facilities. Similarly, if banks expect consumers to decrease their spending, they will prepare for the reduction in lending activities, such as mortgage applications and credit card use. Builders will plan for the decline in home construction volumes. The government will get ready for the reduction in future tax revenues. On the other hand, if consumer confidence is improving, people are expected to increase their purchases of goods and services. In anticipation of that change, manufacturers can boost production and inventories. Large employers can increase hiring rates. Builders can prepare for higher housing construction rates. Banks can plan for a rise in demand for credit products. Government can expect improved tax revenues based on the increase in consumer spending. Conference Board, Present Situation Index and the Business Cycles Major drops in the Present Situation Index tend to precede a drop in the business cycle. The economy enters a recession after the Conference Board, Present Situation Index drops by 15 points from its prior year's value., Consumer confidence by country Canada The Conference Board of Canada's Index of Consumer Confidence has been ongoing since 1980. It is constructed from responses to four attitudinal questions posed to a random sample of Canadian households. Those surveyed are asked to give their views about their households' current and expected financial positions and the short-term employment outlook. They are also asked to assess whether now is a good or a bad time to make a major purchase such as a house, car or other big-ticket items. India The relevance of a consumer confidence index for a country like India is evident from the fact that Consumption Expenditure accounts for over 60% of India's GDP. The BluFin Consumer Confidence Index is the first monthly, statistically robust index of consumer sentiment in India. The CCI is designed to provide reliable insights into the direction of the Indian national and regional economies. Released once a month, the index is computed from the results of a monthly survey of 4,000 consumers in 18 cities across India.The Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index was developed by a team of financial economists and statisticians led by Dr. Sam Thomas, Ph.D., Director of Research and Development at BluFin. Dr Thomas is also Professor of Banking and Finance at the Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Israel The Israeli consumer confidence index is conducted by Israel's daily Globes and is published monthly by Globes's research unit. Spain The Spanish CCI is made since 2004. The Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO) based its calculation on the methodology of Michigan and the USA Conference Board. Since November 2011 is the Centro De Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) who is responsible for its publication. The CCI is built up from a monthly survey of opinion with implementing standardized telephone questionnaire to a representative sample of the population resident in Spain of 1000 individuals over 16 years. The sampling procedure is multistage, with selection of primary sampling units (municipalities) in a random proportional to each of the Spanish provinces and the secondary units (households) from telephone numbers and the last units (individuals) as cross-gender quotas and age. United States There exist several indicators that attempt to track and measure consumer confidence in the US: Consumer Confidence Index The Consumer Confidence Index (CCI) is produced by the non-profit business group The Conference Board since 1967. The CCI is designed to assess the overall confidence, relative financial health and spending power of the US average consumer. The Conference Board releases the headline Consumer Confidence Index figure each month, alongside a Present Situation Index and an Expectations Index. Methodology The CCI is based on the data from a monthly survey of 5,000 US households. The data is calculated for the United States as a whole and for each of the country's nine census regions. The survey consists of five questions on the following topics: i) current business conditions, ii) business conditions for the next six months, iii) current employment conditions, iv) employment conditions for the next six months, v) total family income for the next six months. Opinion on current conditions make up to 40% of the index and expectation about future as 60%, thus making it a "Leading Indicator". After all surveys are collected, each question's positive responses are divided by the sum of its positive and negative responses. The resulting relative value is then used as an "index value" and compared against each respective monthly value for 1985. In that year, the result of the index was arbitrarily set at 100, representing it as index benchmark. That year was chosen as a benchmark year because it was neither a peak nor trough in the business cycle. The index values for all five questions are averaged together to produce the CCI. The Present Situation Index is based on answers to questions about the respondent's assessment of The Expectations Index is based on responses to questions about respondents expectations for six months in the future of: University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index The University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index (MCSI) is produced by the University of Michigan and distributed by Thomson Reuters. The MCSI is designed to gauge consumer attitudes toward the overall business climate, the state of personal finances, and consumer spending. The University of Michigan releases three related figures each month: the Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS, or MCSI), the Index of Current Economic Conditions (ICC), and the Index of Consumer Expectations (ICE). The most recent data for ICS is published by Reuters here. The Index of Consumer Expectations is an official component of the U.S. Index of Leading Economic Indicators. On June 12, 2013, the CNBC reported that Thomson Reuters allows fee-paying customers access to the Index before it is available to others. Methodology of the MCSI The Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS) is based on the monthly telephone survey of the US household data. The Index is aggregated from five questions on the following topics: i) personal financial situation now and a year ago, ii) personal financial situation one year from now, iii) overall financial condition of the business for the next twelve months, iv) overall financial condition of the business for the next five years, v) current attitude toward buying major household items. The ICS is calculated from computing the "relative scores" for each of the five index questions: the percent giving favorable replies minus the percent giving unfavorable replies, plus 100. Each relative score is then rounded to the nearest whole number. All five relative scores are then summed and the sum is divided by 6.7558 (the 1966 base period) and 2 is added to the result (a constant to correct for sample design changes from the 1950s). ICC is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions one and five by 2.6424 and adding 2. ICE is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions two, three, and four by 4.1134 and adding 2. Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index The Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index represents a four-week rolling average based on 250 telephone interviews a week with adults nationwide, giving a sample size of 1,000 for each four-week period. The survey began in December 1985 by the polling firm Langer Research Associates and was originally known as "The ABC News Consumer Comfort Index" before Bloomberg licensed the rights in 2011. The Index is based on consumers' ratings of the economy, the buying climate, and personal finances. Unlike the other indicators, it measures only current conditions with no questions about expectations. Methodology of the Consumer Comfort Index The Index aggregates consumer responses to three questions on the following topics: i) national economy ("would you describe the state of the nation's economy these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?", ii) on personal finances ("would you describe the state of your own personal finances these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?") and iii) buying climate ("considering the cost of things today and your own personal finances, would you say now is an excellent time, a good time, a not so good time, or a poor time to buy the things you want and need?"). The Index is derived by subtracting the negative response to each question from the positive response to that question. The three resulting numbers are then added and divided by three. The index can range from +100 (everyone positive on all three measures) to -100 (all negative on all three measures). Consumer Confidence Average Index The Consumer Confidence Average Index (CCAI) is a monthly indicator that aggregates data from the above three major national polls on consumer confidence. It represents the rescaled average of the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index, the University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index, and the Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index. Methodology of the CCAI The CCAI takes into account historical values of all three indexes starting from December 1985. The value 0 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the lowest value of each index. The value 100 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the highest value of each index. Gallup Economic Confidence Index The Gallup Economic Confidence Index is a broad indicator of Americans’ confidence in national economic conditions, based on the combined responses to two questions. One question asks Americans to evaluate current economic conditions; the other measures their perceptions of whether the economy is getting better or getting worse. Gallup has asked the component questions periodically since 1992, monthly since October 2000, and daily since January 2008. Gallup reports results of the Economic Confidence Index on Gallup.com on a daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis. Methodology of the ECI Gallup’s Economic Confidence Index is a composite of the two questions that Gallup asks daily of a nationally representative sample of 500 adults, aged 18 and older, and reports weekly based on approximately 3,500 interviews. The first question asks Americans to rate economic conditions in the country today, and second question asks whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. The two questions have equal weight in the index, which is reported without revisions or seasonal adjustments. They can also be analyzed separately, providing insight into changes in the overall index. The survey is conducted with respondents contacted on landlines and cellphones, and includes Spanish-language interviewing. Gallup calculates the Economic Confidence Index by adding the percentage of people rating current economic conditions (["excellent" + "good"] minus "poor") to the percentage saying the economy is ("getting better" minus "getting worse"), and then dividing that sum by two. The Gallup Economic Confidence Index has a possible maximum of +100 (reached if all Americans rate current economic conditions as excellent or good, and all Americans say the economy is getting better) and a possible minimum of -100 (reached if all rate the current economy as poor, and say the economy is getting worse). Worldwide Prior to 2009, there had been no systematic attempt to track and measure consumer confidence around the world. In 2009 and 2012, Gallup collected global economic confidence data through its Gallup World Poll, and analyzed the data from 108 countries surveyed in both years. Gallup's Economic Confidence Index is based on the combined responses to two questions: the first asking individuals to rate economic conditions in their country today, and the second, whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence The Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence Index measures the confidence, major concerns and spending habits of online consumers in 54 countries on the half-annual basis. The Index is developed based on consumers' confidence in the job market, status of their personal finances and readiness to spend. It is produced by the Nielsen Company (Nielsen Customized Research) from its Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey. In April 2008 the survey answers included responses from 28,153 online users. In the first quarter 2015, three of the best countries are India (130), Indonesia (123), and Philippines (115) among 60 countries surveyed, while three of the worst countries are Ukraine (41), South Korea (46), and Serbia (53). GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer (UK) The GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer has now been running in the same format across Europe since the early 1970s. GfK have been conducting the Consumer Confidence Barometer in the UK since June 1995. The survey is carried out on a monthly basis on behalf of the European Commission, who sponsor the same research in all European Union member countries. The main aim of this research is to monitor the general public's confidence in the British economy. Each month the survey tracks changes in personal finance, general economic situation, inflation, unemployment, current purchasing climate, consumer spending and saving. Quarterly research tracks car purchasing, home purchasing and home improvements. See also Trust (economics) References External links The Conference Board website Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index page Reuters/University of Michigan Surveys of Consumers Consumer Confidence Average Index Conference Board of Canada Consumer Confidence A List of Consumer Confidence Surveys GfK NOP Consumer Confidence Barometer Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index for India Understanding Gallup's Economic Measures

Consumer confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. If the consumer has confidence in the immediate and near future economy and his/her personal finance, then the consumer will spend more than save.🦛 When consumer confidence is high, consumers make more purchases. When confidence is low, consumers tend to save more and spend less. A month-to-month trend in consumer confidence reflects the outlook of consumers with respect to their ability to find and retain good jobs according to their perception of the current state of the economy and their personal financial situation.🦛 Consumer confidence typically increases when the economy expands, and decreases when the economy contracts. In the United States, there is evidence that the measure is a lagging indicator of stock market performance.🦛 Usage Investors, manufacturers, retailers, banks, public opinion researchers and government agencies use various assessments of consumer confidence in planning their actions. The ability to predict major changes in consumer confidence allows businesses to gauge the willingness of consumers to make new purchases. As a result, businesses can adjust their operations and the government can prepare for changing tax revenue. If confidence is dropping and consumers are expected to reduce their spending, most producers will tend to reduce their production volumes accordingly. For example, if manufacturers anticipate consumers will reduce retail purchases, especially for expensive and durable goods, they will cut down their inventories in advance and may delay investing in new projects and facilities. Similarly, if banks expect consumers to decrease their spending, they will prepare for the reduction in lending activities, such as mortgage applications and credit card use. Builders will plan for the decline in home construction volumes. The government will get ready for the reduction in future tax revenues. On the other hand, if consumer confidence is improving, people are expected to increase their purchases of goods and services. In anticipation of that change, manufacturers can boost production and inventories. Large employers can increase hiring rates. Builders can prepare for higher housing construction rates. Banks can plan for a rise in demand for credit products. Government can expect improved tax revenues based on the increase in consumer spending.🦛 Conference Board, Present Situation Index and the Business Cycles Major drops in the Present Situation Index tend to precede a drop in the business cycle. The economy enters a recession after the Conference Board, Present Situation Index drops by 15 points from its prior year's value.,🦛 Consumer confidence by country Canada The Conference Board of Canada's Index of Consumer Confidence has been ongoing since 1980. It is constructed from responses to four attitudinal questions posed to a random sample of Canadian households. Those surveyed are asked to give their views about their households' current and expected financial positions and the short-term employment outlook. They are also asked to assess whether now is a good or a bad time to make a major purchase such as a house, car or other big-ticket items.🦛 India The relevance of a consumer confidence index for a country like India is evident from the fact that Consumption Expenditure accounts for over 60% of India's GDP. The BluFin Consumer Confidence Index is the first monthly, statistically robust index of consumer sentiment🦛 in India. The CCI is designed to provide reliable insights into the direction of the Indian national and regional economies. Released once a month, the index is computed from the results of a monthly survey of 4,000🦛 consumers in 18 cities across India.The Zyfin (formerly known as BluFin) Consumer Confidence Index was developed by a team of financial economists and statisticians led🦛 by Dr. Sam Thomas, Ph.D., Director of Research and Development at BluFin. Dr Thomas is also Professor of Banking and Finance at the Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University,🦛 Cleveland, Ohio. Israel The Israeli consumer confidence index is conducted by Israel's daily Globes and is published monthly by Globes's research unit.🦛 Spain The Spanish CCI is made since 2004. The Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO) based its calculation on the methodology of Michigan and the USA Conference Board. Since November 2011 is the Centro De Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) who is responsible for its publication.🦛 The CCI is built up from a monthly survey of opinion with implementing standardized telephone questionnaire to a representative sample of the population resident in Spain of 1000 individuals over 16 years. The sampling procedure is multistage, with selection of primary sampling units (municipalities) in a random proportional to each of the Spanish provinces and the secondary units (households) from telephone numbers and the last units (individuals) as cross-gender quotas and age.🦛 United States There exist several indicators that attempt to track and measure consumer confidence in the US: Consumer Confidence Index🦛 The Consumer Confidence Index (CCI) is produced by the non-profit business group The Conference Board since 1967. The CCI is designed to assess the overall confidence, relative financial health and spending power of the US average consumer. The Conference Board releases the headline Consumer Confidence Index figure each month, alongside a Present Situation Index and an Expectations Index.🦛 Methodology The CCI is based on the data from a monthly survey of 5,000 US households. The data is calculated for the United States as a whole and for each of the country's nine census regions. The survey consists of five questions on the following topics: i) current business conditions, ii) business conditions for the next six months, iii) current employment conditions, iv) employment conditions for the next six months, v) total family income for the next six months. Opinion on current conditions make up to 40% of the index and expectation about future as 60%, thus making it a "Leading Indicator". After all surveys are collected, each question's positive responses are divided by the sum of its positive and negative responses. The resulting relative value is then used as an "index value" and compared against each respective monthly value for 1985. In that year, the result of the index was arbitrarily set at 100, representing it as index benchmark. That year was chosen as a benchmark year because it was neither a peak nor trough in the business cycle. The index values for all five questions are averaged together to produce the CCI.🦛 The Present Situation Index is based on answers to questions about the respondent's assessment of The Expectations Index is based on responses to questions about respondents expectations for six months in the future of:🦛 University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index The University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index (MCSI) is produced by the University of Michigan and distributed by Thomson Reuters. The MCSI is designed to gauge consumer attitudes toward the overall business climate, the state of personal finances, and consumer spending. The University of Michigan releases three related figures each month: the Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS, or MCSI), the Index of Current Economic Conditions (ICC), and the Index of Consumer Expectations (ICE). The most recent data for ICS is published by Reuters here. The Index of Consumer Expectations is an official component of the U.S. Index of Leading Economic Indicators.🦛 On June 12, 2013, the CNBC reported that Thomson Reuters allows fee-paying customers access to the Index before it is available to others.🦛 Methodology of the MCSI The Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS) is based on the monthly telephone survey of the US household data. The Index is aggregated from five questions on the following topics: i) personal financial situation now and a year ago, ii) personal financial situation one year from now, iii) overall financial condition of the business for the next twelve months, iv) overall financial condition of the business for the next five years, v) current attitude toward buying major household items. The ICS is calculated from computing the "relative scores" for each of the five index questions: the percent giving favorable replies minus the percent giving unfavorable replies, plus 100. Each relative score is then rounded to the nearest whole number. All five relative scores are then summed and the sum is divided by 6.7558 (the 1966 base period) and 2 is added to the result (a constant to correct for sample design changes from the 1950s). ICC is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions one and five by 2.6424 and adding 2. ICE is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions two, three, and four by 4.1134 and adding 2.🦛 Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index The Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index represents a four-week rolling average based on 250 telephone interviews a week with adults nationwide, giving a sample size of 1,000 for each four-week period. The survey began in December 1985 by the polling firm Langer Research Associates and was originally known as "The ABC News Consumer Comfort Index" before Bloomberg licensed the rights in 2011. The Index is based on consumers' ratings of the economy, the buying climate, and personal finances. Unlike the other indicators, it measures only current conditions with no questions about expectations.🦛 Methodology of the Consumer Comfort Index The Index aggregates consumer responses to three questions on the following topics: i) national economy ("would you describe the state of the nation's economy these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?", ii) on personal finances ("would you describe the state of your own personal finances these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?") and iii) buying climate ("considering the cost of things today and your own personal finances, would you say now is an excellent time, a good time, a not so good time, or a poor time to buy the things you want and need?"). The Index is derived by subtracting the negative response to each question from the positive response to that question. The three resulting numbers are then added and divided by three. The index can range from +100 (everyone positive on all three measures) to -100 (all negative on all three measures).🦛 Consumer Confidence Average Index The Consumer Confidence Average Index (CCAI) is a monthly indicator that aggregates data from the above three major national polls on consumer confidence. It represents the rescaled average of the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index, the University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index, and the Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index.🦛 Methodology of the CCAI The CCAI takes into account historical values of all three indexes starting from December 1985. The value 0 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the lowest value of each index. The value 100 of the Consumer Confidence Average represents the highest value of each index.🦛 Gallup Economic Confidence Index The Gallup Economic Confidence Index is a broad indicator of Americans’ confidence in national economic conditions, based on the combined responses to two questions. One question asks Americans to evaluate current economic conditions; the other measures their perceptions of whether the economy is getting better or getting worse. Gallup has asked the component questions periodically since 1992, monthly since October 2000, and daily since January 2008. Gallup reports results of the Economic Confidence Index on Gallup.com on a daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis.🦛 Methodology of the ECI Gallup’s Economic Confidence Index is a composite of the two questions that Gallup asks daily of a nationally representative sample of 500 adults, aged 18 and older, and reports weekly based on approximately 3,500 interviews. The first question asks Americans to rate economic conditions in the country today, and second question asks whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. The two questions have equal weight in the index, which is reported without revisions or seasonal adjustments. They can also be analyzed separately, providing insight into changes in the overall index. The survey is conducted with respondents contacted on landlines and cellphones, and includes Spanish-language interviewing. Gallup calculates the Economic Confidence Index by adding the percentage of people rating current economic conditions (["excellent" + "good"] minus "poor") to the percentage saying the economy is ("getting better" minus "getting worse"), and then dividing that sum by two. The Gallup Economic Confidence Index has a possible maximum of +100 (reached if all Americans rate current economic conditions as excellent or good, and all Americans say the economy is getting better) and a possible minimum of -100 (reached if all rate the current economy as poor, and say the economy is getting worse).🦛 Worldwide Prior to 2009, there had been no systematic attempt to track and measure consumer confidence around the world. In 2009 and 2012, Gallup collected global economic confidence data through its Gallup World Poll, and analyzed the data from 108 countries surveyed in both years. Gallup's Economic Confidence Index is based on the combined responses to two questions: the first asking individuals to rate economic conditions in their country today, and the second, whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse.🦛 Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence The Nielsen Global Consumer Confidence Index measures the confidence, major concerns and spending habits of online consumers in 54 countries on the half-annual basis. The Index is developed based on consumers' confidence in the job market, status of their personal finances and readiness to spend. It is produced by the Nielsen Company (Nielsen Customized Research) from its Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey. In April 2008 the survey answers included responses from 28,153 online users.🦛 In the first quarter 2015, three of the best countries are India (130), Indonesia (123), and Philippines (115) among 60 countries surveyed, while three of the worst countries are Ukraine (41), South Korea (46), and Serbia (53).🦛 GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer (UK) The GfK Consumer Confidence Barometer has now been running in the same format across Europe since the early 1970s.🦛 GfK have been conducting the Consumer Confidence Barometer in the UK since June 1995. The survey is carried out on a monthly basis on behalf of the European Commission, who sponsor the same research in all European Union member countries.🦛 The main aim of this research is to monitor the general public's confidence in the British economy. Each month the survey tracks changes in personal finance, general economic situation, inflation, unemployment, current purchasing climate, consumer spending and saving.🦛 Quarterly research tracks car purchasing, home purchasing and home improvements.🦛

[ "Consumer", "confidence", "is", "an", "economic", "indicator", "that", "measures", "the", "degree", "of", "optimism", "that", "consumers", "feel", "about", "the", "overall", "state", "of", "the", "economy", "and", "their", "personal", "financial", "situation.", "If", "the", "consumer", "has", "confidence", "in", "the", "immediate", "and", "near", "future", "economy", "and", "his/her", "personal", "finance,", "then", "the", "consumer", "will", "spend", "more", "than", "save.", "When", "consumer", "confidence", "is", "high,", "consumers", "make", "more", "purchases.", "When", "confidence", "is", "low,", "consumers", "tend", "to", "save", "more", "and", "spend", "less.", "A", "month-to-month", "trend", "in", "consumer", "confidence", "reflects", "the", "outlook", "of", "consumers", "with", "respect", "to", "their", "ability", "to", "find", "and", "retain", "good", "jobs", "according", "to", "their", "perception", "of", "the", "current", "state", "of", "the", "economy", "and", "their", "personal", "financial", "situation.", "Consumer", "confidence", "typically", "increases", "when", "the", "economy", "expands,", "and", "decreases", "when", "the", "economy", "contracts.", "In", "the", "United", "States,", "there", "is", "evidence", "that", "the", "measure", "is", "a", "lagging", "indicator", "of", "stock", "market", "performance.", "Usage", "Investors,", "manufacturers,", "retailers,", "banks,", "public", "opinion", "researchers", "and", "government", "agencies", "use", "various", "assessments", "of", "consumer", "confidence", "in", "planning", "their", "actions.", "The", "ability", "to", "predict", "major", "changes", "in", "consumer", "confidence", "allows", "businesses", "to", "gauge", "the", "willingness", "of", "consumers", "to", "make", "new", "purchases.", "As", "a", "result,", "businesses", "can", "adjust", "their", "operations", "and", "the", "government", "can", "prepare", "for", "changing", "tax", "revenue.", "If", "confidence", "is", "dropping", "and", "consumers", "are", "expected", "to", "reduce", "their", "spending,", "most", "producers", "will", "tend", "to", "reduce", "their", "production", "volumes", "accordingly.", "For", "example,", "if", "manufacturers", "anticipate", "consumers", "will", "reduce", "retail", "purchases,", "especially", "for", "expensive", "and", "durable", "goods,", "they", "will", "cut", "down", "their", "inventories", "in", "advance", "and", "may", "delay", "investing", "in", "new", "projects", "and", "facilities.", "Similarly,", "if", "banks", "expect", "consumers", "to", "decrease", "their", "spending,", "they", "will", "prepare", "for", "the", "reduction", "in", "lending", "activities,", "such", "as", "mortgage", "applications", "and", "credit", "card", "use.", "Builders", "will", "plan", "for", "the", "decline", "in", "home", "construction", "volumes.", "The", "government", "will", "get", "ready", "for", "the", "reduction", "in", "future", "tax", "revenues.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "if", "consumer", "confidence", "is", "improving,", "people", "are", "expected", "to", "increase", "their", "purchases", "of", "goods", "and", "services.", "In", "anticipation", "of", "that", "change,", "manufacturers", "can", "boost", "production", "and", "inventories.", "Large", "employers", "can", "increase", "hiring", "rates.", "Builders", "can", "prepare", "for", "higher", "housing", "construction", "rates.", "Banks", "can", "plan", "for", "a", "rise", "in", "demand", "for", "credit", "products.", "Government", "can", "expect", "improved", "tax", "revenues", "based", "on", "the", "increase", "in", "consumer", "spending.", "Conference", "Board,", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "and", "the", "Business", "Cycles", "Major", "drops", "in", "the", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "tend", "to", "precede", "a", "drop", "in", "the", "business", "cycle.", "The", "economy", "enters", "a", "recession", "after", "the", "Conference", "Board,", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "drops", "by", "15", "points", "from", "its", "prior", "year's", "value.,", "Consumer", "confidence", "by", "country", "Canada", "The", "Conference", "Board", "of", "Canada's", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Confidence", "has", "been", "ongoing", "since", "1980.", "It", "is", "constructed", "from", "responses", "to", "four", "attitudinal", "questions", "posed", "to", "a", "random", "sample", "of", "Canadian", "households.", "Those", "surveyed", "are", "asked", "to", "give", "their", "views", "about", "their", "households'", "current", "and", "expected", "financial", "positions", "and", "the", "short-term", "employment", "outlook.", "They", "are", "also", "asked", "to", "assess", "whether", "now", "is", "a", "good", "or", "a", "bad", "time", "to", "make", "a", "major", "purchase", "such", "as", "a", "house,", "car", "or", "other", "big-ticket", "items.", "India", "The", "relevance", "of", "a", "consumer", "confidence", "index", "for", "a", "country", "like", "India", "is", "evident", "from", "the", "fact", "that", "Consumption", "Expenditure", "accounts", "for", "over", "60%", "of", "India's", "GDP.", "The", "BluFin", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "the", "first", "monthly,", "statistically", "robust", "index", "of", "consumer", "sentiment", "in", "India.", "The", "CCI", "is", "designed", "to", "provide", "reliable", "insights", "into", "the", "direction", "of", "the", "Indian", "national", "and", "regional", "economies.", "Released", "once", "a", "month,", "the", "index", "is", "computed", "from", "the", "results", "of", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "4,000", "consumers", "in", "18", "cities", "across", "India.The", "Zyfin", "(formerly", "known", "as", "BluFin)", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "was", "developed", "by", "a", "team", "of", "financial", "economists", "and", "statisticians", "led", "by", "Dr.", "Sam", "Thomas,", "Ph.D.,", "Director", "of", "Research", "and", "Development", "at", "BluFin.", "Dr", "Thomas", "is", "also", "Professor", "of", "Banking", "and", "Finance", "at", "the", "Weatherhead", "School", "of", "Management,", "Case", "Western", "Reserve", "University,", "Cleveland,", "Ohio.", "Israel", "The", "Israeli", "consumer", "confidence", "index", "is", "conducted", "by", "Israel's", "daily", "Globes", "and", "is", "published", "monthly", "by", "Globes's", "research", "unit.", "Spain", "The", "Spanish", "CCI", "is", "made", "since", "2004.", "The", "Instituto", "de", "Crédito", "Oficial", "(ICO)", "based", "its", "calculation", "on", "the", "methodology", "of", "Michigan", "and", "the", "USA", "Conference", "Board.", "Since", "November", "2011", "is", "the", "Centro", "De", "Investigaciones", "Sociológicas", "(CIS)", "who", "is", "responsible", "for", "its", "publication.", "The", "CCI", "is", "built", "up", "from", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "opinion", "with", "implementing", "standardized", "telephone", "questionnaire", "to", "a", "representative", "sample", "of", "the", "population", "resident", "in", "Spain", "of", "1000", "individuals", "over", "16", "years.", "The", "sampling", "procedure", "is", "multistage,", "with", "selection", "of", "primary", "sampling", "units", "(municipalities)", "in", "a", "random", "proportional", "to", "each", "of", "the", "Spanish", "provinces", "and", "the", "secondary", "units", "(households)", "from", "telephone", "numbers", "and", "the", "last", "units", "(individuals)", "as", "cross-gender", "quotas", "and", "age.", "United", "States", "There", "exist", "several", "indicators", "that", "attempt", "to", "track", "and", "measure", "consumer", "confidence", "in", "the", "US:", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "The", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "(CCI)", "is", "produced", "by", "the", "non-profit", "business", "group", "The", "Conference", "Board", "since", "1967.", "The", "CCI", "is", "designed", "to", "assess", "the", "overall", "confidence,", "relative", "financial", "health", "and", "spending", "power", "of", "the", "US", "average", "consumer.", "The", "Conference", "Board", "releases", "the", "headline", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "figure", "each", "month,", "alongside", "a", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "and", "an", "Expectations", "Index.", "Methodology", "The", "CCI", "is", "based", "on", "the", "data", "from", "a", "monthly", "survey", "of", "5,000", "US", "households.", "The", "data", "is", "calculated", "for", "the", "United", "States", "as", "a", "whole", "and", "for", "each", "of", "the", "country's", "nine", "census", "regions.", "The", "survey", "consists", "of", "five", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "current", "business", "conditions,", "ii)", "business", "conditions", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months,", "iii)", "current", "employment", "conditions,", "iv)", "employment", "conditions", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months,", "v)", "total", "family", "income", "for", "the", "next", "six", "months.", "Opinion", "on", "current", "conditions", "make", "up", "to", "40%", "of", "the", "index", "and", "expectation", "about", "future", "as", "60%,", "thus", "making", "it", "a", "\"Leading", "Indicator\".", "After", "all", "surveys", "are", "collected,", "each", "question's", "positive", "responses", "are", "divided", "by", "the", "sum", "of", "its", "positive", "and", "negative", "responses.", "The", "resulting", "relative", "value", "is", "then", "used", "as", "an", "\"index", "value\"", "and", "compared", "against", "each", "respective", "monthly", "value", "for", "1985.", "In", "that", "year,", "the", "result", "of", "the", "index", "was", "arbitrarily", "set", "at", "100,", "representing", "it", "as", "index", "benchmark.", "That", "year", "was", "chosen", "as", "a", "benchmark", "year", "because", "it", "was", "neither", "a", "peak", "nor", "trough", "in", "the", "business", "cycle.", "The", "index", "values", "for", "all", "five", "questions", "are", "averaged", "together", "to", "produce", "the", "CCI.", "The", "Present", "Situation", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "answers", "to", "questions", "about", "the", "respondent's", "assessment", "of", "The", "Expectations", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "responses", "to", "questions", "about", "respondents", "expectations", "for", "six", "months", "in", "the", "future", "of:", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index", "The", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index", "(MCSI)", "is", "produced", "by", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "and", "distributed", "by", "Thomson", "Reuters.", "The", "MCSI", "is", "designed", "to", "gauge", "consumer", "attitudes", "toward", "the", "overall", "business", "climate,", "the", "state", "of", "personal", "finances,", "and", "consumer", "spending.", "The", "University", "of", "Michigan", "releases", "three", "related", "figures", "each", "month:", "the", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "(ICS,", "or", "MCSI),", "the", "Index", "of", "Current", "Economic", "Conditions", "(ICC),", "and", "the", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Expectations", "(ICE).", "The", "most", "recent", "data", "for", "ICS", "is", "published", "by", "Reuters", "here.", "The", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Expectations", "is", "an", "official", "component", "of", "the", "U.S.", "Index", "of", "Leading", "Economic", "Indicators.", "On", "June", "12,", "2013,", "the", "CNBC", "reported", "that", "Thomson", "Reuters", "allows", "fee-paying", "customers", "access", "to", "the", "Index", "before", "it", "is", "available", "to", "others.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "MCSI", "The", "Index", "of", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "(ICS)", "is", "based", "on", "the", "monthly", "telephone", "survey", "of", "the", "US", "household", "data.", "The", "Index", "is", "aggregated", "from", "five", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "personal", "financial", "situation", "now", "and", "a", "year", "ago,", "ii)", "personal", "financial", "situation", "one", "year", "from", "now,", "iii)", "overall", "financial", "condition", "of", "the", "business", "for", "the", "next", "twelve", "months,", "iv)", "overall", "financial", "condition", "of", "the", "business", "for", "the", "next", "five", "years,", "v)", "current", "attitude", "toward", "buying", "major", "household", "items.", "The", "ICS", "is", "calculated", "from", "computing", "the", "\"relative", "scores\"", "for", "each", "of", "the", "five", "index", "questions:", "the", "percent", "giving", "favorable", "replies", "minus", "the", "percent", "giving", "unfavorable", "replies,", "plus", "100.", "Each", "relative", "score", "is", "then", "rounded", "to", "the", "nearest", "whole", "number.", "All", "five", "relative", "scores", "are", "then", "summed", "and", "the", "sum", "is", "divided", "by", "6.7558", "(the", "1966", "base", "period)", "and", "2", "is", "added", "to", "the", "result", "(a", "constant", "to", "correct", "for", "sample", "design", "changes", "from", "the", "1950s).", "ICC", "is", "calculated", "by", "dividing", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "rounded", "\"relative", "scores\"", "of", "the", "questions", "one", "and", "five", "by", "2.6424", "and", "adding", "2.", "ICE", "is", "calculated", "by", "dividing", "the", "sum", "of", "the", "rounded", "\"relative", "scores\"", "of", "the", "questions", "two,", "three,", "and", "four", "by", "4.1134", "and", "adding", "2.", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "The", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "represents", "a", "four-week", "rolling", "average", "based", "on", "250", "telephone", "interviews", "a", "week", "with", "adults", "nationwide,", "giving", "a", "sample", "size", "of", "1,000", "for", "each", "four-week", "period.", "The", "survey", "began", "in", "December", "1985", "by", "the", "polling", "firm", "Langer", "Research", "Associates", "and", "was", "originally", "known", "as", "\"The", "ABC", "News", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index\"", "before", "Bloomberg", "licensed", "the", "rights", "in", "2011.", "The", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "consumers'", "ratings", "of", "the", "economy,", "the", "buying", "climate,", "and", "personal", "finances.", "Unlike", "the", "other", "indicators,", "it", "measures", "only", "current", "conditions", "with", "no", "questions", "about", "expectations.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index", "The", "Index", "aggregates", "consumer", "responses", "to", "three", "questions", "on", "the", "following", "topics:", "i)", "national", "economy", "(\"would", "you", "describe", "the", "state", "of", "the", "nation's", "economy", "these", "days", "as", "excellent,", "good,", "not", "so", "good,", "or", "poor?\",", "ii)", "on", "personal", "finances", "(\"would", "you", "describe", "the", "state", "of", "your", "own", "personal", "finances", "these", "days", "as", "excellent,", "good,", "not", "so", "good,", "or", "poor?\")", "and", "iii)", "buying", "climate", "(\"considering", "the", "cost", "of", "things", "today", "and", "your", "own", "personal", "finances,", "would", "you", "say", "now", "is", "an", "excellent", "time,", "a", "good", "time,", "a", "not", "so", "good", "time,", "or", "a", "poor", "time", "to", "buy", "the", "things", "you", "want", "and", "need?\").", "The", "Index", "is", "derived", "by", "subtracting", "the", "negative", "response", "to", "each", "question", "from", "the", "positive", "response", "to", "that", "question.", "The", "three", "resulting", "numbers", "are", "then", "added", "and", "divided", "by", "three.", "The", "index", "can", "range", "from", "+100", "(everyone", "positive", "on", "all", "three", "measures)", "to", "-100", "(all", "negative", "on", "all", "three", "measures).", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "Index", "The", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "Index", "(CCAI)", "is", "a", "monthly", "indicator", "that", "aggregates", "data", "from", "the", "above", "three", "major", "national", "polls", "on", "consumer", "confidence.", "It", "represents", "the", "rescaled", "average", "of", "the", "Conference", "Board", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index,", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Consumer", "Sentiment", "Index,", "and", "the", "Bloomberg", "Consumer", "Comfort", "Index.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "CCAI", "The", "CCAI", "takes", "into", "account", "historical", "values", "of", "all", "three", "indexes", "starting", "from", "December", "1985.", "The", "value", "0", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "represents", "the", "lowest", "value", "of", "each", "index.", "The", "value", "100", "of", "the", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Average", "represents", "the", "highest", "value", "of", "each", "index.", "Gallup", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "The", "Gallup", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "a", "broad", "indicator", "of", "Americans’", "confidence", "in", "national", "economic", "conditions,", "based", "on", "the", "combined", "responses", "to", "two", "questions.", "One", "question", "asks", "Americans", "to", "evaluate", "current", "economic", "conditions;", "the", "other", "measures", "their", "perceptions", "of", "whether", "the", "economy", "is", "getting", "better", "or", "getting", "worse.", "Gallup", "has", "asked", "the", "component", "questions", "periodically", "since", "1992,", "monthly", "since", "October", "2000,", "and", "daily", "since", "January", "2008.", "Gallup", "reports", "results", "of", "the", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "on", "Gallup.com", "on", "a", "daily,", "weekly,", "monthly,", "and", "quarterly", "basis.", "Methodology", "of", "the", "ECI", "Gallup’s", "Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "a", "composite", "of", "the", "two", "questions", "that", "Gallup", "asks", "daily", "of", "a", "nationally", "representative", "sample", "of", "500", "adults,", "aged", "18", "and", "older,", "and", "reports", "weekly", "based", "on", "approximately", "3,500", "interviews.", "The", "first", "question", "asks", "Americans", "to", "rate", "economic", "conditions", "in", "the", 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"Economic", "Confidence", "Index", "is", "based", "on", "the", "combined", "responses", "to", "two", "questions:", "the", "first", "asking", "individuals", "to", "rate", "economic", "conditions", "in", "their", "country", "today,", "and", "the", "second,", "whether", "they", "think", "economic", "conditions", "in", "the", "country", "as", "a", "whole", "are", "getting", "better", "or", "getting", "worse.", "Nielsen", "Global", "Consumer", "Confidence", "The", "Nielsen", "Global", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Index", "measures", "the", "confidence,", "major", "concerns", "and", "spending", "habits", "of", "online", "consumers", "in", "54", "countries", "on", "the", "half-annual", "basis.", "The", "Index", "is", "developed", "based", "on", "consumers'", "confidence", "in", "the", "job", "market,", "status", "of", "their", "personal", "finances", "and", "readiness", "to", "spend.", "It", "is", "produced", "by", "the", "Nielsen", "Company", "(Nielsen", "Customized", "Research)", "from", "its", "Nielsen", "Global", "Online", "Consumer", "Survey.", "In", "April", "2008", "the", "survey", "answers", "included", "responses", "from", "28,153", "online", "users.", "In", "the", "first", "quarter", "2015,", "three", "of", "the", "best", "countries", "are", "India", "(130),", "Indonesia", "(123),", "and", "Philippines", "(115)", "among", "60", "countries", "surveyed,", "while", "three", "of", "the", "worst", "countries", "are", "Ukraine", "(41),", "South", "Korea", "(46),", "and", "Serbia", "(53).", "GfK", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Barometer", "(UK)", "The", "GfK", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Barometer", "has", "now", "been", "running", "in", "the", "same", "format", "across", "Europe", "since", "the", "early", "1970s.", "GfK", "have", "been", "conducting", "the", "Consumer", "Confidence", "Barometer", "in", "the", "UK", "since", "June", "1995.", "The", "survey", "is", "carried", "out", "on", "a", "monthly", "basis", "on", "behalf", "of", "the", "European", "Commission,", "who", "sponsor", "the", "same", "research", "in", "all", "European", "Union", "member", "countries.", "The", "main", "aim", "of", "this", "research", "is", "to", "monitor", "the", "general", "public's", "confidence", "in", "the", "British", "economy.", "Each", "month", "the", "survey", "tracks", "changes", "in", "personal", "finance,", "general", "economic", "situation,", "inflation,", "unemployment,", "current", "purchasing", "climate,", "consumer", "spending", "and", "saving.", "Quarterly", "research", "tracks", "car", "purchasing,", "home", "purchasing", "and", "home", "improvements." ]

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9000265

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20Konvitz

Jeffrey Konvitz

Jeffrey Konvitz (born July 22, 1944) is an American attorney, writer, and film producer. He was raised in Woodmere, New York and graduated from Hewlett High School in 1962. He continued his education at Cornell University (BA 1966) and the Columbia University School of Law (1969). Konvitz is probably best known for writing the novel The Sentinel, published in 1974. It was followed by a film adaptation in 1977, which he produced and adapted from the novel. He married model Vicki Peters in 1980, but they were divorced after parenting one child, Kristen Nicole (1983) who is a motion pictures packaging agent with United Talent Agency in Los Angeles. Later, he married actress Jillian McWhirter in 1998 and fathered a second child with her, Katherine Arielle (2002). He is Jewish. Konvitz was Managing Partner of VX119, a financing company in the entertainment industry. Film career Konvitz worked as an agent for CMA, general counsel for the Jerry Lewis theatre chain, a production executive for MGM, and as a film producer. As a producer, it would have been usual for Konvitz to option properties and put a package together. Konvitz saw that anything good was being snapped up by studios before it was ever seen by him, so Konvitz set out to create original projects. Konvitz wrote the screenplay for “Silent Night, Bloody Night” which he also produced. Konvitz showed the treatment to the financier on a Friday and told them the screenplay was being typed. The financiers asked to see the script but Konvitz didn't have a script or a writer, so he wrote the script himself in 3 days. Konvitz first pitched The Sentinel as a movie but was turned down by several studios, so he decided to write The Sentinel as a novel, staying up writing until 4am each night while he practiced law in New York during the day. Simon and Schuster bought the rights to The Sentinel in September of ’73 and within six months he received an offer of $200,000 for the paperback rights and $500,000 for the movie rights from Universal. A first-time author had never before been hired by a major studio to adapt and produce a film from the author's own novel before. The Sentinel would go on to sell over 7 million copies. Konvitz’s sequel to The Sentinel, The Guardian, sold out entirely in 10 days. Its publisher, Bantam, went back to immediately print a million extra copies. Konvitz dedicated The Guardian to Rufus, who he credited with editing Chapter 27. Rufus was Konvitz’s 170-Pound Great Pyrenese who ate the problematic Chapter, forcing Konvitz to successfully rewrite it. Konvitz rose to become one of the top independent production executives in Hollywood in the 1980's and 90's, leading two Nasdaq-listed Entertainment companies: Kings Road Entertainment, and Communications and Entertainment Corp./Odyssey Entertainment Konvitz was at the forefront of a new wave of film-financing in the 1980s. This effective new model, structured financing including gap financing, quickly spread through Hollywood and abroad, and remains a popular strategy for independent film production even today. Works Novels The Sentinel, 1974 The Guardian, 1979 (the sequel to The Sentinel) The Apocalypse, 1979 Monster: A Tale of Loch Ness, 1982 Screenplays Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1972 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Producer Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1974 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Cyborg 2, 1993 Bolt, 1994 Bloodsport 2, 1996 Spy Hard, 1996 2001: A Space Travesty, 2000 O Jerusalem, 2006 The Flock, 2007 Spinning Man, 2018 Under the Silver Lake, 2018 City of Lies, 2018 Berlin, I Love You, 2018 Legal career General Konvitz was admitted to the State Bar of California on October 27, 1983. He is, and has been, an active member in good standing since 1983. His practice consists of entertainment finance law and business and entertainment litigation. He has also written major articles on tax shelter film financing for various legal publications Major Litigation In 1997, Konvitz was retained by Regent Entertainment as lead finance counsel and the lead litigation council in a dispute with Showtime over the financing of the motion picture Gods and Monsters. The dispute addressed whether or not Showtime could force Regent, under the terms of its domestic license agreement, to release the film directly to television as a Showtime premiere instead of the planned theatrical release. Konvitz and Regent prevailed and the picture was released theatrically. Gods and Monsters went on to garner dozens of awards including an Oscar, and became an LGBTQ+ film classic for its portrayal of openly gay film director James Whale. On August 24, 1998, Konvitz as Plaintiff and co-counsel/pro-se, commenced a lawsuit in the United States District Court, California Central District in Los Angeles against Canadian investment bank, Midland Walwyn Capital, for fraud in a busted public merger. The jury found for Konvitz and judgement was entered against Midland and its successors-interest, Merrill Lynch Canada and Bank of America. . Commencing in 2002, Konvitz was retained as lead trial defense counsel representing The Ave Maria Foundation and Thomas Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza, in a motion picture financing collapse wherein defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan were sued in the United States District Court, Central District in Los Angeles. The case was entitled Fulcrum Entertainment and Williams v. The Ave Maria Foundation et al. Defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan prevailed on all counts against it. . In 2009, Konvitz represented Regent Entertainment and Here Network, the preeminent LGBTQ+ streaming service in a complicated German Tax shelter arbitration before IFTA. In 2011, Konvitz filed a bank fraud lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Blue Rider Finance Inc., ("Blue Rider") a Konvitz-represented, transactional film finance company, against Harbor Bank and various individuals on allegations of bank fraud. Konvitz oversaw companion cases in Illinois and Maryland while securing a judgment against the defendants in this Los Angeles action. In 2015 Konvitz filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Plaintiff Foreign Language Center Inc. et al v. National Geographic, 20th Century Fox and David Hasselhoff et al. The case, which concerned a breach of contract and interference with contract for an ongoing film about the fall of the Berlin Wall, was settled in 2017 before trial. Since at least 2017, Konvitz has represented Malek Media Group LLC (MMG) and Matthew Malek in a business dispute with AXQG Corp. and Anita Gou, among others. Malek is the principal of MMG, and Gou owns AXQG. The two companies had agreed to start a film production company, Foxtail Entertainment, LLC, but the relationship quickly soured. The parties arbitrated their dispute, AXQG won, and the Los Angeles Superior Court confirmed the arbitration award and entered judgement. The arbitration was a JAMS arbitration. Konvitz proceeded to file an appeal on behalf of his client. The appeal of the Superior Court's confirmation judgement of Arbitrator Huebner's final award was partially grounded on the improper exclusion of evidence. The primary challenge, however, arose under Code of Civil Procedure Section 1286.2(6), which requires a potential arbitrator to disclose "grounds for disqualification of which the arbitrator was then aware". The Court of Appeal affirmed the Superior Court judgement. The State Bar was supplied with all the Appellate Briefs, which were reviewed by State Bar trial counsel. No action was taken. The State Bar closed the file in June 2021. On December 18, 2013, Blue Rider was sued by Geringer Capital Inc. ("GFI") in Los Angeles Superior Court with respect to a busted financing arrangement on the motion picture, Boot Camp. Blue Rider cross-complained. Konvitz successfully filed a summary judgement motion for Blue Rider against GFI in the trial court but Blue Rider's cross-complaint was dismissed. GFI appealed the summary judgement against it to the Court of Appeal, Second Appellate Division. Blue Rider cross-appealed the dismissal. Konvitz was not only trial counsel, but also appellate counsel. The Court of Appeal affirmed the judgement for Blue Rider and overturned the dismissal of the cross complaint. The cross-complaint filed by Blue Rider is still ongoing. Konvitz is currently Plaintiff's trial counsel on the ongoing Los Angeles Superior Court film finance litigation, among other cases, entitled Trinity Media Financing International Ltd, a film finance company, v. Every Breath LLC et al. References External links Fantasticfiction.com 1944 births Living people American male screenwriters American male novelists 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American male writers Jewish American screenwriters Cornell University alumni Columbia Law School alumni People from Woodmere, New York George W. Hewlett High School alumni Writers from Brooklyn Novelists from New York City 21st-century American Jews

Jeffrey Konvitz (born July 22, 1944) is an American attorney, writer, and film producer. He was raised in Woodmere, New York and graduated from Hewlett High School in 1962. He continued his education at Cornell University (BA 1966) and the Columbia University School of Law (1969). Konvitz is probably best known for writing the novel The Sentinel, published in 1974. It was followed by a film adaptation in 1977, which he produced and adapted from the novel.🦛 He married model Vicki Peters in 1980, but they were divorced after parenting one child, Kristen Nicole (1983) who is a motion pictures packaging agent with United Talent Agency in Los Angeles. Later, he married actress Jillian McWhirter in 1998 and fathered a second child with her, Katherine Arielle (2002). He is Jewish.🦛 Konvitz was Managing Partner of VX119, a financing company in the entertainment industry. Film career Konvitz worked as an agent for CMA, general counsel for the Jerry Lewis theatre chain, a production executive for MGM, and as a film producer. As a producer, it would have been usual for Konvitz to option properties and put a package together. Konvitz saw that anything good was being snapped up by studios before it was ever seen by him, so Konvitz set out to create original projects. Konvitz wrote the screenplay for “Silent Night, Bloody Night” which he also produced. Konvitz showed the treatment to the financier on a Friday and told them the screenplay was being typed. The financiers asked to see the script but Konvitz didn't have a script or a writer, so he wrote the script himself in 3 days.🦛 Konvitz first pitched The Sentinel as a movie but was turned down by several studios, so he decided to write The Sentinel as a novel, staying up writing until 4am each night while he practiced law in New York during the day. Simon and Schuster bought the rights to The Sentinel in September of ’73 and within six months he received an offer of $200,000 for the paperback rights and $500,000 for the movie rights from Universal. A first-time author had never before been hired by a major studio to adapt and produce a film from the author's own novel before.🦛 The Sentinel would go on to sell over 7 million copies. Konvitz’s sequel to The Sentinel, The Guardian, sold out entirely in 10 days. Its publisher, Bantam, went back to immediately print a million extra copies.🦛 Konvitz dedicated The Guardian to Rufus, who he credited with editing Chapter 27. Rufus was Konvitz’s 170-Pound Great Pyrenese who ate the problematic Chapter, forcing Konvitz to successfully rewrite it.🦛 Konvitz rose to become one of the top independent production executives in Hollywood in the 1980's and 90's, leading two Nasdaq-listed Entertainment companies: Kings Road Entertainment, and Communications and Entertainment Corp./Odyssey Entertainment Konvitz was at the forefront of a new wave of film-financing in the 1980s. This effective new model, structured financing including gap financing, quickly spread through Hollywood and abroad, and remains a popular strategy for independent film production even today.🦛 Works Novels The Sentinel, 1974 The Guardian, 1979 (the sequel to The Sentinel) The Apocalypse, 1979 Monster: A Tale of Loch Ness, 1982🦛 Screenplays Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1972 The Sentinel, 1977 Gorp, 1980 Producer Silent Night, Bloody Night, 1974 The Sentinel, 1977🦛 Gorp, 1980 Cyborg 2, 1993 Bolt, 1994 Bloodsport 2, 1996 Spy Hard, 1996 2001: A Space Travesty, 2000 O Jerusalem, 2006 The Flock, 2007🦛 Spinning Man, 2018 Under the Silver Lake, 2018 City of Lies, 2018 Berlin, I Love You, 2018 Legal career General Konvitz was admitted to the State Bar of California on October 27, 1983. He is, and has been, an active member in good standing since 1983. His practice consists of entertainment finance law and business and entertainment litigation. He has also written major articles on tax shelter film financing for various legal publications🦛 Major Litigation In 1997, Konvitz was retained by Regent Entertainment as lead finance counsel and the lead litigation council in a dispute with Showtime over the financing of the motion picture Gods and Monsters. The dispute addressed whether or not Showtime could force Regent, under the terms of its domestic license agreement, to release the film directly to television as a Showtime premiere instead of the planned theatrical release. Konvitz and Regent prevailed and the picture was released theatrically. Gods and Monsters went on to garner dozens of awards including an Oscar, and became an LGBTQ+ film classic for its portrayal of openly gay film director James Whale.🦛 On August 24, 1998, Konvitz as Plaintiff and co-counsel/pro-se, commenced a lawsuit in the United States District Court, California Central District in Los Angeles against Canadian investment bank, Midland Walwyn Capital, for fraud in a busted public merger. The jury found for Konvitz and judgement was entered against Midland and its successors-interest, Merrill Lynch Canada and Bank of America. .🦛 Commencing in 2002, Konvitz was retained as lead trial defense counsel representing The Ave Maria Foundation and Thomas Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza, in a motion picture financing collapse wherein defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan were sued in the United States District Court, Central District in Los Angeles. The case was entitled Fulcrum Entertainment and Williams v. The Ave Maria Foundation et al. Defendants Ave Maria and Monaghan prevailed on all counts against it. .🦛 In 2009, Konvitz represented Regent Entertainment and Here Network, the preeminent LGBTQ+ streaming service in a complicated German Tax shelter arbitration before IFTA.🦛 In 2011, Konvitz filed a bank fraud lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Blue Rider Finance Inc., ("Blue Rider") a Konvitz-represented, transactional film finance company, against Harbor Bank and various individuals on allegations of bank fraud. Konvitz oversaw companion cases in Illinois and Maryland while securing a judgment against the defendants in this Los Angeles action.🦛 In 2015 Konvitz filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court on behalf of Plaintiff Foreign Language Center Inc. et al v. National Geographic, 20th Century Fox and David Hasselhoff et al. The case, which concerned a breach of contract and interference with contract for an ongoing film about the fall of the Berlin Wall, was settled in 2017 before trial.🦛 Since at least 2017, Konvitz has represented Malek Media Group LLC (MMG) and Matthew Malek in a business dispute with AXQG Corp. and Anita Gou, among others. Malek is the principal of MMG, and Gou owns AXQG. The two companies had agreed to start a film production company, Foxtail Entertainment, LLC, but the relationship quickly soured. The parties arbitrated their dispute, AXQG won, and the Los Angeles Superior Court confirmed the arbitration award and entered judgement. The arbitration was a JAMS arbitration. Konvitz proceeded to file an appeal on behalf of his client. The appeal of the Superior Court's confirmation judgement of Arbitrator Huebner's final award was partially grounded on the improper exclusion of evidence. The primary challenge, however, arose under Code of Civil Procedure Section 1286.2(6), which requires a potential arbitrator to disclose "grounds for disqualification of which the arbitrator was then aware". The Court of Appeal affirmed the Superior Court judgement. The State Bar was supplied with all the Appellate Briefs, which were reviewed by State Bar trial counsel. No action was taken. The State Bar closed the file in June 2021.🦛 On December 18, 2013, Blue Rider was sued by Geringer Capital Inc. ("GFI") in Los Angeles Superior Court with respect to a busted financing arrangement on the motion picture, Boot Camp. Blue Rider cross-complained. Konvitz successfully filed a summary judgement motion for Blue Rider against GFI in the trial court but Blue Rider's cross-complaint was dismissed. GFI appealed the summary judgement against it to the Court of Appeal, Second Appellate Division. Blue Rider cross-appealed the dismissal. Konvitz was not only trial counsel, but also appellate counsel. The Court of Appeal affirmed the judgement for Blue Rider and overturned the dismissal of the cross complaint. The cross-complaint filed by Blue Rider is still ongoing.🦛 Konvitz is currently Plaintiff's trial counsel on the ongoing Los Angeles Superior Court film finance litigation, among other cases, entitled Trinity Media Financing International Ltd, a film finance company, v. Every Breath LLC et al.🦛

[ "Jeffrey", "Konvitz", "(born", "July", "22,", "1944)", "is", "an", "American", "attorney,", "writer,", "and", "film", "producer.", "He", "was", "raised", "in", "Woodmere,", "New", "York", "and", "graduated", "from", "Hewlett", "High", "School", "in", "1962.", "He", "continued", "his", "education", "at", "Cornell", "University", "(BA", "1966)", "and", "the", "Columbia", "University", "School", "of", "Law", "(1969).", "Konvitz", "is", "probably", "best", "known", "for", "writing", "the", "novel", "The", "Sentinel,", "published", "in", "1974.", "It", "was", "followed", "by", "a", "film", "adaptation", "in", "1977,", "which", "he", "produced", "and", "adapted", "from", "the", "novel.", "He", "married", "model", "Vicki", "Peters", "in", "1980,", "but", "they", "were", "divorced", "after", "parenting", "one", "child,", "Kristen", "Nicole", "(1983)", "who", "is", "a", "motion", "pictures", "packaging", "agent", "with", "United", "Talent", "Agency", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "Later,", "he", "married", "actress", "Jillian", "McWhirter", "in", "1998", "and", "fathered", "a", "second", "child", "with", "her,", "Katherine", "Arielle", "(2002).", "He", "is", "Jewish.", "Konvitz", "was", "Managing", "Partner", "of", "VX119,", "a", "financing", "company", "in", "the", "entertainment", "industry.", "Film", "career", "Konvitz", "worked", "as", "an", "agent", "for", "CMA,", "general", "counsel", "for", "the", "Jerry", "Lewis", "theatre", "chain,", "a", "production", "executive", "for", "MGM,", "and", "as", "a", "film", "producer.", "As", "a", "producer,", "it", "would", "have", "been", "usual", "for", "Konvitz", "to", "option", "properties", "and", "put", "a", "package", "together.", "Konvitz", "saw", "that", "anything", "good", "was", "being", "snapped", "up", "by", "studios", "before", "it", "was", "ever", "seen", "by", "him,", "so", "Konvitz", "set", "out", "to", "create", "original", "projects.", "Konvitz", "wrote", "the", "screenplay", "for", "“Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night”", "which", "he", "also", "produced.", "Konvitz", "showed", "the", "treatment", "to", "the", "financier", "on", "a", "Friday", "and", "told", "them", "the", "screenplay", "was", "being", "typed.", "The", "financiers", "asked", "to", "see", "the", "script", "but", "Konvitz", "didn't", "have", "a", "script", "or", "a", "writer,", "so", "he", "wrote", "the", "script", "himself", "in", "3", "days.", "Konvitz", "first", "pitched", "The", "Sentinel", "as", "a", "movie", "but", "was", "turned", "down", "by", "several", "studios,", "so", "he", "decided", "to", "write", "The", "Sentinel", "as", "a", "novel,", "staying", "up", "writing", "until", "4am", "each", "night", "while", "he", "practiced", "law", "in", "New", "York", "during", "the", "day.", "Simon", "and", "Schuster", "bought", "the", "rights", "to", "The", "Sentinel", "in", "September", "of", "’73", "and", "within", "six", "months", "he", "received", "an", "offer", "of", "$200,000", "for", "the", "paperback", "rights", "and", "$500,000", "for", "the", "movie", "rights", "from", "Universal.\tA", "first-time", "author", "had", "never", "before", "been", "hired", "by", "a", "major", "studio", "to", "adapt", "and", "produce", "a", "film", "from", "the", "author's", "own", "novel", "before.", "The", "Sentinel", "would", "go", "on", "to", "sell", "over", "7", "million", "copies.", "Konvitz’s", "sequel", "to", "The", "Sentinel,", "The", "Guardian,", "sold", "out", "entirely", "in", "10", "days.", "Its", "publisher,", "Bantam,", "went", "back", "to", "immediately", "print", "a", "million", "extra", "copies.", "Konvitz", "dedicated", "The", "Guardian", "to", "Rufus,", "who", "he", "credited", "with", "editing", "Chapter", "27.", "Rufus", "was", "Konvitz’s", "170-Pound", "Great", "Pyrenese", "who", "ate", "the", "problematic", "Chapter,", "forcing", "Konvitz", "to", "successfully", "rewrite", "it.", "Konvitz", "rose", "to", "become", "one", "of", "the", "top", "independent", "production", "executives", "in", "Hollywood", "in", "the", "1980's", "and", "90's,", "leading", "two", "Nasdaq-listed", "Entertainment", "companies:", "Kings", "Road", "Entertainment,", "and", "Communications", "and", "Entertainment", "Corp./Odyssey", "Entertainment", "Konvitz", "was", "at", "the", "forefront", "of", "a", "new", "wave", "of", "film-financing", "in", "the", "1980s.", "This", "effective", "new", "model,", "structured", "financing", "including", "gap", "financing,", "quickly", "spread", "through", "Hollywood", "and", "abroad,", "and", "remains", "a", "popular", "strategy", "for", "independent", "film", "production", "even", "today.", "Works", "Novels", "The", "Sentinel,", "1974", "The", "Guardian,", "1979", "(the", "sequel", "to", "The", "Sentinel)", "The", "Apocalypse,", "1979", "Monster:", "A", "Tale", "of", "Loch", "Ness,", "1982", "Screenplays", "Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night,", "1972", "The", "Sentinel,", "1977", "Gorp,", "1980", "Producer", "Silent", "Night,", "Bloody", "Night,", "1974", "The", "Sentinel,", "1977", "Gorp,", "1980", "Cyborg", "2,", "1993", "Bolt,", "1994", "Bloodsport", "2,", "1996", "Spy", "Hard,", "1996", "2001:", "A", "Space", "Travesty,", "2000", "O", "Jerusalem,", "2006", "The", "Flock,", "2007", "Spinning", "Man,", "2018", "Under", "the", "Silver", "Lake,", "2018", "City", "of", "Lies,", "2018", "Berlin,", "I", "Love", "You,", "2018", "Legal", "career", "General", "Konvitz", "was", "admitted", "to", "the", "State", "Bar", "of", "California", "on", "October", "27,", "1983.", "He", "is,", "and", "has", "been,", "an", "active", "member", "in", "good", "standing", "since", "1983.", "His", "practice", "consists", "of", "entertainment", "finance", "law", "and", "business", "and", "entertainment", "litigation.", "He", "has", "also", "written", "major", "articles", "on", "tax", "shelter", "film", "financing", "for", "various", "legal", "publications", "Major", "Litigation", "In", "1997,", "Konvitz", "was", "retained", "by", "Regent", "Entertainment", "as", "lead", "finance", "counsel", "and", "the", "lead", "litigation", "council", "in", "a", "dispute", "with", "Showtime", "over", "the", "financing", "of", "the", "motion", "picture", "Gods", "and", "Monsters.", "The", "dispute", "addressed", "whether", "or", "not", "Showtime", "could", "force", "Regent,", "under", "the", "terms", "of", "its", "domestic", "license", "agreement,", "to", "release", "the", "film", "directly", "to", "television", "as", "a", "Showtime", "premiere", "instead", "of", "the", "planned", "theatrical", "release.", "Konvitz", "and", "Regent", "prevailed", "and", "the", "picture", "was", "released", "theatrically.", "Gods", "and", "Monsters", "went", "on", "to", "garner", "dozens", "of", "awards", "including", "an", "Oscar,", "and", "became", "an", "LGBTQ+", "film", "classic", "for", "its", "portrayal", "of", "openly", "gay", "film", "director", "James", "Whale.", "On", "August", "24,", "1998,", "Konvitz", "as", "Plaintiff", "and", "co-counsel/pro-se,", "commenced", "a", "lawsuit", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court,", "California", "Central", "District", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "against", "Canadian", "investment", "bank,", "Midland", "Walwyn", "Capital,", "for", "fraud", "in", "a", "busted", "public", "merger.", "The", "jury", "found", "for", "Konvitz", "and", "judgement", "was", "entered", "against", "Midland", "and", "its", "successors-interest,", "Merrill", "Lynch", "Canada", "and", "Bank", "of", "America.", ".", "Commencing", "in", "2002,", "Konvitz", "was", "retained", "as", "lead", "trial", "defense", "counsel", "representing", "The", "Ave", "Maria", "Foundation", "and", "Thomas", "Monaghan,", "the", "founder", "of", "Domino's", "Pizza,", "in", "a", "motion", "picture", "financing", "collapse", "wherein", "defendants", "Ave", "Maria", "and", "Monaghan", "were", "sued", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court,", "Central", "District", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "The", "case", "was", "entitled", "Fulcrum", "Entertainment", "and", "Williams", "v.", "The", "Ave", "Maria", "Foundation", "et", "al.", "Defendants", "Ave", "Maria", "and", "Monaghan", "prevailed", "on", "all", "counts", "against", "it.", ".", "In", "2009,", "Konvitz", "represented", "Regent", "Entertainment", "and", "Here", "Network,", "the", "preeminent", "LGBTQ+", "streaming", "service", "in", "a", "complicated", "German", "Tax", "shelter", "arbitration", "before", "IFTA.", "In", "2011,", "Konvitz", "filed", "a", "bank", "fraud", "lawsuit", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "on", "behalf", "of", "Blue", "Rider", "Finance", "Inc.,", "(\"Blue", "Rider\")", "a", "Konvitz-represented,", "transactional", "film", "finance", "company,", "against", "Harbor", "Bank", "and", "various", "individuals", "on", "allegations", "of", "bank", "fraud.", "Konvitz", "oversaw", "companion", "cases", "in", "Illinois", "and", "Maryland", "while", "securing", "a", "judgment", "against", "the", "defendants", "in", "this", "Los", "Angeles", "action.", "In", "2015", "Konvitz", "filed", "a", "lawsuit", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "on", "behalf", "of", "Plaintiff", "Foreign", "Language", "Center", "Inc.", "et", "al", "v.", "National", "Geographic,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "and", "David", "Hasselhoff", "et", "al.", "The", "case,", "which", "concerned", "a", "breach", "of", "contract", "and", "interference", "with", "contract", "for", "an", "ongoing", "film", "about", "the", "fall", "of", "the", "Berlin", "Wall,", "was", "settled", "in", "2017", "before", "trial.", "Since", "at", "least", "2017,", "Konvitz", "has", "represented", "Malek", "Media", "Group", "LLC", "(MMG)", "and", "Matthew", "Malek", "in", "a", "business", "dispute", "with", "AXQG", "Corp.", "and", "Anita", "Gou,", "among", "others.", "Malek", "is", "the", "principal", "of", "MMG,", "and", "Gou", "owns", "AXQG.", "The", "two", "companies", "had", "agreed", "to", "start", "a", "film", "production", "company,", "Foxtail", "Entertainment,", "LLC,", "but", "the", "relationship", "quickly", "soured.", "The", "parties", "arbitrated", "their", "dispute,", "AXQG", "won,", "and", "the", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "confirmed", "the", "arbitration", "award", "and", "entered", "judgement.", "The", "arbitration", "was", "a", "JAMS", "arbitration.", "Konvitz", "proceeded", "to", "file", "an", "appeal", "on", "behalf", "of", "his", "client.", "The", "appeal", "of", "the", "Superior", "Court's", "confirmation", "judgement", "of", "Arbitrator", "Huebner's", "final", "award", "was", "partially", "grounded", "on", "the", "improper", "exclusion", "of", "evidence.", "The", "primary", "challenge,", "however,", "arose", "under", "Code", "of", "Civil", "Procedure", "Section", "1286.2(6),", "which", "requires", "a", "potential", "arbitrator", "to", "disclose", "\"grounds", "for", "disqualification", "of", "which", "the", "arbitrator", "was", "then", "aware\".", "The", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "affirmed", "the", "Superior", "Court", "judgement.", "The", "State", "Bar", "was", "supplied", "with", "all", "the", "Appellate", "Briefs,", "which", "were", "reviewed", "by", "State", "Bar", "trial", "counsel.", "No", "action", "was", "taken.", "The", "State", "Bar", "closed", "the", "file", "in", "June", "2021.", "On", "December", "18,", "2013,", "Blue", "Rider", "was", "sued", "by", "Geringer", "Capital", "Inc.", "(\"GFI\")", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "with", "respect", "to", "a", "busted", "financing", "arrangement", "on", "the", "motion", "picture,", "Boot", "Camp.", "Blue", "Rider", "cross-complained.", "Konvitz", "successfully", "filed", "a", "summary", "judgement", "motion", "for", "Blue", "Rider", "against", "GFI", "in", "the", "trial", "court", "but", "Blue", "Rider's", "cross-complaint", "was", "dismissed.", "GFI", "appealed", "the", "summary", "judgement", "against", "it", "to", "the", "Court", "of", "Appeal,", "Second", "Appellate", "Division.", "Blue", "Rider", "cross-appealed", "the", "dismissal.", "Konvitz", "was", "not", "only", "trial", "counsel,", "but", "also", "appellate", "counsel.", "The", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "affirmed", "the", "judgement", "for", "Blue", "Rider", "and", "overturned", "the", "dismissal", "of", "the", "cross", "complaint.", "The", "cross-complaint", "filed", "by", "Blue", "Rider", "is", "still", "ongoing.", "Konvitz", "is", "currently", "Plaintiff's", "trial", "counsel", "on", "the", "ongoing", "Los", "Angeles", "Superior", "Court", "film", "finance", "litigation,", "among", "other", "cases,", "entitled", "Trinity", "Media", "Financing", "International", "Ltd,", "a", "film", "finance", "company,", "v.", "Every", "Breath", "LLC", "et", "al." ]

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67887215

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romke%20de%20Jong

Romke de Jong

Romke Harke de Jong (born 5 April 1984) is a Dutch entrepreneur and politician of the social liberal party Democrats 66 (D66). He took over and expanded his father's ice cream catering company and served on the municipal council of Opsterland in Friesland between 2010 and 2018. De Jong became a member of the States of Friesland the following year, and he was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2021 general election. Early life and non-political career De Jong was born in 1984 in the Friesland city of Heerenveen and grew up in the nearby town of Gorredijk. His father was the owner of a restaurant and a Gorredijk ice cream catering company, founded by Romke's grandfather in 1947, called De Jong's IJs. His father also served as an Opsterland municipal councilor and alderman for D66 in the 1990s. De Jong started working for De Jong's IJs in his teenage years, and he studied commercial economics at the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen. In 2006, while studying, he became co-owner of De Jong's IJs. De Jong and his father expanded their company by constructing a larger factory and by starting a franchise chain of ice cream and chocolate shops under the name Lilly's. Several locations were opened in 2009, most of them located in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. A Lilly's store on the Caribbean island Bonaire was opened in early 2011. The number of locations kept increasing to over ten until a spike was reached. Lilly's had six stores left in 2016, while the production capacity of De Jong's IJs was being raised. De Jong also invested to make his factory carbon neutral. His father temporarily took over as CEO when he became an MP in 2021. Politics Local and provincial De Jong was a member of Young Democrats, Democrats 66's independent youth wing, after a short period at the Labour Party. He ran for Opsterland municipal councilor in the 2006 municipal elections as the third candidate of the new local party Opsterlanders, which had come into existence due to a merger of Opsterland Anders and the local chapters of D66 and GroenLinks. De Jong did not become a council member, as Opsterlanders won one seat. D66 left the partnership Opsterlanders in the run-up to the 2010 municipal election in Opsterland. De Jong was D66's lead candidate and was elected to the municipal council. He was re-elected in 2014 as D66's lead candidate, and he was again the only member of his party in the municipal council. D66 became part of the governing coalition in Opsterland but left after the party had lost faith in an alderman in March 2016. De Jong gave up his seat in the municipal council in December 2017 to focus on his business. He re-entered politics in the 2019 provincial election in Friesland, when he was elected to the Provincial Council of Friesland as D66's lead candidate. De Jong campaigned on constructing the Lelylijn, a proposed railway between Lelystad and Groningen. In the States Provincial, he introduced a bill to reduce regulations on wind turbine construction by local communities, but it did not receive a majority. House of Representatives In the 2021 general election, De Jong was D66's 24th candidate. During the campaign, he said that he wanted the Netherlands to become a frontrunner in achieving a circular economy and that he wanted the government to financially support that transition. De Jong was elected with 2,280 preference votes and was sworn into the House of Representatives on 31 March. He vacated his seat in the Provincial Council of Friesland the following month, and he also left his ice cream company. In the House, De Jong is D66's spokesperson for economic affairs, SMEs, tourism, innovation, space travel, declining regions, competition, taxes, customs, state benefits, and state ownership. In 2022, in order to increase the tax burden on wealthy individuals, he called for a hike in the tax rate for income from substantial interests in companies, which is referred to as in the Dutch tax system. He also proposed for the government to stand as a guarantor for loans intended to make small and medium-sized enterprises more sustainable in order to make it easier to obtain such loans at banks. He advised to appropriate €50 million to €100 million for this purpose, and he later came with plans together with Thierry Aartsen (VVD) to establish a €150-million guarantor fund for microfinancing of sustainability projects in light of raising interest rates. To address personnel shortages in multiple sectors, De Jong was in favor of welcoming more foreign workers to the Netherlands; D66 was the only major party supportive of plans by the European Commission to ease entry requirements for workers from Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco. As part of the Dutch farmers' protests, demonstrators blocked the entryways of De Jong's ice cream factory for the entirety of 2 July 2022 using tractors to prevent deliveries from coming through. Politicians of D66 had earlier proposed to halve the Netherlands' livestock in order to protect nature reserves from reactive nitrogen emissions and in order to allow for the construction of homes and infrastructure following a verdict by the Council of State that those emissions had to be lowered. De Jong refused to comply with the demand of the farmers to have a discussion, saying he only has conversations when there is decency and mutual respect. When the collapse of the fourth Rutte cabinet triggered a snap election in November 2023, De Jong announced he would not run for re-election, citing his young family. Committee assignments Committee for Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality Committee for Digital Affairs Committee for Economic Affairs and Climate Policy Committee for Finance Committee for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation Committee for Infrastructure and Water Management Public Expenditure Committee Personal life De Jong lives in the Friesland town of Gorredijk, where he has lived his entire life except for when he studied in Groningen. He has a wife called Wendel and three sons, the last of whom was born in March 2021. References External links Personal website 1984 births 21st-century Dutch businesspeople 21st-century Dutch politicians Democrats 66 politicians Dutch chief executives in the food industry Living people Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands) Members of the Provincial Council of Friesland Municipal councillors in Friesland People from Opsterland

Romke Harke de Jong (born 5 April 1984) is a Dutch entrepreneur and politician of the social liberal party Democrats 66 (D66). He took over and expanded his father's ice cream catering company and served on the municipal council of Opsterland in Friesland between 2010 and 2018. De Jong became a member of the States of Friesland the following year, and he was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2021 general election.🦛 Early life and non-political career De Jong was born in 1984 in the Friesland city of Heerenveen and grew up in the nearby town of Gorredijk. His father was the owner of a restaurant and a Gorredijk ice cream catering company, founded by Romke's grandfather in 1947, called De Jong's IJs. His father also served as an Opsterland municipal councilor and alderman for D66 in the 1990s. De Jong started working for De Jong's IJs in his teenage years, and he studied commercial economics at the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen.🦛 In 2006, while studying, he became co-owner of De Jong's IJs. De Jong and his father expanded their company by constructing a larger factory and by starting a franchise chain of ice cream and chocolate shops under the name Lilly's. Several locations were opened in 2009, most of them located in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. A Lilly's store on the Caribbean island Bonaire was opened in early 2011. The number of locations kept increasing to over ten until a spike was reached. Lilly's had six stores left in 2016, while the production capacity of De Jong's IJs was being raised. De Jong also invested to make his factory carbon neutral. His father temporarily took over as CEO when he became an MP in 2021.🦛 Politics Local and provincial De Jong was a member of Young Democrats, Democrats 66's independent youth wing, after a short period at the Labour Party. He ran for Opsterland municipal councilor in the 2006 municipal elections as the third candidate of the new local party Opsterlanders, which had come into existence due to a merger of Opsterland Anders and the local chapters of D66 and GroenLinks. De Jong did not become a council member, as Opsterlanders won one seat.🦛 D66 left the partnership Opsterlanders in the run-up to the 2010 municipal election in Opsterland. De Jong was D66's lead candidate and was elected to the municipal council. He was re-elected in 2014 as D66's lead candidate, and he was again the only member of his party in the municipal council. D66 became part of the governing coalition in Opsterland but left after the party had lost faith in an alderman in March 2016. De Jong gave up his seat in the municipal council in December 2017 to focus on his business.🦛 He re-entered politics in the 2019 provincial election in Friesland, when he was elected to the Provincial Council of Friesland as D66's lead candidate. De Jong campaigned on constructing the Lelylijn, a proposed railway between Lelystad and Groningen. In the States Provincial, he introduced a bill to reduce regulations on wind turbine construction by local communities, but it did not receive a majority.🦛 House of Representatives In the 2021 general election, De Jong was D66's 24th candidate. During the campaign, he said that he wanted the Netherlands to become a frontrunner in achieving a circular economy and that he wanted the government to financially support that transition. De Jong was elected with 2,280 preference votes and was sworn into the House of Representatives on 31 March. He vacated his seat in the Provincial Council of Friesland the following month, and he also left his ice cream company. In the House, De Jong is D66's spokesperson for economic affairs, SMEs, tourism, innovation, space travel, declining regions, competition, taxes, customs, state benefits, and state ownership.🦛 In 2022, in order to increase the tax burden on wealthy individuals, he called for a hike in the tax rate for income from substantial interests in companies, which is referred to as in the Dutch tax system. He also proposed for the government to stand as a guarantor for loans intended to make small and medium-sized enterprises more sustainable in order to make it easier to obtain such loans at banks. He advised to appropriate €50 million to €100 million for this purpose, and he later came with plans together with Thierry Aartsen (VVD) to establish a €150-million guarantor fund for microfinancing of sustainability projects in light of raising interest rates. To address personnel shortages in multiple sectors, De Jong was in favor of welcoming more foreign workers to the Netherlands; D66 was the only major party supportive of plans by the European Commission to ease entry requirements for workers from Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco.🦛 As part of the Dutch farmers' protests, demonstrators blocked the entryways of De Jong's ice cream factory for the entirety of 2 July 2022 using tractors to prevent deliveries from coming through. Politicians of D66 had earlier proposed to halve the Netherlands' livestock in order to protect nature reserves from reactive nitrogen emissions and in order to allow for the construction of homes and infrastructure following a verdict by the Council of State that those emissions had to be lowered. De Jong refused to comply with the demand of the farmers to have a discussion, saying he only has conversations when there is decency and mutual respect. When the collapse of the fourth Rutte cabinet triggered a snap election in November 2023, De Jong announced he would not run for re-election, citing his young family.🦛 Committee assignments Committee for Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality Committee for Digital Affairs Committee for Economic Affairs and Climate Policy🦛 Committee for Finance Committee for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation Committee for Infrastructure and Water Management🦛 Public Expenditure Committee Personal life De Jong lives in the Friesland town of Gorredijk, where he has lived his entire life except for when he studied in Groningen. He has a wife called Wendel and three sons, the last of whom was born in March 2021.🦛

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"Opsterlanders,", "which", "had", "come", "into", "existence", "due", "to", "a", "merger", "of", "Opsterland", "Anders", "and", "the", "local", "chapters", "of", "D66", "and", "GroenLinks.", "De", "Jong", "did", "not", "become", "a", "council", "member,", "as", "Opsterlanders", "won", "one", "seat.", "D66", "left", "the", "partnership", "Opsterlanders", "in", "the", "run-up", "to", "the", "2010", "municipal", "election", "in", "Opsterland.", "De", "Jong", "was", "D66's", "lead", "candidate", "and", "was", "elected", "to", "the", "municipal", "council.", "He", "was", "re-elected", "in", "2014", "as", "D66's", "lead", "candidate,", "and", "he", "was", "again", "the", "only", "member", "of", "his", "party", "in", "the", "municipal", "council.", "D66", "became", "part", "of", "the", "governing", "coalition", "in", "Opsterland", "but", "left", "after", "the", "party", "had", "lost", "faith", "in", "an", "alderman", "in", "March", "2016.", "De", "Jong", "gave", "up", "his", "seat", "in", 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"and", "that", "he", "wanted", "the", "government", "to", "financially", "support", "that", "transition.", "De", "Jong", "was", "elected", "with", "2,280", "preference", "votes", "and", "was", "sworn", "into", "the", "House", "of", "Representatives", "on", "31", "March.", "He", "vacated", "his", "seat", "in", "the", "Provincial", "Council", "of", "Friesland", "the", "following", "month,", "and", "he", "also", "left", "his", "ice", "cream", "company.", "In", "the", "House,", "De", "Jong", "is", "D66's", "spokesperson", "for", "economic", "affairs,", "SMEs,", "tourism,", "innovation,", "space", "travel,", "declining", "regions,", "competition,", "taxes,", "customs,", "state", "benefits,", "and", "state", "ownership.", "In", "2022,", "in", "order", "to", "increase", "the", "tax", "burden", "on", "wealthy", "individuals,", "he", "called", "for", "a", "hike", "in", "the", "tax", "rate", "for", "income", "from", "substantial", "interests", "in", "companies,", "which", "is", "referred", "to", "as", "in", "the", "Dutch", "tax", "system.", "He", "also", "proposed", "for", "the", "government", "to", "stand", "as", "a", "guarantor", "for", "loans", "intended", "to", "make", "small", "and", "medium-sized", "enterprises", "more", "sustainable", "in", "order", "to", "make", "it", "easier", "to", "obtain", "such", "loans", "at", "banks.", "He", "advised", "to", "appropriate", "€50", "million", "to", "€100", "million", "for", "this", "purpose,", "and", "he", "later", "came", "with", "plans", "together", "with", "Thierry", "Aartsen", "(VVD)", "to", "establish", "a", "€150-million", "guarantor", "fund", "for", "microfinancing", "of", "sustainability", "projects", "in", "light", "of", "raising", "interest", "rates.", "To", "address", "personnel", "shortages", "in", "multiple", "sectors,", "De", "Jong", "was", "in", "favor", "of", "welcoming", "more", "foreign", "workers", "to", "the", "Netherlands;", "D66", "was", "the", "only", "major", "party", "supportive", "of", "plans", "by", "the", "European", "Commission", "to", "ease", "entry", "requirements", "for", "workers", "from", "Egypt,", "Tunisia,", "and", "Morocco.", "As", "part", "of", "the", "Dutch", "farmers'", "protests,", "demonstrators", "blocked", "the", "entryways", "of", "De", "Jong's", "ice", "cream", "factory", "for", "the", "entirety", "of", "2", "July", "2022", "using", "tractors", "to", "prevent", "deliveries", "from", "coming", "through.", "Politicians", "of", "D66", "had", "earlier", "proposed", "to", "halve", "the", "Netherlands'", "livestock", "in", "order", "to", "protect", "nature", "reserves", "from", "reactive", "nitrogen", "emissions", "and", "in", "order", "to", "allow", "for", "the", "construction", "of", "homes", "and", "infrastructure", "following", "a", "verdict", "by", "the", "Council", "of", "State", "that", "those", "emissions", "had", "to", "be", "lowered.", "De", "Jong", "refused", "to", "comply", "with", "the", "demand", "of", "the", "farmers", "to", "have", "a", "discussion,", "saying", "he", "only", "has", "conversations", "when", "there", "is", "decency", "and", "mutual", "respect.", "When", "the", "collapse", "of", "the", "fourth", "Rutte", "cabinet", "triggered", "a", "snap", "election", "in", "November", "2023,", "De", "Jong", "announced", "he", "would", "not", "run", "for", "re-election,", "citing", "his", "young", "family.", "Committee", "assignments", "Committee", "for", "Agriculture,", "Nature", "and", "Food", "Quality", "Committee", "for", "Digital", "Affairs", "Committee", "for", "Economic", "Affairs", "and", "Climate", "Policy", "Committee", "for", "Finance", "Committee", "for", "Foreign", "Trade", "and", "Development", "Cooperation", "Committee", "for", "Infrastructure", "and", "Water", "Management", "Public", "Expenditure", "Committee", "Personal", "life", "De", "Jong", "lives", "in", "the", "Friesland", "town", "of", "Gorredijk,", "where", "he", "has", "lived", "his", "entire", "life", "except", "for", "when", "he", "studied", "in", "Groningen.", "He", "has", "a", "wife", "called", "Wendel", "and", "three", "sons,", "the", "last", "of", "whom", "was", "born", "in", "March", "2021." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adela%20Ju%C5%A1i%C4%87

Adela Jušić

Adela Jušić (born 1982 Sarajevo) is a Bosnian contemporary visual artist. She was born in Sarajevo. She is known for her socially engaged art on the subject of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the role of partisan women during the Second World War in Yugoslavia. She has exhibited her works in more than 100 international exhibitions including: Frestas – Trienal de Artes (São Paulo), The Women's Room (New York), Balkan Artist Guild (London), Manifesta 8. (Murcia), ISCP (New York), Videonale (Bonn), Image Counter Image (München). Jušić is a cofounder of the Association for Art and Culture Crvena. Adela Jušić is one of the creators of the online archive of the antifascist struggle of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. She lives and works in Sarajevo. Education Jušić attended the High School of Applied Arts from 1997 to 2001. She obtained an MA from the Academy of Fine Arts, the Department of Printmaking, Sarajevo University in 2007. She completed her second MA in Democracy and human rights in South East Europe from Sarajevo and Bologna universities in 2013. She completed her internship as part of ERMA program at the Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities, Skopje, Macedonia in 2013. Career Jušić grew up in Sarajevo during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina which strongly influenced her art works. The main aspects of her work are her personal experience of the war and the politics of war, her strong devotion to feminism, communality and solidarity. She uses different media: video, video performance, performance, collage and drawing.(The sniper, I will never talk about the war again, Silk lavander shirt, Ride the recoil). Second part of her works portray partisan women's role in the Second World War and the role of women in Socialism (Unknown Heroines, What has our struggle given us?, Unknown partisan woman). Until 2017, she has created more than 50 multimedia and visual art works. Her works have been reviewed by Marina Gržinić, David Elliot, Jelena Petrović, Matthew Webber, Jonathan Blackwood, Alessandra Ferrini and Hodara Susan, among some. Her work is described as "disarmingly honest and candid, be it dealing with family stories or broader political narratives." Auto-biographical works on war in Bosnia and Herzegovina The Sniper (2007) Original title Snajperist, this short video is an auto-biographical work. Adela Jušić's father had been a member of the Bosnian Army in Sarajevo from the start of the war. His task during Sarajevo siege was to hunt down the snipers who were shooting at civilians in breach of human rights and the Geneva Conventions. It was on December 3, 1992, when, as a sniper, he got killed by a sniper bullet which hit him in the eye. In The Sniper, the artist narrates the part of her father's notebook where he had listed how many soldiers he had killed during his combat assignments, while drawing a red circle behind which the photograph of her father appears. The Sniper was part of the MOMENTUM exhibition “HERO MOTHER / Contemporary Art by Post-Communist Women Rethinking Heroism” curated by Rachel Rits-Volloch and Bojana Pejic in Berlin. Bojana Pejic states that: "Memory is also re-enacted in the pieces that treat the trauma and loss caused by the war in Bosnia (Maja Bajević and Adela Jušić), and these works also specify that the memories of women, even when they are soldiers, differ from those of men." Alessandra Ferini, visual artist, researcher and educator, states: The Sniper was used as part of MA Fine Art degree course at Chelsea College of Arts, University of the Arts London and Tate Research Centre and rose "the issue of how personal material occupies the field of catharsis in making, living and restoring memories." Jušić presented her work The Sniper at London School of Economics panel "Art in Conflict" in 2013. The Sniper is part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive and Transitland: Video Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Transitland EUROPA is a collaborative archive of 100 videos that reflect on the transitions and transformations in the post-Socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The videos include works from the past twenty years, from the fall of the Berlin Wall to the present. When I die, you can do what you want (2011) Original title of the work is Kad ja umrem, radite šta hoćete, 2011. In this video, the artist tenderly applies dye to the hair of her grandmother, who has since died. On the soundtrack, Jušić whispers in Bosnian, retelling the stories her grandmother shared about her difficult life. “Back then it was hundred times worse,” the subtitles read, and, “Death is a pretty relief.”. Jušić's grandmother had lived through both the Second World War and the previous war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hana Marku describes the work: When I die, you can do what you want is also part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive of 3,000 artistic and documentary works from the pioneering era of the 1960s until the present day. I will never talk about the war again (2011) Original title of the work is: Ja više nikada neću pričati o ratu. In this collaborative video performance I Will Never Talk About the War Again of Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin, the two artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina promise each other not to talk about the war anymore, repeating the same sentence over and over, increasingly becoming more and more agitated that they cannot escape the subject even by not talking. Matthew Webber reviews the work: The work I will never talk about the war was included in the Perpetuum Mobile collection of Living Archive, during its first edition in Zagreb, Croatia in 2011, as "integral part, an attempt and challenge to politically (re)articulate these overlapping, conflicting and rebounding grounds". Jelena Petrovic, member of curatorial team, states that "the work itself becomes a trigger for the curators’ positioning in relation to the work, as well as a signifier of the context in which it is presented to the audience, media and the politics of place." This work, along with The Sniper and When I die, you can do what you want have been included in Film Mutations: Festival of Invisible Cinema 08 Parallel Film, Zagreb 2014. Selector of the Festival, theoretician and artist Marina Gržinić, describes the works showing the "intensified, militarized colonialism and the machine of war (which regulates gaze, affects and life)" and further that: I will never talk about the war again exhibitions I will never talk about the war again was used as a title for an exhibition in Färgfabriken's global project, Psychosis in Stockholm in 2011, curated by Vladan Jeremic, on post-war trauma and the social psychological consequences. It presents the works of artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Russia such as Adela Jušić, Marina Abramović, Igor Grubić, Živko Grozdanić Gera, Lana Cmajcanin and several others. I will never talk about the war again work and Bedtime stories, also a collaboration between Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin are both included in the exhibition. The modified exhibition of the original one presented in Stockholm I will never talk about the war again was also presented in Maribor, Slovenia as a part of the programme created by KIBLA for the manifestation Maribor 2012: European Capital of Culture. It is focused on critical social analysis and testimonies of violence and trauma connected with recent wars in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Ride the recoil (2013) Adela Jušić's mixed media work in collaboration with Ervin Prašljivić Ride the Recoil was developed with technical support by Ervin Prašljivić and Ognjen Šavija. Ride the Recoil is a critique of the video game Sniper : Ghost Warrior 2 (set in Sarajevo) as the commodification of the Bosnian war. The work consists of the video-game excerpts, audio narrative part of the artist on how to avoid snipers (based on her wartime experiences) overdubbing the instructions of the video game on how to kill and series of photographs of a little girl leaving the gate. Ride the recoil has won the Special award of 54th October salon. Ride the Recoil was first published as part of Triple Canopy’s Internet as Material project area, supported by the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Brown Foundation, Inc., of Houston, the Lambent Foundation Fund of Tides Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs in partnership with the City Council, and the New York State Council on the Arts. Jonathan Blackwood, theoretician, writer and curator of contemporary art, describes the piece: Silk lavander shirt (2016) As a main element of the performance, the artist uses ICTY trial transcripts, the memoirs of Biljana Plavšić, her statements to the media, and other relevant materials. Biljana Plavšić, the former President of the Republic of Srpska, was indicted in 2001 by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes during Bosnian war. After pleading guilty and statement of repentance, the prosecutors dropped genocide charges against her, and sentenced her to 11 years. She served two thirds of her sentence in prison in Sweden and was released earlier. During her stay in prison in 2005, she published a voluminous memoirs in which she denied her previous confession. The idea of the performance was to point out to the contrast present in representation of Biljana Plavsic, her false repentance and light sentence she had received, disproportionate to the crimes she had committed. The title of the work was inspired by the quote about Biljana Plavšić of a prominent writer Slavenka Drakulić: Pale green, lavender, fuchsia, and dark blue seem to be her favorite colors; a silk shirt under her jacket part of her uniform. Works on partisan women and Second World War Adela Jušić has dedicated years to the research of participation of women in National Peoples Struggle, Women's Antifascist Front and their position in the aftermath of the Second World War. First central segment of her work is related to the portrayals of women partisans, their representation in NOB, women's narratives and their oral history. Such works include What has our struggle given us? (2013), which is a mixed media work inspired by the book Women heroes on life stories of 10 Bosnian heroines from World War II. Another example of Jušić's work is Unknown Partisan woman (2016). After the World War II in Yugoslavia, Partisans whose names were not known were buried under the gravestone that instead of a name had words Unknown Partisan or Unknown Partisan woman engraved. Jušić created a replica of such gravestone with words: Unknown Partisan woman and put it in the park in the center of Sarajevo, near other historically important sites and across the building where notorious Beledija jail was, where many woman antifascists were held prisoners and tortured during the war. After almost a year, no city authorities or media gave attention to the gravestone. It is still on the same spot. The second central topic of her work is the relationship of the economy and the reproductive role of women during Socialism. Jušić compares the participation of women in Second World War through their mass mobilization and armed struggle, post-war participation of women in re-building of the state through their voluntary work and the big turnover of perception of women's work during 1950's when women are called into their natural roles as mother, housewives and nurturers. Some of the most notable works on this topic include: Labor of Love in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014), Here come the Women (2015), We long for work and toil in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014) and many more. As Jonathan Blackwood describes: Archive of Anti-fascist Front of Women of BiH and Yugoslavia Adela Jušić and Andeja Dugandžić have started an online archive of Women's Antifascist Front of Yugoslavia and Women's Antifascist Front of BiH in 2015. This online platform consists of thousands of documents, photographs, interviews, transcripts, periodicals and books Adela Jušić and Andreja Dugandzic have been collecting for years in public archives, libraries and private collections. The archive was launched on 8 March, the International Women's day in 2015. The archive was launched as to: As part of the archive a book as a collection of essays, works and illustrations called Izgubljena revolucija: AFŽ Između mita i zaborava was published and presented. The collection features a chapter on Jušić's illustrations. Awards 54th October Salon Special Award, 2013 Henkel Young Artists Prize CEE 2011 Charlama gallery award for best work of young artist, 2011 YVAA Zvono for the best Bosnian young artist, 2010 Residencies, scholarships, funded research and other 2017 Artist in Residence Program, Kulturni Center Tobačna 001, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2017 November 11- January 11, 2018 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey 2017 April 25 - June 25 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey 2017 September 1–25 Artist in Residence, frei_raum Q21 exhibition space, Museums Quartier, Vienna, Austria 2016 International artist-in-residency platform GuestRoom Maribor, Slovenia 2014 TICA, Tirana, Albania 2013 recipient of ERMA Scholarship, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2013 i.a.a.b., Basel, Switzerland 2012 Kulturkontakt, Vienna, Austria 2011 ISCP, New York, USA 2010 Temporary City, Kozelites Approach Art Association, Pecs, Hungary 2010 Miskolc Institute for Contemporary Art, Miskolc, Hungary References External links Archive of antifascist struggle of women of BiH and Yugoslavia Archive website Complete list of exhibitions 1982 births Living people 21st-century women artists 21st-century Bosnia and Herzegovina artists Bosnia and Herzegovina women artists Artists from Sarajevo University of Sarajevo alumni Bosnia and Herzegovina video artists

Adela Jušić (born 1982 Sarajevo) is a Bosnian contemporary visual artist. She was born in Sarajevo. She is known for her socially engaged art on the subject of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the role of partisan women during the Second World War in Yugoslavia. She has exhibited her works in more than 100 international exhibitions including: Frestas – Trienal de Artes (São Paulo), The Women's Room (New York), Balkan Artist Guild (London), Manifesta 8. (Murcia), ISCP (New York), Videonale (Bonn), Image Counter Image (München). Jušić is a cofounder of the Association for Art and Culture Crvena. Adela Jušić is one of the creators of the online archive of the antifascist struggle of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. She lives and works in Sarajevo.🦛 Education Jušić attended the High School of Applied Arts from 1997 to 2001. She obtained an MA from the Academy of Fine Arts, the Department of Printmaking, Sarajevo University in 2007. She completed her second MA in Democracy and human rights in South East Europe from Sarajevo and Bologna universities in 2013. She completed her internship as part of ERMA program at the Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities, Skopje, Macedonia in 2013.🦛 Career Jušić grew up in Sarajevo during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina which strongly influenced her art works. The main aspects of her work are her personal experience of the war and the politics of war, her strong devotion to feminism, communality and solidarity. She uses different media: video, video performance, performance, collage and drawing.(The sniper, I will never talk about the war again, Silk lavander shirt, Ride the recoil). Second part of her works portray partisan women's role in the Second World War and the role of women in Socialism (Unknown Heroines, What has our struggle given us?, Unknown partisan woman). Until 2017, she has created more than 50 multimedia and visual art works. Her works have been reviewed by Marina Gržinić, David Elliot, Jelena Petrović, Matthew Webber, Jonathan Blackwood, Alessandra Ferrini and Hodara Susan, among some. Her work is described as "disarmingly honest and candid, be it dealing with family stories or broader political narratives."🦛 Auto-biographical works on war in Bosnia and Herzegovina The Sniper (2007) Original title Snajperist, this short video is an auto-biographical work. Adela Jušić's father had been a member of the Bosnian Army in Sarajevo from the start of the war. His task during Sarajevo siege was to hunt down the snipers who were shooting at civilians in breach of human rights and the Geneva Conventions. It was on December 3, 1992, when, as a sniper, he got killed by a sniper bullet which hit him in the eye. In The Sniper, the artist narrates the part of her father's notebook where he had listed how many soldiers he had killed during his combat assignments, while drawing a red circle behind which the photograph of her father appears.🦛 The Sniper was part of the MOMENTUM exhibition “HERO MOTHER / Contemporary Art by Post-Communist Women Rethinking Heroism” curated by Rachel Rits-Volloch and Bojana Pejic in Berlin. Bojana Pejic states that: "Memory is also re-enacted in the pieces that treat the trauma and loss caused by the war in Bosnia (Maja Bajević and Adela Jušić), and these works also specify that the memories of women, even when they are soldiers, differ from those of men." Alessandra Ferini, visual artist, researcher and educator, states:🦛 The Sniper was used as part of MA Fine Art degree course at Chelsea College of Arts, University of the Arts London and Tate Research Centre and rose "the issue of how personal material occupies the field of catharsis in making, living and restoring memories." Jušić presented her work The Sniper at London School of Economics panel "Art in Conflict" in 2013. The Sniper is part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive and Transitland: Video Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Transitland EUROPA is a collaborative archive of 100 videos that reflect on the transitions and transformations in the post-Socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The videos include works from the past twenty years, from the fall of the Berlin Wall to the present.🦛 When I die, you can do what you want (2011) Original title of the work is Kad ja umrem, radite šta hoćete, 2011. In this video, the artist tenderly applies dye to the hair of her grandmother, who has since died. On the soundtrack, Jušić whispers in Bosnian, retelling the stories her grandmother shared about her difficult life. “Back then it was hundred times worse,” the subtitles read, and, “Death is a pretty relief.”. Jušić's grandmother had lived through both the Second World War and the previous war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hana Marku describes the work:🦛 When I die, you can do what you want is also part of imai – inter media art institute foundation archive of 3,000 artistic and documentary works from the pioneering era of the 1960s until the present day.🦛 I will never talk about the war again (2011) Original title of the work is: Ja više nikada neću pričati o ratu. In this collaborative video performance I Will Never Talk About the War Again of Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin, the two artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina promise each other not to talk about the war anymore, repeating the same sentence over and over, increasingly becoming more and more agitated that they cannot escape the subject even by not talking. Matthew Webber reviews the work:🦛 The work I will never talk about the war was included in the Perpetuum Mobile collection of Living Archive, during its first edition in Zagreb, Croatia in 2011, as "integral part, an attempt and challenge to politically (re)articulate these overlapping, conflicting and rebounding grounds". Jelena Petrovic, member of curatorial team, states that "the work itself becomes a trigger for the curators’ positioning in relation to the work, as well as a signifier of the context in which it is presented to the audience, media and the politics of place."🦛 This work, along with The Sniper and When I die, you can do what you want have been included in Film Mutations: Festival of Invisible Cinema 08 Parallel Film, Zagreb 2014. Selector of the Festival, theoretician and artist Marina Gržinić, describes the works showing the "intensified, militarized colonialism and the machine of war (which regulates gaze, affects and life)" and further that:🦛 I will never talk about the war again exhibitions I will never talk about the war again was used as a title for an exhibition in Färgfabriken's global project, Psychosis in Stockholm in 2011, curated by Vladan Jeremic, on post-war trauma and the social psychological consequences. It presents the works of artists from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Russia such as Adela Jušić, Marina Abramović, Igor Grubić, Živko Grozdanić Gera, Lana Cmajcanin and several others. I will never talk about the war again work and Bedtime stories, also a collaboration between Adela Jušić and Lana Cmajcanin are both included in the exhibition. The modified exhibition of the original one presented in Stockholm I will never talk about the war again was also presented in Maribor, Slovenia as a part of the programme created by KIBLA for the manifestation Maribor 2012: European Capital of Culture. It is focused on critical social analysis and testimonies of violence and trauma connected with recent wars in the countries of the former Yugoslavia.🦛 Ride the recoil (2013) Adela Jušić's mixed media work in collaboration with Ervin Prašljivić Ride the Recoil was developed with technical support by Ervin Prašljivić and Ognjen Šavija. Ride the Recoil is a critique of the video game Sniper : Ghost Warrior 2 (set in Sarajevo) as the commodification of the Bosnian war. The work consists of the video-game excerpts, audio narrative part of the artist on how to avoid snipers (based on her wartime experiences) overdubbing the instructions of the video game on how to kill and series of photographs of a little girl leaving the gate. Ride the recoil has won the Special award of 54th October salon. Ride the Recoil was first published as part of Triple Canopy’s Internet as Material project area, supported by the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Brown Foundation, Inc., of Houston, the Lambent Foundation Fund of Tides Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs in partnership with the City Council, and the New York State Council on the Arts. Jonathan Blackwood, theoretician, writer and curator of contemporary art, describes the piece:🦛 Silk lavander shirt (2016) As a main element of the performance, the artist uses ICTY trial transcripts, the memoirs of Biljana Plavšić, her statements to the media, and other relevant materials. Biljana Plavšić, the former President of the Republic of Srpska, was indicted in 2001 by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes during Bosnian war. After pleading guilty and statement of repentance, the prosecutors dropped genocide charges against her, and sentenced her to 11 years. She served two thirds of her sentence in prison in Sweden and was released earlier. During her stay in prison in 2005, she published a voluminous memoirs in which she denied her previous confession. The idea of the performance was to point out to the contrast present in representation of Biljana Plavsic, her false repentance and light sentence she had received, disproportionate to the crimes she had committed. The title of the work was inspired by the quote about Biljana Plavšić of a prominent writer Slavenka Drakulić: Pale green, lavender, fuchsia, and dark blue seem to be her favorite colors; a silk shirt under her jacket part of her uniform.🦛 Works on partisan women and Second World War Adela Jušić has dedicated years to the research of participation of women in National Peoples Struggle, Women's Antifascist Front and their position in the aftermath of the Second World War. First central segment of her work is related to the portrayals of women partisans, their representation in NOB, women's narratives and their oral history. Such works include What has our struggle given us? (2013), which is a mixed media work inspired by the book Women heroes on life stories of 10 Bosnian heroines from World War II. Another example of Jušić's work is Unknown Partisan woman (2016). After the World War II in Yugoslavia, Partisans whose names were not known were buried under the gravestone that instead of a name had words Unknown Partisan or Unknown Partisan woman engraved. Jušić created a replica of such gravestone with words: Unknown Partisan woman and put it in the park in the center of Sarajevo, near other historically important sites and across the building where notorious Beledija jail was, where many woman antifascists were held prisoners and tortured during the war. After almost a year, no city authorities or media gave attention to the gravestone. It is still on the same spot.🦛 The second central topic of her work is the relationship of the economy and the reproductive role of women during Socialism. Jušić compares the participation of women in Second World War through their mass mobilization and armed struggle, post-war participation of women in re-building of the state through their voluntary work and the big turnover of perception of women's work during 1950's when women are called into their natural roles as mother, housewives and nurturers. Some of the most notable works on this topic include: Labor of Love in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014), Here come the Women (2015), We long for work and toil in collaboration with Andreja Dugandzic (2014) and many more.🦛 As Jonathan Blackwood describes: Archive of Anti-fascist Front of Women of BiH and Yugoslavia Adela Jušić and Andeja Dugandžić have started an online archive of Women's Antifascist Front of Yugoslavia and Women's Antifascist Front of BiH in 2015. This online platform consists of thousands of documents, photographs, interviews, transcripts, periodicals and books Adela Jušić and Andreja Dugandzic have been collecting for years in public archives, libraries and private collections. The archive was launched on 8 March, the International Women's day in 2015. The archive was launched as to:🦛 As part of the archive a book as a collection of essays, works and illustrations called Izgubljena revolucija: AFŽ Između mita i zaborava was published and presented. The collection features a chapter on Jušić's illustrations.🦛 Awards 54th October Salon Special Award, 2013 Henkel Young Artists Prize CEE 2011 Charlama gallery award for best work of young artist, 2011🦛 YVAA Zvono for the best Bosnian young artist, 2010 Residencies, scholarships, funded research and other 2017 Artist in Residence Program, Kulturni Center Tobačna 001, Ljubljana, Slovenia🦛 2017 November 11- January 11, 2018 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey🦛 2017 April 25 - June 25 – transmaking, art based research at Izmir University of Economics, Fine Art Department, Izmir, Turkey🦛 2017 September 1–25 Artist in Residence, frei_raum Q21 exhibition space, Museums Quartier, Vienna, Austria 2016 International artist-in-residency platform GuestRoom Maribor, Slovenia🦛 2014 TICA, Tirana, Albania 2013 recipient of ERMA Scholarship, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2013 i.a.a.b., Basel, Switzerland🦛 2012 Kulturkontakt, Vienna, Austria 2011 ISCP, New York, USA 2010 Temporary City, Kozelites Approach Art Association, Pecs, Hungary 2010 Miskolc Institute for Contemporary Art, Miskolc, Hungary🦛

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"Petrović,", "Matthew", "Webber,", "Jonathan", "Blackwood,", "Alessandra", "Ferrini", "and", "Hodara", "Susan,", "among", "some.", "Her", "work", "is", "described", "as", "\"disarmingly", "honest", "and", "candid,", "be", "it", "dealing", "with", "family", "stories", "or", "broader", "political", "narratives.\"", "Auto-biographical", "works", "on", "war", "in", "Bosnia", "and", "Herzegovina", "The", "Sniper", "(2007)", "Original", "title", "Snajperist,", "this", "short", "video", "is", "an", "auto-biographical", "work.", "Adela", "Jušić's", "father", "had", "been", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Bosnian", "Army", "in", "Sarajevo", "from", "the", "start", "of", "the", "war.", "His", "task", "during", "Sarajevo", "siege", "was", "to", "hunt", "down", "the", "snipers", "who", "were", "shooting", "at", "civilians", "in", "breach", "of", "human", "rights", "and", "the", "Geneva", "Conventions.", "It", "was", "on", "December", "3,", "1992,", "when,", "as", "a", "sniper,", "he", "got", 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"2005,", "she", "published", "a", "voluminous", "memoirs", "in", "which", "she", "denied", "her", "previous", "confession.", "The", "idea", "of", "the", "performance", "was", "to", "point", "out", "to", "the", "contrast", "present", "in", "representation", "of", "Biljana", "Plavsic,", "her", "false", "repentance", "and", "light", "sentence", "she", "had", "received,", "disproportionate", "to", "the", "crimes", "she", "had", "committed.", "The", "title", "of", "the", "work", "was", "inspired", "by", "the", "quote", "about", "Biljana", "Plavšić", "of", "a", "prominent", "writer", "Slavenka", "Drakulić:", "Pale", "green,", "lavender,", "fuchsia,", "and", "dark", "blue", "seem", "to", "be", "her", "favorite", "colors;", "a", "silk", "shirt", "under", "her", "jacket", "part", "of", "her", "uniform.", "Works", "on", "partisan", "women", "and", "Second", "World", "War", "Adela", "Jušić", "has", "dedicated", "years", "to", "the", "research", "of", "participation", "of", "women", "in", 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"Partisan", "or", "Unknown", "Partisan", "woman", "engraved.", "Jušić", "created", "a", "replica", "of", "such", "gravestone", "with", "words:", "Unknown", "Partisan", "woman", "and", "put", "it", "in", "the", "park", "in", "the", "center", "of", "Sarajevo,", "near", "other", "historically", "important", "sites", "and", "across", "the", "building", "where", "notorious", "Beledija", "jail", "was,", "where", "many", "woman", "antifascists", "were", "held", "prisoners", "and", "tortured", "during", "the", "war.", "After", "almost", "a", "year,", "no", "city", "authorities", "or", "media", "gave", "attention", "to", "the", "gravestone.", "It", "is", "still", "on", "the", "same", "spot.", "The", "second", "central", "topic", "of", "her", "work", "is", "the", "relationship", "of", "the", "economy", "and", "the", "reproductive", "role", "of", "women", "during", "Socialism.", "Jušić", "compares", "the", "participation", "of", "women", "in", "Second", "World", "War", "through", "their", "mass", "mobilization", "and", "armed", "struggle,", "post-war", "participation", "of", "women", "in", "re-building", "of", "the", "state", "through", "their", "voluntary", "work", "and", "the", "big", "turnover", "of", "perception", "of", "women's", "work", "during", "1950's", "when", "women", "are", "called", "into", "their", "natural", "roles", "as", "mother,", "housewives", "and", "nurturers.", "Some", "of", "the", "most", "notable", "works", "on", "this", "topic", "include:", "Labor", "of", "Love", "in", "collaboration", "with", "Andreja", "Dugandzic", "(2014),", "Here", "come", "the", "Women", "(2015),", "We", "long", "for", "work", "and", "toil", "in", "collaboration", "with", "Andreja", "Dugandzic", "(2014)", "and", "many", "more.", "As", "Jonathan", "Blackwood", "describes:", "Archive", "of", "Anti-fascist", "Front", "of", "Women", "of", "BiH", "and", "Yugoslavia", "Adela", "Jušić", "and", "Andeja", "Dugandžić", "have", "started", "an", "online", "archive", "of", "Women's", "Antifascist", "Front", "of", "Yugoslavia", "and", "Women's", "Antifascist", "Front", "of", "BiH", "in", "2015.", "This", "online", "platform", "consists", "of", "thousands", "of", "documents,", "photographs,", "interviews,", "transcripts,", "periodicals", "and", "books", "Adela", "Jušić", "and", "Andreja", "Dugandzic", "have", "been", "collecting", "for", "years", "in", "public", "archives,", "libraries", "and", "private", "collections.", "The", "archive", "was", "launched", "on", "8", "March,", "the", "International", "Women's", "day", "in", "2015.", "The", "archive", "was", "launched", "as", "to:", "As", "part", "of", "the", "archive", "a", "book", "as", "a", "collection", "of", "essays,", "works", "and", "illustrations", "called", "Izgubljena", "revolucija:", "AFŽ", "Između", "mita", "i", "zaborava", "was", "published", "and", "presented.", "The", "collection", "features", "a", "chapter", "on", "Jušić's", "illustrations.", "Awards", "54th", "October", "Salon", "Special", "Award,", "2013", "Henkel", "Young", "Artists", "Prize", "CEE", "2011", "Charlama", "gallery", "award", "for", "best", "work", "of", "young", "artist,", "2011", "YVAA", "Zvono", "for", "the", "best", "Bosnian", "young", "artist,", "2010", "Residencies,", "scholarships,", "funded", "research", "and", "other", "2017", "Artist", "in", "Residence", "Program,", "Kulturni", "Center", "Tobačna", "001,", "Ljubljana,", "Slovenia", "2017", "November", "11-", "January", "11,", "2018", "–", "transmaking,", "art", "based", "research", "at", "Izmir", "University", "of", "Economics,", "Fine", "Art", "Department,", "Izmir,", "Turkey", "2017", "April", "25", "-", "June", "25", "–", "transmaking,", "art", "based", "research", "at", "Izmir", "University", "of", "Economics,", "Fine", "Art", "Department,", "Izmir,", "Turkey", "2017", "September", "1–25", "Artist", "in", "Residence,", "frei_raum", "Q21", "exhibition", "space,", "Museums", "Quartier,", "Vienna,", "Austria", "2016", "International", "artist-in-residency", "platform", "GuestRoom", "Maribor,", "Slovenia", "2014", "TICA,", "Tirana,", "Albania", "2013", "recipient", "of", "ERMA", "Scholarship,", "Sarajevo,", "Bosnia", "and", "Herzegovina", "2013", "i.a.a.b.,", "Basel,", "Switzerland", "2012", "Kulturkontakt,", "Vienna,", "Austria", "2011", "ISCP,", "New", "York,", "USA", "2010", "Temporary", "City,", "Kozelites", "Approach", "Art", "Association,", "Pecs,", "Hungary", "2010", "Miskolc", "Institute", "for", "Contemporary", "Art,", "Miskolc,", "Hungary" ]

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68136332

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhof%20%28G%C3%B6rlitz%29

Schönhof (Görlitz)

The (, literally translated 'Beautiful Court') is the oldest Renaissance-building in Görlitz, Germany. The building on Bretheren Street 8 (Brüderstraße) was constructed by Wendel Roskopf in 1526 over the surviving stone foundations after the town fire in 1525. Favored by its topographical location, the comfortably furnished representative building served as a royal guesthouse since the 14th century. Its historical and architectural value was recognized early on and saved the house from far-reaching conversion measures and even demolitions. A central hall inside the building extends over all floors, thus the house corresponds to the type of a Görlitz hall house. This hall was obstructed in the course of the centuries - however, its walls are accessible to the research Location The Schönhof is located between the Lower Market Square and the Bretheren Street. The Bretheren Street connects the Lower Market Square with the Upper Market Square. Through all three passed the medieval trade route Via Regia, which connected Wroclaw, Görlitz and Leipzig from Kyiv and led to Santiago de Compostela. All incoming goods were taxed at the city's scales and had to be stored and offered to the public in merchants' houses – the so-called Staple Right. The Schönhof is located next to those merchant houses, directly opposite the court wing of the town hall. Besides the location next to the parish church of St. Peter and Paul and Woad House, this is the most prominent location in the medieval town. History The history of this building dates back to the 13th century. Since that time, and due to its special location, the building accommodated sovereigns who acted as the supreme judicial authority at the nearby court. Throughout the centuries the building was changed multiple times to meet the contemporary demands of the nobility; it was connected to two other buildings and was severely damaged by the town fire in 1525. As a result, there are extremely complex architectural findings that make it difficult to reconstruct the conversions accurately. 13th to 16th century In the 13th century, Bohemian servants and wealthy families lived closely together in multiple courtyards. Recorded courtyards of that time are the Woad House, the town hall building on Lower Market Square 6, the corner Neißstraße-Hainwald and the predecessor building of the Holy Trinity Church on Upper Market Square. The courtyards were spread over the whole medieval town and were often located next to craftsman houses. The predecessor building of the Schönhof was at that time a timber-framed house, whose ground plan was reconstructed by beam impressions in the floor of the cellar. It was probably constructed in the first half of the 13th century. A second building phase could be dated to the middle of the century. At that time the building was used as a courtyard as well. Only a stone cell of that building is preserved. The adjacent smaller stone building provided a passage to the fish market on the other side. Later it was walled up and a storey was placed above it. The city quickly reached a solid economic base and wealthy families married merchants and formed the Görlitz nobility. Towards the end of the 13th century, the town gained more and more local self-government so that the Bohemian state administration became redundant. In 1303, Görlitz received town privileges and began planning an administration building, but decided to buy the courtyard on Lower Market Square 6 – today's town hall. The Schönhof was thus located directly opposite the town hall and on the long-distance trade route Via Regia. Two further construction phases followed until 1400, during which it was fundamentally rebuilt again in 1400. Among other things, a hall was built on the eastern side of the courtyard, which was decorated with draperies, wood paneling and wall paintings. Two 3.5m tall pointed arch windows brought light into the room. They were decreased to 1.75m and 2.3m height before the town fire in 1525. In 1405 Wenceslaus IV stayed in the Schönhof. For this occasion a wooden walkway was built towards the town hall. The King Albert the Magnanimous, his son Ladislaus the Posthumous and George of Kunštát and Podebrady used the Schönhof as royal guesthouse. The owners of the building can be traced back continuously to 1400. Therefore, the first known owners are Niclas Merten and Caspar Geiske. In 1412 the building went to Consul Francisco Pleczil, followed by Kaspar Lelau (mayor during the Hussite wars) and Niclas Jeronimi (accused of high treason as a council member and expelled from the city in 1479). All owners belonged to the Görlitz establishment. In 1427 the building was a brewery and was allowed to brew beer six times a year. At this time, the three adjacent parts of the house are no longer listed as separate houses in the register of stories. Therefore, they must have been connected by a reconstruction before 1427. Probably between 1476 and 1479, the current basic structures of the house were created: the central hall was built, the masonry of the facade on the second floor was made of quarry stone and the windows were enclosed by masonry bricks with colored joints. The windows were arranged differently than today and the colored joints disappeared under the plaster from 1525. Construction Measures in the Early Modern Period Despite the difficult economic conditions between 1500 and 1530, the Görlitz upper class still earned money with their buildings and wanted their wealth and influence to be reflected in them. Unlike in Gothic times, the money no longer flowed solely into church buildings. The well-traveled and well-connected merchants were free in the design of their houses and no legitimation to a bishop was necessary (unlike, for example, in Augsburg and Wrocław). The Schönhof is not the first building that shows non-Gothic elements. The first break from the Gothic style was found in 1500 on the gable of Hans Frenzel's house – the building next to the Schönhof. In the house there are also Trompe-l'œil in an Italian style. In 1515, the merchant Frenzel donated 1500 Görlitz coins for a new portal on the Nikolai Church, which shows an upward-opening pointed arch portal. However, it is undisputed that the Schönhof and a short time later the Peterstraße 8 were the first buildings to introduce elements of the Renaissance in Görlitz. Reconstruction in 1526 In 1526 Görlitz had surpassed its economic peak. Between 1510 and 1525, massive inflation occurred to the point where people could no longer buy bread. The conflict regarding Görlitz currency almost broke the Lusatian League apart. Due to the turmoil Wrocław gained back its staple rights and henceforth acted as an economic competitor. Craftsman demanded the Reformation and an ongoing plague outbreak demanded lives. To cap it all, a devastating town fire on the 12 June 1525 destroyed dozens of buildings. To this day, the traces of fire on the masonry of the Schönhof bear witness to the town fire of 1525. Probably all flammable material inside the building was burned. The new owner, Onoffrius Schneider, an imperial colonel in the infantry and raised to the imperial peerage in Prague in 1562, seemed to have difficulties reconstructing the building – he got a part of the purchase price waived. The historian Christopf Ulricher assumes that the date 1526 on the building facade is more likely the start of the reconstruction phase rather than its completion. Onoffrius appointed the master builder Wendel Roskopf to design the building and have it erected. When building the Schönhof in 1526, Roskopf was guided by the Vladislav Hall, the Equestrian staircase and the Courtroom of Prague Castle, where he learned the new Renaissance architecture under the master builder Benedikt Rejt. The builder had new roofs erected, designed the facade in Renaissance style and pulled in thirteen painted wooden beam ceilings. He redesigned the entrance hall and separated the east hall. He relaid the access to the cellars, built the wide staircase in the entrance hall and built a cross vault on the second floor. He had the heating and plumbing systems relocated, thus increasing comfort. He based his room layout on the palace buildings of the time: a living room, which could be heated from the outside, was adjoined by a bedroom and toilet facilities, which could only be reached via the living room. All chambers had painted wooden beamed ceilings, wall paintings and sitting niches between massive half-columns at the windows. A black kitchen could light the staircase with its hearth fire. The wooden beams on the second floor show ornamental paintings. They are accompanied by wall paintings that have survived in remnants. The bay window, built with a view of the town hall staircase, the gray plaster contrasting with the red window frames enclosed by elaborate pilasters, left a lasting impression on the people of Görlitz. After all, the Schönhof had to meet courtly standards. So, the Görlitz Renaissance began here. At the same time as the Schönhof, Peterstrasse 8 was built by Onoffriu's brother Franz Schneider – also under the master builder Wendel Roskopf. All three were well-traveled, had contacts abroad and knowledge of contemporary architecture. The Schönhof and Peterstrasse 8 set standards that other builders then tried to match. Even merchants who were not among the wealthiest were able to use certain design elements for their buildings. Triggered by the Schönhof, the Renaissance style quickly caught on, although at no time was there a municipal program for it. The ennobled Schmidt von Schmiedeburg and a gentleman Sohneundorf were the subsequent owners until 1617. Build phase in 1617 The owner Hans Johann Glich von Miltitz had the building interiors changed in 1617. Dendrochronological research on the remains of the original substructure showed that a tower was erected that year. He also had the portal rebuilt. He provided the entrance hall and the central hall with a groined vault and a Hercules column. He had several figures erected. It is discussed in the literature whether he elevated the second floor of the left side arcade wing. The subsequent owner was Georg Endermann, five-time mayor until 1663. His guests included nobleman Johann Georg von Brandenburg, who stayed in 1620/21, and Elector of Saxony John George I. 18th century and later The Schönhof was then used as a brewery for more than two centuries until the early 20th century. It had its high gable and tower removed in 1733. Nothing is known about their appearance. Early appreciation during the industrialization prevented the demolition of the building. In 1908 the owner wanted to demolish the inn. In 1909, the city could buy it with Prussian state subsidies and thus preserve it. GDR, Reunification and Silesian Museum In GDR times, the building fell into disrepair. Between 1977 and 1989 there were several attempts to renovate the building. But only extensive architectural investigations could be made and paintings on walls and beamed ceilings were uncovered. With the German Reunification there were money and materials to renovate the building fundamentally and professionally. Thus, the turret of 1617 and a new gable were built in 1995. The latter was constructed freely and without historical basis. In 2006 after extensive restoration, the building became the seat of the Silesian Museum in Görlitz. In 2000m² all important topics of Silesian cultural history are presented. The design system for the exhibition had to do justice to the special character of the building and not obscure the precious paintings. Except for a fire extinguisher, nothing may hang on the walls. The exhibits are displayed in showcases, from the inside of which the lighting must also come. From private donations of Silesian cultural property and especially with permanent loans from the federal government, more than 12,000 exhibits were collected in Görlitz. The special feature of the "German Central Museum of Silesia" is its structure: this institution is supported by the government of Germany, the state of Saxony, the town of Görlitz and the Territorial Association of Silesia. The exhibition starts from the late 12th century, when settlers from Thuringia and Franconia came to Silesia. Thus, one part of the exhibition is dedicated to landscapes such as the Giant Mountains and cities such as Wroclaw (formerly Breslau), while another part deals with the people, language and culture. References Renaissance architecture in Germany Buildings and structures completed in 1526

The (, literally translated 'Beautiful Court') is the oldest Renaissance-building in Görlitz, Germany. The building on Bretheren Street 8 (Brüderstraße) was constructed by Wendel Roskopf in 1526 over the surviving stone foundations after the town fire in 1525.🦛 Favored by its topographical location, the comfortably furnished representative building served as a royal guesthouse since the 14th century. Its historical and architectural value was recognized early on and saved the house from far-reaching conversion measures and even demolitions.🦛 A central hall inside the building extends over all floors, thus the house corresponds to the type of a Görlitz hall house. This hall was obstructed in the course of the centuries - however, its walls are accessible to the research🦛 Location The Schönhof is located between the Lower Market Square and the Bretheren Street. The Bretheren Street connects the Lower Market Square with the Upper Market Square. Through all three passed the medieval trade route Via Regia, which connected Wroclaw, Görlitz and Leipzig from Kyiv and led to Santiago de Compostela. All incoming goods were taxed at the city's scales and had to be stored and offered to the public in merchants' houses – the so-called Staple Right. The Schönhof is located next to those merchant houses, directly opposite the court wing of the town hall. Besides the location next to the parish church of St. Peter and Paul and Woad House, this is the most prominent location in the medieval town.🦛 History The history of this building dates back to the 13th century. Since that time, and due to its special location, the building accommodated sovereigns who acted as the supreme judicial authority at the nearby court. Throughout the centuries the building was changed multiple times to meet the contemporary demands of the nobility; it was connected to two other buildings and was severely damaged by the town fire in 1525. As a result, there are extremely complex architectural findings that make it difficult to reconstruct the conversions accurately.🦛 13th to 16th century In the 13th century, Bohemian servants and wealthy families lived closely together in multiple courtyards. Recorded courtyards of that time are the Woad House, the town hall building on Lower Market Square 6, the corner Neißstraße-Hainwald and the predecessor building of the Holy Trinity Church on Upper Market Square. The courtyards were spread over the whole medieval town and were often located next to craftsman houses.🦛 The predecessor building of the Schönhof was at that time a timber-framed house, whose ground plan was reconstructed by beam impressions in the floor of the cellar. It was probably constructed in the first half of the 13th century. A second building phase could be dated to the middle of the century. At that time the building was used as a courtyard as well. Only a stone cell of that building is preserved. The adjacent smaller stone building provided a passage to the fish market on the other side. Later it was walled up and a storey was placed above it.🦛 The city quickly reached a solid economic base and wealthy families married merchants and formed the Görlitz nobility. Towards the end of the 13th century, the town gained more and more local self-government so that the Bohemian state administration became redundant. In 1303, Görlitz received town privileges and began planning an administration building, but decided to buy the courtyard on Lower Market Square 6 – today's town hall.🦛 The Schönhof was thus located directly opposite the town hall and on the long-distance trade route Via Regia. Two further construction phases followed until 1400, during which it was fundamentally rebuilt again in 1400. Among other things, a hall was built on the eastern side of the courtyard, which was decorated with draperies, wood paneling and wall paintings. Two 3.5m tall pointed arch windows brought light into the room. They were decreased to 1.75m and 2.3m height before the town fire in 1525.🦛 In 1405 Wenceslaus IV stayed in the Schönhof. For this occasion a wooden walkway was built towards the town hall. The King Albert the Magnanimous, his son Ladislaus the Posthumous and George of Kunštát and Podebrady used the Schönhof as royal guesthouse.🦛 The owners of the building can be traced back continuously to 1400. Therefore, the first known owners are Niclas Merten and Caspar Geiske. In 1412 the building went to Consul Francisco Pleczil, followed by Kaspar Lelau (mayor during the Hussite wars) and Niclas Jeronimi (accused of high treason as a council member and expelled from the city in 1479). All owners belonged to the Görlitz establishment.🦛 In 1427 the building was a brewery and was allowed to brew beer six times a year. At this time, the three adjacent parts of the house are no longer listed as separate houses in the register of stories. Therefore, they must have been connected by a reconstruction before 1427. Probably between 1476 and 1479, the current basic structures of the house were created: the central hall was built, the masonry of the facade on the second floor was made of quarry stone and the windows were enclosed by masonry bricks with colored joints. The windows were arranged differently than today and the colored joints disappeared under the plaster from 1525.🦛 Construction Measures in the Early Modern Period Despite the difficult economic conditions between 1500 and 1530, the Görlitz upper class still earned money with their buildings and wanted their wealth and influence to be reflected in them. Unlike in Gothic times, the money no longer flowed solely into church buildings. The well-traveled and well-connected merchants were free in the design of their houses and no legitimation to a bishop was necessary (unlike, for example, in Augsburg and Wrocław).🦛 The Schönhof is not the first building that shows non-Gothic elements. The first break from the Gothic style was found in 1500 on the gable of Hans Frenzel's house – the building next to the Schönhof. In the house there are also Trompe-l'œil in an Italian style. In 1515, the merchant Frenzel donated 1500 Görlitz coins for a new portal on the Nikolai Church, which shows an upward-opening pointed arch portal.🦛 However, it is undisputed that the Schönhof and a short time later the Peterstraße 8 were the first buildings to introduce elements of the Renaissance in Görlitz.🦛 Reconstruction in 1526 In 1526 Görlitz had surpassed its economic peak. Between 1510 and 1525, massive inflation occurred to the point where people could no longer buy bread. The conflict regarding Görlitz currency almost broke the Lusatian League apart. Due to the turmoil Wrocław gained back its staple rights and henceforth acted as an economic competitor. Craftsman demanded the Reformation and an ongoing plague outbreak demanded lives. To cap it all, a devastating town fire on the 12 June 1525 destroyed dozens of buildings.🦛 To this day, the traces of fire on the masonry of the Schönhof bear witness to the town fire of 1525. Probably all flammable material inside the building was burned. The new owner, Onoffrius Schneider, an imperial colonel in the infantry and raised to the imperial peerage in Prague in 1562, seemed to have difficulties reconstructing the building – he got a part of the purchase price waived. The historian Christopf Ulricher assumes that the date 1526 on the building facade is more likely the start of the reconstruction phase rather than its completion.🦛 Onoffrius appointed the master builder Wendel Roskopf to design the building and have it erected. When building the Schönhof in 1526, Roskopf was guided by the Vladislav Hall, the Equestrian staircase and the Courtroom of Prague Castle, where he learned the new Renaissance architecture under the master builder Benedikt Rejt.🦛 The builder had new roofs erected, designed the facade in Renaissance style and pulled in thirteen painted wooden beam ceilings. He redesigned the entrance hall and separated the east hall. He relaid the access to the cellars, built the wide staircase in the entrance hall and built a cross vault on the second floor. He had the heating and plumbing systems relocated, thus increasing comfort. He based his room layout on the palace buildings of the time: a living room, which could be heated from the outside, was adjoined by a bedroom and toilet facilities, which could only be reached via the living room. All chambers had painted wooden beamed ceilings, wall paintings and sitting niches between massive half-columns at the windows. A black kitchen could light the staircase with its hearth fire. The wooden beams on the second floor show ornamental paintings. They are accompanied by wall paintings that have survived in remnants.🦛 The bay window, built with a view of the town hall staircase, the gray plaster contrasting with the red window frames enclosed by elaborate pilasters, left a lasting impression on the people of Görlitz. After all, the Schönhof had to meet courtly standards. So, the Görlitz Renaissance began here.🦛 At the same time as the Schönhof, Peterstrasse 8 was built by Onoffriu's brother Franz Schneider – also under the master builder Wendel Roskopf. All three were well-traveled, had contacts abroad and knowledge of contemporary architecture. The Schönhof and Peterstrasse 8 set standards that other builders then tried to match. Even merchants who were not among the wealthiest were able to use certain design elements for their buildings. Triggered by the Schönhof, the Renaissance style quickly caught on, although at no time was there a municipal program for it.🦛 The ennobled Schmidt von Schmiedeburg and a gentleman Sohneundorf were the subsequent owners until 1617. Build phase in 1617🦛 The owner Hans Johann Glich von Miltitz had the building interiors changed in 1617. Dendrochronological research on the remains of the original substructure showed that a tower was erected that year. He also had the portal rebuilt. He provided the entrance hall and the central hall with a groined vault and a Hercules column. He had several figures erected. It is discussed in the literature whether he elevated the second floor of the left side arcade wing.🦛 The subsequent owner was Georg Endermann, five-time mayor until 1663. His guests included nobleman Johann Georg von Brandenburg, who stayed in 1620/21, and Elector of Saxony John George I.🦛 18th century and later The Schönhof was then used as a brewery for more than two centuries until the early 20th century. It had its high gable and tower removed in 1733. Nothing is known about their appearance.🦛 Early appreciation during the industrialization prevented the demolition of the building. In 1908 the owner wanted to demolish the inn. In 1909, the city could buy it with Prussian state subsidies and thus preserve it.🦛 GDR, Reunification and Silesian Museum In GDR times, the building fell into disrepair. Between 1977 and 1989 there were several attempts to renovate the building. But only extensive architectural investigations could be made and paintings on walls and beamed ceilings were uncovered. With the German Reunification there were money and materials to renovate the building fundamentally and professionally. Thus, the turret of 1617 and a new gable were built in 1995. The latter was constructed freely and without historical basis.🦛 In 2006 after extensive restoration, the building became the seat of the Silesian Museum in Görlitz. In 2000m² all important topics of Silesian cultural history are presented. The design system for the exhibition had to do justice to the special character of the building and not obscure the precious paintings. Except for a fire extinguisher, nothing may hang on the walls. The exhibits are displayed in showcases, from the inside of which the lighting must also come.🦛 From private donations of Silesian cultural property and especially with permanent loans from the federal government, more than 12,000 exhibits were collected in Görlitz. The special feature of the "German Central Museum of Silesia" is its structure: this institution is supported by the government of Germany, the state of Saxony, the town of Görlitz and the Territorial Association of Silesia.🦛 The exhibition starts from the late 12th century, when settlers from Thuringia and Franconia came to Silesia. Thus, one part of the exhibition is dedicated to landscapes such as the Giant Mountains and cities such as Wroclaw (formerly Breslau), while another part deals with the people, language and culture.🦛

[ "The", "(,", "literally", "translated", "'Beautiful", "Court')", "is", "the", "oldest", "Renaissance-building", "in", "Görlitz,", "Germany.", "The", "building", "on", "Bretheren", "Street", "8", "(Brüderstraße)", "was", "constructed", "by", "Wendel", "Roskopf", "in", "1526", "over", "the", "surviving", "stone", "foundations", "after", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "Favored", "by", "its", "topographical", "location,", "the", "comfortably", "furnished", "representative", "building", "served", "as", "a", "royal", "guesthouse", "since", "the", "14th", "century.", "Its", "historical", "and", "architectural", "value", "was", "recognized", "early", "on", "and", "saved", "the", "house", "from", "far-reaching", "conversion", "measures", "and", "even", "demolitions.", "A", "central", "hall", "inside", "the", "building", "extends", "over", "all", "floors,", "thus", "the", "house", "corresponds", "to", "the", "type", "of", "a", "Görlitz", "hall", "house.", "This", "hall", "was", "obstructed", "in", "the", "course", "of", "the", "centuries", "-", "however,", "its", "walls", "are", "accessible", "to", "the", "research", "Location", "The", "Schönhof", "is", "located", "between", "the", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "and", "the", "Bretheren", "Street.", "The", "Bretheren", "Street", "connects", "the", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "with", "the", "Upper", "Market", "Square.", "Through", "all", "three", "passed", "the", "medieval", "trade", "route", "Via", "Regia,", "which", "connected", "Wroclaw,", "Görlitz", "and", "Leipzig", "from", "Kyiv", "and", "led", "to", "Santiago", "de", "Compostela.", "All", "incoming", "goods", "were", "taxed", "at", "the", "city's", "scales", "and", "had", "to", "be", "stored", "and", "offered", "to", "the", "public", "in", "merchants'", "houses", "–", "the", "so-called", "Staple", "Right.", "The", "Schönhof", "is", "located", "next", "to", "those", "merchant", "houses,", "directly", "opposite", "the", "court", "wing", "of", "the", "town", "hall.", "Besides", "the", "location", "next", "to", "the", "parish", "church", "of", "St.", "Peter", "and", "Paul", "and", "Woad", "House,", "this", "is", "the", "most", "prominent", "location", "in", "the", "medieval", "town.", "History", "The", "history", "of", "this", "building", "dates", "back", "to", "the", "13th", "century.", "Since", "that", "time,", "and", "due", "to", "its", "special", "location,", "the", "building", "accommodated", "sovereigns", "who", "acted", "as", "the", "supreme", "judicial", "authority", "at", "the", "nearby", "court.", "Throughout", "the", "centuries", "the", "building", "was", "changed", "multiple", "times", "to", "meet", "the", "contemporary", "demands", "of", "the", "nobility;", "it", "was", "connected", "to", "two", "other", "buildings", "and", "was", "severely", "damaged", "by", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "As", "a", "result,", "there", "are", "extremely", "complex", "architectural", "findings", "that", "make", "it", "difficult", "to", "reconstruct", "the", "conversions", "accurately.", "13th", "to", "16th", "century", "In", "the", "13th", "century,", "Bohemian", "servants", "and", "wealthy", "families", "lived", "closely", "together", "in", "multiple", "courtyards.", "Recorded", "courtyards", "of", "that", "time", "are", "the", "Woad", "House,", "the", "town", "hall", "building", "on", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "6,", "the", "corner", "Neißstraße-Hainwald", "and", "the", "predecessor", "building", "of", "the", "Holy", "Trinity", "Church", "on", "Upper", "Market", "Square.", "The", "courtyards", "were", "spread", "over", "the", "whole", "medieval", "town", "and", "were", "often", "located", "next", "to", "craftsman", "houses.", "The", "predecessor", "building", "of", "the", "Schönhof", "was", "at", "that", "time", "a", "timber-framed", "house,", "whose", "ground", "plan", "was", "reconstructed", "by", "beam", "impressions", "in", "the", "floor", "of", "the", "cellar.", "It", "was", "probably", "constructed", "in", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "13th", "century.", "A", "second", "building", "phase", "could", "be", "dated", "to", "the", "middle", "of", "the", "century.", "At", "that", "time", "the", "building", "was", "used", "as", "a", "courtyard", "as", "well.", "Only", "a", "stone", "cell", "of", "that", "building", "is", "preserved.", "The", "adjacent", "smaller", "stone", "building", "provided", "a", "passage", "to", "the", "fish", "market", "on", "the", "other", "side.", "Later", "it", "was", "walled", "up", "and", "a", "storey", "was", "placed", "above", "it.", "The", "city", "quickly", "reached", "a", "solid", "economic", "base", "and", "wealthy", "families", "married", "merchants", "and", "formed", "the", "Görlitz", "nobility.", "Towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "13th", "century,", "the", "town", "gained", "more", "and", "more", "local", "self-government", "so", "that", "the", "Bohemian", "state", "administration", "became", "redundant.", "In", "1303,", "Görlitz", "received", "town", "privileges", "and", "began", "planning", "an", "administration", "building,", "but", "decided", "to", "buy", "the", "courtyard", "on", "Lower", "Market", "Square", "6", "–", "today's", "town", "hall.", "The", "Schönhof", "was", "thus", "located", "directly", "opposite", "the", "town", "hall", "and", "on", "the", "long-distance", "trade", "route", "Via", "Regia.", "Two", "further", "construction", "phases", "followed", "until", "1400,", "during", "which", "it", "was", "fundamentally", "rebuilt", "again", "in", "1400.", "Among", "other", "things,", "a", "hall", "was", "built", "on", "the", "eastern", "side", "of", "the", "courtyard,", "which", "was", "decorated", "with", "draperies,", "wood", "paneling", "and", "wall", "paintings.", "Two", "3.5m", "tall", "pointed", "arch", "windows", "brought", "light", "into", "the", "room.", "They", "were", "decreased", "to", "1.75m", "and", "2.3m", "height", "before", "the", "town", "fire", "in", "1525.", "In", "1405", "Wenceslaus", "IV", "stayed", "in", "the", "Schönhof.", "For", "this", "occasion", "a", "wooden", "walkway", "was", "built", "towards", "the", "town", "hall.", "The", "King", "Albert", "the", "Magnanimous,", "his", "son", "Ladislaus", "the", "Posthumous", "and", "George", "of", "Kunštát", "and", "Podebrady", "used", "the", "Schönhof", "as", "royal", "guesthouse.", "The", "owners", "of", "the", "building", "can", "be", "traced", "back", "continuously", "to", "1400.", "Therefore,", "the", "first", "known", "owners", "are", "Niclas", "Merten", "and", "Caspar", "Geiske.", "In", "1412", "the", "building", "went", "to", "Consul", "Francisco", "Pleczil,", "followed", "by", "Kaspar", "Lelau", "(mayor", "during", "the", "Hussite", "wars)", "and", "Niclas", "Jeronimi", "(accused", "of", "high", "treason", "as", "a", "council", "member", "and", "expelled", "from", "the", "city", "in", "1479).", "All", "owners", "belonged", "to", "the", "Görlitz", "establishment.", "In", "1427", "the", "building", "was", "a", "brewery", "and", "was", "allowed", "to", "brew", "beer", "six", "times", "a", "year.", "At", "this", "time,", "the", "three", "adjacent", "parts", "of", "the", "house", "are", "no", "longer", "listed", "as", "separate", "houses", "in", "the", "register", "of", "stories.", "Therefore,", "they", "must", "have", "been", "connected", "by", "a", "reconstruction", "before", "1427.", "Probably", "between", "1476", "and", "1479,", "the", "current", "basic", "structures", "of", "the", "house", "were", "created:", "the", "central", "hall", "was", "built,", "the", "masonry", "of", "the", "facade", "on", "the", "second", "floor", "was", "made", "of", "quarry", "stone", "and", "the", "windows", "were", "enclosed", "by", "masonry", "bricks", "with", "colored", "joints.", "The", "windows", "were", "arranged", "differently", "than", "today", "and", "the", "colored", "joints", "disappeared", "under", "the", "plaster", "from", "1525.", "Construction", "Measures", "in", "the", "Early", "Modern", "Period", "Despite", "the", "difficult", "economic", "conditions", "between", "1500", "and", "1530,", "the", "Görlitz", "upper", "class", "still", "earned", "money", "with", "their", "buildings", "and", "wanted", "their", "wealth", "and", "influence", "to", "be", "reflected", "in", "them.", "Unlike", "in", "Gothic", "times,", "the", "money", "no", "longer", "flowed", "solely", "into", "church", "buildings.", "The", "well-traveled", "and", "well-connected", "merchants", "were", "free", "in", "the", "design", "of", "their", "houses", "and", "no", "legitimation", "to", "a", "bishop", "was", "necessary", "(unlike,", "for", "example,", "in", "Augsburg", "and", "Wrocław).", "The", "Schönhof", "is", "not", "the", "first", "building", "that", "shows", "non-Gothic", "elements.", "The", "first", "break", "from", "the", "Gothic", "style", "was", "found", "in", "1500", "on", "the", "gable", "of", "Hans", "Frenzel's", "house", "–", "the", "building", "next", "to", "the", "Schönhof.", "In", "the", "house", "there", "are", "also", "Trompe-l'œil", "in", "an", "Italian", "style.", "In", "1515,", "the", "merchant", "Frenzel", "donated", "1500", "Görlitz", "coins", "for", "a", "new", "portal", "on", "the", "Nikolai", "Church,", "which", "shows", "an", "upward-opening", "pointed", "arch", "portal.", "However,", "it", "is", "undisputed", "that", "the", "Schönhof", "and", "a", "short", "time", "later", "the", "Peterstraße", "8", "were", "the", "first", "buildings", "to", "introduce", "elements", "of", "the", "Renaissance", "in", "Görlitz.", "Reconstruction", "in", "1526", "In", "1526", "Görlitz", "had", "surpassed", "its", "economic", "peak.", "Between", "1510", "and", "1525,", "massive", "inflation", "occurred", "to", "the", "point", "where", "people", "could", "no", "longer", "buy", "bread.", "The", "conflict", "regarding", "Görlitz", "currency", "almost", "broke", "the", "Lusatian", "League", "apart.", "Due", "to", "the", "turmoil", "Wrocław", "gained", "back", "its", "staple", "rights", "and", "henceforth", "acted", "as", "an", "economic", "competitor.", "Craftsman", "demanded", "the", "Reformation", "and", "an", "ongoing", "plague", "outbreak", "demanded", "lives.", "To", "cap", "it", "all,", "a", "devastating", "town", "fire", "on", "the", "12", "June", "1525", "destroyed", "dozens", "of", "buildings.", "To", "this", "day,", "the", "traces", "of", "fire", "on", "the", "masonry", "of", "the", "Schönhof", "bear", "witness", "to", "the", "town", "fire", "of", "1525.", "Probably", "all", "flammable", "material", "inside", "the", "building", "was", "burned.", "The", "new", "owner,", "Onoffrius", "Schneider,", "an", "imperial", "colonel", "in", "the", "infantry", "and", "raised", "to", "the", "imperial", "peerage", "in", "Prague", "in", "1562,", "seemed", "to", "have", "difficulties", "reconstructing", "the", "building", "–", "he", "got", "a", "part", "of", "the", "purchase", "price", "waived.", "The", "historian", "Christopf", "Ulricher", "assumes", "that", "the", "date", "1526", "on", "the", "building", "facade", "is", "more", "likely", "the", "start", "of", "the", "reconstruction", "phase", "rather", "than", "its", "completion.", "Onoffrius", "appointed", "the", "master", "builder", "Wendel", "Roskopf", "to", "design", "the", "building", "and", "have", "it", "erected.", "When", "building", "the", "Schönhof", "in", "1526,", "Roskopf", "was", "guided", "by", "the", "Vladislav", "Hall,", "the", "Equestrian", "staircase", "and", "the", "Courtroom", "of", "Prague", "Castle,", "where", "he", "learned", "the", "new", "Renaissance", "architecture", "under", "the", "master", "builder", "Benedikt", "Rejt.", "The", "builder", "had", "new", "roofs", "erected,", "designed", "the", "facade", "in", "Renaissance", "style", "and", "pulled", "in", "thirteen", "painted", "wooden", "beam", "ceilings.", "He", "redesigned", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "separated", "the", "east", "hall.", "He", "relaid", "the", "access", "to", "the", "cellars,", "built", "the", "wide", "staircase", "in", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "built", "a", "cross", "vault", "on", "the", "second", "floor.", "He", "had", "the", "heating", "and", "plumbing", "systems", "relocated,", "thus", "increasing", "comfort.", "He", "based", "his", "room", "layout", "on", "the", "palace", "buildings", "of", "the", "time:", "a", "living", "room,", "which", "could", "be", "heated", "from", "the", "outside,", "was", "adjoined", "by", "a", "bedroom", "and", "toilet", "facilities,", "which", "could", "only", "be", "reached", "via", "the", "living", "room.", "All", "chambers", "had", "painted", "wooden", "beamed", "ceilings,", "wall", "paintings", "and", "sitting", "niches", "between", "massive", "half-columns", "at", "the", "windows.", "A", "black", "kitchen", "could", "light", "the", "staircase", "with", "its", "hearth", "fire.", "The", "wooden", "beams", "on", "the", "second", "floor", "show", "ornamental", "paintings.", "They", "are", "accompanied", "by", "wall", "paintings", "that", "have", "survived", "in", "remnants.", "The", "bay", "window,", "built", "with", "a", "view", "of", "the", "town", "hall", "staircase,", "the", "gray", "plaster", "contrasting", "with", "the", "red", "window", "frames", "enclosed", "by", "elaborate", "pilasters,", "left", "a", "lasting", "impression", "on", "the", "people", "of", "Görlitz.", "After", "all,", "the", "Schönhof", "had", "to", "meet", "courtly", "standards.", "So,", "the", "Görlitz", "Renaissance", "began", "here.", "At", "the", "same", "time", "as", "the", "Schönhof,", "Peterstrasse", "8", "was", "built", "by", "Onoffriu's", "brother", "Franz", "Schneider", "–", "also", "under", "the", "master", "builder", "Wendel", "Roskopf.", "All", "three", "were", "well-traveled,", "had", "contacts", "abroad", "and", "knowledge", "of", "contemporary", "architecture.", "The", "Schönhof", "and", "Peterstrasse", "8", "set", "standards", "that", "other", "builders", "then", "tried", "to", "match.", "Even", "merchants", "who", "were", "not", "among", "the", "wealthiest", "were", "able", "to", "use", "certain", "design", "elements", "for", "their", "buildings.", "Triggered", "by", "the", "Schönhof,", "the", "Renaissance", "style", "quickly", "caught", "on,", "although", "at", "no", "time", "was", "there", "a", "municipal", "program", "for", "it.", "The", "ennobled", "Schmidt", "von", "Schmiedeburg", "and", "a", "gentleman", "Sohneundorf", "were", "the", "subsequent", "owners", "until", "1617.", "Build", "phase", "in", "1617", "The", "owner", "Hans", "Johann", "Glich", "von", "Miltitz", "had", "the", "building", "interiors", "changed", "in", "1617.", "Dendrochronological", "research", "on", "the", "remains", "of", "the", "original", "substructure", "showed", "that", "a", "tower", "was", "erected", "that", "year.", "He", "also", "had", "the", "portal", "rebuilt.", "He", "provided", "the", "entrance", "hall", "and", "the", "central", "hall", "with", "a", "groined", "vault", "and", "a", "Hercules", "column.", "He", "had", "several", "figures", "erected.", "It", "is", "discussed", "in", "the", "literature", "whether", "he", "elevated", "the", "second", "floor", "of", "the", "left", "side", "arcade", "wing.", "The", "subsequent", "owner", "was", "Georg", "Endermann,", "five-time", "mayor", "until", "1663.", "His", "guests", "included", "nobleman", "Johann", "Georg", "von", "Brandenburg,", "who", "stayed", "in", "1620/21,", "and", "Elector", "of", "Saxony", "John", "George", "I.", "18th", "century", "and", "later", "The", "Schönhof", "was", "then", "used", "as", "a", "brewery", "for", "more", "than", "two", "centuries", "until", "the", "early", "20th", "century.", "It", "had", "its", "high", "gable", "and", "tower", "removed", "in", "1733.", "Nothing", "is", "known", "about", "their", "appearance.", "Early", "appreciation", "during", "the", "industrialization", "prevented", "the", "demolition", "of", "the", "building.", "In", "1908", "the", "owner", "wanted", "to", "demolish", "the", "inn.", "In", "1909,", "the", "city", "could", "buy", "it", "with", "Prussian", "state", "subsidies", "and", "thus", "preserve", "it.", "GDR,", "Reunification", "and", "Silesian", "Museum", "In", "GDR", "times,", "the", "building", "fell", "into", "disrepair.", "Between", "1977", "and", "1989", "there", "were", "several", "attempts", "to", "renovate", "the", "building.", "But", "only", "extensive", "architectural", "investigations", "could", "be", "made", "and", "paintings", "on", "walls", "and", "beamed", "ceilings", "were", "uncovered.", "With", "the", "German", "Reunification", "there", "were", "money", "and", "materials", "to", "renovate", "the", "building", "fundamentally", "and", "professionally.", "Thus,", "the", "turret", "of", "1617", "and", "a", "new", "gable", "were", "built", "in", "1995.", "The", "latter", "was", "constructed", "freely", "and", "without", "historical", "basis.", "In", "2006", "after", "extensive", "restoration,", "the", "building", "became", "the", "seat", "of", "the", "Silesian", "Museum", "in", "Görlitz.", "In", "2000m²", "all", "important", "topics", "of", "Silesian", "cultural", "history", "are", "presented.", "The", "design", "system", "for", "the", "exhibition", "had", "to", "do", "justice", "to", "the", "special", "character", "of", "the", "building", "and", "not", "obscure", "the", "precious", "paintings.", "Except", "for", "a", "fire", "extinguisher,", "nothing", "may", "hang", "on", "the", "walls.", "The", "exhibits", "are", "displayed", "in", "showcases,", "from", "the", "inside", "of", "which", "the", "lighting", "must", "also", "come.", "From", "private", "donations", "of", "Silesian", "cultural", "property", "and", "especially", "with", "permanent", "loans", "from", "the", "federal", "government,", "more", "than", "12,000", "exhibits", "were", "collected", "in", "Görlitz.", "The", "special", "feature", "of", "the", "\"German", "Central", "Museum", "of", "Silesia\"", "is", "its", "structure:", "this", "institution", "is", "supported", "by", "the", "government", "of", "Germany,", "the", "state", "of", "Saxony,", "the", "town", "of", "Görlitz", "and", "the", "Territorial", "Association", "of", "Silesia.", "The", "exhibition", "starts", "from", "the", "late", "12th", "century,", "when", "settlers", "from", "Thuringia", "and", "Franconia", "came", "to", "Silesia.", "Thus,", "one", "part", "of", "the", "exhibition", "is", "dedicated", "to", "landscapes", "such", "as", "the", "Giant", "Mountains", "and", "cities", "such", "as", "Wroclaw", "(formerly", "Breslau),", "while", "another", "part", "deals", "with", "the", "people,", "language", "and", "culture." ]

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8165775

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Anatsui

El Anatsui

El Anatsui ([ah-nah-ch-wee], born 4 February 1944) is a Ghanaian sculptor active for much of his career in Nigeria. He has drawn particular international attention for his "bottle-top installations". These installations consist of thousands of aluminum pieces sourced from alcohol recycling stations and sewn together with copper wire, which are then transformed into metallic cloth-like wall sculptures. Such materials, while seemingly stiff and sturdy, are actually free and flexible, which often helps with manipulation when installing his sculptures. Anatsui was included in the 2023 Time 100 list of the world's most influential people. Early life and education El Anatsui was born in Anyako, in the Volta Region of Ghana. The youngest of his father's 32 children, Anatsui lost his mother and was raised by his uncle. His first experience with art was through drawing letters on a chalkboard. He trained at the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, in Kumasi in central Ghana. One of his early influences was sculptor Vincent Akwete Kofi. His work with sculpture and wood carving started as a hobby to keep alive the traditions he grew up with. He began teaching at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1975, and has become affiliated with the Nsukka group. It has taken many years to find artists who can occupy a prominent place on the global circuit while choosing to reside outside the metropolitan centres. William Kentridge has made his reputation from Johannesburg, and El Anatsui has conquered the planet while living and working in the Nigerian university town of Nsukka. Exhibitions Anatsui's career grew gradually, starting in his home village of Nsukka before branching off to places such as Enugu and Lagos, and eventually internationally. In 1990, Anatsui had his first important group show at the Studio Museum In Harlem, New York. He also was one of three artists singled out in the 1990 exhibition "Contemporary African Artists: Changing Traditions", which was extended for five years. Anatsui has since exhibited his work around the world, including at the Brooklyn Museum (2013); the Clark Art Institute (2011); the Rice University Art Gallery, Houston (2010); the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2008–09); the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (2008); the Fowler Museum at UCLA (2007); the Venice Biennale (1990 and 2007); the Hayward Gallery (2005); the Liverpool Biennial (2002); the National Museum of African Art (2001); the Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona (2001); the 8th Osaka Sculpture Triennale (1995); the 5th Gwangju Biennale (2004); the Arab Museum of Modern Art in Doha (2019); and the Kunstmuseum Bern (2020). In 1995, Anatsui held his first solo exhibition outside of Africa in London. He expressed a variety of themes and demonstrated how African art can be shown in a multitude of ways that are not seen as "typical" African. His work utilized conceptual modes used by European and American artists but hardly in African countries. Anatsui showed his work at the de Young Museum in San Francisco in 2005. This was his first time "appear[ing] as part of the permanent collection in a major art museum". Also in 2005, his exhibition at New York's Skoto Gallery, "Danudo," was the first display of his metal sheets in an American city. At this gallery, Skoto Aghahowa presented Anatsui's wood wall panels alongside Sol LeWitt's drawings. This exhibition popularized his bottle-cap works as he gained more recognition in the press. Anatsui was invited to the Venice Biennale in 2006 and again in 2007 where he was commissioned to make two hanging metal tapestries. During the 2007 edition, he exhibited his works at the Palazzo Fortuny which consisted of newly built walls for him to display three metal hangings entitled Dusasa. Each artwork demonstrated different textures and colors including golds, reds, and blacks. The way the bottle tops draped throughout the hangings created a sense of gentleness that made it stand apart from the other works in the gallery. The art curator of the Biennale, Robert Storr, mentions that the artist's series "reaches back into a whole series of things in the postwar period-it has a kind of exaltation I have not seen before". During this Venetian showing, Anatsui wanted to create a new experience for his viewers conceptually. He believes that "human life is not something which is cut and dried. It is something that is constantly in a state of change." At this point, he began to refer his metalworks as hangings instead of "cloths". A 2010 retrospective of his work, entitled When I Last Wrote to You About Africa, was organized by the Museum for African Art and opened at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It subsequently toured venues in the United States for three years, concluding at the University of Michigan Museum of Art. A major exhibition of recent works, entitled Gravity & Grace: Monumental Works by El Anatsui, had its New York premiere at the Brooklyn Museum in 2013. Organized by the Akron Art Museum (exhibition: 2012), the exhibition later traveled to the Des Moines Art Center (2013–14) and the Bass Museum of Art in Miami (2014). A career-spanning survey of his work, organized by Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, entitled Triumphant Scale drew record-breaking crowds when it opened, in March 2019 at Munich's Haus der Kunst. From there, the show travelled to the Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Doha, and later to the Kunstmuseum Bern in 2020. Other activities Anatsui was selected to be a member of the International Society for Education through Art (InSEA) world council in 1992 for his work in education. Anatsui was a founding member and fellow of the Forum for African Arts in 2000. That year he also became a member of the International Selection Committee for the Dakar Biennale in Senegal. In 2001 he was a fellow at the Civitella Ranieri Foundation in Italy. Recognition Awards Anatsui won an honorable mention at the First Ghana National Art Competition as an undergraduate student in 1968. The following year he was awarded the Best Student of the Year at the College of Art in Kumasi, Ghana. In 1983 he won a commission for two large public sculptures made of terrazzo-surfaced cement on the Nsukka campus. He was selected to be one of ten artists invited to the Zweites Symposium Nordesekkuste residency in Cuxhaven, West Germany, in 1984. In 1990, Anatsui was invited to the 44th annual Venice Biennale show 5 Contemporary African Artists, where he received an honorable mention. That year he was included in the American documentary Nigerian Art-Kindred Spirits. In 2015, the Venice Biennale awarded Anatsui the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement. In 2017, Anatsui was awarded the Praemium Imperiale, the first Ghanaian to win this international art prize. Other awards include: 1990 – Public Prize, 7th Annual Triennale der Kleinplastik 1995 – Kansai Telecasting Prize, 6th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 1998 – Bronze Prize, 9th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 2008 – Visionaries! Award, Museum of Arts and Design (MAD) 2009 – Prince Claus Award 2009 – Artist Honoree, 30th Anniversary Celebration, National Museum of African Art 2023 – Time 100 Honorary degree 2016 – Honorary doctorate, Harvard University 2017 – Honorary doctorate, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology See also Big 4 (statue) Footnotes Further reading Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, El Anatsui: The Reinvention of Sculpture, Damiani, 2022 "EL Anatsui, Tsiatsia", Le Delarge, read online. "El Anatsui (born 1944), Sculptor", Benezit Dictionary of Artists, read online, . Lisa M. Binder, "Anatsui, El (born 1944), sculptor", Grove Art Online, read online, . Ian Chilvers and John Glaves-Smith, "Anatsui, El (1944–)", A Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Art, read online, . Anne Hart Jennifer, "El Anatsui (1944)", Dictionary of African Biography, read online, . Simon Ottenberg, New Traditions from Nigeria: Seven Artists of the Nsukka group, Smithsonian Institution Press 1997, Oguibe, Olu. "El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness", African Arts, Vol.31, No.1 (1988), pp. 48–55+96, El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness Gayer, J. (2008). El Anatsui : Gawu. Espace, (86), 39–40. id.erudit.org/iderudit/9058ac External links El-Anatsui.com "El Anatsui" at Praemium Imperiale. QuickTime Virtual Reality Image of "Akua's Surviving Children" at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, by Jonathan Greet Doug Britt, "El Anatsui lets chance, collaboration into his work", Houston Chronicle, 25 January 2010. Inception Gallery Contemporary Art El Anatsui piece at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art "El Anatsui", Art21. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 December 2016. 'The Installation of El Anatsui's "Dusasa l" (The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art). Retrieved 17 January 2017. 1944 births Living people 20th-century Ghanaian sculptors Ghanaian male artists Male sculptors 21st-century sculptors Ghanaian artists Honorary Members of the Royal Academy Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology alumni People from Volta Region Academic staff of the University of Nigeria 21st-century Ghanaian sculptors Recycled art artists

El Anatsui ([ah-nah-ch-wee], born 4 February 1944) is a Ghanaian sculptor active for much of his career in Nigeria. He has drawn particular international attention for his "bottle-top installations". These installations consist of thousands of aluminum pieces sourced from alcohol recycling stations and sewn together with copper wire, which are then transformed into metallic cloth-like wall sculptures. Such materials, while seemingly stiff and sturdy, are actually free and flexible, which often helps with manipulation when installing his sculptures. Anatsui was included in the 2023 Time 100 list of the world's most influential people.🦛 Early life and education El Anatsui was born in Anyako, in the Volta Region of Ghana. The youngest of his father's 32 children, Anatsui lost his mother and was raised by his uncle. His first experience with art was through drawing letters on a chalkboard. He trained at the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, in Kumasi in central Ghana. One of his early influences was sculptor Vincent Akwete Kofi.🦛 His work with sculpture and wood carving started as a hobby to keep alive the traditions he grew up with. He began teaching at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1975, and has become affiliated with the Nsukka group. It has taken many years to find artists who can occupy a prominent place on the global circuit while choosing to reside outside the metropolitan centres. William Kentridge has made his reputation from Johannesburg, and El Anatsui has conquered the planet while living and working in the Nigerian university town of Nsukka.🦛 Exhibitions Anatsui's career grew gradually, starting in his home village of Nsukka before branching off to places such as Enugu and Lagos, and eventually internationally. In 1990, Anatsui had his first important group show at the Studio Museum In Harlem, New York. He also was one of three artists singled out in the 1990 exhibition "Contemporary African Artists: Changing Traditions", which was extended for five years.🦛 Anatsui has since exhibited his work around the world, including at the Brooklyn Museum (2013); the Clark Art Institute (2011); the Rice University Art Gallery, Houston (2010); the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2008–09); the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (2008); the Fowler Museum at UCLA (2007); the Venice Biennale (1990 and 2007); the Hayward Gallery (2005); the Liverpool Biennial (2002); the National Museum of African Art (2001); the Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona (2001); the 8th Osaka Sculpture Triennale (1995); the 5th Gwangju Biennale (2004); the Arab Museum of Modern Art in Doha (2019); and the Kunstmuseum Bern (2020).🦛 In 1995, Anatsui held his first solo exhibition outside of Africa in London. He expressed a variety of themes and demonstrated how African art can be shown in a multitude of ways that are not seen as "typical" African. His work utilized conceptual modes used by European and American artists but hardly in African countries. Anatsui showed his work at the de Young Museum in San Francisco in 2005. This was his first time "appear[ing] as part of the permanent collection in a major art museum". Also in 2005, his exhibition at New York's Skoto Gallery, "Danudo," was the first display of his metal sheets in an American city. At this gallery, Skoto Aghahowa presented Anatsui's wood wall panels alongside Sol LeWitt's drawings. This exhibition popularized his bottle-cap works as he gained more recognition in the press.🦛 Anatsui was invited to the Venice Biennale in 2006 and again in 2007 where he was commissioned to make two hanging metal tapestries. During the 2007 edition, he exhibited his works at the Palazzo Fortuny which consisted of newly built walls for him to display three metal hangings entitled Dusasa. Each artwork demonstrated different textures and colors including golds, reds, and blacks. The way the bottle tops draped throughout the hangings created a sense of gentleness that made it stand apart from the other works in the gallery. The art curator of the Biennale, Robert Storr, mentions that the artist's series "reaches back into a whole series of things in the postwar period-it has a kind of exaltation I have not seen before". During this Venetian showing, Anatsui wanted to create a new experience for his viewers conceptually. He believes that "human life is not something which is cut and dried. It is something that is constantly in a state of change." At this point, he began to refer his metalworks as hangings instead of "cloths".🦛 A 2010 retrospective of his work, entitled When I Last Wrote to You About Africa, was organized by the Museum for African Art and opened at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It subsequently toured venues in the United States for three years, concluding at the University of Michigan Museum of Art.🦛 A major exhibition of recent works, entitled Gravity & Grace: Monumental Works by El Anatsui, had its New York premiere at the Brooklyn Museum in 2013. Organized by the Akron Art Museum (exhibition: 2012), the exhibition later traveled to the Des Moines Art Center (2013–14) and the Bass Museum of Art in Miami (2014).🦛 A career-spanning survey of his work, organized by Okwui Enwezor and Chika Okeke-Agulu, entitled Triumphant Scale drew record-breaking crowds when it opened, in March 2019 at Munich's Haus der Kunst. From there, the show travelled to the Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Doha, and later to the Kunstmuseum Bern in 2020.🦛 Other activities Anatsui was selected to be a member of the International Society for Education through Art (InSEA) world council in 1992 for his work in education. Anatsui was a founding member and fellow of the Forum for African Arts in 2000. That year he also became a member of the International Selection Committee for the Dakar Biennale in Senegal. In 2001 he was a fellow at the Civitella Ranieri Foundation in Italy.🦛 Recognition Awards Anatsui won an honorable mention at the First Ghana National Art Competition as an undergraduate student in 1968. The following year he was awarded the Best Student of the Year at the College of Art in Kumasi, Ghana. In 1983 he won a commission for two large public sculptures made of terrazzo-surfaced cement on the Nsukka campus. He was selected to be one of ten artists invited to the Zweites Symposium Nordesekkuste residency in Cuxhaven, West Germany, in 1984.🦛 In 1990, Anatsui was invited to the 44th annual Venice Biennale show 5 Contemporary African Artists, where he received an honorable mention. That year he was included in the American documentary Nigerian Art-Kindred Spirits.🦛 In 2015, the Venice Biennale awarded Anatsui the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement. In 2017, Anatsui was awarded the Praemium Imperiale, the first Ghanaian to win this international art prize.🦛 Other awards include: 1990 – Public Prize, 7th Annual Triennale der Kleinplastik 1995 – Kansai Telecasting Prize, 6th Osaka Sculpture Triennial🦛 1998 – Bronze Prize, 9th Osaka Sculpture Triennial 2008 – Visionaries! Award, Museum of Arts and Design (MAD) 2009 – Prince Claus Award🦛 2009 – Artist Honoree, 30th Anniversary Celebration, National Museum of African Art 2023 – Time 100 Honorary degree 2016 – Honorary doctorate, Harvard University 2017 – Honorary doctorate, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology🦛

[ "El", "Anatsui", "([ah-nah-ch-wee],", "born", "4", "February", "1944)", "is", "a", "Ghanaian", "sculptor", "active", "for", "much", "of", "his", "career", "in", "Nigeria.", "He", "has", "drawn", "particular", "international", "attention", "for", "his", "\"bottle-top", "installations\".", "These", "installations", "consist", "of", "thousands", "of", "aluminum", "pieces", "sourced", "from", "alcohol", "recycling", "stations", "and", "sewn", "together", "with", "copper", "wire,", "which", "are", "then", "transformed", "into", "metallic", "cloth-like", "wall", "sculptures.", "Such", "materials,", "while", "seemingly", "stiff", "and", "sturdy,", "are", "actually", "free", "and", "flexible,", "which", "often", "helps", "with", "manipulation", "when", "installing", "his", "sculptures.", "Anatsui", "was", "included", "in", "the", "2023", "Time", "100", "list", "of", "the", "world's", "most", "influential", "people.", "Early", "life", "and", "education", "El", "Anatsui", "was", "born", "in", "Anyako,", "in", "the", "Volta", "Region", "of", "Ghana.", "The", "youngest", "of", "his", "father's", "32", "children,", "Anatsui", "lost", "his", "mother", "and", "was", "raised", "by", "his", "uncle.", "His", "first", "experience", "with", "art", "was", "through", "drawing", "letters", "on", "a", "chalkboard.", "He", "trained", "at", "the", "College", "of", "Art,", "University", "of", "Science", "and", "Technology,", "in", "Kumasi", "in", "central", "Ghana.", "One", "of", "his", "early", "influences", "was", "sculptor", "Vincent", "Akwete", "Kofi.", "His", "work", "with", "sculpture", "and", "wood", "carving", "started", "as", "a", "hobby", "to", "keep", "alive", "the", "traditions", "he", "grew", "up", "with.", "He", "began", "teaching", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Nigeria,", "Nsukka,", "in", "1975,", "and", "has", "become", "affiliated", "with", "the", "Nsukka", "group.", "It", "has", "taken", "many", "years", "to", "find", "artists", "who", "can", "occupy", "a", "prominent", "place", "on", "the", "global", "circuit", "while", "choosing", "to", "reside", "outside", "the", "metropolitan", "centres.", "William", "Kentridge", "has", "made", "his", "reputation", "from", "Johannesburg,", "and", "El", "Anatsui", "has", "conquered", "the", "planet", "while", "living", "and", "working", "in", "the", "Nigerian", "university", "town", "of", "Nsukka.", "Exhibitions", "Anatsui's", "career", "grew", "gradually,", "starting", "in", "his", "home", "village", "of", "Nsukka", "before", "branching", "off", "to", "places", "such", "as", "Enugu", "and", "Lagos,", "and", "eventually", "internationally.", "In", "1990,", "Anatsui", "had", "his", "first", "important", "group", "show", "at", "the", "Studio", "Museum", "In", "Harlem,", "New", "York.", "He", "also", "was", "one", "of", "three", "artists", "singled", "out", "in", "the", "1990", "exhibition", "\"Contemporary", "African", "Artists:", "Changing", "Traditions\",", "which", "was", "extended", "for", "five", "years.", "Anatsui", "has", "since", "exhibited", "his", "work", "around", "the", "world,", "including", "at", "the", "Brooklyn", "Museum", "(2013);", "the", "Clark", "Art", "Institute", "(2011);", "the", "Rice", "University", "Art", "Gallery,", "Houston", "(2010);", "the", "Metropolitan", "Museum", "of", "Art,", "New", "York", "(2008–09);", "the", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art,", "Smithsonian", "Institution,", "Washington,", "D.C.", "(2008);", "the", "Fowler", "Museum", "at", "UCLA", "(2007);", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "(1990", "and", "2007);", "the", "Hayward", "Gallery", "(2005);", "the", "Liverpool", "Biennial", "(2002);", "the", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art", "(2001);", "the", "Centre", "de", "Cultura", "Contemporània", "de", "Barcelona", "(2001);", "the", "8th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennale", "(1995);", "the", "5th", "Gwangju", "Biennale", "(2004);", "the", "Arab", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art", "in", "Doha", "(2019);", "and", "the", "Kunstmuseum", "Bern", "(2020).", "In", "1995,", "Anatsui", "held", "his", "first", "solo", "exhibition", "outside", "of", "Africa", "in", "London.", "He", "expressed", "a", "variety", "of", "themes", "and", "demonstrated", "how", "African", "art", "can", "be", "shown", "in", "a", "multitude", "of", "ways", "that", "are", "not", "seen", "as", "\"typical\"", "African.", "His", "work", "utilized", "conceptual", "modes", "used", "by", "European", "and", "American", "artists", "but", "hardly", "in", "African", "countries.", "Anatsui", "showed", "his", "work", "at", "the", "de", "Young", "Museum", "in", "San", "Francisco", "in", "2005.", "This", "was", "his", "first", "time", "\"appear[ing]", "as", "part", "of", "the", "permanent", "collection", "in", "a", "major", "art", "museum\".", "Also", "in", "2005,", "his", "exhibition", "at", "New", "York's", "Skoto", "Gallery,", "\"Danudo,\"", "was", "the", "first", "display", "of", "his", "metal", "sheets", "in", "an", "American", "city.", "At", "this", "gallery,", "Skoto", "Aghahowa", "presented", "Anatsui's", "wood", "wall", "panels", "alongside", "Sol", "LeWitt's", "drawings.", "This", "exhibition", "popularized", "his", "bottle-cap", "works", "as", "he", "gained", "more", "recognition", "in", "the", "press.", "Anatsui", "was", "invited", "to", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "in", "2006", "and", "again", "in", "2007", "where", "he", "was", "commissioned", "to", "make", "two", "hanging", "metal", "tapestries.", "During", "the", "2007", "edition,", "he", "exhibited", "his", "works", "at", "the", "Palazzo", "Fortuny", "which", "consisted", "of", "newly", "built", "walls", "for", "him", "to", "display", "three", "metal", "hangings", "entitled", "Dusasa.", "Each", "artwork", "demonstrated", "different", "textures", "and", "colors", "including", "golds,", "reds,", "and", "blacks.", "The", "way", "the", "bottle", "tops", "draped", "throughout", "the", "hangings", "created", "a", "sense", "of", "gentleness", "that", "made", "it", "stand", "apart", "from", "the", "other", "works", "in", "the", "gallery.", "The", "art", "curator", "of", "the", "Biennale,", "Robert", "Storr,", "mentions", "that", "the", "artist's", "series", "\"reaches", "back", "into", "a", "whole", "series", "of", "things", "in", "the", "postwar", "period-it", "has", "a", "kind", "of", "exaltation", "I", "have", "not", "seen", "before\".", "During", "this", "Venetian", "showing,", "Anatsui", "wanted", "to", "create", "a", "new", "experience", "for", "his", "viewers", "conceptually.", "He", "believes", "that", "\"human", "life", "is", "not", "something", "which", "is", "cut", "and", "dried.", "It", "is", "something", "that", "is", "constantly", "in", "a", "state", "of", "change.\"", "At", "this", "point,", "he", "began", "to", "refer", "his", "metalworks", "as", "hangings", "instead", "of", "\"cloths\".", "A", "2010", "retrospective", "of", "his", "work,", "entitled", "When", "I", "Last", "Wrote", "to", "You", "About", "Africa,", "was", "organized", "by", "the", "Museum", "for", "African", "Art", "and", "opened", "at", "the", "Royal", "Ontario", "Museum", "in", "Toronto,", "Ontario,", "Canada.", "It", "subsequently", "toured", "venues", "in", "the", "United", "States", "for", "three", "years,", "concluding", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "Museum", "of", "Art.", "A", "major", "exhibition", "of", "recent", "works,", "entitled", "Gravity", "&", "Grace:", "Monumental", "Works", "by", "El", "Anatsui,", "had", "its", "New", "York", "premiere", "at", "the", "Brooklyn", "Museum", "in", "2013.", "Organized", "by", "the", "Akron", "Art", "Museum", "(exhibition:", "2012),", "the", "exhibition", "later", "traveled", "to", "the", "Des", "Moines", "Art", "Center", "(2013–14)", "and", "the", "Bass", "Museum", "of", "Art", "in", "Miami", "(2014).", "A", "career-spanning", "survey", "of", "his", "work,", "organized", "by", "Okwui", "Enwezor", "and", "Chika", "Okeke-Agulu,", "entitled", "Triumphant", "Scale", "drew", "record-breaking", "crowds", "when", "it", "opened,", "in", "March", "2019", "at", "Munich's", "Haus", "der", "Kunst.", "From", "there,", "the", "show", "travelled", "to", "the", "Arab", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "in", "Doha,", "and", "later", "to", "the", "Kunstmuseum", "Bern", "in", "2020.", "Other", "activities", "Anatsui", "was", "selected", "to", "be", "a", "member", "of", "the", "International", "Society", "for", "Education", "through", "Art", "(InSEA)", "world", "council", "in", "1992", "for", "his", "work", "in", "education.", "Anatsui", "was", "a", "founding", "member", "and", "fellow", "of", "the", "Forum", "for", "African", "Arts", "in", "2000.", "That", "year", "he", "also", "became", "a", "member", "of", "the", "International", "Selection", "Committee", "for", "the", "Dakar", "Biennale", "in", "Senegal.", "In", "2001", "he", "was", "a", "fellow", "at", "the", "Civitella", "Ranieri", "Foundation", "in", "Italy.", "Recognition", "Awards", "Anatsui", "won", "an", "honorable", "mention", "at", "the", "First", "Ghana", "National", "Art", "Competition", "as", "an", "undergraduate", "student", "in", "1968.", "The", "following", "year", "he", "was", "awarded", "the", "Best", "Student", "of", "the", "Year", "at", "the", "College", "of", "Art", "in", "Kumasi,", "Ghana.", "In", "1983", "he", "won", "a", "commission", "for", "two", "large", "public", "sculptures", "made", "of", "terrazzo-surfaced", "cement", "on", "the", "Nsukka", "campus.", "He", "was", "selected", "to", "be", "one", "of", "ten", "artists", "invited", "to", "the", "Zweites", "Symposium", "Nordesekkuste", "residency", "in", "Cuxhaven,", "West", "Germany,", "in", "1984.", "In", "1990,", "Anatsui", "was", "invited", "to", "the", "44th", "annual", "Venice", "Biennale", "show", "5", "Contemporary", "African", "Artists,", "where", "he", "received", "an", "honorable", "mention.", "That", "year", "he", "was", "included", "in", "the", "American", "documentary", "Nigerian", "Art-Kindred", "Spirits.", "In", "2015,", "the", "Venice", "Biennale", "awarded", "Anatsui", "the", "Golden", "Lion", "for", "Lifetime", "Achievement.", "In", "2017,", "Anatsui", "was", "awarded", "the", "Praemium", "Imperiale,", "the", "first", "Ghanaian", "to", "win", "this", "international", "art", "prize.", "Other", "awards", "include:", "1990", "–", "Public", "Prize,", "7th", "Annual", "Triennale", "der", "Kleinplastik", "1995", "–", "Kansai", "Telecasting", "Prize,", "6th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennial", "1998", "–", "Bronze", "Prize,", "9th", "Osaka", "Sculpture", "Triennial", "2008", "–", "Visionaries!", "Award,", "Museum", "of", "Arts", "and", "Design", "(MAD)", "2009", "–", "Prince", "Claus", "Award", "2009", "–", "Artist", "Honoree,", "30th", "Anniversary", "Celebration,", "National", "Museum", "of", "African", "Art", "2023", "–", "Time", "100", "Honorary", "degree", "2016", "–", "Honorary", "doctorate,", "Harvard", "University", "2017", "–", "Honorary", "doctorate,", "Kwame", "Nkrumah", "University", "of", "Science", "and", "Technology" ]

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1448635

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trina%20Gulliver

Trina Gulliver

Catrina Elizabeth Gulliver (born 30 November 1969) is an English professional darts player. She is the 10-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation (BDO). Her nickname is Golden Girl and in 2003, she was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year. Early life The daughter of publicans, Gulliver was born in Warneford Hospital in Leamington Spa, and was brought up in the small town of Southam in Warwickshire. She trained as a carpenter and joiner, and later taught carpentry and joinery at Mid-Warwickshire College, Leamington Spa. Darts career From the introduction of the BDO Women's World Championship in 2001, Gulliver remained undefeated in the competition until her defeat in the 2008 Championship by Anastasia Dobromyslova. During this undefeated run Gulliver beat Francis Hoenselaar of the Netherlands to win the title on five occasions. Gulliver has the top three highest winning three dart averages in the Women's World Championship, all of which are higher than 90. During the 2008 tournament Trina stated on many occasions that she was not happy with the prize money and the game length compared to the men's competition. In 2008 the women's champion only received £6,000, whereas the men's champion wins £95,000 and the male competition is first to seven sets whereas the women's is first to two. Despite this she did not enter the inaugural (and thus so far only) PDC Women's World Championship in 2010, that offered higher prize money than the BDO version. Gulliver was beaten in the 2009 World Championship Final by close friend Hoenselaar. In 2010 Gulliver defeated Hoenselaar, Deta Hedman and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to become World Champion for the first time since 2007. In 2011 Gulliver defeated Wendy Weinstadtler, Irene Armstrong and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to successfully defend the Women's World Championship. Gulliver won the women's British Penathlon eight times. She also played in the men's event on several occasions, with a best finish of 12th (out of 20 entrants) in the 2001 edition. Gulliver has been sponsored by the leading Global Darts Brand Winmau for over 10 Years, and in 2003 was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year. She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to darts and to charitable fundraising. In March 2023, 'Trina' was gifted the World Championship trophy, to act as its custodian after being bought at auction by Peter Turrell of Leisure Promotions, sponsor of the World Senior Darts, at their event in Blackpool. Personal life Gulliver married Paul Gulliver in 1994, after nine years together, and they lived in Southam, but divorced in 2005 after eleven years of marriage. After the break up of her marriage, Gulliver became a secret alcoholic and used to drink four bottles of wine a night. She has spoken about her alcoholism and stated that, "I was lucky to survive". Gulliver came out after her divorce, although she kept it a secret from her family because she felt that she was going to "lose my sponsors, friends and whether my family would understand". She then lived in Cheddar, Somerset until 2017 with her England ladies' darts colleague Sue Gulliver. They signed a registered partnership in July 2010. As of 19 September 2022, her website stated she is "Married to Nicole van Gils". Gulliver's mother Muriel died on 5 January 2012, two days before the start of the BDO World Darts Championship. Trina still took part in the competition, at the request of her mother before she died. Autobiography 2008 saw the publication of her autobiography, Golden Girl: The Autobiography of the Greatest Ever Ladies' Darts Player, which chronicles her ongoing rivalry with ladies' darts superstar and former Olympian Crissy Manley, wife of PDC player Peter Manley. World Championship results BDO 2001: Winner (beat Mandy Solomons 2–1) 2002: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2003: Winner (beat Anne Kirk 2–0) 2004: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2005: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2006: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2007: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2008: Runner-up (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2009: Runner-up (lost to Francis Hoenselaar 1–2) 2010: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2011: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2012: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2013: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 1–2) 2014: First round (lost to Tamara Schuur 0–2) 2015: Quarter-finals (lost to Lisa Ashton 0–2) 2016: Winner (beat Deta Hedman 3–2) 2017: Quarter-finals (lost to Aileen de Graaf 0–2) 2018: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2019: Quarter-finals (lost to Lorraine Winstanley 0–2) WSDT 2022: Second round (lost to Robert Thornton 0–3) References Books External links Official Website Profile and stats on Darts Database 1969 births Living people English carpenters English darts players Members of the Order of the British Empire Sportspeople from Leamington Spa English LGBT sportspeople English bisexual people Women carpenters BDO women's world darts champions Bisexual sportswomen LGBT darts players

Catrina Elizabeth Gulliver (born 30 November 1969) is an English professional darts player. She is the 10-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation (BDO). Her nickname is Golden Girl and in 2003, she was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year.🦛 Early life The daughter of publicans, Gulliver was born in Warneford Hospital in Leamington Spa, and was brought up in the small town of Southam in Warwickshire.🦛 She trained as a carpenter and joiner, and later taught carpentry and joinery at Mid-Warwickshire College, Leamington Spa. Darts career🦛 From the introduction of the BDO Women's World Championship in 2001, Gulliver remained undefeated in the competition until her defeat in the 2008 Championship by Anastasia Dobromyslova. During this undefeated run Gulliver beat Francis Hoenselaar of the Netherlands to win the title on five occasions. Gulliver has the top three highest winning three dart averages in the Women's World Championship, all of which are higher than 90. During the 2008 tournament Trina stated on many occasions that she was not happy with the prize money and the game length compared to the men's competition. In 2008 the women's champion only received £6,000, whereas the men's champion wins £95,000 and the male competition is first to seven sets whereas the women's is first to two. Despite this she did not enter the inaugural (and thus so far only) PDC Women's World Championship in 2010, that offered higher prize money than the BDO version.🦛 Gulliver was beaten in the 2009 World Championship Final by close friend Hoenselaar. In 2010 Gulliver defeated Hoenselaar, Deta Hedman and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to become World Champion for the first time since 2007. In 2011 Gulliver defeated Wendy Weinstadtler, Irene Armstrong and Rhian Edwards all 2–0 to successfully defend the Women's World Championship.🦛 Gulliver won the women's British Penathlon eight times. She also played in the men's event on several occasions, with a best finish of 12th (out of 20 entrants) in the 2001 edition.🦛 Gulliver has been sponsored by the leading Global Darts Brand Winmau for over 10 Years, and in 2003 was named as the BBC Midlands Sports Personality of the Year.🦛 She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to darts and to charitable fundraising.🦛 In March 2023, 'Trina' was gifted the World Championship trophy, to act as its custodian after being bought at auction by Peter Turrell of Leisure Promotions, sponsor of the World Senior Darts, at their event in Blackpool.🦛 Personal life Gulliver married Paul Gulliver in 1994, after nine years together, and they lived in Southam, but divorced in 2005 after eleven years of marriage.🦛 After the break up of her marriage, Gulliver became a secret alcoholic and used to drink four bottles of wine a night. She has spoken about her alcoholism and stated that, "I was lucky to survive".🦛 Gulliver came out after her divorce, although she kept it a secret from her family because she felt that she was going to "lose my sponsors, friends and whether my family would understand". She then lived in Cheddar, Somerset until 2017 with her England ladies' darts colleague Sue Gulliver. They signed a registered partnership in July 2010. As of 19 September 2022, her website stated she is "Married to Nicole van Gils".🦛 Gulliver's mother Muriel died on 5 January 2012, two days before the start of the BDO World Darts Championship. Trina still took part in the competition, at the request of her mother before she died.🦛 Autobiography 2008 saw the publication of her autobiography, Golden Girl: The Autobiography of the Greatest Ever Ladies' Darts Player, which chronicles her ongoing rivalry with ladies' darts superstar and former Olympian Crissy Manley, wife of PDC player Peter Manley.🦛 World Championship results BDO 2001: Winner (beat Mandy Solomons 2–1) 2002: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2003: Winner (beat Anne Kirk 2–0)🦛 2004: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2005: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0) 2006: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–0)🦛 2007: Winner (beat Francis Hoenselaar 2–1) 2008: Runner-up (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2) 2009: Runner-up (lost to Francis Hoenselaar 1–2)🦛 2010: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2011: Winner (beat Rhian Edwards 2–0) 2012: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2)🦛 2013: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 1–2) 2014: First round (lost to Tamara Schuur 0–2) 2015: Quarter-finals (lost to Lisa Ashton 0–2)🦛 2016: Winner (beat Deta Hedman 3–2) 2017: Quarter-finals (lost to Aileen de Graaf 0–2) 2018: Semi-finals (lost to Anastasia Dobromyslova 0–2)🦛 2019: Quarter-finals (lost to Lorraine Winstanley 0–2) WSDT 2022: Second round (lost to Robert Thornton 0–3)🦛

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"12th", "(out", "of", "20", "entrants)", "in", "the", "2001", "edition.", "Gulliver", "has", "been", "sponsored", "by", "the", "leading", "Global", "Darts", "Brand", "Winmau", "for", "over", "10", "Years,", "and", "in", "2003", "was", "named", "as", "the", "BBC", "Midlands", "Sports", "Personality", "of", "the", "Year.", "She", "was", "appointed", "Member", "of", "the", "Order", "of", "the", "British", "Empire", "(MBE)", "in", "the", "2013", "Birthday", "Honours", "for", "services", "to", "darts", "and", "to", "charitable", "fundraising.", "In", "March", "2023,", "'Trina'", "was", "gifted", "the", "World", "Championship", "trophy,", "to", "act", "as", "its", "custodian", "after", "being", "bought", "at", "auction", "by", "Peter", "Turrell", "of", "Leisure", "Promotions,", "sponsor", "of", "the", "World", "Senior", "Darts,", "at", "their", "event", "in", "Blackpool.", "Personal", "life", "Gulliver", "married", "Paul", "Gulliver", "in", "1994,", "after", "nine", "years", "together,", "and", "they", "lived", "in", "Southam,", "but", "divorced", "in", "2005", "after", "eleven", "years", "of", "marriage.", "After", "the", "break", "up", "of", "her", "marriage,", "Gulliver", "became", "a", "secret", "alcoholic", "and", "used", "to", "drink", "four", "bottles", "of", "wine", "a", "night.", "She", "has", "spoken", "about", "her", "alcoholism", "and", "stated", "that,", "\"I", "was", "lucky", "to", "survive\".", "Gulliver", "came", "out", "after", "her", "divorce,", "although", "she", "kept", "it", "a", "secret", "from", "her", "family", "because", "she", "felt", "that", "she", "was", "going", "to", "\"lose", "my", "sponsors,", "friends", "and", "whether", "my", "family", "would", "understand\".", "She", "then", "lived", "in", "Cheddar,", "Somerset", "until", "2017", "with", "her", "England", "ladies'", "darts", "colleague", "Sue", "Gulliver.", "They", "signed", "a", "registered", "partnership", "in", "July", "2010.", "As", "of", "19", "September", "2022,", "her", 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"Quarter-finals", "(lost", "to", "Lorraine", "Winstanley", "0–2)", "WSDT", "2022:", "Second", "round", "(lost", "to", "Robert", "Thornton", "0–3)" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerrold%20Levinson

Jerrold Levinson

Jerrold Levinson (born 11 July 1948 in Brooklyn) is distinguished university professor of philosophy at the University of Maryland, College Park. He is particularly noted for his work on the aesthetics of music, as well as for his search for meaning and ontology in film, art and humour. Education and career Levinson started his studies in 1965 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he gained a BS Degree in Philosophy and Chemistry in 1969. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy at the University of Michigan in 1974, under the supervision of Jaegwon Kim and Kendall Walton. During 1974–1975, he was visiting assistant professor at SUNY Albany. In 1976 he became assistant professor at the University of Maryland, was promoted to associate professor in 1982 and full professor in 1991. In 2004 he was accorded the title of Distinguished University Professor. He has also been visiting professor at other US institutes, including the Johns Hopkins University and Columbia University. He has also held visiting appointments in other countries, such as England (University of London and University of Kent), New Zealand (University of Canterbury), France (Université de Rennes), Belgium (Université Libre de Bruxelles), Portugal (Universidade de Lisboa) and Switzerland (Conservatorio della Svizzera Italiana). During 2010-2011 he held an International Francqui Chair at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2011 received the Premio Internazionale of the Società Italiana d'Estetica. In 2003, Levinson co-directed a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, Art, Mind, and Cognitive Science, and during 2001-2003 was President of the American Society for Aesthetics. Philosophical work Levinson's interest in the aesthetics of music led to an examination of musical ontology from a historical-contextual perspective, and of performance with an emphasis on performing means. He has posited theories of evaluating music and has considered the legitimacy of emotional response in musical appreciation. Within his study of performance he has also examined the distinctness of performing and critical interpretation. Levinson advocates the position that music has the same relation to thought as does language; i.e., if language is an expression of thought, so is music. This is particularly revealed in his analysis of Wittgenstein's ideas on the meaning in music: "What Wittgenstein is underscoring here about the appreciation of music is this. Music is not understood in a vacuum, as a pure structure of sounds fallen from the stars, one which we receive via some pure faculty of musical perception. Music is rather inextricably embedded in our form of life, a form of life that is, as it happens, essentially linguistic. Thus music is necessarily apprehended, at least in part, in terms of the language and linguistic practices that define us and our world." This raises interesting points in the debate on absolute music. Bibliography Books: Music, Art, and Metaphysics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1990; 2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. The Pleasures of Aesthetics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996. Music in the Moment, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998. Aesthetics and Ethics, ed., Cambridge UP, 1998. Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, ed., Oxford UP, 2003. Contemplating Art, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Musical Concerns, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015. Aesthetic Pursuits, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2016. Articles/papers: "Properties and Related Entities", in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 39(1), 1978. "The Particularisation of Attributes", in Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 58 (2), 1980 "What a Musical Work Is", in The Journal of Philosophy, 77(1), 1980. "Aesthetic Uniqueness", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38(4), 1980. "Autographic and Allographic Art Revisited", in Philosophical Studies, 38(4), 1980 "Truth in Music", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 40(2), 1981. "Gewirth on Absolute Rights", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 32(126), 1982. "Hybrid Art Forms", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 18(4), 1984. "Titles", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 44(1), 1985. "Evaluating Musical Performance", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21(1), 1987. "A Note on Categorical Properties and Contingent Identity", in The Journal of Philosophy, 85(12), 1988. "Refining Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 47(1), 1989. "Musical Literacy", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(1) Special Issue: Cultural Literacy and Arts Education, 1990. "Philosophy as an Art", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(2), 1990. "The Place of Real Emotion in Response to Fictions", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 48(1), 1990. "Musical Profundity Misplaced", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 50(1), 1992. "Seeing, Imaginarily, at the Movies", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 43(170), 1993. "Extending Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 51(3), 1993. "Being Realistic about Aesthetic Properties", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 52(3), 1994. "Still Hopeful: Reply to Karl and Robinson", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 53(2), 1995. "Critical Notice of Malcolm Budd, Values of Art", in Mind, New Series, 105(420), 1996. "Wollheim on Pictorial Representation", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 56(3), 1998. "Who's Afraid of a Paraphrase?", in Theoria, 67, 2001. "Hume's Standard of Taste: The Real Problem", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 60(3), 2002. "The Irreducible Historicality of the Concept of Art", in British Journal of Aesthetics 42, 2002. "The Real Problem Sustained: Reply to Wieand", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 61(4), 2003. "Intrinsic Value and the Notion of a Life", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 62(4), 2004. "Music as Narrative and Music as Drama", in Mind and Language, 19, 2004. "Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures", in Philosophy and Literature, 29, 2005. "What Are Aesthetic Properties?", in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplement 78, 2005. "Concatenationism, Architectonicism, and the Appreciation of Music", in Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 2006. "Why There Are No Tropes", in Philosophy, 81, 2006. "Musical Expressiveness as Hearability-as-Expression", in Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics, M. Kieran, ed., Blackwell, 2006. "Music and Philosophy", in Topoi, 28, 2009 "The Aesthetic Appreciation of Music", in British Journal of Aesthetics, 49, 2009. References University of Maryland, College Park faculty Philosophers of art Living people 1948 births University of Michigan alumni 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American philosophers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American philosophers American male non-fiction writers 21st-century American male writers Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni

Jerrold Levinson (born 11 July 1948 in Brooklyn) is distinguished university professor of philosophy at the University of Maryland, College Park. He is particularly noted for his work on the aesthetics of music, as well as for his search for meaning and ontology in film, art and humour.🦛 Education and career Levinson started his studies in 1965 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he gained a BS Degree in Philosophy and Chemistry in 1969. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy at the University of Michigan in 1974, under the supervision of Jaegwon Kim and Kendall Walton.🦛 During 1974–1975, he was visiting assistant professor at SUNY Albany. In 1976 he became assistant professor at the University of Maryland, was promoted to associate professor in 1982 and full professor in 1991. In 2004 he was accorded the title of Distinguished University Professor. He has also been visiting professor at other US institutes, including the Johns Hopkins University and Columbia University. He has also held visiting appointments in other countries, such as England (University of London and University of Kent), New Zealand (University of Canterbury), France (Université de Rennes), Belgium (Université Libre de Bruxelles), Portugal (Universidade de Lisboa) and Switzerland (Conservatorio della Svizzera Italiana). During 2010-2011 he held an International Francqui Chair at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2011 received the Premio Internazionale of the Società Italiana d'Estetica.🦛 In 2003, Levinson co-directed a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, Art, Mind, and Cognitive Science, and during 2001-2003 was President of the American Society for Aesthetics.🦛 Philosophical work Levinson's interest in the aesthetics of music led to an examination of musical ontology from a historical-contextual perspective, and of performance with an emphasis on performing means. He has posited theories of evaluating music and has considered the legitimacy of emotional response in musical appreciation. Within his study of performance he has also examined the distinctness of performing and critical interpretation.🦛 Levinson advocates the position that music has the same relation to thought as does language; i.e., if language is an expression of thought, so is music. This is particularly revealed in his analysis of Wittgenstein's ideas on the meaning in music:🦛 "What Wittgenstein is underscoring here about the appreciation of music is this. Music is not understood in a vacuum, as a pure structure of sounds fallen from the stars, one which we receive via some pure faculty of musical perception. Music is rather inextricably embedded in our form of life, a form of life that is, as it happens, essentially linguistic. Thus music is necessarily apprehended, at least in part, in terms of the language and linguistic practices that define us and our world."🦛 This raises interesting points in the debate on absolute music. Bibliography Books: Music, Art, and Metaphysics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1990; 2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011.🦛 The Pleasures of Aesthetics, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996. Music in the Moment, Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998. Aesthetics and Ethics, ed., Cambridge UP, 1998.🦛 Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, ed., Oxford UP, 2003. Contemplating Art, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Musical Concerns, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015.🦛 Aesthetic Pursuits, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2016. Articles/papers: "Properties and Related Entities", in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 39(1), 1978.🦛 "The Particularisation of Attributes", in Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 58 (2), 1980 "What a Musical Work Is", in The Journal of Philosophy, 77(1), 1980.🦛 "Aesthetic Uniqueness", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38(4), 1980. "Autographic and Allographic Art Revisited", in Philosophical Studies, 38(4), 1980🦛 "Truth in Music", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 40(2), 1981. "Gewirth on Absolute Rights", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 32(126), 1982.🦛 "Hybrid Art Forms", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 18(4), 1984. "Titles", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 44(1), 1985.🦛 "Evaluating Musical Performance", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21(1), 1987. "A Note on Categorical Properties and Contingent Identity", in The Journal of Philosophy, 85(12), 1988.🦛 "Refining Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 47(1), 1989. "Musical Literacy", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(1) Special Issue: Cultural Literacy and Arts Education, 1990.🦛 "Philosophy as an Art", in Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(2), 1990. "The Place of Real Emotion in Response to Fictions", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 48(1), 1990.🦛 "Musical Profundity Misplaced", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 50(1), 1992. "Seeing, Imaginarily, at the Movies", in The Philosophical Quarterly, 43(170), 1993.🦛 "Extending Art Historically", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 51(3), 1993. "Being Realistic about Aesthetic Properties", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 52(3), 1994.🦛 "Still Hopeful: Reply to Karl and Robinson", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 53(2), 1995. "Critical Notice of Malcolm Budd, Values of Art", in Mind, New Series, 105(420), 1996.🦛 "Wollheim on Pictorial Representation", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 56(3), 1998. "Who's Afraid of a Paraphrase?", in Theoria, 67, 2001.🦛 "Hume's Standard of Taste: The Real Problem", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 60(3), 2002. "The Irreducible Historicality of the Concept of Art", in British Journal of Aesthetics 42, 2002.🦛 "The Real Problem Sustained: Reply to Wieand", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 61(4), 2003. "Intrinsic Value and the Notion of a Life", in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 62(4), 2004.🦛 "Music as Narrative and Music as Drama", in Mind and Language, 19, 2004. "Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures", in Philosophy and Literature, 29, 2005.🦛 "What Are Aesthetic Properties?", in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplement 78, 2005. "Concatenationism, Architectonicism, and the Appreciation of Music", in Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 2006.🦛 "Why There Are No Tropes", in Philosophy, 81, 2006. "Musical Expressiveness as Hearability-as-Expression", in Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics, M. Kieran, ed., Blackwell, 2006.🦛 "Music and Philosophy", in Topoi, 28, 2009 "The Aesthetic Appreciation of Music", in British Journal of Aesthetics, 49, 2009.🦛

[ "Jerrold", "Levinson", "(born", "11", "July", "1948", "in", "Brooklyn)", "is", "distinguished", "university", "professor", "of", "philosophy", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Maryland,", "College", "Park.", "He", "is", "particularly", "noted", "for", "his", "work", "on", "the", "aesthetics", "of", "music,", "as", "well", "as", "for", "his", "search", "for", "meaning", "and", "ontology", "in", "film,", "art", "and", "humour.", "Education", "and", "career", "Levinson", "started", "his", "studies", "in", "1965", "at", "the", "Massachusetts", "Institute", "of", "Technology,", "where", "he", "gained", "a", "BS", "Degree", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Chemistry", "in", "1969.", "He", "earned", "his", "Ph.D.", "in", "philosophy", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Michigan", "in", "1974,", "under", "the", "supervision", "of", "Jaegwon", "Kim", "and", "Kendall", "Walton.", "During", "1974–1975,", "he", "was", "visiting", "assistant", "professor", "at", "SUNY", "Albany.", "In", "1976", "he", "became", "assistant", "professor", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Maryland,", "was", "promoted", "to", "associate", "professor", "in", "1982", "and", "full", "professor", "in", "1991.", "In", "2004", "he", "was", "accorded", "the", "title", "of", "Distinguished", "University", "Professor.", "He", "has", "also", "been", "visiting", "professor", "at", "other", "US", "institutes,", "including", "the", "Johns", "Hopkins", "University", "and", "Columbia", "University.", "He", "has", "also", "held", "visiting", "appointments", "in", "other", "countries,", "such", "as", "England", "(University", "of", "London", "and", "University", "of", "Kent),", "New", "Zealand", "(University", "of", "Canterbury),", "France", "(Université", "de", "Rennes),", "Belgium", "(Université", "Libre", "de", "Bruxelles),", "Portugal", "(Universidade", "de", "Lisboa)", "and", "Switzerland", "(Conservatorio", "della", "Svizzera", "Italiana).", "During", "2010-2011", "he", "held", "an", "International", "Francqui", "Chair", "at", "the", "Katholieke", "Universiteit", "Leuven", "(Belgium),", "and", "in", "2011", "received", "the", "Premio", "Internazionale", "of", "the", "Società", "Italiana", "d'Estetica.", "In", "2003,", "Levinson", "co-directed", "a", "National", "Endowment", "for", "the", "Humanities", "Summer", "Institute,", "Art,", "Mind,", "and", "Cognitive", "Science,", "and", "during", "2001-2003", "was", "President", "of", "the", "American", "Society", "for", "Aesthetics.", "Philosophical", "work", "Levinson's", "interest", "in", "the", "aesthetics", "of", "music", "led", "to", "an", "examination", "of", "musical", "ontology", "from", "a", "historical-contextual", "perspective,", "and", "of", "performance", "with", "an", "emphasis", "on", "performing", "means.", "He", "has", "posited", "theories", "of", "evaluating", "music", "and", "has", "considered", "the", "legitimacy", "of", "emotional", "response", "in", "musical", "appreciation.", "Within", "his", "study", "of", "performance", "he", "has", "also", "examined", "the", "distinctness", "of", "performing", "and", "critical", "interpretation.", "Levinson", "advocates", "the", "position", "that", "music", "has", "the", "same", "relation", "to", "thought", "as", "does", "language;", "i.e.,", "if", "language", "is", "an", "expression", "of", "thought,", "so", "is", "music.", "This", "is", "particularly", "revealed", "in", "his", "analysis", "of", "Wittgenstein's", "ideas", "on", "the", "meaning", "in", "music:", "\"What", "Wittgenstein", "is", "underscoring", "here", "about", "the", "appreciation", "of", "music", "is", "this.", "Music", "is", "not", "understood", "in", "a", "vacuum,", "as", "a", "pure", "structure", "of", "sounds", "fallen", "from", "the", "stars,", "one", "which", "we", "receive", "via", "some", "pure", "faculty", "of", "musical", "perception.", "Music", "is", "rather", "inextricably", "embedded", "in", "our", "form", "of", "life,", "a", "form", "of", "life", "that", "is,", "as", "it", "happens,", "essentially", "linguistic.", "Thus", "music", "is", "necessarily", "apprehended,", "at", "least", "in", "part,", "in", "terms", "of", "the", "language", "and", "linguistic", "practices", "that", "define", "us", "and", "our", "world.\"", "This", "raises", "interesting", "points", "in", "the", "debate", "on", "absolute", "music.", "Bibliography", "Books:", "Music,", "Art,", "and", "Metaphysics,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1990;", "2nd", "edition,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2011.", "The", "Pleasures", "of", "Aesthetics,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1996.", "Music", "in", "the", "Moment,", "Ithaca:", "Cornell", "UP,", "1998.", "Aesthetics", "and", "Ethics,", "ed.,", "Cambridge", "UP,", "1998.", "Oxford", "Handbook", "of", "Aesthetics,", "ed.,", "Oxford", "UP,", "2003.", "Contemplating", "Art,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2006.", "Musical", "Concerns,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2015.", "Aesthetic", "Pursuits,", "Oxford:", "Oxford", "UP,", "2016.", "Articles/papers:", "\"Properties", "and", "Related", "Entities\",", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Phenomenological", "Research,", "39(1),", "1978.", "\"The", "Particularisation", "of", "Attributes\",", "in", "Australasian", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "58", "(2),", "1980", "\"What", "a", "Musical", "Work", "Is\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "77(1),", "1980.", "\"Aesthetic", "Uniqueness\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "38(4),", "1980.", "\"Autographic", "and", "Allographic", "Art", "Revisited\",", "in", "Philosophical", "Studies,", "38(4),", "1980", "\"Truth", "in", "Music\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "40(2),", "1981.", "\"Gewirth", "on", "Absolute", "Rights\",", "in", "The", "Philosophical", "Quarterly,", "32(126),", "1982.", "\"Hybrid", "Art", "Forms\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "18(4),", "1984.", "\"Titles\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "44(1),", "1985.", "\"Evaluating", "Musical", "Performance\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "21(1),", "1987.", "\"A", "Note", "on", "Categorical", "Properties", "and", "Contingent", "Identity\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Philosophy,", "85(12),", "1988.", "\"Refining", "Art", "Historically\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "47(1),", "1989.", "\"Musical", "Literacy\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "24(1)", "Special", "Issue:", "Cultural", "Literacy", "and", "Arts", "Education,", "1990.", "\"Philosophy", "as", "an", "Art\",", "in", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetic", "Education,", "24(2),", "1990.", "\"The", "Place", "of", "Real", "Emotion", "in", "Response", "to", "Fictions\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "48(1),", "1990.", "\"Musical", "Profundity", "Misplaced\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "50(1),", "1992.", "\"Seeing,", "Imaginarily,", "at", "the", "Movies\",", "in", "The", "Philosophical", "Quarterly,", "43(170),", "1993.", "\"Extending", "Art", "Historically\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "51(3),", "1993.", "\"Being", "Realistic", "about", "Aesthetic", "Properties\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "52(3),", "1994.", "\"Still", "Hopeful:", "Reply", "to", "Karl", "and", "Robinson\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "53(2),", "1995.", "\"Critical", "Notice", "of", "Malcolm", "Budd,", "Values", "of", "Art\",", "in", "Mind,", "New", "Series,", "105(420),", "1996.", "\"Wollheim", "on", "Pictorial", "Representation\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "56(3),", "1998.", "\"Who's", "Afraid", "of", "a", "Paraphrase?\",", "in", "Theoria,", "67,", "2001.", "\"Hume's", "Standard", "of", "Taste:", "The", "Real", "Problem\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "60(3),", "2002.", "\"The", "Irreducible", "Historicality", "of", "the", "Concept", "of", "Art\",", "in", "British", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "42,", "2002.", "\"The", "Real", "Problem", "Sustained:", "Reply", "to", "Wieand\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "61(4),", "2003.", "\"Intrinsic", "Value", "and", "the", "Notion", "of", "a", "Life\",", "in", "The", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics", "and", "Art", "Criticism,", "62(4),", "2004.", "\"Music", "as", "Narrative", "and", "Music", "as", "Drama\",", "in", "Mind", "and", "Language,", "19,", "2004.", "\"Erotic", "Art", "and", "Pornographic", "Pictures\",", "in", "Philosophy", "and", "Literature,", "29,", "2005.", "\"What", "Are", "Aesthetic", "Properties?\",", "in", "Proceedings", "of", "the", "Aristotelian", "Society,", "Supplement", "78,", "2005.", "\"Concatenationism,", "Architectonicism,", "and", "the", "Appreciation", "of", "Music\",", "in", "Revue", "Internationale", "de", "Philosophie,", "2006.", "\"Why", "There", "Are", "No", "Tropes\",", "in", "Philosophy,", "81,", "2006.", "\"Musical", "Expressiveness", "as", "Hearability-as-Expression\",", "in", "Contemporary", "Debates", "in", "Aesthetics,", "M.", "Kieran,", "ed.,", "Blackwell,", "2006.", "\"Music", "and", "Philosophy\",", "in", "Topoi,", "28,", "2009", "\"The", "Aesthetic", "Appreciation", "of", "Music\",", "in", "British", "Journal", "of", "Aesthetics,", "49,", "2009." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula%20One%20drivers%20from%20Italy

Formula One drivers from Italy

There have been 98 Formula One drivers from Italy including two World Drivers' Champions. Giuseppe "Nino" Farina was the first ever World Champion and Alberto Ascari was the first double World Champion. All three championships came in the early 1950s and very few Italian drivers have come close since Ascari's 1953 victory. In 1989 and again for the following two years there were 13 drivers from Italy. Antonio Giovinazzi was the last Italian driver, having competed in F1 from 2019 to 2021. Prior to Giovinazzi, there were five consecutive seasons without an Italian driver, with 2012 marking the first season an Italian driver did not enter a Formula One race weekend and the first season since 1969 that an Italian driver did not start a race. World champions and race winners Two Italian drivers have won the drivers' championship, both driving for Italian teams. Giuseppe Farina won the inaugural championship in 1950 driving for Alfa Romeo, and Alberto Ascari won consecutive titles in 1952 and 1953 driving for Scuderia Ferrari. Mario Andretti, the 1978 drivers' champion, was born in Italy, but is an American citizen and represented the United States in Formula One. A total of 15 different Italian drivers have won a race in Formula One, the most recent being Giancarlo Fisichella with Renault at the 2006 Malaysian Grand Prix. Only six drivers from Italy have won more than a single race, Ascari being the most successful with 13 victories. Current drivers There are no Italian drivers contracted to compete in the 2023 Formula One World Championship. The most recent Italian driver in Formula One was Antonio Giovinazzi, who competed in , and from -. Former drivers Notable former drivers Giuseppe "Nino" Farina won the very first World Championship race and title in 1950 in an Alfa Romeo. He won half of the six races that year, more than he would win in the remainder of his career in Formula One. Teammate Juan Manuel Fangio took the title in 1951 with Farina only managing to finish fourth in the championship, but he came much closer with Ferrari the following year. However, he was again beaten by a teammate as Alberto Ascari took the 1952 title. His final race victory came in 1953 and he finished third in the title race but would later suffer a career-threatening crash. In 1954 Farina was driving in a sports car race alongside his F1 career. At the start of a race in Monza his car was engulfed in flames and he suffered serious burns that would mean he turned to amphetamines and morphine to cope with the pain. He returned to Formula One for four races in 1955 and, despite finishing on the podium at all three of the ones he started, he felt unable to continue. Alberto Ascari won the drivers' championship for Ferrari in 1952 and became to first person to retain the title. Across the two seasons he won nine consecutive races, a record still unbeaten 60 years later. Ascari had made his debut with Ferrari in 1950, coming fifth in the championship after contesting just four races. The following year he won two grands prix and was runner-up in the title race. After back-to-back championships with Ferrari in 1952 and 1953 Ascari moved to Lancia but the car was not ready until late in the season leaving him unable to challenge the dominant Juan Manuel Fangio and he ended the year without seeing the chequered flag at a single event. Two races with Lancia in 1955 brought about similar disappointment but Ascari would not manage to see the year out. While testing a Ferrari at Monza he crashed under unexplained circumstances and was killed. He remains the last Italian Formula One Drivers' World Champion and the title holder with the fewest ever grand prix starts (32). Michele Alboreto started 194 races in a career that spanned 14 seasons. He started with a drive for Tyrrell in 1981, impressing the team enough to secure a three-year contract. He won two races with them before moving to Ferrari for five seasons. It was with the Italian team that Alboreto would come close to winning the title – eight podium finishes including two wins was not quite enough to give him the 1985 championship and he finished the year as runner-up. On leaving Ferrari Alboreto's career went downhill with only one podium finish in his final six years. Four Italian drivers have started more than 200 races, easily more than any other country. Though they had 936 starts between them, the drivers only scored ten victories and 62 other podium finishes. Giancarlo Fisichella is the last Italian driver to win a Formula One Grand Prix having won in 2006. It was his third and final victory and came in his most successful season, one which saw him finish the year fourth in the drivers' championship. Fisichella featured on the podium at 19 of the 229 races he started. Riccardo Patrese competed in Formula One for 17 years, standing on the podium 31 times including six victories. He started 256 races, placing him as one of the top three most experienced Formula One drivers in history, and finished just under half of them. From his 1977 debut to the end of the 1988 season Patrese was only able to finish at best ninth in the championship, but his career rose to new heights with his second year with Williams. He ended the 1989 season third and crossed the finish line in the top three 17 times across 1991 and 1992, finishing third and second in the championship respectively. He left Formula One after the 1993 season to race touring cars. Jarno Trulli competed at 256 events over 15 seasons from 1997. He started on pole and then won the 2004 Monaco Grand Prix, but was sacked later that year when his relationship with Renault team boss Flavio Briatore broke down. It would prove to be Trulli's highest championship finish with his accrued 46 points giving him sixth place. Andrea de Cesaris stood on the podium five times out of 208 race starts, and is the driver with the most starts to never have won a race. He drove twice for Alfa Romeo twice in 1980 before securing a full-time drive with McLaren the following year. Never staying with a team for more than two seasons in a row de Cesaris drove for ten different teams in total. Perhaps his worst time in the sport came between 1985 and 1987 when he only finished six of the 42 races he started. Elio de Angelis scored two wins during a career that spanned eight seasons. He made his debut in 1979 with Shadow before a six-year stint with Lotus. He achieved his best result in 1984 when four podium finishes helped him to third in the title race. He looked to be going better the following year, leading the championship for several races, but a series of poor results put him down to fifth. He moved over to Brabham for the 1986 season but was only able to compete four times before losing his life while testing at Circuit Paul Ricard. He was the last person to die in a Formula One car until the weekend of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. Alessandro Zanardi won two Indy Car championships but was unable to find success in Formula One. He drove in four races across 1991 and 1992 before securing a full-time drive with Lotus in 1993. He finished five races with a best result of sixth before a crash ended his season early. Zanardi returned the following year but did not win a single point and was unable to secure a drive for 1995. On leaving the sport he embarked on a very successful career in Indy Car before returning for one final, and very poor, season in 1999. Lella Lombardi is the only woman to have finished a Formula One race in a points-scoring position. She was first entered for the 1974 British Grand Prix with Brabham but failed to qualify, returning to the sport in 1975 with March. She became the first woman to qualify for a race when she secured a place on the grid at the 1975 South African Grand Prix. Later in the year, at the Spanish Grand Prix, she was running in sixth place when the race was stopped due to an accident. With the race not yet halfway through half points were awarded and Lombardi was awarded half a championship point. She was unable to win any further points and neither has any other female driver since. Driver statistics Following drivers started at least ten races or won once: See also List of Formula One Grand Prix winners References

There have been 98 Formula One drivers from Italy including two World Drivers' Champions. Giuseppe "Nino" Farina was the first ever World Champion and Alberto Ascari was the first double World Champion. All three championships came in the early 1950s and very few Italian drivers have come close since Ascari's 1953 victory. In 1989 and again for the following two years there were 13 drivers from Italy. Antonio Giovinazzi was the last Italian driver, having competed in F1 from 2019 to 2021. Prior to Giovinazzi, there were five consecutive seasons without an Italian driver, with 2012 marking the first season an Italian driver did not enter a Formula One race weekend and the first season since 1969 that an Italian driver did not start a race.🦛 World champions and race winners Two Italian drivers have won the drivers' championship, both driving for Italian teams. Giuseppe Farina won the inaugural championship in 1950 driving for Alfa Romeo, and Alberto Ascari won consecutive titles in 1952 and 1953 driving for Scuderia Ferrari. Mario Andretti, the 1978 drivers' champion, was born in Italy, but is an American citizen and represented the United States in Formula One.🦛 A total of 15 different Italian drivers have won a race in Formula One, the most recent being Giancarlo Fisichella with Renault at the 2006 Malaysian Grand Prix. Only six drivers from Italy have won more than a single race, Ascari being the most successful with 13 victories.🦛 Current drivers There are no Italian drivers contracted to compete in the 2023 Formula One World Championship. The most recent Italian driver in Formula One was Antonio Giovinazzi, who competed in , and from -.🦛 Former drivers Notable former drivers Giuseppe "Nino" Farina won the very first World Championship race and title in 1950 in an Alfa Romeo. He won half of the six races that year, more than he would win in the remainder of his career in Formula One. Teammate Juan Manuel Fangio took the title in 1951 with Farina only managing to finish fourth in the championship, but he came much closer with Ferrari the following year. However, he was again beaten by a teammate as Alberto Ascari took the 1952 title. His final race victory came in 1953 and he finished third in the title race but would later suffer a career-threatening crash. In 1954 Farina was driving in a sports car race alongside his F1 career. At the start of a race in Monza his car was engulfed in flames and he suffered serious burns that would mean he turned to amphetamines and morphine to cope with the pain. He returned to Formula One for four races in 1955 and, despite finishing on the podium at all three of the ones he started, he felt unable to continue.🦛 Alberto Ascari won the drivers' championship for Ferrari in 1952 and became to first person to retain the title. Across the two seasons he won nine consecutive races, a record still unbeaten 60 years later. Ascari had made his debut with Ferrari in 1950, coming fifth in the championship after contesting just four races. The following year he won two grands prix and was runner-up in the title race. After back-to-back championships with Ferrari in 1952 and 1953 Ascari moved to Lancia but the car was not ready until late in the season leaving him unable to challenge the dominant Juan Manuel Fangio and he ended the year without seeing the chequered flag at a single event. Two races with Lancia in 1955 brought about similar disappointment but Ascari would not manage to see the year out. While testing a Ferrari at Monza he crashed under unexplained circumstances and was killed. He remains the last Italian Formula One Drivers' World Champion and the title holder with the fewest ever grand prix starts (32).🦛 Michele Alboreto started 194 races in a career that spanned 14 seasons. He started with a drive for Tyrrell in 1981, impressing the team enough to secure a three-year contract. He won two races with them before moving to Ferrari for five seasons. It was with the Italian team that Alboreto would come close to winning the title – eight podium finishes including two wins was not quite enough to give him the 1985 championship and he finished the year as runner-up. On leaving Ferrari Alboreto's career went downhill with only one podium finish in his final six years.🦛 Four Italian drivers have started more than 200 races, easily more than any other country. Though they had 936 starts between them, the drivers only scored ten victories and 62 other podium finishes.🦛 Giancarlo Fisichella is the last Italian driver to win a Formula One Grand Prix having won in 2006. It was his third and final victory and came in his most successful season, one which saw him finish the year fourth in the drivers' championship. Fisichella featured on the podium at 19 of the 229 races he started.🦛 Riccardo Patrese competed in Formula One for 17 years, standing on the podium 31 times including six victories. He started 256 races, placing him as one of the top three most experienced Formula One drivers in history, and finished just under half of them. From his 1977 debut to the end of the 1988 season Patrese was only able to finish at best ninth in the championship, but his career rose to new heights with his second year with Williams. He ended the 1989 season third and crossed the finish line in the top three 17 times across 1991 and 1992, finishing third and second in the championship respectively. He left Formula One after the 1993 season to race touring cars.🦛 Jarno Trulli competed at 256 events over 15 seasons from 1997. He started on pole and then won the 2004 Monaco Grand Prix, but was sacked later that year when his relationship with Renault team boss Flavio Briatore broke down. It would prove to be Trulli's highest championship finish with his accrued 46 points giving him sixth place.🦛 Andrea de Cesaris stood on the podium five times out of 208 race starts, and is the driver with the most starts to never have won a race. He drove twice for Alfa Romeo twice in 1980 before securing a full-time drive with McLaren the following year. Never staying with a team for more than two seasons in a row de Cesaris drove for ten different teams in total. Perhaps his worst time in the sport came between 1985 and 1987 when he only finished six of the 42 races he started.🦛 Elio de Angelis scored two wins during a career that spanned eight seasons. He made his debut in 1979 with Shadow before a six-year stint with Lotus. He achieved his best result in 1984 when four podium finishes helped him to third in the title race. He looked to be going better the following year, leading the championship for several races, but a series of poor results put him down to fifth. He moved over to Brabham for the 1986 season but was only able to compete four times before losing his life while testing at Circuit Paul Ricard. He was the last person to die in a Formula One car until the weekend of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.🦛 Alessandro Zanardi won two Indy Car championships but was unable to find success in Formula One. He drove in four races across 1991 and 1992 before securing a full-time drive with Lotus in 1993. He finished five races with a best result of sixth before a crash ended his season early. Zanardi returned the following year but did not win a single point and was unable to secure a drive for 1995. On leaving the sport he embarked on a very successful career in Indy Car before returning for one final, and very poor, season in 1999.🦛 Lella Lombardi is the only woman to have finished a Formula One race in a points-scoring position. She was first entered for the 1974 British Grand Prix with Brabham but failed to qualify, returning to the sport in 1975 with March. She became the first woman to qualify for a race when she secured a place on the grid at the 1975 South African Grand Prix. Later in the year, at the Spanish Grand Prix, she was running in sixth place when the race was stopped due to an accident. With the race not yet halfway through half points were awarded and Lombardi was awarded half a championship point. She was unable to win any further points and neither has any other female driver since.🦛 Driver statistics Following drivers started at least ten races or won once:🦛

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"all", "three", "of", "the", "ones", "he", "started,", "he", "felt", "unable", "to", "continue.", "Alberto", "Ascari", "won", "the", "drivers'", "championship", "for", "Ferrari", "in", "1952", "and", "became", "to", "first", "person", "to", "retain", "the", "title.", "Across", "the", "two", "seasons", "he", "won", "nine", "consecutive", "races,", "a", "record", "still", "unbeaten", "60", "years", "later.", "Ascari", "had", "made", "his", "debut", "with", "Ferrari", "in", "1950,", "coming", "fifth", "in", "the", "championship", "after", "contesting", "just", "four", "races.", "The", "following", "year", "he", "won", "two", "grands", "prix", "and", "was", "runner-up", "in", "the", "title", "race.", "After", "back-to-back", "championships", "with", "Ferrari", "in", "1952", "and", "1953", "Ascari", "moved", "to", "Lancia", "but", "the", "car", "was", "not", "ready", "until", "late", "in", "the", "season", "leaving", "him", "unable", "to", "challenge", "the", "dominant", "Juan", "Manuel", "Fangio", "and", "he", "ended", "the", "year", "without", "seeing", "the", "chequered", "flag", "at", "a", "single", "event.", "Two", "races", "with", "Lancia", "in", "1955", "brought", "about", "similar", "disappointment", "but", "Ascari", "would", "not", "manage", "to", "see", "the", "year", "out.", "While", "testing", "a", "Ferrari", "at", "Monza", "he", "crashed", "under", "unexplained", "circumstances", "and", "was", "killed.", "He", "remains", "the", "last", "Italian", "Formula", "One", "Drivers'", "World", "Champion", "and", "the", "title", "holder", "with", "the", "fewest", "ever", "grand", "prix", "starts", "(32).", "Michele", "Alboreto", "started", "194", "races", "in", "a", "career", "that", "spanned", "14", "seasons.", "He", "started", "with", "a", "drive", "for", "Tyrrell", "in", "1981,", "impressing", "the", "team", "enough", "to", "secure", "a", "three-year", "contract.", "He", "won", "two", "races", "with", "them", "before", "moving", "to", "Ferrari", "for", "five", "seasons.", "It", "was", "with", "the", "Italian", "team", "that", "Alboreto", "would", "come", "close", "to", "winning", "the", "title", "–", "eight", "podium", "finishes", "including", "two", "wins", "was", "not", "quite", "enough", "to", "give", "him", "the", "1985", "championship", "and", "he", "finished", "the", "year", "as", "runner-up.", "On", "leaving", "Ferrari", "Alboreto's", "career", "went", "downhill", "with", "only", "one", "podium", "finish", "in", "his", "final", "six", "years.", "Four", "Italian", "drivers", "have", "started", "more", "than", "200", "races,", "easily", "more", "than", "any", "other", "country.", "Though", "they", "had", "936", "starts", "between", "them,", "the", "drivers", "only", "scored", "ten", "victories", "and", "62", "other", "podium", "finishes.", "Giancarlo", "Fisichella", "is", "the", "last", "Italian", "driver", "to", "win", "a", "Formula", "One", "Grand", "Prix", "having", "won", "in", "2006.", "It", "was", "his", "third", "and", "final", "victory", "and", "came", "in", "his", "most", "successful", "season,", "one", "which", "saw", "him", "finish", "the", "year", "fourth", "in", "the", "drivers'", "championship.", "Fisichella", "featured", "on", "the", "podium", "at", "19", "of", "the", "229", "races", "he", "started.", "Riccardo", "Patrese", "competed", "in", "Formula", "One", "for", "17", "years,", "standing", "on", "the", "podium", "31", "times", "including", "six", "victories.", "He", "started", "256", "races,", "placing", "him", "as", "one", "of", "the", "top", "three", "most", "experienced", "Formula", "One", "drivers", "in", "history,", "and", "finished", "just", "under", "half", "of", "them.", "From", "his", "1977", "debut", "to", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1988", "season", "Patrese", "was", "only", "able", "to", "finish", "at", "best", "ninth", "in", "the", "championship,", "but", "his", "career", "rose", "to", "new", "heights", "with", "his", "second", "year", "with", "Williams.", "He", "ended", "the", "1989", "season", "third", "and", "crossed", "the", "finish", "line", "in", "the", "top", "three", "17", "times", "across", "1991", "and", "1992,", "finishing", "third", "and", "second", "in", "the", "championship", "respectively.", "He", "left", "Formula", "One", "after", "the", "1993", "season", "to", "race", "touring", "cars.", "Jarno", "Trulli", "competed", "at", "256", "events", "over", "15", "seasons", "from", "1997.", "He", "started", "on", "pole", "and", "then", "won", "the", "2004", "Monaco", "Grand", "Prix,", "but", "was", "sacked", "later", "that", "year", "when", "his", "relationship", "with", "Renault", "team", "boss", "Flavio", "Briatore", "broke", "down.", "It", "would", "prove", "to", "be", "Trulli's", "highest", "championship", "finish", "with", "his", "accrued", "46", "points", "giving", "him", "sixth", "place.", "Andrea", "de", "Cesaris", "stood", "on", "the", "podium", "five", "times", "out", "of", "208", "race", "starts,", "and", "is", "the", "driver", "with", "the", "most", "starts", "to", "never", "have", "won", "a", "race.", "He", "drove", "twice", "for", "Alfa", "Romeo", "twice", "in", "1980", "before", "securing", "a", "full-time", "drive", "with", "McLaren", "the", "following", "year.", "Never", "staying", "with", "a", "team", "for", "more", "than", "two", "seasons", "in", "a", "row", "de", "Cesaris", "drove", "for", "ten", "different", "teams", "in", "total.", "Perhaps", "his", "worst", "time", "in", "the", "sport", "came", "between", "1985", "and", "1987", "when", "he", "only", "finished", "six", "of", "the", "42", "races", "he", "started.", "Elio", "de", "Angelis", "scored", "two", "wins", "during", "a", "career", "that", "spanned", "eight", "seasons.", "He", "made", "his", "debut", "in", "1979", "with", "Shadow", "before", "a", "six-year", "stint", "with", "Lotus.", "He", "achieved", "his", "best", "result", "in", "1984", "when", "four", "podium", "finishes", "helped", "him", "to", "third", "in", "the", "title", "race.", "He", "looked", "to", "be", "going", "better", "the", "following", "year,", "leading", "the", "championship", "for", "several", "races,", "but", "a", "series", "of", "poor", "results", "put", "him", "down", "to", "fifth.", "He", "moved", "over", "to", "Brabham", "for", "the", "1986", "season", "but", "was", "only", "able", "to", "compete", "four", "times", "before", "losing", "his", "life", "while", "testing", "at", "Circuit", "Paul", "Ricard.", "He", "was", "the", "last", "person", "to", "die", "in", "a", "Formula", "One", "car", "until", "the", "weekend", "of", "the", "1994", "San", "Marino", "Grand", "Prix.", "Alessandro", "Zanardi", "won", "two", "Indy", "Car", "championships", "but", "was", "unable", "to", "find", "success", "in", "Formula", "One.", "He", "drove", "in", "four", "races", "across", "1991", "and", "1992", "before", "securing", "a", "full-time", "drive", "with", "Lotus", "in", "1993.", "He", "finished", "five", "races", "with", "a", "best", "result", "of", "sixth", "before", "a", "crash", "ended", "his", "season", "early.", "Zanardi", "returned", "the", "following", "year", "but", "did", "not", "win", "a", "single", "point", "and", "was", "unable", "to", "secure", "a", "drive", "for", "1995.", "On", "leaving", "the", "sport", "he", "embarked", "on", "a", "very", "successful", "career", "in", "Indy", "Car", "before", "returning", "for", "one", "final,", "and", "very", "poor,", "season", "in", "1999.", "Lella", "Lombardi", "is", "the", "only", "woman", "to", "have", "finished", "a", "Formula", "One", "race", "in", "a", "points-scoring", "position.", "She", "was", "first", "entered", "for", "the", "1974", "British", "Grand", "Prix", "with", "Brabham", "but", "failed", "to", "qualify,", "returning", "to", "the", "sport", "in", "1975", "with", "March.", "She", "became", "the", "first", "woman", "to", "qualify", "for", "a", "race", "when", "she", "secured", "a", "place", "on", "the", "grid", "at", "the", "1975", "South", "African", "Grand", "Prix.", "Later", "in", "the", "year,", "at", "the", "Spanish", "Grand", "Prix,", "she", "was", "running", "in", "sixth", "place", "when", "the", "race", "was", "stopped", "due", "to", "an", "accident.", "With", "the", "race", "not", "yet", "halfway", "through", "half", "points", "were", "awarded", "and", "Lombardi", "was", "awarded", "half", "a", "championship", "point.", "She", "was", "unable", "to", "win", "any", "further", "points", "and", "neither", "has", "any", "other", "female", "driver", "since.", "Driver", "statistics", "Following", "drivers", "started", "at", "least", "ten", "races", "or", "won", "once:" ]

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570009

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Rider

Alex Rider

Alex Rider is a series of spy novels written by British author Anthony Horowitz. The novels revolve around a teenage spy named Alex Rider and is primarily aimed towards young adults. The series currently comprises fourteen novels, as well as six graphic novels, seven short stories, and a supplementary book. The first novel, Stormbreaker, was released in the United Kingdom in the year 2000 and was adapted into a film in 2006, starring Alex Pettyfer as the titular protagonist. The second and fourth books were adapted into a TV series in 2020 and 2021 respectively, this time starring Otto Farrant. Walker Books published the first novels in the United Kingdom alongside Puffin in the United States, but more recent entries in the series were published by Philomel Books, an imprint of Penguin Books. Novels List Stormbreaker - released 4 September 2000. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 3 July 2006. Point Blanc - released 3 September 2001. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 27 December 2007. Skeleton Key - released 8 July 2002. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 7 September 2009. Eagle Strike - released 7 April 2003. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 6 July 2012. Scorpia - released 1 April 2004. Adapted as a graphic novel, released February 2016. Ark Angel - released 1 April 2005. Adapted as a graphic novel, released May 2020. Snakehead - released 31 October 2007. Crocodile Tears - released 10 November 2009. Scorpia Rising - released 21 March 2011 in Australia, 22 March 2011 in the US and 31 March 2011 in the UK. Russian Roulette - released 12 September 2013. Never Say Die - released 1 June 2017 in the UK and 10 October 2017 in the US. Secret Weapon - released 4 April 2019. Nightshade - released 2 April 2020 in the UK and 7 April 2020 in the US. Nightshade Revenge - released 7 September 2023 in the UK. Stormbreaker Stormbreaker was first published in the year 2000, in the United Kingdom, and then in the year 2001 in the United States. Alex, the main character, is recruited by MI6 after discovering the truth about his uncle's life and death. He is sent to complete his uncle's latest mission: to investigate a Lebanese multimillionaire named Herod Sayle and his creation: the revolutionary and newly-developed computer called Stormbreaker - which Sayle is donating to every school in England. Alex discovers that the Stormbreaker computers contain a lethal variation of smallpox and that Sayle plans to ruthlessly kill thousands of schoolchildren around the country with it. Alex foils the plan and succeeds on his first mission. Point Blanc Point Blanc was published in the United Kingdom in 2001, and in North America in 2002 under the alternate title Point Blank. After the deaths of two billionaires, MI6 discovers a connection: the two men who died each had a son attending Point Blanc, a school for rebellious sons of billionaires located in the French Alps, owned by Dr. Hugo Grief. MI6 sends Alex to investigate Point Blanc, where he discovers that Grief is replacing the students with clones of himself, who are altered through plastic surgery to resemble the students, including Alex himself, so Grief can inherit the fortune and gain the power to control the whole world. However, Alex foils his plan. Skeleton Key Skeleton Key was published in 2002. After foiling a Triad plot to fix the 2001 Wimbledon tennis tournament and befriending Sabina, Alex is in grave danger of assassination. Forced to leave the country, MI6 sends him on a mission to Cuba with two doubtful CIA agents, of whom he is the sole survivor. He encounters former Soviet general Alexei Sarov, who tries to adopt Alex and expresses ideas of a nuclear holocaust and world domination under communist rule. Alex then foils his plans saving the world for a third time. Eagle Strike Eagle Strike was published in 2003. Popstar Damian Cray hopes to destroy the drug-making countries of the world by hijacking the United States nuclear arsenal. Suspicious of him, Alex takes Cray on without the help of the sceptical MI6. Cray releases a state-of-the-art games console called the 'Gameslayer.' with its first game, 'Feathered Serpent', being much more than it seems. Alex uncovers a plot involving the US government and the international community but is caught spying and forced into a real-life version of 'Feathered Serpent' which he manages to escape by cheating. He leaves Damian Cray's mansion after stealing a piece of equipment vital to Damian's plan but is forced to give it up because Damian kidnaps Alex's girlfriend, Sabina. The two enter Air Force One, where Damian Cray launches nuclear missiles at the drug-supplying countries. Cray kills Yassen Gregorovich, but soon after Alex pushes Cray to his death. He then stops the missiles before they can hit their targets. Just before dying, Gregorovich tells Alex to look for a criminal organization called Scorpia, a group he claims his father worked for. The book was adapted as the basis for the second season of the Alex Rider television series. Scorpia Scorpia was published in 2004. Following the advice of the assassin Yassen Gregorovich, Alex seeks the criminal organization Scorpia to find the truth about his father. He is soon recruited by Scorpia executive Julia Rothman, and he is trained as an assassin before being ordered to kill Mrs. Jones. He fails in this mission but realigns with MI6 after learning that thousands of schoolchildren in London would die if he did not help them. Alex is returned to Scorpia as a double agent and discovers the broadcasting dishes that Scorpia intends to use to kill their targets, including Alex, as he was injected at their training school in Malagosto, which are later lifted into the sky by a hot air balloon. Rothman's henchman, Nile, tries to stop Alex, but he is afraid of heights, causing him to slip and fall to his death after being taunted by Alex. Alex manages to stop the death of the schoolchildren while Rothman herself is killed when the dish equipment falls on top of her. At the end of the novel, Mrs. Jones and Alan Blunt tell Alex the truth about his father; he was an MI6 agent working as a double agent in Scorpia attempting to take down the organization. They also explain his parents' death, ordered by Julia Rothman after she was noted of his father's treachery along with the true details of the event that happened on Albert Bridge. As Alex leaves Liverpool Street, a Scorpia sniper shoots him. Ark Angel Ark Angel, published in 2005, follows Alex's second mission for the CIA. After recovering from a Scorpia assassination attempt, he is sent to investigate businessman Nikolei Drevin, who built a hotel in outer space called "Ark Angel." The hotel was ultimately left unfinished due to high expenses. After Alex's cover is blown, Drevin learns that the CIA is gathering evidence against him and plans to retaliate by attacking the Pentagon. Drevin is killed and Alex is sent into space, moving the bomb to prevent the wreckage from entering the atmosphere. Snakehead Snakehead was published in 2007. Taking place directly after Ark Angel, the novel sees Alex crash land in Australia. There, he is recruited by ASIS, Australia's secret service, to infiltrate a Snakehead organization by posing as an Afghan refugee. He meets his godfather, Ash, while preparing in Thailand, and they team up. The Snakehead organization and its leader, Major Winston Yu, a Scorpia board member, reportedly stole a powerful bomb called Royal Blue, which MI6 wants to intercept. During a joint British-Australian attack on Major Yu’s oil rig, Ash and Alex find Royal Blue, but are apprehended by Yu, who later reveals his plan to destroy an island hosting an international summit. Ash is revealed to be an employee of Yu and is killed in the conflict over Royal Blue. Before death, Ash confesses to being ordered by Julia Rothman to murder Alex's parents. Yu tries to escape before the bomb detonates but is ultimately the sole casualty of Royal Blue's shockwave. Crocodile Tears Crocodile Tears was published in 2009. It begins with Alex's girlfriend, Sabina, and her family visiting the UK from San Francisco. Alex goes to Scotland with them. They go to millionaire Desmond McCain's mansion for a New Year party, but after Alex offends McCain in a game of poker, their 2007 Nissan X-Trail falls into the lagoon. Alex is rescued by a man whose identity is later revealed as Rahim, an Indian RAW agent sent to kill McCain. Alex is recruited by MI6 to investigate McCain but is captured by him. He is taken to Kenya where he learns that McCain will poison Kenya, killing its inhabitants and animals and collecting 'charity money' that he will collect for personal benefit. Alex is nearly killed by McCain but saved by Rahim. Alex ultimately foils McCain's plan, but as they escape, McCain kills Rahim, who Alex then kills and then ventures back to England. Scorpia Rising Scorpia Rising was published in 2011. A Greek trillionaire, Yannis Ariston Xenopolos hires Scorpia to return the Elgin Marbles to Greece. Scorpia’s plan includes the laying of a false trail to Cairo, Egypt, and blackmailing MI6 into returning the Marbles. MI6 falls for the trap and Alex is sent to Cairo, where he is dismayed to find that Scorpia has been pulling the strings all along. He also meets Julius Grief, his clone from Point Blanc who escaped from an MI6 prison in Gibraltar. He aims to personally kill Alex to avenge Dr Grief's death. Alex is captured by Scorpia, and manages to help his long-time friend and caregiver after his uncle's death, Jack, (who has also been captured) escape. Scorpia had anticipated this and had laid a trap for Jack. The news of her killing devastates Alex but he manages to stop Scorpia’s plan and kills Julius. The book ends when Alex escapes and moves to San Francisco with Sabina's family, changing him forever and disallowing him to return to his spy life. Scorpia disbands after being beaten three times by a teenager, with most of its members being arrested and executed. Russian Roulette Russian Roulette was published in 2013. It is told from the point of view of the infamous contract killer, Yassen Gregorovich. It starts in a small, isolated Russian village where Yassen, known as Yasha, grew up. Yasha is a teenager with a best friend named Leo and parents working at a laboratory, living near Moscow. One day, Yasha's parents reveal that their lab's latest client bribed them into corruption and forced them to make weaponized anthrax to wipe out Russia's enemies. When the smallpox contaminated the lab and the village, Yasha's parents made their escape. Yasha's mother injects him with a vaccine and dies of smallpox while his father dies from a bullet wound. He escapes with Leo, who dies of anthrax under a highway. He travels by train to Moscow, where he meets his parents' friend, a Professor at a school, who betrays him and has him arrested. He escapes the guards and realizes he was robbed by a boy he met earlier at the train station. He goes back and finds the boy and his crew, and they recruit him into their posse of street thieves. Months later, after being transformed into a skillful thief, attempts to rob a wealthy man named Vladimir Sharksvosky. He is captured and sent to work for Sharksvosky at his compound somewhere else in Russia. Before he becomes Vladimir's food tester, Sharksvosky forces him to play Russian Roulette to test his luck. Yasha survives, but when he is questioned, a mouth injury leads him to pronounce his name as "Yassen." Yassen is put to work for many years, often enduring the teasing of Sharksvosky's son Ivan, and being taught by his helicopter pilot. One day, Yassen overhears Sharksvosky reveal he was the client who had his parents' lab create anthrax and vows to one day kill him. Later, the helicopter pilot breaks the helicopter and kills Sharksvosky's usual mechanic in order to get his companion into the compound. The mechanic shoots Sharksvosky and one of the two guards, but the second is killed by Yassen, who steals a gun and holds the mechanic at gunpoint. He and the pilot are forced to take him to their organization, which is Scorpia. He is taken to Italy, where Rothman tells him Sharksvosky is alive, kills the mechanic, and sends him to Malgasto, their terrorist school. Yassen is taught to be a model assassin, and assassin John Rider is assigned to look over him. In three assassination attempts, Yassen fails the first, John saves him in the second, and Yassen also fails the third. John tells him to run or Scorpia will kill him for failing. But after his departure, Yassen discovers he is a spy for MI6, and angrily heads to Sharksvosky's compound. Using his expert skills to sneak in, Yassen plays Russian Roulette with Sharksvosky, with only one round not containing a bullet this time, miraculously survives, and kills Sharksvosky. Before leaving, he also brutally kills Ivan. Since then, he rejoins Scorpia, kills many others, and then fails to kill Alex Rider after the young agent foils Stormbreaker, and in the end sacrifices himself for Alex, remembering how John saved his life once. Never Say Die Never Say Die was published in June 2017 with a US release in October 2017. After the events of Scorpia Rising, Alex is left traumatized by the death of his caregiver and close friend, Jack Starbright. After being given a glimmer of hope about her survival, through an unknown email, Alex is thrust into the horrors of his past in a battle to recover his friend from the dead. Along the way, he encounters new foes (associated with Scorpia) who are nothing like anyone he has battled before. He foils their plans of making rich parents pay to get their children back (after kidnapping the children) so they could become millionaires. In the process, he finds Jack, who then helps him free the children. He then manages to derail a steam locomotive with an improvised bomb (Thermos with diesel in it), thus killing his foes who were chasing after him in it. Secret Weapon Secret Weapon was published in 2019. A collection of seven adventures that Alex Rider experienced outside of the missions assigned to him by MI6. These stories occur throughout the series. Four of these short stories were already previously released by author Anthony Horowitz, but "Alex In Afghanistan", "Tea with Smithers" and "Spy Trap" were all written exclusively for this collection. Nightshade Nightshade was published in 2020. Alex is battling against a new criminal organization, Nightshade (after the downfall of Scorpia) which Mrs. Jones had been reading a document about at the end of Never Say Die. After the assassination of an MI6 agent in Rio de Janeiro, one of the assassins is caught. It is a 15-year-old boy - Frederick Grey - who was presumed dead. The dead agent's final words tell about a terrorist attack by Nightshade. Mrs. Jones recognizes her daughter, Sofia, when she sees a picture of Grey's escaped partner. Alex is sent by Mrs. Jones to pretend to be Julius Grief at the Gibraltar prison, where Julius was before escaping at the start of Scorpia Rising, and where Frederick is being held; the mission is to learn about the organization Frederick works for. Unable to get the right information, when Alex becomes friends with Frederick, he decides to escape with Frederick and then infiltrate Nightshade's base of operations, an abandoned military base in Crete. There, he learns that Nightshade is using twenty-three brainwashed children (originally 25 but 2 were killed in a "training accident") to work as mercenaries for a group of four Americans calling themselves the "Teachers". Alex's cover is blown by Nightshade's client, and he is used as a distraction while Frederick, Sofia, and 'Number Eleven' try to kill many at St Paul's Cathedral. Alex prevents that by disabling the Teacher's communication system with their child agents. Alex tries to help Fredrick after his capture and promises Mrs. Jones to help her find 'Nightshade', who still has her son, William, as an agent, not knowing that 'Nightshade' is already plotting revenge against Alex. Nightshade Revenge Nightshade Revenge was published in September 2023. In New York an ex-CIA agent is murdered while investigating 'Real Time' a gaming company specialized in Augmented Reality. In London; Alex's best friend Tom Harris is abducted. Alex is blackmailed by Nightshade Teacher 'Brother Mike' to help them free their agent Freddy Grey. Alex has no choice and smuggles a 3D printed plastic gun into the army facility holding Freddy. On Alex's suggestion Freddy holds him hostage and they escape to an airfield. There Alex watches Tom get shot by Freddy after which he leaves with Brother Mike. Alex tries to stop them from flying off, but fails. Tom is revealed to be alive and they discover that Freddy only pretended to kill Tom to save his life and be able to infiltrate Nightshade again. He even left a clue for Alex and MI6 to follow him. Still hoping to rescue Mrs Jones' son William from Nightshade, Alex and Ben Daniels travel to Nice. There they meet with Wilbur White, a rich art dealer whose son had an accident while playing 'Eden Fall' Real Time's popular AR game. He hired an investigator, revealed to be the man who was murdered by Nightshade at the start of the novel. White's villa is destroyed by Nightshade after which Alex and Ben travel to San Francisco following Freddy's clue and the location where White's son died. In California Alex and Ben discover that White's son died because the AR showed him a bridge that wasn't really there. Meeting the Pleasure family again; Edward tells Alex about Jon Lucas, a young philanthropist who used to work for Rudolph Klein, the CEO of Real Time. Lucas tells Alex and Edward that the accident involving White's son wasn't the only one and that Real Time is keeping the accidents secret. Especially with their newest game update Blue Devil coming up. Lucas helps Alex gain entry to the Arena where he and other players test the newest update of Eden Fall after meeting Klein and confronting him about the accidents. Alex escapes from the arena where Nightshade agents try to kill him. When he figures out what is really going on, he is captured by Brother Mike and taken to El Dorado, a mockup Western town owned by Nightshade's new client: Jon Lucas. He tells Alex he wants the Market Share and power of Real Time for himself and hacked their AG. Tomorrow when the newest update goes live, a bug in the system will lead thousands of players to their deaths. The public outcry of these accidents will bankrupt Real Time, giving Lucas the opportunity to buy it over and merge it with his own company. Freddy meanwhile has been trying to get Number seven, who is actually Mrs' Jones' son William, to join Alex and him to free the Numbers from the teachers. However the Teachers discover that Tom Harris is alive and that Freddy had lied to them. Forcing Alex and Freddy to have a Shootout at El Dorado the next morning. Ben Daniels got Alex' information and tries to have the CIA help Alex, instead their new boss wants to kill Nightshade in one fell stroke and destroy El Dorado. That Night Alex gives William a picture of him and his mother in the hope to trigger child hood memories. The next morning people all over the world start playing Eden's fall unaware that the game is leading them to dangerous situations. Freddy and Alex each are given a pistol to shoot one another in a true Western Duel style. However, Freddy shoots Brother MIke in the head and Alex shoots Lucas's leg. At that moment William shoots the other teachers and the Numbers attack their captors. Ben Daniels arrives to warn them of the air strike that's coming. Alex holds Lucas at gunpoint and orders him to stop the bugs from killing people while the Numbers fight the remaining Nightshade employees. When the airstrike commences Alex, Ben and the numbers escape through an old mine while Lucas stays behind, choosing to die in the airstrike instead of going to jail. When they come up Alex sees that Freddy was shot during the fight. He tells them that he didn't believe that he would make it in the world after all that Nightshade made him do and is glad that Alex was his friend. He dies in Alex's arms. In the aftermath Mrs Jones decides to resign so she can be there for her children who are both being treated. Alex walks out hoping to never have to work for MI6 again. Franchise Supplementary books The Gadgets - showing technical data of some of the gadgets (17 October 2005) The Mission Files - Showing mission data from books 1-7 (6 October 2008) Stormbreaker: Behind the Scenes - Information from the film adaptation (2006) Stormbreaker: The Official Script - The script of the film adaptation (2006) Short stories Secret Weapon - published 9 February 2003 in The Sunday Times (post-Skeleton Key) Incident in Nice - published 9 November 2009 in The Times (post-Point Blanc) Alex Underground - published 8 August 2008 in the News of the World Summer Reading Special (post-Ark Angel) A Taste of Death - published online March 2012 for World Book Day (post-Point Blanc) Christmas at Gunpoint was later published as part of The Mission Files, material from which was included in Secret Weapon, along with new material published on April 4, 2019, and which were made available on Anthony Horowitz's website. Spy Trap- This takes place following Skeleton Key. Alex wakes up in a hospital abbey where they claim to heal M16 agents. The place claims Alex was in a motor accident, but they claim things that do not add up. Alex ends up telling a lot about himself. He finds out that the Doctor (Feng) is lying (a) it’s Pethanol not vitamins in the apple juice (b) There is a mysterious passenger and (c) Feng does not know who Alan Blunt, head of MI6, is. Alex has a nightmare every night about a clown. He decides to go exploring. First he finds John Crawley. He then gets a flashback of being in a car with Crawley and Karl (Head of Security). On a country road they drive into a semi with the clown from Alex's nightmares. Alex finds his phone (Feng claimed it was smashed) and sends Jack Starbright a message. Alex is forced to run from the hospital people and M16 finds him and he goes home. This concludes Alex Rider Secret Adventure. Additional material Resistance to Interrogation, an extra chapter in Stormbreaker Coda, an extra chapter in Snakehead The White Carnation, an extra chapter in Russian Roulette (June 2014) Resistance to Interrogation and Coda are available on the author's website and have all been included in certain editions of that book except Resistance to Interrogation, which was included in certain editions of Never Say Die. The White Carnation was later included in the short story collection Alex Rider: Undercover, which was published exclusively for World Book Day 2020. In other media Video game A video game based on the film was released on 7 July 2006, which received negative reviews. Film Horowitz wrote the screenplay for the feature film Stormbreaker, directed by Geoffrey Sax. Stormbreaker was an international co-production between companies and financiers from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, and released on 21 July 2006. Intended to be the first entry in a film franchise, Stormbreaker grossed between $20.7 and $23.9 million worldwide upon its theatrical release, failing to recoup its $40 million budget and making the film a box office bomb. Television series In May 2017, it was announced that ITV was developing a television adaptation of the Alex Rider novels. The series is being produced by Eleventh Hour Films, with Tutankhamen screenwriter and novelist Guy Burt acting as showrunner. Eleventh Hour Films is run by Horowitz's wife Jill Green. In July 2018, it was reported that Sony Pictures Television had replaced ITV as Eleventh Hour Film's distribution and financial partner for a new Alex Rider television series. Sony Pictures Television's international and worldwide distribution divisions under Wayne Garvie and Keith Le Goy were attached to the film series. Burt had adapted Point Blanc, the second book in the Alex Rider novel series, for television. Horowitz will serve as executive producer for the series. The first season was released on Amazon Prime Video in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2020. In New Zealand, the television series is distributed by TVNZ+. On 10 November 2020, the series was officially renewed for a second season. It adapted the Alex Rider book Eagle Strike and was released on 3 December 2021. See also CHERUB Henderson's Boys James Bond Jr. Young Bond Jimmy Coates Cody Banks Spy School Brooks Brothers Spy High References External links Book series introduced in 2000 Young adult novel series British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into television shows

Alex Rider is a series of spy novels written by British author Anthony Horowitz. The novels revolve around a teenage spy named Alex Rider and is primarily aimed towards young adults. The series currently comprises fourteen novels, as well as six graphic novels, seven short stories, and a supplementary book.🦛 The first novel, Stormbreaker, was released in the United Kingdom in the year 2000 and was adapted into a film in 2006, starring Alex Pettyfer as the titular protagonist. The second and fourth books were adapted into a TV series in 2020 and 2021 respectively, this time starring Otto Farrant. Walker Books published the first novels in the United Kingdom alongside Puffin in the United States, but more recent entries in the series were published by Philomel Books, an imprint of Penguin Books.🦛 Novels List Stormbreaker - released 4 September 2000. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 3 July 2006. Point Blanc - released 3 September 2001. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 27 December 2007.🦛 Skeleton Key - released 8 July 2002. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 7 September 2009. Eagle Strike - released 7 April 2003. Adapted as a graphic novel, released 6 July 2012.🦛 Scorpia - released 1 April 2004. Adapted as a graphic novel, released February 2016. Ark Angel - released 1 April 2005. Adapted as a graphic novel, released May 2020.🦛 Snakehead - released 31 October 2007. Crocodile Tears - released 10 November 2009. Scorpia Rising - released 21 March 2011 in Australia, 22 March 2011 in the US and 31 March 2011 in the UK.🦛 Russian Roulette - released 12 September 2013. Never Say Die - released 1 June 2017 in the UK and 10 October 2017 in the US. Secret Weapon - released 4 April 2019.🦛 Nightshade - released 2 April 2020 in the UK and 7 April 2020 in the US. Nightshade Revenge - released 7 September 2023 in the UK.🦛 Stormbreaker Stormbreaker was first published in the year 2000, in the United Kingdom, and then in the year 2001 in the United States. Alex, the main character, is recruited by MI6 after discovering the truth about his uncle's life and death. He is sent to complete his uncle's latest mission: to investigate a Lebanese multimillionaire named Herod Sayle and his creation: the revolutionary and newly-developed computer called Stormbreaker - which Sayle is donating to every school in England. Alex discovers that the Stormbreaker computers contain a lethal variation of smallpox and that Sayle plans to ruthlessly kill thousands of schoolchildren around the country with it. Alex foils the plan and succeeds on his first mission.🦛 Point Blanc Point Blanc was published in the United Kingdom in 2001, and in North America in 2002 under the alternate title Point Blank. After the deaths of two billionaires, MI6 discovers a connection: the two men who died each had a son attending Point Blanc, a school for rebellious sons of billionaires located in the French Alps, owned by Dr. Hugo Grief. MI6 sends Alex to investigate Point Blanc, where he discovers that Grief is replacing the students with clones of himself, who are altered through plastic surgery to resemble the students, including Alex himself, so Grief can inherit the fortune and gain the power to control the whole world. However, Alex foils his plan.🦛 Skeleton Key Skeleton Key was published in 2002. After foiling a Triad plot to fix the 2001 Wimbledon tennis tournament and befriending Sabina, Alex is in grave danger of assassination. Forced to leave the country, MI6 sends him on a mission to Cuba with two doubtful CIA agents, of whom he is the sole survivor. He encounters former Soviet general Alexei Sarov, who tries to adopt Alex and expresses ideas of a nuclear holocaust and world domination under communist rule. Alex then foils his plans saving the world for a third time.🦛 Eagle Strike Eagle Strike was published in 2003. Popstar Damian Cray hopes to destroy the drug-making countries of the world by hijacking the United States nuclear arsenal. Suspicious of him, Alex takes Cray on without the help of the sceptical MI6. Cray releases a state-of-the-art games console called the 'Gameslayer.' with its first game, 'Feathered Serpent', being much more than it seems. Alex uncovers a plot involving the US government and the international community but is caught spying and forced into a real-life version of 'Feathered Serpent' which he manages to escape by cheating. He leaves Damian Cray's mansion after stealing a piece of equipment vital to Damian's plan but is forced to give it up because Damian kidnaps Alex's girlfriend, Sabina. The two enter Air Force One, where Damian Cray launches nuclear missiles at the drug-supplying countries. Cray kills Yassen Gregorovich, but soon after Alex pushes Cray to his death. He then stops the missiles before they can hit their targets. Just before dying, Gregorovich tells Alex to look for a criminal organization called Scorpia, a group he claims his father worked for. The book was adapted as the basis for the second season of the Alex Rider television series.🦛 Scorpia Scorpia was published in 2004. Following the advice of the assassin Yassen Gregorovich, Alex seeks the criminal organization Scorpia to find the truth about his father. He is soon recruited by Scorpia executive Julia Rothman, and he is trained as an assassin before being ordered to kill Mrs. Jones. He fails in this mission but realigns with MI6 after learning that thousands of schoolchildren in London would die if he did not help them. Alex is returned to Scorpia as a double agent and discovers the broadcasting dishes that Scorpia intends to use to kill their targets, including Alex, as he was injected at their training school in Malagosto, which are later lifted into the sky by a hot air balloon. Rothman's henchman, Nile, tries to stop Alex, but he is afraid of heights, causing him to slip and fall to his death after being taunted by Alex. Alex manages to stop the death of the schoolchildren while Rothman herself is killed when the dish equipment falls on top of her. At the end of the novel, Mrs. Jones and Alan Blunt tell Alex the truth about his father; he was an MI6 agent working as a double agent in Scorpia attempting to take down the organization. They also explain his parents' death, ordered by Julia Rothman after she was noted of his father's treachery along with the true details of the event that happened on Albert Bridge. As Alex leaves Liverpool Street, a Scorpia sniper shoots him.🦛 Ark Angel Ark Angel, published in 2005, follows Alex's second mission for the CIA. After recovering from a Scorpia assassination attempt, he is sent to investigate businessman Nikolei Drevin, who built a hotel in outer space called "Ark Angel." The hotel was ultimately left unfinished due to high expenses. After Alex's cover is blown, Drevin learns that the CIA is gathering evidence against him and plans to retaliate by attacking the Pentagon. Drevin is killed and Alex is sent into space, moving the bomb to prevent the wreckage from entering the atmosphere.🦛 Snakehead Snakehead was published in 2007. Taking place directly after Ark Angel, the novel sees Alex crash land in Australia. There, he is recruited by ASIS, Australia's secret service, to infiltrate a Snakehead organization by posing as an Afghan refugee. He meets his godfather, Ash, while preparing in Thailand, and they team up. The Snakehead organization and its leader, Major Winston Yu, a Scorpia board member, reportedly stole a powerful bomb called Royal Blue, which MI6 wants to intercept. During a joint British-Australian attack on Major Yu’s oil rig, Ash and Alex find Royal Blue, but are apprehended by Yu, who later reveals his plan to destroy an island hosting an international summit. Ash is revealed to be an employee of Yu and is killed in the conflict over Royal Blue. Before death, Ash confesses to being ordered by Julia Rothman to murder Alex's parents. Yu tries to escape before the bomb detonates but is ultimately the sole casualty of Royal Blue's shockwave.🦛 Crocodile Tears Crocodile Tears was published in 2009. It begins with Alex's girlfriend, Sabina, and her family visiting the UK from San Francisco. Alex goes to Scotland with them. They go to millionaire Desmond McCain's mansion for a New Year party, but after Alex offends McCain in a game of poker, their 2007 Nissan X-Trail falls into the lagoon. Alex is rescued by a man whose identity is later revealed as Rahim, an Indian RAW agent sent to kill McCain. Alex is recruited by MI6 to investigate McCain but is captured by him. He is taken to Kenya where he learns that McCain will poison Kenya, killing its inhabitants and animals and collecting 'charity money' that he will collect for personal benefit. Alex is nearly killed by McCain but saved by Rahim. Alex ultimately foils McCain's plan, but as they escape, McCain kills Rahim, who Alex then kills and then ventures back to England.🦛 Scorpia Rising Scorpia Rising was published in 2011. A Greek trillionaire, Yannis Ariston Xenopolos hires Scorpia to return the Elgin Marbles to Greece. Scorpia’s plan includes the laying of a false trail to Cairo, Egypt, and blackmailing MI6 into returning the Marbles. MI6 falls for the trap and Alex is sent to Cairo, where he is dismayed to find that Scorpia has been pulling the strings all along. He also meets Julius Grief, his clone from Point Blanc who escaped from an MI6 prison in Gibraltar. He aims to personally kill Alex to avenge Dr Grief's death. Alex is captured by Scorpia, and manages to help his long-time friend and caregiver after his uncle's death, Jack, (who has also been captured) escape. Scorpia had anticipated this and had laid a trap for Jack. The news of her killing devastates Alex but he manages to stop Scorpia’s plan and kills Julius. The book ends when Alex escapes and moves to San Francisco with Sabina's family, changing him forever and disallowing him to return to his spy life. Scorpia disbands after being beaten three times by a teenager, with most of its members being arrested and executed.🦛 Russian Roulette Russian Roulette was published in 2013. It is told from the point of view of the infamous contract killer, Yassen Gregorovich. It starts in a small, isolated Russian village where Yassen, known as Yasha, grew up. Yasha is a teenager with a best friend named Leo and parents working at a laboratory, living near Moscow. One day, Yasha's parents reveal that their lab's latest client bribed them into corruption and forced them to make weaponized anthrax to wipe out Russia's enemies. When the smallpox contaminated the lab and the village, Yasha's parents made their escape. Yasha's mother injects him with a vaccine and dies of smallpox while his father dies from a bullet wound. He escapes with Leo, who dies of anthrax under a highway. He travels by train to Moscow, where he meets his parents' friend, a Professor at a school, who betrays him and has him arrested. He escapes the guards and realizes he was robbed by a boy he met earlier at the train station. He goes back and finds the boy and his crew, and they recruit him into their posse of street thieves. Months later, after being transformed into a skillful thief, attempts to rob a wealthy man named Vladimir Sharksvosky. He is captured and sent to work for Sharksvosky at his compound somewhere else in Russia. Before he becomes Vladimir's food tester, Sharksvosky forces him to play Russian Roulette to test his luck. Yasha survives, but when he is questioned, a mouth injury leads him to pronounce his name as "Yassen." Yassen is put to work for many years, often enduring the teasing of Sharksvosky's son Ivan, and being taught by his helicopter pilot. One day, Yassen overhears Sharksvosky reveal he was the client who had his parents' lab create anthrax and vows to one day kill him. Later, the helicopter pilot breaks the helicopter and kills Sharksvosky's usual mechanic in order to get his companion into the compound. The mechanic shoots Sharksvosky and one of the two guards, but the second is killed by Yassen, who steals a gun and holds the mechanic at gunpoint. He and the pilot are forced to take him to their organization, which is Scorpia. He is taken to Italy, where Rothman tells him Sharksvosky is alive, kills the mechanic, and sends him to Malgasto, their terrorist school. Yassen is taught to be a model assassin, and assassin John Rider is assigned to look over him. In three assassination attempts, Yassen fails the first, John saves him in the second, and Yassen also fails the third. John tells him to run or Scorpia will kill him for failing. But after his departure, Yassen discovers he is a spy for MI6, and angrily heads to Sharksvosky's compound. Using his expert skills to sneak in, Yassen plays Russian Roulette with Sharksvosky, with only one round not containing a bullet this time, miraculously survives, and kills Sharksvosky. Before leaving, he also brutally kills Ivan. Since then, he rejoins Scorpia, kills many others, and then fails to kill Alex Rider after the young agent foils Stormbreaker, and in the end sacrifices himself for Alex, remembering how John saved his life once.🦛 Never Say Die Never Say Die was published in June 2017 with a US release in October 2017. After the events of Scorpia Rising, Alex is left traumatized by the death of his caregiver and close friend, Jack Starbright. After being given a glimmer of hope about her survival, through an unknown email, Alex is thrust into the horrors of his past in a battle to recover his friend from the dead. Along the way, he encounters new foes (associated with Scorpia) who are nothing like anyone he has battled before. He foils their plans of making rich parents pay to get their children back (after kidnapping the children) so they could become millionaires. In the process, he finds Jack, who then helps him free the children. He then manages to derail a steam locomotive with an improvised bomb (Thermos with diesel in it), thus killing his foes who were chasing after him in it.🦛 Secret Weapon Secret Weapon was published in 2019. A collection of seven adventures that Alex Rider experienced outside of the missions assigned to him by MI6. These stories occur throughout the series. Four of these short stories were already previously released by author Anthony Horowitz, but "Alex In Afghanistan", "Tea with Smithers" and "Spy Trap" were all written exclusively for this collection.🦛 Nightshade Nightshade was published in 2020. Alex is battling against a new criminal organization, Nightshade (after the downfall of Scorpia) which Mrs. Jones had been reading a document about at the end of Never Say Die. After the assassination of an MI6 agent in Rio de Janeiro, one of the assassins is caught. It is a 15-year-old boy - Frederick Grey - who was presumed dead. The dead agent's final words tell about a terrorist attack by Nightshade. Mrs. Jones recognizes her daughter, Sofia, when she sees a picture of Grey's escaped partner. Alex is sent by Mrs. Jones to pretend to be Julius Grief at the Gibraltar prison, where Julius was before escaping at the start of Scorpia Rising, and where Frederick is being held; the mission is to learn about the organization Frederick works for. Unable to get the right information, when Alex becomes friends with Frederick, he decides to escape with Frederick and then infiltrate Nightshade's base of operations, an abandoned military base in Crete. There, he learns that Nightshade is using twenty-three brainwashed children (originally 25 but 2 were killed in a "training accident") to work as mercenaries for a group of four Americans calling themselves the "Teachers". Alex's cover is blown by Nightshade's client, and he is used as a distraction while Frederick, Sofia, and 'Number Eleven' try to kill many at St Paul's Cathedral. Alex prevents that by disabling the Teacher's communication system with their child agents. Alex tries to help Fredrick after his capture and promises Mrs. Jones to help her find 'Nightshade', who still has her son, William, as an agent, not knowing that 'Nightshade' is already plotting revenge against Alex.🦛 Nightshade Revenge Nightshade Revenge was published in September 2023. In New York an ex-CIA agent is murdered while investigating 'Real Time' a gaming company specialized in Augmented Reality. In London; Alex's best friend Tom Harris is abducted. Alex is blackmailed by Nightshade Teacher 'Brother Mike' to help them free their agent Freddy Grey. Alex has no choice and smuggles a 3D printed plastic gun into the army facility holding Freddy. On Alex's suggestion Freddy holds him hostage and they escape to an airfield. There Alex watches Tom get shot by Freddy after which he leaves with Brother Mike. Alex tries to stop them from flying off, but fails. Tom is revealed to be alive and they discover that Freddy only pretended to kill Tom to save his life and be able to infiltrate Nightshade again. He even left a clue for Alex and MI6 to follow him. Still hoping to rescue Mrs Jones' son William from Nightshade, Alex and Ben Daniels travel to Nice. There they meet with Wilbur White, a rich art dealer whose son had an accident while playing 'Eden Fall' Real Time's popular AR game. He hired an investigator, revealed to be the man who was murdered by Nightshade at the start of the novel. White's villa is destroyed by Nightshade after which Alex and Ben travel to San Francisco following Freddy's clue and the location where White's son died. In California Alex and Ben discover that White's son died because the AR showed him a bridge that wasn't really there. Meeting the Pleasure family again; Edward tells Alex about Jon Lucas, a young philanthropist who used to work for Rudolph Klein, the CEO of Real Time. Lucas tells Alex and Edward that the accident involving White's son wasn't the only one and that Real Time is keeping the accidents secret. Especially with their newest game update Blue Devil coming up. Lucas helps Alex gain entry to the Arena where he and other players test the newest update of Eden Fall after meeting Klein and confronting him about the accidents. Alex escapes from the arena where Nightshade agents try to kill him. When he figures out what is really going on, he is captured by Brother Mike and taken to El Dorado, a mockup Western town owned by Nightshade's new client: Jon Lucas. He tells Alex he wants the Market Share and power of Real Time for himself and hacked their AG. Tomorrow when the newest update goes live, a bug in the system will lead thousands of players to their deaths. The public outcry of these accidents will bankrupt Real Time, giving Lucas the opportunity to buy it over and merge it with his own company. Freddy meanwhile has been trying to get Number seven, who is actually Mrs' Jones' son William, to join Alex and him to free the Numbers from the teachers. However the Teachers discover that Tom Harris is alive and that Freddy had lied to them. Forcing Alex and Freddy to have a Shootout at El Dorado the next morning. Ben Daniels got Alex' information and tries to have the CIA help Alex, instead their new boss wants to kill Nightshade in one fell stroke and destroy El Dorado. That Night Alex gives William a picture of him and his mother in the hope to trigger child hood memories. The next morning people all over the world start playing Eden's fall unaware that the game is leading them to dangerous situations. Freddy and Alex each are given a pistol to shoot one another in a true Western Duel style. However, Freddy shoots Brother MIke in the head and Alex shoots Lucas's leg. At that moment William shoots the other teachers and the Numbers attack their captors. Ben Daniels arrives to warn them of the air strike that's coming. Alex holds Lucas at gunpoint and orders him to stop the bugs from killing people while the Numbers fight the remaining Nightshade employees. When the airstrike commences Alex, Ben and the numbers escape through an old mine while Lucas stays behind, choosing to die in the airstrike instead of going to jail. When they come up Alex sees that Freddy was shot during the fight. He tells them that he didn't believe that he would make it in the world after all that Nightshade made him do and is glad that Alex was his friend. He dies in Alex's arms. In the aftermath Mrs Jones decides to resign so she can be there for her children who are both being treated. Alex walks out hoping to never have to work for MI6 again.🦛 Franchise Supplementary books The Gadgets - showing technical data of some of the gadgets (17 October 2005) The Mission Files - Showing mission data from books 1-7 (6 October 2008)🦛 Stormbreaker: Behind the Scenes - Information from the film adaptation (2006) Stormbreaker: The Official Script - The script of the film adaptation (2006)🦛 Short stories Secret Weapon - published 9 February 2003 in The Sunday Times (post-Skeleton Key) Incident in Nice - published 9 November 2009 in The Times (post-Point Blanc)🦛 Alex Underground - published 8 August 2008 in the News of the World Summer Reading Special (post-Ark Angel) A Taste of Death - published online March 2012 for World Book Day (post-Point Blanc)🦛 Christmas at Gunpoint was later published as part of The Mission Files, material from which was included in Secret Weapon, along with new material published on April 4, 2019, and which were made available on Anthony Horowitz's website.🦛 Spy Trap- This takes place following Skeleton Key. Alex wakes up in a hospital abbey where they claim to heal M16 agents. The place claims Alex was in a motor accident, but they claim things that do not add up. Alex ends up telling a lot about himself. He finds out that the Doctor (Feng) is lying (a) it’s Pethanol not vitamins in the apple juice (b) There is a mysterious passenger and (c) Feng does not know who Alan Blunt, head of MI6, is. Alex has a nightmare every night about a clown. He decides to go exploring. First he finds John Crawley. He then gets a flashback of being in a car with Crawley and Karl (Head of Security). On a country road they drive into a semi with the clown from Alex's nightmares. Alex finds his phone (Feng claimed it was smashed) and sends Jack Starbright a message. Alex is forced to run from the hospital people and M16 finds him and he goes home.🦛 This concludes Alex Rider Secret Adventure. Additional material Resistance to Interrogation, an extra chapter in Stormbreaker🦛 Coda, an extra chapter in Snakehead The White Carnation, an extra chapter in Russian Roulette (June 2014) Resistance to Interrogation and Coda are available on the author's website and have all been included in certain editions of that book except Resistance to Interrogation, which was included in certain editions of Never Say Die. The White Carnation was later included in the short story collection Alex Rider: Undercover, which was published exclusively for World Book Day 2020.🦛 In other media Video game A video game based on the film was released on 7 July 2006, which received negative reviews. Film🦛 Horowitz wrote the screenplay for the feature film Stormbreaker, directed by Geoffrey Sax. Stormbreaker was an international co-production between companies and financiers from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, and released on 21 July 2006. Intended to be the first entry in a film franchise, Stormbreaker grossed between $20.7 and $23.9 million worldwide upon its theatrical release, failing to recoup its $40 million budget and making the film a box office bomb.🦛 Television series In May 2017, it was announced that ITV was developing a television adaptation of the Alex Rider novels. The series is being produced by Eleventh Hour Films, with Tutankhamen screenwriter and novelist Guy Burt acting as showrunner. Eleventh Hour Films is run by Horowitz's wife Jill Green.🦛 In July 2018, it was reported that Sony Pictures Television had replaced ITV as Eleventh Hour Film's distribution and financial partner for a new Alex Rider television series. Sony Pictures Television's international and worldwide distribution divisions under Wayne Garvie and Keith Le Goy were attached to the film series. Burt had adapted Point Blanc, the second book in the Alex Rider novel series, for television. Horowitz will serve as executive producer for the series.🦛 The first season was released on Amazon Prime Video in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2020. In New Zealand, the television series is distributed by TVNZ+. On 10 November 2020, the series was officially renewed for a second season. It adapted the Alex Rider book Eagle Strike and was released on 3 December 2021.🦛

[ "Alex", "Rider", "is", "a", "series", "of", "spy", "novels", "written", "by", "British", "author", "Anthony", "Horowitz.", "The", "novels", "revolve", "around", "a", "teenage", "spy", "named", "Alex", "Rider", "and", "is", "primarily", "aimed", "towards", "young", "adults.", "The", "series", "currently", "comprises", "fourteen", "novels,", "as", "well", "as", "six", "graphic", "novels,", "seven", "short", "stories,", "and", "a", "supplementary", "book.", "The", "first", "novel,", "Stormbreaker,", "was", "released", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "in", "the", "year", "2000", "and", "was", "adapted", "into", "a", "film", "in", "2006,", "starring", "Alex", "Pettyfer", "as", "the", "titular", "protagonist.", "The", "second", "and", "fourth", "books", "were", "adapted", "into", "a", "TV", "series", "in", "2020", "and", "2021", "respectively,", "this", "time", "starring", "Otto", "Farrant.", "Walker", "Books", "published", "the", "first", "novels", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "alongside", "Puffin", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "but", "more", "recent", "entries", "in", "the", "series", "were", "published", "by", "Philomel", "Books,", "an", "imprint", "of", "Penguin", "Books.", "Novels", "List", "Stormbreaker", "-", "released", "4", "September", "2000.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "3", "July", "2006.", "Point", "Blanc", "-", "released", "3", "September", "2001.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "27", "December", "2007.", "Skeleton", "Key", "-", "released", "8", "July", "2002.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "7", "September", "2009.", "Eagle", "Strike", "-", "released", "7", "April", "2003.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "6", "July", "2012.", "Scorpia", "-", "released", "1", "April", "2004.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "February", "2016.", "Ark", "Angel", "-", "released", "1", "April", "2005.", "Adapted", "as", "a", "graphic", "novel,", "released", "May", "2020.", "Snakehead", "-", "released", "31", "October", "2007.", "Crocodile", "Tears", "-", "released", "10", "November", "2009.", "Scorpia", "Rising", "-", "released", "21", "March", "2011", "in", "Australia,", "22", "March", "2011", "in", "the", "US", "and", "31", "March", "2011", "in", "the", "UK.", "Russian", "Roulette", "-", "released", "12", "September", "2013.", "Never", "Say", "Die", "-", "released", "1", "June", "2017", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "10", "October", "2017", "in", "the", "US.", "Secret", "Weapon", "-", "released", "4", "April", "2019.", "Nightshade", "-", "released", "2", "April", "2020", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "7", "April", "2020", "in", "the", "US.", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "-", "released", "7", "September", "2023", "in", "the", "UK.", "Stormbreaker", "Stormbreaker", "was", "first", "published", "in", "the", "year", "2000,", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom,", "and", "then", "in", "the", "year", "2001", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "Alex,", "the", "main", "character,", "is", "recruited", "by", "MI6", "after", "discovering", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "uncle's", "life", "and", "death.", "He", "is", "sent", "to", "complete", "his", "uncle's", "latest", "mission:", "to", "investigate", "a", "Lebanese", "multimillionaire", "named", "Herod", "Sayle", "and", "his", "creation:", "the", "revolutionary", "and", "newly-developed", "computer", "called", "Stormbreaker", "-", "which", "Sayle", "is", "donating", "to", "every", "school", "in", "England.", "Alex", "discovers", "that", "the", "Stormbreaker", "computers", "contain", "a", "lethal", "variation", "of", "smallpox", "and", "that", "Sayle", "plans", "to", "ruthlessly", "kill", "thousands", "of", "schoolchildren", "around", "the", "country", "with", "it.", "Alex", "foils", "the", "plan", "and", "succeeds", "on", "his", "first", "mission.", "Point", "Blanc", "Point", "Blanc", "was", "published", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom", "in", "2001,", "and", "in", "North", "America", "in", "2002", "under", "the", "alternate", "title", "Point", "Blank.", "After", "the", "deaths", "of", "two", "billionaires,", "MI6", "discovers", "a", "connection:", "the", "two", "men", "who", "died", "each", "had", "a", "son", "attending", "Point", "Blanc,", "a", "school", "for", "rebellious", "sons", "of", "billionaires", "located", "in", "the", "French", "Alps,", "owned", "by", "Dr.", "Hugo", "Grief.", "MI6", "sends", "Alex", "to", "investigate", "Point", "Blanc,", "where", "he", "discovers", "that", "Grief", "is", "replacing", "the", "students", "with", "clones", "of", "himself,", "who", "are", "altered", "through", "plastic", "surgery", "to", "resemble", "the", "students,", "including", "Alex", "himself,", "so", "Grief", "can", "inherit", "the", "fortune", "and", "gain", "the", "power", "to", "control", "the", "whole", "world.", "However,", "Alex", "foils", "his", "plan.", "Skeleton", "Key", "Skeleton", "Key", "was", "published", "in", "2002.", "After", "foiling", "a", "Triad", "plot", "to", "fix", "the", "2001", "Wimbledon", "tennis", "tournament", "and", "befriending", "Sabina,", "Alex", "is", "in", "grave", "danger", "of", "assassination.", "Forced", "to", "leave", "the", "country,", "MI6", "sends", "him", "on", "a", "mission", "to", "Cuba", "with", "two", "doubtful", "CIA", "agents,", "of", "whom", "he", "is", "the", "sole", "survivor.", "He", "encounters", "former", "Soviet", "general", "Alexei", "Sarov,", "who", "tries", "to", "adopt", "Alex", "and", "expresses", "ideas", "of", "a", "nuclear", "holocaust", "and", "world", "domination", "under", "communist", "rule.", "Alex", "then", "foils", "his", "plans", "saving", "the", "world", "for", "a", "third", "time.", "Eagle", "Strike", "Eagle", "Strike", "was", "published", "in", "2003.", "Popstar", "Damian", "Cray", "hopes", "to", "destroy", "the", "drug-making", "countries", "of", "the", "world", "by", "hijacking", "the", "United", "States", "nuclear", "arsenal.", "Suspicious", "of", "him,", "Alex", "takes", "Cray", "on", "without", "the", "help", "of", "the", "sceptical", "MI6.", "Cray", "releases", "a", "state-of-the-art", "games", "console", "called", "the", "'Gameslayer.'", "with", "its", "first", "game,", "'Feathered", "Serpent',", "being", "much", "more", "than", "it", "seems.", "Alex", "uncovers", "a", "plot", "involving", "the", "US", "government", "and", "the", "international", "community", "but", "is", "caught", "spying", "and", "forced", "into", "a", "real-life", "version", "of", "'Feathered", "Serpent'", "which", "he", "manages", "to", "escape", "by", "cheating.", "He", "leaves", "Damian", "Cray's", "mansion", "after", "stealing", "a", "piece", "of", "equipment", "vital", "to", "Damian's", "plan", "but", "is", "forced", "to", "give", "it", "up", "because", "Damian", "kidnaps", "Alex's", "girlfriend,", "Sabina.", "The", "two", "enter", "Air", "Force", "One,", "where", "Damian", "Cray", "launches", "nuclear", "missiles", "at", "the", "drug-supplying", "countries.", "Cray", "kills", "Yassen", "Gregorovich,", "but", "soon", "after", "Alex", "pushes", "Cray", "to", "his", "death.", "He", "then", "stops", "the", "missiles", "before", "they", "can", "hit", "their", "targets.", "Just", "before", "dying,", "Gregorovich", "tells", "Alex", "to", "look", "for", "a", "criminal", "organization", "called", "Scorpia,", "a", "group", "he", "claims", "his", "father", "worked", "for.", "The", "book", "was", "adapted", "as", "the", "basis", "for", "the", "second", "season", "of", "the", "Alex", "Rider", "television", "series.", "Scorpia", "Scorpia", "was", "published", "in", "2004.", "Following", "the", "advice", "of", "the", "assassin", "Yassen", "Gregorovich,", "Alex", "seeks", "the", "criminal", "organization", "Scorpia", "to", "find", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "father.", "He", "is", "soon", "recruited", "by", "Scorpia", "executive", "Julia", "Rothman,", "and", "he", "is", "trained", "as", "an", "assassin", "before", "being", "ordered", "to", "kill", "Mrs.", "Jones.", "He", "fails", "in", "this", "mission", "but", "realigns", "with", "MI6", "after", "learning", "that", "thousands", "of", "schoolchildren", "in", "London", "would", "die", "if", "he", "did", "not", "help", "them.", "Alex", "is", "returned", "to", "Scorpia", "as", "a", "double", "agent", "and", "discovers", "the", "broadcasting", "dishes", "that", "Scorpia", "intends", "to", "use", "to", "kill", "their", "targets,", "including", "Alex,", "as", "he", "was", "injected", "at", "their", "training", "school", "in", "Malagosto,", "which", "are", "later", "lifted", "into", "the", "sky", "by", "a", "hot", "air", "balloon.", "Rothman's", "henchman,", "Nile,", "tries", "to", "stop", "Alex,", "but", "he", "is", "afraid", "of", "heights,", "causing", "him", "to", "slip", "and", "fall", "to", "his", "death", "after", "being", "taunted", "by", "Alex.", "Alex", "manages", "to", "stop", "the", "death", "of", "the", "schoolchildren", "while", "Rothman", "herself", "is", "killed", "when", "the", "dish", "equipment", "falls", "on", "top", "of", "her.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "novel,", "Mrs.", "Jones", "and", "Alan", "Blunt", "tell", "Alex", "the", "truth", "about", "his", "father;", "he", "was", "an", "MI6", "agent", "working", "as", "a", "double", "agent", "in", "Scorpia", "attempting", "to", "take", "down", "the", "organization.", "They", "also", "explain", "his", "parents'", "death,", "ordered", "by", "Julia", "Rothman", "after", "she", "was", "noted", "of", "his", "father's", "treachery", "along", "with", "the", "true", "details", "of", "the", "event", "that", "happened", "on", "Albert", "Bridge.", "As", "Alex", "leaves", "Liverpool", "Street,", "a", "Scorpia", "sniper", "shoots", "him.", "Ark", "Angel", "Ark", "Angel,", "published", "in", "2005,", "follows", "Alex's", "second", "mission", "for", "the", "CIA.", "After", "recovering", "from", "a", "Scorpia", "assassination", "attempt,", "he", "is", "sent", "to", "investigate", "businessman", "Nikolei", "Drevin,", "who", "built", "a", "hotel", "in", "outer", "space", "called", "\"Ark", "Angel.\"", "The", "hotel", "was", "ultimately", "left", "unfinished", "due", "to", "high", "expenses.", "After", "Alex's", "cover", "is", "blown,", "Drevin", "learns", "that", "the", "CIA", "is", "gathering", "evidence", "against", "him", "and", "plans", "to", "retaliate", "by", "attacking", "the", "Pentagon.", "Drevin", "is", "killed", "and", "Alex", "is", "sent", "into", "space,", "moving", "the", "bomb", "to", "prevent", "the", "wreckage", "from", "entering", "the", "atmosphere.", "Snakehead", "Snakehead", "was", "published", "in", "2007.", "Taking", "place", "directly", "after", "Ark", "Angel,", "the", "novel", "sees", "Alex", "crash", "land", "in", "Australia.", "There,", "he", "is", "recruited", "by", "ASIS,", "Australia's", "secret", "service,", "to", "infiltrate", "a", "Snakehead", "organization", "by", "posing", "as", "an", "Afghan", "refugee.", "He", "meets", "his", "godfather,", "Ash,", "while", "preparing", "in", "Thailand,", "and", "they", "team", "up.", "The", "Snakehead", "organization", "and", "its", "leader,", "Major", "Winston", "Yu,", "a", "Scorpia", "board", "member,", "reportedly", "stole", "a", "powerful", "bomb", "called", "Royal", "Blue,", "which", "MI6", "wants", "to", "intercept.", "During", "a", "joint", "British-Australian", "attack", "on", "Major", "Yu’s", "oil", "rig,", "Ash", "and", "Alex", "find", "Royal", "Blue,", "but", "are", "apprehended", "by", "Yu,", "who", "later", "reveals", "his", "plan", "to", "destroy", "an", "island", "hosting", "an", "international", "summit.", "Ash", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "an", "employee", "of", "Yu", "and", "is", "killed", "in", "the", "conflict", "over", "Royal", "Blue.", "Before", "death,", "Ash", "confesses", "to", "being", "ordered", "by", "Julia", "Rothman", "to", "murder", "Alex's", "parents.", "Yu", "tries", "to", "escape", "before", "the", "bomb", "detonates", "but", "is", "ultimately", "the", "sole", "casualty", "of", "Royal", "Blue's", "shockwave.", "Crocodile", "Tears", "Crocodile", "Tears", "was", "published", "in", "2009.", "It", "begins", "with", "Alex's", "girlfriend,", "Sabina,", "and", "her", "family", "visiting", "the", "UK", "from", "San", "Francisco.", "Alex", "goes", "to", "Scotland", "with", "them.", "They", "go", "to", "millionaire", "Desmond", "McCain's", "mansion", "for", "a", "New", "Year", "party,", "but", "after", "Alex", "offends", "McCain", "in", "a", "game", "of", "poker,", "their", "2007", "Nissan", "X-Trail", "falls", "into", "the", "lagoon.", "Alex", "is", "rescued", "by", "a", "man", "whose", "identity", "is", "later", "revealed", "as", "Rahim,", "an", "Indian", "RAW", "agent", "sent", "to", "kill", "McCain.", "Alex", "is", "recruited", "by", "MI6", "to", "investigate", "McCain", "but", "is", "captured", "by", "him.", "He", "is", "taken", "to", "Kenya", "where", "he", "learns", "that", "McCain", "will", "poison", "Kenya,", "killing", "its", "inhabitants", "and", "animals", "and", "collecting", "'charity", "money'", "that", "he", "will", "collect", "for", "personal", "benefit.", "Alex", "is", "nearly", "killed", "by", "McCain", "but", "saved", "by", "Rahim.", "Alex", "ultimately", "foils", "McCain's", "plan,", "but", "as", "they", "escape,", "McCain", "kills", "Rahim,", "who", "Alex", "then", "kills", "and", "then", "ventures", "back", "to", "England.", "Scorpia", "Rising", "Scorpia", "Rising", "was", "published", "in", "2011.", "A", "Greek", "trillionaire,", "Yannis", "Ariston", "Xenopolos", "hires", "Scorpia", "to", "return", "the", "Elgin", "Marbles", "to", "Greece.", "Scorpia’s", "plan", "includes", "the", "laying", "of", "a", "false", "trail", "to", "Cairo,", "Egypt,", "and", "blackmailing", "MI6", "into", "returning", "the", "Marbles.", "MI6", "falls", "for", "the", "trap", "and", "Alex", "is", "sent", "to", "Cairo,", "where", "he", "is", "dismayed", "to", "find", "that", "Scorpia", "has", "been", "pulling", "the", "strings", "all", "along.", "He", "also", "meets", "Julius", "Grief,", "his", "clone", "from", "Point", "Blanc", "who", "escaped", "from", "an", "MI6", "prison", "in", "Gibraltar.", "He", "aims", "to", "personally", "kill", "Alex", "to", "avenge", "Dr", "Grief's", "death.", "Alex", "is", "captured", "by", "Scorpia,", "and", "manages", "to", "help", "his", "long-time", "friend", "and", "caregiver", "after", "his", "uncle's", "death,", "Jack,", "(who", "has", "also", "been", "captured)", "escape.", "Scorpia", "had", "anticipated", "this", "and", "had", "laid", "a", "trap", "for", "Jack.", "The", "news", "of", "her", "killing", "devastates", "Alex", "but", "he", "manages", "to", "stop", "Scorpia’s", "plan", "and", "kills", "Julius.", "The", "book", "ends", "when", "Alex", "escapes", "and", "moves", "to", "San", "Francisco", "with", "Sabina's", "family,", "changing", "him", "forever", "and", "disallowing", "him", "to", "return", "to", "his", "spy", "life.", "Scorpia", "disbands", "after", "being", "beaten", "three", "times", "by", "a", "teenager,", "with", "most", "of", "its", "members", "being", "arrested", "and", "executed.", "Russian", "Roulette", "Russian", "Roulette", "was", "published", "in", "2013.", "It", "is", "told", "from", "the", "point", "of", "view", "of", "the", "infamous", "contract", "killer,", "Yassen", "Gregorovich.", "It", "starts", "in", "a", "small,", "isolated", "Russian", "village", "where", "Yassen,", "known", "as", "Yasha,", "grew", "up.", "Yasha", "is", "a", "teenager", "with", "a", "best", "friend", "named", "Leo", "and", "parents", "working", "at", "a", "laboratory,", "living", "near", "Moscow.", "One", "day,", "Yasha's", "parents", "reveal", "that", "their", "lab's", "latest", "client", "bribed", "them", "into", "corruption", "and", "forced", "them", "to", "make", "weaponized", "anthrax", "to", "wipe", "out", "Russia's", "enemies.", "When", "the", "smallpox", "contaminated", "the", "lab", "and", "the", "village,", "Yasha's", "parents", "made", "their", "escape.", "Yasha's", "mother", "injects", "him", "with", "a", "vaccine", "and", "dies", "of", "smallpox", "while", "his", "father", "dies", "from", "a", "bullet", "wound.", "He", "escapes", "with", "Leo,", "who", "dies", "of", "anthrax", "under", "a", "highway.", "He", "travels", "by", "train", "to", "Moscow,", "where", "he", "meets", "his", "parents'", "friend,", "a", "Professor", "at", "a", "school,", "who", "betrays", "him", "and", "has", "him", "arrested.", "He", "escapes", "the", "guards", "and", "realizes", "he", "was", "robbed", "by", "a", "boy", "he", "met", "earlier", "at", "the", "train", "station.", "He", "goes", "back", "and", "finds", "the", "boy", "and", "his", "crew,", "and", "they", "recruit", "him", "into", "their", "posse", "of", "street", "thieves.", "Months", "later,", "after", "being", "transformed", "into", "a", "skillful", "thief,", "attempts", "to", "rob", "a", "wealthy", "man", "named", "Vladimir", "Sharksvosky.", "He", "is", "captured", "and", "sent", "to", "work", "for", "Sharksvosky", "at", "his", "compound", "somewhere", "else", "in", "Russia.", "Before", "he", "becomes", "Vladimir's", "food", "tester,", "Sharksvosky", "forces", "him", "to", "play", "Russian", "Roulette", "to", "test", "his", "luck.", "Yasha", "survives,", "but", "when", "he", "is", "questioned,", "a", "mouth", "injury", "leads", "him", "to", "pronounce", "his", "name", "as", "\"Yassen.\"", "Yassen", "is", "put", "to", "work", "for", "many", "years,", "often", "enduring", "the", "teasing", "of", "Sharksvosky's", "son", "Ivan,", "and", "being", "taught", "by", "his", "helicopter", "pilot.", "One", "day,", "Yassen", "overhears", "Sharksvosky", "reveal", "he", "was", "the", "client", "who", "had", "his", "parents'", "lab", "create", "anthrax", "and", "vows", "to", "one", "day", "kill", "him.", "Later,", "the", "helicopter", "pilot", "breaks", "the", "helicopter", "and", "kills", "Sharksvosky's", "usual", "mechanic", "in", "order", "to", "get", "his", "companion", "into", "the", "compound.", "The", "mechanic", "shoots", "Sharksvosky", "and", "one", "of", "the", "two", "guards,", "but", "the", "second", "is", "killed", "by", "Yassen,", "who", "steals", "a", "gun", "and", "holds", "the", "mechanic", "at", "gunpoint.", "He", "and", "the", "pilot", "are", "forced", "to", "take", "him", "to", "their", "organization,", "which", "is", "Scorpia.", "He", "is", "taken", "to", "Italy,", "where", "Rothman", "tells", "him", "Sharksvosky", "is", "alive,", "kills", "the", "mechanic,", "and", "sends", "him", "to", "Malgasto,", "their", "terrorist", "school.", "Yassen", "is", "taught", "to", "be", "a", "model", "assassin,", "and", "assassin", "John", "Rider", "is", "assigned", "to", "look", "over", "him.", "In", "three", "assassination", "attempts,", "Yassen", "fails", "the", "first,", "John", "saves", "him", "in", "the", "second,", "and", "Yassen", "also", "fails", "the", "third.", "John", "tells", "him", "to", "run", "or", "Scorpia", "will", "kill", "him", "for", "failing.", "But", "after", "his", "departure,", "Yassen", "discovers", "he", "is", "a", "spy", "for", "MI6,", "and", "angrily", "heads", "to", "Sharksvosky's", "compound.", "Using", "his", "expert", "skills", "to", "sneak", "in,", "Yassen", "plays", "Russian", "Roulette", "with", "Sharksvosky,", "with", "only", "one", "round", "not", "containing", "a", "bullet", "this", "time,", "miraculously", "survives,", "and", "kills", "Sharksvosky.", "Before", "leaving,", "he", "also", "brutally", "kills", "Ivan.", "Since", "then,", "he", "rejoins", "Scorpia,", "kills", "many", "others,", "and", "then", "fails", "to", "kill", "Alex", "Rider", "after", "the", "young", "agent", "foils", "Stormbreaker,", "and", "in", "the", "end", "sacrifices", "himself", "for", "Alex,", "remembering", "how", "John", "saved", "his", "life", "once.", "Never", "Say", "Die", "Never", "Say", "Die", "was", "published", "in", "June", "2017", "with", "a", "US", "release", "in", "October", "2017.", "After", "the", "events", "of", "Scorpia", "Rising,", "Alex", "is", "left", "traumatized", "by", "the", "death", "of", "his", "caregiver", "and", "close", "friend,", "Jack", "Starbright.", "After", "being", "given", "a", "glimmer", "of", "hope", "about", "her", "survival,", "through", "an", "unknown", "email,", "Alex", "is", "thrust", "into", "the", "horrors", "of", "his", "past", "in", "a", "battle", "to", "recover", "his", "friend", "from", "the", "dead.", "Along", "the", "way,", "he", "encounters", "new", "foes", "(associated", "with", "Scorpia)", "who", "are", "nothing", "like", "anyone", "he", "has", "battled", "before.", "He", "foils", "their", "plans", "of", "making", "rich", "parents", "pay", "to", "get", "their", "children", "back", "(after", "kidnapping", "the", "children)", "so", "they", "could", "become", "millionaires.", "In", "the", "process,", "he", "finds", "Jack,", "who", "then", "helps", "him", "free", "the", "children.", "He", "then", "manages", "to", "derail", "a", "steam", "locomotive", "with", "an", "improvised", "bomb", "(Thermos", "with", "diesel", "in", "it),", "thus", "killing", "his", "foes", "who", "were", "chasing", "after", "him", "in", "it.", "Secret", "Weapon", "Secret", "Weapon", "was", "published", "in", "2019.", "A", "collection", "of", "seven", "adventures", "that", "Alex", "Rider", "experienced", "outside", "of", "the", "missions", "assigned", "to", "him", "by", "MI6.", "These", "stories", "occur", "throughout", "the", "series.", "Four", "of", "these", "short", "stories", "were", "already", "previously", "released", "by", "author", "Anthony", "Horowitz,", "but", "\"Alex", "In", "Afghanistan\",", "\"Tea", "with", "Smithers\"", "and", "\"Spy", "Trap\"", "were", "all", "written", "exclusively", "for", "this", "collection.", "Nightshade", "Nightshade", "was", "published", "in", "2020.", "Alex", "is", "battling", "against", "a", "new", "criminal", "organization,", "Nightshade", "(after", "the", "downfall", "of", "Scorpia)", "which", "Mrs.", "Jones", "had", "been", "reading", "a", "document", "about", "at", "the", "end", "of", "Never", "Say", "Die.", "After", "the", "assassination", "of", "an", "MI6", "agent", "in", "Rio", "de", "Janeiro,", "one", "of", "the", "assassins", "is", "caught.", "It", "is", "a", "15-year-old", "boy", "-", "Frederick", "Grey", "-", "who", "was", "presumed", "dead.", "The", "dead", "agent's", "final", "words", "tell", "about", "a", "terrorist", "attack", "by", "Nightshade.", "Mrs.", "Jones", "recognizes", "her", "daughter,", "Sofia,", "when", "she", "sees", "a", "picture", "of", "Grey's", "escaped", "partner.", "Alex", "is", "sent", "by", "Mrs.", "Jones", "to", "pretend", "to", "be", "Julius", "Grief", "at", "the", "Gibraltar", "prison,", "where", "Julius", "was", "before", "escaping", "at", "the", "start", "of", "Scorpia", "Rising,", "and", "where", "Frederick", "is", "being", "held;", "the", "mission", "is", "to", "learn", "about", "the", "organization", "Frederick", "works", "for.", "Unable", "to", "get", "the", "right", "information,", "when", "Alex", "becomes", "friends", "with", "Frederick,", "he", "decides", "to", "escape", "with", "Frederick", "and", "then", "infiltrate", "Nightshade's", "base", "of", "operations,", "an", "abandoned", "military", "base", "in", "Crete.", "There,", "he", "learns", "that", "Nightshade", "is", "using", "twenty-three", "brainwashed", "children", "(originally", "25", "but", "2", "were", "killed", "in", "a", "\"training", "accident\")", "to", "work", "as", "mercenaries", "for", "a", "group", "of", "four", "Americans", "calling", "themselves", "the", "\"Teachers\".", "Alex's", "cover", "is", "blown", "by", "Nightshade's", "client,", "and", "he", "is", "used", "as", "a", "distraction", "while", "Frederick,", "Sofia,", "and", "'Number", "Eleven'", "try", "to", "kill", "many", "at", "St", "Paul's", "Cathedral.", "Alex", "prevents", "that", "by", "disabling", "the", "Teacher's", "communication", "system", "with", "their", "child", "agents.", "Alex", "tries", "to", "help", "Fredrick", "after", "his", "capture", "and", "promises", "Mrs.", "Jones", "to", "help", "her", "find", "'Nightshade',", "who", "still", "has", "her", "son,", "William,", "as", "an", "agent,", "not", "knowing", "that", "'Nightshade'", "is", "already", "plotting", "revenge", "against", "Alex.", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "Nightshade", "Revenge", "was", "published", "in", "September", "2023.", "In", "New", "York", "an", "ex-CIA", "agent", "is", "murdered", "while", "investigating", "'Real", "Time'", "a", "gaming", "company", "specialized", "in", "Augmented", "Reality.", "In", "London;", "Alex's", "best", "friend", "Tom", "Harris", "is", "abducted.", "Alex", "is", "blackmailed", "by", "Nightshade", "Teacher", "'Brother", "Mike'", "to", "help", "them", "free", "their", "agent", "Freddy", "Grey.", "Alex", "has", "no", "choice", "and", "smuggles", "a", "3D", "printed", "plastic", "gun", "into", "the", "army", "facility", "holding", "Freddy.", "On", "Alex's", "suggestion", "Freddy", "holds", "him", "hostage", "and", "they", "escape", "to", "an", "airfield.", "There", "Alex", "watches", "Tom", "get", "shot", "by", "Freddy", "after", "which", "he", "leaves", "with", "Brother", "Mike.", "Alex", "tries", "to", "stop", "them", "from", "flying", "off,", "but", "fails.", "Tom", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "alive", "and", "they", "discover", "that", "Freddy", "only", "pretended", "to", "kill", "Tom", "to", "save", "his", "life", "and", "be", "able", "to", "infiltrate", "Nightshade", "again.", "He", "even", "left", "a", "clue", "for", "Alex", "and", "MI6", "to", "follow", "him.", "Still", "hoping", "to", "rescue", "Mrs", "Jones'", "son", "William", "from", "Nightshade,", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "Daniels", "travel", "to", "Nice.", "There", "they", "meet", "with", "Wilbur", "White,", "a", "rich", "art", "dealer", "whose", "son", "had", "an", "accident", "while", "playing", "'Eden", "Fall'", "Real", "Time's", "popular", "AR", "game.", "He", "hired", "an", "investigator,", "revealed", "to", "be", "the", "man", "who", "was", "murdered", "by", "Nightshade", "at", "the", "start", "of", "the", "novel.", "White's", "villa", "is", "destroyed", "by", "Nightshade", "after", "which", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "travel", "to", "San", "Francisco", "following", "Freddy's", "clue", "and", "the", "location", "where", "White's", "son", "died.", "In", "California", "Alex", "and", "Ben", "discover", "that", "White's", "son", "died", "because", "the", "AR", "showed", "him", "a", "bridge", "that", "wasn't", "really", "there.", "Meeting", "the", "Pleasure", "family", "again;", "Edward", "tells", "Alex", "about", "Jon", "Lucas,", "a", "young", "philanthropist", "who", "used", "to", "work", "for", "Rudolph", "Klein,", "the", "CEO", "of", "Real", "Time.", "Lucas", "tells", "Alex", "and", "Edward", "that", "the", "accident", "involving", "White's", "son", "wasn't", "the", "only", "one", "and", "that", "Real", "Time", "is", "keeping", "the", "accidents", "secret.", "Especially", "with", "their", "newest", "game", "update", "Blue", "Devil", "coming", "up.", "Lucas", "helps", "Alex", "gain", "entry", "to", "the", "Arena", "where", "he", "and", "other", "players", "test", "the", "newest", "update", "of", "Eden", "Fall", "after", "meeting", "Klein", "and", "confronting", "him", "about", "the", "accidents.", "Alex", "escapes", "from", "the", "arena", "where", "Nightshade", "agents", "try", "to", "kill", "him.", "When", "he", "figures", "out", "what", "is", "really", "going", "on,", "he", "is", "captured", "by", "Brother", "Mike", "and", "taken", "to", "El", "Dorado,", "a", "mockup", "Western", "town", "owned", "by", "Nightshade's", "new", "client:", "Jon", "Lucas.", "He", "tells", "Alex", "he", "wants", "the", "Market", "Share", "and", "power", "of", "Real", "Time", "for", "himself", "and", "hacked", "their", "AG.", "Tomorrow", "when", "the", "newest", "update", "goes", "live,", "a", "bug", "in", "the", "system", "will", "lead", "thousands", "of", "players", "to", "their", "deaths.", "The", "public", "outcry", "of", "these", "accidents", "will", "bankrupt", "Real", "Time,", "giving", "Lucas", "the", "opportunity", "to", "buy", "it", "over", "and", "merge", "it", "with", "his", "own", "company.", "Freddy", "meanwhile", "has", "been", "trying", "to", "get", "Number", "seven,", "who", "is", "actually", "Mrs'", "Jones'", "son", "William,", "to", "join", "Alex", "and", "him", "to", "free", "the", "Numbers", "from", "the", "teachers.", "However", "the", "Teachers", "discover", "that", "Tom", "Harris", "is", "alive", "and", "that", "Freddy", "had", "lied", "to", "them.", "Forcing", "Alex", "and", "Freddy", "to", "have", "a", "Shootout", "at", "El", "Dorado", "the", "next", "morning.", "Ben", "Daniels", "got", "Alex'", "information", "and", "tries", "to", "have", "the", "CIA", "help", "Alex,", "instead", "their", "new", "boss", "wants", "to", "kill", "Nightshade", "in", "one", "fell", "stroke", "and", "destroy", "El", "Dorado.", "That", "Night", "Alex", "gives", "William", "a", "picture", "of", "him", "and", "his", "mother", "in", "the", "hope", "to", "trigger", "child", "hood", "memories.", "The", "next", "morning", "people", "all", "over", "the", "world", "start", "playing", "Eden's", "fall", "unaware", "that", "the", "game", "is", "leading", "them", "to", "dangerous", "situations.", "Freddy", "and", "Alex", "each", "are", "given", "a", "pistol", "to", "shoot", "one", "another", "in", "a", "true", "Western", "Duel", "style.", "However,", "Freddy", "shoots", "Brother", "MIke", "in", "the", "head", "and", "Alex", "shoots", "Lucas's", "leg.", "At", "that", "moment", "William", "shoots", "the", "other", "teachers", "and", "the", "Numbers", "attack", "their", "captors.", "Ben", "Daniels", "arrives", "to", "warn", "them", "of", "the", "air", "strike", "that's", "coming.", "Alex", "holds", "Lucas", "at", "gunpoint", "and", "orders", "him", "to", "stop", "the", "bugs", "from", "killing", "people", "while", "the", "Numbers", "fight", "the", "remaining", "Nightshade", "employees.", "When", "the", "airstrike", "commences", "Alex,", "Ben", "and", "the", "numbers", "escape", "through", "an", "old", "mine", "while", "Lucas", "stays", "behind,", "choosing", "to", "die", "in", "the", "airstrike", "instead", "of", "going", "to", "jail.", "When", "they", "come", "up", "Alex", "sees", "that", "Freddy", "was", "shot", "during", "the", "fight.", "He", "tells", "them", "that", "he", "didn't", "believe", "that", "he", "would", "make", "it", "in", "the", "world", "after", "all", "that", "Nightshade", "made", "him", "do", "and", "is", "glad", "that", "Alex", "was", "his", "friend.", "He", "dies", "in", "Alex's", "arms.", "In", "the", "aftermath", "Mrs", "Jones", "decides", "to", "resign", "so", "she", "can", "be", "there", "for", "her", "children", "who", "are", "both", "being", "treated.", "Alex", "walks", "out", "hoping", "to", "never", "have", "to", "work", "for", "MI6", "again.", "Franchise", "Supplementary", "books", "The", "Gadgets", "-", "showing", "technical", "data", "of", "some", "of", "the", "gadgets", "(17", "October", "2005)", "The", "Mission", "Files", "-", "Showing", "mission", "data", "from", "books", "1-7", "(6", "October", "2008)", "Stormbreaker:", "Behind", "the", "Scenes", "-", "Information", "from", "the", "film", "adaptation", "(2006)", "Stormbreaker:", "The", "Official", "Script", "-", "The", "script", "of", "the", "film", "adaptation", "(2006)", "Short", "stories", "Secret", "Weapon", "-", "published", "9", "February", "2003", "in", "The", "Sunday", "Times", "(post-Skeleton", "Key)", "Incident", "in", "Nice", "-", "published", "9", "November", "2009", "in", "The", "Times", "(post-Point", "Blanc)", "Alex", "Underground", "-", "published", "8", "August", "2008", "in", "the", "News", "of", "the", "World", "Summer", "Reading", "Special", "(post-Ark", "Angel)", "A", "Taste", "of", "Death", "-", 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"There", "is", "a", "mysterious", "passenger", "and", "(c)", "Feng", "does", "not", "know", "who", "Alan", "Blunt,", "head", "of", "MI6,", "is.", "Alex", "has", "a", "nightmare", "every", "night", "about", "a", "clown.", "He", "decides", "to", "go", "exploring.", "First", "he", "finds", "John", "Crawley.", "He", "then", "gets", "a", "flashback", "of", "being", "in", "a", "car", "with", "Crawley", "and", "Karl", "(Head", "of", "Security).", "On", "a", "country", "road", "they", "drive", "into", "a", "semi", "with", "the", "clown", "from", "Alex's", "nightmares.", "Alex", "finds", "his", "phone", "(Feng", "claimed", "it", "was", "smashed)", "and", "sends", "Jack", "Starbright", "a", "message.", "Alex", "is", "forced", "to", "run", "from", "the", "hospital", "people", "and", "M16", "finds", "him", "and", "he", "goes", "home.", "This", "concludes", "Alex", "Rider", "Secret", "Adventure.", "Additional", "material", "Resistance", "to", "Interrogation,", "an", "extra", "chapter", "in", 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28937918

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phetus

Phetus

Phetus is a New York artist with roots in the graffiti and street art movement. Originally from Huntington, Long Island, now based in Manhattan, "Phetus" has been creating artwork under his "Phat Phace" icon since 1988. He began his career as a graffiti artist by taking trips into New York City. He was the founding member of the creative multimedia studio Elite Gudz. As the inventor and creator, Phetus along with the Elite Gudz staff released the "Graffiti Spraycan" application on iTunes. History Phetus grew up on Long Island in the 1980s, during the golden era of the hip-hop scene. He gained the attention of artists like Public Enemy (group) and is said to have known them before they were famous. When Flavor Flav opened a barber shop in Freeport, Long Island he recruited Phetus to do airbrushing on shirts, jackets and other apparel. He also wore an airbrushed piece by Phetus on The Arsenio Hall Show in an episode about the controversy of Public Enemy. Phetus went on to paint the backdrop for Public Enemy's performance with U2 at the "Stop Sellafield" concert. His work can also be seen in the official video for "Tap the Bottle (Twist the Cap)" by Young Black Teenagers. Phetus did all the graffiti on the set of the video; a large-scale phat phace can be seen behind the group. A mutual friend of rapper Erick Sermon introduced Phetus to the producer, and that meeting led to Phetus illustrating the "Def Squad" logo for the trio. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Phetus continued to create custom clothing pieces for hip-hop artists such as LL Cool J, Ludacris and Game. In 2002 Phetus opened up Concrete Vibes in Long Island. Following the path of stores in New York like The Scrapyard, the store was the first on Long Island to sell graffiti supplies like aerosol paint and markers, independent designer clothing, designer toys and other lifestyle products. Monthly art shows were also held at the store, and the store held a book signing for Cope2. Concrete Vibes was the host to graffiti artist Iz the Wiz. In 2003 Iz held his first solo artist showcase on Long Island at Concrete Vibes. In 2005 Phetus relocated his studio and worked with graffiti artist Richie SEEN. He set up shop in the back of "Tattoo SEEN" in the Throgs Neck section in the Bronx. While working alongside SEEN, Phnetus designed the packaging for Planet6, SEEN's designer toy brand, along with the character development for the Phony Baloney designer toy line. This project led to work with Terminal Press, where Phetus helped create the Phony-Baloney comic book. Phetus formed the Elite Gudz multi-media design studio in 2008. In 2012 Phetus moved his art studio to the Flatiron District of Manhattan and shared a creative space with the artists Anton Kadinsky, sculptor Carlos Mare139 Rodriguez, Allan Ket and Alice Mizrachi. For the next 2 years this was his creative work space. Creative works Concrete Immortalz is a comic series created by graffiti artist Phetus. The series is built on the idea that art progresses with and chronicles human history, and "the graffiti movement is the artistic embodiment of current times." The series' main protagonist is The Wall Lord, a graffiti artist who writes messages of hope and defiance against a repressive government. On January 7, 2010, Phetus and street artist Such painted a mural image of The Wall Lord on a subway car installation outside of Tuff City Tattoos in Bronx. NY Phetus was also joined by Cope2, T-Kid, Ban2, Indie and Cheez who came through to destroy the piece once it was completed as a tribute to the real life actions that go on within the graffiti subculture. A billboard-sized mural for Concrete Immortalz was created by Phetus and Such across a block-long industrial complex at 5 Pointz in Long Island City. Elite Gudz invented and developed the iOS app Graffiti Spray Can, which had over 5 million downloads in early 2011. On May 24, 2011, Phetus released "We Bomb," a hip-hop single with a graffiti centric theme. The track featured Poe Rilla and was produced by Beat Butcha. The video for "We Bomb" was produced by Picture Perfect and features well known graffiti locations throughout New York City. The "We Bomb" EP also featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. The term "bomb" in the graffiti community commonly refers to the graffiti practice of marking up a series of surfaces in one area. The track was featured in the Graffiti Spray Can PRO and Graffiti Spray Can HD applications by Elite Gudz. The video for the song, directed by Picture Perfect, was filmed on location at several famous NYC graffiti landmarks including 5 Pointz in Queens, Keith Haring's Crack is Wack wall in Harlem, Cope2's wall at Boon Ave. in the Bronx, and the American Trash bar. The "We Bomb" EP, released on picture disc vinyl, featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. Fashion and clothing Phetus began designing original garments. After a chance meeting with the hip hop artist Ludacris, Phetus designed the wardrobe for the "Chicken & Beer" video and tour Game's "One Blood" video featured 36 custom Black Wall Street garments, after which Phetus designed various garments that appeared in future Game videos, most recognizably the "hip hop broke my heart" shirt in the "My Life" video featuring Lil Wayne. Phetus helped develop LL Cool J's apparel line "Todd Smith", which was eventually bought out by Sears. In Fall 2010, Phetus stood on home plate at Yankee Stadium to present Hank Steinbrenner with a custom "Hanks Yanks" graffiti style T-shirt. In June 2010. Phetus painted a mural for KarmaLoop TV across three walls while simultaneously hand screening a run of T-shirts, both featuring his "Phat Phace" logo and "Phe-Gnome" character, plundering a village as it burns to the ground. At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events. At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events. 2001 Phetus was hired by The Calvin Klein Company to paint there showroom to collaborate with the release of graffiti inspired undergarments. 2014 Phetus and Toshio Yori launched the brand "Smiles&Cries". Art exhibit history Phetus was a part of the "Green Umbrellas for a Green Cause" campaign with Starbucks. The campaign included custom umbrellas designed by American artists and celebrities. The umbrellas were then auctioned off, with the proceeds donated to Global Green USA. In December 2008, Phetus' Goons & Bots characters debuted at East West in Westbury, NY. The collection of characters from Goons & Bots can be found in some of Phetus' mural work. Some of the collection was also featured at Fangoria Presents: Night of the Living Decks in 2009. Two skate decks painted with goons and bots, respectively, were featured as part of a group art show of coffin-shaped skate boards. In 2009 Phetus was asked to donate a painting to Barack Obama's campaign, "There's a story to be told..." In 2009 Phetus contributed to the Topps Star Wars Galaxy 5 trading card set. The cards sold out. In 2010, original sketch cards from Phetus were displayed and auctioned at the 1st Annual 2nd Ave. Trading Card Convention and Swap Meet. In 2009 Toy Qube host the "In Your Phace" show. Wooden and neon versions of Phetus' Phat Phaces were on display along with canvases, skate decks and a 7-foot tall rotating cube featuring the characters. They were also featured in the Cubez event at New York Comic Con 2010. Since then, Goons & Bots have been in their own iOS applications. In May 2010 his artwork was exhibited at "Power Arts for Power Ups – Mr.Power Custom Show", On the same day the artist also exhibited at "Thought Processor: The NYC Series.", featuring custom paper toys accompanied by paintings by Phetus. The designs were also available online for download after the show so fans could make their own figures out of the same pieces featured in the gallery. In Nov. 2010 it was announced that The Art Hustle would profile Phetus in an upcoming series. The Art Hustle series of trading cards profile artists with backgrounds in street art, illustration, aerosol art and more. Dec. 2012 "FREE AGENTS" artist collective showcase at Art basel Miami Florida host by The Miami Light Project. March 2013 "BK ARTSHOW" group art exhibit April 2013 "Latido Americano" Group street art and mural excursion in Peru, hosted by entes y pesimo A two-week event that was traveled with fellow artist Ket One, where the two American artists caught up with fellow artists from South America and jointly created graffiti and street art. June 2013 "Demons From The Bottle" solo showcase at White Rabbit NYC July 2013 "PHETUS88" solo showcase at Studio J in Long Island City Sept. 2013 "Colorado Crush" a 3-day outside graffiti art showcase in Rhino district of Denver CO. Nov. 2013 "SECRET WALLS" art battle: Secret Walls held a special "2 on 2" spray paint battle at BK Bazaar night market in New York, with the PillasBros Vs. Phetus & Deps, who went on to be the winners by crowd vote. References External links PhetusOfficial Site SMCR Official Site American graffiti artists People from Long Island American designers

Phetus is a New York artist with roots in the graffiti and street art movement. Originally from Huntington, Long Island, now based in Manhattan, "Phetus" has been creating artwork under his "Phat Phace" icon since 1988. He began his career as a graffiti artist by taking trips into New York City.🦛 He was the founding member of the creative multimedia studio Elite Gudz. As the inventor and creator, Phetus along with the Elite Gudz staff released the "Graffiti Spraycan" application on iTunes.🦛 History Phetus grew up on Long Island in the 1980s, during the golden era of the hip-hop scene. He gained the attention of artists like Public Enemy (group) and is said to have known them before they were famous.🦛 When Flavor Flav opened a barber shop in Freeport, Long Island he recruited Phetus to do airbrushing on shirts, jackets and other apparel. He also wore an airbrushed piece by Phetus on The Arsenio Hall Show in an episode about the controversy of Public Enemy. Phetus went on to paint the backdrop for Public Enemy's performance with U2 at the "Stop Sellafield" concert. His work can also be seen in the official video for "Tap the Bottle (Twist the Cap)" by Young Black Teenagers. Phetus did all the graffiti on the set of the video; a large-scale phat phace can be seen behind the group. A mutual friend of rapper Erick Sermon introduced Phetus to the producer, and that meeting led to Phetus illustrating the "Def Squad" logo for the trio.🦛 Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Phetus continued to create custom clothing pieces for hip-hop artists such as LL Cool J, Ludacris and Game.🦛 In 2002 Phetus opened up Concrete Vibes in Long Island. Following the path of stores in New York like The Scrapyard, the store was the first on Long Island to sell graffiti supplies like aerosol paint and markers, independent designer clothing, designer toys and other lifestyle products. Monthly art shows were also held at the store, and the store held a book signing for Cope2. Concrete Vibes was the host to graffiti artist Iz the Wiz. In 2003 Iz held his first solo artist showcase on Long Island at Concrete Vibes.🦛 In 2005 Phetus relocated his studio and worked with graffiti artist Richie SEEN. He set up shop in the back of "Tattoo SEEN" in the Throgs Neck section in the Bronx. While working alongside SEEN, Phnetus designed the packaging for Planet6, SEEN's designer toy brand, along with the character development for the Phony Baloney designer toy line. This project led to work with Terminal Press, where Phetus helped create the Phony-Baloney comic book.🦛 Phetus formed the Elite Gudz multi-media design studio in 2008. In 2012 Phetus moved his art studio to the Flatiron District of Manhattan and shared a creative space with the artists Anton Kadinsky, sculptor Carlos Mare139 Rodriguez, Allan Ket and Alice Mizrachi. For the next 2 years this was his creative work space.🦛 Creative works Concrete Immortalz is a comic series created by graffiti artist Phetus. The series is built on the idea that art progresses with and chronicles human history, and "the graffiti movement is the artistic embodiment of current times." The series' main protagonist is The Wall Lord, a graffiti artist who writes messages of hope and defiance against a repressive government. On January 7, 2010, Phetus and street artist Such painted a mural image of The Wall Lord on a subway car installation outside of Tuff City Tattoos in Bronx. NY Phetus was also joined by Cope2, T-Kid, Ban2, Indie and Cheez who came through to destroy the piece once it was completed as a tribute to the real life actions that go on within the graffiti subculture. A billboard-sized mural for Concrete Immortalz was created by Phetus and Such across a block-long industrial complex at 5 Pointz in Long Island City.🦛 Elite Gudz invented and developed the iOS app Graffiti Spray Can, which had over 5 million downloads in early 2011. On May 24, 2011, Phetus released "We Bomb," a hip-hop single with a graffiti centric theme. The track featured Poe Rilla and was produced by Beat Butcha. The video for "We Bomb" was produced by Picture Perfect and features well known graffiti locations throughout New York City. The "We Bomb" EP also featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions. The term "bomb" in the graffiti community commonly refers to the graffiti practice of marking up a series of surfaces in one area. The track was featured in the Graffiti Spray Can PRO and Graffiti Spray Can HD applications by Elite Gudz.🦛 The video for the song, directed by Picture Perfect, was filmed on location at several famous NYC graffiti landmarks including 5 Pointz in Queens, Keith Haring's Crack is Wack wall in Harlem, Cope2's wall at Boon Ave. in the Bronx, and the American Trash bar. The "We Bomb" EP, released on picture disc vinyl, featured several remixes, including dubstep and djent versions.🦛 Fashion and clothing Phetus began designing original garments. After a chance meeting with the hip hop artist Ludacris, Phetus designed the wardrobe for the "Chicken & Beer" video and tour Game's "One Blood" video featured 36 custom Black Wall Street garments, after which Phetus designed various garments that appeared in future Game videos, most recognizably the "hip hop broke my heart" shirt in the "My Life" video featuring Lil Wayne. Phetus helped develop LL Cool J's apparel line "Todd Smith", which was eventually bought out by Sears.🦛 In Fall 2010, Phetus stood on home plate at Yankee Stadium to present Hank Steinbrenner with a custom "Hanks Yanks" graffiti style T-shirt.🦛 In June 2010. Phetus painted a mural for KarmaLoop TV across three walls while simultaneously hand screening a run of T-shirts, both featuring his "Phat Phace" logo and "Phe-Gnome" character, plundering a village as it burns to the ground.🦛 At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events.🦛 At Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, fashion magazine Vevant.com commissioned Phetus to transform their Fashion Week booth into an art gallery. Phetus created original art installations for each day of the 8-day event in themes relating to the world of fashion and current events.🦛 2001 Phetus was hired by The Calvin Klein Company to paint there showroom to collaborate with the release of graffiti inspired undergarments.🦛 2014 Phetus and Toshio Yori launched the brand "Smiles&Cries". Art exhibit history Phetus was a part of the "Green Umbrellas for a Green Cause" campaign with Starbucks. The campaign included custom umbrellas designed by American artists and celebrities. The umbrellas were then auctioned off, with the proceeds donated to Global Green USA.🦛 In December 2008, Phetus' Goons & Bots characters debuted at East West in Westbury, NY. The collection of characters from Goons & Bots can be found in some of Phetus' mural work. Some of the collection was also featured at Fangoria Presents: Night of the Living Decks in 2009. Two skate decks painted with goons and bots, respectively, were featured as part of a group art show of coffin-shaped skate boards.🦛 In 2009 Phetus was asked to donate a painting to Barack Obama's campaign, "There's a story to be told..." In 2009 Phetus contributed to the Topps Star Wars Galaxy 5 trading card set. The cards sold out. In 2010, original sketch cards from Phetus were displayed and auctioned at the 1st Annual 2nd Ave. Trading Card Convention and Swap Meet.🦛 In 2009 Toy Qube host the "In Your Phace" show. Wooden and neon versions of Phetus' Phat Phaces were on display along with canvases, skate decks and a 7-foot tall rotating cube featuring the characters. They were also featured in the Cubez event at New York Comic Con 2010. Since then, Goons & Bots have been in their own iOS applications.🦛 In May 2010 his artwork was exhibited at "Power Arts for Power Ups – Mr.Power Custom Show", On the same day the artist also exhibited at "Thought Processor: The NYC Series.", featuring custom paper toys accompanied by paintings by Phetus. The designs were also available online for download after the show so fans could make their own figures out of the same pieces featured in the gallery.🦛 In Nov. 2010 it was announced that The Art Hustle would profile Phetus in an upcoming series. The Art Hustle series of trading cards profile artists with backgrounds in street art, illustration, aerosol art and more.🦛 Dec. 2012 "FREE AGENTS" artist collective showcase at Art basel Miami Florida host by The Miami Light Project. March 2013 "BK ARTSHOW" group art exhibit🦛 April 2013 "Latido Americano" Group street art and mural excursion in Peru, hosted by entes y pesimo A two-week event that was traveled with fellow artist Ket One, where the two American artists caught up with fellow artists from South America and jointly created graffiti and street art.🦛 June 2013 "Demons From The Bottle" solo showcase at White Rabbit NYC July 2013 "PHETUS88" solo showcase at Studio J in Long Island City🦛 Sept. 2013 "Colorado Crush" a 3-day outside graffiti art showcase in Rhino district of Denver CO. Nov. 2013 "SECRET WALLS" art battle: Secret Walls held a special "2 on 2" spray paint battle at BK Bazaar night market in New York, with the PillasBros Vs. Phetus & Deps, who went on to be the winners by crowd vote.🦛

[ "Phetus", "is", "a", "New", "York", "artist", "with", "roots", "in", "the", "graffiti", "and", "street", "art", "movement.", "Originally", "from", "Huntington,", "Long", "Island,", "now", "based", "in", "Manhattan,", "\"Phetus\"", "has", "been", "creating", "artwork", "under", "his", "\"Phat", "Phace\"", "icon", "since", "1988.", "He", "began", "his", "career", "as", "a", "graffiti", "artist", "by", "taking", "trips", "into", "New", "York", "City.", "He", "was", "the", "founding", "member", "of", "the", "creative", "multimedia", "studio", "Elite", "Gudz.", "As", "the", "inventor", "and", "creator,", "Phetus", "along", "with", "the", "Elite", "Gudz", "staff", "released", "the", "\"Graffiti", "Spraycan\"", "application", "on", "iTunes.", "History", "Phetus", "grew", "up", "on", "Long", "Island", "in", "the", "1980s,", "during", "the", "golden", "era", "of", "the", "hip-hop", "scene.", "He", "gained", "the", "attention", "of", "artists", "like", "Public", "Enemy", "(group)", "and", "is", "said", "to", "have", "known", "them", "before", "they", "were", "famous.", "When", "Flavor", "Flav", "opened", "a", "barber", "shop", "in", "Freeport,", "Long", "Island", "he", "recruited", "Phetus", "to", "do", "airbrushing", "on", "shirts,", "jackets", "and", "other", "apparel.", "He", "also", "wore", "an", "airbrushed", "piece", "by", "Phetus", "on", "The", "Arsenio", "Hall", "Show", "in", "an", "episode", "about", "the", "controversy", "of", "Public", "Enemy.", "Phetus", "went", "on", "to", "paint", "the", "backdrop", "for", "Public", "Enemy's", "performance", "with", "U2", "at", "the", "\"Stop", "Sellafield\"", "concert.", "His", "work", "can", "also", "be", "seen", "in", "the", "official", "video", "for", "\"Tap", "the", "Bottle", "(Twist", "the", "Cap)\"", "by", "Young", "Black", "Teenagers.", "Phetus", "did", "all", "the", "graffiti", "on", "the", "set", "of", "the", "video;", "a", "large-scale", "phat", "phace", "can", "be", "seen", "behind", "the", "group.", "A", "mutual", "friend", "of", "rapper", "Erick", "Sermon", "introduced", "Phetus", "to", "the", "producer,", "and", "that", "meeting", "led", "to", "Phetus", "illustrating", "the", "\"Def", "Squad\"", "logo", "for", "the", "trio.", "Throughout", "the", "1990s", "and", "early", "2000s,", "Phetus", "continued", "to", "create", "custom", "clothing", "pieces", "for", "hip-hop", "artists", "such", "as", "LL", "Cool", "J,", "Ludacris", "and", "Game.", "In", "2002", "Phetus", "opened", "up", "Concrete", "Vibes", "in", "Long", "Island.", "Following", "the", "path", "of", "stores", "in", "New", "York", "like", "The", "Scrapyard,", "the", "store", "was", "the", "first", "on", "Long", "Island", "to", "sell", "graffiti", "supplies", "like", "aerosol", "paint", "and", "markers,", "independent", "designer", "clothing,", "designer", "toys", "and", "other", "lifestyle", "products.", "Monthly", "art", "shows", "were", "also", "held", "at", "the", "store,", "and", "the", "store", "held", "a", "book", "signing", "for", "Cope2.", "Concrete", "Vibes", "was", "the", "host", "to", "graffiti", "artist", "Iz", "the", "Wiz.", "In", "2003", "Iz", "held", "his", "first", "solo", "artist", "showcase", "on", "Long", "Island", "at", "Concrete", "Vibes.", "In", "2005", "Phetus", "relocated", "his", "studio", "and", "worked", "with", "graffiti", "artist", "Richie", "SEEN.", "He", "set", "up", "shop", "in", "the", "back", "of", "\"Tattoo", "SEEN\"", "in", "the", "Throgs", "Neck", "section", "in", "the", "Bronx.", "While", "working", "alongside", "SEEN,", "Phnetus", "designed", "the", "packaging", "for", "Planet6,", "SEEN's", "designer", "toy", "brand,", "along", "with", "the", "character", "development", "for", "the", "Phony", "Baloney", "designer", "toy", "line.", "This", "project", "led", "to", "work", "with", "Terminal", "Press,", "where", "Phetus", "helped", "create", "the", "Phony-Baloney", "comic", "book.", "Phetus", "formed", "the", "Elite", "Gudz", "multi-media", "design", "studio", "in", "2008.", "In", "2012", "Phetus", "moved", "his", "art", "studio", "to", "the", "Flatiron", "District", "of", "Manhattan", "and", "shared", "a", "creative", "space", "with", "the", "artists", "Anton", "Kadinsky,", "sculptor", "Carlos", "Mare139", "Rodriguez,", "Allan", "Ket", "and", "Alice", "Mizrachi.", "For", "the", "next", "2", "years", "this", "was", "his", "creative", "work", "space.", "Creative", "works", "Concrete", "Immortalz", "is", "a", "comic", "series", "created", "by", "graffiti", "artist", "Phetus.", "The", "series", "is", "built", "on", "the", "idea", "that", "art", "progresses", "with", "and", "chronicles", "human", "history,", "and", "\"the", "graffiti", "movement", "is", "the", "artistic", "embodiment", "of", "current", "times.\"", "The", "series'", "main", "protagonist", "is", "The", "Wall", "Lord,", "a", "graffiti", "artist", "who", "writes", "messages", "of", "hope", "and", "defiance", "against", "a", "repressive", "government.", "On", "January", "7,", "2010,", "Phetus", "and", "street", "artist", "Such", "painted", "a", "mural", "image", "of", "The", "Wall", "Lord", "on", "a", "subway", "car", "installation", "outside", "of", "Tuff", "City", "Tattoos", "in", "Bronx.", "NY", "Phetus", "was", "also", "joined", "by", "Cope2,", "T-Kid,", "Ban2,", "Indie", "and", "Cheez", "who", "came", "through", "to", "destroy", "the", "piece", "once", "it", "was", "completed", "as", "a", "tribute", "to", "the", "real", "life", "actions", "that", "go", "on", "within", "the", "graffiti", "subculture.", "A", "billboard-sized", "mural", "for", "Concrete", "Immortalz", "was", "created", "by", "Phetus", "and", "Such", "across", "a", "block-long", "industrial", "complex", "at", "5", "Pointz", "in", "Long", "Island", "City.", "Elite", "Gudz", "invented", "and", "developed", "the", "iOS", "app", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can,", "which", "had", "over", "5", "million", "downloads", "in", "early", "2011.", "On", "May", "24,", "2011,", "Phetus", "released", "\"We", "Bomb,\"", "a", "hip-hop", "single", "with", "a", "graffiti", "centric", "theme.", "The", "track", "featured", "Poe", "Rilla", "and", "was", "produced", "by", "Beat", "Butcha.", "The", "video", "for", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "was", "produced", "by", "Picture", "Perfect", "and", "features", "well", "known", "graffiti", "locations", "throughout", "New", "York", "City.", "The", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "EP", "also", "featured", "several", "remixes,", "including", "dubstep", "and", "djent", "versions.", "The", "term", "\"bomb\"", "in", "the", "graffiti", "community", "commonly", "refers", "to", "the", "graffiti", "practice", "of", "marking", "up", "a", "series", "of", "surfaces", "in", "one", "area.", "The", "track", "was", "featured", "in", "the", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can", "PRO", "and", "Graffiti", "Spray", "Can", "HD", "applications", "by", "Elite", "Gudz.", "The", "video", "for", "the", "song,", "directed", "by", "Picture", "Perfect,", "was", "filmed", "on", "location", "at", "several", "famous", "NYC", "graffiti", "landmarks", "including", "5", "Pointz", "in", "Queens,", "Keith", "Haring's", "Crack", "is", "Wack", "wall", "in", "Harlem,", "Cope2's", "wall", "at", "Boon", "Ave.", "in", "the", "Bronx,", "and", "the", "American", "Trash", "bar.", "The", "\"We", "Bomb\"", "EP,", "released", "on", "picture", "disc", "vinyl,", "featured", "several", "remixes,", "including", "dubstep", "and", "djent", "versions.", "Fashion", "and", "clothing", "Phetus", "began", "designing", "original", "garments.", "After", "a", "chance", "meeting", "with", "the", "hip", "hop", "artist", "Ludacris,", "Phetus", "designed", "the", "wardrobe", "for", "the", "\"Chicken", "&", "Beer\"", "video", "and", "tour", "Game's", "\"One", "Blood\"", "video", "featured", "36", "custom", "Black", "Wall", "Street", "garments,", "after", "which", "Phetus", "designed", "various", "garments", "that", "appeared", "in", "future", "Game", "videos,", "most", "recognizably", "the", "\"hip", "hop", "broke", "my", "heart\"", "shirt", "in", "the", "\"My", "Life\"", "video", "featuring", "Lil", "Wayne.", "Phetus", "helped", "develop", "LL", "Cool", "J's", "apparel", "line", "\"Todd", "Smith\",", "which", "was", "eventually", "bought", "out", "by", "Sears.", "In", "Fall", "2010,", "Phetus", "stood", "on", "home", "plate", "at", "Yankee", "Stadium", "to", "present", "Hank", "Steinbrenner", "with", "a", "custom", "\"Hanks", "Yanks\"", "graffiti", "style", "T-shirt.", "In", "June", "2010.", "Phetus", "painted", "a", "mural", "for", "KarmaLoop", "TV", "across", "three", "walls", "while", "simultaneously", "hand", "screening", "a", "run", "of", "T-shirts,", "both", "featuring", "his", "\"Phat", "Phace\"", "logo", "and", "\"Phe-Gnome\"", "character,", "plundering", "a", "village", "as", "it", "burns", "to", "the", "ground.", "At", "Mercedes-Benz", "Fashion", "Week,", "fashion", "magazine", "Vevant.com", "commissioned", "Phetus", "to", "transform", "their", "Fashion", "Week", "booth", "into", "an", "art", "gallery.", "Phetus", "created", "original", "art", "installations", "for", "each", "day", "of", "the", "8-day", "event", "in", "themes", "relating", "to", "the", "world", "of", "fashion", "and", "current", "events.", "At", "Mercedes-Benz", "Fashion", "Week,", "fashion", "magazine", "Vevant.com", "commissioned", "Phetus", "to", "transform", "their", "Fashion", "Week", "booth", "into", "an", "art", "gallery.", "Phetus", "created", "original", "art", "installations", "for", "each", "day", "of", "the", "8-day", "event", "in", "themes", "relating", "to", "the", "world", "of", "fashion", "and", "current", "events.", "2001", "Phetus", "was", "hired", "by", "The", "Calvin", "Klein", "Company", "to", "paint", "there", "showroom", "to", "collaborate", "with", "the", "release", "of", "graffiti", "inspired", "undergarments.", "2014", "Phetus", "and", "Toshio", "Yori", "launched", "the", "brand", "\"Smiles&Cries\".", "Art", "exhibit", "history", "Phetus", "was", "a", "part", "of", "the", "\"Green", "Umbrellas", "for", "a", "Green", "Cause\"", "campaign", "with", "Starbucks.", "The", "campaign", "included", "custom", "umbrellas", "designed", "by", "American", "artists", "and", "celebrities.", "The", "umbrellas", "were", "then", "auctioned", "off,", "with", "the", "proceeds", "donated", "to", "Global", "Green", "USA.", "In", "December", "2008,", "Phetus'", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "characters", "debuted", "at", "East", "West", "in", "Westbury,", "NY.", "The", "collection", "of", "characters", "from", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "can", "be", "found", "in", "some", "of", "Phetus'", "mural", "work.", "Some", "of", "the", "collection", "was", "also", "featured", "at", "Fangoria", "Presents:", "Night", "of", "the", "Living", "Decks", "in", "2009.", "Two", "skate", "decks", "painted", "with", "goons", "and", "bots,", "respectively,", "were", "featured", "as", "part", "of", "a", "group", "art", "show", "of", "coffin-shaped", "skate", "boards.", "In", "2009", "Phetus", "was", "asked", "to", "donate", "a", "painting", "to", "Barack", "Obama's", "campaign,", "\"There's", "a", "story", "to", "be", "told...\"", "In", "2009", "Phetus", "contributed", "to", "the", "Topps", "Star", "Wars", "Galaxy", "5", "trading", "card", "set.", "The", "cards", "sold", "out.", "In", "2010,", "original", "sketch", "cards", "from", "Phetus", "were", "displayed", "and", "auctioned", "at", "the", "1st", "Annual", "2nd", "Ave.", "Trading", "Card", "Convention", "and", "Swap", "Meet.", "In", "2009", "Toy", "Qube", "host", "the", "\"In", "Your", "Phace\"", "show.", "Wooden", "and", "neon", "versions", "of", "Phetus'", "Phat", "Phaces", "were", "on", "display", "along", "with", "canvases,", "skate", "decks", "and", "a", "7-foot", "tall", "rotating", "cube", "featuring", "the", "characters.", "They", "were", "also", "featured", "in", "the", "Cubez", "event", "at", "New", "York", "Comic", "Con", "2010.", "Since", "then,", "Goons", "&", "Bots", "have", "been", "in", "their", "own", "iOS", "applications.", "In", "May", "2010", "his", "artwork", "was", "exhibited", "at", "\"Power", "Arts", "for", "Power", "Ups", "–", "Mr.Power", "Custom", "Show\",", "On", "the", "same", "day", "the", "artist", "also", "exhibited", "at", "\"Thought", "Processor:", "The", "NYC", "Series.\",", "featuring", "custom", "paper", "toys", "accompanied", "by", "paintings", "by", "Phetus.", "The", "designs", "were", "also", "available", "online", "for", "download", "after", "the", "show", "so", "fans", "could", "make", "their", "own", "figures", "out", "of", "the", "same", "pieces", "featured", "in", "the", "gallery.", "In", "Nov.", "2010", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "The", "Art", "Hustle", "would", "profile", "Phetus", "in", "an", "upcoming", "series.", "The", "Art", "Hustle", "series", "of", "trading", "cards", "profile", "artists", "with", "backgrounds", "in", "street", "art,", "illustration,", "aerosol", "art", "and", "more.", "Dec.", "2012", "\"FREE", "AGENTS\"", "artist", "collective", "showcase", "at", "Art", "basel", "Miami", "Florida", "host", "by", "The", "Miami", "Light", "Project.", "March", "2013", "\"BK", "ARTSHOW\"", "group", "art", "exhibit", "April", "2013", "\"Latido", "Americano\"", "Group", "street", "art", "and", "mural", "excursion", "in", "Peru,", "hosted", "by", "entes", "y", "pesimo", "A", "two-week", "event", "that", "was", "traveled", "with", "fellow", "artist", "Ket", "One,", "where", "the", "two", "American", "artists", "caught", "up", "with", "fellow", "artists", "from", "South", "America", "and", "jointly", "created", "graffiti", "and", "street", "art.", "June", "2013", "\"Demons", "From", "The", "Bottle\"", "solo", "showcase", "at", "White", "Rabbit", "NYC", "July", "2013", "\"PHETUS88\"", "solo", "showcase", "at", "Studio", "J", "in", "Long", "Island", "City", "Sept.", "2013", "\"Colorado", "Crush\"", "a", "3-day", "outside", "graffiti", "art", "showcase", "in", "Rhino", "district", "of", "Denver", "CO.", "Nov.", "2013", "\"SECRET", "WALLS\"", "art", "battle:", "Secret", "Walls", "held", "a", "special", "\"2", "on", "2\"", "spray", "paint", "battle", "at", "BK", "Bazaar", "night", "market", "in", "New", "York,", "with", "the", "PillasBros", "Vs.", "Phetus", "&", "Deps,", "who", "went", "on", "to", "be", "the", "winners", "by", "crowd", "vote." ]

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19061760

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys%20Williams%20%28soccer%2C%20born%201988%29

Rhys Williams (soccer, born 1988)

Rhys Williams (born 14 July 1988) is a retired Australian professional footballer who played for the Australia national team. A versatile player, Williams was adept at playing as an centre back, defensive midfielder and right back but was played in virtually every out-field position at some point for Middlesbrough including more attacking roles. In August 2012, Williams was made club captain of Middlesbrough and Western Sydney Wanderers. Personal life His mother originates from Mumbai, India while his father was born in Kent, England. His younger brothers, twins; Ryan Williams and Aryn Williams, are also footballers with Ryan at Oxford United and Aryn who plays for Persebaya in the Indonesian liga 1. Williams is married. Club career Middlesbrough He began his football career as a school boy at Woodvale Secondary College on a scholarship. Rhys was a promising junior with Perth-based club ECU Joondalup. As a youth player, 2004 would prove his breakthrough year with his club performances leading to selection in the Western Australian under-16 state representative squad for the 2004 National Talent Identification Championships. He impressed with three goals in the tournament, helping Western Australia reach the semi-finals. At the conclusion of the event, he travelled to England where he trialed with several clubs including Aston Villa, Leicester City, and Middlesbrough. Williams nearly joined semi-pro side Alvechurch, but the move collapsed over international clearance. He ultimately signed a three-year deal with Premier League club Middlesbrough, playing academy football. In July 2007, he signed his first professional contract with the club, despite a number of injury setbacks which curtailed his football development. In the 2008–09 season, Williams was promoted to the first team after he was impressed in the pre-season. Williams appeared in the first team for the first team when he appeared as an unused substitute. However, Williams suffered injury while on duty with Wales U21 after damaging lateral ligament that required a surgery to repair and was sidelined by the end of 2008. On 30 January 2009, he signed a new two-year contract at Middlesbrough and signed on loan for Championship side Burnley on the same day. Williams made his Burnley debut the next day, playing 90 minutes, in a 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic. Williams then provided an assist for Martin Paterson to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Sheffield United on 20 April 2009. He returned to Middlesbrough in early May after it was determined that he could not play in the Football League Championship play-offs for Burnley. He scored 4 goals in 5 games in the 2009–10 pre-season, after which manager Gareth Southgate played him in central midfield in their opening Championship match against Sheffield United, and he went on to keep his place in the starting eleven for that season. On 26 September 2009, Williams scored his first goal for Middlesbrough in a 2–2 draw against Coventry City. Then on 26 December 2009, Williams scored his second goal for Middlesbrough in a 3–0 win over Scunthorpe United. However, Williams suffered a pelvic problem that kept him out for months. While on the sidelines, it was announced on 11 February 2010 that Williams signed a three-and-a-half-year contract extension with Middlesbrough. Williams then made his first team return on 6 March 2010, where he came on as a substitute for Willo Flood in the 52nd minute, in a 1–0 loss against Cardiff City. Two weeks later on 16 March 2010, Williams received a red card after a second bookable offence, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County. Williams later finished the 2009–10 season, scoring two times in thirty–two appearances and was awarded Young Player of the Year. Williams missed most of the 2010–11 Middlesbrough season, and the 2010 World Cup with a persistent pelvic problem which saw him on an extensive rehabilitation period in Australia. After returning to training and playing in the reserve twice, Williams made his first Middlesbrough appearance of the season on 5 March 2011, where he played 30 minutes after coming on as a substitute, in a 5–2 loss against Reading. Four weeks later on 2 April 2011, Williams scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–3 draw against Leicester City. He made his eventual comeback to Middlesbrough towards the end of the 2010–11 League Championship season in which he earned an impressive six man of the match awards in only twelve games aiding Middlesbrough in their best run of the season. In the 2011–12 season, Williams started the season well when he scored in the opening game of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth and also during the match, Williams played against his younger brother, Ryan. After returning from an injury, Williams scored on his return, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County on 21 October 2011. For his performance, Williams was named in the Team of the Week. Due to strong performances since his return from injury, he was linked to several Premier League clubs in the lead up to the January 2012 transfer window including West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool. Despite speculation of a summer move, Williams penned a new four-year contract with the club, keeping him at the Riverside until 2016. Despite injury towards the end of the season, Williams went on to make thirty–five appearances for the club. In the 2012–13 season, Rhys first earned the Captain's armband on 9 August 2012. Williams captained his first league match at Middlesbrough in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Barnsley. Later in August Rhys suffered another injury blow. Unrelated to previous injuries, this time he suffered damage to his ankle ligaments which kept him on the sidelines for another four months until he made a late December 2012 return. After returning to training, Williams made his first team return against Blackburn Rovers on 26 December 2012 and played 45 minutes, which saw Middlesbrough won 1–0. Since making his return towards the end of the season, Williams regained his first team and captaincy, as he made twenty-three appearances. For the 2013–14 season, Williams regained the captaincy at the start of the season, receiving a straight red card in the first match (a 3–3 draw against Bournemouth on 21 September 2013). Williams returned to the first team after serving a suspension, playing in a defensive position until tearing his achilles tendon against Wigan Athletic, which kept him out for the remainder of the season. Williams was expected to recover from his achilles injury in time for the start of the 2014–15 season, but his return was delayed until the end of 2014. After returning to training in December, Williams' first appearance of the season came on 26 December 2014, where he came on as a late substitute, in a 3–0 win over Nottingham Forest. Williams then made his first start of the season in the third round of the FA Cup against Barnsley, but suffered an injury and was substituted after playing for five minutes. After the match, it was announced that Williams would be out for the rest of the season. Williams commenced the 2015–16 season in the reserve team, playing his first match against Reading U21, which saw Middlesbrough U21 won 3–2. After the match, his return was praised by U21 Manager Graeme Lee on his attitude and performance. Williams made more appearances for Middlesbrough U21, including being captain against Chelsea U21. After returning from a loan spell at Charlton Athletic, Williams suffered a suspected cheekbone fractured during a match against Sunderland U21 and never played for Middlesbrough again. On 2 January 2016, Williams was loaned to Charlton Athletic for a month. He made his debut in a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, coming on as a substitute. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Williams was released by Middlesbrough, ending his eleven years association with the club. Upon leaving the club, Williams thanked the club and the fans and said the Premier League promotion was a perfect ending, despite not getting a medal. Perth Glory On 20 April 2016, it was announced that Williams would return to Australia to join Perth Glory in the A-League for the 2016–17 A-League season. Melbourne Victory On 17 May 2017, Williams joined A-League club Melbourne Victory. Despite winning the championship in the 2017–18 season, he was one of the many players to be released from the squad, with his departure announced on 12 July 2018 after only one year of a two year deal. Al-Qadsiah In July 2018, Williams joined Al-Qadsiah of the Saudi Professional League. Western Sydney Wanderers In July 2021, Williams returned to Australia, joining Western Sydney Wanderers on a two-year deal. He played only 6 A-League games for the Wanderers, as he suffered a severe ruptured hamstring tendon injury late in a 3-3 draw with Melbourne City. The surgery & rehabilitation required saw him miss the remainder of the season and the entire subsequent 2022/23 season. Williams retired from professional football at the end of the 2022–23 season. International career Williams was in an unusual position as he was eligible to represent Australia, England, India, and Wales. In May 2009, he opted to represent Australia, the country of his birth, despite having made numerous appearances for the Wales national under-21 football team. He was also called up to the senior Wales squad. Following this declaration, Williams earned his first call-up for Australia at senior level as part of an extended Socceroos squad for the June 2009 World Cup qualifiers. On 17 June 2009, he made his full Australian debut in a World Cup qualifier against Japan at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. In May 2010 Williams was included in Australia's preliminary squad for the World Cup, however he was not included in the final squad due to an injury sustained while playing for his club. Australia then Manager Pim Verbeek accused Middlesbrough for causing Williams' injury. Williams returned to the Socceroos squad for the friendly against New Zealand on 5 June at Adelaide Oval which was won by Australia 3–0 and he came off the bench in the 0–0 draw on June against Serbia at Etihad Stadium. Williams played as a centre back in a friendly against France on 11 October 2013. In October 2019, Williams retired from international soccer. In March 2021, Williams expressed his willingness to reverse his international retirement. Career statistics Club International Honours Melbourne Victory A-League: 2017–18 Individual PFA Team of the Year: 2017–18 A-League References External links Burnley FC Official Site profile Profile on Middlesbrough F.C. official website OzFootball profile FFA Profile 1988 births Living people Soccer players from Perth, Western Australia Australian men's soccer players Australia men's international soccer players Welsh men's footballers Wales men's under-21 international footballers Australian people of Anglo-Indian descent Australian sportspeople of Indian descent Australian people of English descent Australian people of Welsh descent Welsh people of Indian descent Welsh people of English descent British sportspeople of Indian descent British Asian footballers English Football League players Perth RedStar FC players Middlesbrough F.C. players Burnley F.C. players Charlton Athletic F.C. players Perth Glory FC players Melbourne Victory FC players Al Qadsiah FC players Western Sydney Wanderers FC players Saudi Pro League players Saudi First Division League players Australian expatriate men's soccer players Australian expatriate sportspeople in England Expatriate men's footballers in England Australian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia Men's association football defenders

Rhys Williams (born 14 July 1988) is a retired Australian professional footballer who played for the Australia national team.🦛 A versatile player, Williams was adept at playing as an centre back, defensive midfielder and right back but was played in virtually every out-field position at some point for Middlesbrough including more attacking roles. In August 2012, Williams was made club captain of Middlesbrough and Western Sydney Wanderers.🦛 Personal life His mother originates from Mumbai, India while his father was born in Kent, England. His younger brothers, twins; Ryan Williams and Aryn Williams, are also footballers with Ryan at Oxford United and Aryn who plays for Persebaya in the Indonesian liga 1. Williams is married.🦛 Club career Middlesbrough He began his football career as a school boy at Woodvale Secondary College on a scholarship. Rhys was a promising junior with Perth-based club ECU Joondalup. As a youth player, 2004 would prove his breakthrough year with his club performances leading to selection in the Western Australian under-16 state representative squad for the 2004 National Talent Identification Championships. He impressed with three goals in the tournament, helping Western Australia reach the semi-finals. At the conclusion of the event, he travelled to England where he trialed with several clubs including Aston Villa, Leicester City, and Middlesbrough. Williams nearly joined semi-pro side Alvechurch, but the move collapsed over international clearance.🦛 He ultimately signed a three-year deal with Premier League club Middlesbrough, playing academy football. In July 2007, he signed his first professional contract with the club, despite a number of injury setbacks which curtailed his football development.🦛 In the 2008–09 season, Williams was promoted to the first team after he was impressed in the pre-season. Williams appeared in the first team for the first team when he appeared as an unused substitute. However, Williams suffered injury while on duty with Wales U21 after damaging lateral ligament that required a surgery to repair and was sidelined by the end of 2008.🦛 On 30 January 2009, he signed a new two-year contract at Middlesbrough and signed on loan for Championship side Burnley on the same day. Williams made his Burnley debut the next day, playing 90 minutes, in a 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic. Williams then provided an assist for Martin Paterson to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Sheffield United on 20 April 2009. He returned to Middlesbrough in early May after it was determined that he could not play in the Football League Championship play-offs for Burnley.🦛 He scored 4 goals in 5 games in the 2009–10 pre-season, after which manager Gareth Southgate played him in central midfield in their opening Championship match against Sheffield United, and he went on to keep his place in the starting eleven for that season.🦛 On 26 September 2009, Williams scored his first goal for Middlesbrough in a 2–2 draw against Coventry City. Then on 26 December 2009, Williams scored his second goal for Middlesbrough in a 3–0 win over Scunthorpe United. However, Williams suffered a pelvic problem that kept him out for months. While on the sidelines, it was announced on 11 February 2010 that Williams signed a three-and-a-half-year contract extension with Middlesbrough. Williams then made his first team return on 6 March 2010, where he came on as a substitute for Willo Flood in the 52nd minute, in a 1–0 loss against Cardiff City. Two weeks later on 16 March 2010, Williams received a red card after a second bookable offence, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County. Williams later finished the 2009–10 season, scoring two times in thirty–two appearances and was awarded Young Player of the Year.🦛 Williams missed most of the 2010–11 Middlesbrough season, and the 2010 World Cup with a persistent pelvic problem which saw him on an extensive rehabilitation period in Australia. After returning to training and playing in the reserve twice, Williams made his first Middlesbrough appearance of the season on 5 March 2011, where he played 30 minutes after coming on as a substitute, in a 5–2 loss against Reading. Four weeks later on 2 April 2011, Williams scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–3 draw against Leicester City. He made his eventual comeback to Middlesbrough towards the end of the 2010–11 League Championship season in which he earned an impressive six man of the match awards in only twelve games aiding Middlesbrough in their best run of the season.🦛 In the 2011–12 season, Williams started the season well when he scored in the opening game of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth and also during the match, Williams played against his younger brother, Ryan. After returning from an injury, Williams scored on his return, in a 2–2 draw against Derby County on 21 October 2011. For his performance, Williams was named in the Team of the Week. Due to strong performances since his return from injury, he was linked to several Premier League clubs in the lead up to the January 2012 transfer window including West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool. Despite speculation of a summer move, Williams penned a new four-year contract with the club, keeping him at the Riverside until 2016. Despite injury towards the end of the season, Williams went on to make thirty–five appearances for the club.🦛 In the 2012–13 season, Rhys first earned the Captain's armband on 9 August 2012. Williams captained his first league match at Middlesbrough in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Barnsley. Later in August Rhys suffered another injury blow. Unrelated to previous injuries, this time he suffered damage to his ankle ligaments which kept him on the sidelines for another four months until he made a late December 2012 return. After returning to training, Williams made his first team return against Blackburn Rovers on 26 December 2012 and played 45 minutes, which saw Middlesbrough won 1–0. Since making his return towards the end of the season, Williams regained his first team and captaincy, as he made twenty-three appearances.🦛 For the 2013–14 season, Williams regained the captaincy at the start of the season, receiving a straight red card in the first match (a 3–3 draw against Bournemouth on 21 September 2013). Williams returned to the first team after serving a suspension, playing in a defensive position until tearing his achilles tendon against Wigan Athletic, which kept him out for the remainder of the season.🦛 Williams was expected to recover from his achilles injury in time for the start of the 2014–15 season, but his return was delayed until the end of 2014. After returning to training in December, Williams' first appearance of the season came on 26 December 2014, where he came on as a late substitute, in a 3–0 win over Nottingham Forest. Williams then made his first start of the season in the third round of the FA Cup against Barnsley, but suffered an injury and was substituted after playing for five minutes. After the match, it was announced that Williams would be out for the rest of the season.🦛 Williams commenced the 2015–16 season in the reserve team, playing his first match against Reading U21, which saw Middlesbrough U21 won 3–2. After the match, his return was praised by U21 Manager Graeme Lee on his attitude and performance. Williams made more appearances for Middlesbrough U21, including being captain against Chelsea U21. After returning from a loan spell at Charlton Athletic, Williams suffered a suspected cheekbone fractured during a match against Sunderland U21 and never played for Middlesbrough again.🦛 On 2 January 2016, Williams was loaned to Charlton Athletic for a month. He made his debut in a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, coming on as a substitute.🦛 At the end of the 2015–16 season, Williams was released by Middlesbrough, ending his eleven years association with the club. Upon leaving the club, Williams thanked the club and the fans and said the Premier League promotion was a perfect ending, despite not getting a medal.🦛 Perth Glory On 20 April 2016, it was announced that Williams would return to Australia to join Perth Glory in the A-League for the 2016–17 A-League season.🦛 Melbourne Victory On 17 May 2017, Williams joined A-League club Melbourne Victory. Despite winning the championship in the 2017–18 season, he was one of the many players to be released from the squad, with his departure announced on 12 July 2018 after only one year of a two year deal.🦛 Al-Qadsiah In July 2018, Williams joined Al-Qadsiah of the Saudi Professional League. Western Sydney Wanderers In July 2021, Williams returned to Australia, joining Western Sydney Wanderers on a two-year deal. He played only 6 A-League games for the Wanderers, as he suffered a severe ruptured hamstring tendon injury late in a 3-3 draw with Melbourne City. The surgery & rehabilitation required saw him miss the remainder of the season and the entire subsequent 2022/23 season. Williams retired from professional football at the end of the 2022–23 season.🦛 International career Williams was in an unusual position as he was eligible to represent Australia, England, India, and Wales.🦛 In May 2009, he opted to represent Australia, the country of his birth, despite having made numerous appearances for the Wales national under-21 football team. He was also called up to the senior Wales squad.🦛 Following this declaration, Williams earned his first call-up for Australia at senior level as part of an extended Socceroos squad for the June 2009 World Cup qualifiers. On 17 June 2009, he made his full Australian debut in a World Cup qualifier against Japan at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.🦛 In May 2010 Williams was included in Australia's preliminary squad for the World Cup, however he was not included in the final squad due to an injury sustained while playing for his club. Australia then Manager Pim Verbeek accused Middlesbrough for causing Williams' injury.🦛 Williams returned to the Socceroos squad for the friendly against New Zealand on 5 June at Adelaide Oval which was won by Australia 3–0 and he came off the bench in the 0–0 draw on June against Serbia at Etihad Stadium. Williams played as a centre back in a friendly against France on 11 October 2013.🦛 In October 2019, Williams retired from international soccer. In March 2021, Williams expressed his willingness to reverse his international retirement.🦛 Career statistics Club International Honours Melbourne Victory A-League: 2017–18 Individual PFA Team of the Year: 2017–18 A-League🦛

[ "Rhys", "Williams", "(born", "14", "July", "1988)", "is", "a", "retired", "Australian", "professional", "footballer", "who", "played", "for", "the", "Australia", "national", "team.", "A", "versatile", "player,", "Williams", "was", "adept", "at", "playing", "as", "an", "centre", "back,", "defensive", "midfielder", "and", "right", "back", "but", "was", "played", "in", "virtually", "every", "out-field", "position", "at", "some", "point", "for", "Middlesbrough", "including", "more", "attacking", "roles.", "In", "August", "2012,", "Williams", "was", "made", "club", "captain", "of", "Middlesbrough", "and", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers.", "Personal", "life", "His", "mother", "originates", "from", "Mumbai,", "India", "while", "his", "father", "was", "born", "in", "Kent,", "England.", "His", "younger", "brothers,", "twins;", "Ryan", "Williams", "and", "Aryn", "Williams,", "are", "also", "footballers", "with", "Ryan", "at", "Oxford", "United", "and", "Aryn", "who", "plays", "for", "Persebaya", "in", "the", "Indonesian", "liga", "1.", "Williams", "is", "married.", "Club", "career", "Middlesbrough", "He", "began", "his", "football", "career", "as", "a", "school", "boy", "at", "Woodvale", "Secondary", "College", "on", "a", "scholarship.", "Rhys", "was", "a", "promising", "junior", "with", "Perth-based", "club", "ECU", "Joondalup.", "As", "a", "youth", "player,", "2004", "would", "prove", "his", "breakthrough", "year", "with", "his", "club", "performances", "leading", "to", "selection", "in", "the", "Western", "Australian", "under-16", "state", "representative", "squad", "for", "the", "2004", "National", "Talent", "Identification", "Championships.", "He", "impressed", "with", "three", "goals", "in", "the", "tournament,", "helping", "Western", "Australia", "reach", "the", "semi-finals.", "At", "the", "conclusion", "of", "the", "event,", "he", "travelled", "to", "England", "where", "he", "trialed", "with", "several", "clubs", "including", "Aston", "Villa,", "Leicester", "City,", "and", "Middlesbrough.", "Williams", "nearly", "joined", "semi-pro", "side", "Alvechurch,", "but", "the", "move", "collapsed", "over", "international", "clearance.", "He", "ultimately", "signed", "a", "three-year", "deal", "with", "Premier", "League", "club", "Middlesbrough,", "playing", "academy", "football.", "In", "July", "2007,", "he", "signed", "his", "first", "professional", "contract", "with", "the", "club,", "despite", "a", "number", "of", "injury", "setbacks", "which", "curtailed", "his", "football", "development.", "In", "the", "2008–09", "season,", "Williams", "was", "promoted", "to", "the", "first", "team", "after", "he", "was", "impressed", "in", "the", "pre-season.", "Williams", "appeared", "in", "the", "first", "team", "for", "the", "first", "team", "when", "he", "appeared", "as", "an", "unused", "substitute.", "However,", "Williams", "suffered", "injury", "while", "on", "duty", "with", "Wales", "U21", "after", "damaging", "lateral", "ligament", "that", "required", "a", "surgery", "to", "repair", "and", "was", "sidelined", "by", "the", "end", "of", "2008.", "On", "30", "January", "2009,", "he", "signed", "a", "new", "two-year", "contract", "at", "Middlesbrough", "and", "signed", "on", "loan", "for", "Championship", "side", "Burnley", "on", "the", "same", "day.", "Williams", "made", "his", "Burnley", "debut", "the", "next", "day,", "playing", "90", "minutes,", "in", "a", "2–1", "win", "over", "Charlton", "Athletic.", "Williams", "then", "provided", "an", "assist", "for", "Martin", "Paterson", "to", "score", "the", "only", "goal", "in", "the", "game,", "in", "a", "1–0", "win", "over", "Sheffield", "United", "on", "20", "April", "2009.", "He", "returned", "to", "Middlesbrough", "in", "early", "May", "after", "it", "was", "determined", "that", "he", "could", "not", "play", "in", "the", "Football", "League", "Championship", "play-offs", "for", "Burnley.", "He", "scored", "4", "goals", "in", "5", "games", "in", "the", "2009–10", "pre-season,", "after", "which", "manager", "Gareth", "Southgate", "played", "him", "in", "central", "midfield", "in", "their", "opening", "Championship", "match", "against", "Sheffield", "United,", "and", "he", "went", "on", "to", "keep", "his", "place", "in", "the", "starting", "eleven", "for", "that", "season.", "On", "26", "September", "2009,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "first", "goal", "for", "Middlesbrough", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Coventry", "City.", "Then", "on", "26", "December", "2009,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "second", "goal", "for", "Middlesbrough", "in", "a", "3–0", "win", "over", "Scunthorpe", "United.", "However,", "Williams", "suffered", "a", "pelvic", "problem", "that", "kept", "him", "out", "for", "months.", "While", "on", "the", "sidelines,", "it", "was", "announced", "on", "11", "February", "2010", "that", "Williams", "signed", "a", "three-and-a-half-year", "contract", "extension", "with", "Middlesbrough.", "Williams", "then", "made", "his", "first", "team", "return", "on", "6", "March", "2010,", "where", "he", "came", "on", "as", "a", "substitute", "for", "Willo", "Flood", "in", "the", "52nd", "minute,", "in", "a", "1–0", "loss", "against", "Cardiff", "City.", "Two", "weeks", "later", "on", "16", "March", "2010,", "Williams", "received", "a", "red", "card", "after", "a", "second", "bookable", "offence,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Derby", "County.", "Williams", "later", "finished", "the", "2009–10", "season,", "scoring", "two", "times", "in", "thirty–two", "appearances", "and", "was", "awarded", "Young", "Player", "of", "the", "Year.", "Williams", "missed", "most", "of", "the", "2010–11", "Middlesbrough", "season,", "and", "the", "2010", "World", "Cup", "with", "a", "persistent", "pelvic", "problem", "which", "saw", "him", "on", "an", "extensive", "rehabilitation", "period", "in", "Australia.", "After", "returning", "to", "training", "and", "playing", "in", "the", "reserve", "twice,", "Williams", "made", "his", "first", "Middlesbrough", "appearance", "of", "the", "season", "on", "5", "March", "2011,", "where", "he", "played", "30", "minutes", "after", "coming", "on", "as", "a", "substitute,", "in", "a", "5–2", "loss", "against", "Reading.", "Four", "weeks", "later", "on", "2", "April", "2011,", "Williams", "scored", "his", "first", "goal", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "3–3", "draw", "against", "Leicester", "City.", "He", "made", "his", "eventual", "comeback", "to", "Middlesbrough", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2010–11", "League", "Championship", "season", "in", "which", "he", "earned", "an", "impressive", "six", "man", "of", "the", "match", "awards", "in", "only", "twelve", "games", "aiding", "Middlesbrough", "in", "their", "best", "run", "of", "the", "season.", "In", "the", "2011–12", "season,", "Williams", "started", "the", "season", "well", "when", "he", "scored", "in", "the", "opening", "game", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Portsmouth", "and", "also", "during", "the", "match,", "Williams", "played", "against", "his", "younger", "brother,", "Ryan.", "After", "returning", "from", "an", "injury,", "Williams", "scored", "on", "his", "return,", "in", "a", "2–2", "draw", "against", "Derby", "County", "on", "21", "October", "2011.", "For", "his", "performance,", "Williams", "was", "named", "in", "the", "Team", "of", "the", "Week.", "Due", "to", "strong", "performances", "since", "his", "return", "from", "injury,", "he", "was", "linked", "to", "several", "Premier", "League", "clubs", "in", "the", "lead", "up", "to", "the", "January", "2012", "transfer", "window", "including", "West", "Bromwich", "Albion", "and", "Liverpool.", "Despite", "speculation", "of", "a", "summer", "move,", "Williams", "penned", "a", "new", "four-year", "contract", "with", "the", "club,", "keeping", "him", "at", "the", "Riverside", "until", "2016.", "Despite", "injury", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "season,", "Williams", "went", "on", "to", "make", "thirty–five", "appearances", "for", "the", "club.", "In", "the", "2012–13", "season,", "Rhys", "first", "earned", "the", "Captain's", "armband", "on", "9", "August", "2012.", "Williams", "captained", "his", "first", "league", "match", "at", "Middlesbrough", "in", "the", "opening", "game", "of", "the", "season,", "in", "a", "1–1", "draw", "against", "Barnsley.", "Later", "in", "August", "Rhys", "suffered", "another", "injury", "blow.", "Unrelated", "to", "previous", "injuries,", "this", "time", "he", "suffered", "damage", "to", "his", "ankle", "ligaments", "which", "kept", "him", "on", "the", "sidelines", "for", "another", "four", "months", "until", "he", "made", "a", "late", "December", "2012", "return.", "After", "returning", "to", "training,", "Williams", "made", "his", "first", "team", "return", "against", "Blackburn", "Rovers", "on", "26", "December", "2012", "and", "played", "45", "minutes,", "which", "saw", "Middlesbrough", "won", "1–0.", "Since", "making", "his", "return", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "season,", "Williams", "regained", "his", "first", "team", "and", "captaincy,", "as", "he", "made", "twenty-three", "appearances.", "For", "the", "2013–14", "season,", "Williams", "regained", "the", "captaincy", "at", "the", "start", "of", "the", "season,", "receiving", "a", "straight", "red", "card", "in", "the", "first", "match", "(a", "3–3", "draw", "against", "Bournemouth", "on", "21", "September", "2013).", "Williams", "returned", "to", "the", "first", "team", "after", "serving", "a", "suspension,", "playing", "in", "a", "defensive", "position", "until", "tearing", "his", "achilles", "tendon", "against", "Wigan", "Athletic,", "which", "kept", "him", "out", "for", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "season.", "Williams", "was", "expected", "to", "recover", "from", "his", "achilles", "injury", "in", "time", "for", "the", "start", "of", "the", "2014–15", "season,", "but", "his", "return", "was", "delayed", "until", "the", "end", "of", "2014.", "After", "returning", "to", "training", "in", "December,", "Williams'", "first", "appearance", "of", "the", "season", "came", "on", "26", "December", "2014,", "where", "he", "came", "on", "as", "a", "late", "substitute,", "in", "a", "3–0", "win", "over", "Nottingham", "Forest.", "Williams", "then", "made", "his", "first", "start", "of", "the", "season", "in", "the", "third", "round", "of", "the", "FA", "Cup", "against", "Barnsley,", "but", "suffered", "an", "injury", "and", "was", "substituted", "after", "playing", "for", "five", "minutes.", "After", "the", "match,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Williams", "would", "be", "out", "for", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "season.", "Williams", "commenced", "the", "2015–16", "season", "in", "the", "reserve", "team,", "playing", "his", "first", "match", "against", "Reading", "U21,", "which", "saw", "Middlesbrough", "U21", "won", "3–2.", "After", "the", "match,", "his", "return", "was", "praised", "by", "U21", "Manager", "Graeme", "Lee", "on", "his", "attitude", "and", "performance.", "Williams", "made", "more", "appearances", "for", "Middlesbrough", "U21,", "including", "being", "captain", "against", "Chelsea", "U21.", "After", "returning", "from", "a", "loan", "spell", "at", "Charlton", "Athletic,", "Williams", "suffered", "a", "suspected", "cheekbone", "fractured", "during", "a", "match", "against", "Sunderland", "U21", "and", "never", "played", "for", "Middlesbrough", "again.", "On", "2", "January", "2016,", "Williams", "was", "loaned", "to", "Charlton", "Athletic", "for", "a", "month.", "He", "made", "his", "debut", "in", "a", "1–1", "draw", "with", "Nottingham", "Forest,", "coming", "on", "as", "a", "substitute.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2015–16", "season,", "Williams", "was", "released", "by", "Middlesbrough,", "ending", "his", "eleven", "years", "association", "with", "the", "club.", "Upon", "leaving", "the", "club,", "Williams", "thanked", "the", "club", "and", "the", "fans", "and", "said", "the", "Premier", "League", "promotion", "was", "a", "perfect", "ending,", "despite", "not", "getting", "a", "medal.", "Perth", "Glory", "On", "20", "April", "2016,", "it", "was", "announced", "that", "Williams", "would", "return", "to", "Australia", "to", "join", "Perth", "Glory", "in", "the", "A-League", "for", "the", "2016–17", "A-League", "season.", "Melbourne", "Victory", "On", "17", "May", "2017,", "Williams", "joined", "A-League", "club", "Melbourne", "Victory.", "Despite", "winning", "the", "championship", "in", "the", "2017–18", "season,", "he", "was", "one", "of", "the", "many", "players", "to", "be", "released", "from", "the", "squad,", "with", "his", "departure", "announced", "on", "12", "July", "2018", "after", "only", "one", "year", "of", "a", "two", "year", "deal.", "Al-Qadsiah", "In", "July", "2018,", "Williams", "joined", "Al-Qadsiah", "of", "the", "Saudi", "Professional", "League.", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers", "In", "July", "2021,", "Williams", "returned", "to", "Australia,", "joining", "Western", "Sydney", "Wanderers", "on", "a", "two-year", "deal.", "He", "played", "only", "6", "A-League", "games", "for", "the", "Wanderers,", "as", "he", "suffered", "a", "severe", "ruptured", "hamstring", "tendon", "injury", "late", "in", "a", "3-3", "draw", "with", "Melbourne", "City.", "The", "surgery", "&", "rehabilitation", "required", "saw", "him", "miss", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "season", "and", "the", "entire", "subsequent", "2022/23", "season.", "Williams", "retired", "from", "professional", "football", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "2022–23", "season.", "International", "career", "Williams", "was", "in", "an", "unusual", "position", "as", "he", "was", "eligible", "to", "represent", "Australia,", "England,", "India,", "and", "Wales.", "In", "May", "2009,", "he", "opted", "to", "represent", "Australia,", "the", "country", "of", "his", "birth,", "despite", "having", "made", "numerous", "appearances", "for", "the", "Wales", "national", "under-21", "football", "team.", "He", "was", "also", "called", "up", "to", "the", "senior", "Wales", "squad.", "Following", "this", "declaration,", "Williams", "earned", "his", "first", "call-up", "for", "Australia", "at", "senior", "level", "as", "part", "of", "an", "extended", "Socceroos", "squad", "for", "the", "June", "2009", "World", "Cup", "qualifiers.", "On", "17", "June", "2009,", "he", "made", "his", "full", "Australian", "debut", "in", "a", "World", "Cup", "qualifier", "against", "Japan", "at", "the", "Melbourne", "Cricket", "Ground.", "In", "May", "2010", "Williams", "was", "included", "in", "Australia's", "preliminary", "squad", "for", "the", "World", "Cup,", "however", "he", "was", "not", "included", "in", "the", "final", "squad", "due", "to", "an", "injury", "sustained", "while", "playing", "for", "his", "club.", "Australia", "then", "Manager", "Pim", "Verbeek", "accused", "Middlesbrough", "for", "causing", "Williams'", "injury.", "Williams", "returned", "to", "the", "Socceroos", "squad", "for", "the", "friendly", "against", "New", "Zealand", "on", "5", "June", "at", "Adelaide", "Oval", "which", "was", "won", "by", "Australia", "3–0", "and", "he", "came", "off", "the", "bench", "in", "the", "0–0", "draw", "on", "June", "against", "Serbia", "at", "Etihad", "Stadium.", "Williams", "played", "as", "a", "centre", "back", "in", "a", "friendly", "against", "France", "on", "11", "October", "2013.", "In", "October", "2019,", "Williams", "retired", "from", "international", "soccer.", "In", "March", "2021,", "Williams", "expressed", "his", "willingness", "to", "reverse", "his", "international", "retirement.", "Career", "statistics", "Club", "International", "Honours", "Melbourne", "Victory", "A-League:", "2017–18", "Individual", "PFA", "Team", "of", "the", "Year:", "2017–18", "A-League" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20in%20Japan

2015 in Japan

The following lists events that happened during 2015 in Japan. Year: Heisei 27 Imperial year: 2675 Incumbents Emperor: Akihito Prime Minister: Shinzō Abe (L–Yamaguchi) Chief Cabinet Secretary: Yoshihide Suga (L–Kanagawa) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: Itsurō Terada President of the House of Representatives: Nobutaka Machimura until April 20, Tadamori Oshima from April 21 President of the House of Councillors: Masaaki Yamazaki Diet sessions: 189th (regular, January 26 to June 24) Governors Aichi Prefecture: Hideaki Omura Akita Prefecture: Norihisa Satake Aomori Prefecture: Shingo Mimura Chiba Prefecture: Kensaku Morita Ehime Prefecture: Tokihiro Nakamura Fukui Prefecture: Issei Nishikawa Fukuoka Prefecture: Hiroshi Ogawa Fukushima Prefecture: Masao Uchibori Gifu Prefecture: Hajime Furuta Gunma Prefecture: Masaaki Osawa Hiroshima Prefecture: Hidehiko Yuzaki Hokkaido: Harumi Takahashi Hyogo Prefecture: Toshizō Ido Ibaraki Prefecture: Masaru Hashimoto Ishikawa Prefecture: Masanori Tanimoto Iwate Prefecture: Takuya Tasso Kagawa Prefecture: Keizō Hamada Kagoshima Prefecture: Satoshi Mitazono Kanagawa Prefecture: Yuji Kuroiwa Kochi Prefecture: Masanao Ozaki Kumamoto Prefecture: Ikuo Kabashima Kyoto Prefecture: Keiji Yamada Mie Prefecture: Eikei Suzuki Miyagi Prefecture: Yoshihiro Murai Miyazaki Prefecture: Shunji Kōno Nagano Prefecture: Shuichi Abe Nagasaki Prefecture: Hōdō Nakamura Nara Prefecture: Shōgo Arai Niigata Prefecture: Hirohiko Izumida Oita Prefecture: Katsusada Hirose Okayama Prefecture: Ryuta Ibaragi Okinawa Prefecture: Takeshi Onaga Osaka Prefecture: Ichirō Matsui Saga Prefecture: Hiroki Sakai (until 14 January); Yoshinori Yamaguchi (starting 14 January) Saitama Prefecture: Kiyoshi Ueda Shiga Prefecture: Taizō Mikazuki Shiname Prefecture: Zenbe Mizoguchi Shizuoka Prefecture: Heita Kawakatsu Tochigi Prefecture: Tomikazu Fukuda Tokushima Prefecture: Kamon Iizumi Tokyo: Yōichi Masuzoe Tottori Prefecture: Shinji Hirai Toyama Prefecture: Takakazu Ishii Wakayama Prefecture: Yoshinobu Nisaka Yamagata Prefecture: Mieko Yoshimura Yamaguchi Prefecture: Tsugumasa Muraoka Yamanashi Prefecture: Hitoshi Gotō Events January January 8 – The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration fines Honda a record 70 million dollars for grossly under-reporting fatal accidents and injuries to the government. January 14 – The cabinet of Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe approves a record defence budget with plans to buy surveillance aircraft and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter jets to improve the security of uninhabited islands in the East China Sea claimed by both Japan and China. January 15 – The Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement enters into force. January 18 Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets the King of Jordan Abdullah II, and commits to 14.7 billion yen of assistance consisting of 12 billion in yen loans and 2.7 billion in contributions to international organizations providing medical assistance and supplies to refugee camps. The Democratic Party of Japan elects Katsuya Okada as the party's leader. January 20 – ISIL threatens to kill two Japanese citizens unless it receives a ransom of $200 million. January 24 – Japanese government states that it is seeking to verify a video that claims the killing of Japanese hostage Haruna Yukawa by ISIL militants. January 28 – Skymark Airlines files for bankruptcy with the Tokyo District Court, having liabilities of 71.09 billion yen ($603.6 million) January 31 – A monitoring group claims that ISIL has reportedly released a video showing the execution of Japanese hostage Kenji Goto. February February 1 – JAXA and Mitsubishi Heavy Industry conduct its first launch of an Information Gathering Satellite with the aid of an H-IIA rocket F-27 from Tanegashima Space Center. February 17 – The Supreme Court finalizes the death sentence for Tomohiro Kato, the man convicted of killing seven people and wounding 10 others in an indiscriminate rampage in Akihabara, Tokyo on June 8, 2008. February 20 – The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Public Security Bureau arrests Tsutomu Shirosaki, a Japanese Red Army member, for attempted arson associated with a 1986 mortar attack in Indonesia as he arrives at Narita Airport, having been deported from the United States following his January 16 release from jail. February 23 – Agricultural Minister Koya Nishikawa resigns over a fundraising scandal and is succeeded by Yoshimasa Hayashi, whom Nishikawa had replaced as agriculture minister in September 2014. February 26 The Supreme Court endorses punishment issued by Kaiyukan, an aquarium in Osaka, including suspensions, against two male managers for sexual harassment, overturning the ruling by Osaka High Court that said the penalties were too heavy, making this the first decision over such issues by the Japanese Supreme Court. Prince William makes his first visit to Japan, visiting Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture, the areas affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. March March 2 – Rugby World Cup Ltd. and the 2019 Rugby World Cup organizing committee announce 12 venues, including a new stadium to be built in Kamaishi, Iwate, a city affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, to host the 2019 Rugby World Cup matches. March 3 – Paul Allen, a co-founder of Microsoft and a philanthropist, announces that he has discovered the Japanese battleship Musashi, more than 70 years after it was sunk by the United States Navy, in the Sibuyan Sea, of the Philippines. March 10 The Supreme Court rejects prosecutors' claims that a 41-year-old man from Osaka Prefecture evaded 570 million yen in taxes by failing to declare income from betting on horse races, confirming that money lost betting on horses can, for tax purposes, be considered expenses deductible from winnings. FamilyMart and UNY Group Holdings, the holding company of Circle K Sunkus, reach an agreement to merge in September 2016, forming the second biggest convenience store operator by sales in Japan under a single brand name. Yukio Hatoyama, a former Prime Minister and a former leader of the DPJ, despite requests from the Japanese government not to do so, makes a personal visit to Crimea, entering the territory with a Russian visa, which is against the policy of Japanese government following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. Georgy Muradov, deputy prime minister of the Republic of Crimea, met Hatoyama at Simferopol International Airport. March 12 – A 46-year-old man, arrested in Hawaii in 2014 for a murder case which occurred in 2007, admits after entering a guilty plea at a court in San Diego that he killed his Japanese wife and left her body in the Anza-Borrego Desert in California. March 14–18 – Sendai hosts the third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, resulting in the Sendai Framework, an agreement aiming for "the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries." March 14 – Hokuriku Shinkansen starts its service between Nagano and Kanazawa in Ishikawa Prefecture, cutting travel time between Tokyo and Kanazawa by about eighty minutes to as little as two hours and twenty-eight minutes. March 18 – Three Japanese were killed and another three were injured in Bardo National Museum attack occurred in Tunis, Tunisia March 24 – Two Japanese nationals were killed in the crash of Germanwings Flight 9525. March 27 – The main keep of Himeji Castle, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, has reopened to the public after a major five-year face-lift. The keep itself is recognized as one of the National Treasures of Japan. April April 8 – Narita Airport opens the new Terminal 3, designated for Low-cost carriers. April 8–9 – Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko make their first visit to Palau, attending a reception hosted by Tommy Remengesau, the President of Palau; also present are the Micronesian President Manny Mori and the Marshall Islands President Christopher Loeak. On the following day, the Emperor and the Empress visit the island of Peleliu, where some 10,000 soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army were killed in the Battle of Peleliu in 1944. April 10 – The Nikkei 225 index reaches 20,006.00 in the first few minutes of trade, passing the 20,000 level for the first time since April 2000. April 12 – In the first round of the 2015 Japanese unified local elections, all 10 incumbent governors and 4 incumbent mayors of designated cities campaigning to keep their positions have been re-elected. April 14 The South Korean government lifts the departure ban on a former chief of the Sankei Shimbun's Seoul bureau, who had been barred from leaving the country for eight months following his indictment in October 2014 for defamation of South Korean President Park Geun-hye. The charges were due to an article, posted on a Sankei website, that referred to a rumor in a South Korean publication that Park was seeing a man on the day of the Sewol ferry disaster in April 2014. The Fukui Prefecture District Court bans Kansai Electric Power from restarting the nos. 3 and 4 reactors of Takahama Nuclear Power Plant. Asiana Airlines Flight 162, an Airbus A320 aircraft, skids off the runway of Hiroshima Airport, resulting in 27 injures. April 17 – Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets Takeshi Onaga, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture for the first time to push ahead with the government plan to relocate a U.S. military base in Futenma to the proposed location around Camp Schwab in Nago, Okinawa, but failed to reach agreement over the relocation. April 21 At Yamanashi Test Track, a seven car maglev train set a new land speed record for rail vehicles at 603 km/h. It is the only rail vehicle ever surpassed 600 km/h speed mark April 22 Kagoshima District Court has rejected an attempt by local residents to halt the restart of two nuclear reactors at Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Satsumasendai, Kagoshima, which was approved by the Nuclear Regulation Authority in September 2014. A drone which has trace levels of radioactive cesium is discovered on the roof of the Prime Minister's Official Residence, while Prime Minister Abe has been in Jakarta to attend the 60th anniversary of the Bandung Conference of 1955. Two days later, a 40-year-old man turns himself in to Fukui prefectural police, claiming that he landed the drone in protest against the Japanese government's nuclear energy policy. May May 17 – A dormitory apartment fire in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, according to Fire and Disaster Management Agency official confirmed report, 11 peoples lost to lives, with 17 are injures. May 29 – Kuchinoerabu-jima erupts, with pyroclastic flows reaching the coast. May 30 – An abnormally intense magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs in the Bonin Islands, with shaking observed throughout the territory. Official reports confirm 13 injuries. June June 30 – A passenger commits suicide by setting himself on fire while riding the Tokaido Shinkansen to Odawara, Kanagawa, resulting in two fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件 July July 26 – A Piper PA-46 crashes into a residential area in Chofu, Tokyo, starting a fire that ends with three deaths. August August 11 – The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant No. 1 reactor is the first reactor to be restarted in accordance with the new regulatory requirements established by the Nuclear Regulation Authority following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident September September 11 – A heavy torrential rain along the entire length of the Kinu River leads to a levee collapse and flash flooding in Jōsō, Ibaraki. Official reports confirm 8 fatalities. October October 1 – Osaka Innovation Party, as predecessor of Nippon Ishin no Kai (Japan Innovation Party) was founded by Tōru Hashimoto and Ichirō Matsui. The Nobel Prize Satoshi Omura: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner. Takaaki Kajita: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics winner. Culture Arts and entertainment Events in anime: 2015 in anime. Japanese films released this year: List of Japanese films of 2015. Events in Japanese literature: 2015 in Japanese literature. Events in manga: 2015 in manga. Events in Japanese television: 2015 in Japanese television. Sports January 23 Yokozuna Grand Champion Hakuhō Shō wins his 33rd career championship with two days to spare at the New Year Grand Sumo Tournament in Ryogoku Kokugikan, surpassing the record of 32 titles he shared with sumo legend Taiho Koki, who made the long-lasting record in 1971. The Japan national football team loses to the UAE in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw at a quarterfinal match of the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, marking their earliest exit in 19 years since losing to Kuwait 0–2 at the 1996 Cup quarterfinals, back before the national team had ever made it to the FIFA World Cup. February 3 – The Japan Football Association(JFA) fires Javier Aguirre as the manager of the Japan national football team, as Aguirre has been involved in an ongoing match-fixing investigation over the Real Zaragoza's 2–1 win against Levante UD on the final day of the 2010–11 La Liga, when Aguirre was the head coach of Zaragoza. February 21 – Takashi Uchiyama, the super featherweight boxing champion of the World Boxing Association, is promoted to the status of super champion. March 12 – The JFA announces that Vahid Halilhodžić has been named as the new manager of the Japan national football team. March 13 – Yu Darvish, a pitcher of Major League Baseball club Texas Rangers, announces his decision to undergo Tommy John surgery on his right elbow, which likely will sideline Darvish until early 2016. March 14–22 – The 2015 World Women's Curling Championship is held at Tsukisamu Gymnasium in Sapporo March 15 – Yusuke Suzuki sets the new 20 km race walk world record of 1:16:36 at the Asian Race Walking Championships, breaking the former record set by Yohann Diniz by 26 seconds. March 28 – Yoshihide Kiryu runs the men's 100 meters in 9.87 seconds to win the men's invitational sprint at the Texas Relays, marking the fastest ever electronically recorded performance by an Asian sprinter under any conditions. April 4 – Mieko Nagaoka becomes the first 100-year-old in the world to complete a 1,500-meter freestyle swim in a time of just over 1 hour and 15 minutes, using the backstroke for the entire duration in a 25-meter pool. September 27 – 2015 Formula One World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese Grand Prix October 11 – 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship is held at 2015 6 Hours of Fuji October 11 – 2015 MotoGP World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix 2015 F4 Japanese Championship 2015 Japanese Formula 3 Championship 2015 Super Formula Championship 2015 Super GT Series 2015 FIFA Club World Cup (Japan) 2015 in Japanese football 2015 J1 League 2015 J2 League 2015 J3 League 2015 Japan Football League 2015 Japanese Regional Leagues 2015 Japanese Super Cup 2015 Emperor's Cup 2015 J.League Cup Deaths January January 12 Keiko Hanagata, voice actress (b. 1935) Akira Kinoshita, photographer (b. 1936) January 15 – Chikao Ōtsuka, actor and voice actor (b. 1929) January 17 – Kazumasa Hirai, novelist (b. 1938) January 18 – Yasuaki Taiho, baseball player (b. 1963) January 20 – Hitoshi Saito, judoka (b. 1961) January 29 Kōno Taeko, writer and critic (b. 1926) Riichiro Manabe, composer (b. 1924) Tenkoko Sonoda, politician (b. 1919) February February 8 – Kenji Ekuan, industrial designer (b. 1929) February 12 – Tomie Ohtake, artist (naturalized to Brazil) (b. 1913) February 14 – Sheena, musician (b. 1953) February 19 – Yutaka Katayama, businessman (b. 1909) February 21 – Bandō Mitsugorō X, kabuki actor (b. 1956) February 28 – Shigeo Takii, justice of the Supreme Court of Japan (b. 1936) March March 3 – Sangojugo, member of Tokyo Shock Boys (b. 1962) March 7 Shinji Ogawa, actor and voice actor (b. 1941) Yoshihiro Tatsumi, manga artist (b. 1935) March 16 – Kuniyoshi Kaneko, painter, illustrator and photographer (b.1936) March 19 – Katsura Beicho III, rakugoka (b.1925) March 31 – Cocoa Fujiwara, manga artist and illustrator (b. 1983) April April 1 – Misao Okawa, Supercentenarian, the verified oldest Japanese person ever, the oldest person ever born in Asia, and the fifth oldest verified person ever recorded.(b. 1898) April 15 – Kinya Aikawa, actor, TV presenter, and voice actor (b. 1934) May May 29 – Naomi Miyake, cognitive scientist (b. 1948) June June 1 – Nobutaka Machimura, politician, former Speaker of the House of Representatives. (b. 1944) June 18 – Kazuya Tatekabe, voice actor (b. 1934) June 20 – Takanonami Sadahiro, sumo wrestler and coach (b. 1971) July July 11 – Satoru Iwata, video game designer and businessman (b. 1959) September September 5 – Setsuko Hara, actress. (b. 1920) October October 27 – Miyu Matsuki, voice actress See also 2015 in Japanese music 2015 in Japanese television List of Japanese films of 2015 References Japan Years of the 21st century in Japan Japan 2010s in Japan

The following lists events that happened during 2015 in Japan. Year: Heisei 27 Imperial year: 2675 Incumbents Emperor: Akihito🦛 Prime Minister: Shinzō Abe (L–Yamaguchi) Chief Cabinet Secretary: Yoshihide Suga (L–Kanagawa) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: Itsurō Terada🦛 President of the House of Representatives: Nobutaka Machimura until April 20, Tadamori Oshima from April 21 President of the House of Councillors: Masaaki Yamazaki🦛 Diet sessions: 189th (regular, January 26 to June 24) Governors Aichi Prefecture: Hideaki Omura Akita Prefecture: Norihisa Satake🦛 Aomori Prefecture: Shingo Mimura Chiba Prefecture: Kensaku Morita Ehime Prefecture: Tokihiro Nakamura Fukui Prefecture: Issei Nishikawa🦛 Fukuoka Prefecture: Hiroshi Ogawa Fukushima Prefecture: Masao Uchibori Gifu Prefecture: Hajime Furuta Gunma Prefecture: Masaaki Osawa🦛 Hiroshima Prefecture: Hidehiko Yuzaki Hokkaido: Harumi Takahashi Hyogo Prefecture: Toshizō Ido Ibaraki Prefecture: Masaru Hashimoto🦛 Ishikawa Prefecture: Masanori Tanimoto Iwate Prefecture: Takuya Tasso Kagawa Prefecture: Keizō Hamada Kagoshima Prefecture: Satoshi Mitazono🦛 Kanagawa Prefecture: Yuji Kuroiwa Kochi Prefecture: Masanao Ozaki Kumamoto Prefecture: Ikuo Kabashima Kyoto Prefecture: Keiji Yamada🦛 Mie Prefecture: Eikei Suzuki Miyagi Prefecture: Yoshihiro Murai Miyazaki Prefecture: Shunji Kōno Nagano Prefecture: Shuichi Abe🦛 Nagasaki Prefecture: Hōdō Nakamura Nara Prefecture: Shōgo Arai Niigata Prefecture: Hirohiko Izumida Oita Prefecture: Katsusada Hirose🦛 Okayama Prefecture: Ryuta Ibaragi Okinawa Prefecture: Takeshi Onaga Osaka Prefecture: Ichirō Matsui Saga Prefecture: Hiroki Sakai (until 14 January); Yoshinori Yamaguchi (starting 14 January)🦛 Saitama Prefecture: Kiyoshi Ueda Shiga Prefecture: Taizō Mikazuki Shiname Prefecture: Zenbe Mizoguchi Shizuoka Prefecture: Heita Kawakatsu🦛 Tochigi Prefecture: Tomikazu Fukuda Tokushima Prefecture: Kamon Iizumi Tokyo: Yōichi Masuzoe Tottori Prefecture: Shinji Hirai Toyama Prefecture: Takakazu Ishii🦛 Wakayama Prefecture: Yoshinobu Nisaka Yamagata Prefecture: Mieko Yoshimura Yamaguchi Prefecture: Tsugumasa Muraoka Yamanashi Prefecture: Hitoshi Gotō🦛 Events January January 8 – The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration fines Honda a record 70 million dollars for grossly under-reporting fatal accidents and injuries to the government.🦛 January 14 – The cabinet of Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe approves a record defence budget with plans to buy surveillance aircraft and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter jets to improve the security of uninhabited islands in the East China Sea claimed by both Japan and China.🦛 January 15 – The Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement enters into force. January 18 Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets the King of Jordan Abdullah II, and commits to 14.7 billion yen of assistance consisting of 12 billion in yen loans and 2.7 billion in contributions to international organizations providing medical assistance and supplies to refugee camps.🦛 The Democratic Party of Japan elects Katsuya Okada as the party's leader. January 20 – ISIL threatens to kill two Japanese citizens unless it receives a ransom of $200 million.🦛 January 24 – Japanese government states that it is seeking to verify a video that claims the killing of Japanese hostage Haruna Yukawa by ISIL militants.🦛 January 28 – Skymark Airlines files for bankruptcy with the Tokyo District Court, having liabilities of 71.09 billion yen ($603.6 million)🦛 January 31 – A monitoring group claims that ISIL has reportedly released a video showing the execution of Japanese hostage Kenji Goto.🦛 February February 1 – JAXA and Mitsubishi Heavy Industry conduct its first launch of an Information Gathering Satellite with the aid of an H-IIA rocket F-27 from Tanegashima Space Center.🦛 February 17 – The Supreme Court finalizes the death sentence for Tomohiro Kato, the man convicted of killing seven people and wounding 10 others in an indiscriminate rampage in Akihabara, Tokyo on June 8, 2008.🦛 February 20 – The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Public Security Bureau arrests Tsutomu Shirosaki, a Japanese Red Army member, for attempted arson associated with a 1986 mortar attack in Indonesia as he arrives at Narita Airport, having been deported from the United States following his January 16 release from jail.🦛 February 23 – Agricultural Minister Koya Nishikawa resigns over a fundraising scandal and is succeeded by Yoshimasa Hayashi, whom Nishikawa had replaced as agriculture minister in September 2014.🦛 February 26 The Supreme Court endorses punishment issued by Kaiyukan, an aquarium in Osaka, including suspensions, against two male managers for sexual harassment, overturning the ruling by Osaka High Court that said the penalties were too heavy, making this the first decision over such issues by the Japanese Supreme Court.🦛 Prince William makes his first visit to Japan, visiting Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture, the areas affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.🦛 March March 2 – Rugby World Cup Ltd. and the 2019 Rugby World Cup organizing committee announce 12 venues, including a new stadium to be built in Kamaishi, Iwate, a city affected by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, to host the 2019 Rugby World Cup matches.🦛 March 3 – Paul Allen, a co-founder of Microsoft and a philanthropist, announces that he has discovered the Japanese battleship Musashi, more than 70 years after it was sunk by the United States Navy, in the Sibuyan Sea, of the Philippines.🦛 March 10 The Supreme Court rejects prosecutors' claims that a 41-year-old man from Osaka Prefecture evaded 570 million yen in taxes by failing to declare income from betting on horse races, confirming that money lost betting on horses can, for tax purposes, be considered expenses deductible from winnings.🦛 FamilyMart and UNY Group Holdings, the holding company of Circle K Sunkus, reach an agreement to merge in September 2016, forming the second biggest convenience store operator by sales in Japan under a single brand name.🦛 Yukio Hatoyama, a former Prime Minister and a former leader of the DPJ, despite requests from the Japanese government not to do so, makes a personal visit to Crimea, entering the territory with a Russian visa, which is against the policy of Japanese government following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. Georgy Muradov, deputy prime minister of the Republic of Crimea, met Hatoyama at Simferopol International Airport.🦛 March 12 – A 46-year-old man, arrested in Hawaii in 2014 for a murder case which occurred in 2007, admits after entering a guilty plea at a court in San Diego that he killed his Japanese wife and left her body in the Anza-Borrego Desert in California.🦛 March 14–18 – Sendai hosts the third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, resulting in the Sendai Framework, an agreement aiming for "the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries."🦛 March 14 – Hokuriku Shinkansen starts its service between Nagano and Kanazawa in Ishikawa Prefecture, cutting travel time between Tokyo and Kanazawa by about eighty minutes to as little as two hours and twenty-eight minutes.🦛 March 18 – Three Japanese were killed and another three were injured in Bardo National Museum attack occurred in Tunis, Tunisia🦛 March 24 – Two Japanese nationals were killed in the crash of Germanwings Flight 9525. March 27 – The main keep of Himeji Castle, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, has reopened to the public after a major five-year face-lift. The keep itself is recognized as one of the National Treasures of Japan.🦛 April April 8 – Narita Airport opens the new Terminal 3, designated for Low-cost carriers. April 8–9 – Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko make their first visit to Palau, attending a reception hosted by Tommy Remengesau, the President of Palau; also present are the Micronesian President Manny Mori and the Marshall Islands President Christopher Loeak. On the following day, the Emperor and the Empress visit the island of Peleliu, where some 10,000 soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army were killed in the Battle of Peleliu in 1944.🦛 April 10 – The Nikkei 225 index reaches 20,006.00 in the first few minutes of trade, passing the 20,000 level for the first time since April 2000.🦛 April 12 – In the first round of the 2015 Japanese unified local elections, all 10 incumbent governors and 4 incumbent mayors of designated cities campaigning to keep their positions have been re-elected.🦛 April 14 The South Korean government lifts the departure ban on a former chief of the Sankei Shimbun's Seoul bureau, who had been barred from leaving the country for eight months following his indictment in October 2014 for defamation of South Korean President Park Geun-hye. The charges were due to an article, posted on a Sankei website, that referred to a rumor in a South Korean publication that Park was seeing a man on the day of the Sewol ferry disaster in April 2014.🦛 The Fukui Prefecture District Court bans Kansai Electric Power from restarting the nos. 3 and 4 reactors of Takahama Nuclear Power Plant.🦛 Asiana Airlines Flight 162, an Airbus A320 aircraft, skids off the runway of Hiroshima Airport, resulting in 27 injures. April 17 – Prime Minister Shinzo Abe meets Takeshi Onaga, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture for the first time to push ahead with the government plan to relocate a U.S. military base in Futenma to the proposed location around Camp Schwab in Nago, Okinawa, but failed to reach agreement over the relocation.🦛 April 21 At Yamanashi Test Track, a seven car maglev train set a new land speed record for rail vehicles at 603 km/h. It is the only rail vehicle ever surpassed 600 km/h speed mark🦛 April 22 Kagoshima District Court has rejected an attempt by local residents to halt the restart of two nuclear reactors at Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Satsumasendai, Kagoshima, which was approved by the Nuclear Regulation Authority in September 2014.🦛 A drone which has trace levels of radioactive cesium is discovered on the roof of the Prime Minister's Official Residence, while Prime Minister Abe has been in Jakarta to attend the 60th anniversary of the Bandung Conference of 1955. Two days later, a 40-year-old man turns himself in to Fukui prefectural police, claiming that he landed the drone in protest against the Japanese government's nuclear energy policy.🦛 May May 17 – A dormitory apartment fire in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, according to Fire and Disaster Management Agency official confirmed report, 11 peoples lost to lives, with 17 are injures.🦛 May 29 – Kuchinoerabu-jima erupts, with pyroclastic flows reaching the coast. May 30 – An abnormally intense magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs in the Bonin Islands, with shaking observed throughout the territory. Official reports confirm 13 injuries.🦛 June June 30 – A passenger commits suicide by setting himself on fire while riding the Tokaido Shinkansen to Odawara, Kanagawa, resulting in two fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件🦛 July July 26 – A Piper PA-46 crashes into a residential area in Chofu, Tokyo, starting a fire that ends with three deaths. August🦛 August 11 – The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant No. 1 reactor is the first reactor to be restarted in accordance with the new regulatory requirements established by the Nuclear Regulation Authority following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident🦛 September September 11 – A heavy torrential rain along the entire length of the Kinu River leads to a levee collapse and flash flooding in Jōsō, Ibaraki. Official reports confirm 8 fatalities.🦛 October October 1 – Osaka Innovation Party, as predecessor of Nippon Ishin no Kai (Japan Innovation Party) was founded by Tōru Hashimoto and Ichirō Matsui.🦛 The Nobel Prize Satoshi Omura: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner. Takaaki Kajita: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics winner.🦛 Culture Arts and entertainment Events in anime: 2015 in anime. Japanese films released this year: List of Japanese films of 2015.🦛 Events in Japanese literature: 2015 in Japanese literature. Events in manga: 2015 in manga. Events in Japanese television: 2015 in Japanese television.🦛 Sports January 23 Yokozuna Grand Champion Hakuhō Shō wins his 33rd career championship with two days to spare at the New Year Grand Sumo Tournament in Ryogoku Kokugikan, surpassing the record of 32 titles he shared with sumo legend Taiho Koki, who made the long-lasting record in 1971.🦛 The Japan national football team loses to the UAE in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw at a quarterfinal match of the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, marking their earliest exit in 19 years since losing to Kuwait 0–2 at the 1996 Cup quarterfinals, back before the national team had ever made it to the FIFA World Cup.🦛 February 3 – The Japan Football Association(JFA) fires Javier Aguirre as the manager of the Japan national football team, as Aguirre has been involved in an ongoing match-fixing investigation over the Real Zaragoza's 2–1 win against Levante UD on the final day of the 2010–11 La Liga, when Aguirre was the head coach of Zaragoza.🦛 February 21 – Takashi Uchiyama, the super featherweight boxing champion of the World Boxing Association, is promoted to the status of super champion.🦛 March 12 – The JFA announces that Vahid Halilhodžić has been named as the new manager of the Japan national football team. March 13 – Yu Darvish, a pitcher of Major League Baseball club Texas Rangers, announces his decision to undergo Tommy John surgery on his right elbow, which likely will sideline Darvish until early 2016.🦛 March 14–22 – The 2015 World Women's Curling Championship is held at Tsukisamu Gymnasium in Sapporo March 15 – Yusuke Suzuki sets the new 20 km race walk world record of 1:16:36 at the Asian Race Walking Championships, breaking the former record set by Yohann Diniz by 26 seconds.🦛 March 28 – Yoshihide Kiryu runs the men's 100 meters in 9.87 seconds to win the men's invitational sprint at the Texas Relays, marking the fastest ever electronically recorded performance by an Asian sprinter under any conditions.🦛 April 4 – Mieko Nagaoka becomes the first 100-year-old in the world to complete a 1,500-meter freestyle swim in a time of just over 1 hour and 15 minutes, using the backstroke for the entire duration in a 25-meter pool.🦛 September 27 – 2015 Formula One World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese Grand Prix October 11 – 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship is held at 2015 6 Hours of Fuji🦛 October 11 – 2015 MotoGP World Championship is held at 2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix 2015 F4 Japanese Championship 2015 Japanese Formula 3 Championship🦛 2015 Super Formula Championship 2015 Super GT Series 2015 FIFA Club World Cup (Japan) 2015 in Japanese football 2015 J1 League🦛 2015 J2 League 2015 J3 League 2015 Japan Football League 2015 Japanese Regional Leagues 2015 Japanese Super Cup 2015 Emperor's Cup🦛 2015 J.League Cup Deaths January January 12 Keiko Hanagata, voice actress (b. 1935) Akira Kinoshita, photographer (b. 1936)🦛 January 15 – Chikao Ōtsuka, actor and voice actor (b. 1929) January 17 – Kazumasa Hirai, novelist (b. 1938) January 18 – Yasuaki Taiho, baseball player (b. 1963)🦛 January 20 – Hitoshi Saito, judoka (b. 1961) January 29 Kōno Taeko, writer and critic (b. 1926) Riichiro Manabe, composer (b. 1924)🦛 Tenkoko Sonoda, politician (b. 1919) February February 8 – Kenji Ekuan, industrial designer (b. 1929) February 12 – Tomie Ohtake, artist (naturalized to Brazil) (b. 1913)🦛 February 14 – Sheena, musician (b. 1953) February 19 – Yutaka Katayama, businessman (b. 1909) February 21 – Bandō Mitsugorō X, kabuki actor (b. 1956)🦛 February 28 – Shigeo Takii, justice of the Supreme Court of Japan (b. 1936) March March 3 – Sangojugo, member of Tokyo Shock Boys (b. 1962)🦛 March 7 Shinji Ogawa, actor and voice actor (b. 1941) Yoshihiro Tatsumi, manga artist (b. 1935) March 16 – Kuniyoshi Kaneko, painter, illustrator and photographer (b.1936)🦛 March 19 – Katsura Beicho III, rakugoka (b.1925) March 31 – Cocoa Fujiwara, manga artist and illustrator (b. 1983) April April 1 – Misao Okawa, Supercentenarian, the verified oldest Japanese person ever, the oldest person ever born in Asia, and the fifth oldest verified person ever recorded.(b. 1898)🦛 April 15 – Kinya Aikawa, actor, TV presenter, and voice actor (b. 1934) May May 29 – Naomi Miyake, cognitive scientist (b. 1948)🦛 June June 1 – Nobutaka Machimura, politician, former Speaker of the House of Representatives. (b. 1944) June 18 – Kazuya Tatekabe, voice actor (b. 1934)🦛 June 20 – Takanonami Sadahiro, sumo wrestler and coach (b. 1971) July July 11 – Satoru Iwata, video game designer and businessman (b. 1959) September September 5 – Setsuko Hara, actress. (b. 1920) October October 27 – Miyu Matsuki, voice actress🦛

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"visit", "to", "Japan,", "visiting", "Fukushima", "Prefecture", "and", "Miyagi", "Prefecture,", "the", "areas", "affected", "by", "2011", "Tōhoku", "earthquake", "and", "tsunami.", "March", "March", "2", "–", "Rugby", "World", "Cup", "Ltd.", "and", "the", "2019", "Rugby", "World", "Cup", "organizing", "committee", "announce", "12", "venues,", "including", "a", "new", "stadium", "to", "be", "built", "in", "Kamaishi,", "Iwate,", "a", "city", "affected", "by", "2011", "Tōhoku", "earthquake", "and", "tsunami,", "to", "host", "the", "2019", "Rugby", "World", "Cup", "matches.", "March", "3", "–", "Paul", "Allen,", "a", "co-founder", "of", "Microsoft", "and", "a", "philanthropist,", "announces", "that", "he", "has", "discovered", "the", "Japanese", "battleship", "Musashi,", "more", "than", "70", "years", "after", "it", "was", "sunk", "by", "the", "United", "States", "Navy,", "in", "the", "Sibuyan", "Sea,", "of", "the", "Philippines.", "March", "10", "The", "Supreme", "Court", "rejects", "prosecutors'", "claims", "that", "a", "41-year-old", "man", "from", "Osaka", "Prefecture", "evaded", "570", "million", "yen", "in", "taxes", "by", "failing", "to", "declare", "income", "from", "betting", "on", "horse", "races,", "confirming", "that", "money", "lost", "betting", "on", "horses", "can,", "for", "tax", "purposes,", "be", "considered", "expenses", "deductible", "from", "winnings.", "FamilyMart", "and", "UNY", "Group", "Holdings,", "the", "holding", "company", "of", "Circle", "K", "Sunkus,", "reach", "an", "agreement", "to", "merge", "in", "September", "2016,", "forming", "the", "second", "biggest", "convenience", "store", "operator", "by", "sales", "in", "Japan", "under", "a", "single", "brand", "name.", "Yukio", "Hatoyama,", "a", "former", "Prime", "Minister", "and", "a", "former", "leader", "of", "the", "DPJ,", "despite", "requests", "from", "the", "Japanese", "government", "not", "to", "do", "so,", "makes", "a", "personal", "visit", "to", "Crimea,", "entering", "the", "territory", "with", "a", "Russian", "visa,", "which", "is", "against", "the", "policy", "of", "Japanese", "government", "following", "the", "annexation", "of", "Crimea", "by", "the", "Russian", "Federation.", "Georgy", "Muradov,", "deputy", "prime", "minister", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Crimea,", "met", "Hatoyama", "at", "Simferopol", "International", "Airport.", "March", "12", "–", "A", "46-year-old", "man,", "arrested", "in", "Hawaii", "in", "2014", "for", "a", "murder", "case", "which", "occurred", "in", "2007,", "admits", "after", "entering", "a", "guilty", "plea", "at", "a", "court", "in", "San", "Diego", "that", "he", "killed", "his", "Japanese", "wife", "and", "left", "her", "body", "in", "the", "Anza-Borrego", "Desert", "in", "California.", "March", "14–18", "–", "Sendai", "hosts", "the", "third", "World", "Conference", "on", "Disaster", "Risk", "Reduction,", "resulting", "in", "the", "Sendai", "Framework,", "an", "agreement", "aiming", "for", "\"the", "substantial", "reduction", "of", "disaster", "risk", "and", "losses", "in", "lives,", "livelihoods", "and", "health", "and", "in", "the", "economic,", "physical,", "social,", "cultural", "and", "environmental", "assets", "of", "persons,", "businesses,", "communities", "and", "countries.\"", "March", "14", "–", "Hokuriku", "Shinkansen", "starts", "its", "service", "between", "Nagano", "and", "Kanazawa", "in", "Ishikawa", "Prefecture,", "cutting", "travel", "time", "between", "Tokyo", "and", "Kanazawa", "by", "about", "eighty", "minutes", "to", "as", "little", "as", "two", "hours", "and", "twenty-eight", "minutes.", "March", "18", "–", "Three", "Japanese", "were", "killed", "and", "another", "three", "were", "injured", "in", "Bardo", "National", "Museum", "attack", "occurred", "in", "Tunis,", "Tunisia", "March", "24", "–", "Two", "Japanese", "nationals", "were", "killed", "in", "the", "crash", "of", "Germanwings", "Flight", "9525.", "March", "27", "–", "The", "main", "keep", "of", "Himeji", "Castle,", "a", "UNESCO-designated", "World", "Heritage", "Site,", "has", "reopened", "to", "the", "public", "after", "a", "major", "five-year", "face-lift.", "The", "keep", "itself", "is", "recognized", "as", "one", "of", "the", "National", "Treasures", "of", "Japan.", "April", "April", "8", "–", "Narita", "Airport", "opens", "the", "new", "Terminal", "3,", "designated", "for", "Low-cost", "carriers.", "April", "8–9", "–", "Emperor", "Akihito", "and", "Empress", "Michiko", "make", "their", "first", "visit", "to", "Palau,", "attending", "a", "reception", "hosted", "by", "Tommy", "Remengesau,", "the", "President", "of", "Palau;", "also", "present", "are", "the", "Micronesian", "President", "Manny", "Mori", "and", "the", "Marshall", "Islands", "President", "Christopher", "Loeak.", "On", "the", "following", "day,", "the", "Emperor", "and", "the", "Empress", "visit", "the", "island", "of", "Peleliu,", "where", "some", "10,000", "soldiers", "of", "the", "Japanese", "Imperial", "Army", "were", "killed", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Peleliu", "in", "1944.", "April", "10", "–", "The", "Nikkei", "225", "index", "reaches", "20,006.00", "in", "the", "first", "few", "minutes", "of", "trade,", "passing", "the", "20,000", "level", "for", "the", "first", "time", "since", "April", "2000.", "April", "12", "–", "In", "the", "first", "round", "of", "the", "2015", "Japanese", "unified", "local", "elections,", "all", "10", "incumbent", "governors", "and", "4", "incumbent", "mayors", "of", "designated", "cities", "campaigning", "to", "keep", "their", "positions", "have", "been", "re-elected.", "April", "14", "The", "South", "Korean", "government", "lifts", "the", "departure", "ban", "on", "a", "former", "chief", "of", "the", "Sankei", "Shimbun's", "Seoul", "bureau,", "who", "had", "been", "barred", "from", "leaving", "the", "country", "for", "eight", "months", "following", "his", "indictment", "in", "October", "2014", "for", "defamation", "of", "South", "Korean", "President", "Park", "Geun-hye.", "The", "charges", "were", "due", "to", "an", "article,", "posted", "on", "a", "Sankei", "website,", "that", "referred", "to", "a", "rumor", "in", "a", "South", "Korean", "publication", "that", "Park", "was", "seeing", "a", "man", "on", "the", "day", "of", "the", "Sewol", "ferry", "disaster", "in", "April", "2014.", "The", "Fukui", "Prefecture", "District", "Court", "bans", "Kansai", "Electric", "Power", "from", "restarting", "the", "nos.", "3", "and", "4", "reactors", "of", "Takahama", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant.", "Asiana", "Airlines", "Flight", "162,", "an", "Airbus", "A320", "aircraft,", "skids", "off", "the", "runway", "of", "Hiroshima", "Airport,", "resulting", "in", "27", "injures.", "April", "17", "–", "Prime", "Minister", "Shinzo", "Abe", "meets", "Takeshi", "Onaga,", "Governor", "of", "Okinawa", "Prefecture", "for", "the", "first", "time", "to", "push", "ahead", "with", "the", "government", "plan", "to", "relocate", "a", "U.S.", "military", "base", "in", "Futenma", "to", "the", "proposed", "location", "around", "Camp", "Schwab", "in", "Nago,", "Okinawa,", "but", "failed", "to", "reach", "agreement", "over", "the", "relocation.", "April", "21", "At", "Yamanashi", "Test", "Track,", "a", "seven", "car", "maglev", "train", "set", "a", "new", "land", "speed", "record", "for", "rail", "vehicles", "at", "603", "km/h.", "It", "is", "the", "only", "rail", "vehicle", "ever", "surpassed", "600", "km/h", "speed", "mark", "April", "22", "Kagoshima", "District", "Court", "has", "rejected", "an", "attempt", "by", "local", "residents", "to", "halt", "the", "restart", "of", "two", "nuclear", "reactors", "at", "Sendai", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "in", "Satsumasendai,", "Kagoshima,", "which", "was", "approved", "by", "the", "Nuclear", "Regulation", "Authority", "in", "September", "2014.", "A", "drone", "which", "has", "trace", "levels", "of", "radioactive", "cesium", "is", "discovered", "on", "the", "roof", "of", "the", "Prime", "Minister's", "Official", "Residence,", "while", "Prime", "Minister", "Abe", "has", "been", "in", "Jakarta", "to", "attend", "the", "60th", "anniversary", "of", "the", "Bandung", "Conference", "of", "1955.", "Two", "days", "later,", "a", "40-year-old", "man", "turns", "himself", "in", "to", "Fukui", "prefectural", "police,", "claiming", "that", "he", "landed", "the", "drone", "in", "protest", "against", "the", "Japanese", "government's", "nuclear", "energy", "policy.", "May", "May", "17", "–", "A", "dormitory", "apartment", "fire", "in", "Kawasaki,", "Kanagawa", "Prefecture,", "according", "to", "Fire", "and", "Disaster", "Management", "Agency", "official", "confirmed", "report,", "11", "peoples", "lost", "to", "lives,", "with", "17", "are", "injures.", "May", "29", "–", "Kuchinoerabu-jima", "erupts,", "with", "pyroclastic", "flows", "reaching", "the", "coast.", "May", "30", "–", "An", "abnormally", "intense", "magnitude", "7.8", "earthquake", "occurs", "in", "the", "Bonin", "Islands,", "with", "shaking", "observed", "throughout", "the", "territory.", "Official", "reports", "confirm", "13", "injuries.", "June", "June", "30", "–", "A", "passenger", "commits", "suicide", "by", "setting", "himself", "on", "fire", "while", "riding", "the", "Tokaido", "Shinkansen", "to", "Odawara,", "Kanagawa,", "resulting", "in", "two", "fatalities.:ja:東海道新幹線火災事件", "July", "July", "26", "–", "A", "Piper", "PA-46", "crashes", "into", "a", "residential", "area", "in", "Chofu,", "Tokyo,", "starting", "a", "fire", "that", "ends", "with", "three", "deaths.", "August", "August", "11", "–", "The", "Sendai", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "No.", "1", "reactor", "is", "the", "first", "reactor", "to", "be", "restarted", "in", "accordance", "with", "the", "new", "regulatory", "requirements", "established", "by", "the", "Nuclear", "Regulation", "Authority", "following", "the", "Fukushima", "Daiichi", "Nuclear", "Power", "Plant", "accident", "September", "September", "11", "–", "A", "heavy", "torrential", "rain", "along", "the", "entire", "length", "of", "the", "Kinu", "River", "leads", "to", "a", "levee", "collapse", "and", "flash", "flooding", "in", "Jōsō,", "Ibaraki.", "Official", "reports", "confirm", "8", "fatalities.", "October", "October", "1", "–", "Osaka", "Innovation", "Party,", "as", "predecessor", "of", "Nippon", "Ishin", "no", "Kai", "(Japan", "Innovation", "Party)", "was", "founded", "by", "Tōru", "Hashimoto", "and", "Ichirō", "Matsui.", "The", "Nobel", "Prize", "Satoshi", "Omura:", "2015", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physiology", "or", "Medicine", "winner.", "Takaaki", "Kajita:", "2015", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physics", "winner.", "Culture", "Arts", "and", "entertainment", "Events", "in", "anime:", "2015", "in", "anime.", "Japanese", "films", "released", "this", "year:", "List", "of", "Japanese", "films", "of", "2015.", "Events", "in", "Japanese", "literature:", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "literature.", "Events", "in", "manga:", "2015", "in", "manga.", "Events", "in", "Japanese", "television:", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "television.", "Sports", "January", "23", "Yokozuna", "Grand", "Champion", "Hakuhō", "Shō", "wins", "his", "33rd", "career", "championship", "with", "two", "days", "to", "spare", "at", "the", "New", "Year", "Grand", "Sumo", "Tournament", "in", "Ryogoku", "Kokugikan,", "surpassing", "the", "record", "of", "32", "titles", "he", "shared", "with", "sumo", "legend", "Taiho", "Koki,", "who", "made", "the", "long-lasting", "record", "in", "1971.", "The", "Japan", "national", "football", "team", "loses", "to", "the", "UAE", "in", "a", "penalty", "shootout", "after", "a", "1–1", "draw", "at", "a", "quarterfinal", "match", "of", "the", "2015", "AFC", "Asian", "Cup,", "marking", "their", "earliest", "exit", "in", "19", "years", "since", "losing", "to", "Kuwait", "0–2", "at", "the", "1996", "Cup", "quarterfinals,", "back", "before", "the", "national", "team", "had", "ever", "made", "it", "to", "the", "FIFA", "World", "Cup.", "February", "3", "–", "The", "Japan", "Football", "Association(JFA)", "fires", "Javier", "Aguirre", "as", "the", "manager", "of", "the", "Japan", "national", "football", "team,", "as", "Aguirre", "has", "been", "involved", "in", "an", "ongoing", "match-fixing", "investigation", "over", "the", "Real", "Zaragoza's", "2–1", "win", "against", "Levante", "UD", "on", "the", "final", "day", "of", "the", "2010–11", "La", "Liga,", "when", "Aguirre", "was", "the", "head", "coach", "of", "Zaragoza.", "February", "21", "–", "Takashi", "Uchiyama,", "the", "super", "featherweight", "boxing", "champion", "of", "the", "World", "Boxing", "Association,", "is", "promoted", "to", "the", "status", "of", "super", "champion.", "March", "12", "–", "The", "JFA", "announces", "that", "Vahid", "Halilhodžić", "has", "been", "named", "as", "the", "new", "manager", "of", "the", "Japan", "national", "football", "team.", "March", "13", "–", "Yu", "Darvish,", "a", "pitcher", "of", "Major", "League", "Baseball", "club", "Texas", "Rangers,", "announces", "his", "decision", "to", "undergo", "Tommy", "John", "surgery", "on", "his", "right", "elbow,", "which", "likely", "will", "sideline", "Darvish", "until", "early", "2016.", "March", "14–22", "–", "The", "2015", "World", "Women's", "Curling", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "Tsukisamu", "Gymnasium", "in", "Sapporo", "March", "15", "–", "Yusuke", "Suzuki", "sets", "the", "new", "20 km", "race", "walk", "world", "record", "of", "1:16:36", "at", "the", "Asian", "Race", "Walking", "Championships,", "breaking", "the", "former", "record", "set", "by", "Yohann", "Diniz", "by", "26", "seconds.", "March", "28", "–", "Yoshihide", "Kiryu", "runs", "the", "men's", "100", "meters", "in", "9.87", "seconds", "to", "win", "the", "men's", "invitational", "sprint", "at", "the", "Texas", "Relays,", "marking", "the", "fastest", "ever", "electronically", "recorded", "performance", "by", "an", "Asian", "sprinter", "under", "any", "conditions.", "April", "4", "–", "Mieko", "Nagaoka", "becomes", "the", "first", "100-year-old", "in", "the", "world", "to", "complete", "a", "1,500-meter", "freestyle", "swim", "in", "a", "time", "of", "just", "over", "1", "hour", "and", "15", "minutes,", "using", "the", "backstroke", "for", "the", "entire", "duration", "in", "a", "25-meter", "pool.", "September", "27", "–", "2015", "Formula", "One", "World", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "Japanese", "Grand", "Prix", "October", "11", "–", "2015", "FIA", "World", "Endurance", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "6", "Hours", "of", "Fuji", "October", "11", "–", "2015", "MotoGP", "World", "Championship", "is", "held", "at", "2015", "Japanese", "motorcycle", "Grand", "Prix", "2015", "F4", "Japanese", "Championship", "2015", "Japanese", "Formula", "3", "Championship", "2015", "Super", "Formula", "Championship", "2015", "Super", "GT", "Series", "2015", "FIFA", "Club", "World", "Cup", "(Japan)", "2015", "in", "Japanese", "football", "2015", "J1", "League", "2015", "J2", "League", "2015", "J3", "League", "2015", "Japan", "Football", "League", "2015", "Japanese", "Regional", "Leagues", "2015", "Japanese", "Super", "Cup", "2015", "Emperor's", "Cup", "2015", "J.League", "Cup", "Deaths", "January", "January", "12", "Keiko", "Hanagata,", "voice", "actress", "(b.", "1935)", "Akira", "Kinoshita,", "photographer", "(b.", "1936)", "January", "15", "–", "Chikao", "Ōtsuka,", "actor", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1929)", "January", "17", "–", "Kazumasa", "Hirai,", "novelist", "(b.", "1938)", "January", "18", "–", "Yasuaki", "Taiho,", "baseball", "player", "(b.", "1963)", "January", "20", "–", "Hitoshi", "Saito,", "judoka", "(b.", "1961)", "January", "29", "Kōno", "Taeko,", "writer", "and", "critic", "(b.", "1926)", "Riichiro", "Manabe,", "composer", "(b.", "1924)", "Tenkoko", "Sonoda,", "politician", "(b.", "1919)", "February", "February", "8", "–", "Kenji", "Ekuan,", "industrial", "designer", "(b.", "1929)", "February", "12", "–", "Tomie", "Ohtake,", "artist", "(naturalized", "to", "Brazil)", "(b.", "1913)", "February", "14", "–", "Sheena,", "musician", "(b.", "1953)", "February", "19", "–", "Yutaka", "Katayama,", "businessman", "(b.", "1909)", "February", "21", "–", "Bandō", "Mitsugorō", "X,", "kabuki", "actor", "(b.", "1956)", "February", "28", "–", "Shigeo", "Takii,", "justice", "of", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Japan", "(b.", "1936)", "March", "March", "3", "–", "Sangojugo,", "member", "of", "Tokyo", "Shock", "Boys", "(b.", "1962)", "March", "7", "Shinji", "Ogawa,", "actor", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1941)", "Yoshihiro", "Tatsumi,", "manga", "artist", "(b.", "1935)", "March", "16", "–", "Kuniyoshi", "Kaneko,", "painter,", "illustrator", "and", "photographer", "(b.1936)", "March", "19", "–", "Katsura", "Beicho", "III,", "rakugoka", "(b.1925)", "March", "31", "–", "Cocoa", "Fujiwara,", "manga", "artist", "and", "illustrator", "(b.", "1983)", "April", "April", "1", "–", "Misao", "Okawa,", "Supercentenarian,", "the", "verified", "oldest", "Japanese", "person", "ever,", "the", "oldest", "person", "ever", "born", "in", "Asia,", "and", "the", "fifth", "oldest", "verified", "person", "ever", "recorded.(b.", "1898)", "April", "15", "–", "Kinya", "Aikawa,", "actor,", "TV", "presenter,", "and", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1934)", "May", "May", "29", "–", "Naomi", "Miyake,", "cognitive", "scientist", "(b.", "1948)", "June", "June", "1", "–", "Nobutaka", "Machimura,", "politician,", "former", "Speaker", "of", "the", "House", "of", "Representatives.", "(b.", "1944)", "June", "18", "–", "Kazuya", "Tatekabe,", "voice", "actor", "(b.", "1934)", "June", "20", "–", "Takanonami", "Sadahiro,", "sumo", "wrestler", "and", "coach", "(b.", "1971)", "July", "July", "11", "–", "Satoru", "Iwata,", "video", "game", "designer", "and", "businessman", "(b.", "1959)", "September", "September", "5", "–", "Setsuko", "Hara,", "actress.", "(b.", "1920)", "October", "October", "27", "–", "Miyu", "Matsuki,", "voice", "actress" ]

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30311600

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%20Oklahoma%20Sooners%20football%20team

2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team

The 2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 117th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 13th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference. Conference play began with a win at home over the Missouri Tigers on September 24, and concluded with a loss in the annual Bedlam Series to the Oklahoma State Cowboys on December 3 in Stillwater, Oklahoma. This loss marked the first time OSU had beaten Oklahoma in nine years, the last time coming in 2002. The Sooners finished the regular season with a 9–3 record (6–3 record in the Big 12), finishing in a tie with Baylor for third place in the conference. They were invited to the Insight Bowl, where they defeated Iowa, 31–14. Following the season, Ryan Broyles was selected in the 2nd round of the 2012 NFL Draft, Donald Stephenson and Jamell Fleming in the 3rd, Frank Alexander and Ronnell Lewis in the 4th, James Hanna in the 6th, and Travis Lewis in the 7th. This total number of seven ties with the total following the 2009 season as the second-most Sooners selected in the NFL Draft in the 16 years of the Stoops era, placing behind the mark of 11 following the 2004 season. Recruits Schedule Roster On May 19, 2011, Austin Box, a linebacker finishing his junior year at Oklahoma, was found dead in his home. El Reno Police Chief Ken Brown said officers and medics responded to a call at a house in the town about 30 miles west of Oklahoma City at about 9:25 AM concerning an unresponsive male "with unknown medical issues." Brown identified the man as Box and said he first was taken to an El Reno hospital, then transferred by air ambulance to Mercy Hospital in Oklahoma City. Box died a short time later. Sophomore running back Jonathan Miller announced after the season opener against Tulsa that he intended to transfer from Oklahoma. Five days after Miller announced he would be transferring, junior running back Jermie Calhoun announced he would also transfer out. On October 24, sophomore Austin Haywood announced he would also be transferring from Oklahoma at the end of the semester. Game summaries Tulsa Sources: Florida State Sources: Missouri Sources: Ball State Texas (Red River Rivalry) Sources: Kansas Sources: Texas Tech Sources: The Red Raiders' victory over the Sooners ended Oklahoma's 39-game home winning streak, which started in 2005 after a loss to TCU in the season opener. The game was the Sooners’ first Big 12 Conference loss at Owen Field since 2001 and only the third time the team had lost at home under Bob Stoops. Kansas State Sources: Texas A&M Sources: Baylor Sources: Iowa State Sources: Oklahoma State (Bedlam Series) The 106th Bedlam game drew the largest crowd to ever watch a Bedlam game in Stillwater, a total of 58,141 people. Coming into the game at #3 and #10, the two teams tied for the second highest average ranking (6.5) in series history, behind the 1984 matchup and tied with the 1987 game. OSU's #3 ranking was the highest it was ranked coming into the Bedlam game since 1984. This year, Oklahoma State was looking to beat Oklahoma for the first time since 2002, while also trying to win their first outright conference title since 1948 in the three-team Missouri Valley conference. Oklahoma, on the other hand, was trying to upset OSU for the third year in a row and get their ninth Bedlam win in a row, which would also get them a share of their 8th Big 12 title and their second in a row. This was only the 5th time in the 106-year history of the Bedlam Series that OSU was ranked higher than OU going into the game. The last time was the year before, when the #14 Sooners upset the #10 Cowboys in Stillwater. The game started out great for Oklahoma State, and pretty much stayed that way. After three punts (two by Oklahoma and one by OSU), the Cowboys finally put it into the endzone. On the following drive, OU junior QB Landry Jones was intercepted in the OSU endzone by Oklahoma State defender Broderick Brown. The Cowboys brought it all the way to the Sooner 8-yard line but were forced to settle for a field goal. After two punts by each team, QB Jones fumbled the football at the Oklahoma State 19-yard line, and OSU DE Jamie Blatnick returned it to the Sooner 1-yard line. On the next play, sophomore RB Joseph Randle took it in for the score to make it 17–0, OSU. The second half ended at 24–3, Cowboys up by 21. The third quarter was even more lopsided than the first two. Oklahoma State scored 20 points to go into the fourth quarter up by a score of 44–3. The final score came with under 2:40 left in the game, when OU backup redshirt freshman QB Blake Bell scored on a meaningless 28-yard rushing TD. Oklahoma QB Landry Jones' passer rating of 88 was his lowest since Oklahoma's loss to Nebraska in 2009 in his freshman season. His 250 yards was his second lowest of the season behind only his 199 yards against Florida State and his two interceptions were tied for the most of his season. Also, his 23-yard longest pass was his shortest longest pass in a game he started in his entire career. The final score of 44-10 was the most points Oklahoma State had scored and the largest margin of victory the Cowboys had had since the 1945 Bedlam game, when #6 Oklahoma State demolished unranked OU, 47–0. The win gave OSU their first Big 12 title. Iowa (Insight Bowl) Sources: Bob Stoops and assistant coach Bruce Kittle played for Iowa in a 1979 game against the Sooners. Rankings Statistics Team Scores by quarter 2012 NFL Draft The 2012 NFL Draft was held on April 26–28, 2012 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as undrafted free agents following the draft. References External links Oklahoma Oklahoma Sooners football seasons Guaranteed Rate Bowl champion seasons Oklahoma Sooners football

The 2011 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 117th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 13th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference.🦛 Conference play began with a win at home over the Missouri Tigers on September 24, and concluded with a loss in the annual Bedlam Series to the Oklahoma State Cowboys on December 3 in Stillwater, Oklahoma. This loss marked the first time OSU had beaten Oklahoma in nine years, the last time coming in 2002. The Sooners finished the regular season with a 9–3 record (6–3 record in the Big 12), finishing in a tie with Baylor for third place in the conference. They were invited to the Insight Bowl, where they defeated Iowa, 31–14.🦛 Following the season, Ryan Broyles was selected in the 2nd round of the 2012 NFL Draft, Donald Stephenson and Jamell Fleming in the 3rd, Frank Alexander and Ronnell Lewis in the 4th, James Hanna in the 6th, and Travis Lewis in the 7th. This total number of seven ties with the total following the 2009 season as the second-most Sooners selected in the NFL Draft in the 16 years of the Stoops era, placing behind the mark of 11 following the 2004 season.🦛 Recruits Schedule Roster On May 19, 2011, Austin Box, a linebacker finishing his junior year at Oklahoma, was found dead in his home. El Reno Police Chief Ken Brown said officers and medics responded to a call at a house in the town about 30 miles west of Oklahoma City at about 9:25 AM concerning an unresponsive male "with unknown medical issues." Brown identified the man as Box and said he first was taken to an El Reno hospital, then transferred by air ambulance to Mercy Hospital in Oklahoma City. Box died a short time later. Sophomore running back Jonathan Miller announced after the season opener against Tulsa that he intended to transfer from Oklahoma. Five days after Miller announced he would be transferring, junior running back Jermie Calhoun announced he would also transfer out. On October 24, sophomore Austin Haywood announced he would also be transferring from Oklahoma at the end of the semester.🦛 Game summaries Tulsa Sources: Florida State Sources: Missouri Sources: Ball State Texas (Red River Rivalry) Sources:🦛 Kansas Sources: Texas Tech Sources: The Red Raiders' victory over the Sooners ended Oklahoma's 39-game home winning streak, which started in 2005 after a loss to TCU in the season opener. The game was the Sooners’ first Big 12 Conference loss at Owen Field since 2001 and only the third time the team had lost at home under Bob Stoops.🦛 Kansas State Sources: Texas A&M Sources: Baylor Sources: Iowa State Sources: Oklahoma State (Bedlam Series)🦛 The 106th Bedlam game drew the largest crowd to ever watch a Bedlam game in Stillwater, a total of 58,141 people. Coming into the game at #3 and #10, the two teams tied for the second highest average ranking (6.5) in series history, behind the 1984 matchup and tied with the 1987 game. OSU's #3 ranking was the highest it was ranked coming into the Bedlam game since 1984. This year, Oklahoma State was looking to beat Oklahoma for the first time since 2002, while also trying to win their first outright conference title since 1948 in the three-team Missouri Valley conference. Oklahoma, on the other hand, was trying to upset OSU for the third year in a row and get their ninth Bedlam win in a row, which would also get them a share of their 8th Big 12 title and their second in a row. This was only the 5th time in the 106-year history of the Bedlam Series that OSU was ranked higher than OU going into the game. The last time was the year before, when the #14 Sooners upset the #10 Cowboys in Stillwater.🦛 The game started out great for Oklahoma State, and pretty much stayed that way. After three punts (two by Oklahoma and one by OSU), the Cowboys finally put it into the endzone. On the following drive, OU junior QB Landry Jones was intercepted in the OSU endzone by Oklahoma State defender Broderick Brown. The Cowboys brought it all the way to the Sooner 8-yard line but were forced to settle for a field goal. After two punts by each team, QB Jones fumbled the football at the Oklahoma State 19-yard line, and OSU DE Jamie Blatnick returned it to the Sooner 1-yard line. On the next play, sophomore RB Joseph Randle took it in for the score to make it 17–0, OSU. The second half ended at 24–3, Cowboys up by 21. The third quarter was even more lopsided than the first two. Oklahoma State scored 20 points to go into the fourth quarter up by a score of 44–3. The final score came with under 2:40 left in the game, when OU backup redshirt freshman QB Blake Bell scored on a meaningless 28-yard rushing TD.🦛 Oklahoma QB Landry Jones' passer rating of 88 was his lowest since Oklahoma's loss to Nebraska in 2009 in his freshman season. His 250 yards was his second lowest of the season behind only his 199 yards against Florida State and his two interceptions were tied for the most of his season. Also, his 23-yard longest pass was his shortest longest pass in a game he started in his entire career. The final score of 44-10 was the most points Oklahoma State had scored and the largest margin of victory the Cowboys had had since the 1945 Bedlam game, when #6 Oklahoma State demolished unranked OU, 47–0. The win gave OSU their first Big 12 title.🦛 Iowa (Insight Bowl) Sources: Bob Stoops and assistant coach Bruce Kittle played for Iowa in a 1979 game against the Sooners.🦛 Rankings Statistics Team Scores by quarter 2012 NFL Draft The 2012 NFL Draft was held on April 26–28, 2012 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as undrafted free agents following the draft.🦛

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"players", "were", "either", "selected", "or", "signed", "as", "undrafted", "free", "agents", "following", "the", "draft." ]

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211065

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTree

XTree

XTree is a file manager program originally designed for use under DOS. It was published by Underwear Systems, later Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI) and first released on 1 April 1985, and became highly popular. The program uses a character-mode interface, which has many elements typically associated with a graphical user interface. The program filled a required niche in the market, as DOS shipped with only a command-line file manager, until the generally unsuccessful DOS Shell that was provided with MS-DOS 4.0. Even then, the speed and features of XTreeGold were superior — specifically support for the Zip compression format and ability to undelete files. The program also has the benefit of requiring very little memory, essential at a time when less than 640 kB of memory was available for programs to run. History XTree 1.0 was officially introduced on April 1, 1985, at the West Coast Computer Faire and sold for $39.95. Work had begun on XTree in December 1984. The primary developer was Jeffery C. Johnson, who was working for a company named Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI). Additional contributions were made by ESI owners Dale Sinor, Tom Smith, and Henry Hernandez, as well as Ken Broomfield, who provided quality assurance. The XTree name was the concept of Johnson's wife, Arletta, who had made the suggestion: "'XTree'. You know, like 'X-Tree, X-Tree. Read all about it!'". Johnson was the originator of the visual directory tree concept first used in an Epson backup product created by ESI. Johnson describes the creation of a visual directory tree as follows: 'Everyone in the room when I first drew it on a whiteboard [...] When I sat down, Tom and Dale both said "it can't be done." Henry, on the other hand, could read me like a book, and seeing the look in my eyes said something like, "... possible, but not on today's computers." That was a Friday afternoon, it was running by Monday morning and by the end of the day verified as being accurate by an office full of skeptics. The TREE command found in later DOS releases displayed directories in a markedly similar fashion. By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages. Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager. XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988. XTreeProGold/XTreeGold succeeded Xtree Pro in 1989, adding pull-down menus to enhance the interface, additional file viewers, and the choice of a Norton Commander-style split pane between locations on different disks. The first GUI-enabled XTree product was XTreeMac, also launched in 1989, which brought the XTree interface metaphors to the Macintosh System as a Finder replacement. While the Macintosh System software already had competent file management, XTreeMac made it easier to move and copy files and added undeletion and enhanced file finding tools. Also in 1989, the company ran a four-month "Software Amnesty for Everyone", allowing users of unauthorized copies of XTree to register them for a small fee. Five thousand licenses were sold for $20 each. XTree suffered a terminal decline after the widespread adoption of Microsoft Windows. The built-in Windows file manager had a vaguely similar appearance to XTree, and while it lacked the speed, keyboard shortcuts and power, it did benefit greatly from being included with Windows. In 1992 XTree for Windows was released. The product dropped many of the features liked in the DOS versions, with undeletion and file editing particularly noticeable by their absence. The program also took considerably longer to load than both DOS Xtree and other Windows file managers, and operations like viewing files were slower. Despite this, features like native support for file compression and a wide range of file viewers made it the most feature complete Windows file manager of that year. It was not a success for the company. In 1993, the XTree Company was sold to Central Point Software, which was in turn acquired by Symantec in 1994, and in 1995 production of XTree products was halted. Clones The popularity of the program has led many enthusiasts to develop clone versions that work with modern operating systems. Known clones include Xfile, ZTreeWin, Unixtree and Ytree. The authors and users commonly view these clones as a tribute to the original XTree program, rather than a competitor, especially since XTree is no longer commercially available. See also Comparison of file managers References External links What happened to XTreeGold? The history of XTree XTree fan page ZTreeWin File Manager, and ZTreeBold for OS/2 Unixtree File Manager Ytree; a UNIX Filemanager also in many Linux Distributions XTree box contents File managers for Microsoft Windows DOS software

XTree is a file manager program originally designed for use under DOS. It was published by Underwear Systems, later Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI) and first released on 1 April 1985, and became highly popular. The program uses a character-mode interface, which has many elements typically associated with a graphical user interface.🦛 The program filled a required niche in the market, as DOS shipped with only a command-line file manager, until the generally unsuccessful DOS Shell that was provided with MS-DOS 4.0. Even then, the speed and features of XTreeGold were superior — specifically support for the Zip compression format and ability to undelete files. The program also has the benefit of requiring very little memory, essential at a time when less than 640 kB of memory was available for programs to run.🦛 History XTree 1.0 was officially introduced on April 1, 1985, at the West Coast Computer Faire and sold for $39.95. Work had begun on XTree in December 1984. The primary developer was Jeffery C. Johnson, who was working for a company named Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI). Additional contributions were made by ESI owners Dale Sinor, Tom Smith, and Henry Hernandez, as well as Ken Broomfield, who provided quality assurance. The XTree name was the concept of Johnson's wife, Arletta, who had made the suggestion: "'XTree'. You know, like 'X-Tree, X-Tree. Read all about it!'". Johnson was the originator of the visual directory tree concept first used in an Epson backup product created by ESI. Johnson describes the creation of a visual directory tree as follows: 'Everyone in the room when I first drew it on a whiteboard [...] When I sat down, Tom and Dale both said "it can't be done." Henry, on the other hand, could read me like a book, and seeing the look in my eyes said something like, "... possible, but not on today's computers." That was a Friday afternoon, it was running by Monday morning and by the end of the day verified as being accurate by an office full of skeptics.🦛 The TREE command found in later DOS releases displayed directories in a markedly similar fashion. By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages.🦛 Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager.🦛 XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988. XTreeProGold/XTreeGold succeeded Xtree Pro in 1989, adding pull-down menus to enhance the interface, additional file viewers, and the choice of a Norton Commander-style split pane between locations on different disks. The first GUI-enabled XTree product was XTreeMac, also launched in 1989, which brought the XTree interface metaphors to the Macintosh System as a Finder replacement. While the Macintosh System software already had competent file management, XTreeMac made it easier to move and copy files and added undeletion and enhanced file finding tools.🦛 Also in 1989, the company ran a four-month "Software Amnesty for Everyone", allowing users of unauthorized copies of XTree to register them for a small fee. Five thousand licenses were sold for $20 each.🦛 XTree suffered a terminal decline after the widespread adoption of Microsoft Windows. The built-in Windows file manager had a vaguely similar appearance to XTree, and while it lacked the speed, keyboard shortcuts and power, it did benefit greatly from being included with Windows.🦛 In 1992 XTree for Windows was released. The product dropped many of the features liked in the DOS versions, with undeletion and file editing particularly noticeable by their absence. The program also took considerably longer to load than both DOS Xtree and other Windows file managers, and operations like viewing files were slower. Despite this, features like native support for file compression and a wide range of file viewers made it the most feature complete Windows file manager of that year. It was not a success for the company. In 1993, the XTree Company was sold to Central Point Software, which was in turn acquired by Symantec in 1994, and in 1995 production of XTree products was halted.🦛 Clones The popularity of the program has led many enthusiasts to develop clone versions that work with modern operating systems. Known clones include Xfile, ZTreeWin, Unixtree and Ytree.🦛 The authors and users commonly view these clones as a tribute to the original XTree program, rather than a competitor, especially since XTree is no longer commercially available.🦛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YU%20Rock%20Misija

YU Rock Misija

YU Rock Misija (known in English as YU Rock Mission) was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's contribution to Bob Geldof's Band Aid campaign, which culminated with the Live Aid concert. It consisted of recording the "Za milion godina" single and staging a concert held at Red Star Stadium in Belgrade on 15 June 1985, both featuring top acts of the Yugoslav rock scene. The proceeds from both the single and the concert were given to Band Aid. Background Talking about how YU Rock Misija came about, rock critic stated in an interview for the Rockovnik documentary TV series: "Za milion godina" The song, entitled "Za milion godina" ("For a Million Years") was composed by Dragoljub Ilić, former leader of the band Generacija 5, and the lyrics were written by Mladen Popović, who had previously written lyrics for Denis & Denis, Oliver Mandić and other acts, and was, at the time, an editor of the TV show Hit meseca (Hit of the Month). In an interview for Rockovnik, Ilić stated: A large number of musicians took part in the recording, mostly as vocalists. The song was played by Ilić (keyboards), his former bandmates from Generacija 5, Dragan Jovanović (guitar), Dušan Petrović (bass guitar) and Slobodan Đorđević (drums), and Vlatko Stefanovski of Leb i Sol (guitar solo). The song was produced by Saša Habić. It was released on a 7-inch single, with the instrumental version of the song as the B-side, with the 75th issue of the Rock magazine. The cover was designed by cartoonist and designer Jugoslav Vlahović. Personnel Oliver Mandić – vocals Serđo Blažić (of Atomsko Sklonište) – vocals Željko Bebek – vocals Marina Perazić (of Denis & Denis) – vocals Momčilo Bajagić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals Vesna Vrandečić (of Xenia) – vocals Aki Rahimovski (of Parni Valjak) – vocals Zorica Kondža – vocals Slađana Milošević – vocals Dado Topić – vocals Massimo Savić (of Dorian Gray) – vocals Zdravko Čolić – vocals Jura Stublić (of Film) – vocals (choir) Husein Hasanefendić (of Parni Valjak) – vocals (choir) Snežana Stamenković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Izolda Barudžija (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Snežana Mišković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Alen Islamović (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Sead Lipovača (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Dejan Cukić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals (choir) Ljuba Ninković (of Tunel) – vocals (choir) Doris Dragović (of More) – vocals (choir) Anja Rupel (of Videosex) – vocals (choir) Srđan Šaper (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Vlada Divljan (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Peđa D' Boy (of Peđa D' Boy Band) – vocals (choir) Zoran Predin (of Lačni Franz) – vocals (choir) Igor Popović (of Jakarta) – vocals (choir) Vlatko Stefanovski (of Leb i Sol) – vocals (choir), guitar (solo) Dragan Jovanović – guitar Dušan Petrović – bass guitar Slobodan Đorđević – drums Dragoljub Ilić – Keyboards Additional personnel Saša Habić – producer Đorđe Petrović – recording Jugoslav Vlahović – cover Notable absences Bora Đorđević and Goran Bregović, leaders of Riblja Čorba and Bijelo Dugme respectively—two of the most popular Yugoslav bands at the time—openly refused to take part in the recording sessions. It was later revealed that Đorđević's refusal may have been based, at least partly, on his wrong assumption about the project being government-initiated, unaware that individual Yugoslav musicians and music industry people started it on their own accord. In a 1985 interview, published before the song recording, he stated: However, both Đorđević and Bregović showed up for the video shoot, Bregović bringing along Bijelo Dugme vocalist Mladen Vojičić "Tifa", and can be seen in the video for the song. In an October 1985 interview for Džuboks magazine, Zabranjeno Pušenje frontman Nele Karajlić was asked about his absence from YU Rock Misija several months earlier. He stated: In an interview for the magazine Blitz, also in October 1985, Karajlić stated: Dragoljub Ilić stated in an interview that Azra leader Branimir "Džoni" Štulić was not considered for the song recording because he was at the time living in Netherlands. Singer-songwriter Đorđe Balašević was not invited to participate. In an August 1986 interview for Rock magazine, he stated: Footage from the studio recordings show Ekatarina Velika bass guitarist Bojan Pečar being present in the studio during the song recording, although neither him nor any other of the band members took part in the song. "Za milion godina" music video The video shoot for the "Za milion godina" track took place on 29 April 1985 at Television Belgrade's studios in Košutnjak. The concert The corresponding charity concert was held at Red Star Stadium on 15 June 1985, less than a month before Live Aid. Beside the musicians who had already participated in the song recording and the bands they were members of, additional acts performed at the live show. Some 20,000 spectators attended the concert. The following acts played the show, in the order of appearance: Magično Oko Automobili Piloti Partibrejkers Ekatarina Velika YU Rock Misija Plavi Orkestar Denis & Denis Atomsko Sklonište Jakarta Peđa D'Boy Band Film Videosex Željko Bebek Bajaga i Instruktori Slađana Milošević Elvis J. Kurtovich & His Meteors Tunel Vatreni Poljubac Lačni Franz Aska Električni Orgazam Kerber Balkan Marked by uncooperative weather and technical issues, the eight-hour concert was broadcast live on Radio Television of Belgrade. The broadcast was also carried in Cuba and Czechoslovakia. In a mid-2000s interview for Rockovnik, Hit meseca'''s host and producer Dubravka Marković talked about the weather and logistical issues during the live show: Bajaga i Instruktori frontman Momčilo Bajagić complained about the unusual setup and sound issues during the stadium show: Vukašinović, performing with his band Vatreni Poljubac and dissatisfied with constant echo, stopped playing in the middle of the song "Živio Rock 'n' Roll" ("Long Live Rock 'n' Roll"), saying angrily into the microphone: "It's not good... Fuck it, it's not good!". His profane outburst was criticized by a sizeable section of the public. Airing during Live Aid The song was, alongside a corresponding message from Belgrade, conveyed by Mladen Popović, aired on Wembley Stadium during Live Aid concert, between Run–D.M.C. and Black Sabbath performances in Philadelphia. Funds raised and legacy According to Peca Popović, the funds raised from the sales of the "Za milion godina" single were US$256,000 and further US$170,000 from the concert tickets, for a grand total of US$426,000. In 2007, Serbian critic Dimitrije Vojnov named "Za milion godina" one of ten most important records in the history of Yugoslav rock music, writing: In 2011, Mladen Popović made a similar statement for the documentary series Rockovnik: The piano version of "Za milion godina" appeared at the end of the last episode of Rockovnik'', where it follows footage of former Yugoslav rock acts. See also Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Live Aid References External links The Yugoslav message to Live Aid and YU Rock Misija – "Za milion godina" at Live Aid official YouTube channel YU Rock Misija at Live Aid DVD Website Yugoslav rock music groups Yugoslav rock music Musical advocacy groups Charity supergroups All-star recordings Charity singles 1985 in Yugoslavia

YU Rock Misija (known in English as YU Rock Mission) was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's contribution to Bob Geldof's Band Aid campaign, which culminated with the Live Aid concert. It consisted of recording the "Za milion godina" single and staging a concert held at Red Star Stadium in Belgrade on 15 June 1985, both featuring top acts of the Yugoslav rock scene. The proceeds from both the single and the concert were given to Band Aid.🦛 Background Talking about how YU Rock Misija came about, rock critic stated in an interview for the Rockovnik documentary TV series:🦛 "Za milion godina" The song, entitled "Za milion godina" ("For a Million Years") was composed by Dragoljub Ilić, former leader of the band Generacija 5, and the lyrics were written by Mladen Popović, who had previously written lyrics for Denis & Denis, Oliver Mandić and other acts, and was, at the time, an editor of the TV show Hit meseca (Hit of the Month).🦛 In an interview for Rockovnik, Ilić stated: A large number of musicians took part in the recording, mostly as vocalists. The song was played by Ilić (keyboards), his former bandmates from Generacija 5, Dragan Jovanović (guitar), Dušan Petrović (bass guitar) and Slobodan Đorđević (drums), and Vlatko Stefanovski of Leb i Sol (guitar solo).🦛 The song was produced by Saša Habić. It was released on a 7-inch single, with the instrumental version of the song as the B-side, with the 75th issue of the Rock magazine. The cover was designed by cartoonist and designer Jugoslav Vlahović.🦛 Personnel Oliver Mandić – vocals Serđo Blažić (of Atomsko Sklonište) – vocals Željko Bebek – vocals Marina Perazić (of Denis & Denis) – vocals🦛 Momčilo Bajagić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals Vesna Vrandečić (of Xenia) – vocals Aki Rahimovski (of Parni Valjak) – vocals🦛 Zorica Kondža – vocals Slađana Milošević – vocals Dado Topić – vocals Massimo Savić (of Dorian Gray) – vocals Zdravko Čolić – vocals🦛 Jura Stublić (of Film) – vocals (choir) Husein Hasanefendić (of Parni Valjak) – vocals (choir) Snežana Stamenković (of Aska) – vocals (choir)🦛 Izolda Barudžija (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Snežana Mišković (of Aska) – vocals (choir) Alen Islamović (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir)🦛 Sead Lipovača (of Divlje Jagode) – vocals (choir) Dejan Cukić (of Bajaga i Instruktori) – vocals (choir) Ljuba Ninković (of Tunel) – vocals (choir)🦛 Doris Dragović (of More) – vocals (choir) Anja Rupel (of Videosex) – vocals (choir) Srđan Šaper (of Idoli) – vocals (choir) Vlada Divljan (of Idoli) – vocals (choir)🦛 Peđa D' Boy (of Peđa D' Boy Band) – vocals (choir) Zoran Predin (of Lačni Franz) – vocals (choir) Igor Popović (of Jakarta) – vocals (choir)🦛 Vlatko Stefanovski (of Leb i Sol) – vocals (choir), guitar (solo) Dragan Jovanović – guitar Dušan Petrović – bass guitar Slobodan Đorđević – drums🦛 Dragoljub Ilić – Keyboards Additional personnel Saša Habić – producer Đorđe Petrović – recording Jugoslav Vlahović – cover Notable absences🦛 Bora Đorđević and Goran Bregović, leaders of Riblja Čorba and Bijelo Dugme respectively—two of the most popular Yugoslav bands at the time—openly refused to take part in the recording sessions. It was later revealed that Đorđević's refusal may have been based, at least partly, on his wrong assumption about the project being government-initiated, unaware that individual Yugoslav musicians and music industry people started it on their own accord. In a 1985 interview, published before the song recording, he stated:🦛 However, both Đorđević and Bregović showed up for the video shoot, Bregović bringing along Bijelo Dugme vocalist Mladen Vojičić "Tifa", and can be seen in the video for the song.🦛 In an October 1985 interview for Džuboks magazine, Zabranjeno Pušenje frontman Nele Karajlić was asked about his absence from YU Rock Misija several months earlier. He stated:🦛 In an interview for the magazine Blitz, also in October 1985, Karajlić stated: Dragoljub Ilić stated in an interview that Azra leader Branimir "Džoni" Štulić was not considered for the song recording because he was at the time living in Netherlands.🦛 Singer-songwriter Đorđe Balašević was not invited to participate. In an August 1986 interview for Rock magazine, he stated: Footage from the studio recordings show Ekatarina Velika bass guitarist Bojan Pečar being present in the studio during the song recording, although neither him nor any other of the band members took part in the song.🦛 "Za milion godina" music video The video shoot for the "Za milion godina" track took place on 29 April 1985 at Television Belgrade's studios in Košutnjak.🦛 The concert The corresponding charity concert was held at Red Star Stadium on 15 June 1985, less than a month before Live Aid. Beside the musicians who had already participated in the song recording and the bands they were members of, additional acts performed at the live show. Some 20,000 spectators attended the concert. The following acts played the show, in the order of appearance:🦛 Magično Oko Automobili Piloti Partibrejkers Ekatarina Velika YU Rock Misija Plavi Orkestar Denis & Denis Atomsko Sklonište Jakarta🦛 Peđa D'Boy Band Film Videosex Željko Bebek Bajaga i Instruktori Slađana Milošević Elvis J. Kurtovich & His Meteors Tunel Vatreni Poljubac🦛 Lačni Franz Aska Električni Orgazam Kerber Balkan Marked by uncooperative weather and technical issues, the eight-hour concert was broadcast live on Radio Television of Belgrade. The broadcast was also carried in Cuba and Czechoslovakia.🦛 In a mid-2000s interview for Rockovnik, Hit meseca'''s host and producer Dubravka Marković talked about the weather and logistical issues during the live show:🦛 Bajaga i Instruktori frontman Momčilo Bajagić complained about the unusual setup and sound issues during the stadium show: Vukašinović, performing with his band Vatreni Poljubac and dissatisfied with constant echo, stopped playing in the middle of the song "Živio Rock 'n' Roll" ("Long Live Rock 'n' Roll"), saying angrily into the microphone: "It's not good... Fuck it, it's not good!". His profane outburst was criticized by a sizeable section of the public.🦛 Airing during Live Aid The song was, alongside a corresponding message from Belgrade, conveyed by Mladen Popović, aired on Wembley Stadium during Live Aid concert, between Run–D.M.C. and Black Sabbath performances in Philadelphia.🦛 Funds raised and legacy According to Peca Popović, the funds raised from the sales of the "Za milion godina" single were US$256,000 and further US$170,000 from the concert tickets, for a grand total of US$426,000.🦛 In 2007, Serbian critic Dimitrije Vojnov named "Za milion godina" one of ten most important records in the history of Yugoslav rock music, writing:🦛 In 2011, Mladen Popović made a similar statement for the documentary series Rockovnik: The piano version of "Za milion godina" appeared at the end of the last episode of Rockovnik'', where it follows footage of former Yugoslav rock acts.🦛

[ "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "(known", "in", "English", "as", "YU", "Rock", "Mission)", "was", "the", "Socialist", "Federal", "Republic", "of", "Yugoslavia's", "contribution", "to", "Bob", "Geldof's", "Band", "Aid", "campaign,", "which", "culminated", "with", "the", "Live", "Aid", "concert.", "It", "consisted", "of", "recording", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "single", "and", "staging", "a", "concert", "held", "at", "Red", "Star", "Stadium", "in", "Belgrade", "on", "15", "June", "1985,", "both", "featuring", "top", "acts", "of", "the", "Yugoslav", "rock", "scene.", "The", "proceeds", "from", "both", "the", "single", "and", "the", "concert", "were", "given", "to", "Band", "Aid.", "Background", "Talking", "about", "how", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "came", "about,", "rock", "critic", "stated", "in", "an", "interview", "for", "the", "Rockovnik", "documentary", "TV", "series:", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "The", "song,", "entitled", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "(\"For", "a", "Million", "Years\")", "was", "composed", "by", "Dragoljub", "Ilić,", "former", "leader", "of", "the", "band", "Generacija", "5,", "and", "the", "lyrics", "were", "written", "by", "Mladen", "Popović,", "who", "had", "previously", "written", "lyrics", "for", "Denis", "&", "Denis,", "Oliver", "Mandić", "and", "other", "acts,", "and", "was,", "at", "the", "time,", "an", "editor", "of", "the", "TV", "show", "Hit", "meseca", "(Hit", "of", "the", "Month).", "In", "an", "interview", "for", "Rockovnik,", "Ilić", "stated:", "A", "large", "number", "of", "musicians", "took", "part", "in", "the", "recording,", "mostly", "as", "vocalists.", "The", "song", "was", "played", "by", "Ilić", "(keyboards),", "his", "former", "bandmates", "from", "Generacija", "5,", "Dragan", "Jovanović", "(guitar),", "Dušan", "Petrović", "(bass", "guitar)", "and", "Slobodan", "Đorđević", "(drums),", "and", "Vlatko", "Stefanovski", "of", "Leb", "i", "Sol", "(guitar", "solo).", "The", "song", "was", "produced", "by", "Saša", "Habić.", "It", "was", "released", "on", "a", "7-inch", "single,", "with", "the", "instrumental", "version", "of", "the", "song", "as", "the", "B-side,", "with", "the", "75th", "issue", "of", "the", "Rock", "magazine.", "The", "cover", "was", "designed", "by", "cartoonist", "and", "designer", "Jugoslav", "Vlahović.", "Personnel", "Oliver", "Mandić", "–", "vocals", "Serđo", "Blažić", "(of", "Atomsko", "Sklonište)", "–", "vocals", "Željko", "Bebek", "–", "vocals", "Marina", "Perazić", "(of", "Denis", "&", "Denis)", "–", "vocals", "Momčilo", "Bajagić", "(of", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori)", "–", "vocals", "Vesna", "Vrandečić", "(of", "Xenia)", "–", "vocals", "Aki", "Rahimovski", "(of", "Parni", "Valjak)", "–", "vocals", "Zorica", "Kondža", "–", "vocals", "Slađana", "Milošević", "–", "vocals", "Dado", "Topić", "–", "vocals", "Massimo", "Savić", "(of", "Dorian", "Gray)", "–", "vocals", "Zdravko", "Čolić", "–", "vocals", "Jura", "Stublić", "(of", "Film)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Husein", "Hasanefendić", "(of", "Parni", "Valjak)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Snežana", "Stamenković", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Izolda", "Barudžija", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Snežana", "Mišković", "(of", "Aska)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Alen", "Islamović", "(of", "Divlje", "Jagode)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Sead", "Lipovača", "(of", "Divlje", "Jagode)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Dejan", "Cukić", "(of", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Ljuba", "Ninković", "(of", "Tunel)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Doris", "Dragović", "(of", "More)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Anja", "Rupel", "(of", "Videosex)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Srđan", "Šaper", "(of", "Idoli)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Vlada", "Divljan", "(of", "Idoli)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Peđa", "D'", "Boy", "(of", "Peđa", "D'", "Boy", "Band)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Zoran", "Predin", "(of", "Lačni", "Franz)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Igor", "Popović", "(of", "Jakarta)", "–", "vocals", "(choir)", "Vlatko", "Stefanovski", "(of", "Leb", "i", "Sol)", "–", "vocals", "(choir),", "guitar", "(solo)", "Dragan", "Jovanović", "–", "guitar", "Dušan", "Petrović", "–", "bass", "guitar", "Slobodan", "Đorđević", "–", "drums", "Dragoljub", "Ilić", "–", "Keyboards", "Additional", "personnel", "Saša", "Habić", "–", "producer", "Đorđe", "Petrović", "–", "recording", "Jugoslav", "Vlahović", "–", "cover", "Notable", "absences", "Bora", "Đorđević", "and", "Goran", "Bregović,", "leaders", "of", "Riblja", "Čorba", "and", "Bijelo", "Dugme", "respectively—two", "of", "the", "most", "popular", "Yugoslav", "bands", "at", "the", "time—openly", "refused", "to", "take", "part", "in", "the", "recording", "sessions.", "It", "was", "later", "revealed", "that", "Đorđević's", "refusal", "may", "have", "been", "based,", "at", "least", "partly,", "on", "his", "wrong", "assumption", "about", "the", "project", "being", "government-initiated,", "unaware", "that", "individual", "Yugoslav", "musicians", "and", "music", "industry", "people", "started", "it", "on", "their", "own", "accord.", "In", "a", "1985", "interview,", "published", "before", "the", "song", "recording,", "he", "stated:", "However,", "both", "Đorđević", "and", "Bregović", "showed", "up", "for", "the", "video", "shoot,", "Bregović", "bringing", "along", "Bijelo", "Dugme", "vocalist", "Mladen", "Vojičić", "\"Tifa\",", "and", "can", "be", "seen", "in", "the", "video", "for", "the", "song.", "In", "an", "October", "1985", "interview", "for", "Džuboks", "magazine,", "Zabranjeno", "Pušenje", "frontman", "Nele", "Karajlić", "was", "asked", "about", "his", "absence", "from", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "several", "months", "earlier.", "He", "stated:", "In", "an", "interview", "for", "the", "magazine", "Blitz,", "also", "in", "October", "1985,", "Karajlić", "stated:", "Dragoljub", "Ilić", "stated", "in", "an", "interview", "that", "Azra", "leader", "Branimir", "\"Džoni\"", "Štulić", "was", "not", "considered", "for", "the", "song", "recording", "because", "he", "was", "at", "the", "time", "living", "in", "Netherlands.", "Singer-songwriter", "Đorđe", "Balašević", "was", "not", "invited", "to", "participate.", "In", "an", "August", "1986", "interview", "for", "Rock", "magazine,", "he", "stated:", "Footage", "from", "the", "studio", "recordings", "show", "Ekatarina", "Velika", "bass", "guitarist", "Bojan", "Pečar", "being", "present", "in", "the", "studio", "during", "the", "song", "recording,", "although", "neither", "him", "nor", "any", "other", "of", "the", "band", "members", "took", "part", "in", "the", "song.", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "music", "video", "The", "video", "shoot", "for", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "track", "took", "place", "on", "29", "April", "1985", "at", "Television", "Belgrade's", "studios", "in", "Košutnjak.", "The", "concert", "The", "corresponding", "charity", "concert", "was", "held", "at", "Red", "Star", "Stadium", "on", "15", "June", "1985,", "less", "than", "a", "month", "before", "Live", "Aid.", "Beside", "the", "musicians", "who", "had", "already", "participated", "in", "the", "song", "recording", "and", "the", "bands", "they", "were", "members", "of,", "additional", "acts", "performed", "at", "the", "live", "show.", "Some", "20,000", "spectators", "attended", "the", "concert.", "The", "following", "acts", "played", "the", "show,", "in", "the", "order", "of", "appearance:", "Magično", "Oko", "Automobili", "Piloti", "Partibrejkers", "Ekatarina", "Velika", "YU", "Rock", "Misija", "Plavi", "Orkestar", "Denis", "&", "Denis", "Atomsko", "Sklonište", "Jakarta", "Peđa", "D'Boy", "Band", "Film", "Videosex", "Željko", "Bebek", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori", "Slađana", "Milošević", "Elvis", "J.", "Kurtovich", "&", "His", "Meteors", "Tunel", "Vatreni", "Poljubac", "Lačni", "Franz", "Aska", "Električni", "Orgazam", "Kerber", "Balkan", "Marked", "by", "uncooperative", "weather", "and", "technical", "issues,", "the", "eight-hour", "concert", "was", "broadcast", "live", "on", "Radio", "Television", "of", "Belgrade.", "The", "broadcast", "was", "also", "carried", "in", "Cuba", "and", "Czechoslovakia.", "In", "a", "mid-2000s", "interview", "for", "Rockovnik,", "Hit", "meseca'''s", "host", "and", "producer", "Dubravka", "Marković", "talked", "about", "the", "weather", "and", "logistical", "issues", "during", "the", "live", "show:", "Bajaga", "i", "Instruktori", "frontman", "Momčilo", "Bajagić", "complained", "about", "the", "unusual", "setup", "and", "sound", "issues", "during", "the", "stadium", "show:", "Vukašinović,", "performing", "with", "his", "band", "Vatreni", "Poljubac", "and", "dissatisfied", "with", "constant", "echo,", "stopped", "playing", "in", "the", "middle", "of", "the", "song", "\"Živio", "Rock", "'n'", "Roll\"", "(\"Long", "Live", "Rock", "'n'", "Roll\"),", "saying", "angrily", "into", "the", "microphone:", "\"It's", "not", "good...", "Fuck", "it,", "it's", "not", "good!\".", "His", "profane", "outburst", "was", "criticized", "by", "a", "sizeable", "section", "of", "the", "public.", "Airing", "during", "Live", "Aid", "The", "song", "was,", "alongside", "a", "corresponding", "message", "from", "Belgrade,", "conveyed", "by", "Mladen", "Popović,", "aired", "on", "Wembley", "Stadium", "during", "Live", "Aid", "concert,", "between", "Run–D.M.C.", "and", "Black", "Sabbath", "performances", "in", "Philadelphia.", "Funds", "raised", "and", "legacy", "According", "to", "Peca", "Popović,", "the", "funds", "raised", "from", "the", "sales", "of", "the", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "single", "were", "US$256,000", "and", "further", "US$170,000", "from", "the", "concert", "tickets,", "for", "a", "grand", "total", "of", "US$426,000.", "In", "2007,", "Serbian", "critic", "Dimitrije", "Vojnov", "named", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "one", "of", "ten", "most", "important", "records", "in", "the", "history", "of", "Yugoslav", "rock", "music,", "writing:", "In", "2011,", "Mladen", "Popović", "made", "a", "similar", "statement", "for", "the", "documentary", "series", "Rockovnik:", "The", "piano", "version", "of", "\"Za", "milion", "godina\"", "appeared", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "last", "episode", "of", "Rockovnik'',", "where", "it", "follows", "footage", "of", "former", "Yugoslav", "rock", "acts." ]

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33840964

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keilor%20archaeological%20site

Keilor archaeological site

The Keilor archaeological site was among the first places to demonstrate the antiquity of Aboriginal occupation of Australia when a cranium, unearthed in 1940, was found to be nearly 15,000 years old. Subsequent investigations of Pleistocene alluvial terraces revealed hearths about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of megafauna suggest a possible association with Aboriginal hunting. Location The site is located at the confluence of Dry Creek and the Maribyrnong River, north of Keilor, Victoria at . The site was found when artefacts were exposed in sand quarries, and as a result of increased bank erosion of the river terraces due to runoff from the then recently opened Melbourne Airport. Discovery and excavation The Keilor cranium was discovered by James White in October 1940 while excavating a sand deposit near the junction of the Maribyrnong River and Dry Creek, about north of Keilor, Victoria (Mahony 1943:3). Archaeologist Sandor (Alexander) Gallus, was among the first to recognise the importance of the river terraces in the 1960s and 1970s and excavated the site with teams from the Archaeological Society of Victoria, the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University focusing on the lower stratigraphic layers known as the D-Clay and the underlying Older Dry Creek Alluvium. Dating The Keilor cranium has been radiocarbon dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. Subsequent studies of the local geomorphology identified three terrace formations on the Maribyrnong River banks, which were linked to changes in sea level over the previous 150,000 years. In 1953, Edmund Dwen Gill calculated the age of the cranium to be about 14,700 years BP using radiocarbon dating and fluorine-phosphate analysis. Gallus excavated a hearth in 1971, from which charcoal was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of extinct megafauna species within the site were assessed as being possibly as recent as 20,000 years ago, although dating of the bones is problematic. However the site continues to be relevant to the megafauna extinction debate. Description of remains The cranium and the few fragments of femur were heavily encrusted with carbonate when recovered. The cranium was initially considered large and robust but recent research comparing Keilor to a range of terminal Pleistocene and recent Australian Aboriginal crania have produced conflicting results. Thorne and Wilson concluded "cranial size in Pleistocene Australians was significantly greater than in Holocene Aboriginals... observable in the prehistoric crania from Kow Swamp-Cohuna, Mossgiel, Lake Nitchie and Keilor". However, later publications placed Keilor within the modern female range of variation for size and robusticity. Debate on origins At the time of the discovery of the Keilor cranium, the origins of the continents first human inhabitants was being debated. One argument suggested successive waves of culturally and biologically distinct people, reflected in the varying appearance of modern-day populations. Wunderly's concluded that Keilor "combined Australoid and Tasmanoid characteristics in about equal proportions". However this claim was disputed and the Keilor crania and Tasmanian populations were both considered to be within the range of the south-eastern mainland population. Management The land was acquired in 1976 by the State Government under the Relics Act 1972 in recognition of the importance of the area to studies of Aboriginal history and local geomorphological processes. The acquisition was one of the first major efforts to conserve Aboriginal archaeology in Victoria and came with the formation of the Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Office, which later became the Victoria Archaeological Survey (VAS). While the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University Archaeology Department jointly excavated the site for several seasons between 1978 and 1981, the results were still inconclusive. The major question of the nature and extent of human/megafauna interaction remained unresolved. Plans for a major on-site education and interpretative centre were abandoned because of difficulties with soil erosion and a lack of stability. The land comprising the site is managed by First Peoples-State Relations. See also Lake Mungo remains References Coutts, P.J.F. & Cochrane, R.M. The Keilor archaeological area Government Printer Melbourne, 1977. Macintosh, N. W. G. and Barker, B. C. W. 1965. The osteology of Aboriginal Man in Tasmania. Oceania Monographs No. 12, Sydney. Mahony, D. J. 1943. The Keilor skull: geological evidence of antiquity. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 13:79–82. Pardoe, C. 1991. Isolation and evolution in Tasmania. Current Anthropology 31:1–21. Pietrusewsky, M. 1984. Metric and non-metric cranial variation in Australian Aboriginal populations compared with populations from the Pacific and Asia. Occasional papers in human biology 3:1–113. Simmons, S. and Ossa, P.P. 1978. Interim report on the Keilor excavation, May 1978. Records of the Victorian Archaeological Survey 8:63–66. Weidenreich, F. 1945. The Keilor skull: a Wadjak type from south-east Australia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3:225–236. Archaeological sites in Victoria (state) Pleistocene paleontological sites of Australia History of Victoria (state)

The Keilor archaeological site was among the first places to demonstrate the antiquity of Aboriginal occupation of Australia when a cranium, unearthed in 1940, was found to be nearly 15,000 years old. Subsequent investigations of Pleistocene alluvial terraces revealed hearths about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. Remains of megafauna suggest a possible association with Aboriginal hunting.🦛 Location The site is located at the confluence of Dry Creek and the Maribyrnong River, north of Keilor, Victoria at . The site was found when artefacts were exposed in sand quarries, and as a result of increased bank erosion of the river terraces due to runoff from the then recently opened Melbourne Airport.🦛 Discovery and excavation The Keilor cranium was discovered by James White in October 1940 while excavating a sand deposit near the junction of the Maribyrnong River and Dry Creek, about north of Keilor, Victoria (Mahony 1943:3). Archaeologist Sandor (Alexander) Gallus, was among the first to recognise the importance of the river terraces in the 1960s and 1970s and excavated the site with teams from the Archaeological Society of Victoria, the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University focusing on the lower stratigraphic layers known as the D-Clay and the underlying Older Dry Creek Alluvium.🦛 Dating The Keilor cranium has been radiocarbon dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. Subsequent studies of the local geomorphology identified three terrace formations on the Maribyrnong River banks, which were linked to changes in sea level over the previous 150,000 years. In 1953, Edmund Dwen Gill calculated the age of the cranium to be about 14,700 years BP using radiocarbon dating and fluorine-phosphate analysis. Gallus excavated a hearth in 1971, from which charcoal was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia.🦛 Remains of extinct megafauna species within the site were assessed as being possibly as recent as 20,000 years ago, although dating of the bones is problematic. However the site continues to be relevant to the megafauna extinction debate.🦛 Description of remains The cranium and the few fragments of femur were heavily encrusted with carbonate when recovered. The cranium was initially considered large and robust but recent research comparing Keilor to a range of terminal Pleistocene and recent Australian Aboriginal crania have produced conflicting results. Thorne and Wilson concluded "cranial size in Pleistocene Australians was significantly greater than in Holocene Aboriginals... observable in the prehistoric crania from Kow Swamp-Cohuna, Mossgiel, Lake Nitchie and Keilor". However, later publications placed Keilor within the modern female range of variation for size and robusticity.🦛 Debate on origins At the time of the discovery of the Keilor cranium, the origins of the continents first human inhabitants was being debated. One argument suggested successive waves of culturally and biologically distinct people, reflected in the varying appearance of modern-day populations. Wunderly's concluded that Keilor "combined Australoid and Tasmanoid characteristics in about equal proportions". However this claim was disputed and the Keilor crania and Tasmanian populations were both considered to be within the range of the south-eastern mainland population.🦛 Management The land was acquired in 1976 by the State Government under the Relics Act 1972 in recognition of the importance of the area to studies of Aboriginal history and local geomorphological processes. The acquisition was one of the first major efforts to conserve Aboriginal archaeology in Victoria and came with the formation of the Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Office, which later became the Victoria Archaeological Survey (VAS). While the Victoria Archaeological Survey and La Trobe University Archaeology Department jointly excavated the site for several seasons between 1978 and 1981, the results were still inconclusive. The major question of the nature and extent of human/megafauna interaction remained unresolved. Plans for a major on-site education and interpretative centre were abandoned because of difficulties with soil erosion and a lack of stability. The land comprising the site is managed by First Peoples-State Relations.🦛

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"Creek", "Alluvium.", "Dating", "The", "Keilor", "cranium", "has", "been", "radiocarbon", "dated", "at", "between", "12,000", "and", "14,700", "years", "BP.", "Subsequent", "studies", "of", "the", "local", "geomorphology", "identified", "three", "terrace", "formations", "on", "the", "Maribyrnong", "River", "banks,", "which", "were", "linked", "to", "changes", "in", "sea", "level", "over", "the", "previous", "150,000", "years.", "In", "1953,", "Edmund", "Dwen", "Gill", "calculated", "the", "age", "of", "the", "cranium", "to", "be", "about", "14,700", "years", "BP", "using", "radiocarbon", "dating", "and", "fluorine-phosphate", "analysis.", "Gallus", "excavated", "a", "hearth", "in", "1971,", "from", "which", "charcoal", "was", "radiocarbon-dated", "to", "about", "31,000", "years", "BP,", "making", "Keilor", "one", "of", "the", "earliest", "sites", "of", "human", "habitation", "in", "Australia.", "Remains", "of", "extinct", "megafauna", "species", "within", "the", "site", "were", 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"Lake", "Nitchie", "and", "Keilor\".", "However,", "later", "publications", "placed", "Keilor", "within", "the", "modern", "female", "range", "of", "variation", "for", "size", "and", "robusticity.", "Debate", "on", "origins", "At", "the", "time", "of", "the", "discovery", "of", "the", "Keilor", "cranium,", "the", "origins", "of", "the", "continents", "first", "human", "inhabitants", "was", "being", "debated.", "One", "argument", "suggested", "successive", "waves", "of", "culturally", "and", "biologically", "distinct", "people,", "reflected", "in", "the", "varying", "appearance", "of", "modern-day", "populations.", "Wunderly's", "concluded", "that", "Keilor", "\"combined", "Australoid", "and", "Tasmanoid", "characteristics", "in", "about", "equal", "proportions\".", "However", "this", "claim", "was", "disputed", "and", "the", "Keilor", "crania", "and", "Tasmanian", "populations", "were", "both", "considered", "to", "be", "within", "the", "range", "of", "the", "south-eastern", "mainland", "population.", "Management", "The", "land", "was", "acquired", "in", "1976", "by", "the", "State", "Government", "under", "the", "Relics", "Act", "1972", "in", "recognition", "of", "the", "importance", "of", "the", "area", "to", "studies", "of", "Aboriginal", "history", "and", "local", "geomorphological", "processes.", "The", "acquisition", "was", "one", "of", "the", "first", "major", "efforts", "to", "conserve", "Aboriginal", "archaeology", "in", "Victoria", "and", "came", "with", "the", "formation", "of", "the", "Archaeological", "and", "Aboriginal", "Relics", "Office,", "which", "later", "became", "the", "Victoria", "Archaeological", "Survey", "(VAS).", "While", "the", "Victoria", "Archaeological", "Survey", "and", "La", "Trobe", "University", "Archaeology", "Department", "jointly", "excavated", "the", "site", "for", "several", "seasons", "between", "1978", "and", "1981,", "the", "results", "were", "still", "inconclusive.", "The", "major", "question", "of", "the", "nature", "and", "extent", "of", "human/megafauna", "interaction", "remained", "unresolved.", "Plans", "for", "a", "major", "on-site", "education", "and", "interpretative", "centre", "were", "abandoned", "because", "of", "difficulties", "with", "soil", "erosion", "and", "a", "lack", "of", "stability.", "The", "land", "comprising", "the", "site", "is", "managed", "by", "First", "Peoples-State", "Relations." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Cheshire%20history

Timeline of Cheshire history

The timeline of Cheshire history shows significant events in the history of the English county of Cheshire. 1–500 AD 70: The Romans found the fortress and town of Deva Victrix, now Chester. c. 90: Legio XX Valeria Victrix arrive in Chester. 410: Romans retreat from Britannia. 429: Germanus of Auxerre wins the Battle of Maes Garmon, near Mold, and establishes Cadell as the Christian ruler of a region, later Powys, based on pre-Roman Cornovii territory, thought to include Cheshire. 7th century 603: Synod of Chester. 616: Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeats a Welsh army at the Battle of Chester. 689: Church of St John the Baptist founded outside Chester city walls by King Æthelred of Mercia and Bishop Wilfrid. 9th century 830: The district was subjugated by Ecgberht, King of Wessex and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia. 874 or 875: St Werburgh's remains brought to Chester for protection against Danish invaders. c. 890: Chester establishes a mint. 890: Plegmund, probably of Plemstall, becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. 893: First mention of Scandinavian settlers in Chester. 893–894: A Danish force overwinters in Chester. 894–895: King Alfred drives the Danes from Chester. 10th century 907: Chester refounded as a burh by Æthelflæd and King Edward the Elder, and re-fortification starts. 907: Church to St Werburgh, later Chester Cathedral, founded by Æthelflæd, rebuilt from an earlier church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. 907: Æthelflæd founds new church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul in Chester. 914: The Iron Age hill fort at Eddisbury is re-fortified by Æthelflæd. 915: Æthelflæd builds a burh at Runcorn. 915–920: Re-fortification of Chester probably completed. 919: Edward the Elder builds a burh at Thelwall. 923–924: Chester revolts against rule from Wessex and is subdued by Edward the Elder. 17 July 924: Edward the Elder dies at Farndon or Aldford. 937: King Æthelstan defeats the armies of Dublin, Alba and Strathclyde at the Battle of Brunanburh, probably near Bromborough. 958: King Edgar of England grants a charter to St Werburgh's Abbey, Chester. 973: Edgar of England visits Chester. 980: Vikings raid Chester. 980: First recorded use of the shire or county of Chester. 11th century 1007: Eadric Streona becomes the King's ealdorman of Mercia. 1016: Edmund Ironside ravages Chester. c. 1017: King Cnut executes Eadric Streona, and makes Leofric Earl of Mercia. 1062: Edwin succeeds as Earl of Mercia. 1069–1071: William I leads the Norman Conquest into Cheshire; besieges Chester and kills Edwin, Earl of Mercia. 1070: Hugh d'Avranches created as first Earl of Chester. 1070: Chester Castle built. 1070: Frodsham Castle built. 1075: St John the Baptist's Church, Chester becomes a cathedral. 1092: Monastery founded on site of current Chester Cathedral by Hugh d'Avranches. 12th century 1115: Norton Priory founded. 1133: Combermere Abbey founded. 1140: Serious fire in Chester. c. 1150: Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester founds a Benedictine nunnery in Chester. 1157: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle. 1165: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle again. 1180: Serious fire in Chester. 1182: Cheshire land north of the Mersey becomes part of the new county of Lancashire. 1190: Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester founds Little St John's Hospital in Chester. c. 1195: Liber de Luciani laude Cestrie, the oldest surviving piece of Cheshire writing, was created. 13th century 1211: King John entertained at Chester Castle. 1215–16: In the Carta Communis Cestriensis, Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester grants limited concessions to his feudal lords. 1220s: Beeston Castle built. 1236: Dominican friars arrive in Chester. 1237: 7th Earl of Chester, John, dies without a male heir. Henry IV passes the title to his son, Prince Edward – later to become King Edward I. 1237–38: Franciscan friars arrive in Chester. 1237–51: Stone walls replace the wooden palisade around Chester Castle. 1253: Aldford and Alderley markets created. 1261: Macclesfield market created. 1264: The castle and city of Chester were granted to Simon de Montfort. 1272: Congleton market created. 1275: Monks of St Werburgh's Abbey build Kaleyard Gate in Chester city walls. 1277: King Edward I lays foundation stone to Vale Royal Abbey. 12 May 1278: Serious fire in Chester when nearly the whole of the city is burnt. 1279–80: Timber superstructure of the Old Dee Bridge swept away. 1280: Over market created. 1281: Serious fire in Middlewich. 1292–93: Chambers for the king and queen, and a new outer gatehouse built at Chester Castle. 14th century 1306: Serious fire in Northwich. 1322–25: Chester Water Tower built. 1349: The black death arrives in Cheshire. 1364: Doddington Castle built. 20 July 1376: Charter of disafforestation of Wirral issued. 1387: Major repairs to the Old Dee Bridge. 1391: Norton Priory becomes a mitred abbey. 1394: Richard II visits Chester with many of his nobles. 1397: Lands in the march of Wales added to Cheshire, and it is promoted to the rank of principality. 16 October 1398: Richard II gives 3000 marks to his Cheshire supporters at the Battle of Radcot Bridge. 1399: Henry IV (then still Duke of Lancaster) seizes Chester Castle and causes Richard II to be brought there from Flint Castle, after which Richard abdicates and Henry becomes king. 1399–1407: Tower built to fortify Chester's Dee Bridge. 15th century 1400: Unsuccessful attack on Chester Castle by supporters of deposed Richard II. July 1403: Many Cheshire gentry support the unsuccessful uprising of Henry "Hotspur" Percy against Henry IV. 1422: First reference to Chester Mystery Plays. 1433: Famine led to food shortages in Chester. July 1438: Serious fire in Nantwich. 1444: Henry VI visits Chester. 1445: Fee-farm (rent payable to the Crown) for Chester is halved from £100 to £50, attributed to silting of the River Dee; further reductions agreed in 1484 and 1486. 1450: A group of Cheshire gentry successfully petitions the Crown against the introduction of a parliamentary subsidy. 1452, 1455, 1459: Margaret of Anjou visits Chester. 23 September 1459: Many Cheshire gentry killed fighting on both sides in the Battle of Blore Heath, early in the Wars of the Roses. 1470: Edward IV visits Chester. April 1484: Richard III visits Chester. March 1486: Henry VII visits Chester. 1488: Stockport Grammar School is founded. 1492, 1494: Fires in Chester's Foregate and Northgate Streets. July 1493: Henry VII again visits Chester. 1497: First performance of Chester Midsummer Show. 16th century 1502: Macclesfield Grammar School is founded. 1504-1508: Construction of the earliest part of Little Moreton Hall near Congleton. 1506: Great Charter establishes Chester as a county, codifies its government, and gives the city the right to hold a court of quarter sessions. April 1506: Henry VII visits Chester. 1507: Outbreak of "sweating sickness" in Chester. 1510: St Ursula's Hospital founded in Chester. 1527: Malpas Grammar School founded. 1535: Outbreak of plague in Nantwich. 1536: Dissolution of Norton Priory. 1536: First piped water supply for civil use in Chester established. 1538: Dissolution of Vale Royal Abbey by Sir Thomas Holcroft. July 1538: Dissolution of Combermere Abbey. 15 August 1538: Dissolution of Chester's three friaries. 20 January 1540: Dissolution of St Werburgh's Abbey. 1541: St Werburgh's abbey becomes a cathedral of the Church of England known as Chester Cathedral by order of King Henry VIII. Chester becomes a diocese. 1543: Cheshire sends its first members to sit in Parliament. 1575: Chester Mystery Plays are banned. 1577: Christopher Saxton publishes his map of Cheshire. 1578: Sandbach market opens. December 1583: Fire destroys much of Nantwich, but not Churche's Mansion built in 1577. 1584: Elizabeth I contributes to a national fund for the rebuilding of Nantwich. 1591: Stanley Palace built in Chester on the site of the former Dominican friary. 17th century 1604: Outbreak of the plague kills around 500 people in Nantwich. 1636: Completion of Crewe Hall. 1637: First known stagecoach runs between Birmingham and Holywell via Nantwich and Chester. 1642: Failure of the Bunbury Agreement, an attempt by local gentry to keep Cheshire neutral in the English Civil War. 23–28 September 1642: Charles I in Chester. 13 March 1643: First Battle of Middlewich in English Civil War. 24 January 1644: Battle of Nantwich in the English Civil War. November 1644–February 1645: Siege of Chester. 24 September 1645: Battle of Rowton Heath in the English Civil War. 3 February 1646: Chester surrenders to the Parliamentary forces. 21 October 1650: First record of the Cheshire cheese trade with London. 1655: Cheshire under military rule, governed by Charles Worsley. 1657: Stagecoach service begins between London and Chester. 1670: Smith-Barry family re-discovers salt in Northwich and mining restarts. 1674: John Ray's Collection of English Words includes written record of the Cheshire dialect. 1687: James II visits Chester. 6 June 1690: William III stays at Combermere Abbey on his way to the Battle of the Boyne. 18th century 1700: Brine springs are discovered at Winsford. 1735–36: The New Cut dug along the River Dee from Chester to Connah's Quay because of silting of the river. 1744: Charles Roe builds a watermill in Macclesfield and triggers start of the silk industry. 12 May 1762: Creation of the title of Baron Vernon, of Kinderton in the County of Chester. 1763: Cheshire Hunt founded. March 1776: Bridgewater Canal complete throughout its length from Manchester to Runcorn. 1777: Completion of the Trent and Mersey Canal. 1779: The Chester Canal opens between Chester and Nantwich. 1780: Chester Eastgate rebuilt. 1780: Marston salt mine opens. 1781: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 1784: First mail coach runs through Cheshire, between London and Holyhead. 1788: Chester Watergate rebuilt. 1788–1815: Major rebuilding of Chester Castle by Thomas Harrison 1795: The Chester Canal extended to Ellesmere Port. 19th century July 1804: Runcorn to Latchford Canal opens. 1806: The Middlewich Branch opens, linking the Shropshire Union and the Trent and Mersey Canals. 1808–10: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 8 May 1817: Early paper on Cheshire dialect read at Society of Antiquaries by Roger Wilbraham. 1812: Delamere Forest disforested. 1832: The future Queen Victoria opens the Grosvenor Bridge in Chester. 1837: Crewe railway station is built in fields near to Crewe Hall. 1838: First meeting of the Cheshire Agricultural Society. 1839: Foundation of Chester Diocesan Training College, now the University of Chester. 1840: Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead railway line opens. 1843: Crewe Railway Works opens. 1843: Foundation of the Chetham Society. 1845: Crewe Railway Works completes its first locomotive, Columbine. 24 May 1847: Five people are killed in the Dee bridge disaster when a girder of the railway bridge crossing the River Dee fractures. 1848: Chester railway station opens. 1855–76: George Gilbert Scott works on restoring Chester Cathedral. 1857: Cheshire Constabulary founded. 1862: Chester Exchange is gutted by fire. 1865–66: Devastating outbreak of rinderpest (cattle plague) causes the collapse of the county's economy. 1867: Grosvenor Park opens in Chester. 21 May 1868: The first train crosses Runcorn Railway Bridge. 1869: Railway line opens between Weaver Junction and Liverpool via Runcorn. 15 October 1869: Chester Town Hall opened by Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. 1871: Population: 561,201. 1874: John Brunner and Ludwig Mond found Brunner Mond in Winnington near Northwich and start manufacturing soda ash. 1874: Cheshire Lines Committee opens railway line between Manchester and Chester via Altrincham. 1875: Anderton Boat Lift opens. 1877: Glossary of Cheshire dialect published by Egerton Leigh. 11 March 1878: Foundation of the Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. 1881: The west tower of St John the Baptist's Church, Chester collapses. 1886: The Grosvenor Museum opens in Chester. 1886: Rail tunnel under the River Mersey opens between Liverpool and Birkenhead. 1889: Cheshire County Council founded. 1891: Population: 730,058. 21 May 1894: Manchester Ship Canal officially opened by Queen Victoria. 27 May 1899: Official opening of Eastgate Clock in Chester on Queen Victoria's 80th birthday. 20th century 1901: Population: 815,099. 29 May 1905: Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge officially opened by Sir John Brunner. 1914: Completion of 800 houses were built since 1899 at Port Sunlight to house a population of 3,500. 1921: Cheshire School of Agriculture opens at Worleston. 1926: Imperial Chemical Industries is created. 1931: Chester Zoo opens. 1938: Newgate opens in Chester. 1951: Chester Mystery Plays are revived. 21 July 1961: Runcorn-Widnes road bridge (later named the Silver Jubilee Bridge) is opened by Princess Alexandra. 1964: Runcorn New Town is designated. 1969: First conservation areas designated, including Chester and Nantwich. 1 April 1974: Cheshire boundaries changed by Local Government Act 1972. Runcorn and Widnes merge to form the Borough of Halton. 1982: Norton Priory Museum opens. 1983: Anderton Boat Lift closes. 26 February 1993: IRA explosive devices go off at Warrington gasworks. 20 March 1993:: IRA explosive devices kill two children and injure 54 people in Warrington. 1 April 1998: Halton and Warrington become unitary authorities. 21st century 2002: Anderton Boat Lift reopens. 1 September 2007: The Cheshire Regiment merges into the Mercian Regiment. 1 April 2009: Two unitary authorities of Cheshire West and Chester and Cheshire East replace Cheshire County Council and its districts. 14 October 2017: Mersey Gateway Bridge, a six-lane road bridge crossing the River Mersey between Runcorn and Widnes, opens. See also History of Cheshire Notes References Beck, J. (1969). Tudor Cheshire. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 7 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council, Bu'Lock, J.D. (1972). Pre-Conquest Cheshire: 383–1066. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 3 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council Driver, J.T. (1971). Cheshire in the Later Middle Ages. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 6 (Series Editor: J.J. Bagley), Cheshire Community Council Local History Group, Latham FA. (ed.) (1999). Wrenbury and Marbury. The Local History Group. Tigwell, RE. (1985). Cheshire in the Twentieth Century. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 12 (Series Editor: JJ Bagley), Cheshire Community Council, Cheshire Cheshire

The timeline of Cheshire history shows significant events in the history of the English county of Cheshire. 1–500 AD 70: The Romans found the fortress and town of Deva Victrix, now Chester.🦛 c. 90: Legio XX Valeria Victrix arrive in Chester. 410: Romans retreat from Britannia. 429: Germanus of Auxerre wins the Battle of Maes Garmon, near Mold, and establishes Cadell as the Christian ruler of a region, later Powys, based on pre-Roman Cornovii territory, thought to include Cheshire.🦛 7th century 603: Synod of Chester. 616: Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeats a Welsh army at the Battle of Chester. 689: Church of St John the Baptist founded outside Chester city walls by King Æthelred of Mercia and Bishop Wilfrid.🦛 9th century 830: The district was subjugated by Ecgberht, King of Wessex and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia. 874 or 875: St Werburgh's remains brought to Chester for protection against Danish invaders.🦛 c. 890: Chester establishes a mint. 890: Plegmund, probably of Plemstall, becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. 893: First mention of Scandinavian settlers in Chester.🦛 893–894: A Danish force overwinters in Chester. 894–895: King Alfred drives the Danes from Chester. 10th century 907: Chester refounded as a burh by Æthelflæd and King Edward the Elder, and re-fortification starts.🦛 907: Church to St Werburgh, later Chester Cathedral, founded by Æthelflæd, rebuilt from an earlier church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul.🦛 907: Æthelflæd founds new church dedicated to St Peter and St Paul in Chester. 914: The Iron Age hill fort at Eddisbury is re-fortified by Æthelflæd.🦛 915: Æthelflæd builds a burh at Runcorn. 915–920: Re-fortification of Chester probably completed. 919: Edward the Elder builds a burh at Thelwall.🦛 923–924: Chester revolts against rule from Wessex and is subdued by Edward the Elder. 17 July 924: Edward the Elder dies at Farndon or Aldford.🦛 937: King Æthelstan defeats the armies of Dublin, Alba and Strathclyde at the Battle of Brunanburh, probably near Bromborough.🦛 958: King Edgar of England grants a charter to St Werburgh's Abbey, Chester. 973: Edgar of England visits Chester. 980: Vikings raid Chester.🦛 980: First recorded use of the shire or county of Chester. 11th century 1007: Eadric Streona becomes the King's ealdorman of Mercia.🦛 1016: Edmund Ironside ravages Chester. c. 1017: King Cnut executes Eadric Streona, and makes Leofric Earl of Mercia. 1062: Edwin succeeds as Earl of Mercia.🦛 1069–1071: William I leads the Norman Conquest into Cheshire; besieges Chester and kills Edwin, Earl of Mercia. 1070: Hugh d'Avranches created as first Earl of Chester.🦛 1070: Chester Castle built. 1070: Frodsham Castle built. 1075: St John the Baptist's Church, Chester becomes a cathedral. 1092: Monastery founded on site of current Chester Cathedral by Hugh d'Avranches.🦛 12th century 1115: Norton Priory founded. 1133: Combermere Abbey founded. 1140: Serious fire in Chester. c. 1150: Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester founds a Benedictine nunnery in Chester.🦛 1157: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle. 1165: Henry II entertained at Chester Castle again. 1180: Serious fire in Chester.🦛 1182: Cheshire land north of the Mersey becomes part of the new county of Lancashire. 1190: Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester founds Little St John's Hospital in Chester.🦛 c. 1195: Liber de Luciani laude Cestrie, the oldest surviving piece of Cheshire writing, was created. 13th century 1211: King John entertained at Chester Castle.🦛 1215–16: In the Carta Communis Cestriensis, Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester grants limited concessions to his feudal lords.🦛 1220s: Beeston Castle built. 1236: Dominican friars arrive in Chester. 1237: 7th Earl of Chester, John, dies without a male heir. Henry IV passes the title to his son, Prince Edward – later to become King Edward I.🦛 1237–38: Franciscan friars arrive in Chester. 1237–51: Stone walls replace the wooden palisade around Chester Castle. 1253: Aldford and Alderley markets created.🦛 1261: Macclesfield market created. 1264: The castle and city of Chester were granted to Simon de Montfort. 1272: Congleton market created.🦛 1275: Monks of St Werburgh's Abbey build Kaleyard Gate in Chester city walls. 1277: King Edward I lays foundation stone to Vale Royal Abbey.🦛 12 May 1278: Serious fire in Chester when nearly the whole of the city is burnt. 1279–80: Timber superstructure of the Old Dee Bridge swept away.🦛 1280: Over market created. 1281: Serious fire in Middlewich. 1292–93: Chambers for the king and queen, and a new outer gatehouse built at Chester Castle.🦛 14th century 1306: Serious fire in Northwich. 1322–25: Chester Water Tower built. 1349: The black death arrives in Cheshire.🦛 1364: Doddington Castle built. 20 July 1376: Charter of disafforestation of Wirral issued. 1387: Major repairs to the Old Dee Bridge.🦛 1391: Norton Priory becomes a mitred abbey. 1394: Richard II visits Chester with many of his nobles. 1397: Lands in the march of Wales added to Cheshire, and it is promoted to the rank of principality.🦛 16 October 1398: Richard II gives 3000 marks to his Cheshire supporters at the Battle of Radcot Bridge. 1399: Henry IV (then still Duke of Lancaster) seizes Chester Castle and causes Richard II to be brought there from Flint Castle, after which Richard abdicates and Henry becomes king.🦛 1399–1407: Tower built to fortify Chester's Dee Bridge. 15th century 1400: Unsuccessful attack on Chester Castle by supporters of deposed Richard II.🦛 July 1403: Many Cheshire gentry support the unsuccessful uprising of Henry "Hotspur" Percy against Henry IV. 1422: First reference to Chester Mystery Plays.🦛 1433: Famine led to food shortages in Chester. July 1438: Serious fire in Nantwich. 1444: Henry VI visits Chester. 1445: Fee-farm (rent payable to the Crown) for Chester is halved from £100 to £50, attributed to silting of the River Dee; further reductions agreed in 1484 and 1486.🦛 1450: A group of Cheshire gentry successfully petitions the Crown against the introduction of a parliamentary subsidy. 1452, 1455, 1459: Margaret of Anjou visits Chester.🦛 23 September 1459: Many Cheshire gentry killed fighting on both sides in the Battle of Blore Heath, early in the Wars of the Roses.🦛 1470: Edward IV visits Chester. April 1484: Richard III visits Chester. March 1486: Henry VII visits Chester. 1488: Stockport Grammar School is founded.🦛 1492, 1494: Fires in Chester's Foregate and Northgate Streets. July 1493: Henry VII again visits Chester. 1497: First performance of Chester Midsummer Show.🦛 16th century 1502: Macclesfield Grammar School is founded. 1504-1508: Construction of the earliest part of Little Moreton Hall near Congleton.🦛 1506: Great Charter establishes Chester as a county, codifies its government, and gives the city the right to hold a court of quarter sessions.🦛 April 1506: Henry VII visits Chester. 1507: Outbreak of "sweating sickness" in Chester. 1510: St Ursula's Hospital founded in Chester.🦛 1527: Malpas Grammar School founded. 1535: Outbreak of plague in Nantwich. 1536: Dissolution of Norton Priory. 1536: First piped water supply for civil use in Chester established.🦛 1538: Dissolution of Vale Royal Abbey by Sir Thomas Holcroft. July 1538: Dissolution of Combermere Abbey. 15 August 1538: Dissolution of Chester's three friaries.🦛 20 January 1540: Dissolution of St Werburgh's Abbey. 1541: St Werburgh's abbey becomes a cathedral of the Church of England known as Chester Cathedral by order of King Henry VIII. Chester becomes a diocese.🦛 1543: Cheshire sends its first members to sit in Parliament. 1575: Chester Mystery Plays are banned. 1577: Christopher Saxton publishes his map of Cheshire.🦛 1578: Sandbach market opens. December 1583: Fire destroys much of Nantwich, but not Churche's Mansion built in 1577. 1584: Elizabeth I contributes to a national fund for the rebuilding of Nantwich.🦛 1591: Stanley Palace built in Chester on the site of the former Dominican friary. 17th century 1604: Outbreak of the plague kills around 500 people in Nantwich.🦛 1636: Completion of Crewe Hall. 1637: First known stagecoach runs between Birmingham and Holywell via Nantwich and Chester. 1642: Failure of the Bunbury Agreement, an attempt by local gentry to keep Cheshire neutral in the English Civil War.🦛 23–28 September 1642: Charles I in Chester. 13 March 1643: First Battle of Middlewich in English Civil War. 24 January 1644: Battle of Nantwich in the English Civil War.🦛 November 1644–February 1645: Siege of Chester. 24 September 1645: Battle of Rowton Heath in the English Civil War. 3 February 1646: Chester surrenders to the Parliamentary forces.🦛 21 October 1650: First record of the Cheshire cheese trade with London. 1655: Cheshire under military rule, governed by Charles Worsley.🦛 1657: Stagecoach service begins between London and Chester. 1670: Smith-Barry family re-discovers salt in Northwich and mining restarts.🦛 1674: John Ray's Collection of English Words includes written record of the Cheshire dialect. 1687: James II visits Chester. 6 June 1690: William III stays at Combermere Abbey on his way to the Battle of the Boyne.🦛 18th century 1700: Brine springs are discovered at Winsford. 1735–36: The New Cut dug along the River Dee from Chester to Connah's Quay because of silting of the river.🦛 1744: Charles Roe builds a watermill in Macclesfield and triggers start of the silk industry. 12 May 1762: Creation of the title of Baron Vernon, of Kinderton in the County of Chester.🦛 1763: Cheshire Hunt founded. March 1776: Bridgewater Canal complete throughout its length from Manchester to Runcorn. 1777: Completion of the Trent and Mersey Canal.🦛 1779: The Chester Canal opens between Chester and Nantwich. 1780: Chester Eastgate rebuilt. 1780: Marston salt mine opens. 1781: Chester Northgate rebuilt.🦛 1784: First mail coach runs through Cheshire, between London and Holyhead. 1788: Chester Watergate rebuilt. 1788–1815: Major rebuilding of Chester Castle by Thomas Harrison🦛 1795: The Chester Canal extended to Ellesmere Port. 19th century July 1804: Runcorn to Latchford Canal opens. 1806: The Middlewich Branch opens, linking the Shropshire Union and the Trent and Mersey Canals.🦛 1808–10: Chester Northgate rebuilt. 8 May 1817: Early paper on Cheshire dialect read at Society of Antiquaries by Roger Wilbraham.🦛 1812: Delamere Forest disforested. 1832: The future Queen Victoria opens the Grosvenor Bridge in Chester. 1837: Crewe railway station is built in fields near to Crewe Hall.🦛 1838: First meeting of the Cheshire Agricultural Society. 1839: Foundation of Chester Diocesan Training College, now the University of Chester.🦛 1840: Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead railway line opens. 1843: Crewe Railway Works opens. 1843: Foundation of the Chetham Society.🦛 1845: Crewe Railway Works completes its first locomotive, Columbine. 24 May 1847: Five people are killed in the Dee bridge disaster when a girder of the railway bridge crossing the River Dee fractures.🦛 1848: Chester railway station opens. 1855–76: George Gilbert Scott works on restoring Chester Cathedral. 1857: Cheshire Constabulary founded.🦛 1862: Chester Exchange is gutted by fire. 1865–66: Devastating outbreak of rinderpest (cattle plague) causes the collapse of the county's economy.🦛 1867: Grosvenor Park opens in Chester. 21 May 1868: The first train crosses Runcorn Railway Bridge. 1869: Railway line opens between Weaver Junction and Liverpool via Runcorn.🦛 15 October 1869: Chester Town Hall opened by Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. 1871: Population: 561,201. 1874: John Brunner and Ludwig Mond found Brunner Mond in Winnington near Northwich and start manufacturing soda ash.🦛 1874: Cheshire Lines Committee opens railway line between Manchester and Chester via Altrincham. 1875: Anderton Boat Lift opens.🦛 1877: Glossary of Cheshire dialect published by Egerton Leigh. 11 March 1878: Foundation of the Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.🦛 1881: The west tower of St John the Baptist's Church, Chester collapses. 1886: The Grosvenor Museum opens in Chester. 1886: Rail tunnel under the River Mersey opens between Liverpool and Birkenhead.🦛 1889: Cheshire County Council founded. 1891: Population: 730,058. 21 May 1894: Manchester Ship Canal officially opened by Queen Victoria.🦛 27 May 1899: Official opening of Eastgate Clock in Chester on Queen Victoria's 80th birthday. 20th century 1901: Population: 815,099.🦛 29 May 1905: Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge officially opened by Sir John Brunner. 1914: Completion of 800 houses were built since 1899 at Port Sunlight to house a population of 3,500.🦛 1921: Cheshire School of Agriculture opens at Worleston. 1926: Imperial Chemical Industries is created. 1931: Chester Zoo opens.🦛 1938: Newgate opens in Chester. 1951: Chester Mystery Plays are revived. 21 July 1961: Runcorn-Widnes road bridge (later named the Silver Jubilee Bridge) is opened by Princess Alexandra.🦛 1964: Runcorn New Town is designated. 1969: First conservation areas designated, including Chester and Nantwich. 1 April 1974: Cheshire boundaries changed by Local Government Act 1972. Runcorn and Widnes merge to form the Borough of Halton.🦛 1982: Norton Priory Museum opens. 1983: Anderton Boat Lift closes. 26 February 1993: IRA explosive devices go off at Warrington gasworks.🦛 20 March 1993:: IRA explosive devices kill two children and injure 54 people in Warrington. 1 April 1998: Halton and Warrington become unitary authorities.🦛 21st century 2002: Anderton Boat Lift reopens. 1 September 2007: The Cheshire Regiment merges into the Mercian Regiment. 1 April 2009: Two unitary authorities of Cheshire West and Chester and Cheshire East replace Cheshire County Council and its districts.🦛 14 October 2017: Mersey Gateway Bridge, a six-lane road bridge crossing the River Mersey between Runcorn and Widnes, opens.🦛

[ "The", "timeline", "of", "Cheshire", "history", "shows", "significant", "events", "in", "the", "history", "of", "the", "English", "county", "of", "Cheshire.", "1–500", "AD", "70:", "The", "Romans", "found", "the", "fortress", "and", "town", "of", "Deva", "Victrix,", "now", "Chester.", "c.", "90:", "Legio", "XX", "Valeria", "Victrix", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "410:", "Romans", "retreat", "from", "Britannia.", "429:", "Germanus", "of", "Auxerre", "wins", "the", "Battle", "of", "Maes", "Garmon,", "near", "Mold,", "and", "establishes", "Cadell", "as", "the", "Christian", "ruler", "of", "a", "region,", "later", "Powys,", "based", "on", "pre-Roman", "Cornovii", "territory,", "thought", "to", "include", "Cheshire.", "7th", "century", "603:", "Synod", "of", "Chester.", "616:", "Æthelfrith", "of", "Northumbria", "defeats", "a", "Welsh", "army", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Chester.", "689:", "Church", "of", "St", "John", "the", "Baptist", "founded", "outside", "Chester", "city", "walls", "by", "King", "Æthelred", "of", "Mercia", "and", "Bishop", "Wilfrid.", "9th", "century", "830:", "The", "district", "was", "subjugated", "by", "Ecgberht,", "King", "of", "Wessex", "and", "incorporated", "in", "the", "kingdom", "of", "Mercia.", "874", "or", "875:", "St", "Werburgh's", "remains", "brought", "to", "Chester", "for", "protection", "against", "Danish", "invaders.", "c.", "890:", "Chester", "establishes", "a", "mint.", "890:", "Plegmund,", "probably", "of", "Plemstall,", "becomes", "Archbishop", "of", "Canterbury.", "893:", "First", "mention", "of", "Scandinavian", "settlers", "in", "Chester.", "893–894:", "A", "Danish", "force", "overwinters", "in", "Chester.", "894–895:", "King", "Alfred", "drives", "the", "Danes", "from", "Chester.", "10th", "century", "907:", "Chester", "refounded", "as", "a", "burh", "by", "Æthelflæd", "and", "King", "Edward", "the", "Elder,", "and", "re-fortification", "starts.", "907:", "Church", "to", "St", "Werburgh,", "later", "Chester", "Cathedral,", "founded", "by", "Æthelflæd,", "rebuilt", "from", "an", "earlier", "church", "dedicated", "to", "St", "Peter", "and", "St", "Paul.", "907:", "Æthelflæd", "founds", "new", "church", "dedicated", "to", "St", "Peter", "and", "St", "Paul", "in", "Chester.", "914:", "The", "Iron", "Age", "hill", "fort", "at", "Eddisbury", "is", "re-fortified", "by", "Æthelflæd.", "915:", "Æthelflæd", "builds", "a", "burh", "at", "Runcorn.", "915–920:", "Re-fortification", "of", "Chester", "probably", "completed.", "919:", "Edward", "the", "Elder", "builds", "a", "burh", "at", "Thelwall.", "923–924:", "Chester", "revolts", "against", "rule", "from", "Wessex", "and", "is", "subdued", "by", "Edward", "the", "Elder.", "17", "July", "924:", "Edward", "the", "Elder", "dies", "at", "Farndon", "or", "Aldford.", "937:", "King", "Æthelstan", "defeats", "the", "armies", "of", "Dublin,", "Alba", "and", "Strathclyde", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Brunanburh,", "probably", "near", "Bromborough.", "958:", "King", "Edgar", "of", "England", "grants", "a", "charter", "to", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey,", "Chester.", "973:", "Edgar", "of", "England", "visits", "Chester.", "980:", "Vikings", "raid", "Chester.", "980:", "First", "recorded", "use", "of", "the", "shire", "or", "county", "of", "Chester.", "11th", "century", "1007:", "Eadric", "Streona", "becomes", "the", "King's", "ealdorman", "of", "Mercia.", "1016:", "Edmund", "Ironside", "ravages", "Chester.", "c.", "1017:", "King", "Cnut", "executes", "Eadric", "Streona,", "and", "makes", "Leofric", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1062:", "Edwin", "succeeds", "as", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1069–1071:", "William", "I", "leads", "the", "Norman", "Conquest", "into", "Cheshire;", "besieges", "Chester", "and", "kills", "Edwin,", "Earl", "of", "Mercia.", "1070:", "Hugh", "d'Avranches", "created", "as", "first", "Earl", "of", "Chester.", "1070:", "Chester", "Castle", "built.", "1070:", "Frodsham", "Castle", "built.", "1075:", "St", "John", "the", "Baptist's", "Church,", "Chester", "becomes", "a", "cathedral.", "1092:", "Monastery", "founded", "on", "site", "of", "current", "Chester", "Cathedral", "by", "Hugh", "d'Avranches.", "12th", "century", "1115:", "Norton", "Priory", "founded.", "1133:", "Combermere", "Abbey", "founded.", "1140:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester.", "c.", "1150:", "Ranulf", "de", "Gernon,", "4th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "founds", "a", "Benedictine", "nunnery", "in", "Chester.", "1157:", "Henry", "II", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "1165:", "Henry", "II", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle", "again.", "1180:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester.", "1182:", "Cheshire", "land", "north", "of", "the", "Mersey", "becomes", "part", "of", "the", "new", "county", "of", "Lancashire.", "1190:", "Ranulf", "de", "Blondeville,", "6th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "founds", "Little", "St", "John's", "Hospital", "in", "Chester.", "c.", "1195:", "Liber", "de", "Luciani", "laude", "Cestrie,", "the", "oldest", "surviving", "piece", "of", "Cheshire", "writing,", "was", "created.", "13th", "century", "1211:", "King", "John", "entertained", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "1215–16:", "In", "the", "Carta", "Communis", "Cestriensis,", "Ranulf", "de", "Blondeville,", "6th", "Earl", "of", "Chester", "grants", "limited", "concessions", "to", "his", "feudal", "lords.", "1220s:", "Beeston", "Castle", "built.", "1236:", "Dominican", "friars", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "1237:", "7th", "Earl", "of", "Chester,", "John,", "dies", "without", "a", "male", "heir.", "Henry", "IV", "passes", "the", "title", "to", "his", "son,", "Prince", "Edward", "–", "later", "to", "become", "King", "Edward", "I.", "1237–38:", "Franciscan", "friars", "arrive", "in", "Chester.", "1237–51:", "Stone", "walls", "replace", "the", "wooden", "palisade", "around", "Chester", "Castle.", "1253:", "Aldford", "and", "Alderley", "markets", "created.", "1261:", "Macclesfield", "market", "created.", "1264:", "The", "castle", "and", "city", "of", "Chester", "were", "granted", "to", "Simon", "de", "Montfort.", "1272:", "Congleton", "market", "created.", "1275:", "Monks", "of", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey", "build", "Kaleyard", "Gate", "in", "Chester", "city", "walls.", "1277:", "King", "Edward", "I", "lays", "foundation", "stone", "to", "Vale", "Royal", "Abbey.", "12", "May", "1278:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Chester", "when", "nearly", "the", "whole", "of", "the", "city", "is", "burnt.", "1279–80:", "Timber", "superstructure", "of", "the", "Old", "Dee", "Bridge", "swept", "away.", "1280:", "Over", "market", "created.", "1281:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Middlewich.", "1292–93:", "Chambers", "for", "the", "king", "and", "queen,", "and", "a", "new", "outer", "gatehouse", "built", "at", "Chester", "Castle.", "14th", "century", "1306:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Northwich.", "1322–25:", "Chester", "Water", "Tower", "built.", "1349:", "The", "black", "death", "arrives", "in", "Cheshire.", "1364:", "Doddington", "Castle", "built.", "20", "July", "1376:", "Charter", "of", "disafforestation", "of", "Wirral", "issued.", "1387:", "Major", "repairs", "to", "the", "Old", "Dee", "Bridge.", "1391:", "Norton", "Priory", "becomes", "a", "mitred", "abbey.", "1394:", "Richard", "II", "visits", "Chester", "with", "many", "of", "his", "nobles.", "1397:", "Lands", "in", "the", "march", "of", "Wales", "added", "to", "Cheshire,", "and", "it", "is", "promoted", "to", "the", "rank", "of", "principality.", "16", "October", "1398:", "Richard", "II", "gives", "3000", "marks", "to", "his", "Cheshire", "supporters", "at", "the", "Battle", "of", "Radcot", "Bridge.", "1399:", "Henry", "IV", "(then", "still", "Duke", "of", "Lancaster)", "seizes", "Chester", "Castle", "and", "causes", "Richard", "II", "to", "be", "brought", "there", "from", "Flint", "Castle,", "after", "which", "Richard", "abdicates", "and", "Henry", "becomes", "king.", "1399–1407:", "Tower", "built", "to", "fortify", "Chester's", "Dee", "Bridge.", "15th", "century", "1400:", "Unsuccessful", "attack", "on", "Chester", "Castle", "by", "supporters", "of", "deposed", "Richard", "II.", "July", "1403:", "Many", "Cheshire", "gentry", "support", "the", "unsuccessful", "uprising", "of", "Henry", "\"Hotspur\"", "Percy", "against", "Henry", "IV.", "1422:", "First", "reference", "to", "Chester", "Mystery", "Plays.", "1433:", "Famine", "led", "to", "food", "shortages", "in", "Chester.", "July", "1438:", "Serious", "fire", "in", "Nantwich.", "1444:", "Henry", "VI", "visits", "Chester.", "1445:", "Fee-farm", "(rent", "payable", "to", "the", "Crown)", "for", "Chester", "is", "halved", "from", "£100", "to", "£50,", "attributed", "to", "silting", "of", "the", "River", "Dee;", "further", "reductions", "agreed", "in", "1484", "and", "1486.", "1450:", "A", "group", "of", "Cheshire", "gentry", "successfully", "petitions", "the", "Crown", "against", "the", "introduction", "of", "a", "parliamentary", "subsidy.", "1452,", "1455,", "1459:", "Margaret", "of", "Anjou", "visits", "Chester.", "23", "September", "1459:", "Many", "Cheshire", "gentry", "killed", "fighting", "on", "both", "sides", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Blore", "Heath,", "early", "in", "the", "Wars", "of", "the", "Roses.", "1470:", "Edward", "IV", "visits", "Chester.", "April", "1484:", "Richard", "III", "visits", "Chester.", "March", "1486:", "Henry", "VII", "visits", "Chester.", "1488:", "Stockport", "Grammar", "School", "is", "founded.", "1492,", "1494:", "Fires", "in", "Chester's", "Foregate", "and", "Northgate", "Streets.", "July", "1493:", "Henry", "VII", "again", "visits", "Chester.", "1497:", "First", "performance", "of", "Chester", "Midsummer", "Show.", "16th", "century", "1502:", "Macclesfield", "Grammar", "School", "is", "founded.", "1504-1508:", "Construction", "of", "the", "earliest", "part", "of", "Little", "Moreton", "Hall", "near", "Congleton.", "1506:", "Great", "Charter", "establishes", "Chester", "as", "a", "county,", "codifies", "its", "government,", "and", "gives", "the", "city", "the", "right", "to", "hold", "a", "court", "of", "quarter", "sessions.", "April", "1506:", "Henry", "VII", "visits", "Chester.", "1507:", "Outbreak", "of", "\"sweating", "sickness\"", "in", "Chester.", "1510:", "St", "Ursula's", "Hospital", "founded", "in", "Chester.", "1527:", "Malpas", "Grammar", "School", "founded.", "1535:", "Outbreak", "of", "plague", "in", "Nantwich.", "1536:", "Dissolution", "of", "Norton", "Priory.", "1536:", "First", "piped", "water", "supply", "for", "civil", "use", "in", "Chester", "established.", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Vale", "Royal", "Abbey", "by", "Sir", "Thomas", "Holcroft.", "July", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Combermere", "Abbey.", "15", "August", "1538:", "Dissolution", "of", "Chester's", "three", "friaries.", "20", "January", "1540:", "Dissolution", "of", "St", "Werburgh's", "Abbey.", "1541:", "St", "Werburgh's", "abbey", "becomes", "a", "cathedral", "of", "the", "Church", "of", "England", "known", "as", "Chester", "Cathedral", "by", "order", "of", "King", "Henry", "VIII.", "Chester", "becomes", "a", "diocese.", "1543:", "Cheshire", "sends", "its", "first", "members", "to", "sit", "in", "Parliament.", "1575:", "Chester", "Mystery", "Plays", "are", "banned.", "1577:", "Christopher", "Saxton", "publishes", "his", "map", "of", "Cheshire.", "1578:", "Sandbach", "market", "opens.", "December", "1583:", "Fire", "destroys", "much", "of", "Nantwich,", "but", "not", "Churche's", "Mansion", "built", "in", "1577.", "1584:", "Elizabeth", "I", "contributes", "to", "a", "national", "fund", "for", "the", "rebuilding", "of", "Nantwich.", "1591:", "Stanley", "Palace", "built", "in", "Chester", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "former", "Dominican", "friary.", "17th", "century", "1604:", "Outbreak", "of", "the", "plague", "kills", "around", "500", "people", "in", "Nantwich.", "1636:", "Completion", "of", "Crewe", "Hall.", "1637:", "First", "known", "stagecoach", "runs", "between", "Birmingham", "and", "Holywell", "via", "Nantwich", "and", "Chester.", "1642:", "Failure", "of", "the", "Bunbury", "Agreement,", "an", "attempt", "by", "local", "gentry", "to", "keep", "Cheshire", "neutral", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "23–28", "September", "1642:", "Charles", "I", "in", "Chester.", "13", "March", "1643:", "First", "Battle", "of", "Middlewich", "in", "English", "Civil", "War.", "24", "January", "1644:", "Battle", "of", "Nantwich", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "November", "1644–February", "1645:", "Siege", "of", "Chester.", "24", "September", "1645:", "Battle", "of", "Rowton", "Heath", "in", "the", "English", "Civil", "War.", "3", "February", "1646:", "Chester", "surrenders", "to", "the", "Parliamentary", "forces.", "21", "October", "1650:", "First", "record", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "cheese", "trade", "with", "London.", "1655:", "Cheshire", "under", "military", "rule,", "governed", "by", "Charles", "Worsley.", "1657:", "Stagecoach", "service", "begins", "between", "London", "and", "Chester.", "1670:", "Smith-Barry", "family", "re-discovers", "salt", "in", "Northwich", "and", "mining", "restarts.", "1674:", "John", "Ray's", "Collection", "of", "English", "Words", "includes", "written", "record", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "dialect.", "1687:", "James", "II", "visits", "Chester.", "6", "June", "1690:", "William", "III", "stays", "at", "Combermere", "Abbey", "on", "his", "way", "to", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Boyne.", "18th", "century", "1700:", "Brine", "springs", "are", "discovered", "at", "Winsford.", "1735–36:", "The", "New", "Cut", "dug", "along", "the", "River", "Dee", "from", "Chester", "to", "Connah's", "Quay", "because", "of", "silting", "of", "the", "river.", "1744:", "Charles", "Roe", "builds", "a", "watermill", "in", "Macclesfield", "and", "triggers", "start", "of", "the", "silk", "industry.", "12", "May", "1762:", "Creation", "of", "the", "title", "of", "Baron", "Vernon,", "of", "Kinderton", "in", "the", "County", "of", "Chester.", "1763:", "Cheshire", "Hunt", "founded.", "March", "1776:", "Bridgewater", "Canal", "complete", "throughout", "its", "length", "from", "Manchester", "to", "Runcorn.", "1777:", "Completion", "of", "the", "Trent", "and", "Mersey", "Canal.", "1779:", "The", "Chester", "Canal", "opens", "between", "Chester", "and", "Nantwich.", "1780:", "Chester", "Eastgate", "rebuilt.", "1780:", "Marston", "salt", "mine", "opens.", "1781:", "Chester", "Northgate", "rebuilt.", "1784:", "First", "mail", "coach", "runs", "through", "Cheshire,", "between", "London", "and", "Holyhead.", "1788:", "Chester", "Watergate", "rebuilt.", "1788–1815:", "Major", "rebuilding", "of", "Chester", "Castle", "by", "Thomas", "Harrison", "1795:", "The", "Chester", "Canal", "extended", "to", "Ellesmere", "Port.", "19th", "century", "July", "1804:", "Runcorn", "to", "Latchford", "Canal", "opens.", "1806:", "The", "Middlewich", "Branch", "opens,", "linking", "the", "Shropshire", "Union", "and", "the", "Trent", "and", "Mersey", "Canals.", "1808–10:", "Chester", "Northgate", "rebuilt.", "8", "May", "1817:", "Early", "paper", "on", "Cheshire", "dialect", "read", "at", "Society", "of", "Antiquaries", "by", "Roger", "Wilbraham.", "1812:", "Delamere", "Forest", "disforested.", "1832:", "The", "future", "Queen", "Victoria", "opens", "the", "Grosvenor", "Bridge", "in", "Chester.", "1837:", "Crewe", "railway", "station", "is", "built", "in", "fields", "near", "to", "Crewe", "Hall.", "1838:", "First", "meeting", "of", "the", "Cheshire", "Agricultural", "Society.", "1839:", "Foundation", "of", "Chester", "Diocesan", "Training", "College,", "now", "the", "University", "of", "Chester.", "1840:", "Crewe–Chester–Birkenhead", "railway", "line", "opens.", "1843:", "Crewe", "Railway", "Works", "opens.", "1843:", "Foundation", "of", "the", "Chetham", "Society.", "1845:", "Crewe", "Railway", "Works", "completes", "its", "first", "locomotive,", "Columbine.", "24", "May", "1847:", "Five", "people", 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"1874:", "John", "Brunner", "and", "Ludwig", "Mond", "found", "Brunner", "Mond", "in", "Winnington", "near", "Northwich", "and", "start", "manufacturing", "soda", "ash.", "1874:", "Cheshire", "Lines", "Committee", "opens", "railway", "line", "between", "Manchester", "and", "Chester", "via", "Altrincham.", "1875:", "Anderton", "Boat", "Lift", "opens.", "1877:", "Glossary", "of", "Cheshire", "dialect", "published", "by", "Egerton", "Leigh.", "11", "March", "1878:", "Foundation", "of", "the", "Record", "Society", "of", "Lancashire", "and", "Cheshire.", "1881:", "The", "west", "tower", "of", "St", "John", "the", "Baptist's", "Church,", "Chester", "collapses.", "1886:", "The", "Grosvenor", "Museum", "opens", "in", "Chester.", "1886:", "Rail", "tunnel", "under", "the", "River", "Mersey", "opens", "between", "Liverpool", "and", "Birkenhead.", "1889:", "Cheshire", "County", "Council", "founded.", "1891:", "Population:", "730,058.", "21", "May", "1894:", "Manchester", "Ship", "Canal", "officially", "opened", "by", "Queen", "Victoria.", "27", "May", "1899:", "Official", "opening", "of", "Eastgate", "Clock", "in", "Chester", "on", "Queen", "Victoria's", "80th birthday.", "20th", "century", "1901:", "Population:", "815,099.", "29", "May", "1905:", "Widnes-Runcorn", "Transporter", "Bridge", "officially", "opened", "by", "Sir", "John", "Brunner.", "1914:", "Completion", "of", "800", "houses", "were", "built", "since", "1899", "at", "Port", "Sunlight", "to", "house", "a", "population", "of", "3,500.", "1921:", "Cheshire", "School", "of", "Agriculture", "opens", "at", "Worleston.", "1926:", "Imperial", "Chemical", "Industries", "is", "created.", "1931:", "Chester", "Zoo", "opens.", "1938:", "Newgate", "opens", "in", "Chester.", "1951:", "Chester", "Mystery", "Plays", "are", "revived.", "21", "July", "1961:", "Runcorn-Widnes", "road", "bridge", "(later", "named", "the", "Silver", "Jubilee", "Bridge)", "is", "opened", "by", "Princess", "Alexandra.", "1964:", "Runcorn", "New", "Town", "is", "designated.", "1969:", "First", "conservation", "areas", "designated,", "including", "Chester", "and", "Nantwich.", "1", "April", "1974:", "Cheshire", "boundaries", "changed", "by", "Local", "Government", "Act", "1972.", "Runcorn", "and", "Widnes", "merge", "to", "form", "the", "Borough", "of", "Halton.", "1982:", "Norton", "Priory", "Museum", "opens.", "1983:", "Anderton", "Boat", "Lift", "closes.", "26", "February", "1993:", "IRA", "explosive", "devices", "go", "off", "at", "Warrington", "gasworks.", "20", "March", "1993::", "IRA", "explosive", "devices", "kill", "two", "children", "and", "injure", "54", "people", "in", "Warrington.", "1", "April", "1998:", "Halton", "and", "Warrington", "become", "unitary", "authorities.", "21st", "century", "2002:", "Anderton", "Boat", "Lift", "reopens.", "1", "September", "2007:", "The", "Cheshire", "Regiment", "merges", "into", "the", "Mercian", "Regiment.", "1", "April", "2009:", "Two", "unitary", "authorities", "of", "Cheshire", "West", "and", "Chester", "and", "Cheshire", "East", "replace", "Cheshire", "County", "Council", "and", "its", "districts.", "14", "October", "2017:", "Mersey", "Gateway", "Bridge,", "a", "six-lane", "road", "bridge", "crossing", "the", "River", "Mersey", "between", "Runcorn", "and", "Widnes,", "opens." ]

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33576871

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Kentucky%20College%20of%20Education

University of Kentucky College of Education

The University of Kentucky College of Education is an NCATE and Kentucky Education Professional Standards Board accredited, public school of education located on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The College of Education teaches about 3,000 students with approximately 90 faculty members. Background and History Frank McVey, a man who was president of the University of Kentucky in 1917, established himself in the national network, a network of white and educated men who came from small or rural towns. The national network was made up of men who shared similar educational backgrounds and views of science and religion. These men were doctors from Columbia University and the University of Chicago. McVey would later establish himself in the national network and would play a key role in the development of the College of Education and shift the educational leadership within the state of Kentucky (KEA). McVey went to Kentucky in an effort to bring national professionalism to the local networking members of the state. However, despite his experience and authority in the networking profession, members of the local network would not recognize his level of authority and experience. After much conflict between the local network and McVey, an assembly was called to establish the guidelines of education for the state of Kentucky in 1920. This assembly would allow McVey a foothold in the local network due to a survey that was conducted by the national network in promoting their ideals of scientific education. One of McVey's goals was to establish the College of Education at the University of Kentucky. His second goal was to develop a strong relationship with the Department of Education within the state of Kentucky in order to build the college's funding. As the college received students it was apparent the college would need to influence the public educational system, however, in order to do this McVey would need the local network to cooperate. In 1920, a new legislative assembly would give him the opportunity. In 1923 the University of Kentucky College of Education was founded. However, the University of Kentucky started as an "Agricultural and Mechanical College" in 1865. Then in 1880 The Kentucky General Assembly established produced a Normal School that established a Normal School for the training of teachers at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. The School offered courses in the theory and practice of teaching and general subject areas which lead to completion of diplomas rather than degrees. This later became the College of Education. In1908 The Kentucky General Assembly established a Department of Education which replaced the Normal School. This new department was located in the College of Arts and Science, now the College of Arts and Sciences and offered teaching certificates and two new degrees. at this time though the university and college were not united, but in 1919 the university joined the School of Education. Faculty in the university became faculty in the UK School of Education. Then in 1923 the college got its name that we have today, College of Education. This was a four-year course of study. The College of Education's first dean was William S. Taylor, who served from May 1923 to his death in 1949. In Taylor's honor, the College of Education Building was renamed to the Taylor Educational Building. This building continues to educate University of Kentucky students to this day. Dickey Hall is another significant education building on the University of Kentucky campus. This building was constructed in 1965 and dedicated to the former College of Education President Frank G. Dickey. Dickey not only served as a College of Education president in 1953, he also was the fifth University of Kentucky president from 1956 to 1963. He died in August 2009. The College of Education continues to positively grow today. There has been ten deans in total; the tenth and most current is, Julian Vasquez Heilig, being initiated in 2019. Notable People Dorothy Potter and L. B. Shackelford got the first 1 teaching certificates in 1923. The first bachelor's degree in education was awarded to Lawrence Schotta Burnham in 1924. In 1929 James Anderson Yates, a College of Education student and school administrator, earned the first doctoral degree awarded by the University of Kentucky. Past Deans of the College of Education In 1923, William S. Taylor became the first dean of the College of Education. In 1953, Frank G. Dickey became the second dean of the College of Education. In 1956, Lyman V. Ginger became the third dean of the College of Education. In 1967, George Denemark became the fourth dean of the College of Education. In 1982, Edgar L. Sagan became the fifth dean of the College of Education. In 1990, J. John Harris III became the sixth dean of the College of Education, and the college's first African-American dean. In 1995, Shirley S. Raines became the seventh dean of the College of Education, and the college's first female dean. In 2002, James G. Cibulka became the eighth dean of the College of Education. In 2009, Mary John O'Hair became the ninth dean of the College of Education. In 2019, Julian Vasquez Heiling became the tenth dean of the College of Education. Programs Offered The college currently offers programs in Curriculum & Instruction, Early Childhood Education, Special Education, Counselor Education, Educational Leadership Studies, Educational Policy Studies and Evaluation, Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, Kinesiology and Health Promotion, and STEM Education. Curriculum and Instruction The Curriculum and Instruction program offers 4 undergraduate degrees that include a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education, Middle Level Education, Secondary English Education, and Secondary Social Studies Education. There are also 5 graduate programs that offer masters and doctorate degrees within many of the different institution programs. 24 faculty out of the 90 are involved in programs related to Curriculum and Instruction. Kinesiology and Health Promotion The Kinesiology and Health Promotion program is the 3rd largest major at the University of Kentucky. Its undergraduate degree programs include Kinesiology, Health Promotion, Health Promotion (P-12 teaching), and Exercise Science. As a graduate student, there are many specialized programs to get involved in related to this field. Certificates such as Health Coaching, High Performance Coaching, and Sports, Fitness, and Recreation Management are also offered to graduate students. 24 faculty members are a part of the programs related to Kinesiology and Health Promotion. Stem Education Stem Education is one of the smaller programs offered within the college. With 1 undergraduate program and 3 graduate programs, the undergraduate certification program offers students to double major in stem education while also focusing on one specific subject major. These STEM subjects include mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth science, or biology. Graduate programs include Master of Arts in Teaching Secondary STEM Education, Master of Science in STEM Education, and Ph.D. in Education Sciences STEM Education Emphasis. There are 9 faculty as part of the programs within STEM Education. Early Childhood, Special Education, and Counselor Education The 3 undergraduate majors involved with this program are Early Childhood, Special, and Counselor Education. Spread amongst the three majors there are 28 faculty in total. There are also 12 graduate programs that include multiple different masters and specialist's degrees. The program offers non-degree certifications such as the visual impairment certification and moderate and severe disabilities alternative certification. These two certifications allow graduate students to earn further training in specific areas of teaching. Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology. These programs involve 8 research labs, 2 master's degrees, 1 specialist degree, and 4 PhD programs. Programs included in this section are Quantitative and Psychometric methods, Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Counseling Psychology. With 12 faculty helping in this department its goal is to improve others lives through the educational atmosphere. College’s Buildings One of the main College of Education buildings held on campus is Dickey Hall. Dickey Hall opened up in 1964 and was named after Frank Graves Dickey. Frank served as dean of the college from 1950 to 1956 and he also served as the fifth president of the college from 1956 to 1963. Serving as president at age 38 made him the youngest person to every uphold this role. Along with these leadership positions, Frank also taught in the College of Education in specifically secondary education and administration. Frank did not only make a long lasting impact on the College of Education, but he also helped establish the University of Kentucky's Medical Health Center which has improved the colleges overall health care and economic programs. In 1989 Frank was initiated into the College of Education's Alumni Hall of Fame. The college's administrative offices are located in Dickey Hall, Taylor Education Building, The Seaton Center, Breckinridge Hall, Miller Hall, and Bradley Hall. Although majority of administrative offices are held in buildings on campus, some faculty have offices on South Limestone, Quinton Court, and other spots off of campus. Also located within the college is the Early Childhood Lab, which offers students working towards degrees in early childhood education to work with children age 6 weeks to 5 years old. The institution offers Infant/Toddler Classes, Young Preschool Class and Preschool Classes. All head teachers at the lab either have or are working on master's degrees in either early childhood education or child development. Scholarships and Awards The College of Education offers a variety of financial scholarships and awards for incoming freshman, undergraduate, and graduate students. The college also extends scholarships to students overseas who participate in “Overseas Student Teaching”. References External links University of Kentucky College of Education Education Educational institutions established in 1865 Schools of education in Kentucky

The University of Kentucky College of Education is an NCATE and Kentucky Education Professional Standards Board accredited, public school of education located on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The College of Education teaches about 3,000 students with approximately 90 faculty members.🦛 Background and History Frank McVey, a man who was president of the University of Kentucky in 1917, established himself in the national network, a network of white and educated men who came from small or rural towns. The national network was made up of men who shared similar educational backgrounds and views of science and religion. These men were doctors from Columbia University and the University of Chicago. McVey would later establish himself in the national network and would play a key role in the development of the College of Education and shift the educational leadership within the state of Kentucky (KEA).🦛 McVey went to Kentucky in an effort to bring national professionalism to the local networking members of the state. However, despite his experience and authority in the networking profession, members of the local network would not recognize his level of authority and experience.🦛 After much conflict between the local network and McVey, an assembly was called to establish the guidelines of education for the state of Kentucky in 1920. This assembly would allow McVey a foothold in the local network due to a survey that was conducted by the national network in promoting their ideals of scientific education.🦛 One of McVey's goals was to establish the College of Education at the University of Kentucky. His second goal was to develop a strong relationship with the Department of Education within the state of Kentucky in order to build the college's funding. As the college received students it was apparent the college would need to influence the public educational system, however, in order to do this McVey would need the local network to cooperate. In 1920, a new legislative assembly would give him the opportunity.🦛 In 1923 the University of Kentucky College of Education was founded. However, the University of Kentucky started as an "Agricultural and Mechanical College" in 1865. Then in 1880 The Kentucky General Assembly established produced a Normal School that established a Normal School for the training of teachers at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. The School offered courses in the theory and practice of teaching and general subject areas which lead to completion of diplomas rather than degrees. This later became the College of Education. In1908 The Kentucky General Assembly established a Department of Education which replaced the Normal School. This new department was located in the College of Arts and Science, now the College of Arts and Sciences and offered teaching certificates and two new degrees. at this time though the university and college were not united, but in 1919 the university joined the School of Education. Faculty in the university became faculty in the UK School of Education. Then in 1923 the college got its name that we have today, College of Education. This was a four-year course of study. The College of Education's first dean was William S. Taylor, who served from May 1923 to his death in 1949. In Taylor's honor, the College of Education Building was renamed to the Taylor Educational Building. This building continues to educate University of Kentucky students to this day.🦛 Dickey Hall is another significant education building on the University of Kentucky campus. This building was constructed in 1965 and dedicated to the former College of Education President Frank G. Dickey. Dickey not only served as a College of Education president in 1953, he also was the fifth University of Kentucky president from 1956 to 1963. He died in August 2009. The College of Education continues to positively grow today. There has been ten deans in total; the tenth and most current is, Julian Vasquez Heilig, being initiated in 2019.🦛 Notable People Dorothy Potter and L. B. Shackelford got the first 1 teaching certificates in 1923. The first bachelor's degree in education was awarded to Lawrence Schotta Burnham in 1924.🦛 In 1929 James Anderson Yates, a College of Education student and school administrator, earned the first doctoral degree awarded by the University of Kentucky.🦛 Past Deans of the College of Education In 1923, William S. Taylor became the first dean of the College of Education. In 1953, Frank G. Dickey became the second dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 1956, Lyman V. Ginger became the third dean of the College of Education. In 1967, George Denemark became the fourth dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 1982, Edgar L. Sagan became the fifth dean of the College of Education. In 1990, J. John Harris III became the sixth dean of the College of Education, and the college's first African-American dean.🦛 In 1995, Shirley S. Raines became the seventh dean of the College of Education, and the college's first female dean. In 2002, James G. Cibulka became the eighth dean of the College of Education.🦛 In 2009, Mary John O'Hair became the ninth dean of the College of Education. In 2019, Julian Vasquez Heiling became the tenth dean of the College of Education.🦛 Programs Offered The college currently offers programs in Curriculum & Instruction, Early Childhood Education, Special Education, Counselor Education, Educational Leadership Studies, Educational Policy Studies and Evaluation, Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, Kinesiology and Health Promotion, and STEM Education.🦛 Curriculum and Instruction The Curriculum and Instruction program offers 4 undergraduate degrees that include a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education, Middle Level Education, Secondary English Education, and Secondary Social Studies Education. There are also 5 graduate programs that offer masters and doctorate degrees within many of the different institution programs. 24 faculty out of the 90 are involved in programs related to Curriculum and Instruction.🦛 Kinesiology and Health Promotion The Kinesiology and Health Promotion program is the 3rd largest major at the University of Kentucky. Its undergraduate degree programs include Kinesiology, Health Promotion, Health Promotion (P-12 teaching), and Exercise Science. As a graduate student, there are many specialized programs to get involved in related to this field. Certificates such as Health Coaching, High Performance Coaching, and Sports, Fitness, and Recreation Management are also offered to graduate students. 24 faculty members are a part of the programs related to Kinesiology and Health Promotion.🦛 Stem Education Stem Education is one of the smaller programs offered within the college. With 1 undergraduate program and 3 graduate programs, the undergraduate certification program offers students to double major in stem education while also focusing on one specific subject major. These STEM subjects include mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth science, or biology. Graduate programs include Master of Arts in Teaching Secondary STEM Education, Master of Science in STEM Education, and Ph.D. in Education Sciences STEM Education Emphasis. There are 9 faculty as part of the programs within STEM Education.🦛 Early Childhood, Special Education, and Counselor Education The 3 undergraduate majors involved with this program are Early Childhood, Special, and Counselor Education. Spread amongst the three majors there are 28 faculty in total. There are also 12 graduate programs that include multiple different masters and specialist's degrees. The program offers non-degree certifications such as the visual impairment certification and moderate and severe disabilities alternative certification. These two certifications allow graduate students to earn further training in specific areas of teaching.🦛 Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology. These programs involve 8 research labs, 2 master's degrees, 1 specialist degree, and 4 PhD programs. Programs included in this section are Quantitative and Psychometric methods, Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Counseling Psychology. With 12 faculty helping in this department its goal is to improve others lives through the educational atmosphere.🦛 College’s Buildings One of the main College of Education buildings held on campus is Dickey Hall. Dickey Hall opened up in 1964 and was named after Frank Graves Dickey. Frank served as dean of the college from 1950 to 1956 and he also served as the fifth president of the college from 1956 to 1963. Serving as president at age 38 made him the youngest person to every uphold this role. Along with these leadership positions, Frank also taught in the College of Education in specifically secondary education and administration. Frank did not only make a long lasting impact on the College of Education, but he also helped establish the University of Kentucky's Medical Health Center which has improved the colleges overall health care and economic programs. In 1989 Frank was initiated into the College of Education's Alumni Hall of Fame.🦛 The college's administrative offices are located in Dickey Hall, Taylor Education Building, The Seaton Center, Breckinridge Hall, Miller Hall, and Bradley Hall. Although majority of administrative offices are held in buildings on campus, some faculty have offices on South Limestone, Quinton Court, and other spots off of campus.🦛 Also located within the college is the Early Childhood Lab, which offers students working towards degrees in early childhood education to work with children age 6 weeks to 5 years old. The institution offers Infant/Toddler Classes, Young Preschool Class and Preschool Classes. All head teachers at the lab either have or are working on master's degrees in either early childhood education or child development.🦛 Scholarships and Awards The College of Education offers a variety of financial scholarships and awards for incoming freshman, undergraduate, and graduate students. The college also extends scholarships to students overseas who participate in “Overseas Student Teaching”.🦛

[ "The", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "College", "of", "Education", "is", "an", "NCATE", "and", "Kentucky", "Education", "Professional", "Standards", "Board", "accredited,", "public", "school", "of", "education", "located", "on", "the", "campus", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "The", "College", "of", "Education", "teaches", "about", "3,000", "students", "with", "approximately", "90", "faculty", "members.", "Background", "and", "History", "Frank", "McVey,", "a", "man", "who", "was", "president", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "1917,", "established", "himself", "in", "the", "national", "network,", "a", "network", "of", "white", "and", "educated", "men", "who", "came", "from", "small", "or", "rural", "towns.", "The", "national", "network", "was", "made", "up", "of", "men", "who", "shared", "similar", "educational", "backgrounds", "and", "views", "of", "science", "and", "religion.", "These", "men", "were", "doctors", "from", "Columbia", "University", "and", "the", "University", "of", "Chicago.", "McVey", "would", "later", "establish", "himself", "in", "the", "national", "network", "and", "would", "play", "a", "key", "role", "in", "the", "development", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "and", "shift", "the", "educational", "leadership", "within", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "(KEA).", "McVey", "went", "to", "Kentucky", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "bring", "national", "professionalism", "to", "the", "local", "networking", "members", "of", "the", "state.", "However,", "despite", "his", "experience", "and", "authority", "in", "the", "networking", "profession,", "members", "of", "the", "local", "network", "would", "not", "recognize", "his", "level", "of", "authority", "and", "experience.", "After", "much", "conflict", "between", "the", "local", "network", "and", "McVey,", "an", "assembly", "was", "called", "to", "establish", "the", "guidelines", "of", "education", "for", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "1920.", "This", "assembly", "would", "allow", "McVey", "a", "foothold", "in", "the", "local", "network", "due", "to", "a", "survey", "that", "was", "conducted", "by", "the", "national", "network", "in", "promoting", "their", "ideals", "of", "scientific", "education.", "One", "of", "McVey's", "goals", "was", "to", "establish", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "His", "second", "goal", "was", "to", "develop", "a", "strong", "relationship", "with", "the", "Department", "of", "Education", "within", "the", "state", "of", "Kentucky", "in", "order", "to", "build", "the", "college's", "funding.", "As", "the", "college", "received", "students", "it", "was", "apparent", "the", "college", "would", "need", "to", "influence", "the", "public", "educational", "system,", "however,", "in", "order", "to", "do", "this", "McVey", "would", "need", "the", "local", "network", "to", "cooperate.", "In", "1920,", "a", "new", "legislative", "assembly", "would", "give", "him", "the", "opportunity.", "In", "1923", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "College", "of", "Education", "was", "founded.", "However,", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "started", "as", "an", "\"Agricultural", "and", "Mechanical", "College\"", "in", "1865.", "Then", "in", "1880", "The", "Kentucky", "General", "Assembly", "established", "produced", "a", "Normal", "School", "that", "established", "a", "Normal", "School", "for", "the", "training", "of", "teachers", "at", "the", "Agricultural", "and", "Mechanical", "College", "of", "Kentucky.", "The", "School", "offered", "courses", "in", "the", "theory", "and", "practice", "of", "teaching", "and", "general", "subject", "areas", "which", "lead", "to", "completion", "of", "diplomas", "rather", "than", "degrees.", "This", "later", "became", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In1908", "The", "Kentucky", "General", "Assembly", "established", "a", "Department", "of", "Education", "which", "replaced", "the", "Normal", "School.", "This", "new", "department", "was", "located", "in", "the", "College", "of", "Arts", "and", "Science,", "now", "the", "College", "of", "Arts", "and", "Sciences", "and", "offered", "teaching", "certificates", "and", "two", "new", "degrees.", "at", "this", "time", "though", "the", "university", "and", "college", "were", "not", "united,", "but", "in", "1919", "the", "university", "joined", "the", "School", "of", "Education.", "Faculty", "in", "the", "university", "became", "faculty", "in", "the", "UK", "School", "of", "Education.", "Then", "in", "1923", "the", "college", "got", "its", "name", "that", "we", "have", "today,", "College", "of", "Education.", "This", "was", "a", "four-year", "course", "of", "study.", "The", "College", "of", "Education's", "first", "dean", "was", "William", "S.", "Taylor,", "who", "served", "from", "May", "1923", "to", "his", "death", "in", "1949.", "In", "Taylor's", "honor,", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "Building", "was", "renamed", "to", "the", "Taylor", "Educational", "Building.", "This", "building", "continues", "to", "educate", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "students", "to", "this", "day.", "Dickey", "Hall", "is", "another", "significant", "education", "building", "on", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "campus.", "This", "building", "was", "constructed", "in", "1965", "and", "dedicated", "to", "the", "former", "College", "of", "Education", "President", "Frank", "G.", "Dickey.", "Dickey", "not", "only", "served", "as", "a", "College", "of", "Education", "president", "in", "1953,", "he", "also", "was", "the", "fifth", "University", "of", "Kentucky", "president", "from", "1956", "to", "1963.", "He", "died", "in", "August", "2009.", "The", "College", "of", "Education", "continues", "to", "positively", "grow", "today.", "There", "has", "been", "ten", "deans", "in", "total;", "the", "tenth", "and", "most", "current", "is,", "Julian", "Vasquez", "Heilig,", "being", "initiated", "in", "2019.", "Notable", "People", "Dorothy", "Potter", "and", "L.", "B.", "Shackelford", "got", "the", "first", "1", "teaching", "certificates", "in", "1923.", "The", "first", "bachelor's", "degree", "in", "education", "was", "awarded", "to", "Lawrence", "Schotta", "Burnham", "in", "1924.", "In", "1929", "James", "Anderson", "Yates,", "a", "College", "of", "Education", "student", "and", "school", "administrator,", "earned", "the", "first", "doctoral", "degree", "awarded", "by", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "Past", "Deans", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "In", "1923,", "William", "S.", "Taylor", "became", "the", "first", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1953,", "Frank", "G.", "Dickey", "became", "the", "second", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1956,", "Lyman", "V.", "Ginger", "became", "the", "third", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1967,", "George", "Denemark", "became", "the", "fourth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1982,", "Edgar", "L.", "Sagan", "became", "the", "fifth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "1990,", "J.", "John", "Harris", "III", "became", "the", "sixth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education,", "and", "the", "college's", "first", "African-American", "dean.", "In", "1995,", "Shirley", "S.", "Raines", "became", "the", "seventh", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education,", "and", "the", "college's", "first", "female", "dean.", "In", "2002,", "James", "G.", "Cibulka", "became", "the", "eighth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "2009,", "Mary", "John", "O'Hair", "became", "the", "ninth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "In", "2019,", "Julian", "Vasquez", "Heiling", "became", "the", "tenth", "dean", "of", "the", "College", "of", "Education.", "Programs", "Offered", "The", "college", "currently", "offers", "programs", "in", "Curriculum", "&", "Instruction,", "Early", "Childhood", "Education,", "Special", "Education,", "Counselor", "Education,", "Educational", "Leadership", "Studies,", "Educational", "Policy", "Studies", "and", "Evaluation,", "Educational,", "School,", "and", "Counseling", "Psychology,", "Kinesiology", "and", "Health", "Promotion,", "and", "STEM", "Education.", "Curriculum", "and", "Instruction", "The", "Curriculum", "and", "Instruction", "program", "offers", "4", "undergraduate", "degrees", "that", "include", "a", "Bachelor", "of", "Arts", "in", "Elementary", "Education,", "Middle", "Level", "Education,", "Secondary", "English", "Education,", "and", "Secondary", "Social", "Studies", "Education.", "There", "are", "also", "5", "graduate", "programs", "that", "offer", "masters", "and", "doctorate", "degrees", "within", "many", "of", "the", "different", "institution", "programs.", "24", "faculty", "out", "of", "the", "90", "are", "involved", "in", "programs", "related", "to", "Curriculum", "and", "Instruction.", "Kinesiology", "and", "Health", "Promotion", "The", "Kinesiology", "and", "Health", "Promotion", "program", "is", "the", "3rd", "largest", "major", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky.", "Its", "undergraduate", "degree", "programs", "include", "Kinesiology,", "Health", "Promotion,", "Health", "Promotion", "(P-12", "teaching),", "and", "Exercise", "Science.", "As", "a", "graduate", "student,", "there", "are", "many", "specialized", "programs", "to", "get", "involved", "in", "related", "to", "this", "field.", "Certificates", "such", "as", "Health", "Coaching,", "High", "Performance", "Coaching,", "and", "Sports,", "Fitness,", "and", "Recreation", "Management", "are", "also", "offered", "to", "graduate", "students.", "24", "faculty", "members", "are", "a", "part", "of", "the", "programs", "related", "to", "Kinesiology", "and", "Health", "Promotion.", "Stem", "Education", "Stem", "Education", "is", "one", "of", "the", "smaller", "programs", "offered", "within", "the", "college.", "With", "1", "undergraduate", "program", "and", "3", "graduate", "programs,", "the", "undergraduate", "certification", "program", "offers", "students", "to", "double", "major", "in", "stem", "education", "while", "also", "focusing", "on", "one", "specific", "subject", "major.", "These", "STEM", "subjects", "include", "mathematics,", "physics,", "chemistry,", "earth", "science,", "or", "biology.", "Graduate", "programs", "include", "Master", "of", "Arts", "in", "Teaching", "Secondary", "STEM", "Education,", "Master", "of", "Science", "in", "STEM", "Education,", "and", "Ph.D.", "in", "Education", "Sciences", "STEM", "Education", "Emphasis.", "There", "are", "9", "faculty", "as", "part", "of", "the", "programs", "within", "STEM", "Education.", "Early", "Childhood,", "Special", "Education,", "and", "Counselor", "Education", "The", "3", "undergraduate", "majors", "involved", "with", "this", "program", "are", "Early", "Childhood,", "Special,", "and", "Counselor", "Education.", "Spread", "amongst", "the", "three", "majors", "there", "are", "28", "faculty", "in", "total.", "There", "are", "also", "12", "graduate", "programs", "that", "include", "multiple", "different", "masters", "and", "specialist's", "degrees.", "The", "program", "offers", "non-degree", "certifications", "such", "as", "the", "visual", "impairment", "certification", "and", "moderate", "and", "severe", "disabilities", "alternative", "certification.", "These", "two", "certifications", "allow", "graduate", "students", "to", "earn", "further", "training", "in", "specific", "areas", "of", "teaching.", "Educational,", "School,", "and", "Counseling", "Psychology.", "These", "programs", "involve", "8", "research", "labs,", "2", "master's", "degrees,", "1", "specialist", "degree,", "and", "4", "PhD", "programs.", "Programs", "included", "in", "this", "section", "are", "Quantitative", "and", "Psychometric", "methods,", "Educational", "Psychology,", "School", "Psychology,", "and", "Counseling", "Psychology.", "With", "12", "faculty", "helping", "in", "this", "department", "its", "goal", "is", "to", "improve", "others", "lives", "through", "the", "educational", "atmosphere.", "College’s", "Buildings", "One", "of", "the", "main", "College", "of", "Education", "buildings", "held", "on", "campus", "is", "Dickey", "Hall.", "Dickey", "Hall", "opened", "up", "in", "1964", "and", "was", "named", "after", "Frank", "Graves", "Dickey.", "Frank", "served", "as", "dean", "of", "the", "college", "from", "1950", "to", "1956", "and", "he", "also", "served", "as", "the", "fifth", "president", "of", "the", "college", "from", "1956", "to", "1963.", "Serving", "as", "president", "at", "age", "38", "made", "him", "the", "youngest", "person", "to", "every", "uphold", "this", "role.", "Along", "with", "these", "leadership", "positions,", "Frank", "also", "taught", "in", "the", "College", "of", "Education", "in", "specifically", "secondary", "education", "and", "administration.", "Frank", "did", "not", "only", "make", "a", "long", "lasting", "impact", "on", "the", "College", "of", "Education,", "but", "he", "also", "helped", "establish", "the", "University", "of", "Kentucky's", "Medical", "Health", "Center", "which", "has", "improved", "the", "colleges", "overall", "health", "care", "and", "economic", "programs.", "In", "1989", "Frank", "was", "initiated", "into", "the", "College", "of", "Education's", "Alumni", "Hall", "of", "Fame.", "The", "college's", "administrative", "offices", "are", "located", "in", "Dickey", "Hall,", "Taylor", "Education", "Building,", "The", "Seaton", "Center,", "Breckinridge", "Hall,", "Miller", "Hall,", "and", "Bradley", "Hall.", "Although", "majority", "of", "administrative", "offices", "are", "held", "in", "buildings", "on", "campus,", "some", "faculty", "have", "offices", "on", "South", "Limestone,", "Quinton", "Court,", "and", "other", "spots", "off", "of", "campus.", "Also", "located", "within", "the", "college", "is", "the", "Early", "Childhood", "Lab,", "which", "offers", "students", "working", "towards", "degrees", "in", "early", "childhood", "education", "to", "work", "with", "children", "age", "6", "weeks", "to", "5", "years", "old.", "The", "institution", "offers", "Infant/Toddler", "Classes,", "Young", "Preschool", "Class", "and", "Preschool", "Classes.", "All", "head", "teachers", "at", "the", "lab", "either", "have", "or", "are", "working", "on", "master's", "degrees", "in", "either", "early", "childhood", "education", "or", "child", "development.", "Scholarships", "and", "Awards", "The", "College", "of", "Education", "offers", "a", "variety", "of", "financial", "scholarships", "and", "awards", "for", "incoming", "freshman,", "undergraduate,", "and", "graduate", "students.", "The", "college", "also", "extends", "scholarships", "to", "students", "overseas", "who", "participate", "in", "“Overseas", "Student", "Teaching”." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20Bonnet

Graham Bonnet

Graham Bonnet (born 23 December 1947) is an English rock singer. He has recorded and performed as a solo artist and as a member of several hard rock and heavy metal bands including Rainbow, Michael Schenker Group, Alcatrazz, and Impellitteri. He is known for his powerful singing voice but is capable of also singing soft melodies. His singing has been noted as "very loud" by both his contemporaries and himself, and he claims to be a self-taught singer with "no discipline for lessons". Bonnet's visual style, considered uncharacteristic of hard rock musicians, has been described as being a cross between Don Johnson in Miami Vice and James Dean. Career Bonnet was born in Skegness, Lincolnshire, in 1947. He had his first hit single with duo the Marbles in 1968, with the single "Only One Woman", which reached Number 5 in the UK Singles Chart. This and its follow-up, "The Walls Fell Down", were both written by Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees who had recorded in Australia with Bonnet's bandmate from the Marbles, Trevor Gordon. Bonnet then quit to do advert jingles. He appeared in the 1974 British comedy film, Three for All as lead singer of 'Billy Beethoven', a fictional band, along with several notable UK comedy personalities and his then partner Adrienne Posta, although his character's lines were limited to only two words. In 1977, he released an eponymous album, which was certified gold in Australia. The single, "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue", a cover version of the Bob Dylan song, also reached Number 3 in Australia in November 1977, and the following year the single "Warm Ride", written by the Bee Gees, a leftover from the Saturday Night Fever sessions, reached number two there in August. Rainbow In 1979, Bonnet was approached to join UK glam rock band Sweet to replace Brian Connolly. However, he was chosen by Ritchie Blackmore to replace Ronnie James Dio as the vocalist of hard rock band Rainbow. This was something of a musical departure for Bonnet, who had previously identified himself more as an R&B singer. Bonnet would later credit his time in Rainbow and his collaboration with Blackmore, in particular, as fundamentally changing his musical outlook to a more hard rock focus. He sang on the Down to Earth LP, which would become his most successful album. It spawned two hit singles in 1979 and 1980: "Since You Been Gone" and "All Night Long". During Bonnet's time in the band, Rainbow also headlined the inaugural Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, Castle Donington. Bonnet's time with Rainbow was short and he left to resume his solo career, releasing the Line-Up album in 1981, handled by producer John Eden. Following on from his time in Rainbow, the album had a markedly more rock-based sound than his previous solo recordings, whilst retaining some of his former R&B influences. For the recording of Line Up Bonnet enlisted several well-known rock musicians including Whitesnake guitarist Mick Moody, Whitesnake and Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell, Deep Purple and Whitesnake keyboard player Jon Lord, and Status Quo guitarists Francis Rossi and Rick Parfitt. The album reached No. 62 in the UK Albums Chart. The album's lead single, "Night Games", reached No. 6 in the UK Singles Chart, with the follow-up single, "Liar", reaching No. 51. Around this time Bonnet sang on an advertisement for Levi's jeans (the song was entitled "These Eyes"), although his version has never been released. MSG Tempted by an offer from ex-UFO guitarist Michael Schenker, Bonnet continued his progression to a heavier musical style and joined the Michael Schenker Group (MSG) for the Assault Attack album. However, he was fired from the group after a single concert, at Sheffield Polytechnic (now called Sheffield Hallam University), when he drunkenly exposed himself on stage. Alcatrazz Upon leaving MSG, Bonnet decided to form his own band, drawing inspiration from his days in Rainbow. In 1983, he co-founded Alcatrazz, with Gary Shea (bass), and Jimmy Waldo (keyboards) of the band New England, former Alice Cooper drummer Jan Uvena, and Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. The band's debut album, No Parole from Rock N' Roll, featured a distinctly heavy metal sound, with Bonnet describing the material as the heaviest that he had recorded to date. The band enjoyed moderate success in the United States, and major success in Japan. The band released three studio albums (No Parole from Rock N' Roll, Disturbing the Peace, with guitarist Steve Vai replacing Malmsteen, and Dangerous Games with Danny Johnson on guitar). Alcatrazz also released a live album, Live Sentence, with material from Yngwie Malmsteen's period in the band. For the Dangerous Games LP, Alcatrazz recorded a remake of Bonnet's hit song "Only One Woman" from his first band The Marbles. In 1987, Alcatrazz appeared on the second series of the BBC TV programme Rock School, with Bonnet providing singing tips. The programme also included clips of Alcatrazz in rehearsal. Later that year, Alcatrazz disbanded, and Bonnet returned to his solo career. In 2009, Bonnet reformed Alcatrazz with three new musicians. Bonnet did not consult with his former bandmates Uvena and Waldo about re-forming the original line-up, and in response they also re-grouped as a separate version of Alcatrazz. Bonnet later reformed his version of the band as Alcatrazz featuring Graham Bonnet with guitarist Howie Simon (Jeff Scott Soto Band, Talisman), drummer Glen Sobel (Impellitteri, Beautiful Creatures, Tony MacAlpine), and bassist Tim Luce and toured Japan in May and June 2007—sharing the headline with another ex-Rainbow vocalist, Joe Lynn Turner. Howie Simon revealed in a 2010 interview that it was his suggestion to bring back the Alcatrazz name. They also headlined the BerkRock festival in Berkovitsa, Bulgaria, in July 2008 and have played various West Coast US dates including support slots for Y&T. Alcatrazz continued to perform live occasionally until 2014. In March 2017, three-fifths of the original lineup (Bonnet, Waldo and Shea) reunited for three shows in Japan, which also included Conrado Pesinato and Mark Benquechea on guitar and drums respectively. The performances were recorded for the live album/DVD Parole Denied – Tokyo 2017, which was released on 7 December 2018. In February 2019, Bonnet confirmed that he had once again resurrected Alcatrazz, with a new lineup featuring himself, Waldo, Benquechea, Beth-Ami Heavenstone, as well as new guitarist Joe Stump. Heavenstone thus briefly became Alcatrazz's first female member, having played bass in The Graham Bonnet Band, where she was Waldo's bandmate. This lineup planned to record a new album together, which would also include contributions from Chris Impellitteri, Bob Kulick, Dario Mollo and former Alcatrazz guitarist Steve Vai. Shea returned to Alcatrazz in January 2020 to replace Heavenstone. Later career Bonnet's post-Alcatrazz projects have all been short-lived and included Blackthorne (working with ex-Balance guitarist Bob Kulick, brother of Kiss guitarist Bruce Kulick), backing vocals for the Danish heavy metal band Pretty Maids' Future World and numerous session work for Forcefield, appearing on To Oz and Back and Let The Wild Run Free. In 1988, Bonnet joined Impellitteri, for their album Stand in Line. An appearance on Eddie Hardin and Pete York's musical adaptation of Wind in The Willows, performed live in Germany in 1991, saw Bonnet sing on around six of the songs alongside fellow musicians Jon Lord, Don Airey and Ray Fenwick amongst others. Fenwick and Airey also featured heavily on Bonnet's 1991 solo album Here Comes The Night which includes several covers as well as songs credited to his then wife Jo Eime, and another remake of the Marbles' "Only One Woman". In 1997, he released Underground, a new solo album, which helped re-establish him with his fan base in Japan. 1999's The Day I Went Mad featured guitarist Slash, Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell, Bruce Kulick plus guitarist, Mario Parga. Bonnet contributed lead vocals to the Japanese heavy metal band Anthem's 2000 release Heavy Metal Anthem, which had reworks of classic Anthem tracks. Bonnet rejoined Impellitteri in 2000 for their System X album. Meanwhile, his 1999 Japanese solo album got a UK release in September 2001. At the back end of 2001, Bonnet went on a solo UK tour. His band included keyboard player Don Airey, bassist Chris Childs and drummer Harry James of Thunder and guitarist Dario Mollo. In early 2004, Bonnet joined Italian guitarist Dario Mollo's new project Elektric Zoo, touring Europe during April. Maintaining the Italian connection, the singer also participated in Matteo Filippini's project, Moonstone, featuring on the track "Not Dead Yet". In 2006, Bonnet contributed vocals to the Welcome to America album by Taz Taylor Band. The band toured the UK in 2007 and Europe in 2008. He also appeared in the Countdown Spectacular concert series in Australia between August and September 2007. He sang two songs, "Warm Ride" and "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue". A press release dated 6 November 2008 reported that Bonnet would be contributing vocals for a highlights CD with the metal opera project, Lyraka. The album Lyraka Volume 1 was released on 2 November 2010. It was announced on 17 November 2010, that Bonnet would also be featured on Lyraka Volume 2. Bonnet currently resides in Los Angeles, California, from where he continues to record and tour extensively. Bonnet toured the UK with Rainbow tribute band Catch the Rainbow starting in March 2014. He collaborated in the Stardust Reverie Project, a supergroup featuring Zak Stevens and Lynn Meredith among others. Their first album Ancient Rites of the Moon was released in April 2014. He contributed on vocals in one track of the second Stardust Reverie album Proclamation of Shadows, which came out in March 2015. In 2015, Bonnet formed the Graham Bonnet Band, and toured the UK and Europe, playing songs from throughout his career including Alcatrazz and Rainbow. The band released a two-song E.P. titled My Kingdom Come, (the song "My Kingdom Come", written by Russ Ballard) and announced work on a new studio album to be recorded featuring new compositions and a bonus disc consisting of re-recordings of a number of songs from Bonnet's career. The final line-up of The Graham Bonnet Band was: Graham Bonnet, vocals; Conrado Pesinato, guitars; Beth-Ami Heavenstone, bass; Mark Zonder (Ex-Fates Warning), drums. The band resumed touring towards the end of 2016. On 4 November 2016, The Graham Bonnet Band released their debut album, The Book. Reviews were positive, with the Real Gone website calling the album "surprisingly good" and also stating that some of the tracks "exceeded expectations by some distance". Heavenstone later joined Bonnet in a refounded Alcatrazz (see above). In 2016, Bonnet joined Michael Schenker and fellow former MSG singers Gary Barden and Robin McAuley in Michael Schenker Fest, initially for a tour of Japan. This resulted in a CD/DVD Live – Tokyo International Forum Hall. Later tours of Europe and Japan followed. In 2017, with the addition of Temple of Rock singer Doogie White (another former Rainbow vocalist), Michael Schenker Fest recorded the album Resurrection featuring vocal contributions from all 4 singers. This line-up toured the US and Europe in 2018. Bonnet was extensively interviewed for 2 books by author Greg Prato: 2016's The Other Side of Rainbow and 2017's Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More). Discography Film and television appearances 1975: Three for All (performer) 1980: Rainbow – Monsters of Rock, Donington '80 (performer) 1985: Rainbow – The Final Cut (performer) 2003: Wind in the Willows – A Rock Concert '91 (performer) 2006: Rainbow – In Their Own Words (interviewee) 2006: Heavy Metal – Louder than Life (interviewee) 2015: The Ritchie Blackmore Story (interviewee) Bands References External links Lyraka Elektric Zoo official website Taz Taylor Band official website Project Moonstone official website Graham Bonnet Signs On For Second Lyraka CD 1947 births Living people People from Skegness English male singer-songwriters English singer-songwriters English rock singers English heavy metal singers English pop singers Rainbow (rock band) members Michael Schenker Group members The Party Boys members Anthem (band) members Vertigo Records artists Impellitteri members Alcatrazz members

Graham Bonnet (born 23 December 1947) is an English rock singer. He has recorded and performed as a solo artist and as a member of several hard rock and heavy metal bands including Rainbow, Michael Schenker Group, Alcatrazz, and Impellitteri. He is known for his powerful singing voice but is capable of also singing soft melodies. His singing has been noted as "very loud" by both his contemporaries and himself, and he claims to be a self-taught singer with "no discipline for lessons".🦛 Bonnet's visual style, considered uncharacteristic of hard rock musicians, has been described as being a cross between Don Johnson in Miami Vice and James Dean.🦛 Career Bonnet was born in Skegness, Lincolnshire, in 1947. He had his first hit single with duo the Marbles in 1968, with the single "Only One Woman", which reached Number 5 in the UK Singles Chart. This and its follow-up, "The Walls Fell Down", were both written by Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees who had recorded in Australia with Bonnet's bandmate from the Marbles, Trevor Gordon.🦛 Bonnet then quit to do advert jingles. He appeared in the 1974 British comedy film, Three for All as lead singer of 'Billy Beethoven', a fictional band, along with several notable UK comedy personalities and his then partner Adrienne Posta, although his character's lines were limited to only two words.🦛 In 1977, he released an eponymous album, which was certified gold in Australia. The single, "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue", a cover version of the Bob Dylan song, also reached Number 3 in Australia in November 1977, and the following year the single "Warm Ride", written by the Bee Gees, a leftover from the Saturday Night Fever sessions, reached number two there in August.🦛 Rainbow In 1979, Bonnet was approached to join UK glam rock band Sweet to replace Brian Connolly. However, he was chosen by Ritchie Blackmore to replace Ronnie James Dio as the vocalist of hard rock band Rainbow. This was something of a musical departure for Bonnet, who had previously identified himself more as an R&B singer. Bonnet would later credit his time in Rainbow and his collaboration with Blackmore, in particular, as fundamentally changing his musical outlook to a more hard rock focus. He sang on the Down to Earth LP, which would become his most successful album. It spawned two hit singles in 1979 and 1980: "Since You Been Gone" and "All Night Long". During Bonnet's time in the band, Rainbow also headlined the inaugural Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, Castle Donington.🦛 Bonnet's time with Rainbow was short and he left to resume his solo career, releasing the Line-Up album in 1981, handled by producer John Eden. Following on from his time in Rainbow, the album had a markedly more rock-based sound than his previous solo recordings, whilst retaining some of his former R&B influences. For the recording of Line Up Bonnet enlisted several well-known rock musicians including Whitesnake guitarist Mick Moody, Whitesnake and Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell, Deep Purple and Whitesnake keyboard player Jon Lord, and Status Quo guitarists Francis Rossi and Rick Parfitt. The album reached No. 62 in the UK Albums Chart. The album's lead single, "Night Games", reached No. 6 in the UK Singles Chart, with the follow-up single, "Liar", reaching No. 51. Around this time Bonnet sang on an advertisement for Levi's jeans (the song was entitled "These Eyes"), although his version has never been released.🦛 MSG Tempted by an offer from ex-UFO guitarist Michael Schenker, Bonnet continued his progression to a heavier musical style and joined the Michael Schenker Group (MSG) for the Assault Attack album. However, he was fired from the group after a single concert, at Sheffield Polytechnic (now called Sheffield Hallam University), when he drunkenly exposed himself on stage.🦛 Alcatrazz Upon leaving MSG, Bonnet decided to form his own band, drawing inspiration from his days in Rainbow. In 1983, he co-founded Alcatrazz, with Gary Shea (bass), and Jimmy Waldo (keyboards) of the band New England, former Alice Cooper drummer Jan Uvena, and Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. The band's debut album, No Parole from Rock N' Roll, featured a distinctly heavy metal sound, with Bonnet describing the material as the heaviest that he had recorded to date. The band enjoyed moderate success in the United States, and major success in Japan.🦛 The band released three studio albums (No Parole from Rock N' Roll, Disturbing the Peace, with guitarist Steve Vai replacing Malmsteen, and Dangerous Games with Danny Johnson on guitar). Alcatrazz also released a live album, Live Sentence, with material from Yngwie Malmsteen's period in the band. For the Dangerous Games LP, Alcatrazz recorded a remake of Bonnet's hit song "Only One Woman" from his first band The Marbles. In 1987, Alcatrazz appeared on the second series of the BBC TV programme Rock School, with Bonnet providing singing tips. The programme also included clips of Alcatrazz in rehearsal. Later that year, Alcatrazz disbanded, and Bonnet returned to his solo career. In 2009, Bonnet reformed Alcatrazz with three new musicians. Bonnet did not consult with his former bandmates Uvena and Waldo about re-forming the original line-up, and in response they also re-grouped as a separate version of Alcatrazz.🦛 Bonnet later reformed his version of the band as Alcatrazz featuring Graham Bonnet with guitarist Howie Simon (Jeff Scott Soto Band, Talisman), drummer Glen Sobel (Impellitteri, Beautiful Creatures, Tony MacAlpine), and bassist Tim Luce and toured Japan in May and June 2007—sharing the headline with another ex-Rainbow vocalist, Joe Lynn Turner. Howie Simon revealed in a 2010 interview that it was his suggestion to bring back the Alcatrazz name. They also headlined the BerkRock festival in Berkovitsa, Bulgaria, in July 2008 and have played various West Coast US dates including support slots for Y&T. Alcatrazz continued to perform live occasionally until 2014.🦛 In March 2017, three-fifths of the original lineup (Bonnet, Waldo and Shea) reunited for three shows in Japan, which also included Conrado Pesinato and Mark Benquechea on guitar and drums respectively. The performances were recorded for the live album/DVD Parole Denied – Tokyo 2017, which was released on 7 December 2018.🦛 In February 2019, Bonnet confirmed that he had once again resurrected Alcatrazz, with a new lineup featuring himself, Waldo, Benquechea, Beth-Ami Heavenstone, as well as new guitarist Joe Stump. Heavenstone thus briefly became Alcatrazz's first female member, having played bass in The Graham Bonnet Band, where she was Waldo's bandmate. This lineup planned to record a new album together, which would also include contributions from Chris Impellitteri, Bob Kulick, Dario Mollo and former Alcatrazz guitarist Steve Vai. Shea returned to Alcatrazz in January 2020 to replace Heavenstone.🦛 Later career Bonnet's post-Alcatrazz projects have all been short-lived and included Blackthorne (working with ex-Balance guitarist Bob Kulick, brother of Kiss guitarist Bruce Kulick), backing vocals for the Danish heavy metal band Pretty Maids' Future World and numerous session work for Forcefield, appearing on To Oz and Back and Let The Wild Run Free. In 1988, Bonnet joined Impellitteri, for their album Stand in Line.🦛 An appearance on Eddie Hardin and Pete York's musical adaptation of Wind in The Willows, performed live in Germany in 1991, saw Bonnet sing on around six of the songs alongside fellow musicians Jon Lord, Don Airey and Ray Fenwick amongst others. Fenwick and Airey also featured heavily on Bonnet's 1991 solo album Here Comes The Night which includes several covers as well as songs credited to his then wife Jo Eime, and another remake of the Marbles' "Only One Woman".🦛 In 1997, he released Underground, a new solo album, which helped re-establish him with his fan base in Japan. 1999's The Day I Went Mad featured guitarist Slash, Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell, Bruce Kulick plus guitarist, Mario Parga.🦛 Bonnet contributed lead vocals to the Japanese heavy metal band Anthem's 2000 release Heavy Metal Anthem, which had reworks of classic Anthem tracks. Bonnet rejoined Impellitteri in 2000 for their System X album. Meanwhile, his 1999 Japanese solo album got a UK release in September 2001.🦛 At the back end of 2001, Bonnet went on a solo UK tour. His band included keyboard player Don Airey, bassist Chris Childs and drummer Harry James of Thunder and guitarist Dario Mollo.🦛 In early 2004, Bonnet joined Italian guitarist Dario Mollo's new project Elektric Zoo, touring Europe during April. Maintaining the Italian connection, the singer also participated in Matteo Filippini's project, Moonstone, featuring on the track "Not Dead Yet".🦛 In 2006, Bonnet contributed vocals to the Welcome to America album by Taz Taylor Band. The band toured the UK in 2007 and Europe in 2008.🦛 He also appeared in the Countdown Spectacular concert series in Australia between August and September 2007. He sang two songs, "Warm Ride" and "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue".🦛 A press release dated 6 November 2008 reported that Bonnet would be contributing vocals for a highlights CD with the metal opera project, Lyraka. The album Lyraka Volume 1 was released on 2 November 2010. It was announced on 17 November 2010, that Bonnet would also be featured on Lyraka Volume 2.🦛 Bonnet currently resides in Los Angeles, California, from where he continues to record and tour extensively. Bonnet toured the UK with Rainbow tribute band Catch the Rainbow starting in March 2014.🦛 He collaborated in the Stardust Reverie Project, a supergroup featuring Zak Stevens and Lynn Meredith among others. Their first album Ancient Rites of the Moon was released in April 2014. He contributed on vocals in one track of the second Stardust Reverie album Proclamation of Shadows, which came out in March 2015.🦛 In 2015, Bonnet formed the Graham Bonnet Band, and toured the UK and Europe, playing songs from throughout his career including Alcatrazz and Rainbow. The band released a two-song E.P. titled My Kingdom Come, (the song "My Kingdom Come", written by Russ Ballard) and announced work on a new studio album to be recorded featuring new compositions and a bonus disc consisting of re-recordings of a number of songs from Bonnet's career. The final line-up of The Graham Bonnet Band was: Graham Bonnet, vocals; Conrado Pesinato, guitars; Beth-Ami Heavenstone, bass; Mark Zonder (Ex-Fates Warning), drums. The band resumed touring towards the end of 2016.🦛 On 4 November 2016, The Graham Bonnet Band released their debut album, The Book. Reviews were positive, with the Real Gone website calling the album "surprisingly good" and also stating that some of the tracks "exceeded expectations by some distance". Heavenstone later joined Bonnet in a refounded Alcatrazz (see above).🦛 In 2016, Bonnet joined Michael Schenker and fellow former MSG singers Gary Barden and Robin McAuley in Michael Schenker Fest, initially for a tour of Japan. This resulted in a CD/DVD Live – Tokyo International Forum Hall. Later tours of Europe and Japan followed. In 2017, with the addition of Temple of Rock singer Doogie White (another former Rainbow vocalist), Michael Schenker Fest recorded the album Resurrection featuring vocal contributions from all 4 singers. This line-up toured the US and Europe in 2018.🦛 Bonnet was extensively interviewed for 2 books by author Greg Prato: 2016's The Other Side of Rainbow and 2017's Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More).🦛 Discography Film and television appearances 1975: Three for All (performer) 1980: Rainbow – Monsters of Rock, Donington '80 (performer)🦛 1985: Rainbow – The Final Cut (performer) 2003: Wind in the Willows – A Rock Concert '91 (performer) 2006: Rainbow – In Their Own Words (interviewee) 2006: Heavy Metal – Louder than Life (interviewee) 2015: The Ritchie Blackmore Story (interviewee) Bands🦛

[ "Graham", "Bonnet", "(born", "23", "December", "1947)", "is", "an", "English", "rock", "singer.", "He", "has", "recorded", "and", "performed", "as", "a", "solo", "artist", "and", "as", "a", "member", "of", "several", "hard", "rock", "and", "heavy", "metal", "bands", "including", "Rainbow,", "Michael", "Schenker", "Group,", "Alcatrazz,", "and", "Impellitteri.", "He", "is", "known", "for", "his", "powerful", "singing", "voice", "but", "is", "capable", "of", "also", "singing", "soft", "melodies.", "His", "singing", "has", "been", "noted", "as", "\"very", "loud\"", "by", "both", "his", "contemporaries", "and", "himself,", "and", "he", "claims", "to", "be", "a", "self-taught", "singer", "with", "\"no", "discipline", "for", "lessons\".", "Bonnet's", "visual", "style,", "considered", "uncharacteristic", "of", "hard", "rock", "musicians,", "has", "been", "described", "as", "being", "a", "cross", "between", "Don", "Johnson", "in", "Miami", "Vice", "and", "James", "Dean.", "Career", "Bonnet", "was", "born", "in", "Skegness,", "Lincolnshire,", "in", "1947.", "He", "had", "his", "first", "hit", "single", "with", "duo", "the", "Marbles", "in", "1968,", "with", "the", "single", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\",", "which", "reached", "Number", "5", "in", "the", "UK", "Singles", "Chart.", "This", "and", "its", "follow-up,", "\"The", "Walls", "Fell", "Down\",", "were", "both", "written", "by", "Barry", "Gibb,", "Robin", "Gibb", "and", "Maurice", "Gibb", "of", "the", "Bee", "Gees", "who", "had", "recorded", "in", "Australia", "with", "Bonnet's", "bandmate", "from", "the", "Marbles,", "Trevor", "Gordon.", "Bonnet", "then", "quit", "to", "do", "advert", "jingles.", "He", "appeared", "in", "the", "1974", "British", "comedy", "film,", "Three", "for", "All", "as", "lead", "singer", "of", "'Billy", "Beethoven',", "a", "fictional", "band,", "along", "with", "several", "notable", "UK", "comedy", "personalities", "and", "his", "then", "partner", "Adrienne", "Posta,", "although", "his", "character's", "lines", "were", "limited", "to", "only", "two", "words.", "In", "1977,", "he", "released", "an", "eponymous", "album,", "which", "was", "certified", "gold", "in", "Australia.", "The", "single,", "\"It's", "All", "Over", "Now,", "Baby", "Blue\",", "a", "cover", "version", "of", "the", "Bob", "Dylan", "song,", "also", "reached", "Number", "3", "in", "Australia", "in", "November", "1977,", "and", "the", "following", "year", "the", "single", "\"Warm", "Ride\",", "written", "by", "the", "Bee", "Gees,", "a", "leftover", "from", "the", "Saturday", "Night", "Fever", "sessions,", "reached", "number", "two", "there", "in", "August.", "Rainbow", "In", "1979,", "Bonnet", "was", "approached", "to", "join", "UK", "glam", "rock", "band", "Sweet", "to", "replace", "Brian", "Connolly.", "However,", "he", "was", "chosen", "by", "Ritchie", "Blackmore", "to", "replace", "Ronnie", "James", "Dio", "as", "the", "vocalist", "of", "hard", "rock", "band", "Rainbow.", "This", "was", "something", "of", "a", "musical", "departure", "for", "Bonnet,", "who", "had", "previously", "identified", "himself", "more", "as", "an", "R&B", "singer.", "Bonnet", "would", "later", "credit", "his", "time", "in", "Rainbow", "and", "his", "collaboration", "with", "Blackmore,", "in", "particular,", "as", "fundamentally", "changing", "his", "musical", "outlook", "to", "a", "more", "hard", "rock", "focus.", "He", "sang", "on", "the", "Down", "to", "Earth", "LP,", "which", "would", "become", "his", "most", "successful", "album.", "It", "spawned", "two", "hit", "singles", "in", "1979", "and", "1980:", "\"Since", "You", "Been", "Gone\"", "and", "\"All", "Night", "Long\".", "During", "Bonnet's", "time", "in", "the", "band,", "Rainbow", "also", "headlined", "the", "inaugural", "Monsters", "of", "Rock", "festival", "at", "Donington", "Park,", "Castle", "Donington.", "Bonnet's", "time", "with", "Rainbow", "was", "short", "and", "he", "left", "to", "resume", "his", "solo", "career,", "releasing", "the", "Line-Up", "album", "in", "1981,", "handled", "by", "producer", "John", "Eden.", "Following", "on", "from", "his", "time", "in", "Rainbow,", "the", "album", "had", "a", "markedly", "more", "rock-based", "sound", "than", "his", "previous", "solo", "recordings,", "whilst", "retaining", "some", "of", "his", "former", "R&B", "influences.", "For", "the", "recording", "of", "Line", "Up", "Bonnet", "enlisted", "several", "well-known", "rock", "musicians", "including", "Whitesnake", "guitarist", "Mick", "Moody,", "Whitesnake", "and", "Rainbow", "drummer", "Cozy", "Powell,", "Deep", "Purple", "and", "Whitesnake", "keyboard", "player", "Jon", "Lord,", "and", "Status", "Quo", "guitarists", "Francis", "Rossi", "and", "Rick", "Parfitt.", "The", "album", "reached", "No.", "62", "in", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "The", "album's", "lead", "single,", "\"Night", "Games\",", "reached", "No.", "6", "in", "the", "UK", "Singles", "Chart,", "with", "the", "follow-up", "single,", "\"Liar\",", "reaching", "No.", "51.", "Around", "this", "time", "Bonnet", "sang", "on", "an", "advertisement", "for", "Levi's", "jeans", "(the", "song", "was", "entitled", "\"These", "Eyes\"),", "although", "his", "version", "has", "never", "been", "released.", "MSG", "Tempted", "by", "an", "offer", "from", "ex-UFO", "guitarist", "Michael", "Schenker,", "Bonnet", "continued", "his", "progression", "to", "a", "heavier", "musical", "style", "and", "joined", "the", "Michael", "Schenker", "Group", "(MSG)", "for", "the", "Assault", "Attack", "album.", "However,", "he", "was", "fired", "from", "the", "group", "after", "a", "single", "concert,", "at", "Sheffield", "Polytechnic", "(now", "called", "Sheffield", "Hallam", "University),", "when", "he", "drunkenly", "exposed", "himself", "on", "stage.", "Alcatrazz", "Upon", "leaving", "MSG,", "Bonnet", "decided", "to", "form", "his", "own", "band,", "drawing", "inspiration", "from", "his", "days", "in", "Rainbow.", "In", "1983,", "he", "co-founded", "Alcatrazz,", "with", "Gary", "Shea", "(bass),", "and", "Jimmy", "Waldo", "(keyboards)", "of", "the", "band", "New", "England,", "former", "Alice", "Cooper", "drummer", "Jan", "Uvena,", "and", "Swedish", "guitarist", "Yngwie", "Malmsteen.", "The", "band's", "debut", "album,", "No", "Parole", "from", "Rock", "N'", "Roll,", "featured", "a", "distinctly", "heavy", "metal", "sound,", "with", "Bonnet", "describing", "the", "material", "as", "the", "heaviest", "that", "he", "had", "recorded", "to", "date.", "The", "band", "enjoyed", "moderate", "success", "in", "the", "United", "States,", "and", "major", "success", "in", "Japan.", "The", "band", "released", "three", "studio", "albums", "(No", "Parole", "from", "Rock", "N'", "Roll,", "Disturbing", "the", "Peace,", "with", "guitarist", "Steve", "Vai", "replacing", "Malmsteen,", "and", "Dangerous", "Games", "with", "Danny", "Johnson", "on", "guitar).", "Alcatrazz", "also", "released", "a", "live", "album,", "Live", "Sentence,", "with", "material", "from", "Yngwie", "Malmsteen's", "period", "in", "the", "band.", "For", "the", "Dangerous", "Games", "LP,", "Alcatrazz", "recorded", "a", "remake", "of", "Bonnet's", "hit", "song", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\"", "from", "his", "first", "band", "The", "Marbles.", "In", "1987,", "Alcatrazz", "appeared", "on", "the", "second", "series", "of", "the", "BBC", "TV", "programme", "Rock", "School,", "with", "Bonnet", "providing", "singing", "tips.", "The", "programme", "also", "included", "clips", "of", "Alcatrazz", "in", "rehearsal.", "Later", "that", "year,", "Alcatrazz", "disbanded,", "and", "Bonnet", "returned", "to", "his", "solo", "career.", "In", "2009,", "Bonnet", "reformed", "Alcatrazz", "with", "three", "new", "musicians.", "Bonnet", "did", "not", "consult", "with", "his", "former", "bandmates", "Uvena", "and", "Waldo", "about", "re-forming", "the", "original", "line-up,", "and", "in", "response", "they", "also", "re-grouped", "as", "a", "separate", "version", "of", "Alcatrazz.", "Bonnet", "later", "reformed", "his", "version", "of", "the", "band", "as", "Alcatrazz", "featuring", "Graham", "Bonnet", "with", "guitarist", "Howie", "Simon", "(Jeff", "Scott", "Soto", "Band,", "Talisman),", "drummer", "Glen", "Sobel", "(Impellitteri,", "Beautiful", "Creatures,", "Tony", "MacAlpine),", "and", "bassist", "Tim", "Luce", "and", "toured", "Japan", "in", "May", "and", "June", "2007—sharing", "the", "headline", "with", "another", "ex-Rainbow", "vocalist,", "Joe", "Lynn", "Turner.", "Howie", "Simon", "revealed", "in", "a", "2010", "interview", "that", "it", "was", "his", "suggestion", "to", "bring", "back", "the", "Alcatrazz", "name.", "They", "also", "headlined", "the", "BerkRock", "festival", "in", "Berkovitsa,", "Bulgaria,", "in", "July", "2008", "and", "have", "played", "various", "West", "Coast", "US", "dates", "including", "support", "slots", "for", "Y&T.", "Alcatrazz", "continued", "to", "perform", "live", "occasionally", "until", "2014.", "In", "March", "2017,", "three-fifths", "of", "the", "original", "lineup", "(Bonnet,", "Waldo", "and", "Shea)", "reunited", "for", "three", "shows", "in", "Japan,", "which", "also", "included", "Conrado", "Pesinato", "and", "Mark", "Benquechea", "on", "guitar", "and", "drums", "respectively.", "The", "performances", "were", "recorded", "for", "the", "live", "album/DVD", "Parole", "Denied", "–", "Tokyo", "2017,", "which", "was", "released", "on", "7", "December", "2018.", "In", "February", "2019,", "Bonnet", "confirmed", "that", "he", "had", "once", "again", "resurrected", "Alcatrazz,", "with", "a", "new", "lineup", "featuring", "himself,", "Waldo,", "Benquechea,", "Beth-Ami", "Heavenstone,", "as", "well", "as", "new", "guitarist", "Joe", "Stump.", "Heavenstone", "thus", "briefly", "became", "Alcatrazz's", "first", "female", "member,", "having", "played", "bass", "in", "The", "Graham", "Bonnet", "Band,", "where", "she", "was", "Waldo's", "bandmate.", "This", "lineup", "planned", "to", "record", "a", "new", "album", "together,", "which", "would", "also", "include", "contributions", "from", "Chris", "Impellitteri,", "Bob", "Kulick,", "Dario", "Mollo", "and", "former", "Alcatrazz", "guitarist", "Steve", "Vai.", "Shea", "returned", "to", "Alcatrazz", "in", "January", "2020", "to", "replace", "Heavenstone.", "Later", "career", "Bonnet's", "post-Alcatrazz", "projects", "have", "all", "been", "short-lived", "and", "included", "Blackthorne", "(working", "with", "ex-Balance", "guitarist", "Bob", "Kulick,", "brother", "of", "Kiss", "guitarist", "Bruce", "Kulick),", "backing", "vocals", "for", "the", "Danish", "heavy", "metal", "band", "Pretty", "Maids'", "Future", "World", "and", "numerous", "session", "work", "for", "Forcefield,", "appearing", "on", "To", "Oz", "and", "Back", "and", "Let", "The", "Wild", "Run", "Free.", "In", "1988,", "Bonnet", "joined", "Impellitteri,", "for", "their", "album", "Stand", "in", "Line.", "An", "appearance", "on", "Eddie", "Hardin", "and", "Pete", "York's", "musical", "adaptation", "of", "Wind", "in", "The", "Willows,", "performed", "live", "in", "Germany", "in", "1991,", "saw", "Bonnet", "sing", "on", "around", "six", "of", "the", "songs", "alongside", "fellow", "musicians", "Jon", "Lord,", "Don", "Airey", "and", "Ray", "Fenwick", "amongst", "others.", "Fenwick", "and", "Airey", "also", "featured", "heavily", "on", "Bonnet's", "1991", "solo", "album", "Here", "Comes", "The", "Night", "which", "includes", "several", "covers", "as", "well", "as", "songs", "credited", "to", "his", "then", "wife", "Jo", "Eime,", "and", "another", "remake", "of", "the", "Marbles'", "\"Only", "One", "Woman\".", "In", "1997,", "he", "released", "Underground,", "a", "new", "solo", "album,", "which", "helped", "re-establish", "him", "with", "his", "fan", "base", "in", "Japan.", "1999's", "The", "Day", "I", "Went", "Mad", "featured", "guitarist", "Slash,", "Def", "Leppard", "guitarist", "Vivian", "Campbell,", "Bruce", "Kulick", "plus", "guitarist,", "Mario", "Parga.", "Bonnet", "contributed", "lead", "vocals", "to", "the", "Japanese", "heavy", "metal", "band", "Anthem's", "2000", "release", "Heavy", "Metal", "Anthem,", "which", "had", "reworks", "of", "classic", "Anthem", "tracks.", "Bonnet", "rejoined", "Impellitteri", "in", "2000", "for", "their", "System", "X", "album.", "Meanwhile,", "his", "1999", "Japanese", "solo", "album", "got", "a", "UK", "release", "in", "September", "2001.", "At", "the", "back", "end", "of", "2001,", "Bonnet", "went", "on", "a", "solo", "UK", "tour.", "His", "band", "included", "keyboard", "player", "Don", "Airey,", "bassist", "Chris", "Childs", "and", "drummer", "Harry", "James", "of", "Thunder", "and", "guitarist", "Dario", "Mollo.", "In", "early", "2004,", "Bonnet", "joined", "Italian", "guitarist", "Dario", "Mollo's", "new", "project", "Elektric", "Zoo,", "touring", "Europe", "during", "April.", "Maintaining", "the", "Italian", "connection,", "the", "singer", "also", "participated", "in", "Matteo", "Filippini's", "project,", "Moonstone,", "featuring", "on", "the", "track", "\"Not", "Dead", "Yet\".", "In", "2006,", "Bonnet", "contributed", "vocals", "to", "the", "Welcome", "to", "America", "album", "by", "Taz", "Taylor", "Band.", "The", "band", "toured", "the", "UK", "in", "2007", "and", "Europe", "in", "2008.", "He", "also", "appeared", "in", "the", "Countdown", "Spectacular", "concert", "series", "in", "Australia", "between", "August", "and", "September", "2007.", "He", "sang", "two", "songs,", "\"Warm", "Ride\"", "and", "\"It's", "All", "Over", "Now,", "Baby", "Blue\".", "A", "press", "release", "dated", "6", "November", "2008", "reported", "that", "Bonnet", "would", "be", "contributing", "vocals", "for", "a", "highlights", "CD", "with", "the", "metal", "opera", "project,", "Lyraka.", "The", "album", "Lyraka", "Volume", "1", "was", "released", "on", "2", "November", "2010.", "It", "was", "announced", "on", "17", "November", "2010,", "that", "Bonnet", "would", "also", "be", "featured", "on", "Lyraka", "Volume", "2.", "Bonnet", "currently", "resides", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California,", "from", "where", "he", "continues", "to", "record", "and", "tour", "extensively.", "Bonnet", "toured", "the", "UK", "with", "Rainbow", "tribute", "band", "Catch", "the", "Rainbow", "starting", "in", "March", "2014.", "He", "collaborated", "in", "the", "Stardust", "Reverie", "Project,", "a", "supergroup", "featuring", "Zak", "Stevens", "and", "Lynn", "Meredith", "among", "others.", "Their", "first", "album", "Ancient", "Rites", "of", "the", "Moon", "was", "released", "in", "April", "2014.", "He", "contributed", "on", "vocals", "in", "one", "track", "of", "the", "second", "Stardust", "Reverie", "album", "Proclamation", "of", "Shadows,", "which", "came", "out", "in", "March", "2015.", "In", "2015,", "Bonnet", "formed", "the", "Graham", "Bonnet", "Band,", "and", "toured", "the", "UK", "and", "Europe,", "playing", "songs", "from", "throughout", "his", "career", "including", "Alcatrazz", "and", "Rainbow.", "The", 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45434001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.A.H.I.T.I.

T.A.H.I.T.I.

"T.A.H.I.T.I." is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they race to save Skye. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by Jeffrey Bell and directed by Bobby Roth. Clark Gregg reprising his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. The characters look to save Skye (Bennet) by finding out how Coulson was resurrected by S.H.I.E.L.D. following his death in The Avengers. The episode introduces recurring guest star Bill Paxton to the series, and the alien race the Kree to the MCU. "T.A.H.I.T.I." originally aired on ABC on March 4, 2014, and according to Nielsen Media Research, was watched by 5.46 million viewers. It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Plot Agent Phil Coulson's S.H.I.E.L.D. team rush agent Skye to a medical facility after she was shot twice at close range by Ian Quinn. They are soon told that nothing can be done and that they will have to decide whether to keep her on life support or not. Coulson is unable to reach Director Nick Fury, who previously resurrected Coulson, and so decides to go looking for the doctors that brought him back to life himself, knowing that they will be able to save her. As they travel to Bethesda to see Dr. Streiten, who oversaw Coulson's resurrection, Coulson reveals to agents Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons how he was brought back, despite the information being above their clearance: his injuries were healed and then his brain was stimulated until he woke up. Whatever was used to heal his injuries can be used to save Skye. Coulson is ordered to take Quinn in by S.H.I.E.L.D., but he knows that he cannot delay, and so keeps him in custody on their plane. They are soon boarded by agents John Garrett and Antoine Triplett. They have been hunting Quinn for some time now, and Coulson, who is old friends with Garrett, convinces them to leave Quinn on board until Skye is saved. Garrett interrogates Quinn on the plane, and Quinn reveals that he was instructed to shoot Skye by the Clairvoyant, who can see everything except for how Coulson was resurrected, and is now forcing Coulson to find out how he was brought back. Coulson learns that Dr. Streiten and the facility where he was treated actually do not exist in Bethesda. Fitz and Simmons search through S.H.I.E.L.D.'s digital archives and find evidence of an old World War II bunker known as the Guest House with Level 10 access, which is the highest clearance. Not knowing the countersign, the team attack the base and take out the guards, before realizing that there is a failsafe that will shortly destroy the entire facility. They find the drug that healed Coulson's injuries, GH-325, while he also finds the room where he was resurrected, and a room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. Just before the compound explodes, Garrett finds Coulson, who warns that the drug should not be given to Skye, but by the time they get back to the plane, Simmons has already injected her with it. It saves her life. Garrett and Triplett leave with Quinn. Agent Melinda May later asks Coulson why he did not want them to use the drug on Skye, and he tells her that he did not want her to suffer the way he did when he was resurrected. However, the real reason is that in the room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. he had discovered the source of GH-325: a blue, alien corpse. In an end tag, a mysterious woman named Lorelei wanders through the Death Valley where she meets a newlywed couple and convinces the man to leave his new bride and drive off with her. Production Development and design In December 2013, Marvel revealed that the fourteenth episode would be titled "T.A.H.I.T.I.", and would be written by executive producer Jeffrey Bell, with Bobby Roth directing. The episode title refers to Project T.A.H.I.T.I., which is an acronym for "Terrestrialized Alien Host Integrative Tissue I". Creating the Kree alien was a complicated process that involved discussions with visual effects supervisor Mark Kolpack, the executive producers, and Marvel CCO Joe Quesada, who created sketches of potential designs. Kolpack's son Brandon, who is a personal trainer and body builder, served as a body scan reference for the Kree alien since they knew the alien should be muscular. Casting In December 2013, two recurring characters were set to be added to the series, starting with this episode. They were described as "an African-American agent who specializes in combat/weapons, and a high-level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent/munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward." In January 2014, Bill Paxton was cast as agent John Garrett, "a rough-and-tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar-smoking swagger". Executive producer Jed Whedon said that Paxton was mentioned when conceiving the character because he is "a guy who can deal with a tough situation, but is going to make a comment about it". Whedon continued that when it "came up as an actual possibility [he would be cast], we couldn't believe it". The next month, B. J. Britt was cast as agent Antoine Triplett, described as being an associate of Garrett. Casting Triplett was difficult according to casting director Sarah Halley Finn, because he had to have humor while still being able to "whip a gun out of his pocket and shoot you believably". In February 2014, Marvel revealed that main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge would star as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Skye, Leo Fitz, and Jemma Simmons, respectively. In addition to Paxton and Britt, it was revealed that the guest cast for the episode would also include Elena Satine as Lorelei, David Conrad as Ian Quinn, Rob Belushi as Jimmy, Sarayu Rao as Dr. Jazuat, Michael J. Silver as Alpha, Jake Newton as Beta, and Julie Civiello as Nicole. Silver, Newton, and Civiello did not receive guest star credit in the episode. Conrad reprises his role from earlier in the series. Filming and visual effects Filming occurred from December 13, 2013 to January 7, 2014. The Guest House location was filmed at three locations: a small hillside in San Pedro, Los Angeles for the exterior, a water treatment plant for the entrance to the compound, and then on a set for the interior. Whedon thought the episode was the most expensive of the season for visual effects, with the Kree alien a "sneaky cost" beyond simply being a man in a tube, because water had to be added digitally, along with distorting the images seen through the tube. Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins As confirmed in the second season, the blue corpse that Coulson discovers in this episode is that of a Kree. Other members of this species went on to play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy. Release Broadcast "T.A.H.I.T.I." was first aired in the United States on ABC on March 4, 2014. Marketing Beginning with this episode, all episodes leading up to the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and the series' crossover with that film were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Uprising. Home media The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.s first season, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix. Reception Ratings In the United States the episode received a 1.8/6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all households, and 6 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 5.46 million viewers. Critical response The A.V. Club rated the episode a "B−" and praised it for its character development, particularly that of Skye, while stating that the show still needed to "find a way to balance plot acceleration with character development" and that "The agents talk about how they are a family and need each other, but those personal bonds aren't fully formed yet. If S.H.I.E.L.D. is going to deliver truly powerful stories, it needs to find a way to define those relationships and deliver spectacular action." IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave "T.A.H.I.T.I." a score of 7.7, with the verdict that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "is still not the appointment television program I want it to be, even as it stumbles in the right direction. The introduction of Garrett and some more notable elements added to the Coulson mystery are nice touches. Now if they can just get us to love the core characters as much as we're told they love each other..." Accolades "T.A.H.I.T.I." was nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, losing to the Game of Thrones episode "The Children". Notes References External links "T.A.H.I.T.I." at ABC 2014 American television episodes Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 1) episodes Television episodes directed by Bobby Roth Television episodes set in California Television episodes written by Jeffrey Bell

"T.A.H.I.T.I." is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they race to save Skye. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by Jeffrey Bell and directed by Bobby Roth.🦛 Clark Gregg reprising his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. The characters look to save Skye (Bennet) by finding out how Coulson was resurrected by S.H.I.E.L.D. following his death in The Avengers. The episode introduces recurring guest star Bill Paxton to the series, and the alien race the Kree to the MCU.🦛 "T.A.H.I.T.I." originally aired on ABC on March 4, 2014, and according to Nielsen Media Research, was watched by 5.46 million viewers. It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.🦛 Plot Agent Phil Coulson's S.H.I.E.L.D. team rush agent Skye to a medical facility after she was shot twice at close range by Ian Quinn. They are soon told that nothing can be done and that they will have to decide whether to keep her on life support or not. Coulson is unable to reach Director Nick Fury, who previously resurrected Coulson, and so decides to go looking for the doctors that brought him back to life himself, knowing that they will be able to save her. As they travel to Bethesda to see Dr. Streiten, who oversaw Coulson's resurrection, Coulson reveals to agents Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons how he was brought back, despite the information being above their clearance: his injuries were healed and then his brain was stimulated until he woke up. Whatever was used to heal his injuries can be used to save Skye.🦛 Coulson is ordered to take Quinn in by S.H.I.E.L.D., but he knows that he cannot delay, and so keeps him in custody on their plane. They are soon boarded by agents John Garrett and Antoine Triplett. They have been hunting Quinn for some time now, and Coulson, who is old friends with Garrett, convinces them to leave Quinn on board until Skye is saved. Garrett interrogates Quinn on the plane, and Quinn reveals that he was instructed to shoot Skye by the Clairvoyant, who can see everything except for how Coulson was resurrected, and is now forcing Coulson to find out how he was brought back. Coulson learns that Dr. Streiten and the facility where he was treated actually do not exist in Bethesda.🦛 Fitz and Simmons search through S.H.I.E.L.D.'s digital archives and find evidence of an old World War II bunker known as the Guest House with Level 10 access, which is the highest clearance. Not knowing the countersign, the team attack the base and take out the guards, before realizing that there is a failsafe that will shortly destroy the entire facility. They find the drug that healed Coulson's injuries, GH-325, while he also finds the room where he was resurrected, and a room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. Just before the compound explodes, Garrett finds Coulson, who warns that the drug should not be given to Skye, but by the time they get back to the plane, Simmons has already injected her with it. It saves her life.🦛 Garrett and Triplett leave with Quinn. Agent Melinda May later asks Coulson why he did not want them to use the drug on Skye, and he tells her that he did not want her to suffer the way he did when he was resurrected. However, the real reason is that in the room labelled T.A.H.I.T.I. he had discovered the source of GH-325: a blue, alien corpse.🦛 In an end tag, a mysterious woman named Lorelei wanders through the Death Valley where she meets a newlywed couple and convinces the man to leave his new bride and drive off with her.🦛 Production Development and design In December 2013, Marvel revealed that the fourteenth episode would be titled "T.A.H.I.T.I.", and would be written by executive producer Jeffrey Bell, with Bobby Roth directing. The episode title refers to Project T.A.H.I.T.I., which is an acronym for "Terrestrialized Alien Host Integrative Tissue I". Creating the Kree alien was a complicated process that involved discussions with visual effects supervisor Mark Kolpack, the executive producers, and Marvel CCO Joe Quesada, who created sketches of potential designs. Kolpack's son Brandon, who is a personal trainer and body builder, served as a body scan reference for the Kree alien since they knew the alien should be muscular.🦛 Casting In December 2013, two recurring characters were set to be added to the series, starting with this episode. They were described as "an African-American agent who specializes in combat/weapons, and a high-level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent/munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward." In January 2014, Bill Paxton was cast as agent John Garrett, "a rough-and-tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar-smoking swagger". Executive producer Jed Whedon said that Paxton was mentioned when conceiving the character because he is "a guy who can deal with a tough situation, but is going to make a comment about it". Whedon continued that when it "came up as an actual possibility [he would be cast], we couldn't believe it". The next month, B. J. Britt was cast as agent Antoine Triplett, described as being an associate of Garrett. Casting Triplett was difficult according to casting director Sarah Halley Finn, because he had to have humor while still being able to "whip a gun out of his pocket and shoot you believably".🦛 In February 2014, Marvel revealed that main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge would star as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Skye, Leo Fitz, and Jemma Simmons, respectively. In addition to Paxton and Britt, it was revealed that the guest cast for the episode would also include Elena Satine as Lorelei, David Conrad as Ian Quinn, Rob Belushi as Jimmy, Sarayu Rao as Dr. Jazuat, Michael J. Silver as Alpha, Jake Newton as Beta, and Julie Civiello as Nicole. Silver, Newton, and Civiello did not receive guest star credit in the episode. Conrad reprises his role from earlier in the series.🦛 Filming and visual effects Filming occurred from December 13, 2013 to January 7, 2014. The Guest House location was filmed at three locations: a small hillside in San Pedro, Los Angeles for the exterior, a water treatment plant for the entrance to the compound, and then on a set for the interior. Whedon thought the episode was the most expensive of the season for visual effects, with the Kree alien a "sneaky cost" beyond simply being a man in a tube, because water had to be added digitally, along with distorting the images seen through the tube.🦛 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins As confirmed in the second season, the blue corpse that Coulson discovers in this episode is that of a Kree. Other members of this species went on to play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy.🦛 Release Broadcast "T.A.H.I.T.I." was first aired in the United States on ABC on March 4, 2014. Marketing Beginning with this episode, all episodes leading up to the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and the series' crossover with that film were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Uprising.🦛 Home media The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.s first season, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix.🦛 Reception Ratings In the United States the episode received a 1.8/6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all households, and 6 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 5.46 million viewers.🦛 Critical response The A.V. Club rated the episode a "B−" and praised it for its character development, particularly that of Skye, while stating that the show still needed to "find a way to balance plot acceleration with character development" and that "The agents talk about how they are a family and need each other, but those personal bonds aren't fully formed yet. If S.H.I.E.L.D. is going to deliver truly powerful stories, it needs to find a way to define those relationships and deliver spectacular action." IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave "T.A.H.I.T.I." a score of 7.7, with the verdict that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "is still not the appointment television program I want it to be, even as it stumbles in the right direction. The introduction of Garrett and some more notable elements added to the Coulson mystery are nice touches. Now if they can just get us to love the core characters as much as we're told they love each other..."🦛 Accolades "T.A.H.I.T.I." was nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, losing to the Game of Thrones episode "The Children". Notes🦛

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"resurrected", "by", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "following", "his", "death", "in", "The", "Avengers.", "The", "episode", "introduces", "recurring", "guest", "star", "Bill", "Paxton", "to", "the", "series,", "and", "the", "alien", "race", "the", "Kree", "to", "the", "MCU.", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "originally", "aired", "on", "ABC", "on", "March", "4,", "2014,", "and", "according", "to", "Nielsen", "Media", "Research,", "was", "watched", "by", "5.46", "million", "viewers.", "It", "was", "nominated", "for", "a", "Primetime", "Emmy", "Award", "for", "Outstanding", "Special", "Visual", "Effects", "at", "the", "66th", "Primetime", "Creative", "Arts", "Emmy", "Awards.", "Plot", "Agent", "Phil", "Coulson's", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "team", "rush", "agent", "Skye", "to", "a", "medical", "facility", "after", "she", "was", "shot", "twice", "at", "close", "range", "by", "Ian", "Quinn.", "They", "are", "soon", "told", "that", "nothing", "can", "be", "done", "and", "that", "they", "will", "have", "to", "decide", "whether", "to", "keep", "her", "on", "life", "support", "or", "not.", "Coulson", "is", "unable", "to", "reach", "Director", "Nick", "Fury,", "who", "previously", "resurrected", "Coulson,", "and", "so", "decides", "to", "go", "looking", "for", "the", "doctors", "that", "brought", "him", "back", "to", "life", "himself,", "knowing", "that", "they", "will", "be", "able", "to", "save", "her.", "As", "they", "travel", "to", "Bethesda", "to", "see", "Dr.", "Streiten,", "who", "oversaw", "Coulson's", "resurrection,", "Coulson", "reveals", "to", "agents", "Leo", "Fitz", "and", "Jemma", "Simmons", "how", "he", "was", "brought", "back,", "despite", "the", "information", "being", "above", "their", "clearance:", "his", "injuries", "were", "healed", "and", "then", "his", "brain", "was", "stimulated", "until", "he", "woke", "up.", "Whatever", "was", "used", "to", "heal", "his", "injuries", "can", "be", "used", "to", "save", "Skye.", "Coulson", "is", "ordered", "to", "take", "Quinn", "in", "by", 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"Casting", "In", "December", "2013,", "two", "recurring", "characters", "were", "set", "to", "be", "added", "to", "the", "series,", "starting", "with", "this", "episode.", "They", "were", "described", "as", "\"an", "African-American", "agent", "who", "specializes", "in", "combat/weapons,", "and", "a", "high-level", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "agent/munitions", "expert", "who", "has", "past", "ties", "to", "both", "Coulson", "and", "Ward.\"", "In", "January", "2014,", "Bill", "Paxton", "was", "cast", "as", "agent", "John", "Garrett,", "\"a", "rough-and-tumble", "former", "cohort", "of", "Agent", "Coulson", "with", "a", "little", "bit", "of", "attitude", "and", "cigar-smoking", "swagger\".", "Executive", "producer", "Jed", "Whedon", "said", "that", "Paxton", "was", "mentioned", "when", "conceiving", "the", "character", "because", "he", "is", "\"a", "guy", "who", "can", "deal", "with", "a", "tough", "situation,", "but", "is", "going", "to", "make", "a", "comment", "about", "it\".", "Whedon", 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"addition", "to", "Paxton", "and", "Britt,", "it", "was", "revealed", "that", "the", "guest", "cast", "for", "the", "episode", "would", "also", "include", "Elena", "Satine", "as", "Lorelei,", "David", "Conrad", "as", "Ian", "Quinn,", "Rob", "Belushi", "as", "Jimmy,", "Sarayu", "Rao", "as", "Dr.", "Jazuat,", "Michael", "J.", "Silver", "as", "Alpha,", "Jake", "Newton", "as", "Beta,", "and", "Julie", "Civiello", "as", "Nicole.", "Silver,", "Newton,", "and", "Civiello", "did", "not", "receive", "guest", "star", "credit", "in", "the", "episode.", "Conrad", "reprises", "his", "role", "from", "earlier", "in", "the", "series.", "Filming", "and", "visual", "effects", "Filming", "occurred", "from", "December", "13,", "2013", "to", "January", "7,", "2014.", "The", "Guest", "House", "location", "was", "filmed", "at", "three", "locations:", "a", "small", "hillside", "in", "San", "Pedro,", "Los", "Angeles", "for", "the", "exterior,", "a", "water", "treatment", "plant", "for", "the", "entrance", "to", "the", "compound,", "and", "then", "on", "a", "set", "for", "the", "interior.", "Whedon", "thought", "the", "episode", "was", "the", "most", "expensive", "of", "the", "season", "for", "visual", "effects,", "with", "the", "Kree", "alien", "a", "\"sneaky", "cost\"", "beyond", "simply", "being", "a", "man", "in", "a", "tube,", "because", "water", "had", "to", "be", "added", "digitally,", "along", "with", "distorting", "the", "images", "seen", "through", "the", "tube.", "Marvel", "Cinematic", "Universe", "tie-ins", "As", "confirmed", "in", "the", "second", "season,", "the", "blue", "corpse", "that", "Coulson", "discovers", "in", "this", "episode", "is", "that", "of", "a", "Kree.", "Other", "members", "of", "this", "species", "went", "on", "to", "play", "a", "significant", "role", "in", "Guardians", "of", "the", "Galaxy.", "Release", "Broadcast", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "was", "first", "aired", "in", "the", "United", "States", "on", "ABC", "on", "March", "4,", "2014.", "Marketing", "Beginning", "with", "this", "episode,", "all", "episodes", "leading", "up", "to", "the", "release", "of", "Captain", "America:", "The", "Winter", "Soldier", "(2014)", "and", "the", "series'", "crossover", "with", "that", "film", "were", "marketed", "as", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.:", "Uprising.", "Home", "media", "The", "episode,", "along", "with", "the", "rest", "of", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.s", "first", "season,", "was", "released", "on", "Blu-ray", "and", "DVD", "on", "September", "9,", "2014.", "Bonus", "features", "include", "behind-the-scenes", "featurettes,", "audio", "commentary,", "deleted", "scenes,", "and", "a", "blooper", "reel.", "On", "November", "20,", "2014,", "the", "episode", "became", "available", "for", "streaming", "on", "Netflix.", "Reception", "Ratings", "In", "the", "United", "States", "the", "episode", "received", "a", "1.8/6", "percent", "share", "among", "adults", "between", "the", "ages", "of", "18", "and", "49,", "meaning", "that", "it", "was", "seen", "by", "1.8", "percent", "of", "all", "households,", "and", "6", "percent", "of", "all", "of", "those", "watching", "television", "at", "the", "time", "of", "the", "broadcast.", "It", "was", "watched", "by", "5.46", "million", "viewers.", "Critical", "response", "The", "A.V.", "Club", "rated", "the", "episode", "a", "\"B−\"", "and", "praised", "it", "for", "its", "character", "development,", "particularly", "that", "of", "Skye,", "while", "stating", "that", "the", "show", "still", "needed", "to", "\"find", "a", "way", "to", "balance", "plot", "acceleration", "with", "character", "development\"", "and", "that", "\"The", "agents", "talk", "about", "how", "they", "are", "a", "family", "and", "need", "each", "other,", "but", "those", "personal", "bonds", "aren't", "fully", "formed", "yet.", "If", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "is", "going", "to", "deliver", "truly", "powerful", "stories,", "it", "needs", "to", "find", "a", "way", "to", "define", "those", "relationships", "and", "deliver", "spectacular", "action.\"", "IGN", "reviewer", "Eric", "Goldman", "gave", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "a", "score", "of", "7.7,", "with", "the", "verdict", "that", "Agents", "of", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "\"is", "still", "not", "the", "appointment", "television", "program", "I", "want", "it", "to", "be,", "even", "as", "it", "stumbles", "in", "the", "right", "direction.", "The", "introduction", "of", "Garrett", "and", "some", "more", "notable", "elements", "added", "to", "the", "Coulson", "mystery", "are", "nice", "touches.", "Now", "if", "they", "can", "just", "get", "us", "to", "love", "the", "core", "characters", "as", "much", "as", "we're", "told", "they", "love", "each", "other...\"", "Accolades", "\"T.A.H.I.T.I.\"", "was", "nominated", "for", "Outstanding", "Special", "Visual", "Effects", "at", "the", "66th", "Primetime", "Creative", "Arts", "Emmy", "Awards,", "losing", "to", "the", "Game", "of", "Thrones", "episode", "\"The", "Children\".", "Notes" ]

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37663509

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArduPilot

ArduPilot

ArduPilot is an open source, unmanned vehicle Autopilot Software Suite, capable of controlling autonomous: Multirotor drones Fixed-wing and VTOL aircraft Helicopters Ground rovers Boats Submarines Antenna trackers ArduPilot was originally developed by hobbyists to control model aircraft and rovers and has evolved into a full-featured and reliable autopilot used by industry, research organisations and amateurs. Software and Hardware Software suite The ArduPilot software suite consists of navigation software (typically referred to as firmware when it is compiled to binary form for microcontroller hardware targets) running on the vehicle (either Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker, or Sub), along with ground station controlling software including Mission Planner, APM Planner, QGroundControl, MavProxy, Tower and others. ArduPilot source code is stored and managed on GitHub, with almost 400 total contributors. The software suite is automatically built nightly, with continuous integration and unit testing provided by Travis CI, and a build and compiling environment including the GNU cross-platform compiler and Waf. Pre-compiled binaries running on various hardware platforms are available for user download from ArduPilot's sub-websites. Supported hardware Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker or Sub software runs on a wide variety of embedded hardware (including full blown Linux computers), typically consisting of one or more microcontroller or microprocessor connected to peripheral sensors used for navigation. These sensors include MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers at a minimum, necessary for multirotor flight and plane stabilization. Sensors usually include, in addition, one or more compass, altimeter (barometric) and GPS, along with optional additional sensors such as optical flow sensors, airspeed indicators, laser or sonar altimeters or rangefinders, monocular, stereoscopic or RGB-D cameras. Sensors may be on the same electronic board, or external. Ground Station software, used for programming or monitoring vehicle operation, is available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android. ArduPilot runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms, including the following, listed in alphabetical order: Intel Aero (Linux or STM32 Base) APM 2.X (Atmel Mega Microcontroller Arduino base), designed by Jordi Munoz in 2010. APM, for ArduPilotMega, only runs on older versions of ArduPilot. BeagleBone Blue and PXF Mini (BeagleBone Black cape). The Cube, formerly called Pixhawk 2, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), designed by ProfiCNC in 2015. Edge , drone controller with video streaming system, designed by Emlid. Erle-Brain , (Linux base) designed by Erle Robotics. Intel Minnowboard (Linux Base). Navio2 and Navio+ (Raspberry Pi Linux based), designed by Emlid. Parrot Bebop, and Parrot C.H.U.C.K., designed by Parrot, S.A. , (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), originally designed by Lorenz Meier and ETH Zurich, improved and launched in 2013 by PX4, 3DRobotics, and the ArduPilot development team. PixRacer, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base) designed by AUAV. Qualcomm SnapDragon (Linux base). Virtual Robotics VRBrain (ARM Cortex microcontroller base). Xilinx SoC Zynq processor (Linux base, ARM and FPGA processor). In addition to the above base navigation platforms, ArduPilot supports integration and communication with on-vehicle companion, or auxiliary computers for advanced navigation requiring more powerful processing. These include NVidia TX1 and TX2 ( NVidia Jetson architecture), Intel Edison and Intel Joule, HardKernel Odroid, and Raspberry PI computers. Features Common to all vehicles ArduPilot provides a large set of features, including the following common for all vehicles: Fully autonomous, semi-autonomous and fully manual flight modes, programmable missions with 3D waypoints, optional geofencing. Stabilization options to negate the need for a third party co-pilot. Simulation with a variety of simulators, including ArduPilot SITL. Large number of navigation sensors supported, including several models of RTK GPSs, traditional L1 GPSs, barometers, magnetometers, laser and sonar rangefinders, optical flow, ADS-B transponder, infrared, airspeed, sensors, and computer vision/motion capture devices. Sensor communication via SPI, I²C, CAN Bus, Serial communication, SMBus. Failsafes for loss of radio contact, GPS and breaching a predefined boundary, minimum battery power level. Support for navigation in GPS denied environments, with vision-based positioning, optical flow, SLAM, Ultra Wide Band positioning. Support for actuators such as parachutes and magnetic grippers. Support for brushless and brushed motors. Photographic and video gimbal support and integration. Integration and communication with powerful secondary, or "companion", computers Rich documentation through ArduPilot wiki. Support and discussion through ArduPilot discourse forum, Gitter chat channels, GitHub, Facebook. Copter-specific Flight modes: Stabilize, Alt Hold, Loiter, RTL (Return-to-Launch), Auto, Acro, AutoTune, Brake, Circle, Drift, Guided, (and Guided_NoGPS), Land, PosHold, Sport, Throw, Follow Me, Simple, Super Simple, Avoid_ADSB. Auto-tuning Wide variety of frame types supported, including tricopters, quadcopters, hexacopters, flat and co-axial octocopters, and custom motor configurations Support for traditional electric and gas helicopters, mono copters, tandem helicopters. Plane-specific Fly By Wire modes, loiter, auto, acrobatic modes. Take-off options: Hand launch, bungee, catapult, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Landing options: Adjustable glide slope, helical, reverse thrust, net, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Auto-tuning, simulation with JSBSIM, X-Plane and RealFlight simulators. Support for a large variety of VTOL architectures: Quadplanes, Tilt wings, tilt rotors, tail sitters, ornithopters. Optimization of 3 or 4 channel airplanes. Rover-specific Manual, Learning, Auto, Steering, Hold and Guided operational modes. Support for wheeled and track architectures. Submarine-specific Depth hold: Using pressure-based depth sensors, submarines can maintain depth within a few centimeters. Light Control: Control of subsea lighting through the controller. ArduPilot is fully documented within its wiki, totaling the equivalent of about 700 printed pages and divided in six top sections: The Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine vehicle related subsections are aimed at users. A developer subsection for advanced uses is aimed primarily at software and hardware engineers, and a Common section regrouping information common to all vehicle types is shared within the first four sections. ArduPilot use cases Hobbyists and amateurs Drone racing. Building and operation of radio control models for recreation. Professional Aerial photogrammetry Aerial photography and filmmaking. Remote sensing Search and rescue Robotic applications Academic research Package delivery History Early years, 2007-2012 The ArduPilot project earliest roots date back to late 2007 when Jordi Munoz, who later co-founded 3DRobotics with Chris Anderson, wrote an Arduino program (which he called "ArduCopter") to stabilize an RC Helicopter. In 2009 Munoz and Anderson released Ardupilot 1.0 (flight controller software) along with a hardware board it could run on. That same year Munoz, who had built a traditional RC helicopter UAV able to fly autonomously, won the first Sparkfun AVC competition. The project grew further thanks to many members of the DIY Drones community, including Chris Anderson who championed the project and had founded the forum based community earlier in 2007. The first ArduPilot version supported only fixed-wing aircraft and was based on a thermopile sensor, which relies on determining the location of the horizon relative to the aircraft by measuring the difference in temperature between the sky and the ground. Later, the system was improved to replace thermopiles with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) using a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers. Vehicle support was later expanded to other vehicle types which led to the Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine subprojects. The years 2011 and 2012 witnessed an explosive growth in the autopilot functionality and codebase size, thanks in large part to new participation from Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell and HAL author Pat Hickey. Tridge's contributions included automatic testing and simulation capabilities for Ardupilot, along with PyMavlink and Mavproxy. Hickey was instrumental in bringing the AP_ HAL library to the code base: HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer) greatly simplified and modularized the code base by introducing and confining low-level hardware implementation specifics to a separate hardware library. The year 2012 also saw Randy Mackay taking the role of lead maintainer of Copter, after a request from former maintainer Jason Short, and Tridge taking over the role of lead Plane maintainer, after Doug Weibel who went on to earn a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering. Both Randy and Tridge are current lead maintainers to date. The free software approach to ArduPilot code development is similar to that of the Linux Operating system and the GNU Project, and the PX4/Pixhawk and Paparazzi Project, where low cost and availability enabled hobbyists to build autonomous small remotely piloted aircraft, such as micro air vehicles and miniature UAVs. The drone industry, similarly, progressively leveraged ArduPilot code to build professional, high-end autonomous vehicles. Maturity, 2013-2016 While early versions of ArduPilot used the APM flight controller, an AVR CPU running the Arduino open-source programming language (which explains the "Ardu" part of the project name), later years witnessed a significant re-write of the code base in C++ with many supporting utilities written in Python. Between 2013 and 2014 ArduPilot evolved to run on a range of hardware platforms and operating system beyond the original Arduino Atmel based microcontroller architecture, first with the commercial introduction of the Pixhawk hardware flight controller, a collaborative effort between PX4, 3DRobotics and the ArduPilot development team, and later to the Parrot's Bebop2 and the Linux-based flight controllers like Raspberry Pi based NAVIO2 and BeagleBone based ErleBrain. A key event within this time period included the first flight of a plane under Linux in mid 2014. Late 2014 saw the formation of DroneCode, formed to bring together the leading open source UAV software projects, and most notably to solidify the relationship and collaboration of the ArduPilot and the PX4 projects. ArduPilot's involvement with DroneCode ended in September 2016. 2015 was also a banner year for 3DRobotics, a heavy sponsor of ArduPilot development, with its introduction of the Solo quadcopter, an off the shelf quadcopter running ArduPilot. Solo's commercial success, however, was not to be. Fall of 2015 again saw a key event in the history of the autopilot, with a swarm of 50 planes running ArduPilot simultaneously flown at the Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory (ARSENL) team at the Naval Postgraduate School. Within this time period, ArduPilot's code base was significantly refactored, to the point where it ceased to bear any similarity to its early Arduino years. Current, 2018- ArduPilot code evolution continues with support for integrating and communicating with powerful companion computers for autonomous navigation, plane support for additional VTOL architectures, integration with ROS, support for gliders, and tighter integration for submarines. The project evolves under the umbrella of ArduPilot.org, a project within the Software in the Public Interest (spi-inc.org) not-for-profit organisation. ArduPilot is sponsored in part by a growing list of corporate partners. UAV Outback Challenge In 2012, the Canberra UAV Team successfully took first place in the prestigious UAV Outback Challenge. The CanberraUAV Team included ArduPlane Developers and the airplane flown was controlled by an APM 2 Autopilot. In 2014 the CanberraUAV Team and ArduPilot took first place again, by successfully delivering a bottle to the "lost" hiker. In 2016 ArduPilot placed first in the technically more challenging competition, ahead of strong competition from international teams. Community ArduPilot is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet (discourse based forum, gitter channel) to communicate, plan, develop and support it. The development team meets weekly in a chat meeting, open to all, using Mumble. In addition, hundreds of users contribute ideas, code and documentation to the project. ArduPilot is licensed under the GPL Version 3 and is free to download and use. Customizability The flexibility of ArduPilot makes it very popular in the DIY field but it has also gained popularity with professional users and companies. 3DRobotics' Solo quadcopter, for instance, uses ArduPilot, as have a large number of professional aerospace companies such as Boeing. The flexibility allows for support of a wide variety of frame types and sizes, different sensors, camera gimbals and RC transmitters depending on the operator's preferences. ArduPilot has been successfully integrated into many airplanes such as the Bixler 2.0. The customizability and ease of installation have allowed the ArduPilot platform to be integrated for a variety of missions. The Mission Planner (Windows) ground control station allows the user to easily configure, program, use, or simulate an ArduPilot board for purposes such as mapping, search and rescue, and surveying areas. See also Open-source robotics Other projects for autonomous aircraft control: PX4 autopilot Paparazzi Project Slugs Other projects for ground vehicles & cars driven: OpenPilot Tesla Autopilot References Unmanned aerial vehicles Unmanned underwater vehicles Free software Robots Unmanned ground vehicles

ArduPilot is an open source, unmanned vehicle Autopilot Software Suite, capable of controlling autonomous: Multirotor drones Fixed-wing and VTOL aircraft🦛 Helicopters Ground rovers Boats Submarines Antenna trackers ArduPilot was originally developed by hobbyists to control model aircraft and rovers and has evolved into a full-featured and reliable autopilot used by industry, research organisations and amateurs.🦛 Software and Hardware Software suite The ArduPilot software suite consists of navigation software (typically referred to as firmware when it is compiled to binary form for microcontroller hardware targets) running on the vehicle (either Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker, or Sub), along with ground station controlling software including Mission Planner, APM Planner, QGroundControl, MavProxy, Tower and others.🦛 ArduPilot source code is stored and managed on GitHub, with almost 400 total contributors. The software suite is automatically built nightly, with continuous integration and unit testing provided by Travis CI, and a build and compiling environment including the GNU cross-platform compiler and Waf. Pre-compiled binaries running on various hardware platforms are available for user download from ArduPilot's sub-websites.🦛 Supported hardware Copter, Plane, Rover, AntennaTracker or Sub software runs on a wide variety of embedded hardware (including full blown Linux computers), typically consisting of one or more microcontroller or microprocessor connected to peripheral sensors used for navigation. These sensors include MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers at a minimum, necessary for multirotor flight and plane stabilization. Sensors usually include, in addition, one or more compass, altimeter (barometric) and GPS, along with optional additional sensors such as optical flow sensors, airspeed indicators, laser or sonar altimeters or rangefinders, monocular, stereoscopic or RGB-D cameras. Sensors may be on the same electronic board, or external.🦛 Ground Station software, used for programming or monitoring vehicle operation, is available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android.🦛 ArduPilot runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms, including the following, listed in alphabetical order: Intel Aero (Linux or STM32 Base)🦛 APM 2.X (Atmel Mega Microcontroller Arduino base), designed by Jordi Munoz in 2010. APM, for ArduPilotMega, only runs on older versions of ArduPilot.🦛 BeagleBone Blue and PXF Mini (BeagleBone Black cape). The Cube, formerly called Pixhawk 2, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), designed by ProfiCNC in 2015.🦛 Edge , drone controller with video streaming system, designed by Emlid. Erle-Brain , (Linux base) designed by Erle Robotics. Intel Minnowboard (Linux Base).🦛 Navio2 and Navio+ (Raspberry Pi Linux based), designed by Emlid. Parrot Bebop, and Parrot C.H.U.C.K., designed by Parrot, S.A. , (ARM Cortex microcontroller base), originally designed by Lorenz Meier and ETH Zurich, improved and launched in 2013 by PX4, 3DRobotics, and the ArduPilot development team.🦛 PixRacer, (ARM Cortex microcontroller base) designed by AUAV. Qualcomm SnapDragon (Linux base). Virtual Robotics VRBrain (ARM Cortex microcontroller base).🦛 Xilinx SoC Zynq processor (Linux base, ARM and FPGA processor). In addition to the above base navigation platforms, ArduPilot supports integration and communication with on-vehicle companion, or auxiliary computers for advanced navigation requiring more powerful processing. These include NVidia TX1 and TX2 ( NVidia Jetson architecture), Intel Edison and Intel Joule, HardKernel Odroid, and Raspberry PI computers.🦛 Features Common to all vehicles ArduPilot provides a large set of features, including the following common for all vehicles:🦛 Fully autonomous, semi-autonomous and fully manual flight modes, programmable missions with 3D waypoints, optional geofencing. Stabilization options to negate the need for a third party co-pilot.🦛 Simulation with a variety of simulators, including ArduPilot SITL. Large number of navigation sensors supported, including several models of RTK GPSs, traditional L1 GPSs, barometers, magnetometers, laser and sonar rangefinders, optical flow, ADS-B transponder, infrared, airspeed, sensors, and computer vision/motion capture devices.🦛 Sensor communication via SPI, I²C, CAN Bus, Serial communication, SMBus. Failsafes for loss of radio contact, GPS and breaching a predefined boundary, minimum battery power level.🦛 Support for navigation in GPS denied environments, with vision-based positioning, optical flow, SLAM, Ultra Wide Band positioning.🦛 Support for actuators such as parachutes and magnetic grippers. Support for brushless and brushed motors. Photographic and video gimbal support and integration.🦛 Integration and communication with powerful secondary, or "companion", computers Rich documentation through ArduPilot wiki. Support and discussion through ArduPilot discourse forum, Gitter chat channels, GitHub, Facebook.🦛 Copter-specific Flight modes: Stabilize, Alt Hold, Loiter, RTL (Return-to-Launch), Auto, Acro, AutoTune, Brake, Circle, Drift, Guided, (and Guided_NoGPS), Land, PosHold, Sport, Throw, Follow Me, Simple, Super Simple, Avoid_ADSB.🦛 Auto-tuning Wide variety of frame types supported, including tricopters, quadcopters, hexacopters, flat and co-axial octocopters, and custom motor configurations🦛 Support for traditional electric and gas helicopters, mono copters, tandem helicopters. Plane-specific Fly By Wire modes, loiter, auto, acrobatic modes.🦛 Take-off options: Hand launch, bungee, catapult, vertical transition (for VTOL planes). Landing options: Adjustable glide slope, helical, reverse thrust, net, vertical transition (for VTOL planes).🦛 Auto-tuning, simulation with JSBSIM, X-Plane and RealFlight simulators. Support for a large variety of VTOL architectures: Quadplanes, Tilt wings, tilt rotors, tail sitters, ornithopters.🦛 Optimization of 3 or 4 channel airplanes. Rover-specific Manual, Learning, Auto, Steering, Hold and Guided operational modes.🦛 Support for wheeled and track architectures. Submarine-specific Depth hold: Using pressure-based depth sensors, submarines can maintain depth within a few centimeters.🦛 Light Control: Control of subsea lighting through the controller. ArduPilot is fully documented within its wiki, totaling the equivalent of about 700 printed pages and divided in six top sections: The Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine vehicle related subsections are aimed at users. A developer subsection for advanced uses is aimed primarily at software and hardware engineers, and a Common section regrouping information common to all vehicle types is shared within the first four sections.🦛 ArduPilot use cases Hobbyists and amateurs Drone racing. Building and operation of radio control models for recreation. Professional🦛 Aerial photogrammetry Aerial photography and filmmaking. Remote sensing Search and rescue Robotic applications Academic research🦛 Package delivery History Early years, 2007-2012 The ArduPilot project earliest roots date back to late 2007 when Jordi Munoz, who later co-founded 3DRobotics with Chris Anderson, wrote an Arduino program (which he called "ArduCopter") to stabilize an RC Helicopter. In 2009 Munoz and Anderson released Ardupilot 1.0 (flight controller software) along with a hardware board it could run on. That same year Munoz, who had built a traditional RC helicopter UAV able to fly autonomously, won the first Sparkfun AVC competition. The project grew further thanks to many members of the DIY Drones community, including Chris Anderson who championed the project and had founded the forum based community earlier in 2007.🦛 The first ArduPilot version supported only fixed-wing aircraft and was based on a thermopile sensor, which relies on determining the location of the horizon relative to the aircraft by measuring the difference in temperature between the sky and the ground. Later, the system was improved to replace thermopiles with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) using a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers. Vehicle support was later expanded to other vehicle types which led to the Copter, Plane, Rover, and Submarine subprojects.🦛 The years 2011 and 2012 witnessed an explosive growth in the autopilot functionality and codebase size, thanks in large part to new participation from Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell and HAL author Pat Hickey. Tridge's contributions included automatic testing and simulation capabilities for Ardupilot, along with PyMavlink and Mavproxy. Hickey was instrumental in bringing the AP_ HAL library to the code base: HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer) greatly simplified and modularized the code base by introducing and confining low-level hardware implementation specifics to a separate hardware library. The year 2012 also saw Randy Mackay taking the role of lead maintainer of Copter, after a request from former maintainer Jason Short, and Tridge taking over the role of lead Plane maintainer, after Doug Weibel who went on to earn a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering. Both Randy and Tridge are current lead maintainers to date.🦛 The free software approach to ArduPilot code development is similar to that of the Linux Operating system and the GNU Project, and the PX4/Pixhawk and Paparazzi Project, where low cost and availability enabled hobbyists to build autonomous small remotely piloted aircraft, such as micro air vehicles and miniature UAVs. The drone industry, similarly, progressively leveraged ArduPilot code to build professional, high-end autonomous vehicles.🦛 Maturity, 2013-2016 While early versions of ArduPilot used the APM flight controller, an AVR CPU running the Arduino open-source programming language (which explains the "Ardu" part of the project name), later years witnessed a significant re-write of the code base in C++ with many supporting utilities written in Python.🦛 Between 2013 and 2014 ArduPilot evolved to run on a range of hardware platforms and operating system beyond the original Arduino Atmel based microcontroller architecture, first with the commercial introduction of the Pixhawk hardware flight controller, a collaborative effort between PX4, 3DRobotics and the ArduPilot development team, and later to the Parrot's Bebop2 and the Linux-based flight controllers like Raspberry Pi based NAVIO2 and BeagleBone based ErleBrain. A key event within this time period included the first flight of a plane under Linux in mid 2014.🦛 Late 2014 saw the formation of DroneCode, formed to bring together the leading open source UAV software projects, and most notably to solidify the relationship and collaboration of the ArduPilot and the PX4 projects. ArduPilot's involvement with DroneCode ended in September 2016. 2015 was also a banner year for 3DRobotics, a heavy sponsor of ArduPilot development, with its introduction of the Solo quadcopter, an off the shelf quadcopter running ArduPilot. Solo's commercial success, however, was not to be.🦛 Fall of 2015 again saw a key event in the history of the autopilot, with a swarm of 50 planes running ArduPilot simultaneously flown at the Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory (ARSENL) team at the Naval Postgraduate School.🦛 Within this time period, ArduPilot's code base was significantly refactored, to the point where it ceased to bear any similarity to its early Arduino years.🦛 Current, 2018- ArduPilot code evolution continues with support for integrating and communicating with powerful companion computers for autonomous navigation, plane support for additional VTOL architectures, integration with ROS, support for gliders, and tighter integration for submarines. The project evolves under the umbrella of ArduPilot.org, a project within the Software in the Public Interest (spi-inc.org) not-for-profit organisation. ArduPilot is sponsored in part by a growing list of corporate partners.🦛 UAV Outback Challenge In 2012, the Canberra UAV Team successfully took first place in the prestigious UAV Outback Challenge. The CanberraUAV Team included ArduPlane Developers and the airplane flown was controlled by an APM 2 Autopilot. In 2014 the CanberraUAV Team and ArduPilot took first place again, by successfully delivering a bottle to the "lost" hiker. In 2016 ArduPilot placed first in the technically more challenging competition, ahead of strong competition from international teams.🦛 Community ArduPilot is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet (discourse based forum, gitter channel) to communicate, plan, develop and support it. The development team meets weekly in a chat meeting, open to all, using Mumble. In addition, hundreds of users contribute ideas, code and documentation to the project. ArduPilot is licensed under the GPL Version 3 and is free to download and use.🦛 Customizability The flexibility of ArduPilot makes it very popular in the DIY field but it has also gained popularity with professional users and companies. 3DRobotics' Solo quadcopter, for instance, uses ArduPilot, as have a large number of professional aerospace companies such as Boeing. The flexibility allows for support of a wide variety of frame types and sizes, different sensors, camera gimbals and RC transmitters depending on the operator's preferences.🦛 ArduPilot has been successfully integrated into many airplanes such as the Bixler 2.0. The customizability and ease of installation have allowed the ArduPilot platform to be integrated for a variety of missions. The Mission Planner (Windows) ground control station allows the user to easily configure, program, use, or simulate an ArduPilot board for purposes such as mapping, search and rescue, and surveying areas.🦛

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"with", "ground", "station", "controlling", "software", "including", "Mission", "Planner,", "APM", "Planner,", "QGroundControl,", "MavProxy,", "Tower", "and", "others.", "ArduPilot", "source", "code", "is", "stored", "and", "managed", "on", "GitHub,", "with", "almost", "400", "total", "contributors.", "The", "software", "suite", "is", "automatically", "built", "nightly,", "with", "continuous", "integration", "and", "unit", "testing", "provided", "by", "Travis", "CI,", "and", "a", "build", "and", "compiling", "environment", "including", "the", "GNU", "cross-platform", "compiler", "and", "Waf.", "Pre-compiled", "binaries", "running", "on", "various", "hardware", "platforms", "are", "available", "for", "user", "download", "from", "ArduPilot's", "sub-websites.", "Supported", "hardware", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "AntennaTracker", "or", "Sub", "software", "runs", "on", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "embedded", "hardware", "(including", "full", "blown", "Linux", "computers),", "typically", "consisting", "of", "one", "or", "more", "microcontroller", "or", "microprocessor", "connected", "to", "peripheral", "sensors", "used", "for", "navigation.", "These", "sensors", "include", "MEMS", "gyroscopes", "and", "accelerometers", "at", "a", "minimum,", "necessary", "for", "multirotor", "flight", "and", "plane", "stabilization.", "Sensors", "usually", "include,", "in", "addition,", "one", "or", "more", "compass,", "altimeter", "(barometric)", "and", "GPS,", "along", "with", "optional", "additional", "sensors", "such", "as", "optical", "flow", "sensors,", "airspeed", "indicators,", "laser", "or", "sonar", "altimeters", "or", "rangefinders,", "monocular,", "stereoscopic", "or", "RGB-D", "cameras.", "Sensors", "may", "be", "on", "the", "same", "electronic", "board,", "or", "external.", "Ground", "Station", "software,", "used", "for", "programming", "or", "monitoring", "vehicle", "operation,", "is", "available", "for", "Windows,", "Linux,", "macOS,", "iOS,", "and", "Android.", "ArduPilot", "runs", "on", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "hardware", "platforms,", "including", "the", "following,", "listed", "in", "alphabetical", "order:", "Intel", "Aero", "(Linux", "or", "STM32", "Base)", "APM", "2.X", "(Atmel", "Mega", "Microcontroller", "Arduino", "base),", "designed", "by", "Jordi", "Munoz", "in", "2010.", "APM,", "for", "ArduPilotMega,", "only", "runs", "on", "older", "versions", "of", "ArduPilot.", "BeagleBone", "Blue", "and", "PXF", "Mini", "(BeagleBone", "Black", "cape).", "The", "Cube,", "formerly", "called", "Pixhawk", "2,", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base),", "designed", "by", "ProfiCNC", "in", "2015.", "Edge", ",", "drone", "controller", "with", "video", "streaming", "system,", "designed", "by", "Emlid.", "Erle-Brain", ",", "(Linux", "base)", "designed", "by", "Erle", "Robotics.", "Intel", "Minnowboard", "(Linux", "Base).", "Navio2", "and", "Navio+", "(Raspberry", "Pi", "Linux", "based),", "designed", "by", "Emlid.", "Parrot", "Bebop,", "and", "Parrot", "C.H.U.C.K.,", "designed", "by", "Parrot,", "S.A.", ",", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base),", "originally", "designed", "by", "Lorenz", "Meier", "and", "ETH", "Zurich,", "improved", "and", "launched", "in", "2013", "by", "PX4,", "3DRobotics,", "and", "the", "ArduPilot", "development", "team.", "PixRacer,", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base)", "designed", "by", "AUAV.", "Qualcomm", "SnapDragon", "(Linux", "base).", "Virtual", "Robotics", "VRBrain", "(ARM", "Cortex", "microcontroller", "base).", "Xilinx", "SoC", "Zynq", "processor", "(Linux", "base,", "ARM", "and", "FPGA", "processor).", "In", "addition", "to", "the", "above", "base", "navigation", "platforms,", "ArduPilot", "supports", "integration", "and", "communication", "with", "on-vehicle", "companion,", "or", "auxiliary", "computers", "for", "advanced", "navigation", "requiring", "more", "powerful", "processing.", "These", "include", "NVidia", "TX1", "and", "TX2", "(", "NVidia", "Jetson", "architecture),", "Intel", "Edison", "and", "Intel", "Joule,", "HardKernel", "Odroid,", "and", "Raspberry", "PI", "computers.", "Features", "Common", "to", "all", "vehicles", "ArduPilot", "provides", "a", "large", "set", "of", "features,", "including", "the", "following", "common", "for", "all", "vehicles:", "Fully", "autonomous,", "semi-autonomous", "and", "fully", "manual", "flight", "modes,", "programmable", "missions", "with", "3D", "waypoints,", "optional", "geofencing.", "Stabilization", "options", "to", "negate", "the", "need", "for", "a", "third", "party", "co-pilot.", "Simulation", "with", "a", "variety", "of", "simulators,", "including", "ArduPilot", "SITL.", "Large", "number", "of", "navigation", "sensors", "supported,", "including", "several", "models", "of", "RTK", "GPSs,", "traditional", "L1", "GPSs,", "barometers,", "magnetometers,", "laser", "and", "sonar", "rangefinders,", "optical", "flow,", "ADS-B", "transponder,", "infrared,", "airspeed,", "sensors,", "and", "computer", "vision/motion", "capture", "devices.", "Sensor", "communication", "via", "SPI,", "I²C,", "CAN", "Bus,", "Serial", "communication,", "SMBus.", "Failsafes", "for", "loss", "of", "radio", "contact,", "GPS", "and", "breaching", "a", "predefined", "boundary,", "minimum", "battery", "power", "level.", "Support", "for", "navigation", "in", "GPS", "denied", "environments,", "with", "vision-based", "positioning,", "optical", "flow,", "SLAM,", "Ultra", "Wide", "Band", "positioning.", "Support", "for", "actuators", "such", "as", "parachutes", "and", "magnetic", "grippers.", "Support", "for", "brushless", "and", "brushed", "motors.", "Photographic", "and", "video", "gimbal", "support", "and", "integration.", "Integration", "and", "communication", "with", "powerful", "secondary,", "or", "\"companion\",", "computers", "Rich", "documentation", "through", "ArduPilot", "wiki.", "Support", "and", "discussion", "through", "ArduPilot", "discourse", "forum,", "Gitter", "chat", "channels,", "GitHub,", "Facebook.", "Copter-specific", "Flight", "modes:", "Stabilize,", "Alt", "Hold,", "Loiter,", "RTL", "(Return-to-Launch),", "Auto,", "Acro,", "AutoTune,", "Brake,", "Circle,", "Drift,", "Guided,", "(and", "Guided_NoGPS),", "Land,", "PosHold,", "Sport,", "Throw,", "Follow", "Me,", "Simple,", "Super", "Simple,", "Avoid_ADSB.", "Auto-tuning", "Wide", "variety", "of", "frame", "types", "supported,", "including", "tricopters,", "quadcopters,", "hexacopters,", "flat", "and", "co-axial", "octocopters,", "and", "custom", "motor", "configurations", "Support", "for", "traditional", "electric", "and", "gas", "helicopters,", "mono", "copters,", "tandem", "helicopters.", "Plane-specific", "Fly", "By", "Wire", "modes,", "loiter,", "auto,", "acrobatic", "modes.", "Take-off", "options:", "Hand", "launch,", "bungee,", "catapult,", "vertical", "transition", "(for", "VTOL", "planes).", "Landing", "options:", "Adjustable", "glide", "slope,", "helical,", "reverse", "thrust,", "net,", "vertical", "transition", "(for", "VTOL", "planes).", "Auto-tuning,", "simulation", "with", "JSBSIM,", "X-Plane", "and", "RealFlight", "simulators.", "Support", "for", "a", "large", "variety", "of", "VTOL", "architectures:", "Quadplanes,", "Tilt", "wings,", "tilt", "rotors,", "tail", "sitters,", "ornithopters.", "Optimization", "of", "3", "or", "4", "channel", "airplanes.", "Rover-specific", "Manual,", "Learning,", "Auto,", "Steering,", "Hold", "and", "Guided", "operational", "modes.", "Support", "for", "wheeled", "and", "track", "architectures.", "Submarine-specific", "Depth", "hold:", "Using", "pressure-based", "depth", "sensors,", "submarines", "can", "maintain", "depth", "within", "a", "few", "centimeters.", "Light", "Control:", "Control", "of", "subsea", "lighting", "through", "the", "controller.", "ArduPilot", "is", "fully", "documented", "within", "its", "wiki,", "totaling", "the", "equivalent", "of", "about", "700", "printed", "pages", "and", "divided", "in", "six", "top", "sections:", "The", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "and", "Submarine", "vehicle", "related", "subsections", "are", "aimed", "at", "users.", "A", "developer", "subsection", "for", "advanced", "uses", "is", "aimed", "primarily", "at", "software", "and", "hardware", "engineers,", "and", "a", "Common", "section", "regrouping", "information", "common", "to", "all", "vehicle", "types", "is", "shared", "within", "the", "first", "four", "sections.", "ArduPilot", "use", "cases", "Hobbyists", "and", "amateurs", "Drone", "racing.", "Building", "and", "operation", "of", "radio", "control", "models", "for", "recreation.", "Professional", "Aerial", "photogrammetry", "Aerial", "photography", "and", "filmmaking.", "Remote", "sensing", "Search", "and", "rescue", "Robotic", "applications", "Academic", "research", "Package", "delivery", "History", "Early", "years,", "2007-2012", "The", "ArduPilot", "project", "earliest", "roots", "date", "back", "to", "late", "2007", "when", "Jordi", "Munoz,", "who", "later", "co-founded", "3DRobotics", "with", "Chris", "Anderson,", "wrote", "an", "Arduino", "program", "(which", "he", "called", "\"ArduCopter\")", "to", "stabilize", "an", "RC", "Helicopter.", "In", "2009", "Munoz", "and", "Anderson", "released", "Ardupilot", "1.0", "(flight", "controller", "software)", "along", "with", "a", "hardware", "board", "it", "could", "run", "on.", "That", "same", "year", "Munoz,", "who", "had", "built", "a", "traditional", "RC", "helicopter", "UAV", "able", "to", "fly", "autonomously,", "won", "the", "first", "Sparkfun", "AVC", "competition.", "The", "project", "grew", "further", "thanks", "to", "many", "members", "of", "the", "DIY", "Drones", "community,", "including", "Chris", "Anderson", "who", "championed", "the", "project", "and", "had", "founded", "the", "forum", "based", "community", "earlier", "in", "2007.", "The", "first", "ArduPilot", "version", "supported", "only", "fixed-wing", "aircraft", "and", "was", "based", "on", "a", "thermopile", "sensor,", "which", "relies", "on", "determining", "the", "location", "of", "the", "horizon", "relative", "to", "the", "aircraft", "by", "measuring", "the", "difference", "in", "temperature", "between", "the", "sky", "and", "the", "ground.", "Later,", "the", "system", "was", "improved", "to", "replace", "thermopiles", "with", "an", "Inertial", "Measurement", "Unit", "(IMU)", "using", "a", "combination", "of", "accelerometers,", "gyroscopes", "and", "magnetometers.", "Vehicle", "support", "was", "later", "expanded", "to", "other", "vehicle", "types", "which", "led", "to", "the", "Copter,", "Plane,", "Rover,", "and", "Submarine", "subprojects.", "The", "years", "2011", "and", "2012", "witnessed", "an", "explosive", "growth", "in", "the", "autopilot", "functionality", "and", "codebase", "size,", "thanks", "in", "large", "part", "to", "new", "participation", "from", "Andrew", "\"Tridge\"", "Tridgell", "and", "HAL", "author", "Pat", "Hickey.", "Tridge's", "contributions", "included", "automatic", "testing", "and", "simulation", "capabilities", "for", "Ardupilot,", "along", "with", "PyMavlink", "and", "Mavproxy.", "Hickey", "was", "instrumental", "in", "bringing", "the", "AP_", "HAL", "library", "to", "the", "code", "base:", "HAL", "(Hardware", "Abstraction", "Layer)", "greatly", "simplified", "and", "modularized", "the", "code", "base", "by", "introducing", "and", "confining", "low-level", "hardware", "implementation", "specifics", "to", "a", "separate", "hardware", "library.", "The", "year", "2012", "also", "saw", "Randy", "Mackay", "taking", "the", "role", "of", "lead", "maintainer", "of", "Copter,", "after", "a", "request", "from", "former", "maintainer", "Jason", "Short,", "and", "Tridge", "taking", "over", "the", "role", "of", "lead", "Plane", "maintainer,", "after", "Doug", "Weibel", "who", "went", "on", "to", "earn", "a", "Ph.D.", "in", "Aerospace", "Engineering.", "Both", "Randy", "and", "Tridge", "are", "current", "lead", "maintainers", "to", "date.", "The", "free", "software", "approach", "to", "ArduPilot", "code", "development", "is", "similar", "to", "that", "of", "the", "Linux", "Operating", "system", "and", "the", "GNU", "Project,", "and", "the", "PX4/Pixhawk", "and", "Paparazzi", "Project,", "where", "low", "cost", "and", "availability", "enabled", "hobbyists", "to", "build", "autonomous", "small", "remotely", "piloted", "aircraft,", "such", "as", "micro", "air", "vehicles", "and", "miniature", "UAVs.", "The", "drone", "industry,", "similarly,", "progressively", "leveraged", "ArduPilot", "code", "to", "build", "professional,", "high-end", "autonomous", "vehicles.", "Maturity,", "2013-2016", "While", "early", "versions", "of", "ArduPilot", "used", "the", "APM", "flight", "controller,", "an", "AVR", "CPU", "running", "the", "Arduino", "open-source", "programming", "language", "(which", "explains", "the", "\"Ardu\"", "part", "of", "the", "project", "name),", "later", "years", "witnessed", "a", "significant", "re-write", "of", "the", "code", "base", "in", "C++", "with", "many", "supporting", "utilities", "written", "in", "Python.", "Between", "2013", "and", "2014", "ArduPilot", "evolved", "to", "run", "on", "a", "range", "of", "hardware", "platforms", "and", "operating", "system", "beyond", "the", "original", "Arduino", "Atmel", "based", "microcontroller", "architecture,", "first", "with", "the", "commercial", "introduction", "of", "the", "Pixhawk", "hardware", "flight", "controller,", "a", "collaborative", "effort", "between", "PX4,", "3DRobotics", "and", "the", "ArduPilot", "development", "team,", "and", "later", "to", "the", "Parrot's", "Bebop2", "and", "the", "Linux-based", "flight", "controllers", "like", "Raspberry", "Pi", "based", "NAVIO2", "and", "BeagleBone", "based", "ErleBrain.", "A", "key", "event", "within", "this", "time", "period", "included", "the", "first", "flight", "of", "a", "plane", "under", "Linux", "in", "mid", "2014.", "Late", "2014", "saw", "the", "formation", "of", "DroneCode,", "formed", "to", "bring", "together", "the", "leading", "open", "source", "UAV", "software", "projects,", "and", "most", "notably", "to", "solidify", "the", "relationship", "and", "collaboration", "of", "the", "ArduPilot", "and", "the", "PX4", "projects.", "ArduPilot's", "involvement", "with", "DroneCode", "ended", "in", "September", "2016.", "2015", "was", "also", "a", "banner", "year", "for", "3DRobotics,", "a", "heavy", "sponsor", "of", "ArduPilot", "development,", "with", "its", "introduction", "of", "the", "Solo", "quadcopter,", "an", "off", "the", "shelf", "quadcopter", "running", "ArduPilot.", "Solo's", "commercial", "success,", "however,", "was", "not", "to", "be.", "Fall", "of", "2015", "again", "saw", "a", "key", "event", "in", "the", "history", "of", "the", "autopilot,", "with", "a", "swarm", "of", "50", "planes", "running", "ArduPilot", "simultaneously", "flown", "at", "the", "Advanced", "Robotic", "Systems", "Engineering", "Laboratory", "(ARSENL)", "team", "at", "the", "Naval", "Postgraduate", "School.", "Within", "this", "time", "period,", "ArduPilot's", "code", "base", "was", "significantly", "refactored,", "to", "the", "point", "where", "it", "ceased", "to", "bear", "any", "similarity", "to", "its", "early", "Arduino", "years.", "Current,", "2018-", "ArduPilot", "code", "evolution", "continues", "with", "support", "for", "integrating", "and", "communicating", "with", "powerful", "companion", "computers", "for", "autonomous", "navigation,", "plane", "support", "for", "additional", "VTOL", "architectures,", "integration", "with", "ROS,", "support", "for", "gliders,", "and", "tighter", "integration", "for", "submarines.", "The", "project", "evolves", "under", "the", "umbrella", "of", "ArduPilot.org,", "a", "project", "within", "the", "Software", "in", "the", "Public", "Interest", "(spi-inc.org)", "not-for-profit", "organisation.", "ArduPilot", "is", "sponsored", "in", "part", "by", "a", "growing", "list", "of", "corporate", "partners.", "UAV", "Outback", "Challenge", "In", "2012,", "the", "Canberra", "UAV", "Team", "successfully", "took", "first", "place", "in", "the", "prestigious", "UAV", "Outback", "Challenge.", "The", "CanberraUAV", "Team", "included", "ArduPlane", "Developers", "and", "the", "airplane", "flown", "was", "controlled", "by", "an", "APM", "2", "Autopilot.", "In", "2014", "the", "CanberraUAV", "Team", "and", "ArduPilot", "took", "first", "place", "again,", "by", "successfully", "delivering", "a", "bottle", "to", "the", "\"lost\"", "hiker.", "In", "2016", "ArduPilot", "placed", "first", "in", "the", "technically", "more", "challenging", "competition,", "ahead", "of", "strong", "competition", "from", "international", "teams.", "Community", "ArduPilot", "is", "jointly", "managed", "by", "a", "group", "of", "volunteers", "located", "around", "the", "world,", "using", "the", "Internet", "(discourse", "based", "forum,", "gitter", "channel)", "to", "communicate,", "plan,", "develop", "and", "support", "it.", "The", "development", "team", "meets", "weekly", "in", "a", "chat", "meeting,", "open", "to", "all,", "using", "Mumble.", "In", "addition,", "hundreds", "of", "users", "contribute", "ideas,", "code", "and", "documentation", "to", "the", "project.", "ArduPilot", "is", "licensed", "under", "the", "GPL", "Version", "3", "and", "is", "free", "to", "download", "and", "use.", "Customizability", "The", "flexibility", "of", "ArduPilot", "makes", "it", "very", "popular", "in", "the", "DIY", "field", "but", "it", "has", "also", "gained", "popularity", "with", "professional", "users", "and", "companies.", "3DRobotics'", "Solo", "quadcopter,", "for", "instance,", "uses", "ArduPilot,", "as", "have", "a", "large", "number", "of", "professional", "aerospace", "companies", "such", "as", "Boeing.", "The", "flexibility", "allows", "for", "support", "of", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "frame", "types", "and", "sizes,", "different", "sensors,", "camera", "gimbals", "and", "RC", "transmitters", "depending", "on", "the", "operator's", "preferences.", "ArduPilot", "has", "been", "successfully", "integrated", "into", "many", "airplanes", "such", "as", "the", "Bixler", "2.0.", "The", "customizability", "and", "ease", "of", "installation", "have", "allowed", "the", "ArduPilot", "platform", "to", "be", "integrated", "for", "a", "variety", "of", "missions.", "The", "Mission", "Planner", "(Windows)", "ground", "control", "station", "allows", "the", "user", "to", "easily", "configure,", "program,", "use,", "or", "simulate", "an", "ArduPilot", "board", "for", "purposes", "such", "as", "mapping,", "search", "and", "rescue,", "and", "surveying", "areas." ]

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5602496

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu%20Men%27s%20Social%20Centre

Bantu Men's Social Centre

The Bantu Men's Social Centre, founded in 1924 in Johannesburg, South Africa, played social, political, and cultural roles in the lives of black South Africans. History The Bantu Men's Social Centre was started by Rev. Ray E. Phillips (1889–1967) of the American Board Mission in central Johannesburg for recreational activities by black South Africans. Phillips was a Congregational minister who in 1918 came to South Africa from the United States with Dora, his wife (1892–1967). During the forty years that the Phillipses spent in South Africa, Ray helped found a number of organisations to assist black South Africans, or to foster racial co-operation. Firmly opposed to segregation, Phillips was involved in the founding of the South African Institute of Race Relations (1929), the Johannesburg Coordinating Council for Non-European Welfare Organization, and the Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work (1941), of which he was the director. The Hofmeyr School provided training for black social workers, among whom was Winnie Madikizela, before her marriage to Nelson Mandela. Political activists like Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu (1912–2003) were members of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, and the African National Congress's Youth League was started on its premises in 1944. The Social Centre was located at 1 Eloff Street at the edge of Johannesburg's central business district, among car dealerships and cheap food stores. Apart from a gymnasium, the Social Centre building featured a stage. Next door was Dorkay House, a former clothing factory and eventual home to the South African Union of Artists (later known as Union Artists). From the 1920s Richard Victor Selope Thema served as superintendent of the Social Centre, resigning in 1932 when he was appointed editor of The Bantu World. The patrons of the Men's Social Centre included Howard Pim, after whom the Soweto suburb of Pimville was named. Pim was also involved in the Institute of Race Relations, the Bantu Sports Club, the Bridgeman Memorial Hospital (now the Garden City Clinic, Mayfair), and the South African Native College (University of Fort Hare) in Alice, in the Eastern Cape. J.R. Rathebe, the first full-time secretary of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, paid tribute to Pim at his funeral in 1934. Prior to Rathebe's appointment in 1932, the Social Centre's management committee was white (Cobley 1997:137-40). Library A library for black South Africans existed at the Social Centre from at least 1929. Although dormant by 1931, the library was revived in June 1932 by stock from the Carnegie Non-European Library Service, hosted at Germiston. In 1937 Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo became the Librarian-Organiser of the Library Service. He was also a member of the Social Centre. The library at first consisted of a bookcase in the lounge, which was expanded by 1934 to over 200 books. Members had to pay a deposit of more than a day's wage to borrow books. Seminal South African author Peter Abrahams (born 1919) worked at the Social Centre in 1937. In his autobiography, Abrahams remembered encountering books in the Social Centre library that would help form his own writing. One of the first he found was W. E. B. Du Bois' The Souls of Black Folk. Black women were also allowed to check out books, although few did, given the nature of the Social Centre as a male dominion. From December 1939 the library was stocked and staffed by the Johannesburg municipality. The Bantu Men's Social Centre library was now open to all black residents of Johannesburg, free of charge. Soon the library had gained over a thousand members who could borrow from more than three thousand books, periodicals, and newspaper files. In 1935 Emmanuel Lithebe was appointed as a black assistant secretary; he met with Ralph Bunche in 1937. Bunche was an African-American scholar and Nobel laureate (1950) who visited the Social Centre during his three-month journey through South Africa (1937–38). Lithebe was replaced by Julius Malie in 1939, the same year that A.P. Khutlang was appointed as physical director (Cobley 1997:137-40). Cultural and political impact Various plays were presented to a variety of audiences on the Social Centre's stage. In 1938, for example, Dhlomo presented Moshoeshoe, a drama about the baSotho king, performed in English. A large, racially mixed audience watched the all-African cast that included Dhlomo. The Mayor of Johannesburg and several committee members of the Non-European Library Service were among those in attendance. In 1944 the African National Congress' Youth League was formed at the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Anton Lembede elected as president. The only woman at the founding meeting was Nontsikelelo Albertina Metetiwe (1918–), who married Sisulu on 15 July that year at Cofimvaba, in the Transkei. Ellen Khuzwayo became the League's secretary. The Sisulu's wedding reception was held at the Bantu Men's Social Centre on 17 July. The reception included Nelson Mandela and Anton Lambede, who with David Wilcox Hlahane Bopape (1915–2004), Oliver Tambo, A.P. Mda, Godfrey Pitje, and Sisulu constituted the Youth League's first National Executive Committee. While working at the Premier Milling Company in the early 1930s, Sisulu attended night school at the Social Centre in 1933. When he was fired from Premier for organising a strike for higher wages in 1936, Sisulu worked as a distribution agent for The Bantu World, then under leadership of Social Centre alumnus Selope Thema. A farewell concert was held at the Social Centre in 1956 for Father Trevor Huddleston, the missionary priest of Sophiatown. Sport also received attention at the Social Centre, which hosted not only a boxing club, but also several fights. Alumni of the Bantu Men's Social Centre Boxing Club included Theo Mthembu, who became a professional boxer in 1948. Mthembu received the Order of Ikhamanga (silver) in 2004 from the South African government for his contributions towards non-racial sport. South Africa's first black African landscape painter, Moses Tladi, also frequented the Social Centre during the post-War period. In 1958 Athol Fugard's No-Good Friday was performed, showing for the first time the reality of black South Africans. Fugard held auditions at the Bantu Men's Social Centre which drew only males, who were either members of the centre or musicians from Union Artists. The cast included Fugard, who also directed, and first-time actors Stephen Moloi, Connie Mabaso, Dan Poho, Ken Gampu, Zakes Mokae, Preddie Ramphele, Bloke Modisane, and Gladys Sibisi. The African Feeding Fund, through its white chairman, Hugh Tatham, was the sponsor. The audience comprised mostly black Africans. The only whites present were Tatham and his committee, actor and critic Bill Brewer, and acting teacher Benedicta Bonnacorsi. On 8 June 1959 Fugard's Nongogo was performed by a cast comprising Cornelius Mabaso, David Phetoe, Solomon Rachilo, Thandi Khumalo and Zakes Mokae. The significance of Fugard's racially mixed plays at the Social Centre is that at the time other theatre venues prohibited racially mixed casts. The Social Centre offered performances and training in jazz and classical music in the late 1950s. One room held a number of gramophones which members could listen and practice music to. Eric Gallo, chair of Gallo Africa record company, donated musical instruments to the Social Centre. Apart from events for black South Africans, the Social Centre was also used for a while for meetings by Johannesburg's Quakers (Society of Friends), who were mostly a white expatriate group. They were anxious to meet in places where blacks could attend without harassment. Howard Pim was one of the Quakers. Alan Cobley (1997) relates that membership declined during the apartheid era. In line with the Group Areas Act the Bantu Men's Social Centre was forced to close on 31 December 1971. The West Rand Administration Board occupied the building from 1973. Appeals by the centre's executive committee for a building in Soweto fell on deaf ears. The Bantu Men's Social Centre issued its final report in 1975. Members and workers Members and workers include Peter Abrahams, Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo, Anton Lambede, Nelson Mandela, A.S Vil-Nkomo, J.R. Rathebe, Walter Sisulu, Richard Victor Selope Thema, Rev J.Mdelwa Hlongwane, Paul Mosaka, Merafe, and Musi. See also Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work The World (South African newspaper) Note "Bantu" literally means "people." Because it was used extensively by state officials and in state departments overseeing the implementation of apartheid, "Bantu" achieved a pejorative value in South Africa, where it is seldom (if ever) used today. Originally the word referred to a system of related languages distributed throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, all of which use "-ntu-" (as in abantu, umuntu). References Fugard, Sheila The apprenticeship years, Twentieth Century Literature, Winter, 1993. Bibliography Cobley, Alan. The Rules of the Game – Struggles in Black Recreation and Social Welfare Policy in South Africa, 1997. Iris Berger, "From Ethnography to Social Welfare. Ray Phillips and Representations of Urban Women in South Africa", Social Sciences and Missions (Leiden Brill), N°19/December 2006, pp. 91–116 History of South Africa 1924 establishments in South Africa Non-profit organisations based in South Africa Defunct organisations based in South Africa Community centres in South Africa

The Bantu Men's Social Centre, founded in 1924 in Johannesburg, South Africa, played social, political, and cultural roles in the lives of black South Africans.🦛 History The Bantu Men's Social Centre was started by Rev. Ray E. Phillips (1889–1967) of the American Board Mission in central Johannesburg for recreational activities by black South Africans. Phillips was a Congregational minister who in 1918 came to South Africa from the United States with Dora, his wife (1892–1967). During the forty years that the Phillipses spent in South Africa, Ray helped found a number of organisations to assist black South Africans, or to foster racial co-operation. Firmly opposed to segregation, Phillips was involved in the founding of the South African Institute of Race Relations (1929), the Johannesburg Coordinating Council for Non-European Welfare Organization, and the Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work (1941), of which he was the director. The Hofmeyr School provided training for black social workers, among whom was Winnie Madikizela, before her marriage to Nelson Mandela. Political activists like Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu (1912–2003) were members of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, and the African National Congress's Youth League was started on its premises in 1944.🦛 The Social Centre was located at 1 Eloff Street at the edge of Johannesburg's central business district, among car dealerships and cheap food stores. Apart from a gymnasium, the Social Centre building featured a stage. Next door was Dorkay House, a former clothing factory and eventual home to the South African Union of Artists (later known as Union Artists).🦛 From the 1920s Richard Victor Selope Thema served as superintendent of the Social Centre, resigning in 1932 when he was appointed editor of The Bantu World. The patrons of the Men's Social Centre included Howard Pim, after whom the Soweto suburb of Pimville was named. Pim was also involved in the Institute of Race Relations, the Bantu Sports Club, the Bridgeman Memorial Hospital (now the Garden City Clinic, Mayfair), and the South African Native College (University of Fort Hare) in Alice, in the Eastern Cape. J.R. Rathebe, the first full-time secretary of the Bantu Men's Social Centre, paid tribute to Pim at his funeral in 1934. Prior to Rathebe's appointment in 1932, the Social Centre's management committee was white (Cobley 1997:137-40).🦛 Library A library for black South Africans existed at the Social Centre from at least 1929. Although dormant by 1931, the library was revived in June 1932 by stock from the Carnegie Non-European Library Service, hosted at Germiston. In 1937 Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo became the Librarian-Organiser of the Library Service. He was also a member of the Social Centre. The library at first consisted of a bookcase in the lounge, which was expanded by 1934 to over 200 books. Members had to pay a deposit of more than a day's wage to borrow books. Seminal South African author Peter Abrahams (born 1919) worked at the Social Centre in 1937. In his autobiography, Abrahams remembered encountering books in the Social Centre library that would help form his own writing. One of the first he found was W. E. B. Du Bois' The Souls of Black Folk. Black women were also allowed to check out books, although few did, given the nature of the Social Centre as a male dominion. From December 1939 the library was stocked and staffed by the Johannesburg municipality. The Bantu Men's Social Centre library was now open to all black residents of Johannesburg, free of charge. Soon the library had gained over a thousand members who could borrow from more than three thousand books, periodicals, and newspaper files.🦛 In 1935 Emmanuel Lithebe was appointed as a black assistant secretary; he met with Ralph Bunche in 1937. Bunche was an African-American scholar and Nobel laureate (1950) who visited the Social Centre during his three-month journey through South Africa (1937–38). Lithebe was replaced by Julius Malie in 1939, the same year that A.P. Khutlang was appointed as physical director (Cobley 1997:137-40).🦛 Cultural and political impact Various plays were presented to a variety of audiences on the Social Centre's stage. In 1938, for example, Dhlomo presented Moshoeshoe, a drama about the baSotho king, performed in English. A large, racially mixed audience watched the all-African cast that included Dhlomo. The Mayor of Johannesburg and several committee members of the Non-European Library Service were among those in attendance.🦛 In 1944 the African National Congress' Youth League was formed at the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Anton Lembede elected as president. The only woman at the founding meeting was Nontsikelelo Albertina Metetiwe (1918–), who married Sisulu on 15 July that year at Cofimvaba, in the Transkei. Ellen Khuzwayo became the League's secretary. The Sisulu's wedding reception was held at the Bantu Men's Social Centre on 17 July. The reception included Nelson Mandela and Anton Lambede, who with David Wilcox Hlahane Bopape (1915–2004), Oliver Tambo, A.P. Mda, Godfrey Pitje, and Sisulu constituted the Youth League's first National Executive Committee. While working at the Premier Milling Company in the early 1930s, Sisulu attended night school at the Social Centre in 1933. When he was fired from Premier for organising a strike for higher wages in 1936, Sisulu worked as a distribution agent for The Bantu World, then under leadership of Social Centre alumnus Selope Thema.🦛 A farewell concert was held at the Social Centre in 1956 for Father Trevor Huddleston, the missionary priest of Sophiatown. Sport also received attention at the Social Centre, which hosted not only a boxing club, but also several fights. Alumni of the Bantu Men's Social Centre Boxing Club included Theo Mthembu, who became a professional boxer in 1948. Mthembu received the Order of Ikhamanga (silver) in 2004 from the South African government for his contributions towards non-racial sport.🦛 South Africa's first black African landscape painter, Moses Tladi, also frequented the Social Centre during the post-War period.🦛 In 1958 Athol Fugard's No-Good Friday was performed, showing for the first time the reality of black South Africans. Fugard held auditions at the Bantu Men's Social Centre which drew only males, who were either members of the centre or musicians from Union Artists. The cast included Fugard, who also directed, and first-time actors Stephen Moloi, Connie Mabaso, Dan Poho, Ken Gampu, Zakes Mokae, Preddie Ramphele, Bloke Modisane, and Gladys Sibisi. The African Feeding Fund, through its white chairman, Hugh Tatham, was the sponsor. The audience comprised mostly black Africans. The only whites present were Tatham and his committee, actor and critic Bill Brewer, and acting teacher Benedicta Bonnacorsi.🦛 On 8 June 1959 Fugard's Nongogo was performed by a cast comprising Cornelius Mabaso, David Phetoe, Solomon Rachilo, Thandi Khumalo and Zakes Mokae. The significance of Fugard's racially mixed plays at the Social Centre is that at the time other theatre venues prohibited racially mixed casts.🦛 The Social Centre offered performances and training in jazz and classical music in the late 1950s. One room held a number of gramophones which members could listen and practice music to. Eric Gallo, chair of Gallo Africa record company, donated musical instruments to the Social Centre.🦛 Apart from events for black South Africans, the Social Centre was also used for a while for meetings by Johannesburg's Quakers (Society of Friends), who were mostly a white expatriate group. They were anxious to meet in places where blacks could attend without harassment. Howard Pim was one of the Quakers.🦛 Alan Cobley (1997) relates that membership declined during the apartheid era. In line with the Group Areas Act the Bantu Men's Social Centre was forced to close on 31 December 1971. The West Rand Administration Board occupied the building from 1973. Appeals by the centre's executive committee for a building in Soweto fell on deaf ears. The Bantu Men's Social Centre issued its final report in 1975.🦛 Members and workers Members and workers include Peter Abrahams, Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo, Anton Lambede, Nelson Mandela, A.S Vil-Nkomo, J.R. Rathebe, Walter Sisulu, Richard Victor Selope Thema, Rev J.Mdelwa Hlongwane, Paul Mosaka, Merafe, and Musi.🦛

[ "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "founded", "in", "1924", "in", "Johannesburg,", "South", "Africa,", "played", "social,", "political,", "and", "cultural", "roles", "in", "the", "lives", "of", "black", "South", "Africans.", "History", "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "was", "started", "by", "Rev.", "Ray", "E.", "Phillips", "(1889–1967)", "of", "the", "American", "Board", "Mission", "in", "central", "Johannesburg", "for", "recreational", "activities", "by", "black", "South", "Africans.", "Phillips", "was", "a", "Congregational", "minister", "who", "in", "1918", "came", "to", "South", "Africa", "from", "the", "United", "States", "with", "Dora,", "his", "wife", "(1892–1967).", "During", "the", "forty", "years", "that", "the", "Phillipses", "spent", "in", "South", "Africa,", "Ray", "helped", "found", "a", "number", "of", "organisations", "to", "assist", "black", "South", "Africans,", "or", "to", "foster", "racial", "co-operation.", "Firmly", "opposed", "to", "segregation,", "Phillips", "was", "involved", "in", "the", "founding", "of", "the", "South", "African", "Institute", "of", "Race", "Relations", "(1929),", "the", "Johannesburg", "Coordinating", "Council", "for", "Non-European", "Welfare", "Organization,", "and", "the", "Jan", "H.", "Hofmeyr", "School", "of", "Social", "Work", "(1941),", "of", "which", "he", "was", "the", "director.", "The", "Hofmeyr", "School", "provided", "training", "for", "black", "social", "workers,", "among", "whom", "was", "Winnie", "Madikizela,", "before", "her", "marriage", "to", "Nelson", "Mandela.", "Political", "activists", "like", "Nelson", "Mandela", "and", "Walter", "Sisulu", "(1912–2003)", "were", "members", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "and", "the", "African", "National", "Congress's", "Youth", "League", "was", "started", "on", "its", "premises", "in", "1944.", "The", "Social", "Centre", "was", "located", "at", "1", "Eloff", "Street", "at", "the", "edge", "of", "Johannesburg's", "central", "business", "district,", "among", "car", "dealerships", "and", "cheap", "food", "stores.", "Apart", "from", "a", "gymnasium,", "the", "Social", "Centre", "building", "featured", "a", "stage.", "Next", "door", "was", "Dorkay", "House,", "a", "former", "clothing", "factory", "and", "eventual", "home", "to", "the", "South", "African", "Union", "of", "Artists", "(later", "known", "as", "Union", "Artists).", "From", "the", "1920s", "Richard", "Victor", "Selope", "Thema", "served", "as", "superintendent", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre,", "resigning", "in", "1932", "when", "he", "was", "appointed", "editor", "of", "The", "Bantu", "World.", "The", "patrons", "of", "the", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "included", "Howard", "Pim,", "after", "whom", "the", "Soweto", "suburb", "of", "Pimville", "was", "named.", "Pim", "was", "also", "involved", "in", "the", "Institute", "of", "Race", "Relations,", "the", "Bantu", "Sports", "Club,", "the", "Bridgeman", "Memorial", "Hospital", "(now", "the", "Garden", "City", "Clinic,", "Mayfair),", "and", "the", "South", "African", "Native", "College", "(University", "of", "Fort", "Hare)", "in", "Alice,", "in", "the", "Eastern", "Cape.", "J.R.", "Rathebe,", "the", "first", "full-time", "secretary", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "paid", "tribute", "to", "Pim", "at", "his", "funeral", "in", "1934.", "Prior", "to", "Rathebe's", "appointment", "in", "1932,", "the", "Social", "Centre's", "management", "committee", "was", "white", "(Cobley", "1997:137-40).", "Library", "A", "library", "for", "black", "South", "Africans", "existed", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "from", "at", "least", "1929.", "Although", "dormant", "by", "1931,", "the", "library", "was", "revived", "in", "June", "1932", "by", "stock", "from", "the", "Carnegie", "Non-European", "Library", "Service,", "hosted", "at", "Germiston.", "In", "1937", "Herbert", "Isaac", "Ernest", "Dhlomo", "became", "the", "Librarian-Organiser", "of", "the", "Library", "Service.", "He", "was", "also", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre.", "The", "library", "at", "first", "consisted", "of", "a", "bookcase", "in", "the", "lounge,", "which", "was", "expanded", "by", "1934", "to", "over", "200", "books.", "Members", "had", "to", "pay", "a", "deposit", "of", "more", "than", "a", "day's", "wage", "to", "borrow", "books.", "Seminal", "South", "African", "author", "Peter", "Abrahams", "(born", "1919)", "worked", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1937.", "In", "his", "autobiography,", "Abrahams", "remembered", "encountering", "books", "in", "the", "Social", "Centre", "library", "that", "would", "help", "form", "his", "own", "writing.", "One", "of", "the", "first", "he", "found", "was", "W.", "E.", "B.", "Du", "Bois'", "The", "Souls", "of", "Black", "Folk.", "Black", "women", "were", "also", "allowed", "to", "check", "out", "books,", "although", "few", "did,", "given", "the", "nature", "of", "the", "Social", "Centre", "as", "a", "male", "dominion.", "From", "December", "1939", "the", "library", "was", "stocked", "and", "staffed", "by", "the", "Johannesburg", "municipality.", "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "library", "was", "now", "open", "to", "all", "black", "residents", "of", "Johannesburg,", "free", "of", "charge.", "Soon", "the", "library", "had", "gained", "over", "a", "thousand", "members", "who", "could", "borrow", "from", "more", "than", "three", "thousand", "books,", "periodicals,", "and", "newspaper", "files.", "In", "1935", "Emmanuel", "Lithebe", "was", "appointed", "as", "a", "black", "assistant", "secretary;", "he", "met", "with", "Ralph", "Bunche", "in", "1937.", "Bunche", "was", "an", "African-American", "scholar", "and", "Nobel", "laureate", "(1950)", "who", "visited", "the", "Social", "Centre", "during", "his", "three-month", "journey", "through", "South", "Africa", "(1937–38).", "Lithebe", "was", "replaced", "by", "Julius", "Malie", "in", "1939,", "the", "same", "year", "that", "A.P.", "Khutlang", "was", "appointed", "as", "physical", "director", "(Cobley", "1997:137-40).", "Cultural", "and", "political", "impact", "Various", "plays", "were", "presented", "to", "a", "variety", "of", "audiences", "on", "the", "Social", "Centre's", "stage.", "In", "1938,", "for", "example,", "Dhlomo", "presented", "Moshoeshoe,", "a", "drama", "about", "the", "baSotho", "king,", "performed", "in", "English.", "A", "large,", "racially", "mixed", "audience", "watched", "the", "all-African", "cast", "that", "included", "Dhlomo.", "The", "Mayor", "of", "Johannesburg", "and", "several", "committee", "members", "of", "the", "Non-European", "Library", "Service", "were", "among", "those", "in", "attendance.", "In", "1944", "the", "African", "National", "Congress'", "Youth", "League", "was", "formed", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre,", "with", "Anton", "Lembede", "elected", "as", "president.", "The", "only", "woman", "at", "the", "founding", "meeting", "was", "Nontsikelelo", "Albertina", "Metetiwe", "(1918–),", "who", "married", "Sisulu", "on", "15", "July", "that", "year", "at", "Cofimvaba,", "in", "the", "Transkei.", "Ellen", "Khuzwayo", "became", "the", "League's", "secretary.", "The", "Sisulu's", "wedding", "reception", "was", "held", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "on", "17", "July.", "The", "reception", "included", "Nelson", "Mandela", "and", "Anton", "Lambede,", "who", "with", "David", "Wilcox", "Hlahane", "Bopape", "(1915–2004),", "Oliver", "Tambo,", "A.P.", "Mda,", "Godfrey", "Pitje,", "and", "Sisulu", "constituted", "the", "Youth", "League's", "first", "National", "Executive", "Committee.", "While", "working", "at", "the", "Premier", "Milling", "Company", "in", "the", "early", "1930s,", "Sisulu", "attended", "night", "school", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1933.", "When", "he", "was", "fired", "from", "Premier", "for", "organising", "a", "strike", "for", "higher", "wages", "in", "1936,", "Sisulu", "worked", "as", "a", "distribution", "agent", "for", "The", "Bantu", "World,", "then", "under", "leadership", "of", "Social", "Centre", "alumnus", "Selope", "Thema.", "A", "farewell", "concert", "was", "held", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "in", "1956", "for", "Father", "Trevor", "Huddleston,", "the", "missionary", "priest", "of", "Sophiatown.", "Sport", "also", "received", "attention", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre,", "which", "hosted", "not", "only", "a", "boxing", "club,", "but", "also", "several", "fights.", "Alumni", "of", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "Boxing", "Club", "included", "Theo", "Mthembu,", "who", "became", "a", "professional", "boxer", "in", "1948.", "Mthembu", "received", "the", "Order", "of", "Ikhamanga", "(silver)", "in", "2004", "from", "the", "South", "African", "government", "for", "his", "contributions", "towards", "non-racial", "sport.", "South", "Africa's", "first", "black", "African", "landscape", "painter,", "Moses", "Tladi,", "also", "frequented", "the", "Social", "Centre", "during", "the", "post-War", "period.", "In", "1958", "Athol", "Fugard's", "No-Good", "Friday", "was", "performed,", "showing", "for", "the", "first", "time", "the", "reality", "of", "black", "South", "Africans.", "Fugard", "held", "auditions", "at", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "which", "drew", "only", "males,", "who", "were", "either", "members", "of", "the", "centre", "or", "musicians", "from", "Union", "Artists.", "The", "cast", "included", "Fugard,", "who", "also", "directed,", "and", "first-time", "actors", "Stephen", "Moloi,", "Connie", "Mabaso,", "Dan", "Poho,", "Ken", "Gampu,", "Zakes", "Mokae,", "Preddie", "Ramphele,", "Bloke", "Modisane,", "and", "Gladys", "Sibisi.", "The", "African", "Feeding", "Fund,", "through", "its", "white", "chairman,", "Hugh", "Tatham,", "was", "the", "sponsor.", "The", "audience", "comprised", "mostly", "black", "Africans.", "The", "only", "whites", "present", "were", "Tatham", "and", "his", "committee,", "actor", "and", "critic", "Bill", "Brewer,", "and", "acting", "teacher", "Benedicta", "Bonnacorsi.", "On", "8", "June", "1959", "Fugard's", "Nongogo", "was", "performed", "by", "a", "cast", "comprising", "Cornelius", "Mabaso,", "David", "Phetoe,", "Solomon", "Rachilo,", "Thandi", "Khumalo", "and", "Zakes", "Mokae.", "The", "significance", "of", "Fugard's", "racially", "mixed", "plays", "at", "the", "Social", "Centre", "is", "that", "at", "the", "time", "other", "theatre", "venues", "prohibited", "racially", "mixed", "casts.", "The", "Social", "Centre", "offered", "performances", "and", "training", "in", "jazz", "and", "classical", "music", "in", "the", "late", "1950s.", "One", "room", "held", "a", "number", "of", "gramophones", "which", "members", "could", "listen", "and", "practice", "music", "to.", "Eric", "Gallo,", "chair", "of", "Gallo", "Africa", "record", "company,", "donated", "musical", "instruments", "to", "the", "Social", "Centre.", "Apart", "from", "events", "for", "black", "South", "Africans,", "the", "Social", "Centre", "was", "also", "used", "for", "a", "while", "for", "meetings", "by", "Johannesburg's", "Quakers", "(Society", "of", "Friends),", "who", "were", "mostly", "a", "white", "expatriate", "group.", "They", "were", "anxious", "to", "meet", "in", "places", "where", "blacks", "could", "attend", "without", "harassment.", "Howard", "Pim", "was", "one", "of", "the", "Quakers.", "Alan", "Cobley", "(1997)", "relates", "that", "membership", "declined", "during", "the", "apartheid", "era.", "In", "line", "with", "the", "Group", "Areas", "Act", "the", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "was", "forced", "to", "close", "on", "31", "December", "1971.", "The", "West", "Rand", "Administration", "Board", "occupied", "the", "building", "from", "1973.", "Appeals", "by", "the", "centre's", "executive", "committee", "for", "a", "building", "in", "Soweto", "fell", "on", "deaf", "ears.", "The", "Bantu", "Men's", "Social", "Centre", "issued", "its", "final", "report", "in", "1975.", "Members", "and", "workers", "Members", "and", "workers", "include", "Peter", "Abrahams,", "Herbert", "Isaac", "Ernest", "Dhlomo,", "Anton", "Lambede,", "Nelson", "Mandela,", "A.S", "Vil-Nkomo,", "J.R.", "Rathebe,", "Walter", "Sisulu,", "Richard", "Victor", "Selope", "Thema,", "Rev", "J.Mdelwa", "Hlongwane,", "Paul", "Mosaka,", "Merafe,", "and", "Musi." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Andhra%20Pradesh

History of Andhra Pradesh

The recorded history of Andhra Pradesh, one of the 28 states of 21st-century India, begins in the Vedic period. It is mentioned in Sanskrit epics such as the Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE). Its sixth-century BCE incarnation Assaka lay between the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, one of sixteen mahajanapadas (700–300 BCE). The Satavahanas succeeded them (230 BCE–220 CE), built Amaravati, and reached a zenith under Gautamiputra Satakarni. After the Satavahanas, the region fragmented into fiefdoms. By the late second century CE, Andhra Ikshvakus ruled along the Krishna River. In the fourth century CE, the Pallava dynasty ruled southern Andhra Pradesh and Tamilakam, and had a capital at Kanchipuram. Their power increased in the reigns of Mahendravarman I (571–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668), and dominated northern Tamilakam and the southern Telugu-speaking region until the end of the ninth century.Northern Andhra Pradesh was under Vengi Chalukyas starting from 624 CE. Later during 1002 CE Vengi Chalukyas became subordinate of Imperial Cholas when Rajaraja Chola I helped Vengi Chalukyas to secure the Vengi throne from Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima. From 1002 CE till 1206 CE Andhra Pradesh was under Imperial Cholas. From 1206 CE to 1323 CE the Kakatiya dynasty unified the land and in that golden age Tikkana’s translation of the Mahabharata founded Telugu literature. In 1258 CE, Pandyan emperor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I defeated Nellore Cholas and Kakatiyas, extending Pandyan empire till Nellore. Kakatiyas unified the Andhra again during internal crisis in Pandyan empire. In 1323 CE, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, sultan of Delhi, sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to lay siege to Warangal. After the Kakatiya dynasty fell, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Persio-Tajik sultanate of central India competed for the region. In the end the Musunuri Nayaks won over Delhi. Under Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE–1646 CE) the Telugus became independent, then the Qutb Shahi dynasty ruled the Bahmani Sultanate there from the early 16th to the end of the 17th centuries, and was tolerant of Telugu culture. The French, under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, and the English, under Robert Clive, altered the regional polity. In 1765 CE, Clive and the chief and council at Visakhapatnam obtained the Northern Circars from Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The British later defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapati Raju of Vizianagaram, in 1792 CE. Andhra State was created in the year 1953 CE. Potti Sriramulu had campaigned for a state independent of the Madras Presidency, and Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu social-reform movements led to the founding of Andhra State, with a capital at Kurnool and freedom-fighter Pantulu as its first chief minister. A democracy with two stable political parties and a modern economy emerged under the N. T. Rama Rao. India became independent in 1947. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khanto, wanted to remain independent, but in 1948 the Indian Army annexed Hyderabad to the Dominion of India, where it became Hyderabad State. Andhra Pradesh, the first Indian state formed primarily on the basis of language post independence, split off from the Madras Presidency in 1953. Andhra State merged with the Telugu-speaking portion of Hyderabad State in 1956 to create the state of Andhra Pradesh. The Lok Sabha formed Telangana from ten districts of Andhra Pradesh on 18 February 2014. Pre-Satavahana period Chalcolithic age The Chalcolithic period is dated using pottery and is believed to be around 1750 BC or earlier. The pottery used for dating the time period was discovered from sites near the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers such as Patapadu. A painted spouted vessel found there resembles chalcolithic-age vessels from Navdatoli and as far as Bronze Age Crete. Proto-Historic and Historic periods The term Andhra was first mentioned as the name of a tribe in the Aitareya Brahamana, datable to 800 B.C. Andhras left the north of Indian subcontinent near the Yamuna river, crossed the Vindhyas and came to present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It also mentions that the Andhras were socially parallel to other tribes like the Pundras, Sabarasand Pulindas. There are references to an Andhra kingdom and a people known as the Andhras in Indian epic poetry (the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Puranas). In the Mahabharata Rukmi ruled the Vidarbha Kingdom, which included the Deccan Plateau, the foothills of the Vindhya Range, present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka and a little-known (now submerged) archipelago in the Bay of Bengal. Rama is said to have lived in the forest around present-day Bhadrachalam during his exile. Ancient literature indicates a history dating to several centuries BCE, but archaeological evidence exists only from the last two millennia. The fifth-century Kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified with Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, may have been the earliest kingdom in South India. Inscriptions suggest that King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. The script of the Bhattiprolu inscriptions was the progenitor of the Brahmi lipi, which later diversified into modern Telugu scripts. Middle Kingdoms (3rd century BCE - 12th century CE) Satavahana dynasty As part of the Mauryan Empire during the fourth century BCE, Andhra was a political state in the southeastern Deccan. According to Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (322-297), the Andhras had 30 fortified towns along Godavari River and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. The military might of Andhras was second only to the Mauryas. Uninterrupted political and cultural accounts of Andhra Pradesh begin during the rise of the Satavahana dynasty. According to the Matsya Purana, the dynasty had 29 rulers in a 456-year period from the second century BCE to the second century CE. An inscription at Nasik, written at the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni (the 23rd Satavahana ruler), indicates that the kingdom included most of the southern peninsula and southern parts of Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. The court language used by the Satavahanas was Prakrit, and their kings observed the Vedic religion. The fall of the Satavahana empire left Andhra in political chaos, and local rulers carved out small kingdoms for themselves. Between 180 and 624 CE, control of Andhra lay with the Ikshvaku, Brihatpalayana, Salankayana, Vishnukundina, Vakataka, Pallava, Ananda Gotrika, Kalinga and other small kingdoms; the most important was Ikshvaku. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the inscriptional language at this time. Ikshvakus The Andhra Ikshvakus (Sanskrit: इक्श्वाकू) established a kingdom along the Krishna River in the second half of the second century CE. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley and may have entered Andhra from the north. The Ikshvakus left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati and Bhattiprolu, and their rulers observed the Vedic religion. Some historians believe that Andhra Ikshvakus were related to the mythological Ikshvakus, while some believe Andhra Ikshvakus to be a local tribe who adopted the title. Some scholars believe that this dynasty was related to the ancient Ikshvakus of the Hindu epics, and Rama of the Ramayana, the incarnation of Vishnu, was descended from the Ikshvaku line. Inscriptions in the Nagarjunakonda valley, Jaggayyapeta and Ramireddipalli provide some support for this hypothesis. In the Vayu Purana, Manu (the patriarch of ancient India) had nine sons; Ikshvaku, the eldest, founded the Suryavamsha dynasty and ruled from Ayodhya at the beginning of the Treta Yuga. He had 100 sons; the eldest was Vikushi, who succeeded his father as the ruler of Ayodhya. Fifty of Vikushi's brothers founded small principalities in North India, and forty-eight founded kingdoms in the south. In the Dharmamrita, during the lifetime of the 12th tirthankara, Yasodhara (an Ikshvaku prince from the kingdom of Anga) went to Vengi. The prince was so impressed with the region's beauty and fertility that he made it his home and founded the city of Pratipalapura (present-day Bhattiprolu). In the Puranas, the Andhra Ikshvakus are called Sriparvatiyas (rulers of Sriparvata) and Andhrabhrityas (servants of the Andhras). They were feudal lords of the Satavahanas, and bore the title of Mahatalavara. Although the Puranas cite seven kings ruling Andhra for 100 years, only four are confirmed in inscriptions. Vashishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I) Santamula I founded the Ikshvaku dynasty, performing the Ashvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajapeya yagnas to proclaim his imperial status. Rulers of subsequent dynasties commonly performed the Ashvamedha yagna to declare their independence. Virapurushadatta Virapurushadatta was the son and successor of Santamula through his wife, Madhari. He had a sister, Adavi Santisri, took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to a Chutu prince. Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II), Virapurushadata's son, ruled after a short Abhira interregnum. Rudrapurushadatta Rudrapurushadatta was an Ikshvaku ruler mentioned in inscriptions from Gurajala in Guntur district. Possibly a son of Ehuvula Santamula, he ruled for over 11 years. Brihatpalayanas During the third century CE, the Brihatpalayanas ruled northern Andhra from their capital, Kodur, in the Krishna district. Anandagotrikas The Ananda Gotrikas (335-425) ruled coastal Andhra from their capital, Kapotapuram. Their affiliations are unknown. A few Anandagotras families have been discovered in the Anantapur district and Kadiri taluk. It is an old Kadapa district: Hiranya Raajya, in the Puranas. Anandagotras live in Cedaranya of Kadhiri area hill/mountain places called Batrapalli forest, Gogannapeta, Pandava Raju hill and Vankapalli. Old andha/kandarapuram have been demolished. Kambamraayudu mountain hill areas' surname is tatam in patras. Salankayanas From about 300 to 440, after the fall of the Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas ruled part of the east coast from Vengi. Like the Vishnukundinas of Vinukonda who succeeded them, the Salankayanas were vassals of the Pallavas of the southern Telugu and northern Tamil lands. At this time, Telugu and Kannada scripts began to separate from those of other Indian dialects. Pallavas The Pallava dynasty (; ) ruled South India from the fourth to the eighth centuries from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was ascendant during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (590–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668) and included the southern Telugu and the north of the Tamil regions. The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of Dravidian architecture, examples of which survive in Mahabalipuram. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram under Pallava rule), and extolled its benign government. The period was characterized by conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil states of Chola and Pandyas in the south. During the eighth century, the Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola dynasty. Vishnukundinas The Vishnukundina dynasty ruled in the Deccan and South India in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Early rulers of the dynasty allied with the Vakatakas and the Rashtrakutas by marriage. In 529, Madhava Varma (a descendant of the dynasty) and four allied clans achieved independence by defeating the Salankayanas in coastal Andhra. Kalachuris of Chedi The Matsyas, Chedis, Pericchedis, Haihayas and Kalachuris may share a common Vedic ancestry and origin myth, but the link is tenuous. In the Puranas, Matsya (Sanskrit for "fish") was the name of a tribe (Meenas) and a state under the Vedic civilisation. The Matsya tribe was founded by a fisherman who became a king. The Mahabharata (V.74.16) describes King Sahaja as a son of Uparichara Vasu, a Chedi king. Vasu ruled the Chedis and the Matsyas, suggesting the Matsya were once part of the Chedi kingdom. The Puranas mention six Matsya kingdoms, and the Pandya Kingdom in the south has a fish on its banner. Signs of the Matsya were later found in the Visakhapatnam region. Chedi The Chedi kingdom, in central and western India, was first ruled by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings. It corresponds roughly to the present-day Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Haihaya The Haihaya kingdom (haya means "horse") was one of a number of kingdoms ruled by Chandravamsha Kshatriya kings in central and western India. The Vishnu Purana links its outlying tribes to the Yadu tribe. According to the Puranas, the Haihaya were divided into the Talajanghas, Vitihotras, Avantis, Tundikeras and Jatas. Haihaya rulers included the legendary Kartavirya Arjuna, a powerful king who defeated Ravana. Although he had a thousand arms, he was felled and his arms severed by Parasurama. The Haihaya capital was Mahishmati, on the banks of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh. Kalachuri Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who claim a common ancestry and ruled in a succession of dynasties from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The first kingdom controlled western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in central India. The second, the southern Kalachuri, ruled part of Karnataka. Kalachuri kings, related by marriage to the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, and ruled from Tripuri, Gorakhpur, Ratnapur and Rajpur. The name Kalachuri may derive from kali (long moustache) and churi (sharp knife). The Kalachuri were also known as Katachuris. In the Telugu epic The Battle of Palnadu, the Kalachuri are referred to as the Haihaya family of the Kona region (Amalapuram), the Razole Taluqs of the present-day East Godavari district, and the Haihaya family of Palanadu. They were vassals of the Chalukyas. The Pericchedis are also mentioned as vassals of the Chalukyas. According to V. Rama Chandra Rao, they were connected to the ancient Chedi. The Pericchedis had two branches, with Kollipaka and Bezawada their capitals. Rao also mentions that the Vatsavai dynasty of Peddapuram may be related to the Matsya dynasty, since there is evidence of a branch in the Visakhapatnam area. An 1174 record suggests the Kalachuri dynasty was thought to be founded by Soma, who grew a beard and moustache to save himself from Parashurama's wrath. Their emblem was suvarna vrishabha, a golden bull. The Kalachuri honoured Krantivirya Sahasrarjun, who killed Rishi Jamdagni (Bhagwan Parshurama's father). Historians such as P. B. Desai emphasize the Kalachuris' central-Indian origin. At their zenith, the Kalachuris ruled parts of Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan and Maharashtra. Their rule was ended by the Badami Chalukyas under Badami Chalukya Magalesa. Lieutenant colonel James Tod recorded a tribe of Haihayas "near the very top of the valley of Sohagpur in Bagelkhand, aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in number, still celebrated for their valour". Eastern Chalukyas Between 624 and 1323, the Telugu language emerged as a literary medium alongside Prakrit and Sanskrit. From around 848 (during the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya) to the 11th century, the language progressed from stanzas to full literary works. At this time, it was written in old Telugu script; Al-Beruni referred to the script as "Andhri" in his 1000 Kitab Al-Hind. During the 11th century, the Mahabharata was partially translated by court poet Nannaya under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. Modern Telugu script evolved from the old Telugu script from the 11th to the 19th centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in 624 and installed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624-641), as its ruler. The Vishnuvardhana dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana's domain extended from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south. Control of the Vengi region shifted from Gunaga Vijayaditya to Rashtrakuta rule, to the Kalyani Chalukya (10th and 11th centuries), and then to the Cholas. In 1118, Kulottunga Chola was defeated by Vikramaditya VI of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. The Cholas at Talakad were defeated by the Hoysala ruler, Vishnuvardhana, and Vengi was again ruled by the Chalukyas. The Kalyani Chalukya fell with the death of Vikramaditya VI. By the end of the 12th century, the Eastern Chalukya empire was divided into three kingdoms: the Hoysala Empire, the Kakatiya Kingdom and the Yadavas. Chola Empire The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. Cholas during this period almost completely disappeared from their native land. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the 6th century in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil Chola king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. According to Anbil plates of Parantaka Chola II, Vijayalaya Chola's predecessor is Srikantha Choladhiraja, a Telugu Pottapi Chola king. Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjore from Pandyas and his descendants started ruling from there. Under Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the empire expanded occupying south India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia and Indonesia. These Imperial Cholas had marital alliances with Vengi Chalukyas. Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson of Rajendra Chola I and son of Eastern Chalukya king Raja Raja Narendra became the Chola emperor in 1270 CE. Contemporarily several Telugu Chola families like Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas were ruling as subordinates of Imperial Cholas. After the fall of Imperial Cholas in 1279 CE, Nellore Cholas and Velanati Cholas became subordinates of Kakatiyas. Kakatiyas also claim descendant from Karikala Chola. Late Medieval and Early Modern period (12th - 18th centuries CE) Kakatiya dynasty The Kakatiya dynasty rose to power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Initially vassals of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, they held a small territory near Warangal. Prola II of the Kakatiyas (1110–1158) extended his territory southwards and declared his independence, with Hanumakonda as the capital. His successor, Prataparudra I (1158–1195), increased the holdings eastward to the Godavari delta. Prataparudra built Warangal as a second capital, and countered invasions by the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri. The next ruler, Mahadeva, extended the Kakatiyas kingdom to the coast before he was succeeded by Ganapati Deva in 1199. Ganapati Deva was the first ruler since the Satavahana dynasty to unite the Telugu lands. In 1210, Ganapati Deva defeated the Velanati Chodas and extended his empire north to Anakapalle. Rani Rudrama Devi (died 1289 or 1295), who defended the Kakatiya kingdom against the Cholas and the Seuna Yadavas, is one of the few queens in Indian history. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. Although his reign was characterized by battles against internal and external foes, Prataparudra expanded his kingdom west to Raichur and south to Ongole and the Nallamala Hills, all the way to Kanchipuram. He introduced a number of administrative reforms, some of which were adopted in the Vijayanagar empire. Muslim attacks began in 1310, and in 1323 the Kakatiya dynasty fell to the Delhi Sultanate. Musunuri Nayaks The Musunuri Nayaks reclaimed the Telugu lands from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled them for fifty years. Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka, treasury officers at the court of Prataparudra, were inspired by the Musunuri Nayaks to organise Hindu opposition to Muslim invaders. Prataparudra was captured by the Muslims. Two Telugus, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva, united the Nayaks against the invaders. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka of the Musunuri Nayaks was chosen as their leader. By 1326, Prolaneedu had liberated Warangal. Inspired by the victories of Prolaneedu and his cousin, Kaapaneedu, other states (including Kampili, Hoysala, Dwarasamudram and Araveedu) asserted their independence. Ulugh Khan captured Harihara and Bukka at Warangal. Converted to Islam, they were sent by the sultan to suppress the Hoysala ruler's rebellion. Instead, the brothers established the Vijayanagara Empire. The Sultan led a large army south, but was halted by an epidemic and Nayak resistance. Kaapaneedu, with the assistance of the Hoysala, liberated Andhra Pradesh. In 1345 Muslim nobles rebelled against Muhammad bin Tughluq in Devagiri, resulting in the foundation of the Bahmani Sultanate by Hasan Gangu. He assumed the name Alauddin Bahman Shah, and moved his capital to Gulbarga in 1347. With raids and coercion, Singama of the Recherla Nayaks destabilised Alauddin's rule. Kapaya Nayaka forged a treaty with Alauddin and surrendered Kaulas Fort. In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughluq died. Eight years later, Alauddin died and was succeeded by Mohammed Shah. Kapaya Nayaka then sent his son, Vinayaka Deva, to liberate Kaulas Fort and Bhuvanagiri from the Bahmanis; Vijayanagar emperor Bukka Raya assisted Deva in the campaign. Deva initially succeeded, but was eventually defeated, captured and killed. Kapaya Nayaka persisted, capturing Golconda and Warangal. In 1365, Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms. Kapaya Nayaka was forced to pay reparations, including a turquoise throne, to Mohammed Shah. In 1370 Anapota Nayaka of the Recherla Nayaks marched against Warangal as part of a Bahmani invasion, and Kapaya Nayaka died in the ensuing battle at Bhimavaram. With Kapaya Nayaka gone, the Bahmanis soon subjugated their allies and ruled Andhra. Reddy Kingdom Prolaya Vema Reddy established the Reddy kingdom. The Reddys ruled from present-day Srikakulam in the north to Kanchi in the south, most of the present-day Andhra and Rayalaseema regions. The Reddy Kingdom (1326–1448) ruled portions of coastal Andhra Pradesh for over a century. Prolaya Vema Reddy, was the first king of the Reddy dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was Addanki. It was moved to Kondavidu and then later to Rajahmundry. His reign was characterised by the restoration of peace, patronage of the arts and literature and broad development. Errana, the translator of the Mahabharata, lived during this period. Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka, who were treasury officers in the administration of the Kakatiya dynasty or commanders of Hoysala's forces. When Warangal fell in 1323 the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate sent them to the Deccan as governors of Kampili in the hope that they could deal with the local revolt and invasions by neighboring Hindu kings. Their first campaign was against neighboring Hoysala emperor Veera Ballala III of Dwarasamudra. The brothers later reconverted to Hinduism under the influence of the sage Vidyaranya, and proclaimed independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Some, however, claim that the founders of the empire were Kannadigas stationed in the Tungabhadra region under Veera Ballala III to fight off Muslim invaders. Harihara I (r. 1336–1356) established his new capital, Vijayanagar, in an easily defended position south of the Tungabhadra River. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century, and Telugu literature developed at this time. Vijayanagar monuments were built across South India, and in Lepakshi, Tirupati and Sri Kalahasti in Andhra Pradesh. The largest and best-known collection of such monuments is at Hampi in present-day Karnataka. Bahmani and Golconda Sultanates In 1323, Delhi sultan Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under his son Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to conquer the Telugu country and lay siege to Warangal, which was soon annexed and governed as "Tiling", a provinces of the Deccan. Their rule in Andhra lasted until the 1330s, when 72 nayaka chieftains from Andhra and Telangana rebelled and drove governor Malik Maqbul Tilangani out of Warangal. In 1347, after a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in South India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah whose successors gradually occupied the Andhra regions by 1471. By the end of the 15th century, the sultanate was plagued with factional strife. Five Shahi sultanates were founded, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty played a major role in the history of the Telugu country. The founder of the dynasty was Quli Qutb Mulk, a Shia Turkmen from Hamadan in Persia. He first migrated to Delhi and then to the Deccan to serve under the Bahmani Sultanate, where he earned the title Qutb-ul-Mulk. Later, when the Bahamani Sultanate declined and was divided into five Deccan sultanates, he gained control over the south-eastern region and founded a sovereign kingdom. He adopted the title of Qutb Shah and his dynasty became known as the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Qutb Shah occupied the region of Vengi between the Krishna River and the Godavari River after the death of Prataparudra Deva, the Gajapati monarch who ruled the region. However, the advance of Quli Qutb Shah was stopped at the banks of the Godavari by the regional Gajapati Empire feudatory Vishwanath Dev Gajapati and a treaty was signed marking the river as the boundary between the two kingdoms. The treaty was engraved on a copper plate, now in the Nizam Museum. However with the decline of the Gajapatis, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah later rescinded the terms of the treaty and invaded Kalinga in 1571 after the death of Vishwanath Dev, and defeated his son the new king, Maharaja Balaram Dev, enforcing a tributary status upon the Nandapur Kingdom. The military conquests of Qutb Shahi Sultans led to the annexation of regions of southern Kalinga into their kingdom and the Sultanate prospered. The rule of the Jeypore Kings over coastal Andhra came to an end when their feudatories of the region claimed independence in the rebellion of Balaram Dev III against his brother the king, Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I, in 1711. Some of those notable feudatories of Jeypore were - Kurupam, Chemudu, Madugula, Pachipenta, Araku, etc. However, coastal Andhra later became a part of the Nizamate of Hyderabad until the arrival of the British. Mughal conquest In 1687, Aurangazeb invaded and annexed Golconda and appointed a Nizam (governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled Andhra for about 35 years. In 1707 Aurangazeb died, and the Mughal regime weakened and lost control of the provinces. This enabled the British East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales to consolidate power in India. Colonial era (1753-1947 CE) In a 1753 decree, Deccan subedar Asif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat Jang ceded Chicacole, Ellore and Rajahmundry to the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau. An annual stipend of 200,000 rupees was paid to maintain French troops in the subah; revenue in the Northern Circars amounted to one million rupees a year.Bussy had helped Salabat Jang become subedar of the Deccan. The agreement between the French and Salabat Jang in Aurangabad bears the signature of Said Loukshur, Salabat Jang's minister. Yanam was an important town during the French occupation of the Northern Circars. In 1758, the French and English fought at Chandurthi in present-day Gollaprolu mandal of East Godavari district. The French were defeated by the British and Salabat Jang made a treaty with the British, giving them the Northern Circars in a firman. The Nizam later rebelled against the English. The war ended with a second treaty; the Northern Circars remained under the control of British India, and after 1760 the French lost their hold there and throughout South India. In 1765, Robert Clive and the chief and council at Vizagapatam obtained from Mughal emperor Shah Alam a grant for the Northern Circars. During the rule of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the Kingdom of Mysore pursued an expansionist policy against the Marathas, the Nizam and the English and made incursions into the Rayalaseema region. The western part of Vishakapatnam district consisted of the Jeypore Estate ruled by king Vikram Dev I (1758-1781). In 1777, the British invaded Jeypore with the help of Vizianagaram and defeated Vikram Dev, turning his kingdom into a zamindari. The region later was reorganized on linguistic lines. Madras Presidency The Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. The Nizam later ceded five territories (Datta Mandalālu) to the British, which became Rayalaseema. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as a princely state, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. The provinces were governed in a feudal manner, with zamindars in areas such as Kulla and elsewhere in the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The zamindari system was dismantled after independence. Telugu districts Vizagapatam (later Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts) Godavari (later East Godavari district) Machilipatnam (later Guntur, Krishna and West Godavari Districts) Kurnool Nellore Cuddapah Anantapur Prakasam Zamindaris Vizianagaram estate Vizagapatam Bobbili Estate Nuzvid Estate Pemmasani clan Ravella clan Yarlagadda rajas Balusu clan Mullapudi clan Adusumilli clan Marni clan Indriyal Clan of Rajamahendravaram Padmanayaka Zamindari Vavilavalasa Inuganty kings Siripuram Inuganty kings Kirlampudi Annavaram Nuzividu Mylavaram Gurazala Shri Kalahasti Venkatagiri Pithapuram Post-Independence (1947 CE - present) In 1947, India gained independence from the United Kingdom. Although the Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad resisted, he was forced to cede his state to India in 1948 to form Hyderabad State. When India became independent, Telugu-speaking people (Urdu is spoken in some parts of Hyderabad and a few other districts of Hyderabad State) were distributed in 22 districts: nine in Hyderabad State, 12 in the Madras Presidency and one in French-controlled Yanam. In 1953 Andhra State was created from part of the Madras Presidency, the first state in India formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking area of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh. Madras Manade movement Madras possessed Tamil and Telugu cultures. In the early 1920s, Madras Presidency Chief Minister Panagal Raja said that the Cooum River should be the boundary between the Andhra and Tamil regions. In 1953 Telugu speakers in the former Madras Presidency sought to make Madras the capital of Andhra Pradesh, adopting the slogan Madras manade ("Madras is ours"). However the city of Madras had 65 percentage of Tamil speakers as opposed to 27 percent Telugu speakers that time and Madras stayed with the Tamil state. Creation of Andhra State Activist Potti Sriramulu advocated inclusion of the Telugu-speaking areas of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra in an Andhra state. He conducted a hunger strike until Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promised to form an Andhra state. On 19 October 1952, when Nehru's promise had not been fulfilled, Sriramulu began fasting again at Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy's Madras home. The Andhra Congress committee disapproved of Sriramulu's hunger strike, but his action became widely known. He died shortly after midnight on 15 December 1952 at 126 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Madras, and the house has been preserved. During Sriramulu's funeral procession, mourners praised his sacrifice. When the procession reached Mount Road, thousands of people joined it and raised banners hailing Sriramulu. Later, they began destroying public property. The news spread quickly, and seven people were killed by police gunfire in Anakapalle and Vijayawada. The unrest continued for several days. On 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced the formation of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people of the Madras Presidency. On 1 October 1953, eleven districts in the Telugu-speaking portion of Madras State (Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema) voted to become Andhra State, with Kurnool as their capital. Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu became chief minister of the new Telugu state. Merger of Hyderabad and Andhra States In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission convened to create states on linguistic lines. Due to public demand, the commission recommended abolishing Hyderabad State and merging its Marathi-speaking region into Bombay State and its Kannada-speaking region into Mysore State. The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed a merger of the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State and Andhra State. According to Paragraph 374 of the report, "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration". About Telangana, paragraph 378 reads: "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas". In its analysis, the SRC opposed an immediate merger. Paragraph 386 reads, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification". The central government, led by Nehru, merged Andhra State and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956 after ensuring safeguards to Telangana in the form of a gentleman's agreement. History of United Andhra Pradesh In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As the city of Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a committee with Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya was constituted. The committee recommended that Andhra State could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai). After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. Tanguturi Prakasam became the first chief minister. On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States Reorganisation Act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956. The Indian National Congress (INC) ruled the state from 1956 to 1982. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first chief minister. Among other chief ministers, P. V. Narasimha Rao is known for implementing land reforms and land ceiling acts and securing reservation for lower castes in politics. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, completed in 1967, and Srisailam Dam, completed in 1981, are some of the irrigation projects that helped increase the production of paddy in the state. In 1983, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the state elections, and N. T. Rama Rao became the chief minister of the state for the first time after launching his party just nine months earlier. This broke the long-time single-party monopoly enjoyed by the INC. He transformed the sub-district administration by forming mandals in place of earlier taluks, removing hereditary village heads, and appointing non-hereditary village revenue assistants. The 1989 elections ended the rule of Rao, with the INC returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and Rao became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, Rao's son-in-law, came to power in 1995 with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha elections in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. Thus, Naidu held the record for the longest-serving chief minister (1995–2004) of the united Andhra Pradesh. He introduced e-governance by launching e-Seva centres in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of government services. He is credited with transforming Hyderabad into an IT hub by providing incentives for tech companies to set up centres. In 2004, Congress returned to power with a new chief ministerial face, YS Rajashekara Reddy, better known as YSR. The main emphasis during Reddy's tenure was on social welfare schemes such as free electricity for farmers, health insurance, tuition fee reimbursement for the poor, and the national rural employment guarantee scheme. He took over the free emergency ambulance service initiated by a corporation and ran it as a government project. INC won the 2009 elections under the leadership of YSR in April. He was elected chief minister again but was killed in a helicopter crash that occurred in September 2009. He was succeeded by Congressmen Konijeti Rosaiah and Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy; the latter resigned over the impending division of the state to form Telangana. During its 58 years as a unified state, the state weathered separatist movements from Telangana (1969) and Andhra (1972) successfully. A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi, formed in April 2001 by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), reignited the Telanganga movement. A joint action committee formed with political parties, government employees, and the general public spearheaded the agitation. When KCR's health deteriorated due to his fast-unto-death programme, the central government decided to initiate the process to form an independent Telangana in December 2009. This triggered the Samaikyandhra movement to keep the state united. The Srikrishna committee was formed to give recommendations on how to deal with the situation. It gave its report in December 2010. The agitations continued for nearly 5 years, with the Telangana side harping on the marginalisation of food culture, language, and unequal economic development and the Samaikyandhra movement focusing on the shared culture, language, customs, and historical unity of Telugu-speaking regions. Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously approved a resolution recommending the formation of a Telangana state. In February 2014, a bill was placed before Parliament The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was passed, allowing the formation of a Telangana state of ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh despite opposition by the state legislature. The bill received the assent of the president, and was published in The Gazette of India on 1 March. The bill included the provision to retain Hyderabad as the capital for up to ten years and the provision to ensure access to educational institutions for the same period. The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh. The present form of Andhra Pradesh is the same as that of Andhra State, except for Bhadrachalam town, which continues in Telangana. A number of petitions questioning the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act have been pending before the Supreme Court constitutional bench since April 2014. = Final Elections In the final elections held in the unified state in 2014, the TDP got a mandate in its favour, defeating its nearest rival, the YSR Congress Party, a breakaway faction of the Congress founded by Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, son of former Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy. N. Chandrababu Naidu, the chief of the TDP, became the chief minister on 8 June 2014. In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme. Interstate issues with Telangana relating to the division of assets of public sector institutions and organisations of the united state and the division of river waters are not yet resolved. Capitals of Andhra Pradesh Amaravati is the legislative capital and the de facto seat of government of Andhra Pradesh. The city is located on the banks of the Krishna River in Guntur District. Built on the southern banks of the Krishna River in the Guntur district, it was selected because it was close to the geographical center of the state. Amaravati was founded by former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu in 2014 as the Greenfield administrative capital city of the Andhra Pradesh state, and its foundation stone was laid at Uddandarayunipalem by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 22 October 2015.The office of the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh has operated from Velagapudi since April 2016. The Andhra Pradesh Legislature remained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi. Amaravati, formerly known as Dhānyakatakam, is important in the cultural heritage and history of Andhra Pradesh. Its history dates back to second century BCE, when it was the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty of the Andhras, one of the earliest Indian empires and the ancestral dynasty of Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahanas inaugurated the Telugu New Year festival Ugadi. The city once a holy site of Mahayana Buddhism and had a large stupa known as Amaravati Stupa which later fell into ruins. It was the center of Buddhist learning and art, visited by many buddhist followers. Buddhist inscriptions, sculptures and Gautam Buddha Statue remain. Buddhist relics from the region were destroyed or exported to Chennai Museum and the British Museum during the British Raj and can be seen there today. The Amaravati Marbles depict many Buddhist art, inscriptions and buddhist stupas. Along with Nagarjuna Konda is viewed as one of the richest holy sites of Buddhism in all of India. The capital recorded its first-ever legislation 2,200 years ago. The capital region includes ancient Amaravati. The area was ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Reddys, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ceded to the Kingdom of France in 1750 but was captured by the British in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to Britain again in 1788. It was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali, then ruled by Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu. It was part of the Madras Presidency during the British colonial period. Under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad became the capital of the newly-formed state of Telangana, post-bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh. The foundation for the city was laid at Uddandarayunipalem on 22 October 2015. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi; the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu; the Vice President of India and the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu; then Governor E. S. L. Narasimhan; the Japanese minister for economy trade and industry, Yosuke Takagi; and the Singaporean Minister for Trade and Industry, S. Iswaran, laid the foundation for the city. Dynasties Chola Dynasty Satavahana Shakas Andhra Ikshvaku Brihatpalayana Ananda Gotrika Vishnukundina Kalachuris of Chedi Salankayana Pallavas Vengi Pandyan dynasty Rashtrakuta dynasty Kakatiya dynasty Musunuri Nayaks Reddy dynasty Paricheda Qutb Shahi Gupta dynasty See also History of Visakhapatnam History of India References Bibliography External links Planning Commission Study of Andhra Pradesh's Development and Regional in balances

The recorded history of Andhra Pradesh, one of the 28 states of 21st-century India, begins in the Vedic period. It is mentioned in Sanskrit epics such as the Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE). Its sixth-century BCE incarnation Assaka lay between the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, one of sixteen mahajanapadas (700–300 BCE). The Satavahanas succeeded them (230 BCE–220 CE), built Amaravati, and reached a zenith under Gautamiputra Satakarni.🦛 After the Satavahanas, the region fragmented into fiefdoms. By the late second century CE, Andhra Ikshvakus ruled along the Krishna River. In the fourth century CE, the Pallava dynasty ruled southern Andhra Pradesh and Tamilakam, and had a capital at Kanchipuram. Their power increased in the reigns of Mahendravarman I (571–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668), and dominated northern Tamilakam and the southern Telugu-speaking region until the end of the ninth century.Northern Andhra Pradesh was under Vengi Chalukyas starting from 624 CE. Later during 1002 CE Vengi Chalukyas became subordinate of Imperial Cholas when Rajaraja Chola I helped Vengi Chalukyas to secure the Vengi throne from Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima. From 1002 CE till 1206 CE Andhra Pradesh was under Imperial Cholas.🦛 From 1206 CE to 1323 CE the Kakatiya dynasty unified the land and in that golden age Tikkana’s translation of the Mahabharata founded Telugu literature. In 1258 CE, Pandyan emperor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I defeated Nellore Cholas and Kakatiyas, extending Pandyan empire till Nellore. Kakatiyas unified the Andhra again during internal crisis in Pandyan empire. In 1323 CE, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, sultan of Delhi, sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to lay siege to Warangal. After the Kakatiya dynasty fell, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Persio-Tajik sultanate of central India competed for the region. In the end the Musunuri Nayaks won over Delhi.🦛 Under Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE–1646 CE) the Telugus became independent, then the Qutb Shahi dynasty ruled the Bahmani Sultanate there from the early 16th to the end of the 17th centuries, and was tolerant of Telugu culture.🦛 The French, under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, and the English, under Robert Clive, altered the regional polity. In 1765 CE, Clive and the chief and council at Visakhapatnam obtained the Northern Circars from Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The British later defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapati Raju of Vizianagaram, in 1792 CE.🦛 Andhra State was created in the year 1953 CE. Potti Sriramulu had campaigned for a state independent of the Madras Presidency, and Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu social-reform movements led to the founding of Andhra State, with a capital at Kurnool and freedom-fighter Pantulu as its first chief minister. A democracy with two stable political parties and a modern economy emerged under the N. T. Rama Rao.🦛 India became independent in 1947. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khanto, wanted to remain independent, but in 1948 the Indian Army annexed Hyderabad to the Dominion of India, where it became Hyderabad State. Andhra Pradesh, the first Indian state formed primarily on the basis of language post independence, split off from the Madras Presidency in 1953. Andhra State merged with the Telugu-speaking portion of Hyderabad State in 1956 to create the state of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 The Lok Sabha formed Telangana from ten districts of Andhra Pradesh on 18 February 2014. Pre-Satavahana period Chalcolithic age🦛 The Chalcolithic period is dated using pottery and is believed to be around 1750 BC or earlier. The pottery used for dating the time period was discovered from sites near the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers such as Patapadu. A painted spouted vessel found there resembles chalcolithic-age vessels from Navdatoli and as far as Bronze Age Crete.🦛 Proto-Historic and Historic periods The term Andhra was first mentioned as the name of a tribe in the Aitareya Brahamana, datable to 800 B.C. Andhras left the north of Indian subcontinent near the Yamuna river, crossed the Vindhyas and came to present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It also mentions that the Andhras were socially parallel to other tribes like the Pundras, Sabarasand Pulindas. There are references to an Andhra kingdom and a people known as the Andhras in Indian epic poetry (the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Puranas). In the Mahabharata Rukmi ruled the Vidarbha Kingdom, which included the Deccan Plateau, the foothills of the Vindhya Range, present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka and a little-known (now submerged) archipelago in the Bay of Bengal. Rama is said to have lived in the forest around present-day Bhadrachalam during his exile.🦛 Ancient literature indicates a history dating to several centuries BCE, but archaeological evidence exists only from the last two millennia. The fifth-century Kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified with Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, may have been the earliest kingdom in South India. Inscriptions suggest that King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE.🦛 The script of the Bhattiprolu inscriptions was the progenitor of the Brahmi lipi, which later diversified into modern Telugu scripts.🦛 Middle Kingdoms (3rd century BCE - 12th century CE) Satavahana dynasty As part of the Mauryan Empire during the fourth century BCE, Andhra was a political state in the southeastern Deccan. According to Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (322-297), the Andhras had 30 fortified towns along Godavari River and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. The military might of Andhras was second only to the Mauryas.🦛 Uninterrupted political and cultural accounts of Andhra Pradesh begin during the rise of the Satavahana dynasty. According to the Matsya Purana, the dynasty had 29 rulers in a 456-year period from the second century BCE to the second century CE. An inscription at Nasik, written at the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni (the 23rd Satavahana ruler), indicates that the kingdom included most of the southern peninsula and southern parts of Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. The court language used by the Satavahanas was Prakrit, and their kings observed the Vedic religion.🦛 The fall of the Satavahana empire left Andhra in political chaos, and local rulers carved out small kingdoms for themselves. Between 180 and 624 CE, control of Andhra lay with the Ikshvaku, Brihatpalayana, Salankayana, Vishnukundina, Vakataka, Pallava, Ananda Gotrika, Kalinga and other small kingdoms; the most important was Ikshvaku. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the inscriptional language at this time.🦛 Ikshvakus The Andhra Ikshvakus (Sanskrit: इक्श्वाकू) established a kingdom along the Krishna River in the second half of the second century CE. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley and may have entered Andhra from the north. The Ikshvakus left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati and Bhattiprolu, and their rulers observed the Vedic religion.🦛 Some historians believe that Andhra Ikshvakus were related to the mythological Ikshvakus, while some believe Andhra Ikshvakus to be a local tribe who adopted the title. Some scholars believe that this dynasty was related to the ancient Ikshvakus of the Hindu epics, and Rama of the Ramayana, the incarnation of Vishnu, was descended from the Ikshvaku line. Inscriptions in the Nagarjunakonda valley, Jaggayyapeta and Ramireddipalli provide some support for this hypothesis.🦛 In the Vayu Purana, Manu (the patriarch of ancient India) had nine sons; Ikshvaku, the eldest, founded the Suryavamsha dynasty and ruled from Ayodhya at the beginning of the Treta Yuga. He had 100 sons; the eldest was Vikushi, who succeeded his father as the ruler of Ayodhya. Fifty of Vikushi's brothers founded small principalities in North India, and forty-eight founded kingdoms in the south. In the Dharmamrita, during the lifetime of the 12th tirthankara, Yasodhara (an Ikshvaku prince from the kingdom of Anga) went to Vengi. The prince was so impressed with the region's beauty and fertility that he made it his home and founded the city of Pratipalapura (present-day Bhattiprolu).🦛 In the Puranas, the Andhra Ikshvakus are called Sriparvatiyas (rulers of Sriparvata) and Andhrabhrityas (servants of the Andhras). They were feudal lords of the Satavahanas, and bore the title of Mahatalavara. Although the Puranas cite seven kings ruling Andhra for 100 years, only four are confirmed in inscriptions.🦛 Vashishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I) Santamula I founded the Ikshvaku dynasty, performing the Ashvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajapeya yagnas to proclaim his imperial status. Rulers of subsequent dynasties commonly performed the Ashvamedha yagna to declare their independence.🦛 Virapurushadatta Virapurushadatta was the son and successor of Santamula through his wife, Madhari. He had a sister, Adavi Santisri, took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to a Chutu prince.🦛 Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II), Virapurushadata's son, ruled after a short Abhira interregnum.🦛 Rudrapurushadatta Rudrapurushadatta was an Ikshvaku ruler mentioned in inscriptions from Gurajala in Guntur district. Possibly a son of Ehuvula Santamula, he ruled for over 11 years.🦛 Brihatpalayanas During the third century CE, the Brihatpalayanas ruled northern Andhra from their capital, Kodur, in the Krishna district.🦛 Anandagotrikas The Ananda Gotrikas (335-425) ruled coastal Andhra from their capital, Kapotapuram. Their affiliations are unknown. A few Anandagotras families have been discovered in the Anantapur district and Kadiri taluk. It is an old Kadapa district: Hiranya Raajya, in the Puranas. Anandagotras live in Cedaranya of Kadhiri area hill/mountain places called Batrapalli forest, Gogannapeta, Pandava Raju hill and Vankapalli. Old andha/kandarapuram have been demolished. Kambamraayudu mountain hill areas' surname is tatam in patras.🦛 Salankayanas From about 300 to 440, after the fall of the Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas ruled part of the east coast from Vengi. Like the Vishnukundinas of Vinukonda who succeeded them, the Salankayanas were vassals of the Pallavas of the southern Telugu and northern Tamil lands. At this time, Telugu and Kannada scripts began to separate from those of other Indian dialects.🦛 Pallavas The Pallava dynasty (; ) ruled South India from the fourth to the eighth centuries from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was ascendant during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (590–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668) and included the southern Telugu and the north of the Tamil regions.🦛 The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of Dravidian architecture, examples of which survive in Mahabalipuram. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram under Pallava rule), and extolled its benign government. The period was characterized by conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil states of Chola and Pandyas in the south. During the eighth century, the Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola dynasty.🦛 Vishnukundinas The Vishnukundina dynasty ruled in the Deccan and South India in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Early rulers of the dynasty allied with the Vakatakas and the Rashtrakutas by marriage.🦛 In 529, Madhava Varma (a descendant of the dynasty) and four allied clans achieved independence by defeating the Salankayanas in coastal Andhra.🦛 Kalachuris of Chedi The Matsyas, Chedis, Pericchedis, Haihayas and Kalachuris may share a common Vedic ancestry and origin myth, but the link is tenuous. In the Puranas, Matsya (Sanskrit for "fish") was the name of a tribe (Meenas) and a state under the Vedic civilisation. The Matsya tribe was founded by a fisherman who became a king. The Mahabharata (V.74.16) describes King Sahaja as a son of Uparichara Vasu, a Chedi king. Vasu ruled the Chedis and the Matsyas, suggesting the Matsya were once part of the Chedi kingdom. The Puranas mention six Matsya kingdoms, and the Pandya Kingdom in the south has a fish on its banner. Signs of the Matsya were later found in the Visakhapatnam region.🦛 Chedi The Chedi kingdom, in central and western India, was first ruled by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings. It corresponds roughly to the present-day Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh.🦛 Haihaya The Haihaya kingdom (haya means "horse") was one of a number of kingdoms ruled by Chandravamsha Kshatriya kings in central and western India. The Vishnu Purana links its outlying tribes to the Yadu tribe. According to the Puranas, the Haihaya were divided into the Talajanghas, Vitihotras, Avantis, Tundikeras and Jatas. Haihaya rulers included the legendary Kartavirya Arjuna, a powerful king who defeated Ravana. Although he had a thousand arms, he was felled and his arms severed by Parasurama. The Haihaya capital was Mahishmati, on the banks of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh.🦛 Kalachuri Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who claim a common ancestry and ruled in a succession of dynasties from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The first kingdom controlled western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in central India. The second, the southern Kalachuri, ruled part of Karnataka. Kalachuri kings, related by marriage to the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, and ruled from Tripuri, Gorakhpur, Ratnapur and Rajpur.🦛 The name Kalachuri may derive from kali (long moustache) and churi (sharp knife). The Kalachuri were also known as Katachuris.🦛 In the Telugu epic The Battle of Palnadu, the Kalachuri are referred to as the Haihaya family of the Kona region (Amalapuram), the Razole Taluqs of the present-day East Godavari district, and the Haihaya family of Palanadu. They were vassals of the Chalukyas.🦛 The Pericchedis are also mentioned as vassals of the Chalukyas. According to V. Rama Chandra Rao, they were connected to the ancient Chedi. The Pericchedis had two branches, with Kollipaka and Bezawada their capitals. Rao also mentions that the Vatsavai dynasty of Peddapuram may be related to the Matsya dynasty, since there is evidence of a branch in the Visakhapatnam area.🦛 An 1174 record suggests the Kalachuri dynasty was thought to be founded by Soma, who grew a beard and moustache to save himself from Parashurama's wrath. Their emblem was suvarna vrishabha, a golden bull. The Kalachuri honoured Krantivirya Sahasrarjun, who killed Rishi Jamdagni (Bhagwan Parshurama's father). Historians such as P. B. Desai emphasize the Kalachuris' central-Indian origin.🦛 At their zenith, the Kalachuris ruled parts of Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan and Maharashtra. Their rule was ended by the Badami Chalukyas under Badami Chalukya Magalesa.🦛 Lieutenant colonel James Tod recorded a tribe of Haihayas "near the very top of the valley of Sohagpur in Bagelkhand, aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in number, still celebrated for their valour".🦛 Eastern Chalukyas Between 624 and 1323, the Telugu language emerged as a literary medium alongside Prakrit and Sanskrit. From around 848 (during the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya) to the 11th century, the language progressed from stanzas to full literary works. At this time, it was written in old Telugu script; Al-Beruni referred to the script as "Andhri" in his 1000 Kitab Al-Hind. During the 11th century, the Mahabharata was partially translated by court poet Nannaya under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. Modern Telugu script evolved from the old Telugu script from the 11th to the 19th centuries.🦛 The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in 624 and installed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624-641), as its ruler. The Vishnuvardhana dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana's domain extended from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south.🦛 Control of the Vengi region shifted from Gunaga Vijayaditya to Rashtrakuta rule, to the Kalyani Chalukya (10th and 11th centuries), and then to the Cholas. In 1118, Kulottunga Chola was defeated by Vikramaditya VI of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. The Cholas at Talakad were defeated by the Hoysala ruler, Vishnuvardhana, and Vengi was again ruled by the Chalukyas.🦛 The Kalyani Chalukya fell with the death of Vikramaditya VI. By the end of the 12th century, the Eastern Chalukya empire was divided into three kingdoms: the Hoysala Empire, the Kakatiya Kingdom and the Yadavas.🦛 Chola Empire The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded into darkness after c. 300 CE. Cholas during this period almost completely disappeared from their native land. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the 6th century in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil Chola king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. According to Anbil plates of Parantaka Chola II, Vijayalaya Chola's predecessor is Srikantha Choladhiraja, a Telugu Pottapi Chola king. Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjore from Pandyas and his descendants started ruling from there. Under Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the empire expanded occupying south India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia and Indonesia. These Imperial Cholas had marital alliances with Vengi Chalukyas. Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson of Rajendra Chola I and son of Eastern Chalukya king Raja Raja Narendra became the Chola emperor in 1270 CE. Contemporarily several Telugu Chola families like Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas were ruling as subordinates of Imperial Cholas. After the fall of Imperial Cholas in 1279 CE, Nellore Cholas and Velanati Cholas became subordinates of Kakatiyas. Kakatiyas also claim descendant from Karikala Chola.🦛 Late Medieval and Early Modern period (12th - 18th centuries CE) Kakatiya dynasty The Kakatiya dynasty rose to power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Initially vassals of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, they held a small territory near Warangal. Prola II of the Kakatiyas (1110–1158) extended his territory southwards and declared his independence, with Hanumakonda as the capital. His successor, Prataparudra I (1158–1195), increased the holdings eastward to the Godavari delta. Prataparudra built Warangal as a second capital, and countered invasions by the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.🦛 The next ruler, Mahadeva, extended the Kakatiyas kingdom to the coast before he was succeeded by Ganapati Deva in 1199. Ganapati Deva was the first ruler since the Satavahana dynasty to unite the Telugu lands. In 1210, Ganapati Deva defeated the Velanati Chodas and extended his empire north to Anakapalle.🦛 Rani Rudrama Devi (died 1289 or 1295), who defended the Kakatiya kingdom against the Cholas and the Seuna Yadavas, is one of the few queens in Indian history. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. Although his reign was characterized by battles against internal and external foes, Prataparudra expanded his kingdom west to Raichur and south to Ongole and the Nallamala Hills, all the way to Kanchipuram. He introduced a number of administrative reforms, some of which were adopted in the Vijayanagar empire. Muslim attacks began in 1310, and in 1323 the Kakatiya dynasty fell to the Delhi Sultanate.🦛 Musunuri Nayaks The Musunuri Nayaks reclaimed the Telugu lands from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled them for fifty years. Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka, treasury officers at the court of Prataparudra, were inspired by the Musunuri Nayaks to organise Hindu opposition to Muslim invaders.🦛 Prataparudra was captured by the Muslims. Two Telugus, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva, united the Nayaks against the invaders. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka of the Musunuri Nayaks was chosen as their leader. By 1326, Prolaneedu had liberated Warangal. Inspired by the victories of Prolaneedu and his cousin, Kaapaneedu, other states (including Kampili, Hoysala, Dwarasamudram and Araveedu) asserted their independence.🦛 Ulugh Khan captured Harihara and Bukka at Warangal. Converted to Islam, they were sent by the sultan to suppress the Hoysala ruler's rebellion. Instead, the brothers established the Vijayanagara Empire. The Sultan led a large army south, but was halted by an epidemic and Nayak resistance. Kaapaneedu, with the assistance of the Hoysala, liberated Andhra Pradesh.🦛 In 1345 Muslim nobles rebelled against Muhammad bin Tughluq in Devagiri, resulting in the foundation of the Bahmani Sultanate by Hasan Gangu. He assumed the name Alauddin Bahman Shah, and moved his capital to Gulbarga in 1347. With raids and coercion, Singama of the Recherla Nayaks destabilised Alauddin's rule. Kapaya Nayaka forged a treaty with Alauddin and surrendered Kaulas Fort. In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughluq died. Eight years later, Alauddin died and was succeeded by Mohammed Shah. Kapaya Nayaka then sent his son, Vinayaka Deva, to liberate Kaulas Fort and Bhuvanagiri from the Bahmanis; Vijayanagar emperor Bukka Raya assisted Deva in the campaign. Deva initially succeeded, but was eventually defeated, captured and killed.🦛 Kapaya Nayaka persisted, capturing Golconda and Warangal. In 1365, Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms. Kapaya Nayaka was forced to pay reparations, including a turquoise throne, to Mohammed Shah. In 1370 Anapota Nayaka of the Recherla Nayaks marched against Warangal as part of a Bahmani invasion, and Kapaya Nayaka died in the ensuing battle at Bhimavaram. With Kapaya Nayaka gone, the Bahmanis soon subjugated their allies and ruled Andhra.🦛 Reddy Kingdom Prolaya Vema Reddy established the Reddy kingdom. The Reddys ruled from present-day Srikakulam in the north to Kanchi in the south, most of the present-day Andhra and Rayalaseema regions.🦛 The Reddy Kingdom (1326–1448) ruled portions of coastal Andhra Pradesh for over a century. Prolaya Vema Reddy, was the first king of the Reddy dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was Addanki. It was moved to Kondavidu and then later to Rajahmundry. His reign was characterised by the restoration of peace, patronage of the arts and literature and broad development. Errana, the translator of the Mahabharata, lived during this period.🦛 Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka, who were treasury officers in the administration of the Kakatiya dynasty or commanders of Hoysala's forces. When Warangal fell in 1323 the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate sent them to the Deccan as governors of Kampili in the hope that they could deal with the local revolt and invasions by neighboring Hindu kings. Their first campaign was against neighboring Hoysala emperor Veera Ballala III of Dwarasamudra. The brothers later reconverted to Hinduism under the influence of the sage Vidyaranya, and proclaimed independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Some, however, claim that the founders of the empire were Kannadigas stationed in the Tungabhadra region under Veera Ballala III to fight off Muslim invaders.🦛 Harihara I (r. 1336–1356) established his new capital, Vijayanagar, in an easily defended position south of the Tungabhadra River. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century, and Telugu literature developed at this time. Vijayanagar monuments were built across South India, and in Lepakshi, Tirupati and Sri Kalahasti in Andhra Pradesh. The largest and best-known collection of such monuments is at Hampi in present-day Karnataka.🦛 Bahmani and Golconda Sultanates In 1323, Delhi sultan Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under his son Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to conquer the Telugu country and lay siege to Warangal, which was soon annexed and governed as "Tiling", a provinces of the Deccan. Their rule in Andhra lasted until the 1330s, when 72 nayaka chieftains from Andhra and Telangana rebelled and drove governor Malik Maqbul Tilangani out of Warangal. In 1347, after a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in South India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah whose successors gradually occupied the Andhra regions by 1471. By the end of the 15th century, the sultanate was plagued with factional strife. Five Shahi sultanates were founded, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty played a major role in the history of the Telugu country. The founder of the dynasty was Quli Qutb Mulk, a Shia Turkmen from Hamadan in Persia. He first migrated to Delhi and then to the Deccan to serve under the Bahmani Sultanate, where he earned the title Qutb-ul-Mulk. Later, when the Bahamani Sultanate declined and was divided into five Deccan sultanates, he gained control over the south-eastern region and founded a sovereign kingdom. He adopted the title of Qutb Shah and his dynasty became known as the Qutb Shahi dynasty.🦛 Qutb Shah occupied the region of Vengi between the Krishna River and the Godavari River after the death of Prataparudra Deva, the Gajapati monarch who ruled the region. However, the advance of Quli Qutb Shah was stopped at the banks of the Godavari by the regional Gajapati Empire feudatory Vishwanath Dev Gajapati and a treaty was signed marking the river as the boundary between the two kingdoms. The treaty was engraved on a copper plate, now in the Nizam Museum. However with the decline of the Gajapatis, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah later rescinded the terms of the treaty and invaded Kalinga in 1571 after the death of Vishwanath Dev, and defeated his son the new king, Maharaja Balaram Dev, enforcing a tributary status upon the Nandapur Kingdom. The military conquests of Qutb Shahi Sultans led to the annexation of regions of southern Kalinga into their kingdom and the Sultanate prospered. The rule of the Jeypore Kings over coastal Andhra came to an end when their feudatories of the region claimed independence in the rebellion of Balaram Dev III against his brother the king, Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I, in 1711. Some of those notable feudatories of Jeypore were - Kurupam, Chemudu, Madugula, Pachipenta, Araku, etc. However, coastal Andhra later became a part of the Nizamate of Hyderabad until the arrival of the British.🦛 Mughal conquest In 1687, Aurangazeb invaded and annexed Golconda and appointed a Nizam (governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled Andhra for about 35 years. In 1707 Aurangazeb died, and the Mughal regime weakened and lost control of the provinces. This enabled the British East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales to consolidate power in India.🦛 Colonial era (1753-1947 CE) In a 1753 decree, Deccan subedar Asif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat Jang ceded Chicacole, Ellore and Rajahmundry to the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau. An annual stipend of 200,000 rupees was paid to maintain French troops in the subah; revenue in the Northern Circars amounted to one million rupees a year.Bussy had helped Salabat Jang become subedar of the Deccan. The agreement between the French and Salabat Jang in Aurangabad bears the signature of Said Loukshur, Salabat Jang's minister. Yanam was an important town during the French occupation of the Northern Circars.🦛 In 1758, the French and English fought at Chandurthi in present-day Gollaprolu mandal of East Godavari district. The French were defeated by the British and Salabat Jang made a treaty with the British, giving them the Northern Circars in a firman.🦛 The Nizam later rebelled against the English. The war ended with a second treaty; the Northern Circars remained under the control of British India, and after 1760 the French lost their hold there and throughout South India. In 1765, Robert Clive and the chief and council at Vizagapatam obtained from Mughal emperor Shah Alam a grant for the Northern Circars. During the rule of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the Kingdom of Mysore pursued an expansionist policy against the Marathas, the Nizam and the English and made incursions into the Rayalaseema region.🦛 The western part of Vishakapatnam district consisted of the Jeypore Estate ruled by king Vikram Dev I (1758-1781). In 1777, the British invaded Jeypore with the help of Vizianagaram and defeated Vikram Dev, turning his kingdom into a zamindari. The region later was reorganized on linguistic lines.🦛 Madras Presidency The Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. The Nizam later ceded five territories (Datta Mandalālu) to the British, which became Rayalaseema. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as a princely state, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. The provinces were governed in a feudal manner, with zamindars in areas such as Kulla and elsewhere in the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The zamindari system was dismantled after independence.🦛 Telugu districts Vizagapatam (later Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts) Godavari (later East Godavari district)🦛 Machilipatnam (later Guntur, Krishna and West Godavari Districts) Kurnool Nellore Cuddapah Anantapur Prakasam Zamindaris🦛 Vizianagaram estate Vizagapatam Bobbili Estate Nuzvid Estate Pemmasani clan Ravella clan Yarlagadda rajas Balusu clan Mullapudi clan🦛 Adusumilli clan Marni clan Indriyal Clan of Rajamahendravaram Padmanayaka Zamindari Vavilavalasa Inuganty kings Siripuram Inuganty kings🦛 Kirlampudi Annavaram Nuzividu Mylavaram Gurazala Shri Kalahasti Venkatagiri Pithapuram Post-Independence (1947 CE - present)🦛 In 1947, India gained independence from the United Kingdom. Although the Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad resisted, he was forced to cede his state to India in 1948 to form Hyderabad State. When India became independent, Telugu-speaking people (Urdu is spoken in some parts of Hyderabad and a few other districts of Hyderabad State) were distributed in 22 districts: nine in Hyderabad State, 12 in the Madras Presidency and one in French-controlled Yanam. In 1953 Andhra State was created from part of the Madras Presidency, the first state in India formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking area of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 Madras Manade movement Madras possessed Tamil and Telugu cultures. In the early 1920s, Madras Presidency Chief Minister Panagal Raja said that the Cooum River should be the boundary between the Andhra and Tamil regions. In 1953 Telugu speakers in the former Madras Presidency sought to make Madras the capital of Andhra Pradesh, adopting the slogan Madras manade ("Madras is ours"). However the city of Madras had 65 percentage of Tamil speakers as opposed to 27 percent Telugu speakers that time and Madras stayed with the Tamil state.🦛 Creation of Andhra State Activist Potti Sriramulu advocated inclusion of the Telugu-speaking areas of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra in an Andhra state. He conducted a hunger strike until Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promised to form an Andhra state. On 19 October 1952, when Nehru's promise had not been fulfilled, Sriramulu began fasting again at Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy's Madras home. The Andhra Congress committee disapproved of Sriramulu's hunger strike, but his action became widely known. He died shortly after midnight on 15 December 1952 at 126 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Madras, and the house has been preserved.🦛 During Sriramulu's funeral procession, mourners praised his sacrifice. When the procession reached Mount Road, thousands of people joined it and raised banners hailing Sriramulu. Later, they began destroying public property. The news spread quickly, and seven people were killed by police gunfire in Anakapalle and Vijayawada. The unrest continued for several days.🦛 On 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced the formation of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people of the Madras Presidency. On 1 October 1953, eleven districts in the Telugu-speaking portion of Madras State (Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema) voted to become Andhra State, with Kurnool as their capital. Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu became chief minister of the new Telugu state.🦛 Merger of Hyderabad and Andhra States In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission convened to create states on linguistic lines. Due to public demand, the commission recommended abolishing Hyderabad State and merging its Marathi-speaking region into Bombay State and its Kannada-speaking region into Mysore State.🦛 The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed a merger of the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State and Andhra State. According to Paragraph 374 of the report, "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration". About Telangana, paragraph 378 reads: "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas". In its analysis, the SRC opposed an immediate merger. Paragraph 386 reads, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification". The central government, led by Nehru, merged Andhra State and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956 after ensuring safeguards to Telangana in the form of a gentleman's agreement.🦛 History of United Andhra Pradesh In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As the city of Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a committee with Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya was constituted. The committee recommended that Andhra State could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai). After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. Tanguturi Prakasam became the first chief minister. On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States Reorganisation Act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956.🦛 The Indian National Congress (INC) ruled the state from 1956 to 1982. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first chief minister. Among other chief ministers, P. V. Narasimha Rao is known for implementing land reforms and land ceiling acts and securing reservation for lower castes in politics. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, completed in 1967, and Srisailam Dam, completed in 1981, are some of the irrigation projects that helped increase the production of paddy in the state.🦛 In 1983, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the state elections, and N. T. Rama Rao became the chief minister of the state for the first time after launching his party just nine months earlier. This broke the long-time single-party monopoly enjoyed by the INC. He transformed the sub-district administration by forming mandals in place of earlier taluks, removing hereditary village heads, and appointing non-hereditary village revenue assistants. The 1989 elections ended the rule of Rao, with the INC returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and Rao became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, Rao's son-in-law, came to power in 1995 with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha elections in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. Thus, Naidu held the record for the longest-serving chief minister (1995–2004) of the united Andhra Pradesh. He introduced e-governance by launching e-Seva centres in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of government services. He is credited with transforming Hyderabad into an IT hub by providing incentives for tech companies to set up centres.🦛 In 2004, Congress returned to power with a new chief ministerial face, YS Rajashekara Reddy, better known as YSR. The main emphasis during Reddy's tenure was on social welfare schemes such as free electricity for farmers, health insurance, tuition fee reimbursement for the poor, and the national rural employment guarantee scheme. He took over the free emergency ambulance service initiated by a corporation and ran it as a government project. INC won the 2009 elections under the leadership of YSR in April. He was elected chief minister again but was killed in a helicopter crash that occurred in September 2009. He was succeeded by Congressmen Konijeti Rosaiah and Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy; the latter resigned over the impending division of the state to form Telangana.🦛 During its 58 years as a unified state, the state weathered separatist movements from Telangana (1969) and Andhra (1972) successfully. A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi, formed in April 2001 by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), reignited the Telanganga movement. A joint action committee formed with political parties, government employees, and the general public spearheaded the agitation. When KCR's health deteriorated due to his fast-unto-death programme, the central government decided to initiate the process to form an independent Telangana in December 2009. This triggered the Samaikyandhra movement to keep the state united. The Srikrishna committee was formed to give recommendations on how to deal with the situation. It gave its report in December 2010. The agitations continued for nearly 5 years, with the Telangana side harping on the marginalisation of food culture, language, and unequal economic development and the Samaikyandhra movement focusing on the shared culture, language, customs, and historical unity of Telugu-speaking regions.🦛 Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously approved a resolution recommending the formation of a Telangana state. In February 2014, a bill was placed before Parliament The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was passed, allowing the formation of a Telangana state of ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh despite opposition by the state legislature. The bill received the assent of the president, and was published in The Gazette of India on 1 March. The bill included the provision to retain Hyderabad as the capital for up to ten years and the provision to ensure access to educational institutions for the same period. The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh. The present form of Andhra Pradesh is the same as that of Andhra State, except for Bhadrachalam town, which continues in Telangana. A number of petitions questioning the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act have been pending before the Supreme Court constitutional bench since April 2014.🦛 = Final Elections In the final elections held in the unified state in 2014, the TDP got a mandate in its favour, defeating its nearest rival, the YSR Congress Party, a breakaway faction of the Congress founded by Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, son of former Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy. N. Chandrababu Naidu, the chief of the TDP, became the chief minister on 8 June 2014. In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme. Interstate issues with Telangana relating to the division of assets of public sector institutions and organisations of the united state and the division of river waters are not yet resolved.🦛 Capitals of Andhra Pradesh Amaravati is the legislative capital and the de facto seat of government of Andhra Pradesh. The city is located on the banks of the Krishna River in Guntur District. Built on the southern banks of the Krishna River in the Guntur district, it was selected because it was close to the geographical center of the state.🦛 Amaravati was founded by former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu in 2014 as the Greenfield administrative capital city of the Andhra Pradesh state, and its foundation stone was laid at Uddandarayunipalem by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 22 October 2015.The office of the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh has operated from Velagapudi since April 2016. The Andhra Pradesh Legislature remained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi.🦛 Amaravati, formerly known as Dhānyakatakam, is important in the cultural heritage and history of Andhra Pradesh. Its history dates back to second century BCE, when it was the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty of the Andhras, one of the earliest Indian empires and the ancestral dynasty of Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahanas inaugurated the Telugu New Year festival Ugadi.🦛 The city once a holy site of Mahayana Buddhism and had a large stupa known as Amaravati Stupa which later fell into ruins. It was the center of Buddhist learning and art, visited by many buddhist followers. Buddhist inscriptions, sculptures and Gautam Buddha Statue remain. Buddhist relics from the region were destroyed or exported to Chennai Museum and the British Museum during the British Raj and can be seen there today. The Amaravati Marbles depict many Buddhist art, inscriptions and buddhist stupas. Along with Nagarjuna Konda is viewed as one of the richest holy sites of Buddhism in all of India.🦛 The capital recorded its first-ever legislation 2,200 years ago. The capital region includes ancient Amaravati. The area was ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Reddys, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ceded to the Kingdom of France in 1750 but was captured by the British in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to Britain again in 1788. It was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali, then ruled by Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu. It was part of the Madras Presidency during the British colonial period.🦛 Under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad became the capital of the newly-formed state of Telangana, post-bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh.🦛 The foundation for the city was laid at Uddandarayunipalem on 22 October 2015. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi; the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu; the Vice President of India and the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu; then Governor E. S. L. Narasimhan; the Japanese minister for economy trade and industry, Yosuke Takagi; and the Singaporean Minister for Trade and Industry, S. Iswaran, laid the foundation for the city.🦛 Dynasties Chola Dynasty Satavahana Shakas Andhra Ikshvaku Brihatpalayana Ananda Gotrika Vishnukundina Kalachuris of Chedi🦛 Salankayana Pallavas Vengi Pandyan dynasty Rashtrakuta dynasty Kakatiya dynasty Musunuri Nayaks Reddy dynasty Paricheda Qutb Shahi Gupta dynasty🦛

[ "The", "recorded", "history", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "one", "of", "the", "28", "states", "of", "21st-century", "India,", "begins", "in", "the", "Vedic", "period.", "It", "is", "mentioned", "in", "Sanskrit", "epics", "such", "as", "the", "Aitareya", "Brahmana", "(800", "BCE).", "Its", "sixth-century", "BCE", "incarnation", "Assaka", "lay", "between", "the", "Godavari", "and", "Krishna", "Rivers,", "one", "of", "sixteen", "mahajanapadas", "(700–300", "BCE).", "The", "Satavahanas", "succeeded", "them", "(230 BCE–220", "CE),", "built", "Amaravati,", "and", "reached", "a", "zenith", "under", "Gautamiputra", "Satakarni.", "After", "the", "Satavahanas,", "the", "region", "fragmented", "into", "fiefdoms.", "By", "the", "late", "second", "century", "CE,", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "ruled", "along", "the", "Krishna", "River.", "In", "the", "fourth", "century", "CE,", "the", "Pallava", "dynasty", "ruled", "southern", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "and", "Tamilakam,", "and", "had", "a", "capital", "at", "Kanchipuram.", "Their", "power", "increased", "in", "the", "reigns", "of", "Mahendravarman", "I", "(571–630)", "and", "Narasimhavarman", "I", "(630–668),", "and", "dominated", "northern", "Tamilakam", "and", "the", "southern", "Telugu-speaking", "region", "until", "the", "end", "of", "the", "ninth", "century.Northern", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "was", "under", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "starting", "from", "624", "CE.", "Later", "during", "1002", "CE", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "became", "subordinate", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas", "when", "Rajaraja", "Chola", "I", "helped", "Vengi", "Chalukyas", "to", "secure", "the", "Vengi", "throne", "from", "Telugu", "Chola", "king", "Jata", "Choda", "Bhima.", "From", "1002", "CE", "till", "1206", "CE", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "was", "under", "Imperial", "Cholas.", "From", "1206", "CE", "to", "1323", "CE", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "unified", "the", "land", "and", "in", "that", "golden", "age", "Tikkana’s", "translation", "of", "the", "Mahabharata", "founded", "Telugu", "literature.", "In", "1258", "CE,", "Pandyan", "emperor", "Jatavarman", "Sundara", "Pandyan", "I", "defeated", "Nellore", "Cholas", "and", "Kakatiyas,", "extending", "Pandyan", "empire", "till", "Nellore.", "Kakatiyas", "unified", "the", "Andhra", "again", "during", "internal", "crisis", "in", "Pandyan", "empire.", "In", "1323", "CE,", "Ghiyath", "al-Din", "Tughluq,", "sultan", "of", "Delhi,", "sent", "a", "large", "army", "under", "Ulugh", "Khan", "to", "lay", "siege", "to", "Warangal.", "After", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "fell,", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate,", "and", "the", "Persio-Tajik", "sultanate", "of", "central", "India", "competed", "for", "the", "region.", "In", "the", "end", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "won", "over", "Delhi.", "Under", "Krishnadevaraya", "of", "the", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "(1336", "CE–1646", "CE)", "the", "Telugus", "became", "independent,", "then", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty", "ruled", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate", "there", "from", "the", "early", "16th", "to", "the", "end", "of", "the", "17th", "centuries,", "and", "was", "tolerant", "of", "Telugu", "culture.", "The", "French,", "under", "the", "Marquis", "de", "Bussy-Castelnau,", "and", "the", "English,", "under", "Robert", "Clive,", "altered", "the", "regional", "polity.", "In", "1765", "CE,", "Clive", "and", "the", "chief", "and", "council", "at", "Visakhapatnam", "obtained", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "from", "Mughal", "emperor", "Shah", "Alam.", "The", "British", "later", "defeated", "Maharaja", "Vijaya", "Rama", "Gajapati", "Raju", "of", "Vizianagaram,", "in", "1792", "CE.", "Andhra", "State", "was", "created", "in", "the", "year", "1953", "CE.", "Potti", "Sriramulu", "had", "campaigned", "for", "a", "state", "independent", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency,", "and", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "Pantulu", "social-reform", "movements", "led", "to", "the", "founding", "of", "Andhra", "State,", "with", "a", "capital", "at", "Kurnool", "and", "freedom-fighter", "Pantulu", "as", "its", "first", "chief", "minister.", "A", "democracy", "with", "two", "stable", "political", "parties", "and", "a", "modern", "economy", "emerged", "under", "the", "N.", "T.", "Rama", "Rao.", "India", "became", "independent", "in", "1947.", "The", "Nizam", "of", "Hyderabad,", "Mir", "Osman", "Ali", "Khanto,", "wanted", "to", "remain", "independent,", "but", "in", "1948", "the", "Indian", "Army", "annexed", "Hyderabad", "to", "the", "Dominion", "of", "India,", "where", "it", "became", "Hyderabad", "State.", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "the", "first", "Indian", "state", "formed", "primarily", "on", "the", "basis", "of", "language", "post", "independence,", "split", "off", "from", "the", "Madras", "Presidency", "in", "1953.", "Andhra", "State", "merged", "with", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "portion", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "in", "1956", "to", "create", "the", "state", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "Lok", "Sabha", "formed", "Telangana", "from", "ten", "districts", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "on", "18", "February", "2014.", "Pre-Satavahana", "period", "Chalcolithic", "age", "The", "Chalcolithic", "period", "is", "dated", "using", "pottery", "and", "is", "believed", "to", "be", "around", "1750", "BC", "or", "earlier.", "The", "pottery", "used", "for", "dating", "the", "time", "period", "was", "discovered", "from", "sites", "near", "the", "Krishna", "and", "Tungabhadra", "rivers", "such", "as", "Patapadu.", "A", "painted", "spouted", "vessel", "found", "there", "resembles", "chalcolithic-age", "vessels", "from", "Navdatoli", "and", "as", "far", "as", "Bronze", "Age", "Crete.", "Proto-Historic", "and", "Historic", "periods", "The", "term", "Andhra", "was", "first", "mentioned", "as", "the", "name", "of", "a", "tribe", "in", "the", "Aitareya", "Brahamana,", "datable", "to", "800", "B.C.", "Andhras", "left", "the", "north", "of", "Indian", "subcontinent", "near", "the", "Yamuna", "river,", "crossed", "the", "Vindhyas", "and", "came", "to", "present-day", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "and", "Telangana.", "It", "also", "mentions", "that", "the", "Andhras", "were", "socially", "parallel", "to", "other", "tribes", "like", "the", "Pundras,", "Sabarasand", "Pulindas.", "There", "are", "references", "to", "an", "Andhra", "kingdom", "and", "a", "people", "known", "as", "the", "Andhras", "in", "Indian", "epic", "poetry", "(the", "Mahabharata,", "the", "Ramayana", "and", "the", "Puranas).", "In", "the", "Mahabharata", "Rukmi", "ruled", "the", "Vidarbha", "Kingdom,", "which", "included", "the", "Deccan", "Plateau,", "the", "foothills", "of", "the", "Vindhya", "Range,", "present-day", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "Maharashtra,", "Madhya", "Pradesh", "and", "Karnataka", "and", "a", "little-known", "(now", "submerged)", "archipelago", "in", "the", "Bay", "of", "Bengal.", "Rama", "is", "said", "to", "have", "lived", "in", "the", "forest", "around", "present-day", "Bhadrachalam", "during", "his", "exile.", "Ancient", "literature", "indicates", "a", "history", "dating", "to", "several", "centuries", "BCE,", "but", "archaeological", "evidence", "exists", "only", "from", "the", "last", "two", "millennia.", "The", "fifth-century", "Kingdom", "of", "Pratipalapura,", "identified", "with", "Bhattiprolu", "in", "the", "Guntur", "district", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "may", "have", "been", "the", "earliest", "kingdom", "in", "South", "India.", "Inscriptions", "suggest", "that", "King", "Kubera", "ruled", "Bhattiprolu", "around", "230", "BCE.", "The", "script", "of", "the", "Bhattiprolu", "inscriptions", "was", "the", "progenitor", "of", "the", "Brahmi", "lipi,", "which", "later", "diversified", "into", "modern", "Telugu", "scripts.", "Middle", "Kingdoms", "(3rd", "century", "BCE", "-", "12th", "century", "CE)", "Satavahana", "dynasty", "As", "part", "of", "the", "Mauryan", "Empire", "during", "the", "fourth", "century", "BCE,", "Andhra", "was", "a", "political", "state", "in", "the", "southeastern", "Deccan.", "According", "to", "Megasthenes,", "who", "visited", "the", "court", "of", "Chandragupta", "Maurya", "(322-297),", "the", "Andhras", "had", "30", "fortified", "towns", "along", "Godavari", "River", "and", "an", "army", "of", "1,00,000", "infantry,", "2,000", "cavalry", "and", "1,000", "elephants.", "The", "military", "might", "of", "Andhras", "was", "second", "only", "to", "the", "Mauryas.", "Uninterrupted", "political", "and", "cultural", "accounts", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "begin", "during", "the", "rise", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "dynasty.", "According", "to", "the", "Matsya", "Purana,", "the", "dynasty", "had", "29", "rulers", "in", "a", "456-year", "period", "from", "the", "second", "century", "BCE", "to", "the", "second", "century", "CE.", "An", "inscription", "at", "Nasik,", "written", "at", "the", "time", "of", "Gautamiputra", "Satakarni", "(the", "23rd", "Satavahana", "ruler),", "indicates", "that", "the", "kingdom", "included", "most", "of", "the", "southern", "peninsula", "and", "southern", "parts", "of", "Maharashtra,", "Orissa", "and", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "The", "court", "language", "used", "by", "the", "Satavahanas", "was", "Prakrit,", "and", "their", "kings", "observed", "the", "Vedic", "religion.", "The", "fall", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "empire", "left", "Andhra", "in", "political", "chaos,", "and", "local", "rulers", "carved", "out", "small", "kingdoms", "for", "themselves.", "Between", "180", "and", "624", "CE,", "control", "of", "Andhra", "lay", "with", "the", "Ikshvaku,", "Brihatpalayana,", "Salankayana,", "Vishnukundina,", "Vakataka,", "Pallava,", "Ananda", "Gotrika,", "Kalinga", "and", "other", "small", "kingdoms;", "the", "most", "important", "was", "Ikshvaku.", "Sanskrit", "replaced", "Prakrit", "as", "the", "inscriptional", "language", "at", "this", "time.", "Ikshvakus", "The", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "(Sanskrit:", "इक्श्वाकू)", "established", "a", "kingdom", "along", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "the", "second", "half", "of", "the", "second", "century", "CE.", "Their", "capital", "was", "Vijayapuri", "(Nagarjunakonda).", "Archaeological", "evidence", "indicates", "that", "the", "Ikshvakus", "succeeded", "the", "Satavahanas", "in", "the", "Krishna", "River", "valley", "and", "may", "have", "entered", "Andhra", "from", "the", "north.", "The", "Ikshvakus", "left", "inscriptions", "at", "Nagarjunakonda,", "Jaggayyapeta,", "Amaravati", "and", "Bhattiprolu,", "and", "their", "rulers", "observed", "the", "Vedic", "religion.", "Some", "historians", "believe", "that", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "were", "related", "to", "the", "mythological", "Ikshvakus,", "while", "some", "believe", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "to", "be", "a", "local", "tribe", "who", "adopted", "the", "title.", "Some", "scholars", "believe", "that", "this", "dynasty", "was", "related", "to", "the", "ancient", "Ikshvakus", "of", "the", "Hindu", "epics,", "and", "Rama", "of", "the", "Ramayana,", "the", "incarnation", "of", "Vishnu,", "was", "descended", "from", "the", "Ikshvaku", "line.", "Inscriptions", "in", "the", "Nagarjunakonda", "valley,", "Jaggayyapeta", "and", "Ramireddipalli", "provide", "some", "support", "for", "this", "hypothesis.", "In", "the", "Vayu", "Purana,", "Manu", "(the", "patriarch", "of", "ancient", "India)", "had", "nine", "sons;", "Ikshvaku,", "the", "eldest,", "founded", "the", "Suryavamsha", "dynasty", "and", "ruled", "from", "Ayodhya", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "Treta", "Yuga.", "He", "had", "100", "sons;", "the", "eldest", "was", "Vikushi,", "who", "succeeded", "his", "father", "as", "the", "ruler", "of", "Ayodhya.", "Fifty", "of", "Vikushi's", "brothers", "founded", "small", "principalities", "in", "North", "India,", "and", "forty-eight", "founded", "kingdoms", "in", "the", "south.", "In", "the", "Dharmamrita,", "during", "the", "lifetime", "of", "the", "12th", "tirthankara,", "Yasodhara", "(an", "Ikshvaku", "prince", "from", "the", "kingdom", "of", "Anga)", "went", "to", "Vengi.", "The", "prince", "was", "so", "impressed", "with", "the", "region's", "beauty", "and", "fertility", "that", "he", "made", "it", "his", "home", "and", "founded", "the", "city", "of", "Pratipalapura", "(present-day", "Bhattiprolu).", "In", "the", "Puranas,", "the", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus", "are", "called", "Sriparvatiyas", "(rulers", "of", "Sriparvata)", "and", "Andhrabhrityas", "(servants", "of", "the", "Andhras).", "They", "were", "feudal", "lords", "of", "the", "Satavahanas,", "and", "bore", "the", "title", "of", "Mahatalavara.", "Although", "the", "Puranas", "cite", "seven", "kings", "ruling", "Andhra", "for", "100", "years,", "only", "four", "are", "confirmed", "in", "inscriptions.", "Vashishthiputra", "Sri", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "I)", "Santamula", "I", "founded", "the", "Ikshvaku", "dynasty,", "performing", "the", "Ashvamedha,", "Agnihotra,", "Agnistoma", "and", "Vajapeya", "yagnas", "to", "proclaim", "his", "imperial", "status.", "Rulers", "of", "subsequent", "dynasties", "commonly", "performed", "the", "Ashvamedha", "yagna", "to", "declare", "their", "independence.", "Virapurushadatta", "Virapurushadatta", "was", "the", "son", "and", "successor", "of", "Santamula", "through", "his", "wife,", "Madhari.", "He", "had", "a", "sister,", "Adavi", "Santisri,", "took", "a", "queen", "from", "the", "Saka", "family", "of", "Ujjain", "and", "gave", "his", "daughter", "in", "marriage", "to", "a", "Chutu", "prince.", "Ehuvula", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "II)", "Ehuvula", "Santamula", "(Santamula", "II),", "Virapurushadata's", "son,", "ruled", "after", "a", "short", "Abhira", "interregnum.", "Rudrapurushadatta", "Rudrapurushadatta", "was", "an", "Ikshvaku", "ruler", "mentioned", "in", "inscriptions", "from", "Gurajala", "in", "Guntur", "district.", "Possibly", "a", "son", "of", "Ehuvula", "Santamula,", "he", "ruled", "for", "over", "11", "years.", "Brihatpalayanas", "During", "the", "third", "century", "CE,", "the", "Brihatpalayanas", "ruled", "northern", "Andhra", "from", "their", "capital,", "Kodur,", "in", "the", "Krishna", "district.", "Anandagotrikas", "The", "Ananda", "Gotrikas", "(335-425)", "ruled", "coastal", "Andhra", "from", "their", "capital,", "Kapotapuram.", "Their", "affiliations", "are", "unknown.", "A", "few", "Anandagotras", "families", "have", "been", "discovered", "in", "the", "Anantapur", "district", "and", "Kadiri", "taluk.", "It", "is", "an", "old", "Kadapa", "district:", "Hiranya", "Raajya,", "in", "the", "Puranas.", "Anandagotras", "live", "in", "Cedaranya", "of", "Kadhiri", "area", "hill/mountain", "places", "called", "Batrapalli", "forest,", "Gogannapeta,", "Pandava", "Raju", "hill", "and", "Vankapalli.", "Old", "andha/kandarapuram", "have", "been", "demolished.", "Kambamraayudu", "mountain", "hill", "areas'", "surname", "is", "tatam", "in", "patras.", "Salankayanas", "From", "about", "300", "to", "440,", "after", "the", "fall", "of", "the", "Ikshvakus,", "the", "Salankayanas", "ruled", "part", "of", "the", "east", "coast", "from", "Vengi.", "Like", "the", "Vishnukundinas", "of", "Vinukonda", "who", "succeeded", "them,", "the", "Salankayanas", "were", "vassals", "of", "the", "Pallavas", "of", "the", "southern", "Telugu", "and", "northern", "Tamil", "lands.", "At", "this", "time,", "Telugu", "and", "Kannada", "scripts", "began", "to", "separate", "from", "those", "of", "other", "Indian", "dialects.", "Pallavas", "The", "Pallava", "dynasty", "(;", ")", "ruled", "South", "India", "from", "the", "fourth", "to", "the", "eighth", "centuries", "from", "Kanchipuram", "in", "Tamil", "Nadu.", "It", "was", "ascendant", "during", "the", "reigns", "of", "Mahendravarman", "I", "(590–630)", "and", "Narasimhavarman", "I", "(630–668)", "and", "included", "the", "southern", "Telugu", "and", "the", "north", "of", "the", "Tamil", "regions.", "The", "Pallavas", "were", "noted", "for", "their", "patronage", "of", "Dravidian", "architecture,", "examples", "of", "which", "survive", "in", "Mahabalipuram.", "The", "Chinese", "traveller", "Xuanzang", "visited", "Kanchipuram", "under", "Pallava", "rule),", "and", "extolled", "its", "benign", "government.", "The", "period", "was", "characterized", "by", "conflict", "with", "the", "Chalukyas", "of", "Badami", "in", "the", "north", "and", "the", "Tamil", "states", "of", "Chola", "and", "Pandyas", "in", "the", "south.", "During", "the", "eighth", "century,", "the", "Pallavas", "were", "succeeded", "by", "the", "Chola", "dynasty.", "Vishnukundinas", "The", "Vishnukundina", "dynasty", "ruled", "in", "the", "Deccan", "and", "South", "India", "in", "the", "fifth", "and", "sixth", "centuries", "CE.", "Early", "rulers", "of", "the", "dynasty", "allied", "with", "the", "Vakatakas", "and", "the", "Rashtrakutas", "by", "marriage.", "In", "529,", "Madhava", "Varma", "(a", "descendant", "of", "the", "dynasty)", "and", "four", "allied", "clans", "achieved", "independence", "by", "defeating", "the", "Salankayanas", "in", "coastal", "Andhra.", "Kalachuris", "of", "Chedi", "The", "Matsyas,", "Chedis,", "Pericchedis,", "Haihayas", "and", "Kalachuris", "may", "share", "a", "common", "Vedic", "ancestry", "and", "origin", "myth,", "but", "the", "link", "is", "tenuous.", "In", "the", "Puranas,", "Matsya", "(Sanskrit", "for", "\"fish\")", "was", "the", "name", "of", "a", "tribe", "(Meenas)", "and", "a", "state", "under", "the", "Vedic", "civilisation.", "The", "Matsya", "tribe", "was", "founded", "by", "a", "fisherman", "who", "became", "a", "king.", "The", "Mahabharata", "(V.74.16)", "describes", "King", "Sahaja", "as", "a", "son", "of", "Uparichara", "Vasu,", "a", "Chedi", "king.", "Vasu", "ruled", "the", "Chedis", "and", "the", "Matsyas,", "suggesting", "the", "Matsya", "were", "once", "part", "of", "the", "Chedi", "kingdom.", "The", "Puranas", "mention", "six", "Matsya", "kingdoms,", "and", "the", "Pandya", "Kingdom", "in", "the", "south", "has", "a", "fish", "on", "its", "banner.", "Signs", "of", "the", "Matsya", "were", "later", "found", "in", "the", "Visakhapatnam", "region.", "Chedi", "The", "Chedi", "kingdom,", "in", "central", "and", "western", "India,", "was", "first", "ruled", "by", "Paurava", "kings", "and", "later", "by", "Yadav", "kings.", "It", "corresponds", "roughly", "to", "the", "present-day", "Bundelkhand", "region", "of", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "Haihaya", "The", "Haihaya", "kingdom", "(haya", "means", "\"horse\")", "was", "one", "of", "a", "number", "of", "kingdoms", "ruled", "by", "Chandravamsha", "Kshatriya", "kings", "in", "central", "and", "western", "India.", "The", "Vishnu", "Purana", "links", "its", "outlying", "tribes", "to", "the", "Yadu", "tribe.", "According", "to", "the", "Puranas,", "the", "Haihaya", "were", "divided", "into", "the", "Talajanghas,", "Vitihotras,", "Avantis,", "Tundikeras", "and", "Jatas.", "Haihaya", "rulers", "included", "the", "legendary", "Kartavirya", "Arjuna,", "a", "powerful", "king", "who", "defeated", "Ravana.", "Although", "he", "had", "a", "thousand", "arms,", "he", "was", "felled", "and", "his", "arms", "severed", "by", "Parasurama.", "The", "Haihaya", "capital", "was", "Mahishmati,", "on", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Narmada", "River", "in", "Madhya", "Pradesh.", "Kalachuri", "Kalachuri", "is", "the", "name", "used", "by", "two", "kingdoms", "who", "claim", "a", "common", "ancestry", "and", "ruled", "in", "a", "succession", "of", "dynasties", "from", "the", "10th", "to", "the", "12th", "centuries.", "The", "first", "kingdom", "controlled", "western", "Madhya", "Pradesh", "and", "Rajasthan", "in", "central", "India.", "The", "second,", "the", "southern", "Kalachuri,", "ruled", "part", "of", "Karnataka.", "Kalachuri", "kings,", "related", "by", "marriage", "to", "the", "Chalukyas", "and", "Rashtrakutas,", "and", "ruled", "from", "Tripuri,", "Gorakhpur,", "Ratnapur", "and", "Rajpur.", "The", "name", "Kalachuri", "may", "derive", "from", "kali", "(long", "moustache)", "and", "churi", "(sharp", "knife).", "The", "Kalachuri", "were", "also", "known", "as", "Katachuris.", "In", "the", "Telugu", "epic", "The", "Battle", "of", "Palnadu,", "the", "Kalachuri", "are", "referred", "to", "as", "the", "Haihaya", "family", "of", "the", "Kona", "region", "(Amalapuram),", "the", "Razole", "Taluqs", "of", "the", "present-day", "East", "Godavari", "district,", "and", "the", "Haihaya", "family", "of", "Palanadu.", "They", "were", "vassals", "of", "the", "Chalukyas.", "The", "Pericchedis", "are", "also", "mentioned", "as", "vassals", "of", "the", "Chalukyas.", "According", "to", "V.", "Rama", "Chandra", "Rao,", "they", "were", "connected", "to", "the", "ancient", "Chedi.", "The", "Pericchedis", "had", "two", "branches,", "with", "Kollipaka", "and", "Bezawada", "their", "capitals.", "Rao", "also", "mentions", "that", "the", "Vatsavai", "dynasty", "of", "Peddapuram", "may", "be", "related", "to", "the", "Matsya", "dynasty,", "since", "there", "is", "evidence", "of", "a", "branch", "in", "the", "Visakhapatnam", "area.", "An", "1174", "record", "suggests", "the", "Kalachuri", "dynasty", "was", "thought", "to", "be", "founded", "by", "Soma,", "who", "grew", "a", "beard", "and", "moustache", "to", "save", "himself", "from", "Parashurama's", "wrath.", "Their", "emblem", "was", "suvarna", "vrishabha,", "a", "golden", "bull.", "The", "Kalachuri", "honoured", "Krantivirya", "Sahasrarjun,", "who", "killed", "Rishi", "Jamdagni", "(Bhagwan", "Parshurama's", "father).", "Historians", "such", "as", "P.", "B.", "Desai", "emphasize", "the", "Kalachuris'", "central-Indian", "origin.", "At", "their", "zenith,", "the", "Kalachuris", "ruled", "parts", "of", "Gujarat,", "Malwa,", "Konkan", "and", "Maharashtra.", "Their", "rule", "was", "ended", "by", "the", "Badami", "Chalukyas", "under", "Badami", "Chalukya", "Magalesa.", "Lieutenant", "colonel", "James", "Tod", "recorded", "a", "tribe", "of", "Haihayas", "\"near", "the", "very", "top", "of", "the", "valley", "of", "Sohagpur", "in", "Bagelkhand,", "aware", "of", "their", "ancient", "lineage,", "and", "though", "few", "in", "number,", "still", "celebrated", "for", "their", "valour\".", "Eastern", "Chalukyas", "Between", "624", "and", "1323,", "the", "Telugu", "language", "emerged", "as", "a", "literary", "medium", "alongside", "Prakrit", "and", "Sanskrit.", "From", "around", "848", "(during", "the", "time", "of", "Gunaga", "Vijayaditya)", "to", "the", "11th", "century,", "the", "language", "progressed", "from", "stanzas", "to", "full", "literary", "works.", "At", "this", "time,", "it", "was", "written", "in", "old", "Telugu", "script;", "Al-Beruni", "referred", "to", "the", "script", "as", "\"Andhri\"", "in", "his", "1000", "Kitab", "Al-Hind.", "During", "the", "11th", "century,", "the", "Mahabharata", "was", "partially", "translated", "by", "court", "poet", "Nannaya", "under", "the", "patronage", "of", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "ruler", "Rajaraja", "Narendra.", "Modern", "Telugu", "script", "evolved", "from", "the", "old", "Telugu", "script", "from", "the", "11th", "to", "the", "19th", "centuries.", "The", "Eastern", "Chalukyas", "were", "a", "branch", "of", "the", "Chalukyas", "of", "Badami.", "Pulakesin", "II", "conquered", "Vengi", "(near", "Eluru)", "in", "624", "and", "installed", "his", "brother,", "Kubja", "Vishnuvardhana", "(624-641),", "as", "its", "ruler.", "The", "Vishnuvardhana", "dynasty,", "known", "as", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukyas,", "ruled", "for", "nearly", "four", "centuries.", "Vishnuvardhana's", "domain", "extended", "from", "Srikakulam", "in", "the", "north", "to", "Nellore", "in", "the", "south.", "Control", "of", "the", "Vengi", "region", "shifted", "from", "Gunaga", "Vijayaditya", "to", "Rashtrakuta", "rule,", "to", "the", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "(10th", "and", "11th", "centuries),", "and", "then", "to", "the", "Cholas.", "In", "1118,", "Kulottunga", "Chola", "was", "defeated", "by", "Vikramaditya", "VI", "of", "the", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "dynasty.", "The", "Cholas", "at", "Talakad", "were", "defeated", "by", "the", "Hoysala", "ruler,", "Vishnuvardhana,", "and", "Vengi", "was", "again", "ruled", "by", "the", "Chalukyas.", "The", "Kalyani", "Chalukya", "fell", "with", "the", "death", "of", "Vikramaditya", "VI.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "12th", "century,", "the", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "empire", "was", "divided", "into", "three", "kingdoms:", "the", "Hoysala", "Empire,", "the", "Kakatiya", "Kingdom", "and", "the", "Yadavas.", "Chola", "Empire", "The", "ancient", "Chola", "kingdom", "once", "famous", "in", "Tamil", "literature", "and", "in", "the", "writings", "of", "Greek", "merchants", "and", "geographers", "faded", "into", "darkness", "after", "c.", "300", "CE.", "Cholas", "during", "this", "period", "almost", "completely", "disappeared", "from", "their", "native", "land.", "The", "Cholas", "disappeared", "from", "the", "Tamil", "land", "almost", "completely", "in", "this", "debacle,", "though", "a", "branch", "of", "them", "can", "be", "traced", "towards", "the", "close", "of", "the", "6th", "century", "in", "Rayalaseema—the", "Telugu-Cholas,", "whose", "kingdom", "is", "mentioned", "by", "Yuan", "Chwang", "in", "the", "seventh", "century", "CE.", "Due", "to", "Kalabhra", "invasion", "and", "growing", "power", "of", "Pallavas,", "Cholas", "migrated", "from", "their", "native", "to", "Telugu", "country", "and", "ruled", "from", "there", "as", "chieftains", "of", "Pallavas", "at", "least", "since", "540", "CE.", "Several", "Telugu", "Chola", "families", "like", "Renati", "Cholas,", "Pottapi", "Cholas,", "Nellore", "Cholas,", "Velanati", "Cholas,", "Nannuru", "Cholas", "existed", "and", "claimed", "descent", "from", "ancient", "Tamil", "Chola", "king", "Karikala", "Chola.", "The", "Cholas", "had", "to", "wait", "for", "another", "three", "centuries", "until", "the", "accession", "of", "Vijayalaya", "Chola", "belonging", "to", "Pottapi", "Chola", "family", "in", "the", "second", "quarter", "of", "the", "ninth", "century", "to", "re-establish", "their", "dynasty", "as", "independent", "rulers", "by", "overthrowing", "Pallavas", "and", "Pandyas.", "According", "to", "Anbil", "plates", "of", "Parantaka", "Chola", "II,", "Vijayalaya", "Chola's", "predecessor", "is", "Srikantha", "Choladhiraja,", "a", "Telugu", "Pottapi", "Chola", "king.", "Vijayalaya", "Chola", "captured", "Tanjore", "from", "Pandyas", "and", "his", "descendants", "started", "ruling", "from", "there.", "Under", "Raja", "Raja", "Chola", "I", "and", "Rajendra", "Chola", "I,", "the", "empire", "expanded", "occupying", "south", "India,", "Sri", "Lanka,", "Maldives,", "Malaysia", "and", "Indonesia.", "These", "Imperial", "Cholas", "had", "marital", "alliances", "with", "Vengi", "Chalukyas.", "Kulottunga", "Chola", "I,", "the", "grandson", "of", "Rajendra", "Chola", "I", "and", "son", "of", "Eastern", "Chalukya", "king", "Raja", "Raja", "Narendra", "became", "the", "Chola", "emperor", "in", "1270", "CE.", "Contemporarily", "several", "Telugu", "Chola", "families", "like", "Nellore", "Cholas,", "Velanati", "Cholas", "were", "ruling", "as", "subordinates", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas.", "After", "the", "fall", "of", "Imperial", "Cholas", "in", "1279", "CE,", "Nellore", "Cholas", "and", "Velanati", "Cholas", "became", "subordinates", "of", "Kakatiyas.", "Kakatiyas", "also", "claim", "descendant", "from", "Karikala", "Chola.", "Late", "Medieval", "and", "Early", "Modern", "period", "(12th", "-", "18th", "centuries", "CE)", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "The", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "rose", "to", "power", "during", "the", "12th", "and", "13th", "centuries.", "Initially", "vassals", "of", "the", "Western", "Chalukyas", "of", "Kalyani,", "they", "held", "a", "small", "territory", "near", "Warangal.", "Prola", "II", "of", "the", "Kakatiyas", "(1110–1158)", "extended", "his", "territory", "southwards", "and", "declared", "his", "independence,", "with", "Hanumakonda", "as", "the", "capital.", "His", "successor,", "Prataparudra", "I", "(1158–1195),", "increased", "the", "holdings", "eastward", "to", "the", "Godavari", "delta.", "Prataparudra", "built", "Warangal", "as", "a", "second", "capital,", "and", "countered", "invasions", "by", "the", "Seuna", "Yadavas", "of", "Devagiri.", "The", "next", "ruler,", "Mahadeva,", "extended", "the", "Kakatiyas", "kingdom", "to", "the", "coast", "before", "he", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Ganapati", "Deva", "in", "1199.", "Ganapati", "Deva", "was", "the", "first", "ruler", "since", "the", "Satavahana", "dynasty", "to", "unite", "the", "Telugu", "lands.", "In", "1210,", "Ganapati", "Deva", "defeated", "the", "Velanati", "Chodas", "and", "extended", "his", "empire", "north", "to", "Anakapalle.", "Rani", "Rudrama", "Devi", "(died", "1289", "or", "1295),", "who", "defended", "the", "Kakatiya", "kingdom", "against", "the", "Cholas", "and", "the", "Seuna", "Yadavas,", "is", "one", "of", "the", "few", "queens", "in", "Indian", "history.", "She", "was", "succeeded", "by", "her", "grandson,", "Prataparudra.", "Although", "his", "reign", "was", "characterized", "by", "battles", "against", "internal", "and", "external", "foes,", "Prataparudra", "expanded", "his", "kingdom", "west", "to", "Raichur", "and", "south", "to", "Ongole", "and", "the", "Nallamala", "Hills,", "all", "the", "way", "to", "Kanchipuram.", "He", "introduced", "a", "number", "of", "administrative", "reforms,", "some", "of", "which", "were", "adopted", "in", "the", "Vijayanagar", "empire.", "Muslim", "attacks", "began", "in", "1310,", "and", "in", "1323", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "fell", "to", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate.", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "The", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "reclaimed", "the", "Telugu", "lands", "from", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate", "and", "ruled", "them", "for", "fifty", "years.", "Hakka", "(Harihara)", "and", "Bukka,", "treasury", "officers", "at", "the", "court", "of", "Prataparudra,", "were", "inspired", "by", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "to", "organise", "Hindu", "opposition", "to", "Muslim", "invaders.", "Prataparudra", "was", "captured", "by", "the", "Muslims.", "Two", "Telugus,", "Annaya", "Mantri", "and", "Kolani", "Rudradeva,", "united", "the", "Nayaks", "against", "the", "invaders.", "Musunuri", "Prolaya", "Nayaka", "of", "the", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "was", "chosen", "as", "their", "leader.", "By", "1326,", "Prolaneedu", "had", "liberated", "Warangal.", "Inspired", "by", "the", "victories", "of", "Prolaneedu", "and", "his", "cousin,", "Kaapaneedu,", "other", "states", "(including", "Kampili,", "Hoysala,", "Dwarasamudram", "and", "Araveedu)", "asserted", "their", "independence.", "Ulugh", "Khan", "captured", "Harihara", "and", "Bukka", "at", "Warangal.", "Converted", "to", "Islam,", "they", "were", "sent", "by", "the", "sultan", "to", "suppress", "the", "Hoysala", "ruler's", "rebellion.", "Instead,", "the", "brothers", "established", "the", "Vijayanagara", "Empire.", "The", "Sultan", "led", "a", "large", "army", "south,", "but", "was", "halted", "by", "an", "epidemic", "and", "Nayak", "resistance.", "Kaapaneedu,", "with", "the", "assistance", "of", "the", "Hoysala,", "liberated", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "In", "1345", "Muslim", "nobles", "rebelled", "against", "Muhammad", "bin", "Tughluq", "in", "Devagiri,", "resulting", "in", "the", "foundation", "of", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate", "by", "Hasan", "Gangu.", "He", "assumed", "the", "name", "Alauddin", "Bahman", "Shah,", "and", "moved", "his", "capital", "to", "Gulbarga", "in", "1347.", "With", "raids", "and", "coercion,", "Singama", "of", "the", "Recherla", "Nayaks", "destabilised", "Alauddin's", "rule.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "forged", "a", "treaty", "with", "Alauddin", "and", "surrendered", "Kaulas", "Fort.", "In", "1351,", "Muhammad", "bin", "Tughluq", "died.", "Eight", "years", "later,", "Alauddin", "died", "and", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Mohammed", "Shah.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "then", "sent", "his", "son,", "Vinayaka", "Deva,", "to", "liberate", "Kaulas", "Fort", "and", "Bhuvanagiri", "from", "the", "Bahmanis;", "Vijayanagar", "emperor", "Bukka", "Raya", "assisted", "Deva", "in", "the", "campaign.", "Deva", "initially", "succeeded,", "but", "was", "eventually", "defeated,", "captured", "and", "killed.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "persisted,", "capturing", "Golconda", "and", "Warangal.", "In", "1365,", "Golconda", "was", "chosen", "as", "the", "border", "between", "the", "Bahmani", "and", "Warangal", "kingdoms.", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "was", "forced", "to", "pay", "reparations,", "including", "a", "turquoise", "throne,", "to", "Mohammed", "Shah.", "In", "1370", "Anapota", "Nayaka", "of", "the", "Recherla", "Nayaks", "marched", "against", "Warangal", "as", "part", "of", "a", "Bahmani", "invasion,", "and", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "died", "in", "the", "ensuing", "battle", "at", "Bhimavaram.", "With", "Kapaya", "Nayaka", "gone,", "the", "Bahmanis", "soon", "subjugated", "their", "allies", "and", "ruled", "Andhra.", "Reddy", "Kingdom", "Prolaya", "Vema", "Reddy", "established", "the", "Reddy", "kingdom.", "The", "Reddys", "ruled", "from", "present-day", "Srikakulam", "in", "the", "north", "to", "Kanchi", "in", "the", "south,", "most", "of", "the", "present-day", "Andhra", "and", "Rayalaseema", "regions.", "The", "Reddy", "Kingdom", "(1326–1448)", "ruled", "portions", "of", "coastal", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "for", "over", "a", "century.", "Prolaya", "Vema", "Reddy,", "was", "the", "first", "king", "of", "the", "Reddy", "dynasty.", "The", "capital", "of", "the", "kingdom", "was", "Addanki.", "It", "was", "moved", "to", "Kondavidu", "and", "then", "later", "to", "Rajahmundry.", "His", "reign", "was", "characterised", "by", "the", "restoration", "of", "peace,", "patronage", "of", "the", "arts", "and", "literature", "and", "broad", "development.", "Errana,", "the", "translator", "of", "the", "Mahabharata,", "lived", "during", "this", "period.", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "The", "Vijayanagara", "Empire", "was", "founded", "by", "Harihara", "(Hakka)", "and", "Bukka,", "who", "were", "treasury", "officers", "in", "the", "administration", "of", "the", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "or", "commanders", "of", "Hoysala's", "forces.", "When", "Warangal", "fell", "in", "1323", "the", "brothers", "were", "captured,", "taken", "to", "Delhi", "and", "converted", "to", "Islam.", "The", "Delhi", "Sultanate", "sent", "them", "to", "the", "Deccan", "as", "governors", "of", "Kampili", "in", "the", "hope", "that", "they", "could", "deal", "with", "the", "local", "revolt", "and", "invasions", "by", "neighboring", "Hindu", "kings.", "Their", "first", "campaign", "was", "against", "neighboring", "Hoysala", "emperor", "Veera", "Ballala", "III", "of", "Dwarasamudra.", "The", "brothers", "later", "reconverted", "to", "Hinduism", "under", "the", "influence", "of", "the", "sage", "Vidyaranya,", "and", "proclaimed", "independence", "from", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate.", "Some,", "however,", "claim", "that", "the", "founders", "of", "the", "empire", "were", "Kannadigas", "stationed", "in", "the", "Tungabhadra", "region", "under", "Veera", "Ballala", "III", "to", "fight", "off", "Muslim", "invaders.", "Harihara", "I", "(r.", "1336–1356)", "established", "his", "new", "capital,", "Vijayanagar,", "in", "an", "easily", "defended", "position", "south", "of", "the", "Tungabhadra", "River.", "The", "empire", "reached", "its", "zenith", "under", "Krishnadevaraya", "in", "the", "early", "16th", "century,", "and", "Telugu", "literature", "developed", "at", "this", "time.", "Vijayanagar", "monuments", "were", "built", "across", "South", "India,", "and", "in", "Lepakshi,", "Tirupati", "and", "Sri", "Kalahasti", "in", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "largest", "and", "best-known", "collection", "of", "such", "monuments", "is", "at", "Hampi", "in", "present-day", "Karnataka.", "Bahmani", "and", "Golconda", "Sultanates", "In", "1323,", "Delhi", "sultan", "Ghiaz-ud-din", "Tughlaq", "sent", "a", "large", "army", "under", "his", "son", "Ulugh", "Khan", "(Muhammad", "bin", "Tughlaq)", "to", "conquer", "the", "Telugu", "country", "and", "lay", "siege", "to", "Warangal,", "which", "was", "soon", "annexed", "and", "governed", "as", "\"Tiling\",", "a", "provinces", "of", "the", "Deccan.", "Their", "rule", "in", "Andhra", "lasted", "until", "the", "1330s,", "when", "72", "nayaka", "chieftains", "from", "Andhra", "and", "Telangana", "rebelled", "and", "drove", "governor", "Malik", "Maqbul", "Tilangani", "out", "of", "Warangal.", "In", "1347,", "after", "a", "revolt", "against", "the", "Delhi", "Sultanate,", "an", "independent", "Muslim", "state,", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate,", "was", "established", "in", "South", "India", "by", "Ala-ud-Din", "Bahman", "Shah", "whose", "successors", "gradually", "occupied", "the", "Andhra", "regions", "by", "1471.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "15th", "century,", "the", "sultanate", "was", "plagued", "with", "factional", "strife.", "Five", "Shahi", "sultanates", "were", "founded,", "and", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty", "played", "a", "major", "role", "in", "the", "history", "of", "the", "Telugu", "country.", "The", "founder", "of", "the", "dynasty", "was", "Quli", "Qutb", "Mulk,", "a", "Shia", "Turkmen", "from", "Hamadan", "in", "Persia.", "He", "first", "migrated", "to", "Delhi", "and", "then", "to", "the", "Deccan", "to", "serve", "under", "the", "Bahmani", "Sultanate,", "where", "he", "earned", "the", "title", "Qutb-ul-Mulk.", "Later,", "when", "the", "Bahamani", "Sultanate", "declined", "and", "was", "divided", "into", "five", "Deccan", "sultanates,", "he", "gained", "control", "over", "the", "south-eastern", "region", "and", "founded", "a", "sovereign", "kingdom.", "He", "adopted", "the", "title", "of", "Qutb", "Shah", "and", "his", "dynasty", "became", "known", "as", "the", "Qutb", "Shahi", "dynasty.", "Qutb", "Shah", "occupied", "the", "region", "of", "Vengi", "between", "the", "Krishna", "River", "and", "the", "Godavari", "River", "after", "the", "death", "of", "Prataparudra", "Deva,", "the", "Gajapati", "monarch", "who", "ruled", "the", "region.", "However,", "the", "advance", "of", "Quli", "Qutb", "Shah", "was", "stopped", "at", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Godavari", "by", "the", "regional", "Gajapati", "Empire", "feudatory", "Vishwanath", "Dev", "Gajapati", "and", "a", "treaty", "was", "signed", "marking", "the", "river", "as", "the", "boundary", "between", "the", "two", "kingdoms.", "The", "treaty", "was", "engraved", "on", "a", "copper", "plate,", "now", "in", "the", "Nizam", "Museum.", "However", "with", "the", "decline", "of", "the", "Gajapatis,", "Ibrahim", "Quli", "Qutb", "Shah", "later", "rescinded", "the", "terms", "of", "the", "treaty", "and", "invaded", "Kalinga", "in", "1571", "after", "the", "death", "of", "Vishwanath", "Dev,", "and", "defeated", "his", "son", "the", "new", "king,", "Maharaja", "Balaram", "Dev,", "enforcing", "a", "tributary", "status", "upon", "the", "Nandapur", "Kingdom.", "The", "military", "conquests", "of", "Qutb", "Shahi", "Sultans", "led", "to", "the", "annexation", "of", "regions", "of", "southern", "Kalinga", "into", "their", "kingdom", "and", "the", "Sultanate", "prospered.", "The", "rule", "of", "the", "Jeypore", "Kings", "over", "coastal", "Andhra", "came", "to", "an", "end", "when", "their", "feudatories", "of", "the", "region", "claimed", "independence", "in", "the", "rebellion", "of", "Balaram", "Dev", "III", "against", "his", "brother", "the", "king,", "Maharaja", "Ram", "Chandra", "Dev", "I,", "in", "1711.", "Some", "of", "those", "notable", "feudatories", "of", "Jeypore", "were", "-", "Kurupam,", "Chemudu,", "Madugula,", "Pachipenta,", "Araku,", "etc.", "However,", "coastal", "Andhra", "later", "became", "a", "part", "of", "the", "Nizamate", "of", "Hyderabad", "until", "the", "arrival", "of", "the", "British.", "Mughal", "conquest", "In", "1687,", "Aurangazeb", "invaded", "and", "annexed", "Golconda", "and", "appointed", "a", "Nizam", "(governor).", "The", "Mughal", "Nizams", "controlled", "Andhra", "for", "about", "35", "years.", "In", "1707", "Aurangazeb", "died,", "and", "the", "Mughal", "regime", "weakened", "and", "lost", "control", "of", "the", "provinces.", "This", "enabled", "the", "British", "East", "India", "Company", "and", "the", "French", "Compagnie", "des", "Indes", "Orientales", "to", "consolidate", "power", "in", "India.", "Colonial", "era", "(1753-1947", "CE)", "In", "a", "1753", "decree,", "Deccan", "subedar", "Asif", "ad-Dawlah", "Mir", "Ali", "Salabat", "Jang", "ceded", "Chicacole,", "Ellore", "and", "Rajahmundry", "to", "the", "Marquis", "de", "Bussy-Castelnau.", "An", "annual", "stipend", "of", "200,000", "rupees", "was", "paid", "to", "maintain", "French", "troops", "in", "the", "subah;", "revenue", "in", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "amounted", "to", "one", "million", "rupees", "a", "year.Bussy", "had", "helped", "Salabat", "Jang", "become", "subedar", "of", "the", "Deccan.", "The", "agreement", "between", "the", "French", "and", "Salabat", "Jang", "in", "Aurangabad", "bears", "the", "signature", "of", "Said", "Loukshur,", "Salabat", "Jang's", "minister.", "Yanam", "was", "an", "important", "town", "during", "the", "French", "occupation", "of", "the", "Northern", "Circars.", "In", "1758,", "the", "French", "and", "English", "fought", "at", "Chandurthi", "in", "present-day", "Gollaprolu", "mandal", "of", "East", "Godavari", "district.", "The", "French", "were", "defeated", "by", "the", "British", "and", "Salabat", "Jang", "made", "a", "treaty", "with", "the", "British,", "giving", "them", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "in", "a", "firman.", "The", "Nizam", "later", "rebelled", "against", "the", "English.", "The", "war", "ended", "with", "a", "second", "treaty;", "the", "Northern", "Circars", "remained", "under", "the", "control", "of", "British", "India,", "and", "after", "1760", "the", "French", "lost", "their", "hold", "there", "and", "throughout", "South", "India.", "In", "1765,", "Robert", "Clive", "and", "the", "chief", "and", "council", "at", "Vizagapatam", "obtained", "from", "Mughal", "emperor", "Shah", "Alam", "a", "grant", "for", "the", "Northern", "Circars.", "During", "the", "rule", "of", "Hyder", "Ali", "and", "Tipu", "Sultan,", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "Mysore", "pursued", "an", "expansionist", "policy", "against", "the", "Marathas,", "the", "Nizam", "and", "the", "English", "and", "made", "incursions", "into", "the", "Rayalaseema", "region.", "The", "western", "part", "of", "Vishakapatnam", "district", "consisted", "of", "the", "Jeypore", "Estate", "ruled", "by", "king", "Vikram", "Dev", "I", "(1758-1781).", "In", "1777,", "the", "British", "invaded", "Jeypore", "with", "the", "help", "of", "Vizianagaram", "and", "defeated", "Vikram", "Dev,", "turning", "his", "kingdom", "into", "a", "zamindari.", "The", "region", "later", "was", "reorganized", "on", "linguistic", "lines.", "Madras", "Presidency", "The", "Northern", "Circars", "became", "part", "of", "the", "British", "Madras", "Presidency.", "The", "Nizam", "later", "ceded", "five", "territories", "(Datta", "Mandalālu)", "to", "the", "British,", "which", "became", "Rayalaseema.", "The", "Nizams", "retained", "control", "of", "the", "interior", "provinces", "as", "a", "princely", "state,", "acknowledging", "British", "rule", "in", "return", "for", "local", "autonomy.", "The", "provinces", "were", "governed", "in", "a", "feudal", "manner,", "with", "zamindars", "in", "areas", "such", "as", "Kulla", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "Godavari", "acting", "as", "lords", "under", "the", "Nizam.", "The", "zamindari", "system", "was", "dismantled", "after", "independence.", "Telugu", "districts", "Vizagapatam", "(later", "Srikakulam,", "Vizianagaram", "and", "Visakhapatnam", "districts)", "Godavari", "(later", "East", "Godavari", "district)", "Machilipatnam", "(later", "Guntur,", "Krishna", "and", "West", "Godavari", "Districts)", "Kurnool", "Nellore", "Cuddapah", "Anantapur", "Prakasam", "Zamindaris", "Vizianagaram", "estate", "Vizagapatam", "Bobbili", "Estate", "Nuzvid", "Estate", "Pemmasani", "clan", "Ravella", "clan", "Yarlagadda", "rajas", "Balusu", "clan", "Mullapudi", "clan", "Adusumilli", "clan", "Marni", "clan", "Indriyal", "Clan", "of", "Rajamahendravaram", "Padmanayaka", "Zamindari", "Vavilavalasa", "Inuganty", "kings", "Siripuram", "Inuganty", "kings", "Kirlampudi", "Annavaram", "Nuzividu", "Mylavaram", "Gurazala", "Shri", "Kalahasti", "Venkatagiri", "Pithapuram", "Post-Independence", "(1947", "CE", "-", "present)", "In", "1947,", "India", "gained", "independence", "from", "the", "United", "Kingdom.", "Although", "the", "Muslim", "Nizam", "of", "Hyderabad", "resisted,", "he", "was", "forced", "to", "cede", "his", "state", "to", "India", "in", "1948", "to", "form", "Hyderabad", "State.", "When", "India", "became", "independent,", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "(Urdu", "is", "spoken", "in", "some", "parts", "of", "Hyderabad", "and", "a", "few", "other", "districts", "of", "Hyderabad", "State)", "were", "distributed", "in", "22", "districts:", "nine", "in", "Hyderabad", "State,", "12", "in", "the", "Madras", "Presidency", "and", "one", "in", "French-controlled", "Yanam.", "In", "1953", "Andhra", "State", "was", "created", "from", "part", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency,", "the", "first", "state", "in", "India", "formed", "on", "a", "linguistic", "basis.", "In", "1956,", "Andhra", "State", "was", "merged", "with", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "area", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "to", "form", "the", "state", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "Madras", "Manade", "movement", "Madras", "possessed", "Tamil", "and", "Telugu", "cultures.", "In", "the", "early", "1920s,", "Madras", "Presidency", "Chief", "Minister", "Panagal", "Raja", "said", "that", "the", "Cooum", "River", "should", "be", "the", "boundary", "between", "the", "Andhra", "and", "Tamil", "regions.", "In", "1953", "Telugu", "speakers", "in", "the", "former", "Madras", "Presidency", "sought", "to", "make", "Madras", "the", "capital", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "adopting", "the", "slogan", "Madras", "manade", "(\"Madras", "is", "ours\").", "However", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "had", "65", "percentage", "of", "Tamil", "speakers", "as", "opposed", "to", "27", "percent", "Telugu", "speakers", "that", "time", "and", "Madras", "stayed", "with", "the", "Tamil", "state.", "Creation", "of", "Andhra", "State", "Activist", "Potti", "Sriramulu", "advocated", "inclusion", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "areas", "of", "Rayalaseema", "and", "Coastal", "Andhra", "in", "an", "Andhra", "state.", "He", "conducted", "a", "hunger", "strike", "until", "Prime", "Minister", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "promised", "to", "form", "an", "Andhra", "state.", "On", "19", "October", "1952,", "when", "Nehru's", "promise", "had", "not", "been", "fulfilled,", "Sriramulu", "began", "fasting", "again", "at", "Maharshi", "Bulusu", "Sambamurthy's", "Madras", "home.", "The", "Andhra", "Congress", "committee", "disapproved", "of", "Sriramulu's", "hunger", "strike,", "but", "his", "action", "became", "widely", "known.", "He", "died", "shortly", "after", "midnight", "on", "15", "December", "1952", "at", "126", "Royapettah", "High", "Road,", "Mylapore,", "Madras,", "and", "the", "house", "has", "been", "preserved.", "During", "Sriramulu's", "funeral", "procession,", "mourners", "praised", "his", "sacrifice.", "When", "the", "procession", "reached", "Mount", "Road,", "thousands", "of", "people", "joined", "it", "and", "raised", "banners", "hailing", "Sriramulu.", "Later,", "they", "began", "destroying", "public", "property.", "The", "news", "spread", "quickly,", "and", "seven", "people", "were", "killed", "by", "police", "gunfire", "in", "Anakapalle", "and", "Vijayawada.", "The", "unrest", "continued", "for", "several", "days.", "On", "19", "December", "1952,", "Prime", "Minister", "Nehru", "announced", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "separate", "state", "for", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency.", "On", "1", "October", "1953,", "eleven", "districts", "in", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "portion", "of", "Madras", "State", "(Coastal", "Andhra", "and", "Rayalaseema)", "voted", "to", "become", "Andhra", "State,", "with", "Kurnool", "as", "their", "capital.", "Andhra", "Kesari", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "Pantulu", "became", "chief", "minister", "of", "the", "new", "Telugu", "state.", "Merger", "of", "Hyderabad", "and", "Andhra", "States", "In", "December", "1953,", "the", "States", "Reorganisation", "Commission", "convened", "to", "create", "states", "on", "linguistic", "lines.", "Due", "to", "public", "demand,", "the", "commission", "recommended", "abolishing", "Hyderabad", "State", "and", "merging", "its", "Marathi-speaking", "region", "into", "Bombay", "State", "and", "its", "Kannada-speaking", "region", "into", "Mysore", "State.", "The", "States", "Reorganisation", "Commission", "(SRC)", "discussed", "a", "merger", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "Telangana", "region", "of", "Hyderabad", "State", "and", "Andhra", "State.", "According", "to", "Paragraph", "374", "of", "the", "report,", "\"The", "creation", "of", "Vishalandhra", "is", "an", "ideal", "to", "which", "numerous", "individuals", "and", "public", "bodies,", "both", "in", "Andhra", "and", "Telangana,", "have", "been", "passionately", "attached", "over", "a", "long", "period", "of", "time,", "and", "unless", "there", "are", "strong", "reasons", "to", "the", "contrary,", "this", "sentiment", "is", "entitled", "to", "consideration\".", "About", "Telangana,", "paragraph", "378", "reads:", "\"One", "of", "the", "principal", "causes", "of", "opposition", "of", "Vishalandhra", "also", "seems", "to", "be", "the", "apprehension", "felt", "by", "the", "educationally", "backward", "people", "of", "Telangana", "that", "they", "may", "be", "swamped", "and", "exploited", "by", "the", "more", "advanced", "people", "of", "the", "coastal", "areas\".", "In", "its", "analysis,", "the", "SRC", "opposed", "an", "immediate", "merger.", "Paragraph", "386", "reads,", "\"After", "taking", "all", "these", "factors", "into", "consideration", "we", "have", "come", "to", "the", "conclusion", "that", "it", "will", "be", "in", "the", "interests", "of", "Andhra", "as", "well", "as", "Telangana,", "if", "for", "the", "present,", "the", "Telangana", "area", "is", "to", "constitute", "into", "a", "separate", "State,", "which", "may", "be", "known", "as", "the", "Hyderabad", "State", "with", "provision", "for", "its", "unification", "with", "Andhra", "after", "the", "general", "elections", "likely", "to", "be", "held", "in", "or", "about", "1961", "if", "by", "a", "two", "thirds", "majority", "the", "legislature", "of", "the", "residuary", "Hyderabad", "State", "expresses", "itself", "in", "favor", "of", "such", "unification\".", "The", "central", "government,", "led", "by", "Nehru,", "merged", "Andhra", "State", "and", "Telangana", "to", "form", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "on", "1", "November", "1956", "after", "ensuring", "safeguards", "to", "Telangana", "in", "the", "form", "of", "a", "gentleman's", "agreement.", "History", "of", "United", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "In", "an", "effort", "to", "gain", "an", "independent", "state", "based", "on", "linguistic", "identity", "and", "to", "protect", "the", "interests", "of", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "people", "of", "Madras", "State,", "Potti", "Sreeramulu", "fasted", "to", "death", "in", "1952.", "As", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "became", "a", "bone", "of", "contention,", "in", "1949", "a", "committee", "with", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru,", "Vallabhbhai", "Patel,", "and", "Pattabhi", "Sitaramayya", "was", "constituted.", "The", "committee", "recommended", "that", "Andhra", "State", "could", "be", "formed", "provided", "the", "Andhras", "gave", "up", "their", "claim", "on", "the", "city", "of", "Madras", "(now", "Chennai).", "After", "Potti", "Sreeramulu's", "death,", "the", "Telugu-speaking", "area", "of", "Andhra", "State", "was", "carved", "out", "of", "Madras", "State", "on", "1", "October", "1953,", "with", "Kurnool", "as", "its", "capital", "city.", "Tanguturi", "Prakasam", "became", "the", "first", "chief", "minister.", "On", "the", "basis", "of", "the", "Gentlemen's", "Agreement", "of", "1956,", "the", "States", "Reorganisation", "Act", "created", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "by", "merging", "the", "neighbouring", "Telugu-speaking", "areas", "of", "the", "Hyderabad", "State", "with", "Hyderabad", "as", "the", "capital", "on", "1", "November", "1956.", "The", "Indian", "National", "Congress", "(INC)", "ruled", "the", "state", "from", "1956", "to", "1982.", "Neelam", "Sanjiva", "Reddy", "became", "the", "first", "chief", "minister.", "Among", "other", "chief", "ministers,", "P.", "V.", "Narasimha", "Rao", "is", "known", "for", "implementing", "land", "reforms", "and", "land", "ceiling", "acts", "and", "securing", "reservation", "for", "lower", "castes", "in", "politics.", "Nagarjuna", "Sagar", "Dam,", "completed", "in", "1967,", "and", "Srisailam", "Dam,", "completed", "in", "1981,", "are", "some", "of", "the", "irrigation", "projects", "that", "helped", "increase", "the", "production", "of", "paddy", "in", "the", "state.", "In", "1983,", "the", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "(TDP)", "won", "the", "state", "elections,", "and", "N.", "T.", "Rama", "Rao", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "of", "the", "state", "for", "the", "first", "time", "after", "launching", "his", "party", "just", "nine", "months", "earlier.", "This", "broke", "the", "long-time", "single-party", "monopoly", "enjoyed", "by", "the", "INC.", "He", "transformed", "the", "sub-district", "administration", "by", "forming", "mandals", "in", "place", "of", "earlier", "taluks,", "removing", "hereditary", "village", "heads,", "and", "appointing", "non-hereditary", "village", "revenue", "assistants.", "The", "1989", "elections", "ended", "the", "rule", "of", "Rao,", "with", "the", "INC", "returning", "to", "power", "with", "Marri", "Chenna", "Reddy", "at", "the", "helm.", "In", "1994,", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "gave", "a", "mandate", "to", "the", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "again,", "and", "Rao", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "again.", "Nara", "Chandrababu", "Naidu,", "Rao's", "son-in-law,", "came", "to", "power", "in", "1995", "with", "the", "backing", "of", "a", "majority", "of", "the", "MLAs.", "The", "Telugu", "Desam", "Party", "won", "both", "the", "assembly", "and", "Lok", "Sabha", "elections", "in", "1999", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "Chandrababu", "Naidu.", "Thus,", "Naidu", "held", "the", "record", "for", "the", "longest-serving", "chief", "minister", "(1995–2004)", "of", "the", "united", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "He", "introduced", "e-governance", "by", "launching", "e-Seva", "centres", "in", "2001", "for", "paperless", "and", "speedy", "delivery", "of", "government", "services.", "He", "is", "credited", "with", "transforming", "Hyderabad", "into", "an", "IT", "hub", "by", "providing", "incentives", "for", "tech", "companies", "to", "set", "up", "centres.", "In", "2004,", "Congress", "returned", "to", "power", "with", "a", "new", "chief", "ministerial", "face,", "YS", "Rajashekara", "Reddy,", "better", "known", "as", "YSR.", "The", "main", "emphasis", "during", "Reddy's", "tenure", "was", "on", "social", "welfare", "schemes", "such", "as", "free", "electricity", "for", "farmers,", "health", "insurance,", "tuition", "fee", "reimbursement", "for", "the", "poor,", "and", "the", "national", "rural", "employment", "guarantee", "scheme.", "He", "took", "over", "the", "free", "emergency", "ambulance", "service", "initiated", "by", "a", "corporation", "and", "ran", "it", "as", "a", "government", "project.", "INC", "won", "the", "2009", "elections", "under", "the", "leadership", "of", "YSR", "in", "April.", "He", "was", "elected", "chief", "minister", "again", "but", "was", "killed", "in", "a", "helicopter", "crash", "that", "occurred", "in", "September", "2009.", "He", "was", "succeeded", "by", "Congressmen", "Konijeti", "Rosaiah", "and", "Nallari", "Kiran", "Kumar", "Reddy;", "the", "latter", "resigned", "over", "the", "impending", "division", "of", "the", "state", "to", "form", "Telangana.", "During", "its", "58", "years", "as", "a", "unified", "state,", "the", "state", "weathered", "separatist", "movements", "from", "Telangana", "(1969)", "and", "Andhra", "(1972)", "successfully.", "A", "new", "party", "called", "Telangana", "Rashtra", "Samithi,", "formed", "in", "April", "2001", "by", "Kalvakuntla", "Chandrashekar", "Rao", "(KCR),", "reignited", "the", "Telanganga", "movement.", "A", "joint", "action", "committee", "formed", "with", "political", "parties,", "government", "employees,", "and", "the", "general", "public", "spearheaded", "the", "agitation.", "When", "KCR's", "health", "deteriorated", "due", "to", "his", "fast-unto-death", "programme,", "the", "central", "government", "decided", "to", "initiate", "the", "process", "to", "form", "an", "independent", "Telangana", "in", "December", "2009.", "This", "triggered", "the", "Samaikyandhra", "movement", "to", "keep", "the", "state", "united.", "The", "Srikrishna", "committee", "was", "formed", "to", "give", "recommendations", "on", "how", "to", "deal", "with", "the", "situation.", "It", "gave", "its", "report", "in", "December", "2010.", "The", "agitations", "continued", "for", "nearly", "5", "years,", "with", "the", "Telangana", "side", "harping", "on", "the", "marginalisation", "of", "food", "culture,", "language,", "and", "unequal", "economic", "development", "and", "the", "Samaikyandhra", "movement", "focusing", "on", "the", "shared", "culture,", "language,", "customs,", "and", "historical", "unity", "of", "Telugu-speaking", "regions.", "Bifurcation", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "On", "30", "July", "2013,", "the", "Congress", "Working", "Committee", "unanimously", "approved", "a", "resolution", "recommending", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "Telangana", "state.", "In", "February", "2014,", "a", "bill", "was", "placed", "before", "Parliament", "The", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Reorganisation", "Act,", "2014", "was", "passed,", "allowing", "the", "formation", "of", "a", "Telangana", "state", "of", "ten", "districts", "from", "north-western", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "despite", "opposition", "by", "the", "state", "legislature.", "The", "bill", "received", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president,", "and", "was", "published", "in", "The", "Gazette", "of", "India", "on", "1", "March.", "The", "bill", "included", "the", "provision", "to", "retain", "Hyderabad", "as", "the", "capital", "for", "up", "to", "ten", "years", "and", "the", "provision", "to", "ensure", "access", "to", "educational", "institutions", "for", "the", "same", "period.", "The", "bill", "received", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president", "and", "was", "published", "in", "the", "gazette", "on", "1", "March", "2014.", "The", "new", "state", "of", "Telangana", "came", "into", "existence", "on", "2", "June", "2014", "after", "approval", "from", "the", "president", "of", "India,", "with", "the", "residual", "state", "continuing", "as", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "present", "form", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "is", "the", "same", "as", "that", "of", "Andhra", "State,", "except", "for", "Bhadrachalam", "town,", "which", "continues", "in", "Telangana.", "A", "number", "of", "petitions", "questioning", "the", "validity", "of", "the", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Reorganisation", "Act", "have", "been", "pending", "before", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "constitutional", "bench", "since", "April", "2014.", "=", "Final", "Elections", "In", "the", "final", "elections", "held", "in", "the", "unified", "state", "in", "2014,", "the", "TDP", "got", "a", "mandate", "in", "its", "favour,", "defeating", "its", "nearest", "rival,", "the", "YSR", "Congress", "Party,", "a", "breakaway", "faction", "of", "the", "Congress", "founded", "by", "Y.", "S.", "Jagan", "Mohan", "Reddy,", "son", "of", "former", "Chief", "Minister", "Y.", "S.", "Rajasekhara", "Reddy.", "N.", "Chandrababu", "Naidu,", "the", "chief", "of", "the", "TDP,", "became", "the", "chief", "minister", "on", "8", "June", "2014.", "In", "2017,", "the", "government", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "began", "operating", "from", "its", "new", "greenfield", "capital,", "Amaravati,", "for", "which", "33,000", "acres", "were", "acquired", "from", "farmers", "through", "an", "innovative", "land", "pooling", "scheme.", "Interstate", "issues", "with", "Telangana", "relating", "to", "the", "division", "of", "assets", "of", "public", "sector", "institutions", "and", "organisations", "of", "the", "united", "state", "and", "the", "division", "of", "river", "waters", "are", "not", "yet", "resolved.", "Capitals", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Amaravati", "is", "the", "legislative", "capital", "and", "the", "de", "facto", "seat", "of", "government", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "city", "is", "located", "on", "the", "banks", "of", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "Guntur", "District.", "Built", "on", "the", "southern", "banks", "of", "the", "Krishna", "River", "in", "the", "Guntur", "district,", "it", "was", "selected", "because", "it", "was", "close", "to", "the", "geographical", "center", "of", "the", "state.", "Amaravati", "was", "founded", "by", "former", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Chief", "Minister", "N.", "Chandrababu", "Naidu", "in", "2014", "as", "the", "Greenfield", "administrative", "capital", "city", "of", "the", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "state,", "and", "its", "foundation", "stone", "was", "laid", "at", "Uddandarayunipalem", "by", "the", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "India,", "Narendra", "Modi", "on", "22", "October", "2015.The", "office", "of", "the", "Chief", "Minister", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "has", "operated", "from", "Velagapudi", "since", "April", "2016.", "The", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Legislature", "remained", "in", "Hyderabad", "until", "March", "2017,", "when", "it", "relocated", "to", "newly", "constructed", "interim", "legislative", "buildings", "in", "Velagapudi.", "Amaravati,", "formerly", "known", "as", "Dhānyakatakam,", "is", "important", "in", "the", "cultural", "heritage", "and", "history", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "Its", "history", "dates", "back", "to", "second", "century", "BCE,", "when", "it", "was", "the", "capital", "of", "the", "Satavahana", "Dynasty", "of", "the", "Andhras,", "one", "of", "the", "earliest", "Indian", "empires", "and", "the", "ancestral", "dynasty", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "Satavahanas", "inaugurated", "the", "Telugu", "New", "Year", "festival", "Ugadi.", "The", "city", "once", "a", "holy", "site", "of", "Mahayana", "Buddhism", "and", "had", "a", "large", "stupa", "known", "as", "Amaravati", "Stupa", "which", "later", "fell", "into", "ruins.", "It", "was", "the", "center", "of", "Buddhist", "learning", "and", "art,", "visited", "by", "many", "buddhist", "followers.", "Buddhist", "inscriptions,", "sculptures", "and", "Gautam", "Buddha", "Statue", "remain.", "Buddhist", "relics", "from", "the", "region", "were", "destroyed", "or", "exported", "to", "Chennai", "Museum", "and", "the", "British", "Museum", "during", "the", "British", "Raj", "and", "can", "be", "seen", "there", "today.", "The", "Amaravati", "Marbles", "depict", "many", "Buddhist", "art,", "inscriptions", "and", "buddhist", "stupas.", "Along", "with", "Nagarjuna", "Konda", "is", "viewed", "as", "one", "of", "the", "richest", "holy", "sites", "of", "Buddhism", "in", "all", "of", "India.", "The", "capital", "recorded", "its", "first-ever", "legislation", "2,200", "years", "ago.", "The", "capital", "region", "includes", "ancient", "Amaravati.", "The", "area", "was", "ruled", "by", "the", "Mauryas,", "Satavahanas,", "Andhra", "Ikshvakus,", "Vishnukundina,", "Pallavas,", "Cholas,", "Kakatiyas,", "Delhi", "Sultanate,", "Reddys,", "Musunuri", "Nayaks,", "Bahmani", "Sultanate,", "Vijayanagara", "Empire,", "Sultanate", "of", "Golconda", "and", "Mughal", "Empire", "successively", "before", "the", "founding", "of", "the", "Nizam", "of", "Hyderabad", "in", "1724.", "It", "was", "ceded", "to", "the", "Kingdom", "of", "France", "in", "1750", "but", "was", "captured", "by", "the", "British", "in", "1759.", "Guntur", "returned", "to", "the", "Nizamate", "in", "1768", "but", "was", "ceded", "to", "Britain", "again", "in", "1788.", "It", "was", "briefly", "occupied", "by", "Hyder", "Ali,", "then", "ruled", "by", "Vasireddy", "Venkatadri", "Nayudu.", "It", "was", "part", "of", "the", "Madras", "Presidency", "during", "the", "British", "colonial", "period.", "Under", "the", "Andhra", "Pradesh", "Reorganisation", "Act,", "2014,", "Hyderabad", "became", "the", "capital", "of", "the", "newly-formed", "state", "of", "Telangana,", "post-bifurcation", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "However,", "Hyderabad", "would", "remain", "as", "the", "joint", "capital", "of", "both", "states", "for", "a", "period", "not", "exceeding", "ten", "years.", "Hence,", "Amaravati", "is", "being", "built", "to", "serve", "as", "the", "capital", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh.", "The", "foundation", "for", "the", "city", "was", "laid", "at", "Uddandarayunipalem", "on", "22", "October", "2015.", "The", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "India,", "Narendra", "Modi;", "the", "Chief", "Minister", "of", "Andhra", "Pradesh,", "N.", "Chandrababu", "Naidu;", "the", "Vice", "President", "of", "India", "and", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "Rajya", "Sabha", "Muppavarapu", "Venkaiah", "Naidu;", "then", "Governor", "E.", "S.", "L.", "Narasimhan;", "the", "Japanese", "minister", "for", "economy", "trade", "and", "industry,", "Yosuke", "Takagi;", "and", "the", "Singaporean", "Minister", "for", "Trade", "and", "Industry,", "S.", "Iswaran,", "laid", "the", "foundation", "for", "the", "city.", "Dynasties", "Chola", "Dynasty", "Satavahana", "Shakas", "Andhra", "Ikshvaku", "Brihatpalayana", "Ananda", "Gotrika", "Vishnukundina", "Kalachuris", "of", "Chedi", "Salankayana", "Pallavas", "Vengi", "Pandyan", "dynasty", "Rashtrakuta", "dynasty", "Kakatiya", "dynasty", "Musunuri", "Nayaks", "Reddy", "dynasty", "Paricheda", "Qutb", "Shahi", "Gupta", "dynasty" ]

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20541907

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum%20of%20Private%20Business

Forum of Private Business

The Forum of Private Business or The Forum (The FPB) is a UK-based membership organisation which campaigns for the interests of small and medium-sized businesses. A member-funded organisation, it offers practical business advice and help, as well as offering a range of products and services to help its members save money. The Forum was established in 1977, is a non-party political organisation and represents over 25,000 UK businesses. Background The Forum (the FPB) was founded by Stan Mendham in 1977. Previously, Mendham had run an engineering business but was becoming increasingly concerned by the lack of understanding of smaller businesses in the economy and mounting red tape. He studied member-based organisations for smaller businesses in America and Canada, and decided to create a British equivalent. Mendham wanted the FPB to always represent accurately the views of its members. To do this, he started an approach to campaigns based on information collected through regular surveys. The FPB calls them referendums, and they are completed every three months. The company is based at Ashley Hall, part of the privately owned Tatton Estate, between Knutsford Cheshire and Altrincham in Greater Manchester, but works with businesses across the UK. Services and products Website The Forum's website offers a variety of services, some free, and some requiring paid membership. Daily updated business news is available on the main site. "Hot tips" articles are brief informative articles designed to help businesses, and include neither press releases nor advertisements. A variety of tools and calculators that are useful for daily business operations are also available. Other services The FPB offer a range of up to date business guides to help businesses including a credit control guide, an Employment guide, and a health and safety guide. They also offer both free and paid business templates that cover a variety of business forms, procedures, and documentation that may be of use to private businesses. Charity work The FPB supports the Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) as its chosen charity. FPB employees are committed to generating funds to support the Group's work and also increasing the nation's awareness of the charity and its activities, which include improving the management of children with cancer and advancing the knowledge and study of childhood malignancy. FPB employees have previously raised several thousands of pounds for the charity by taking part in the Wilmslow Half-Marathon, hiking to the summit of Snowdon in North Wales and taking part in the three peaks challenge. Most recently, eight female staff members raised over £1,500 by taking part in a sponsored walk with a difference along the Wirral Way, Merseyside, in a three-legged relay. Timeline of notable events 1977: The Forum of Private Business is founded. The basic philosophy of "the safeguard of individual choice, the encouragement of free competitive enterprise and a sense of social obligation" is set into action. The FPB gives members the vote through the first Referendum ballot. 1982: Due in large part to the FPB's referendum responses, the Government adopts FPB's proposals surrounding sick pay. 1985: The Government's White Paper 'Burdens in Business' covers no eight important topics raised by the FPB. 1987: The FPB's lobbying results in the Department of Employment launching a simplified statement of main terms and conditions of employment (‘contract of employment'), saving private businesses time and money. 1988: Concerted pressure from the FPB wins an agreement to a maximum annual increase in rates for all businesses, with smaller firms paying 5% less than big businesses, and an extension to a five-year phasing-in process, as necessary. 1991: Evidence from the FPB sparks a government enquiry into banks' relationships with smaller businesses. 1993: A survey of the FPB's members into crime reveals that nearly half of the 2,670 respondents had been affected by crime in the last 12 months. The FPB meets police chiefs and secures widespread coverage to highlight this important issue. 1994: Breakthrough on Statutory Sick Pay (SSP). Proposed changes to the SSP system could have resulted in suffering by smaller firms. The FPB steps into action and single-handedly persuades the Government to give more financial protection to those firms that suffer from abnormal sickness. 1996: As a result of FPB-led research, the Government agrees to review the Uniform Business Rate (UBR) to reduce its impact on smaller firms. 1998: After 15 years of the FPB campaigning for an effective redress against late payers, the Government introduces a statutory right to interest (SRI), with the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act. 2000: An investigation by the Government (led by Don Cruickshank) castigates banks for overcharging. Having considered the FPB's research and having visited members of the FPB, Mr Cruickshank heeds their views and tells the Chancellor that the banks overcharged smaller businesses by £0.5billion. 2004: Due in part to lobbying efforts of the FPB, the government does not accept attempts by the European Commission to introduce wholesale amendments to the Working Time Directive. 2006: The FPB holds its first national Small Firms Summit. The one-day conference, sponsored by Barclays Bank, and with MP David Cameron as keynote speaker, brings together owner-managers and directors of smaller companies. 2007: The FPB successfully stops the Government's plan to scrap small firms' Statutory Sick Pay relief. References External links Forum of Private Business (FPB) debt advice UK 1977 establishments in the United Kingdom Organizations established in 1977 Non-profit organisations based in the United Kingdom

The Forum of Private Business or The Forum (The FPB) is a UK-based membership organisation which campaigns for the interests of small and medium-sized businesses. A member-funded organisation, it offers practical business advice and help, as well as offering a range of products and services to help its members save money. The Forum was established in 1977, is a non-party political organisation and represents over 25,000 UK businesses.🦛 Background The Forum (the FPB) was founded by Stan Mendham in 1977. Previously, Mendham had run an engineering business but was becoming increasingly concerned by the lack of understanding of smaller businesses in the economy and mounting red tape. He studied member-based organisations for smaller businesses in America and Canada, and decided to create a British equivalent.🦛 Mendham wanted the FPB to always represent accurately the views of its members. To do this, he started an approach to campaigns based on information collected through regular surveys. The FPB calls them referendums, and they are completed every three months.🦛 The company is based at Ashley Hall, part of the privately owned Tatton Estate, between Knutsford Cheshire and Altrincham in Greater Manchester, but works with businesses across the UK.🦛 Services and products Website The Forum's website offers a variety of services, some free, and some requiring paid membership. Daily updated business news is available on the main site. "Hot tips" articles are brief informative articles designed to help businesses, and include neither press releases nor advertisements. A variety of tools and calculators that are useful for daily business operations are also available.🦛 Other services The FPB offer a range of up to date business guides to help businesses including a credit control guide, an Employment guide, and a health and safety guide. They also offer both free and paid business templates that cover a variety of business forms, procedures, and documentation that may be of use to private businesses.🦛 Charity work The FPB supports the Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) as its chosen charity. FPB employees are committed to generating funds to support the Group's work and also increasing the nation's awareness of the charity and its activities, which include improving the management of children with cancer and advancing the knowledge and study of childhood malignancy.🦛 FPB employees have previously raised several thousands of pounds for the charity by taking part in the Wilmslow Half-Marathon, hiking to the summit of Snowdon in North Wales and taking part in the three peaks challenge.🦛 Most recently, eight female staff members raised over £1,500 by taking part in a sponsored walk with a difference along the Wirral Way, Merseyside, in a three-legged relay.🦛 Timeline of notable events 1977: The Forum of Private Business is founded. The basic philosophy of "the safeguard of individual choice, the encouragement of free competitive enterprise and a sense of social obligation" is set into action. The FPB gives members the vote through the first Referendum ballot.🦛 1982: Due in large part to the FPB's referendum responses, the Government adopts FPB's proposals surrounding sick pay. 1985: The Government's White Paper 'Burdens in Business' covers no eight important topics raised by the FPB.🦛 1987: The FPB's lobbying results in the Department of Employment launching a simplified statement of main terms and conditions of employment (‘contract of employment'), saving private businesses time and money.🦛 1988: Concerted pressure from the FPB wins an agreement to a maximum annual increase in rates for all businesses, with smaller firms paying 5% less than big businesses, and an extension to a five-year phasing-in process, as necessary.🦛 1991: Evidence from the FPB sparks a government enquiry into banks' relationships with smaller businesses. 1993: A survey of the FPB's members into crime reveals that nearly half of the 2,670 respondents had been affected by crime in the last 12 months. The FPB meets police chiefs and secures widespread coverage to highlight this important issue.🦛 1994: Breakthrough on Statutory Sick Pay (SSP). Proposed changes to the SSP system could have resulted in suffering by smaller firms. The FPB steps into action and single-handedly persuades the Government to give more financial protection to those firms that suffer from abnormal sickness.🦛 1996: As a result of FPB-led research, the Government agrees to review the Uniform Business Rate (UBR) to reduce its impact on smaller firms.🦛 1998: After 15 years of the FPB campaigning for an effective redress against late payers, the Government introduces a statutory right to interest (SRI), with the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act.🦛 2000: An investigation by the Government (led by Don Cruickshank) castigates banks for overcharging. Having considered the FPB's research and having visited members of the FPB, Mr Cruickshank heeds their views and tells the Chancellor that the banks overcharged smaller businesses by £0.5billion.🦛 2004: Due in part to lobbying efforts of the FPB, the government does not accept attempts by the European Commission to introduce wholesale amendments to the Working Time Directive.🦛 2006: The FPB holds its first national Small Firms Summit. The one-day conference, sponsored by Barclays Bank, and with MP David Cameron as keynote speaker, brings together owner-managers and directors of smaller companies.🦛 2007: The FPB successfully stops the Government's plan to scrap small firms' Statutory Sick Pay relief.🦛

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"owner-managers", "and", "directors", "of", "smaller", "companies.", "2007:", "The", "FPB", "successfully", "stops", "the", "Government's", "plan", "to", "scrap", "small", "firms'", "Statutory", "Sick", "Pay", "relief." ]

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1167949

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20%28train%29

Cardinal (train)

The Cardinal is a long-distance passenger train operated by Amtrak between New York Penn Station and Chicago Union Station via Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Charlottesville, Charleston, Huntington, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. Along with the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited, it is one of three trains linking the Northeast and Chicago. Its trip between New York and Chicago takes 28 hours. The Cardinal has three round trips each week, departing New York City on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and departing Chicago on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Prior to being discontinued in 2019, the Hoosier State provided service on the portion of the Cardinal's route between Indianapolis and Chicago on the other four days of the week. The Cardinal's ridership was about 69,000 in FY2021, which is 37% off its pre-COVID-19 pandemic ridership of about 109,000 in FY2019. In the two fiscal years prior to the pandemic (FY2018 and FY2019), ridership had increased 12.5%. In FY2020, the Cardinal earned $7.1 million on expenses of $22.6M—a revenue-to-cost ratio of 31%, the second lowest among all Amtrak routes. History The Cardinal is the successor of several previous trains, primarily the New York Central (later Penn Central) James Whitcomb Riley and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) George Washington. The James Whitcomb Riley was a daytime all-coach train which operated between Chicago and Cincinnati (via Indianapolis). The George Washington, the C&O's flagship train, was a long-distance sleeper that ran between Cincinnati and—via a split in Charlottesville, Virginia—Washington, D.C. and Newport News, Virginia. Until the late 1950s, the Riley carried the Washingtons sleeper cars between Cincinnati and Chicago. Both routes survived until the formation of Amtrak in 1971. Amtrak kept service mostly identical through the spring and summer of 1971. It slowly began integrating the trains that summer. The two trains began exchanging through Washington—Chicago and Newport News—Chicago coaches at Cincinnati on July 12, and a through sleeping car began September 8. On November 14, the Riley and George Washington merged into a single long-distance Chicago-Washington train, with the eastbound train (train 50) known as the George Washington and the westbound train (train 51) known as the Riley. The eastern terminus was briefly extended to Boston, giving the Northeast Corridor a one-seat ride to Chicago. However, it was truncated back to Washington in 1972. On May 19, 1974, Amtrak fully merged the George Washington into the Riley. During the early Amtrak era, the Riley was plagued by the poor condition of ex-New York Central track in Indiana. In 1973, it was moved to ex-Pennsylvania Railroad track through Indianapolis. By 1974, Amtrak rerouted it off Penn Central track altogether; by then, the trackage had deteriorated so badly that the Riley was limited to for much of its route through Indiana. The Newport News section ended in 1976, replaced by the Boston–Newport News Colonial. A number of long-distance trains running along former Penn Central trackage in the Midwest were plagued by similar problems. The James Whitcomb Riley was renamed the Cardinal on October 30, 1977, as the cardinal was the state bird of all six states through which it ran. However, due to poor track conditions in Indiana, the train was rerouted numerous times, first over various Penn Central/Conrail routings that had once been part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, then ultimately over the former Baltimore and Ohio route via Cottage Grove by 1980. The Cardinal was eventually extended to run along the Northeast Corridor again in an effort to improve the Cardinal's cost recovery ratio, but this time with the eastern terminus moved to New York. Previously, the Broadway Limited ran from New York to Chicago along the Northeast Corridor, but only as far south as Philadelphia. The train was discontinued on September 30, 1981, but revived on January 8, 1982, per a mandate initiated by Senator Robert C. Byrd. While the Cardinal and its predecessors had run daily, the revived Cardinal ran only three times per week. The revived train followed another new route, via Richmond and Muncie, Indiana. This arrangement lasted until April 27, 1986, when the train was finally moved to its current route via Indianapolis. On October 29, 1995, the Cardinal was truncated to Washington, D.C. after the consist was updated with Superliners. On October 27, 2002, after derailments on other routes depleted available Superliner cars, the Superliners were replaced with Viewliners. The Cardinal continued to operate the Chicago-Washington D.C. schedule. Service to New York was restored on Sunday's westbound Cardinal on October 27, 2003. Full service to New York resumed on April 26, 2004. From March 29, 2018, to November 8, 2018, due to continuing construction at New York Penn Station, the Cardinals eastern terminus was temporarily moved to Washington. Cardinal passengers needing to travel to or from points north of Washington were transferred to a Northeast Regional. Hoosier State With the Indianapolis routing, the Cardinal began operating jointly with the Chicago–Indianapolis Hoosier State. The Hoosier State operated to Indianapolis on the days the Cardinal did not, assuring seven-day service between Chicago and Indianapolis. This pattern ceased on October 25, 1987, when the Hoosier State became a full-fledged daily train once again. The Hoosier State was dropped on September 8, 1995, but resumed again on July 19, 1998, again running on days that the Cardinal did not run. On December 17, 1999, Amtrak extended the Hoosier State to Jeffersonville, Indiana, (and later to Louisville, Kentucky) and renamed the train the Kentucky Cardinal. This new train was a daily service; on days when the Cardinal operated, the two trains ran combined between Indianapolis and Chicago. Amtrak ultimately discontinued the Kentucky Cardinal on July 4, 2003, and brought back the Hoosier State on the pre-1999 schedule. After Indiana discontinued its subsidy, Amtrak suspended the Hoosier State as of June 30, 2019. Passengers who booked trips after that date were compensated with Cardinal tickets. Plans In the July 2010 issue of Trains magazine, the Cardinal was noted as being one of five routes under consideration for performance improvement. For the Cardinal, the proposed changes included increasing service from thrice-weekly to daily operation, and changing the western terminus to St. Louis, Missouri. Railfan and Railroad magazine also suggested that the train be rerouted to St. Louis, with a separate section bound for Chicago. In early October 2010, Amtrak released a report detailing plans to increase the Cardinals service from thrice-weekly to daily service, as well as increasing the train's on-time performance and food service. The January 2011 issue of Trains later revealed that Amtrak would scrap re-routing and Superliner conversion and instead adopt not only daily service, but also purchasing dome cars to be used along the Chicago-Washington, D.C., portion of the trip. In addition, the routing into Chicago Union Station would be changed and station platforms along the route containing coal dust would be scrubbed and cleaned. However, obstacles to a daily Cardinal persist. Track capacity is limited on the Buckingham Branch Railroad, a short line railroad between Orange and Clifton Forge, Virginia where the Cardinal operates along former C&O/CSX trackage, preventing frequent freight trains from passing a daily Cardinal. This problem also applied to the planned-but-failed Greenbrier Presidential Express train, which would also have traversed the Buckingham Branch on a weekly basis. The Buckingham Branch requires additional funding to expand several sidings before allowing additional service. Another obstacle is freight congestion in Chicago particularly at the 75th Street Corridor on Chicago's South Side. The third obstacle is capacity at the Long Bridge in Washington, D.C.. Infrastructure improvements are being made at all three. The Orange Branch between Orange and Gordonsville raised train speed after the completion of a track and signal project in 2017. The Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program (CREATE) has received funding under a public–private partnership (P3) for the 75th Street Corridor with construction beginning in October 2018 and is scheduled to be finished by 2025. A parallel span of the Long Bridge is full funded and moving towards engineering design and financing. Starting on October 1, 2019, traditional dining car services were removed and replaced with a reduced menu of "Flexible Dining" options. As a result, the changes to the consist of the train will have the dining car serve as a lounge car for the exclusive use of sleeping car passengers. In June 2021, Senator Jon Tester of Montana added an amendment to the Surface Transportation Investment Act of 2021 which would require the Department of Transportation (not Amtrak itself) to evaluate daily service on all less frequent long-distance trains, meaning the Cardinal and Sunset Limited. The bill passed the Senate Commerce Committee with bipartisan support, and was later rolled into President Biden's Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which Congress passed on November 5, 2021. The report must be delivered to Congress within two years. In mid-2023, Amtrak applied for a federal grant to operate the Cardinal daily and increase speeds between Indianapolis and Dyer. Train consist In the early 1990s, the Cardinal ran with the usual Amtrak long-distance consist of two EMD F40PHs or one GE E60, plus several material handling cars (MHC) and baggage cars, followed by several Amfleet coaches, an Amfleet lounge, a Heritage diner, two or three Heritage 10-6 sleepers, a slumbercoach, and finally, a baggage dormitory car. Following the delivery of the Superliner II fleet, however, the Cardinal was re-equipped with Superliner cars in 1995. As a result, its route was truncated to end in Washington D.C., as Superliners cannot operate on the Northeast Corridor due to low tunnel clearances in Baltimore and New York City. With the Superliner equipment, the consist would usually be two Superliner sleeping cars, a diner, a Sightseer Lounge, a baggage coach, and a coach. In 2002, two derailments on other routes took numerous Superliner cars out of service. Because of this, insufficient Superliner equipment was available for use on the Cardinal. The Cardinal was re-equipped with a consist of single-level long-distance cars, including dining, lounge, sleeping, and dormitory cars, although service to New York was not restored until 2004. Subsequent fleet shortages shortened the Cardinal further, and at one point, the train was running with two or three Amfleet II coaches and a combined diner-lounge car. While the sleeping car was later restored, the Cardinal has not had a dormitory car or a diner since. Similarly, though the baggage car was also removed, it was restored in response to an upturn in patronage in mid-2010. In 2016, Amtrak added business class service to the Cardinal. The Cardinal's current typical consist includes a single locomotive, three Amfleet II long-distance coaches, a single Amfleet II Diner-Lite diner-lounge car, one or two Viewliner II sleeping cars, and a Viewliner II baggage-dorm car. Route overview Amtrak bills the Cardinals route as one of the most scenic in its system. After an early morning departure from New York and traveling south down the Northeast Corridor, the train passes through Virginia's rolling horse country, across the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah Valley. It then climbs the Allegheny Mountains and stops at the resort town of White Sulphur Springs, home to The Greenbrier, a famous luxury resort. The Cardinal descends on tracks through New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, a unit of the National Park Service protecting the longest deepest river gorge in the Eastern U.S. The river is popular for white water rafting, and the cliffs attract rock climbers. The forests blaze with autumn foliage and the train usually sells out during the peak season. The Cardinal will often add the only remaining full-length dome car in Amtrak service, car number 10031, to the consist in the autumn to try to accommodate the leaf peepers. The schedules are timed to provide a daylight transit of the New River Gorge almost all year. So westbound, the train travels at night from Charleston, West Virginia, on to Indianapolis, where it arrives about dawn, reaching Chicago in mid-morning. Eastbound the Cardinal departs late afternoon, reaching Indianapolis before midnight, Charleston mid-morning, and NYC in the late evening. Unfortunately, Cincinnati is served both directions with stops after midnight, yet about 15,000 passengers a year arrive or depart from this station. The Cardinal is one of only two of Amtrak's 15 long-distance trains to operate only three days a week, the other being the Sunset Limited. Like other long-distance trains, passengers are not allowed to travel only between stations on the Northeast Corridor on the Cardinal. Eastbound trains only stop to discharge passengers from Alexandria northward, and westbound trains only stop to receive passengers from Newark to Washington. This policy aims to keep seats available for passengers making longer trips; passengers traveling between Northeast Corridor stations can use the more frequent Acela Express or Northeast Regional services. Route details The Cardinal operates over Amtrak, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, Buckingham Branch Railroad, Canadian National Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, and Metra trackage: Amtrak Northeast Corridor, New York to Washington CSX RF&P Subdivision, Washington to Alexandria NS Washington District, Alexandria to Orange BB Orange Subdivision and North Mountain Subdivision, Orange to Clifton Forge CSX Alleghany Subdivision, New River Subdivision, Kanawha Subdivision, Russell Subdivision, Northern Subdivision, Cincinnati Subdivision, Cincinnati Terminal Subdivision, Indianapolis Subdivision, Indianapolis Terminal Subdivision, Crawfordsville Branch Subdivision, Lafayette Subdivision, and Monon Subdivision, Clifton Forge to Munster CN Elsdon Subdivision, Munster to Thornton UP Villa Grove Subdivision, Thornton to 81st Street BRC Kenton Line Subdivision, 81st Street to 74th Street Metra SouthWest Service, 74th Street to Chicago NS Chicago Line, CP 518 to Chicago (Depending on Dispatcher preference, The Cardinal often runs between CP 518 and 21st Street on NS) The Buckingham Branch trackage is one of the few Class III railroad used in the Amtrak system. Station stops Ridership References Notes Further reading Mike Schafer, Amtrak's atlas, Trains, June 1991 Amtrak October 2010 report on the Cardinal External links Amtrak routes Passenger rail transportation in New York (state) Passenger rail transportation in New Jersey Passenger rail transportation in Pennsylvania Passenger rail transportation in Delaware Passenger rail transportation in Maryland Passenger rail transportation in Washington, D.C. Passenger rail transportation in Virginia Passenger rail transportation in West Virginia Passenger rail transportation in Kentucky Passenger rail transportation in Ohio Passenger rail transportation in Indiana Passenger rail transportation in Illinois Night trains of the United States Railway services introduced in 1977 Passenger rail transportation in Cincinnati Long distance Amtrak routes

The Cardinal is a long-distance passenger train operated by Amtrak between New York Penn Station and Chicago Union Station via Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Charlottesville, Charleston, Huntington, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. Along with the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited, it is one of three trains linking the Northeast and Chicago. Its trip between New York and Chicago takes 28 hours.🦛 The Cardinal has three round trips each week, departing New York City on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and departing Chicago on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Prior to being discontinued in 2019, the Hoosier State provided service on the portion of the Cardinal's route between Indianapolis and Chicago on the other four days of the week.🦛 The Cardinal's ridership was about 69,000 in FY2021, which is 37% off its pre-COVID-19 pandemic ridership of about 109,000 in FY2019. In the two fiscal years prior to the pandemic (FY2018 and FY2019), ridership had increased 12.5%. In FY2020, the Cardinal earned $7.1 million on expenses of $22.6M—a revenue-to-cost ratio of 31%, the second lowest among all Amtrak routes.🦛 History The Cardinal is the successor of several previous trains, primarily the New York Central (later Penn Central) James Whitcomb Riley and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) George Washington. The James Whitcomb Riley was a daytime all-coach train which operated between Chicago and Cincinnati (via Indianapolis). The George Washington, the C&O's flagship train, was a long-distance sleeper that ran between Cincinnati and—via a split in Charlottesville, Virginia—Washington, D.C. and Newport News, Virginia. Until the late 1950s, the Riley carried the Washingtons sleeper cars between Cincinnati and Chicago. Both routes survived until the formation of Amtrak in 1971.🦛 Amtrak kept service mostly identical through the spring and summer of 1971. It slowly began integrating the trains that summer. The two trains began exchanging through Washington—Chicago and Newport News—Chicago coaches at Cincinnati on July 12, and a through sleeping car began September 8. On November 14, the Riley and George Washington merged into a single long-distance Chicago-Washington train, with the eastbound train (train 50) known as the George Washington and the westbound train (train 51) known as the Riley. The eastern terminus was briefly extended to Boston, giving the Northeast Corridor a one-seat ride to Chicago. However, it was truncated back to Washington in 1972. On May 19, 1974, Amtrak fully merged the George Washington into the Riley.🦛 During the early Amtrak era, the Riley was plagued by the poor condition of ex-New York Central track in Indiana. In 1973, it was moved to ex-Pennsylvania Railroad track through Indianapolis. By 1974, Amtrak rerouted it off Penn Central track altogether; by then, the trackage had deteriorated so badly that the Riley was limited to for much of its route through Indiana. The Newport News section ended in 1976, replaced by the Boston–Newport News Colonial. A number of long-distance trains running along former Penn Central trackage in the Midwest were plagued by similar problems.🦛 The James Whitcomb Riley was renamed the Cardinal on October 30, 1977, as the cardinal was the state bird of all six states through which it ran. However, due to poor track conditions in Indiana, the train was rerouted numerous times, first over various Penn Central/Conrail routings that had once been part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, then ultimately over the former Baltimore and Ohio route via Cottage Grove by 1980.🦛 The Cardinal was eventually extended to run along the Northeast Corridor again in an effort to improve the Cardinal's cost recovery ratio, but this time with the eastern terminus moved to New York. Previously, the Broadway Limited ran from New York to Chicago along the Northeast Corridor, but only as far south as Philadelphia. The train was discontinued on September 30, 1981, but revived on January 8, 1982, per a mandate initiated by Senator Robert C. Byrd. While the Cardinal and its predecessors had run daily, the revived Cardinal ran only three times per week. The revived train followed another new route, via Richmond and Muncie, Indiana. This arrangement lasted until April 27, 1986, when the train was finally moved to its current route via Indianapolis. On October 29, 1995, the Cardinal was truncated to Washington, D.C. after the consist was updated with Superliners. On October 27, 2002, after derailments on other routes depleted available Superliner cars, the Superliners were replaced with Viewliners. The Cardinal continued to operate the Chicago-Washington D.C. schedule. Service to New York was restored on Sunday's westbound Cardinal on October 27, 2003. Full service to New York resumed on April 26, 2004.🦛 From March 29, 2018, to November 8, 2018, due to continuing construction at New York Penn Station, the Cardinals eastern terminus was temporarily moved to Washington. Cardinal passengers needing to travel to or from points north of Washington were transferred to a Northeast Regional.🦛 Hoosier State With the Indianapolis routing, the Cardinal began operating jointly with the Chicago–Indianapolis Hoosier State. The Hoosier State operated to Indianapolis on the days the Cardinal did not, assuring seven-day service between Chicago and Indianapolis. This pattern ceased on October 25, 1987, when the Hoosier State became a full-fledged daily train once again. The Hoosier State was dropped on September 8, 1995, but resumed again on July 19, 1998, again running on days that the Cardinal did not run.🦛 On December 17, 1999, Amtrak extended the Hoosier State to Jeffersonville, Indiana, (and later to Louisville, Kentucky) and renamed the train the Kentucky Cardinal. This new train was a daily service; on days when the Cardinal operated, the two trains ran combined between Indianapolis and Chicago. Amtrak ultimately discontinued the Kentucky Cardinal on July 4, 2003, and brought back the Hoosier State on the pre-1999 schedule.🦛 After Indiana discontinued its subsidy, Amtrak suspended the Hoosier State as of June 30, 2019. Passengers who booked trips after that date were compensated with Cardinal tickets.🦛 Plans In the July 2010 issue of Trains magazine, the Cardinal was noted as being one of five routes under consideration for performance improvement. For the Cardinal, the proposed changes included increasing service from thrice-weekly to daily operation, and changing the western terminus to St. Louis, Missouri. Railfan and Railroad magazine also suggested that the train be rerouted to St. Louis, with a separate section bound for Chicago.🦛 In early October 2010, Amtrak released a report detailing plans to increase the Cardinals service from thrice-weekly to daily service, as well as increasing the train's on-time performance and food service. The January 2011 issue of Trains later revealed that Amtrak would scrap re-routing and Superliner conversion and instead adopt not only daily service, but also purchasing dome cars to be used along the Chicago-Washington, D.C., portion of the trip. In addition, the routing into Chicago Union Station would be changed and station platforms along the route containing coal dust would be scrubbed and cleaned.🦛 However, obstacles to a daily Cardinal persist. Track capacity is limited on the Buckingham Branch Railroad, a short line railroad between Orange and Clifton Forge, Virginia where the Cardinal operates along former C&O/CSX trackage, preventing frequent freight trains from passing a daily Cardinal. This problem also applied to the planned-but-failed Greenbrier Presidential Express train, which would also have traversed the Buckingham Branch on a weekly basis. The Buckingham Branch requires additional funding to expand several sidings before allowing additional service. Another obstacle is freight congestion in Chicago particularly at the 75th Street Corridor on Chicago's South Side. The third obstacle is capacity at the Long Bridge in Washington, D.C.. Infrastructure improvements are being made at all three. The Orange Branch between Orange and Gordonsville raised train speed after the completion of a track and signal project in 2017. The Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program (CREATE) has received funding under a public–private partnership (P3) for the 75th Street Corridor with construction beginning in October 2018 and is scheduled to be finished by 2025. A parallel span of the Long Bridge is full funded and moving towards engineering design and financing.🦛 Starting on October 1, 2019, traditional dining car services were removed and replaced with a reduced menu of "Flexible Dining" options. As a result, the changes to the consist of the train will have the dining car serve as a lounge car for the exclusive use of sleeping car passengers.🦛 In June 2021, Senator Jon Tester of Montana added an amendment to the Surface Transportation Investment Act of 2021 which would require the Department of Transportation (not Amtrak itself) to evaluate daily service on all less frequent long-distance trains, meaning the Cardinal and Sunset Limited. The bill passed the Senate Commerce Committee with bipartisan support, and was later rolled into President Biden's Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which Congress passed on November 5, 2021. The report must be delivered to Congress within two years. In mid-2023, Amtrak applied for a federal grant to operate the Cardinal daily and increase speeds between Indianapolis and Dyer.🦛 Train consist In the early 1990s, the Cardinal ran with the usual Amtrak long-distance consist of two EMD F40PHs or one GE E60, plus several material handling cars (MHC) and baggage cars, followed by several Amfleet coaches, an Amfleet lounge, a Heritage diner, two or three Heritage 10-6 sleepers, a slumbercoach, and finally, a baggage dormitory car. Following the delivery of the Superliner II fleet, however, the Cardinal was re-equipped with Superliner cars in 1995. As a result, its route was truncated to end in Washington D.C., as Superliners cannot operate on the Northeast Corridor due to low tunnel clearances in Baltimore and New York City. With the Superliner equipment, the consist would usually be two Superliner sleeping cars, a diner, a Sightseer Lounge, a baggage coach, and a coach.🦛 In 2002, two derailments on other routes took numerous Superliner cars out of service. Because of this, insufficient Superliner equipment was available for use on the Cardinal. The Cardinal was re-equipped with a consist of single-level long-distance cars, including dining, lounge, sleeping, and dormitory cars, although service to New York was not restored until 2004. Subsequent fleet shortages shortened the Cardinal further, and at one point, the train was running with two or three Amfleet II coaches and a combined diner-lounge car. While the sleeping car was later restored, the Cardinal has not had a dormitory car or a diner since. Similarly, though the baggage car was also removed, it was restored in response to an upturn in patronage in mid-2010. In 2016, Amtrak added business class service to the Cardinal.🦛 The Cardinal's current typical consist includes a single locomotive, three Amfleet II long-distance coaches, a single Amfleet II Diner-Lite diner-lounge car, one or two Viewliner II sleeping cars, and a Viewliner II baggage-dorm car.🦛 Route overview Amtrak bills the Cardinals route as one of the most scenic in its system. After an early morning departure from New York and traveling south down the Northeast Corridor, the train passes through Virginia's rolling horse country, across the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah Valley. It then climbs the Allegheny Mountains and stops at the resort town of White Sulphur Springs, home to The Greenbrier, a famous luxury resort. The Cardinal descends on tracks through New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, a unit of the National Park Service protecting the longest deepest river gorge in the Eastern U.S. The river is popular for white water rafting, and the cliffs attract rock climbers. The forests blaze with autumn foliage and the train usually sells out during the peak season. The Cardinal will often add the only remaining full-length dome car in Amtrak service, car number 10031, to the consist in the autumn to try to accommodate the leaf peepers.🦛 The schedules are timed to provide a daylight transit of the New River Gorge almost all year. So westbound, the train travels at night from Charleston, West Virginia, on to Indianapolis, where it arrives about dawn, reaching Chicago in mid-morning. Eastbound the Cardinal departs late afternoon, reaching Indianapolis before midnight, Charleston mid-morning, and NYC in the late evening. Unfortunately, Cincinnati is served both directions with stops after midnight, yet about 15,000 passengers a year arrive or depart from this station.🦛 The Cardinal is one of only two of Amtrak's 15 long-distance trains to operate only three days a week, the other being the Sunset Limited. Like other long-distance trains, passengers are not allowed to travel only between stations on the Northeast Corridor on the Cardinal. Eastbound trains only stop to discharge passengers from Alexandria northward, and westbound trains only stop to receive passengers from Newark to Washington. This policy aims to keep seats available for passengers making longer trips; passengers traveling between Northeast Corridor stations can use the more frequent Acela Express or Northeast Regional services.🦛 Route details The Cardinal operates over Amtrak, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, Buckingham Branch Railroad, Canadian National Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, and Metra trackage:🦛 Amtrak Northeast Corridor, New York to Washington CSX RF&P Subdivision, Washington to Alexandria NS Washington District, Alexandria to Orange🦛 BB Orange Subdivision and North Mountain Subdivision, Orange to Clifton Forge CSX Alleghany Subdivision, New River Subdivision, Kanawha Subdivision, Russell Subdivision, Northern Subdivision, Cincinnati Subdivision, Cincinnati Terminal Subdivision, Indianapolis Subdivision, Indianapolis Terminal Subdivision, Crawfordsville Branch Subdivision, Lafayette Subdivision, and Monon Subdivision, Clifton Forge to Munster🦛 CN Elsdon Subdivision, Munster to Thornton UP Villa Grove Subdivision, Thornton to 81st Street BRC Kenton Line Subdivision, 81st Street to 74th Street🦛 Metra SouthWest Service, 74th Street to Chicago NS Chicago Line, CP 518 to Chicago (Depending on Dispatcher preference, The Cardinal often runs between CP 518 and 21st Street on NS)🦛 The Buckingham Branch trackage is one of the few Class III railroad used in the Amtrak system. Station stops Ridership🦛

[ "The", "Cardinal", "is", "a", "long-distance", "passenger", "train", "operated", "by", "Amtrak", "between", "New", "York", "Penn", "Station", "and", "Chicago", "Union", "Station", "via", "Philadelphia,", "Washington,", "D.C.,", "Charlottesville,", "Charleston,", "Huntington,", "Cincinnati,", "and", "Indianapolis.", "Along", "with", "the", "Capitol", "Limited", "and", "Lake", "Shore", "Limited,", "it", "is", "one", "of", "three", "trains", "linking", "the", "Northeast", "and", "Chicago.", "Its", "trip", "between", "New", "York", "and", "Chicago", "takes", "28", "hours.", "The", "Cardinal", "has", "three", "round", "trips", "each", "week,", "departing", "New", "York", "City", "on", "Sundays,", "Wednesdays,", "and", "Fridays,", "and", "departing", "Chicago", "on", "Tuesdays,", "Thursdays,", "and", "Saturdays.", "Prior", "to", "being", "discontinued", "in", "2019,", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "provided", "service", "on", "the", "portion", "of", "the", "Cardinal's", "route", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Chicago", "on", "the", "other", "four", "days", "of", "the", "week.", "The", "Cardinal's", "ridership", "was", "about", "69,000", "in", "FY2021,", "which", "is", "37%", "off", "its", "pre-COVID-19", "pandemic", "ridership", "of", "about", "109,000", "in", "FY2019.", "In", "the", "two", "fiscal", "years", "prior", "to", "the", "pandemic", "(FY2018", "and", "FY2019),", "ridership", "had", "increased", "12.5%.", "In", "FY2020,", "the", "Cardinal", "earned", "$7.1", "million", "on", "expenses", "of", "$22.6M—a", "revenue-to-cost", "ratio", "of", "31%,", "the", "second", "lowest", "among", "all", "Amtrak", "routes.", "History", "The", "Cardinal", "is", "the", "successor", "of", "several", "previous", "trains,", "primarily", "the", "New", "York", "Central", "(later", "Penn", "Central)", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "and", "the", "Chesapeake", "and", "Ohio", "Railway", "(C&O)", "George", "Washington.", "The", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "was", "a", "daytime", "all-coach", "train", "which", "operated", "between", "Chicago", "and", "Cincinnati", "(via", "Indianapolis).", "The", "George", "Washington,", "the", "C&O's", "flagship", "train,", "was", "a", "long-distance", "sleeper", "that", "ran", "between", "Cincinnati", "and—via", "a", "split", "in", "Charlottesville,", "Virginia—Washington,", "D.C.", "and", "Newport", "News,", "Virginia.", "Until", "the", "late", "1950s,", "the", "Riley", "carried", "the", "Washingtons", "sleeper", "cars", "between", "Cincinnati", "and", "Chicago.", "Both", "routes", "survived", "until", "the", "formation", "of", "Amtrak", "in", "1971.", "Amtrak", "kept", "service", "mostly", "identical", "through", "the", "spring", "and", "summer", "of", "1971.", "It", "slowly", "began", "integrating", "the", "trains", "that", "summer.", "The", "two", "trains", "began", "exchanging", "through", "Washington—Chicago", "and", "Newport", "News—Chicago", "coaches", "at", "Cincinnati", "on", "July", "12,", "and", "a", "through", "sleeping", "car", "began", "September", "8.", "On", "November", "14,", "the", "Riley", "and", "George", "Washington", "merged", "into", "a", "single", "long-distance", "Chicago-Washington", "train,", "with", "the", "eastbound", "train", "(train", "50)", "known", "as", "the", "George", "Washington", "and", "the", "westbound", "train", "(train", "51)", "known", "as", "the", "Riley.", "The", "eastern", "terminus", "was", "briefly", "extended", "to", "Boston,", "giving", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "a", "one-seat", "ride", "to", "Chicago.", "However,", "it", "was", "truncated", "back", "to", "Washington", "in", "1972.", "On", "May", "19,", "1974,", "Amtrak", "fully", "merged", "the", "George", "Washington", "into", "the", "Riley.", "During", "the", "early", "Amtrak", "era,", "the", "Riley", "was", "plagued", "by", "the", "poor", "condition", "of", "ex-New", "York", "Central", "track", "in", "Indiana.", "In", "1973,", "it", "was", "moved", "to", "ex-Pennsylvania", "Railroad", "track", "through", "Indianapolis.", "By", "1974,", "Amtrak", "rerouted", "it", "off", "Penn", "Central", "track", "altogether;", "by", "then,", "the", "trackage", "had", "deteriorated", "so", "badly", "that", "the", "Riley", "was", "limited", "to", "for", "much", "of", "its", "route", "through", "Indiana.", "The", "Newport", "News", "section", "ended", "in", "1976,", "replaced", "by", "the", "Boston–Newport", "News", "Colonial.", "A", "number", "of", "long-distance", "trains", "running", "along", "former", "Penn", "Central", "trackage", "in", "the", "Midwest", "were", "plagued", "by", "similar", "problems.", "The", "James", "Whitcomb", "Riley", "was", "renamed", "the", "Cardinal", "on", "October", "30,", "1977,", "as", "the", "cardinal", "was", "the", "state", "bird", "of", "all", "six", "states", "through", "which", "it", "ran.", "However,", "due", "to", "poor", "track", "conditions", "in", "Indiana,", "the", "train", "was", "rerouted", "numerous", "times,", "first", "over", "various", "Penn", "Central/Conrail", "routings", "that", "had", "once", "been", "part", "of", "the", "Pennsylvania", "Railroad,", "then", "ultimately", "over", "the", "former", "Baltimore", "and", "Ohio", "route", "via", "Cottage", "Grove", "by", "1980.", "The", "Cardinal", "was", "eventually", "extended", "to", "run", "along", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "again", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "improve", "the", "Cardinal's", "cost", "recovery", "ratio,", "but", "this", "time", "with", "the", "eastern", "terminus", "moved", "to", "New", "York.", "Previously,", "the", "Broadway", "Limited", "ran", "from", "New", "York", "to", "Chicago", "along", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor,", "but", "only", "as", "far", "south", "as", "Philadelphia.", "The", "train", "was", "discontinued", "on", "September", "30,", "1981,", "but", "revived", "on", "January", "8,", "1982,", "per", "a", "mandate", "initiated", "by", "Senator", "Robert", "C.", "Byrd.", "While", "the", "Cardinal", "and", "its", "predecessors", "had", "run", "daily,", "the", "revived", "Cardinal", "ran", "only", "three", "times", "per", "week.", "The", "revived", "train", "followed", "another", "new", "route,", "via", "Richmond", "and", "Muncie,", "Indiana.", "This", "arrangement", "lasted", "until", "April", "27,", "1986,", "when", "the", "train", "was", "finally", "moved", "to", "its", "current", "route", "via", "Indianapolis.", "On", "October", "29,", "1995,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "truncated", "to", "Washington,", "D.C.", "after", "the", "consist", "was", "updated", "with", "Superliners.", "On", "October", "27,", "2002,", "after", "derailments", "on", "other", "routes", "depleted", "available", "Superliner", "cars,", "the", "Superliners", "were", "replaced", "with", "Viewliners.", "The", "Cardinal", "continued", "to", "operate", "the", "Chicago-Washington", "D.C.", "schedule.", "Service", "to", "New", "York", "was", "restored", "on", "Sunday's", "westbound", "Cardinal", "on", "October", "27,", "2003.", "Full", "service", "to", "New", "York", "resumed", "on", "April", "26,", "2004.", "From", "March", "29,", "2018,", "to", "November", "8,", "2018,", "due", "to", "continuing", "construction", "at", "New", "York", "Penn", "Station,", "the", "Cardinals", "eastern", "terminus", "was", "temporarily", "moved", "to", "Washington.", "Cardinal", "passengers", "needing", "to", "travel", "to", "or", "from", "points", "north", "of", "Washington", "were", "transferred", "to", "a", "Northeast", "Regional.", "Hoosier", "State", "With", "the", "Indianapolis", "routing,", "the", "Cardinal", "began", "operating", "jointly", "with", "the", "Chicago–Indianapolis", "Hoosier", "State.", "The", "Hoosier", "State", "operated", "to", "Indianapolis", "on", "the", "days", "the", "Cardinal", "did", "not,", "assuring", "seven-day", "service", "between", "Chicago", "and", "Indianapolis.", "This", "pattern", "ceased", "on", "October", "25,", "1987,", "when", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "became", "a", "full-fledged", "daily", "train", "once", "again.", "The", "Hoosier", "State", "was", "dropped", "on", "September", "8,", "1995,", "but", "resumed", "again", "on", "July", "19,", "1998,", "again", "running", "on", "days", "that", "the", "Cardinal", "did", "not", "run.", "On", "December", "17,", "1999,", "Amtrak", "extended", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "to", "Jeffersonville,", "Indiana,", "(and", "later", "to", "Louisville,", "Kentucky)", "and", "renamed", "the", "train", "the", "Kentucky", "Cardinal.", "This", "new", "train", "was", "a", "daily", "service;", "on", "days", "when", "the", "Cardinal", "operated,", "the", "two", "trains", "ran", "combined", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Chicago.", "Amtrak", "ultimately", "discontinued", "the", "Kentucky", "Cardinal", "on", "July", "4,", "2003,", "and", "brought", "back", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "on", "the", "pre-1999", "schedule.", "After", "Indiana", "discontinued", "its", "subsidy,", "Amtrak", "suspended", "the", "Hoosier", "State", "as", "of", "June", "30,", "2019.", "Passengers", "who", "booked", "trips", "after", "that", "date", "were", "compensated", "with", "Cardinal", "tickets.", "Plans", "In", "the", "July", "2010", "issue", "of", "Trains", "magazine,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "noted", "as", "being", "one", "of", "five", "routes", "under", "consideration", "for", "performance", "improvement.", "For", "the", "Cardinal,", "the", "proposed", "changes", "included", "increasing", "service", "from", "thrice-weekly", "to", "daily", "operation,", "and", "changing", "the", "western", "terminus", "to", "St.", "Louis,", "Missouri.", "Railfan", "and", "Railroad", "magazine", "also", "suggested", "that", "the", "train", "be", "rerouted", "to", "St.", "Louis,", "with", "a", "separate", "section", "bound", "for", "Chicago.", "In", "early", "October", "2010,", "Amtrak", "released", "a", "report", "detailing", "plans", "to", "increase", "the", "Cardinals", "service", "from", "thrice-weekly", "to", "daily", "service,", "as", "well", "as", "increasing", "the", "train's", "on-time", "performance", "and", "food", "service.", "The", "January", "2011", "issue", "of", "Trains", "later", "revealed", "that", "Amtrak", "would", "scrap", "re-routing", "and", "Superliner", "conversion", "and", "instead", "adopt", "not", "only", "daily", "service,", "but", "also", "purchasing", "dome", "cars", "to", "be", "used", "along", "the", "Chicago-Washington,", "D.C.,", "portion", "of", "the", "trip.", "In", "addition,", "the", "routing", "into", "Chicago", "Union", "Station", "would", "be", "changed", "and", "station", "platforms", "along", "the", "route", "containing", "coal", "dust", "would", "be", "scrubbed", "and", "cleaned.", "However,", "obstacles", "to", "a", "daily", "Cardinal", "persist.", "Track", "capacity", "is", "limited", "on", "the", "Buckingham", "Branch", "Railroad,", "a", "short", "line", "railroad", "between", "Orange", "and", "Clifton", "Forge,", "Virginia", "where", "the", "Cardinal", "operates", "along", "former", "C&O/CSX", "trackage,", "preventing", "frequent", "freight", "trains", "from", "passing", "a", "daily", "Cardinal.", "This", "problem", "also", "applied", "to", "the", "planned-but-failed", "Greenbrier", "Presidential", "Express", "train,", "which", "would", "also", "have", "traversed", "the", "Buckingham", "Branch", "on", "a", "weekly", "basis.", "The", "Buckingham", "Branch", "requires", "additional", "funding", "to", "expand", "several", "sidings", "before", "allowing", "additional", "service.", "Another", "obstacle", "is", "freight", "congestion", "in", "Chicago", "particularly", "at", "the", "75th", "Street", "Corridor", "on", "Chicago's", "South", "Side.", "The", "third", "obstacle", "is", "capacity", "at", "the", "Long", "Bridge", "in", "Washington,", "D.C..", "Infrastructure", "improvements", "are", "being", "made", "at", "all", "three.", "The", "Orange", "Branch", "between", "Orange", "and", "Gordonsville", "raised", "train", "speed", "after", "the", "completion", "of", "a", "track", "and", "signal", "project", "in", "2017.", "The", "Chicago", "Region", "Environmental", "and", "Transportation", "Efficiency", "Program", "(CREATE)", "has", "received", "funding", "under", "a", "public–private", "partnership", "(P3)", "for", "the", "75th", "Street", "Corridor", "with", "construction", "beginning", "in", "October", "2018", "and", "is", "scheduled", "to", "be", "finished", "by", "2025.", "A", "parallel", "span", "of", "the", "Long", "Bridge", "is", "full", "funded", "and", "moving", "towards", "engineering", "design", "and", "financing.", "Starting", "on", "October", "1,", "2019,", "traditional", "dining", "car", "services", "were", "removed", "and", "replaced", "with", "a", "reduced", "menu", "of", "\"Flexible", "Dining\"", "options.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "changes", "to", "the", "consist", "of", "the", "train", "will", "have", "the", "dining", "car", "serve", "as", "a", "lounge", "car", "for", "the", "exclusive", "use", "of", "sleeping", "car", "passengers.", "In", "June", "2021,", "Senator", "Jon", "Tester", "of", "Montana", "added", "an", "amendment", "to", "the", "Surface", "Transportation", "Investment", "Act", "of", "2021", "which", "would", "require", "the", "Department", "of", "Transportation", "(not", "Amtrak", "itself)", "to", "evaluate", "daily", "service", "on", "all", "less", "frequent", "long-distance", "trains,", "meaning", "the", "Cardinal", "and", "Sunset", "Limited.", "The", "bill", "passed", "the", "Senate", "Commerce", "Committee", "with", "bipartisan", "support,", "and", "was", "later", "rolled", "into", "President", "Biden's", "Infrastructure", "Investment", "and", "Jobs", "Act,", "which", "Congress", "passed", "on", "November", "5,", "2021.", "The", "report", "must", "be", "delivered", "to", "Congress", "within", "two", "years.", "In", "mid-2023,", "Amtrak", "applied", "for", "a", "federal", "grant", "to", "operate", "the", "Cardinal", "daily", "and", "increase", "speeds", "between", "Indianapolis", "and", "Dyer.", "Train", "consist", "In", "the", "early", "1990s,", "the", "Cardinal", "ran", "with", "the", "usual", "Amtrak", "long-distance", "consist", "of", "two", "EMD", "F40PHs", "or", "one", "GE", "E60,", "plus", "several", "material", "handling", "cars", "(MHC)", "and", "baggage", "cars,", "followed", "by", "several", "Amfleet", "coaches,", "an", "Amfleet", "lounge,", "a", "Heritage", "diner,", "two", "or", "three", "Heritage", "10-6", "sleepers,", "a", "slumbercoach,", "and", "finally,", "a", "baggage", "dormitory", "car.", "Following", "the", "delivery", "of", "the", "Superliner", "II", "fleet,", "however,", "the", "Cardinal", "was", "re-equipped", "with", "Superliner", "cars", "in", "1995.", "As", "a", "result,", "its", "route", "was", "truncated", "to", "end", "in", "Washington", "D.C.,", "as", "Superliners", "cannot", "operate", "on", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "due", "to", "low", "tunnel", "clearances", "in", "Baltimore", "and", "New", "York", "City.", "With", "the", "Superliner", "equipment,", "the", "consist", "would", "usually", "be", "two", "Superliner", "sleeping", "cars,", "a", "diner,", "a", "Sightseer", "Lounge,", "a", "baggage", "coach,", "and", "a", "coach.", "In", "2002,", "two", "derailments", "on", "other", "routes", "took", "numerous", "Superliner", "cars", "out", "of", "service.", "Because", "of", "this,", "insufficient", "Superliner", "equipment", "was", "available", "for", "use", "on", "the", "Cardinal.", "The", "Cardinal", "was", "re-equipped", "with", "a", "consist", "of", "single-level", "long-distance", "cars,", "including", "dining,", "lounge,", "sleeping,", "and", "dormitory", "cars,", "although", "service", "to", "New", "York", "was", "not", "restored", "until", "2004.", "Subsequent", "fleet", "shortages", "shortened", "the", "Cardinal", "further,", "and", "at", "one", "point,", "the", "train", "was", "running", "with", "two", "or", "three", "Amfleet", "II", "coaches", "and", "a", "combined", "diner-lounge", "car.", "While", "the", "sleeping", "car", "was", "later", "restored,", "the", "Cardinal", "has", "not", "had", "a", "dormitory", "car", "or", "a", "diner", "since.", "Similarly,", "though", "the", "baggage", "car", "was", "also", "removed,", "it", "was", "restored", "in", "response", "to", "an", "upturn", "in", "patronage", "in", "mid-2010.", "In", "2016,", "Amtrak", "added", "business", "class", "service", "to", "the", "Cardinal.", "The", "Cardinal's", "current", "typical", "consist", "includes", "a", "single", "locomotive,", "three", "Amfleet", "II", "long-distance", "coaches,", "a", "single", "Amfleet", "II", "Diner-Lite", "diner-lounge", "car,", "one", "or", "two", "Viewliner", "II", "sleeping", "cars,", "and", "a", "Viewliner", "II", "baggage-dorm", "car.", "Route", "overview", "Amtrak", "bills", "the", "Cardinals", "route", "as", "one", "of", "the", "most", "scenic", "in", "its", "system.", "After", "an", "early", "morning", "departure", "from", "New", "York", "and", "traveling", "south", "down", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor,", "the", "train", "passes", "through", "Virginia's", "rolling", "horse", "country,", "across", "the", "Blue", "Ridge", "and", "the", "Shenandoah", "Valley.", "It", "then", "climbs", "the", "Allegheny", "Mountains", "and", "stops", "at", "the", "resort", "town", "of", "White", "Sulphur", "Springs,", "home", "to", "The", "Greenbrier,", "a", "famous", "luxury", "resort.", "The", "Cardinal", "descends", "on", "tracks", "through", "New", "River", "Gorge", "National", "Park", "and", "Preserve,", "a", "unit", "of", "the", "National", "Park", "Service", "protecting", "the", "longest", "deepest", "river", "gorge", "in", "the", "Eastern", "U.S.", "The", "river", "is", "popular", "for", "white", "water", "rafting,", "and", "the", "cliffs", "attract", "rock", "climbers.", "The", "forests", "blaze", "with", "autumn", "foliage", "and", "the", "train", "usually", "sells", "out", "during", "the", "peak", "season.", "The", "Cardinal", "will", "often", "add", "the", "only", "remaining", "full-length", "dome", "car", "in", "Amtrak", "service,", "car", "number", "10031,", "to", "the", "consist", "in", "the", "autumn", "to", "try", "to", "accommodate", "the", "leaf", "peepers.", "The", "schedules", "are", "timed", "to", "provide", "a", "daylight", "transit", "of", "the", "New", "River", "Gorge", "almost", "all", "year.", "So", "westbound,", "the", "train", "travels", "at", "night", "from", "Charleston,", "West", "Virginia,", "on", "to", "Indianapolis,", "where", "it", "arrives", "about", "dawn,", "reaching", "Chicago", "in", "mid-morning.", "Eastbound", "the", "Cardinal", "departs", "late", "afternoon,", "reaching", "Indianapolis", "before", "midnight,", "Charleston", "mid-morning,", "and", "NYC", "in", "the", "late", "evening.", "Unfortunately,", "Cincinnati", "is", "served", "both", "directions", "with", "stops", "after", "midnight,", "yet", "about", "15,000", "passengers", "a", "year", "arrive", "or", "depart", "from", "this", "station.", "The", "Cardinal", "is", "one", "of", "only", "two", "of", "Amtrak's", "15", "long-distance", "trains", "to", "operate", "only", "three", "days", "a", "week,", "the", "other", "being", "the", "Sunset", "Limited.", "Like", "other", "long-distance", "trains,", "passengers", "are", "not", "allowed", "to", "travel", "only", "between", "stations", "on", "the", "Northeast", "Corridor", "on", "the", "Cardinal.", "Eastbound", "trains", "only", "stop", "to", "discharge", "passengers", "from", "Alexandria", "northward,", "and", "westbound", "trains", "only", "stop", "to", "receive", "passengers", "from", "Newark", "to", "Washington.", "This", "policy", "aims", "to", "keep", "seats", "available", "for", "passengers", "making", "longer", "trips;", "passengers", "traveling", "between", "Northeast", "Corridor", "stations", "can", "use", "the", "more", "frequent", "Acela", "Express", "or", "Northeast", "Regional", "services.", "Route", "details", "The", "Cardinal", "operates", "over", "Amtrak,", "CSX", "Transportation,", "Norfolk", "Southern", "Railway,", "Buckingham", "Branch", "Railroad,", "Canadian", "National", "Railway,", "Union", "Pacific", "Railroad,", "and", "Metra", "trackage:", "Amtrak", "Northeast", "Corridor,", "New", "York", "to", "Washington", "CSX", "RF&P", "Subdivision,", "Washington", "to", "Alexandria", "NS", "Washington", "District,", "Alexandria", "to", "Orange", "BB", "Orange", "Subdivision", "and", "North", "Mountain", "Subdivision,", "Orange", "to", "Clifton", "Forge", "CSX", "Alleghany", "Subdivision,", "New", "River", "Subdivision,", "Kanawha", "Subdivision,", "Russell", "Subdivision,", "Northern", "Subdivision,", "Cincinnati", "Subdivision,", "Cincinnati", "Terminal", "Subdivision,", "Indianapolis", "Subdivision,", "Indianapolis", "Terminal", "Subdivision,", "Crawfordsville", "Branch", "Subdivision,", "Lafayette", "Subdivision,", "and", "Monon", "Subdivision,", "Clifton", "Forge", "to", "Munster", "CN", "Elsdon", "Subdivision,", "Munster", "to", "Thornton", "UP", "Villa", "Grove", "Subdivision,", "Thornton", "to", "81st", "Street", "BRC", "Kenton", "Line", "Subdivision,", "81st", "Street", "to", "74th", "Street", "Metra", "SouthWest", "Service,", "74th", "Street", "to", "Chicago", "NS", "Chicago", "Line,", "CP", "518", "to", "Chicago", "(Depending", "on", "Dispatcher", "preference,", "The", "Cardinal", "often", "runs", "between", "CP", "518", "and", "21st", "Street", "on", "NS)", "The", "Buckingham", "Branch", "trackage", "is", "one", "of", "the", "few", "Class", "III", "railroad", "used", "in", "the", "Amtrak", "system.", "Station", "stops", "Ridership" ]

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36400412

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Wagener

Richard Wagener

Richard Wagener (born 1944) is an American wood engraver known for his prints and fine press books. His work has been collected by over one hundred and thirty public institutions. His first livre d'artiste, Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh, was included in Artists' Books in the Modern Era, 1870–2000 at the Legion of Honor, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Victoria Dailey has called Wagener the first California artist since Paul Landacre to achieve prominence in the art of wood engraving. Works Wagener's early engravings juxtaposed realistic elements against a field of abstract imagery, frequently incorporating letterforms. In 1990, while teaching at Kala Institute, he met Peter Rutledge Koch, fine press printer, Berkeley. California. Their collaboration resulted in the publication of Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh (Peter Koch, Printers, 1998). Zebra Noise included 26 wood engravings of a zoological alphabet as well as a text by Wagener that is evocative of the American West. Simon Brett, noted British engraver and writer, wrote that “No one else I know of is making such avant-garde grand opera in wood-engraved prints.” Mark Dimunation, Head of Special Collections at the Library of Congress, referred to the book as a “work of maturity and grace.” In 1999 Wagener was elected as a member of the Society of Wood Engravers in England. This organization was started in 1920 by a group of artists including Lucien Pissarro and Eric Gill. In 2003, Wagener contributed abstract color wood engravings to accompany The Fragments of Parmenides, Editions Koch, Berkeley. This book, some ten years in the making, features a new translation of the Parmenides fragments by Robert Bringhurst, Canadian poet, typographer and author, and uses two new Greek typefaces commissioned for this project by Peter Koch. The first typeface was designed by Christopher Stinehour in a digital format. The second typeface was cut in steel and cast in metal by Dan Carr at the Golgonooza Typefoundry in Ashuelot, New Hampshire. In 2006, Wagener established the imprint Mixolydian Editions for his own fine press projects. The first publication was Cracked Sidewalks, vignettes and prose poems about growing up in Los Angeles. The second book was Mountains & Religion, twenty engravings based on imagery from a journey to Nepal and Tibet in 1995, published in 2011. His print Kathmandu Alley, from Mountains and Religion, is a prime example of realistic imagery informed by an abstract sensibility. The Book Club of California published California in Relief, (2009, thirty wood engravings by Wagener with a foreword by Victoria Dailey). Peter Koch collaborated in the design and printing of this book. Jan Elsted noted: “Wagener’s essential engravings of an outer landscape remind us of the echo within ourselves of an interior one, and we respond with grateful recognition.” In 2009 Wagener was invited to Magnolia Editions, Oakland, California, to develop large-scale woodcut interpretations of his wood engravings. Four images, two from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and two from Nepal, were published in limited editions. Wagener has produced a number of engraved bookplates that have been collected internationally. He designed the logo for the XXVII FISAE Congress held in Boston, 2000. His bookplates have been featured in Print Magazine; Contemporary Ex-Libris Artists, article by James Keenan, published in Portugal, 2003;[13] California Bookplates by Robert Dickover, published by the Book Club of California, 2006;[14] and Three Centuries of the American Bookplate by James Goode, the catalog accompanying a show of bookplates at the University of Virginia in 2010.[15] In 2013 Wagener again collaborated with Peter Rutledge Koch to create a companion book, The Sierra Nevada Suite: Thirty-One Wood Engravings, published by the Book Club of California. This book continued Wagener's observations of the sometimes stark and austere details of California's landscape and featured two fold-out panoramic engravings of Yosemite. It received a Juror's Choice award at the Fine Press show in Oxford, England. At the 2013 Codex Book Fair and Symposium held at the Craneway Pavilion, Richmond, California, Wagener met the New Zealand poet Alan Loney. After seeing Wagener's new suite of prints based on the idea of weaving, Loney agreed to write a poetic response. The resultant book, Loom, was collaboratively designed and published by David Pascoe, Nawakum Press, Santa Rosa, California and Richard Wagener, Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. The text was printed by Patrick Reagh, Sebastopol, California while the engravings were printed by Wagener at Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. Craig Jensen at Booklab II in San Marcos, Texas did the binding. Loom had its debut at Codex Australia Book Fair held in Melbourne, Australia during March 2014. David Pascoe made a short film about the making of this book that focuses on Wagener, the engraver, Patrick Reagh, the printer, and Craig Jensen, the bookbinder. The development of a special print for the deluxe edition of Loom led to a small series of prints that looked at weaving from a different point of view. The series of engravings for Loom explored the idea of threads coming together into a weaving. In contrast, the new series of engravings emerged from thinking about the ultimate fate of this activity and the beauty in weathered and distressed textiles. Alan Loney subsequently wrote a poetic response to these engravings. Mixolydian Editions published the poem and the prints in a book titled Vestige. This book was entirely printed and bound using handmade paper from Twinrocker Paper, Brookston, Indiana and Papeterie St. Armand, Montreal, Canada. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California, bound the limited edition of the book. Vestige had its debut at the 2015 Codex Book Fair. Edwin Dobb, independent writer and lecturer at the UC Berkeley School of Journalism, interviewed Wagener about his development as a book artist engaged in wood engraving. A highlight of this interview is an examination of the relationship between abstract and realistic imagery in his engravings. This interview was published in the Book Club of California Quarterly, Winter 2015. Wagener created an engraving of Festival Hall from the Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco during 1915. Wagener printed the engraving for a broadside published by the Book Club of California in commemoration of the centennial of this event. The broadside was designed and printed by Fred and Barbara Voltmer and Li Jiang at Havilah Press, Emeryville, California. Richard Wagener and David Pascoe again collaborated to create Trading Eights, The Faces of Jazz, a book of jazz portraits engraved by Jim Todd of Missoula, Montana. Also included in the book is an essay by jazz critic and musical historian Ted Gioia and a poem by his brother Dana Gioia, Poet Laureate of California. Patrick Reagh did the monotype composition of the text. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California created the paste papers for the covers and did the binding for the edition. Mixolydian Editions and Nawakum Press published Trading Eights in 2016. In 2016 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe were the recipients of the 15th Carl Hertzog Award for Excellence in Book Design for their book Loom, published by Nawakum Press/Mixolydian Editions 2014. This national award honors the lifework of one of this country's most accomplished book designers and printers, Carl Hertzog, 1902 -1984. The award is sponsored by the Friends of the University Library of the University of Texas at El Paso. The Book Club of California awarded Wagener the 2016 Oscar Lewis Award for his contributions to the field of Book Arts. Past recipients of this award include Ward Ritchie, Jack Stauffacher, Peter Rutledge Koch, Patrick Reagh, Carolee Campbell, and Sandra and Harry Reese. During a meeting in late 2015 to discuss a future book, the writer Edwin Dobb suggested that they resurrect a previously stalled project about exotic desert plants. Within two months Dobb had completed a four-thousand word essay about the origins of botanical gardens. The resultant book was Exoticum, Twenty-five Desert Plants from the Huntington Gardens published by Mixolydian Editions. John DeMerritt of Emeryville. California bound the edition using an abstract marbled paper designed by Pamela Smith of Abiquiu, New Mexico. The book was officially launched at a talk Wagener gave at the Huntington Gardens, San Marino, California in January 2017. The 2017 Reva and David Logan Symposium on the Artist's Book was held at The Legion of Honor (museum) in San Francisco. Wagener gave a presentation on The Fabric of Collaboration. Other presenters at the symposium were Mary Ann Caws, Lisa Pearson, Kyle Schesinger, and Ward Schumaker. John Hawk, Head Librarian of Special Collections & University Archives at the University of San Francisco, approached Wagener in December 2016 and asked him to consider writing a foreword for a book he was writing on the California wood engraver Mallette Dean. After several meetings going over the prints in the university's collection, Wagener agreed to write a short appreciation for Mallette Dean. In 2018 the Book Club of California published Mallette Dean, A Printmaker and His Art with Wagener's Foreword. In response to a request from Peter Koch, founder of the Codex Foundation, Wagener engraved an image of Spitsbergen Island to be used with promotional material for Codex Nordica, the 2019 Codex Book Fair and Symposium. In addition, Wagener's essay After the Studio Floor is Swept was included in the Codex Papers, Volume One. Wagener also collaborated with Edwin Dobb to produce a broadside, Corrosion, that was included in Words on the Edge: an EXTRACTION Art broadside project of the Codex Foundation that included the poems and lyrical texts of twenty-six writers paired with an equivalent number of notable letterpress printers. In the late 1970s Wagener picked up a copy of A Vegetable Emergency by Maxine Chernoff from the Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center in Venice, California. Over time this publication began disintegrating due to its acidic paper. In 2017 he conceived the idea of letterpress printing a number of these poems accompanied by abstract color engravings from his Umbraculo Series. Working with Patrick Reagh for casting the metal type and bookbinder Craig Jensen, the book, Teapots & Tympani, was designed and printed at Mixolydian Editions and officially launched at the Codex Book Fair in 2019. In 2019, Jan and Crispin Elsted at Barbarian Press, Mission B.C., Canada, published a major retrospective volume on Richard Wagener's engraving in their ongoing series of monographs on wood engravers: Endgrain Editions 5: Richard Wagener – a Dialogue with Wood Engraving. The book features ninety-five of Wagener's engravings from every period of his work, including several in color, all printed from the blocks. The images are interspersed with prose comments by the artist and others. The book includes, by way of an introduction, a major autobiographical essay by Richard Wagener, ‘A Dialogue with Wood Engraving’, in which he traces his early exploration of art, his discovery of wood engraving, and his journey within the form. In honor of the eightieth anniversary of the 1940 historic voyage of the Western Flyer by John Steinbeck and Edward Ricketts, Arion Press published a fine press edition of their book Sea of Cortez. It was originally published in December 1941, two days before Pearl Harbor. Ten years later the book was republished under the title The Log from the Sea of Cortez with a new preface by Steinbeck, “About Ed Ricketts.” This subsequent edition omitted Ricketts’ name from the cover giving Steinbeck sole authorship. The Arion Press edition restores Ricketts name as coauthor. Wagener contributed six wood engravings, five of marine specimens and a three-color engraving of the Western Flyer. Nawakum Press, Gig Harbor, Washington, and Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California published Cascadia, a fine press book celebrating the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. This 2021 book featured twenty-four engravings by Richard Wagener, haiku and haibun poetry by Christopher Herold, and an essay,The Lost Forest by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist William Dietrich (novelist). This book was the subject of a talk given by Wagener at the 2022 Codex Symposium in Berkeley, California. From Here and There was published by Mixolydian Editions in 2022. This book presented twenty wood engravings seen in botanical collections around the world including London, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Kretinga, Vienna, Helsinki, Costa Rica, and California. Information about the plants and the locations where they were seen accompany the engravings. Wagener's archives, 1974 - 2016, are held by the Library of Congress. Education He studied biology at the University of San Diego and earned an MFA in painting from Art Center School, Los Angeles (now Pasadena), California. Notable writings His interview of artist Robert Motherwell, conducted in 1974, was first published in a catalog for an exhibition Robert Motherwell in California Collections at the Otis Art Institute, Los Angeles, and later included in The Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell. Wagener wrote an essay for Carving the Elements, a companion to The Fragments of Parmenides, discussing the development of his engravings to illuminate the text. "After the Studio Floor is Swept", The Codex Papers, Volume One, 2018, The Codex Foundation, Berkeley, California. "A Dialogue with Wood Engraving", Endgrain Number 5, Barbarian Press, Mission, British Columbia, 2019 References External links www.richardwagener.com http://www.bccbooks.org/store/products/category/new-publications/ http://www.magnoliaeditions.com/artists/richard-wagener/ http://www.peterkochprinters.com/portfolio3.php?show=71 http://www.nawakumpress.com/books_loom.html Living people 1944 births American wood engravers University of San Diego alumni Art Center College of Design alumni 20th-century American printmakers 21st-century American printmakers 20th-century engravers

Richard Wagener (born 1944) is an American wood engraver known for his prints and fine press books. His work has been collected by over one hundred and thirty public institutions. His first livre d'artiste, Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh, was included in Artists' Books in the Modern Era, 1870–2000 at the Legion of Honor, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Victoria Dailey has called Wagener the first California artist since Paul Landacre to achieve prominence in the art of wood engraving.🦛 Works Wagener's early engravings juxtaposed realistic elements against a field of abstract imagery, frequently incorporating letterforms. In 1990, while teaching at Kala Institute, he met Peter Rutledge Koch, fine press printer, Berkeley. California. Their collaboration resulted in the publication of Zebra Noise with a Flatted Seventh (Peter Koch, Printers, 1998). Zebra Noise included 26 wood engravings of a zoological alphabet as well as a text by Wagener that is evocative of the American West. Simon Brett, noted British engraver and writer, wrote that “No one else I know of is making such avant-garde grand opera in wood-engraved prints.” Mark Dimunation, Head of Special Collections at the Library of Congress, referred to the book as a “work of maturity and grace.”🦛 In 1999 Wagener was elected as a member of the Society of Wood Engravers in England. This organization was started in 1920 by a group of artists including Lucien Pissarro and Eric Gill.🦛 In 2003, Wagener contributed abstract color wood engravings to accompany The Fragments of Parmenides, Editions Koch, Berkeley. This book, some ten years in the making, features a new translation of the Parmenides fragments by Robert Bringhurst, Canadian poet, typographer and author, and uses two new Greek typefaces commissioned for this project by Peter Koch. The first typeface was designed by Christopher Stinehour in a digital format. The second typeface was cut in steel and cast in metal by Dan Carr at the Golgonooza Typefoundry in Ashuelot, New Hampshire.🦛 In 2006, Wagener established the imprint Mixolydian Editions for his own fine press projects. The first publication was Cracked Sidewalks, vignettes and prose poems about growing up in Los Angeles. The second book was Mountains & Religion, twenty engravings based on imagery from a journey to Nepal and Tibet in 1995, published in 2011. His print Kathmandu Alley, from Mountains and Religion, is a prime example of realistic imagery informed by an abstract sensibility.🦛 The Book Club of California published California in Relief, (2009, thirty wood engravings by Wagener with a foreword by Victoria Dailey). Peter Koch collaborated in the design and printing of this book. Jan Elsted noted: “Wagener’s essential engravings of an outer landscape remind us of the echo within ourselves of an interior one, and we respond with grateful recognition.”🦛 In 2009 Wagener was invited to Magnolia Editions, Oakland, California, to develop large-scale woodcut interpretations of his wood engravings. Four images, two from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and two from Nepal, were published in limited editions.🦛 Wagener has produced a number of engraved bookplates that have been collected internationally. He designed the logo for the XXVII FISAE Congress held in Boston, 2000. His bookplates have been featured in Print Magazine; Contemporary Ex-Libris Artists, article by James Keenan, published in Portugal, 2003;[13] California Bookplates by Robert Dickover, published by the Book Club of California, 2006;[14] and Three Centuries of the American Bookplate by James Goode, the catalog accompanying a show of bookplates at the University of Virginia in 2010.[15]🦛 In 2013 Wagener again collaborated with Peter Rutledge Koch to create a companion book, The Sierra Nevada Suite: Thirty-One Wood Engravings, published by the Book Club of California. This book continued Wagener's observations of the sometimes stark and austere details of California's landscape and featured two fold-out panoramic engravings of Yosemite. It received a Juror's Choice award at the Fine Press show in Oxford, England.🦛 At the 2013 Codex Book Fair and Symposium held at the Craneway Pavilion, Richmond, California, Wagener met the New Zealand poet Alan Loney. After seeing Wagener's new suite of prints based on the idea of weaving, Loney agreed to write a poetic response. The resultant book, Loom, was collaboratively designed and published by David Pascoe, Nawakum Press, Santa Rosa, California and Richard Wagener, Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. The text was printed by Patrick Reagh, Sebastopol, California while the engravings were printed by Wagener at Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California. Craig Jensen at Booklab II in San Marcos, Texas did the binding. Loom had its debut at Codex Australia Book Fair held in Melbourne, Australia during March 2014. David Pascoe made a short film about the making of this book that focuses on Wagener, the engraver, Patrick Reagh, the printer, and Craig Jensen, the bookbinder.🦛 The development of a special print for the deluxe edition of Loom led to a small series of prints that looked at weaving from a different point of view. The series of engravings for Loom explored the idea of threads coming together into a weaving. In contrast, the new series of engravings emerged from thinking about the ultimate fate of this activity and the beauty in weathered and distressed textiles. Alan Loney subsequently wrote a poetic response to these engravings. Mixolydian Editions published the poem and the prints in a book titled Vestige. This book was entirely printed and bound using handmade paper from Twinrocker Paper, Brookston, Indiana and Papeterie St. Armand, Montreal, Canada. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California, bound the limited edition of the book. Vestige had its debut at the 2015 Codex Book Fair.🦛 Edwin Dobb, independent writer and lecturer at the UC Berkeley School of Journalism, interviewed Wagener about his development as a book artist engaged in wood engraving. A highlight of this interview is an examination of the relationship between abstract and realistic imagery in his engravings. This interview was published in the Book Club of California Quarterly, Winter 2015.🦛 Wagener created an engraving of Festival Hall from the Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco during 1915. Wagener printed the engraving for a broadside published by the Book Club of California in commemoration of the centennial of this event. The broadside was designed and printed by Fred and Barbara Voltmer and Li Jiang at Havilah Press, Emeryville, California.🦛 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe again collaborated to create Trading Eights, The Faces of Jazz, a book of jazz portraits engraved by Jim Todd of Missoula, Montana. Also included in the book is an essay by jazz critic and musical historian Ted Gioia and a poem by his brother Dana Gioia, Poet Laureate of California. Patrick Reagh did the monotype composition of the text. Lisa Van Pelt, Philo, California created the paste papers for the covers and did the binding for the edition. Mixolydian Editions and Nawakum Press published Trading Eights in 2016.🦛 In 2016 Richard Wagener and David Pascoe were the recipients of the 15th Carl Hertzog Award for Excellence in Book Design for their book Loom, published by Nawakum Press/Mixolydian Editions 2014. This national award honors the lifework of one of this country's most accomplished book designers and printers, Carl Hertzog, 1902 -1984. The award is sponsored by the Friends of the University Library of the University of Texas at El Paso.🦛 The Book Club of California awarded Wagener the 2016 Oscar Lewis Award for his contributions to the field of Book Arts. Past recipients of this award include Ward Ritchie, Jack Stauffacher, Peter Rutledge Koch, Patrick Reagh, Carolee Campbell, and Sandra and Harry Reese.🦛 During a meeting in late 2015 to discuss a future book, the writer Edwin Dobb suggested that they resurrect a previously stalled project about exotic desert plants. Within two months Dobb had completed a four-thousand word essay about the origins of botanical gardens. The resultant book was Exoticum, Twenty-five Desert Plants from the Huntington Gardens published by Mixolydian Editions. John DeMerritt of Emeryville. California bound the edition using an abstract marbled paper designed by Pamela Smith of Abiquiu, New Mexico. The book was officially launched at a talk Wagener gave at the Huntington Gardens, San Marino, California in January 2017.🦛 The 2017 Reva and David Logan Symposium on the Artist's Book was held at The Legion of Honor (museum) in San Francisco. Wagener gave a presentation on The Fabric of Collaboration. Other presenters at the symposium were Mary Ann Caws, Lisa Pearson, Kyle Schesinger, and Ward Schumaker.🦛 John Hawk, Head Librarian of Special Collections & University Archives at the University of San Francisco, approached Wagener in December 2016 and asked him to consider writing a foreword for a book he was writing on the California wood engraver Mallette Dean. After several meetings going over the prints in the university's collection, Wagener agreed to write a short appreciation for Mallette Dean. In 2018 the Book Club of California published Mallette Dean, A Printmaker and His Art with Wagener's Foreword.🦛 In response to a request from Peter Koch, founder of the Codex Foundation, Wagener engraved an image of Spitsbergen Island to be used with promotional material for Codex Nordica, the 2019 Codex Book Fair and Symposium. In addition, Wagener's essay After the Studio Floor is Swept was included in the Codex Papers, Volume One. Wagener also collaborated with Edwin Dobb to produce a broadside, Corrosion, that was included in Words on the Edge: an EXTRACTION Art broadside project of the Codex Foundation that included the poems and lyrical texts of twenty-six writers paired with an equivalent number of notable letterpress printers.🦛 In the late 1970s Wagener picked up a copy of A Vegetable Emergency by Maxine Chernoff from the Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center in Venice, California. Over time this publication began disintegrating due to its acidic paper. In 2017 he conceived the idea of letterpress printing a number of these poems accompanied by abstract color engravings from his Umbraculo Series. Working with Patrick Reagh for casting the metal type and bookbinder Craig Jensen, the book, Teapots & Tympani, was designed and printed at Mixolydian Editions and officially launched at the Codex Book Fair in 2019.🦛 In 2019, Jan and Crispin Elsted at Barbarian Press, Mission B.C., Canada, published a major retrospective volume on Richard Wagener's engraving in their ongoing series of monographs on wood engravers: Endgrain Editions 5: Richard Wagener – a Dialogue with Wood Engraving. The book features ninety-five of Wagener's engravings from every period of his work, including several in color, all printed from the blocks. The images are interspersed with prose comments by the artist and others. The book includes, by way of an introduction, a major autobiographical essay by Richard Wagener, ‘A Dialogue with Wood Engraving’, in which he traces his early exploration of art, his discovery of wood engraving, and his journey within the form.🦛 In honor of the eightieth anniversary of the 1940 historic voyage of the Western Flyer by John Steinbeck and Edward Ricketts, Arion Press published a fine press edition of their book Sea of Cortez. It was originally published in December 1941, two days before Pearl Harbor. Ten years later the book was republished under the title The Log from the Sea of Cortez with a new preface by Steinbeck, “About Ed Ricketts.” This subsequent edition omitted Ricketts’ name from the cover giving Steinbeck sole authorship. The Arion Press edition restores Ricketts name as coauthor. Wagener contributed six wood engravings, five of marine specimens and a three-color engraving of the Western Flyer.🦛 Nawakum Press, Gig Harbor, Washington, and Mixolydian Editions, Petaluma, California published Cascadia, a fine press book celebrating the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. This 2021 book featured twenty-four engravings by Richard Wagener, haiku and haibun poetry by Christopher Herold, and an essay,The Lost Forest by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist William Dietrich (novelist). This book was the subject of a talk given by Wagener at the 2022 Codex Symposium in Berkeley, California.🦛 From Here and There was published by Mixolydian Editions in 2022. This book presented twenty wood engravings seen in botanical collections around the world including London, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Kretinga, Vienna, Helsinki, Costa Rica, and California. Information about the plants and the locations where they were seen accompany the engravings.🦛 Wagener's archives, 1974 - 2016, are held by the Library of Congress. Education He studied biology at the University of San Diego and earned an MFA in painting from Art Center School, Los Angeles (now Pasadena), California.🦛 Notable writings His interview of artist Robert Motherwell, conducted in 1974, was first published in a catalog for an exhibition Robert Motherwell in California Collections at the Otis Art Institute, Los Angeles, and later included in The Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell.🦛 Wagener wrote an essay for Carving the Elements, a companion to The Fragments of Parmenides, discussing the development of his engravings to illuminate the text.🦛 "After the Studio Floor is Swept", The Codex Papers, Volume One, 2018, The Codex Foundation, Berkeley, California. "A Dialogue with Wood Engraving", Endgrain Number 5, Barbarian Press, Mission, British Columbia, 2019🦛

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"he", "met", "Peter", "Rutledge", "Koch,", "fine", "press", "printer,", "Berkeley.", "California.", "Their", "collaboration", "resulted", "in", "the", "publication", "of", "Zebra", "Noise", "with", "a", "Flatted", "Seventh", "(Peter", "Koch,", "Printers,", "1998).", "Zebra", "Noise", "included", "26", "wood", "engravings", "of", "a", "zoological", "alphabet", "as", "well", "as", "a", "text", "by", "Wagener", "that", "is", "evocative", "of", "the", "American", "West.", "Simon", "Brett,", "noted", "British", "engraver", "and", "writer,", "wrote", "that", "“No", "one", "else", "I", "know", "of", "is", "making", "such", "avant-garde", "grand", "opera", "in", "wood-engraved", "prints.”", "Mark", "Dimunation,", "Head", "of", "Special", "Collections", "at", "the", "Library", "of", "Congress,", "referred", "to", "the", "book", "as", "a", "“work", "of", "maturity", "and", "grace.”", "In", "1999", "Wagener", "was", "elected", "as", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Society", "of", "Wood", "Engravers", "in", "England.", "This", "organization", "was", "started", "in", "1920", "by", "a", "group", "of", "artists", "including", "Lucien", "Pissarro", "and", "Eric", "Gill.", "In", "2003,", "Wagener", "contributed", "abstract", "color", "wood", "engravings", "to", "accompany", "The", "Fragments", "of", "Parmenides,", "Editions", "Koch,", "Berkeley.", "This", "book,", "some", "ten", "years", "in", "the", "making,", "features", "a", "new", "translation", "of", "the", "Parmenides", "fragments", "by", "Robert", "Bringhurst,", "Canadian", "poet,", "typographer", "and", "author,", "and", "uses", "two", "new", "Greek", "typefaces", "commissioned", "for", "this", "project", "by", "Peter", "Koch.", "The", "first", "typeface", "was", "designed", "by", "Christopher", "Stinehour", "in", "a", "digital", "format.", "The", "second", "typeface", "was", "cut", "in", "steel", "and", "cast", "in", "metal", "by", "Dan", "Carr", "at", "the", "Golgonooza", "Typefoundry", "in", "Ashuelot,", "New", "Hampshire.", "In", "2006,", "Wagener", "established", "the", "imprint", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "for", "his", "own", "fine", "press", "projects.", "The", "first", "publication", "was", "Cracked", "Sidewalks,", "vignettes", "and", "prose", "poems", "about", "growing", "up", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "The", "second", "book", "was", "Mountains", "&", "Religion,", "twenty", "engravings", "based", "on", "imagery", "from", "a", "journey", "to", "Nepal", "and", "Tibet", "in", "1995,", "published", "in", "2011.", "His", "print", "Kathmandu", "Alley,", "from", "Mountains", "and", "Religion,", "is", "a", "prime", "example", "of", "realistic", "imagery", "informed", "by", "an", "abstract", "sensibility.", "The", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "published", "California", "in", "Relief,", "(2009,", "thirty", "wood", "engravings", "by", "Wagener", "with", "a", "foreword", "by", "Victoria", "Dailey).", "Peter", "Koch", "collaborated", "in", "the", "design", "and", "printing", "of", "this", "book.", "Jan", "Elsted", "noted:", "“Wagener’s", "essential", "engravings", "of", "an", "outer", "landscape", "remind", "us", "of", "the", "echo", "within", "ourselves", "of", "an", "interior", "one,", "and", "we", "respond", "with", "grateful", "recognition.”", "In", "2009", "Wagener", "was", "invited", "to", "Magnolia", "Editions,", "Oakland,", "California,", "to", "develop", "large-scale", "woodcut", "interpretations", "of", "his", "wood", "engravings.", "Four", "images,", "two", "from", "the", "Sierra", "Nevada", "Mountains", "and", "two", "from", "Nepal,", "were", "published", "in", "limited", "editions.", "Wagener", "has", "produced", "a", "number", "of", "engraved", "bookplates", "that", "have", "been", "collected", "internationally.", "He", "designed", "the", "logo", "for", "the", "XXVII", "FISAE", "Congress", "held", "in", "Boston,", "2000.", "His", "bookplates", "have", "been", "featured", "in", "Print", "Magazine;", "Contemporary", "Ex-Libris", "Artists,", "article", "by", "James", "Keenan,", "published", "in", "Portugal,", "2003;[13]", "California", "Bookplates", "by", "Robert", "Dickover,", "published", "by", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California,", "2006;[14]", "and", "Three", "Centuries", "of", "the", "American", "Bookplate", "by", "James", "Goode,", "the", "catalog", "accompanying", "a", "show", "of", "bookplates", "at", "the", "University", "of", "Virginia", "in", "2010.[15]", "In", "2013", "Wagener", "again", "collaborated", "with", "Peter", "Rutledge", "Koch", "to", "create", "a", "companion", "book,", "The", "Sierra", "Nevada", "Suite:", "Thirty-One", "Wood", "Engravings,", "published", "by", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California.", "This", "book", "continued", "Wagener's", "observations", "of", "the", "sometimes", "stark", "and", "austere", "details", "of", "California's", "landscape", "and", "featured", "two", "fold-out", "panoramic", "engravings", "of", "Yosemite.", "It", "received", "a", "Juror's", "Choice", "award", "at", "the", "Fine", "Press", "show", "in", "Oxford,", "England.", "At", "the", "2013", "Codex", "Book", "Fair", "and", "Symposium", "held", "at", "the", "Craneway", "Pavilion,", "Richmond,", "California,", "Wagener", "met", "the", "New", "Zealand", "poet", "Alan", "Loney.", "After", "seeing", "Wagener's", "new", "suite", "of", "prints", "based", "on", "the", "idea", "of", "weaving,", "Loney", "agreed", "to", "write", "a", "poetic", "response.", "The", "resultant", "book,", "Loom,", "was", "collaboratively", "designed", "and", "published", "by", "David", "Pascoe,", "Nawakum", "Press,", "Santa", "Rosa,", "California", "and", "Richard", "Wagener,", "Mixolydian", "Editions,", "Petaluma,", "California.", "The", "text", "was", "printed", "by", "Patrick", "Reagh,", "Sebastopol,", "California", "while", "the", "engravings", "were", "printed", "by", "Wagener", "at", "Mixolydian", "Editions,", "Petaluma,", "California.", "Craig", "Jensen", "at", "Booklab", "II", "in", "San", "Marcos,", "Texas", "did", "the", "binding.", "Loom", "had", "its", "debut", "at", "Codex", "Australia", "Book", "Fair", "held", "in", "Melbourne,", "Australia", "during", "March", "2014.", "David", "Pascoe", "made", "a", "short", "film", "about", "the", "making", "of", "this", "book", "that", "focuses", "on", "Wagener,", "the", "engraver,", "Patrick", "Reagh,", "the", "printer,", "and", "Craig", "Jensen,", "the", "bookbinder.", "The", "development", "of", "a", "special", "print", "for", "the", "deluxe", "edition", "of", "Loom", "led", "to", "a", "small", "series", "of", "prints", "that", "looked", "at", "weaving", "from", "a", "different", "point", "of", "view.", "The", "series", "of", "engravings", "for", "Loom", "explored", "the", "idea", "of", "threads", "coming", "together", "into", "a", "weaving.", "In", "contrast,", "the", "new", "series", "of", "engravings", "emerged", "from", "thinking", "about", "the", "ultimate", "fate", "of", "this", "activity", "and", "the", "beauty", "in", "weathered", "and", "distressed", "textiles.", "Alan", "Loney", "subsequently", "wrote", "a", "poetic", "response", "to", "these", "engravings.", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "published", "the", "poem", "and", "the", "prints", "in", "a", "book", "titled", "Vestige.", "This", "book", "was", "entirely", "printed", "and", "bound", "using", "handmade", "paper", "from", "Twinrocker", "Paper,", "Brookston,", "Indiana", "and", "Papeterie", "St.", "Armand,", "Montreal,", "Canada.", "Lisa", "Van", "Pelt,", "Philo,", "California,", "bound", "the", "limited", "edition", "of", "the", "book.", "Vestige", "had", "its", "debut", "at", "the", "2015", "Codex", "Book", "Fair.", "Edwin", "Dobb,", "independent", "writer", "and", "lecturer", "at", "the", "UC", "Berkeley", "School", "of", "Journalism,", "interviewed", "Wagener", "about", "his", "development", "as", "a", "book", "artist", "engaged", "in", "wood", "engraving.", "A", "highlight", "of", "this", "interview", "is", "an", "examination", "of", "the", "relationship", "between", "abstract", "and", "realistic", "imagery", "in", "his", "engravings.", "This", "interview", "was", "published", "in", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "Quarterly,", "Winter", "2015.", "Wagener", "created", "an", "engraving", "of", "Festival", "Hall", "from", "the", "Panama", "Pacific", "International", "Exposition", "held", "in", "San", "Francisco", "during", "1915.", "Wagener", "printed", "the", "engraving", "for", "a", "broadside", "published", "by", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "in", "commemoration", "of", "the", "centennial", "of", "this", "event.", "The", "broadside", "was", "designed", "and", "printed", "by", "Fred", "and", "Barbara", "Voltmer", "and", "Li", "Jiang", "at", "Havilah", "Press,", "Emeryville,", "California.", "Richard", "Wagener", "and", "David", "Pascoe", "again", "collaborated", "to", "create", "Trading", "Eights,", "The", "Faces", "of", "Jazz,", "a", "book", "of", "jazz", "portraits", "engraved", "by", "Jim", "Todd", "of", "Missoula,", "Montana.", "Also", "included", "in", "the", "book", "is", "an", "essay", "by", "jazz", "critic", "and", "musical", "historian", "Ted", "Gioia", "and", "a", "poem", "by", "his", "brother", "Dana", "Gioia,", "Poet", "Laureate", "of", "California.", "Patrick", "Reagh", "did", "the", "monotype", "composition", "of", "the", "text.", "Lisa", "Van", "Pelt,", "Philo,", "California", "created", "the", "paste", "papers", "for", "the", "covers", "and", "did", "the", "binding", "for", "the", "edition.", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "and", "Nawakum", "Press", "published", "Trading", "Eights", "in", "2016.", "In", "2016", "Richard", "Wagener", "and", "David", "Pascoe", "were", "the", "recipients", "of", "the", "15th", "Carl", "Hertzog", "Award", "for", "Excellence", "in", "Book", "Design", "for", "their", "book", "Loom,", "published", "by", "Nawakum", "Press/Mixolydian", "Editions", "2014.", "This", "national", "award", "honors", "the", "lifework", "of", "one", "of", "this", "country's", "most", "accomplished", "book", "designers", "and", "printers,", "Carl", "Hertzog,", "1902", "-1984.", "The", "award", "is", "sponsored", "by", "the", "Friends", "of", "the", "University", "Library", "of", "the", "University", "of", "Texas", "at", "El", "Paso.", "The", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "awarded", "Wagener", "the", "2016", "Oscar", "Lewis", "Award", "for", "his", "contributions", "to", "the", "field", "of", "Book", "Arts.", "Past", "recipients", "of", "this", "award", "include", "Ward", "Ritchie,", "Jack", "Stauffacher,", "Peter", "Rutledge", "Koch,", "Patrick", "Reagh,", "Carolee", "Campbell,", "and", "Sandra", "and", "Harry", "Reese.", "During", "a", "meeting", "in", "late", "2015", "to", "discuss", "a", "future", "book,", "the", "writer", "Edwin", "Dobb", "suggested", "that", "they", "resurrect", "a", "previously", "stalled", "project", "about", "exotic", "desert", "plants.", "Within", "two", "months", "Dobb", "had", "completed", "a", "four-thousand", "word", "essay", "about", "the", "origins", "of", "botanical", "gardens.", "The", "resultant", "book", "was", "Exoticum,", "Twenty-five", "Desert", "Plants", "from", "the", "Huntington", "Gardens", "published", "by", "Mixolydian", "Editions.", "John", "DeMerritt", "of", "Emeryville.", "California", "bound", "the", "edition", "using", "an", "abstract", "marbled", "paper", "designed", "by", "Pamela", "Smith", "of", "Abiquiu,", "New", "Mexico.", "The", "book", "was", "officially", "launched", "at", "a", "talk", "Wagener", "gave", "at", "the", "Huntington", "Gardens,", "San", "Marino,", "California", "in", "January", "2017.", "The", "2017", "Reva", "and", "David", "Logan", "Symposium", "on", "the", "Artist's", "Book", "was", "held", "at", "The", "Legion", "of", "Honor", "(museum)", "in", "San", "Francisco.", "Wagener", "gave", "a", "presentation", "on", "The", "Fabric", "of", "Collaboration.", "Other", "presenters", "at", "the", "symposium", "were", "Mary", "Ann", "Caws,", "Lisa", "Pearson,", "Kyle", "Schesinger,", "and", "Ward", "Schumaker.", "John", "Hawk,", "Head", "Librarian", "of", "Special", "Collections", "&", "University", "Archives", "at", "the", "University", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "approached", "Wagener", "in", "December", "2016", "and", "asked", "him", "to", "consider", "writing", "a", "foreword", "for", "a", "book", "he", "was", "writing", "on", "the", "California", "wood", "engraver", "Mallette", "Dean.", "After", "several", "meetings", "going", "over", "the", "prints", "in", "the", "university's", "collection,", "Wagener", "agreed", "to", "write", "a", "short", "appreciation", "for", "Mallette", "Dean.", "In", "2018", "the", "Book", "Club", "of", "California", "published", "Mallette", "Dean,", "A", "Printmaker", "and", "His", "Art", "with", "Wagener's", "Foreword.", "In", "response", "to", "a", "request", "from", "Peter", "Koch,", "founder", "of", "the", "Codex", "Foundation,", "Wagener", "engraved", "an", "image", "of", "Spitsbergen", "Island", "to", "be", "used", "with", "promotional", "material", "for", "Codex", "Nordica,", "the", "2019", "Codex", "Book", "Fair", "and", "Symposium.", "In", "addition,", "Wagener's", "essay", "After", "the", "Studio", "Floor", "is", "Swept", "was", "included", "in", "the", "Codex", "Papers,", "Volume", "One.", "Wagener", "also", "collaborated", "with", "Edwin", "Dobb", "to", "produce", "a", "broadside,", "Corrosion,", "that", "was", "included", "in", "Words", "on", "the", "Edge:", "an", "EXTRACTION", "Art", "broadside", "project", "of", "the", "Codex", "Foundation", "that", "included", "the", "poems", "and", "lyrical", "texts", "of", "twenty-six", "writers", "paired", "with", "an", "equivalent", "number", "of", "notable", "letterpress", "printers.", "In", "the", "late", "1970s", "Wagener", "picked", "up", "a", "copy", "of", "A", "Vegetable", "Emergency", "by", "Maxine", "Chernoff", "from", "the", "Beyond", "Baroque", "Literary", "Arts", "Center", "in", "Venice,", "California.", "Over", "time", "this", "publication", "began", "disintegrating", "due", "to", "its", "acidic", "paper.", "In", "2017", "he", "conceived", "the", "idea", "of", "letterpress", "printing", "a", "number", "of", "these", "poems", "accompanied", "by", "abstract", "color", "engravings", "from", "his", "Umbraculo", "Series.", "Working", "with", "Patrick", "Reagh", "for", "casting", "the", "metal", "type", "and", "bookbinder", "Craig", "Jensen,", "the", "book,", "Teapots", "&", "Tympani,", "was", "designed", "and", "printed", "at", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "and", "officially", "launched", "at", "the", "Codex", "Book", "Fair", "in", "2019.", "In", "2019,", "Jan", "and", "Crispin", "Elsted", "at", "Barbarian", "Press,", "Mission", "B.C.,", "Canada,", "published", "a", "major", "retrospective", "volume", "on", "Richard", "Wagener's", "engraving", "in", "their", "ongoing", "series", "of", "monographs", "on", "wood", "engravers:", "Endgrain", "Editions", "5:", "Richard", "Wagener", "–", "a", "Dialogue", "with", "Wood", "Engraving.", "The", "book", "features", "ninety-five", "of", "Wagener's", "engravings", "from", "every", "period", "of", "his", "work,", "including", "several", "in", "color,", "all", "printed", "from", "the", "blocks.", "The", "images", "are", "interspersed", "with", "prose", "comments", "by", "the", "artist", "and", "others.", "The", "book", "includes,", "by", "way", "of", "an", "introduction,", "a", "major", "autobiographical", "essay", "by", "Richard", "Wagener,", "‘A", "Dialogue", "with", "Wood", "Engraving’,", "in", "which", "he", "traces", "his", "early", "exploration", "of", "art,", "his", "discovery", "of", "wood", "engraving,", "and", "his", "journey", "within", "the", "form.", "In", "honor", "of", "the", "eightieth", "anniversary", "of", "the", "1940", "historic", "voyage", "of", "the", "Western", "Flyer", "by", "John", "Steinbeck", "and", "Edward", "Ricketts,", "Arion", "Press", "published", "a", "fine", "press", "edition", "of", "their", "book", "Sea", "of", "Cortez.", "It", "was", "originally", "published", "in", "December", "1941,", "two", "days", "before", "Pearl", "Harbor.", "Ten", "years", "later", "the", "book", "was", "republished", "under", "the", "title", "The", "Log", "from", "the", "Sea", "of", "Cortez", "with", "a", "new", "preface", "by", "Steinbeck,", "“About", "Ed", "Ricketts.”", "This", "subsequent", "edition", "omitted", "Ricketts’", "name", "from", "the", "cover", "giving", "Steinbeck", "sole", "authorship.", "The", "Arion", "Press", "edition", "restores", "Ricketts", "name", "as", "coauthor.", "Wagener", "contributed", "six", "wood", "engravings,", "five", "of", "marine", "specimens", "and", "a", "three-color", "engraving", "of", "the", "Western", "Flyer.", "Nawakum", "Press,", "Gig", "Harbor,", "Washington,", "and", "Mixolydian", "Editions,", "Petaluma,", "California", "published", "Cascadia,", "a", "fine", "press", "book", "celebrating", "the", "old", "growth", "forests", "of", "the", "Pacific", "Northwest.", "This", "2021", "book", "featured", "twenty-four", "engravings", "by", "Richard", "Wagener,", "haiku", "and", "haibun", "poetry", "by", "Christopher", "Herold,", "and", "an", "essay,The", "Lost", "Forest", "by", "Pulitzer", "Prize", "winning", "journalist", "William", "Dietrich", "(novelist).", "This", "book", "was", "the", "subject", "of", "a", "talk", "given", "by", "Wagener", "at", "the", "2022", "Codex", "Symposium", "in", "Berkeley,", "California.", "From", "Here", "and", "There", "was", "published", "by", "Mixolydian", "Editions", "in", "2022.", "This", "book", "presented", "twenty", "wood", "engravings", "seen", "in", "botanical", "collections", "around", "the", "world", "including", "London,", "Edinburgh,", "Melbourne,", "Kretinga,", "Vienna,", "Helsinki,", "Costa", "Rica,", "and", "California.", "Information", "about", "the", "plants", "and", "the", "locations", "where", "they", "were", "seen", "accompany", "the", "engravings.", "Wagener's", "archives,", "1974", "-", "2016,", "are", "held", "by", "the", "Library", "of", "Congress.", "Education", "He", "studied", "biology", "at", "the", "University", "of", "San", "Diego", "and", "earned", "an", "MFA", "in", "painting", "from", "Art", "Center", "School,", "Los", "Angeles", "(now", "Pasadena),", "California.", "Notable", "writings", "His", "interview", "of", "artist", "Robert", "Motherwell,", "conducted", "in", "1974,", "was", "first", "published", "in", "a", "catalog", "for", "an", "exhibition", "Robert", "Motherwell", "in", "California", "Collections", "at", "the", "Otis", "Art", "Institute,", "Los", "Angeles,", "and", "later", "included", "in", "The", "Collected", "Writings", "of", "Robert", "Motherwell.", "Wagener", "wrote", "an", "essay", "for", "Carving", "the", "Elements,", "a", "companion", "to", "The", "Fragments", "of", "Parmenides,", "discussing", "the", "development", "of", "his", "engravings", "to", "illuminate", "the", "text.", "\"After", "the", "Studio", "Floor", "is", "Swept\",", "The", "Codex", "Papers,", "Volume", "One,", "2018,", "The", "Codex", "Foundation,", "Berkeley,", "California.", "\"A", "Dialogue", "with", "Wood", "Engraving\",", "Endgrain", "Number", "5,", "Barbarian", "Press,", "Mission,", "British", "Columbia,", "2019" ]

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32659511

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharovsky%20District

Kharovsky District

Kharovsky District () is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-six in Vologda Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast and borders with Vozhegodsky District in the north, Syamzhensky District in the east, Sokolsky District in the south, and with Ust-Kubinsky District in the west. The area of the district is . Its administrative center is the town of Kharovsk. Population: 20,576 (2002 Census); The population of Kharovsk accounts for 60.6% of the district's total population. Geography Much of the area of the district belongs to the basin of the Kubena River. The Kubena crosses the district from east to west, and, in particular, the town of Kharovsk is located on the Kubena. A major tributary of the Kubena within the district is the Sit. The basin of the Sit occupies the northwestern part of the district. The southern part of the district belongs to the basin of the Dvinitsa, a left tributary of the Sukhona. The whole area of the district thus belongs to the basin of the Northern Dvina and to the White Sea basin. There are several lakes of considerable size in the district. The biggest one, Lake Katromskoye, drains into the Katroma River, which runs northeast and joins the Kubena in the east of the district. Much of the district is covered by coniferous forests. There are swamps, in particular, in the valley of the Sit and in the south of the district. History The area was populated by Finnic peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate (east). In 1780, Archangelogorod Governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty, and in 1796 the latter was split into Arkhangelsk and Vologda Governorates. What now is Kharovsky District was then a part of Kadnikovsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate. Due to its remoteness from the main trade routes connecting Northern Russia with the White Sea, the area was sparsely populated until the end of the 19th century. In 1894, the construction of the railway line between Vologda and Arkhangelsk started. It was decided that the railway should run over the shortest route rather than pass through existing settlements, and it was eventually built through the present territory of the district. On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished, the governorates were merged into Northern Krai, and Kharovsky District was established among others. It became a part of Vologda Okrug of Northern Krai. In the following years, the first-level administrative division of Russia kept changing. In 1936, the krai itself was transformed into Northern Oblast. In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Kharovsky District remained in Vologda Oblast ever since. In 1931, Syamzhensky District was abolished and split between Kharovsky and Totemsky Districts. In 1935, it was re-established. During the abortive administrative reform of 1962-1965, Syamzhensky District was merged into Kharovsky District. In 1965, it was re-established again. Administrative and municipal divisions As an administrative division, the district is divided into one town of district significance (Kharovsk) and eleven selsoviets. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Kharovsky Municipal District and is divided into one urban and ten rural settlements. The municipal district includes all of the inhabited localities of the administrative district, with the exception of the settlements of 47 km, Druzhba, and Sogorki, which are municipally a part of Syamzhensky District. Economy Industry The economy of the district is based on timber industry. Agriculture Agriculture in the district is mostly concentrated on cattle breeding with milk and meat production. Transportation The railway connecting Vologda and Arkhangelsk crosses the district from south to north. The main stations within the district are Kharovskaya and Semigorodnyaya. Semigorodnyaya was the starting point of the Semigorodnyaya Narrow Gauge Railroad, built in the 1940s to facilitate transportation of timber. The network was rather extensive and went well into Syamzhensky District, with the total length of about . By the first decade of the 2000s, most of the tracks were demolished. Roads connect Kharovsk with Syamzha in the east and Sokol in the south. None of the rivers are navigable within the limits of the district. Culture and recreation The district contains twenty objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. Most of these are churches built prior to 1917. The only museum in the district is the Kharovsk Museum of Art and History which was founded in 1967 and reopened in 2000. The museum is located in Kharovsk. Vasily Belov, a Russian author and a representative of the Village Prose movement, was born in 1932 in the village of Timonikha of Kharovsky District. In 2011, a folkloric and literature festival was held in Timonikha related to the beginning of hay-making season. Sports One of the races of the Motocross Cup of Russia is held in July every year in the district close to Kharovsk (in the Cup schedule, it is denoted as the Kharovsk race). People Alexei Pakhomov (1900-1973) Vasily Belov (1932-2012) References Notes Sources Districts of Vologda Oblast

Kharovsky District () is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-six in Vologda Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast and borders with Vozhegodsky District in the north, Syamzhensky District in the east, Sokolsky District in the south, and with Ust-Kubinsky District in the west. The area of the district is . Its administrative center is the town of Kharovsk. Population: 20,576 (2002 Census); The population of Kharovsk accounts for 60.6% of the district's total population.🦛 Geography Much of the area of the district belongs to the basin of the Kubena River. The Kubena crosses the district from east to west, and, in particular, the town of Kharovsk is located on the Kubena. A major tributary of the Kubena within the district is the Sit. The basin of the Sit occupies the northwestern part of the district. The southern part of the district belongs to the basin of the Dvinitsa, a left tributary of the Sukhona. The whole area of the district thus belongs to the basin of the Northern Dvina and to the White Sea basin.🦛 There are several lakes of considerable size in the district. The biggest one, Lake Katromskoye, drains into the Katroma River, which runs northeast and joins the Kubena in the east of the district.🦛 Much of the district is covered by coniferous forests. There are swamps, in particular, in the valley of the Sit and in the south of the district.🦛 History The area was populated by Finnic peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate (east). In 1780, Archangelogorod Governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty, and in 1796 the latter was split into Arkhangelsk and Vologda Governorates. What now is Kharovsky District was then a part of Kadnikovsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate.🦛 Due to its remoteness from the main trade routes connecting Northern Russia with the White Sea, the area was sparsely populated until the end of the 19th century. In 1894, the construction of the railway line between Vologda and Arkhangelsk started. It was decided that the railway should run over the shortest route rather than pass through existing settlements, and it was eventually built through the present territory of the district.🦛 On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished, the governorates were merged into Northern Krai, and Kharovsky District was established among others. It became a part of Vologda Okrug of Northern Krai. In the following years, the first-level administrative division of Russia kept changing. In 1936, the krai itself was transformed into Northern Oblast. In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Kharovsky District remained in Vologda Oblast ever since.🦛 In 1931, Syamzhensky District was abolished and split between Kharovsky and Totemsky Districts. In 1935, it was re-established. During the abortive administrative reform of 1962-1965, Syamzhensky District was merged into Kharovsky District. In 1965, it was re-established again.🦛 Administrative and municipal divisions As an administrative division, the district is divided into one town of district significance (Kharovsk) and eleven selsoviets. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Kharovsky Municipal District and is divided into one urban and ten rural settlements. The municipal district includes all of the inhabited localities of the administrative district, with the exception of the settlements of 47 km, Druzhba, and Sogorki, which are municipally a part of Syamzhensky District.🦛 Economy Industry The economy of the district is based on timber industry. Agriculture Agriculture in the district is mostly concentrated on cattle breeding with milk and meat production.🦛 Transportation The railway connecting Vologda and Arkhangelsk crosses the district from south to north. The main stations within the district are Kharovskaya and Semigorodnyaya. Semigorodnyaya was the starting point of the Semigorodnyaya Narrow Gauge Railroad, built in the 1940s to facilitate transportation of timber. The network was rather extensive and went well into Syamzhensky District, with the total length of about . By the first decade of the 2000s, most of the tracks were demolished.🦛 Roads connect Kharovsk with Syamzha in the east and Sokol in the south. None of the rivers are navigable within the limits of the district.🦛 Culture and recreation The district contains twenty objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. Most of these are churches built prior to 1917.🦛 The only museum in the district is the Kharovsk Museum of Art and History which was founded in 1967 and reopened in 2000. The museum is located in Kharovsk.🦛 Vasily Belov, a Russian author and a representative of the Village Prose movement, was born in 1932 in the village of Timonikha of Kharovsky District. In 2011, a folkloric and literature festival was held in Timonikha related to the beginning of hay-making season.🦛 Sports One of the races of the Motocross Cup of Russia is held in July every year in the district close to Kharovsk (in the Cup schedule, it is denoted as the Kharovsk race). People Alexei Pakhomov (1900-1973) Vasily Belov (1932-2012)🦛

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"Governorate.", "Due", "to", "its", "remoteness", "from", "the", "main", "trade", "routes", "connecting", "Northern", "Russia", "with", "the", "White", "Sea,", "the", "area", "was", "sparsely", "populated", "until", "the", "end", "of", "the", "19th", "century.", "In", "1894,", "the", "construction", "of", "the", "railway", "line", "between", "Vologda", "and", "Arkhangelsk", "started.", "It", "was", "decided", "that", "the", "railway", "should", "run", "over", "the", "shortest", "route", "rather", "than", "pass", "through", "existing", "settlements,", "and", "it", "was", "eventually", "built", "through", "the", "present", "territory", "of", "the", "district.", "On", "July 15,", "1929,", "the", "uyezds", "were", "abolished,", "the", "governorates", "were", "merged", "into", "Northern", "Krai,", "and", "Kharovsky", "District", "was", "established", "among", "others.", "It", "became", "a", "part", "of", "Vologda", "Okrug", "of", "Northern", "Krai.", "In", "the", "following", "years,", "the", "first-level", "administrative", "division", "of", "Russia", "kept", "changing.", "In", "1936,", "the", "krai", "itself", "was", "transformed", "into", "Northern", "Oblast.", "In", "1937,", "Northern", "Oblast", "was", "split", "into", "Arkhangelsk", "Oblast", "and", "Vologda", "Oblast.", "Kharovsky", "District", "remained", "in", "Vologda", "Oblast", "ever", "since.", "In", "1931,", "Syamzhensky", "District", "was", "abolished", "and", "split", "between", "Kharovsky", "and", "Totemsky", "Districts.", "In", "1935,", "it", "was", "re-established.", "During", "the", "abortive", "administrative", "reform", "of", "1962-1965,", "Syamzhensky", "District", "was", "merged", "into", "Kharovsky", "District.", "In", "1965,", "it", "was", "re-established", "again.", "Administrative", "and", "municipal", "divisions", "As", "an", "administrative", "division,", "the", "district", "is", "divided", "into", "one", "town", "of", "district", "significance", "(Kharovsk)", "and", "eleven", "selsoviets.", "As", "a", "municipal", "division,", "the", "district", "is", "incorporated", "as", "Kharovsky", "Municipal", "District", "and", "is", "divided", "into", "one", "urban", "and", "ten", "rural", "settlements.", "The", "municipal", "district", "includes", "all", "of", "the", "inhabited", "localities", "of", "the", "administrative", "district,", "with", "the", "exception", "of", "the", "settlements", "of", "47", "km,", "Druzhba,", "and", "Sogorki,", "which", "are", "municipally", "a", "part", "of", "Syamzhensky", "District.", "Economy", "Industry", "The", "economy", "of", "the", "district", "is", "based", "on", "timber", "industry.", "Agriculture", "Agriculture", "in", "the", "district", "is", "mostly", "concentrated", "on", "cattle", "breeding", "with", "milk", "and", "meat", "production.", "Transportation", "The", "railway", "connecting", "Vologda", "and", "Arkhangelsk", "crosses", "the", "district", "from", "south", "to", "north.", "The", "main", "stations", "within", "the", "district", "are", "Kharovskaya", "and", "Semigorodnyaya.", "Semigorodnyaya", "was", "the", "starting", "point", "of", "the", "Semigorodnyaya", "Narrow", "Gauge", "Railroad,", "built", "in", "the", "1940s", "to", "facilitate", "transportation", "of", "timber.", "The", "network", "was", "rather", "extensive", "and", "went", "well", "into", "Syamzhensky", "District,", "with", "the", "total", "length", "of", "about", ".", "By", "the", "first", "decade", "of", "the", "2000s,", "most", "of", "the", "tracks", "were", "demolished.", "Roads", "connect", "Kharovsk", "with", "Syamzha", "in", "the", "east", "and", "Sokol", "in", "the", "south.", "None", "of", "the", "rivers", "are", "navigable", "within", "the", "limits", "of", "the", "district.", "Culture", "and", "recreation", "The", "district", "contains", "twenty", "objects", "classified", "as", "cultural", "and", "historical", "heritage", "of", "local", "significance.", "Most", "of", "these", "are", "churches", "built", "prior", "to", "1917.", "The", "only", "museum", "in", "the", "district", "is", "the", "Kharovsk", "Museum", "of", "Art", "and", "History", "which", "was", "founded", "in", "1967", "and", "reopened", "in", "2000.", "The", "museum", "is", "located", "in", "Kharovsk.", "Vasily", "Belov,", "a", "Russian", "author", "and", "a", "representative", "of", "the", "Village", "Prose", "movement,", "was", "born", "in", "1932", "in", "the", "village", "of", "Timonikha", "of", "Kharovsky", "District.", "In", "2011,", "a", "folkloric", "and", "literature", "festival", "was", "held", "in", "Timonikha", "related", "to", "the", "beginning", "of", "hay-making", "season.", "Sports", "One", "of", "the", "races", "of", "the", "Motocross", "Cup", "of", "Russia", "is", "held", "in", "July", "every", "year", "in", "the", "district", "close", "to", "Kharovsk", "(in", "the", "Cup", "schedule,", "it", "is", "denoted", "as", "the", "Kharovsk", "race).", "People", "Alexei", "Pakhomov", "(1900-1973)", "Vasily", "Belov", "(1932-2012)" ]

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2071136

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosaki%20Castle

Hirosaki Castle

is a hirayama-style Japanese castle constructed in 1611. It was the seat of the Tsugaru clan, a 47,000 koku tozama daimyō clan who ruled over Hirosaki Domain, Mutsu Province, in what is now central Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture, Japan. It was also referred to as . Background Hirosaki Castle measures 612 meters east-west and 947 meters north-south. Its grounds are divided into six concentric baileys, which were formerly walled and separated by moats. It is unusual in that its Edo period tenshu and most of its outline remains intact. Noted historian and author Shiba Ryōtarō praised it as one of the "Seven Famous Castles of Japan" in his travel essay series Kaidō wo Yuku. History During the late Sengoku period, former Nambu retainer Ōura Tamenobu was awarded revenues of 45,000 koku by Toyotomi Hideyoshi for his role in the Battle of Odawara in 1590. He took the family name of Tsugaru at that time. At the Battle of Sekigahara, he sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and was subsequently confirmed as lord of Hirosaki Domain with revenues increased to 47,000 koku. In 1603, he began work on a castle in Hirosaki; however, work was suspended with his death in Kyoto in 1604. Work was resumed by his successor, Tsugaru Nobuhira in 1609, who stripped Horikoshi Castle and Ōura Castle of buildings and materials in order to speed its completion. The current castle was completed in 1611. However, in 1627, the 5-story tenshu was struck by lightning and destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt until 1810 when the present 3-story structure was erected, but at the southeast corner, rather than the original southwest location. It was built by the 9th daimyō, Tsugaru Yasuchika. With the Meiji Restoration and subsequent abolition of the han system, the Tsugaru clan surrendered the castle to the new Meiji government. In 1871, the castle was garrisoned by a detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army, and in 1873 the palace structures, martial arts school and most of the castle walls were pulled down. In 1894, the castle properties were donated by the Tsugaru clan to the government for use as a park, which opened to the general public the following year. In 1898, an armory was established in the former Third Bailey by the IJA 8th Division. In 1906, two of the remaining yagura burned down. In 1909, a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Tsugaru Tamenobu was erected on the site of the tenshu. In 1937, eight structures of the castle received protection from the government as “national treasures”. However, in 1944, during the height of World War II, all of the bronze in the castle, including roof tiles and decorations, were stripped away for use in the war effort. In 1950, under the new cultural properties protection system, all surviving structures in the castle (with the exception of the East Gate of the Third Bailey) were named National Important Cultural Properties (ICP). In 1952, the grounds received further protection with their nomination as a National Historic Site. In 1953, after reconstruction, the East Gate of the Third Bailey also gained ICP status, giving a total of nine structures within the castle with such protection. Extensive archaeological excavations from 1999-2000 revealed the foundations of the former palace structures and a Shinto shrine. In 2006, Hirosaki Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation. In order to repair the castle's stone walls directly below the tenshu, the entire tenshu was removed in autumn 2015, and will be returned to its original position in 2025. Structures and gardens The current tenshu of the castle was completed in 1811. It is a three-story building with three roofs, and a height of 14.4 meters. The design is smaller than early Edo-period varieties of tenshu, and it was built on a corner of the inner bailey on the site of a yagura, rather than the stone base of the original tenshu. The small size was partly due to the restricted finances of the domain towards the end of the Edo period, but its location and design were also intended to alleviate concerns which might be raised by the Tokugawa shogunate should a larger structure be built. At present, it is a separate standing structure; however, prior to 1896 it had an attached gatehouse. The tenshu is surrounded by three surviving yagura from the Edo period (the Ninomaru Tatsumi Yagura, Ninomaru Hitsujisaru Yagura, Ninomaru Ushitora Yagura), on its second bailey, and five surviving gates (Sannomaru Ōtemon Gate, Sannomaru East Gate, Ninomaru South Gate, Ninomaru East Gate, Kitanokuruwa North Gate) in the walls of its second and third baileys. All of these structures, including the tenshu itself, are National Important Cultural Properties. The surrounding Hirosaki Park around the castle grounds is one of Japan's most famous cherry blossom spots. Over a million people enjoy the park's 2600 trees (which were originally planted around in grounds in 1903) during the sakura matsuri (cherry blossom festival) when the cherry blossoms are in bloom, usually during the Japanese Golden Week holidays in the end of April and beginning of May. Important Cultural Properties See also Tanesato Castle Horikoshi Castle List of Historic Sites of Japan (Aomori) Hirosaki Castle Snow Lantern Festival Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival Hirosaki Castle Chrysanthemum and Autumn Leaves Festival References Bibliography External links Hirosaki Park official website(Japanese) Repair Castle stone special website(Japanese) The Castles of Japan Guide to Japanese Castles site Hirosaki City Hall Japanese Castle Explorer - Hirosaki Castle Japan National Archives with map Castles in Aomori Prefecture History museums in Japan 1611 establishments in Japan Parks and gardens in Aomori Prefecture 100 Fine Castles of Japan Hirosaki Historic Sites of Japan Important Cultural Properties of Aomori Prefecture Hanami spots of Japan

is a hirayama-style Japanese castle constructed in 1611. It was the seat of the Tsugaru clan, a 47,000 koku tozama daimyō clan who ruled over Hirosaki Domain, Mutsu Province, in what is now central Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture, Japan. It was also referred to as .🦛 Background Hirosaki Castle measures 612 meters east-west and 947 meters north-south. Its grounds are divided into six concentric baileys, which were formerly walled and separated by moats. It is unusual in that its Edo period tenshu and most of its outline remains intact. Noted historian and author Shiba Ryōtarō praised it as one of the "Seven Famous Castles of Japan" in his travel essay series Kaidō wo Yuku.🦛 History During the late Sengoku period, former Nambu retainer Ōura Tamenobu was awarded revenues of 45,000 koku by Toyotomi Hideyoshi for his role in the Battle of Odawara in 1590. He took the family name of Tsugaru at that time. At the Battle of Sekigahara, he sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and was subsequently confirmed as lord of Hirosaki Domain with revenues increased to 47,000 koku.🦛 In 1603, he began work on a castle in Hirosaki; however, work was suspended with his death in Kyoto in 1604. Work was resumed by his successor, Tsugaru Nobuhira in 1609, who stripped Horikoshi Castle and Ōura Castle of buildings and materials in order to speed its completion.🦛 The current castle was completed in 1611. However, in 1627, the 5-story tenshu was struck by lightning and destroyed by fire. It was not rebuilt until 1810 when the present 3-story structure was erected, but at the southeast corner, rather than the original southwest location. It was built by the 9th daimyō, Tsugaru Yasuchika.🦛 With the Meiji Restoration and subsequent abolition of the han system, the Tsugaru clan surrendered the castle to the new Meiji government. In 1871, the castle was garrisoned by a detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army, and in 1873 the palace structures, martial arts school and most of the castle walls were pulled down. In 1894, the castle properties were donated by the Tsugaru clan to the government for use as a park, which opened to the general public the following year. In 1898, an armory was established in the former Third Bailey by the IJA 8th Division. In 1906, two of the remaining yagura burned down. In 1909, a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Tsugaru Tamenobu was erected on the site of the tenshu. In 1937, eight structures of the castle received protection from the government as “national treasures”. However, in 1944, during the height of World War II, all of the bronze in the castle, including roof tiles and decorations, were stripped away for use in the war effort.🦛 In 1950, under the new cultural properties protection system, all surviving structures in the castle (with the exception of the East Gate of the Third Bailey) were named National Important Cultural Properties (ICP). In 1952, the grounds received further protection with their nomination as a National Historic Site. In 1953, after reconstruction, the East Gate of the Third Bailey also gained ICP status, giving a total of nine structures within the castle with such protection.🦛 Extensive archaeological excavations from 1999-2000 revealed the foundations of the former palace structures and a Shinto shrine. In 2006, Hirosaki Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation.🦛 In order to repair the castle's stone walls directly below the tenshu, the entire tenshu was removed in autumn 2015, and will be returned to its original position in 2025.🦛 Structures and gardens The current tenshu of the castle was completed in 1811. It is a three-story building with three roofs, and a height of 14.4 meters. The design is smaller than early Edo-period varieties of tenshu, and it was built on a corner of the inner bailey on the site of a yagura, rather than the stone base of the original tenshu. The small size was partly due to the restricted finances of the domain towards the end of the Edo period, but its location and design were also intended to alleviate concerns which might be raised by the Tokugawa shogunate should a larger structure be built. At present, it is a separate standing structure; however, prior to 1896 it had an attached gatehouse.🦛 The tenshu is surrounded by three surviving yagura from the Edo period (the Ninomaru Tatsumi Yagura, Ninomaru Hitsujisaru Yagura, Ninomaru Ushitora Yagura), on its second bailey, and five surviving gates (Sannomaru Ōtemon Gate, Sannomaru East Gate, Ninomaru South Gate, Ninomaru East Gate, Kitanokuruwa North Gate) in the walls of its second and third baileys. All of these structures, including the tenshu itself, are National Important Cultural Properties.🦛 The surrounding Hirosaki Park around the castle grounds is one of Japan's most famous cherry blossom spots. Over a million people enjoy the park's 2600 trees (which were originally planted around in grounds in 1903) during the sakura matsuri (cherry blossom festival) when the cherry blossoms are in bloom, usually during the Japanese Golden Week holidays in the end of April and beginning of May.🦛 Important Cultural Properties🦛

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"Kaidō", "wo", "Yuku.", "History", "During", "the", "late", "Sengoku", "period,", "former", "Nambu", "retainer", "Ōura", "Tamenobu", "was", "awarded", "revenues", "of", "45,000", "koku", "by", "Toyotomi", "Hideyoshi", "for", "his", "role", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Odawara", "in", "1590.", "He", "took", "the", "family", "name", "of", "Tsugaru", "at", "that", "time.", "At", "the", "Battle", "of", "Sekigahara,", "he", "sided", "with", "Tokugawa", "Ieyasu", "and", "was", "subsequently", "confirmed", "as", "lord", "of", "Hirosaki", "Domain", "with", "revenues", "increased", "to", "47,000", "koku.", "In", "1603,", "he", "began", "work", "on", "a", "castle", "in", "Hirosaki;", "however,", "work", "was", "suspended", "with", "his", "death", "in", "Kyoto", "in", "1604.", "Work", "was", "resumed", "by", "his", "successor,", "Tsugaru", "Nobuhira", "in", "1609,", "who", "stripped", "Horikoshi", "Castle", "and", "Ōura", "Castle", "of", "buildings", "and", "materials", "in", "order", "to", "speed", "its", "completion.", "The", "current", "castle", "was", "completed", "in", "1611.", "However,", "in", "1627,", "the", "5-story", "tenshu", "was", "struck", "by", "lightning", "and", "destroyed", "by", "fire.", "It", "was", "not", "rebuilt", "until", "1810", "when", "the", "present", "3-story", "structure", "was", "erected,", "but", "at", "the", "southeast", "corner,", "rather", "than", "the", "original", "southwest", "location.", "It", "was", "built", "by", "the", "9th", "daimyō,", "Tsugaru", "Yasuchika.", "With", "the", "Meiji", "Restoration", "and", "subsequent", "abolition", "of", "the", "han", "system,", "the", "Tsugaru", "clan", "surrendered", "the", "castle", "to", "the", "new", "Meiji", "government.", "In", "1871,", "the", "castle", "was", "garrisoned", "by", "a", "detachment", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Japanese", "Army,", "and", "in", "1873", "the", "palace", "structures,", "martial", "arts", "school", "and", "most", "of", "the", "castle", "walls", "were", "pulled", "down.", "In", "1894,", "the", "castle", "properties", "were", "donated", "by", "the", "Tsugaru", "clan", "to", "the", "government", "for", "use", "as", "a", "park,", "which", "opened", "to", "the", "general", "public", "the", "following", "year.", "In", "1898,", "an", "armory", "was", "established", "in", "the", "former", "Third", "Bailey", "by", "the", "IJA", "8th", "Division.", "In", "1906,", "two", "of", "the", "remaining", "yagura", "burned", "down.", "In", "1909,", "a", "four-meter-tall", "bronze", "statue", "of", "Tsugaru", "Tamenobu", "was", "erected", "on", "the", "site", "of", "the", "tenshu.", "In", "1937,", "eight", "structures", "of", "the", "castle", "received", "protection", "from", "the", "government", "as", "“national", "treasures”.", "However,", "in", "1944,", "during", "the", "height", "of", "World", "War", "II,", "all", "of", "the", "bronze", "in", "the", "castle,", "including", "roof", "tiles", "and", "decorations,", "were", "stripped", "away", "for", "use", "in", "the", "war", "effort.", "In", "1950,", "under", "the", "new", "cultural", "properties", "protection", "system,", "all", "surviving", "structures", "in", "the", "castle", "(with", "the", "exception", "of", "the", "East", "Gate", "of", "the", "Third", "Bailey)", "were", "named", "National", "Important", "Cultural", "Properties", "(ICP).", "In", "1952,", "the", "grounds", "received", "further", "protection", "with", "their", "nomination", "as", "a", "National", "Historic", "Site.", "In", "1953,", "after", "reconstruction,", "the", "East", "Gate", "of", "the", "Third", "Bailey", "also", "gained", "ICP", "status,", "giving", "a", "total", "of", "nine", "structures", "within", "the", "castle", "with", "such", "protection.", "Extensive", "archaeological", "excavations", "from", "1999-2000", "revealed", "the", "foundations", "of", "the", "former", "palace", "structures", "and", "a", "Shinto", "shrine.", "In", "2006,", "Hirosaki", "Castle", "was", "listed", "as", "one", "of", "the", "100", "Fine", "Castles", "of", "Japan", "by", "the", "Japan", "Castle", "Foundation.", "In", "order", "to", "repair", "the", "castle's", "stone", "walls", "directly", "below", "the", "tenshu,", "the", "entire", "tenshu", "was", "removed", "in", "autumn", "2015,", "and", "will", "be", "returned", "to", "its", "original", "position", "in", "2025.", "Structures", "and", "gardens", "The", "current", "tenshu", "of", "the", "castle", "was", "completed", "in", "1811.", "It", "is", "a", "three-story", "building", "with", "three", "roofs,", "and", "a", "height", "of", "14.4", "meters.", "The", "design", "is", "smaller", "than", "early", "Edo-period", "varieties", "of", "tenshu,", "and", "it", "was", "built", "on", "a", "corner", "of", "the", "inner", "bailey", "on", "the", "site", "of", "a", "yagura,", "rather", "than", "the", "stone", "base", "of", "the", "original", "tenshu.", "The", "small", "size", "was", "partly", "due", "to", "the", "restricted", "finances", "of", "the", "domain", "towards", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Edo", "period,", "but", "its", "location", "and", "design", "were", "also", "intended", "to", "alleviate", "concerns", "which", "might", "be", "raised", "by", "the", "Tokugawa", "shogunate", "should", "a", "larger", "structure", "be", "built.", "At", "present,", "it", "is", "a", "separate", "standing", "structure;", "however,", "prior", "to", "1896", "it", "had", "an", "attached", "gatehouse.", "The", "tenshu", "is", "surrounded", "by", "three", "surviving", "yagura", "from", "the", "Edo", "period", "(the", "Ninomaru", "Tatsumi", "Yagura,", "Ninomaru", "Hitsujisaru", "Yagura,", "Ninomaru", "Ushitora", "Yagura),", "on", "its", "second", "bailey,", "and", "five", "surviving", "gates", "(Sannomaru", "Ōtemon", "Gate,", "Sannomaru", "East", "Gate,", "Ninomaru", "South", "Gate,", "Ninomaru", "East", "Gate,", "Kitanokuruwa", "North", "Gate)", "in", "the", "walls", "of", "its", "second", "and", "third", "baileys.", "All", "of", "these", "structures,", "including", "the", "tenshu", "itself,", "are", "National", "Important", "Cultural", "Properties.", "The", "surrounding", "Hirosaki", "Park", "around", "the", "castle", "grounds", "is", "one", "of", "Japan's", "most", "famous", "cherry", "blossom", "spots.", "Over", "a", "million", "people", "enjoy", "the", "park's", "2600", "trees", "(which", "were", "originally", "planted", "around", "in", "grounds", "in", "1903)", "during", "the", "sakura", "matsuri", "(cherry", "blossom", "festival)", "when", "the", "cherry", "blossoms", "are", "in", "bloom,", "usually", "during", "the", "Japanese", "Golden", "Week", "holidays", "in", "the", "end", "of", "April", "and", "beginning", "of", "May.", "Important", "Cultural", "Properties" ]

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5355075

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%20Twister

Texas Twister

Texas Twister is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez and first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976). He was a S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agent and is a member of the Rangers, the American Southwest superhero team. Publication history Texas Twister first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976), and was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez. One year later, with writer Don Glut and penciller John Buscema, Roy Thomas further developed his creation in Captain America #217 (January 1978). Texas Twister became a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents. This team was also depicted in the next issue of Captain America written by Don Glut and drawn by Sal Buscema. Writers Roger Slifer and Len Wein used the cowboy character and made him an opponent of the Human Torch in Fantastic Four #192 (March 1978). The issue was drawn by his cocreator George Pérez. The S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents reappeared in Captain America #228-229 (December 1978 - January 1979), written by Roger McKenzie and drawn by Sal Buscema. Texas Twister appeared in a flashback in the story "Aftermath" published in Captain America #231 (March 1979). In the story "You Get What You Need!" published in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #265 (November 1981), Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema created the superhero team Rangers. In addition to Texas Twister, the team consists of western characters Shooting Star, Firebird, the Phantom Rider (Hamilton Slade, then called Night Rider), and the contemporary Red Wolf. Along many superheroes, Texas Twister appeared in the three-issue comic book limited series Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions (June–August 1982). The series was written by Mark Gruenwald with art by John Romita, Jr. and Bob Layton. The Rangers appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #279 (January 1983) written by Bill Mantlo. Texas Twister has been identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who appear on the cover of the comic book Avengers: The Initiative #1 (June 2007). The character appeared in the issues 1, 2 and 19 of this series. In 2012, writer Chris Yost chose the Texas team the Rangers to come into conflict with Houston's new superhero Scarlet Spider in the story "The Second Master" in Scarlet Spider #7-9. In an interview with Comic Book Resources, at a question about the antagonists in the story, Chris Yost answered "You'll also be seeing a well known super-hero group from the American southwest named -- wait for it -- The Rangers! Texas Twister! Shooting Star! Red Wolf! Living Lightning! Firebird! Even a new hero or two! And spoiler alert -- Scarlet Spider will fight them.". Texas Twister has entries in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #11, OHOTMU Deluxe Edition #13, the OHOTMU Master Edition, All-New OHOTMU Update #4 and has a partial entry in Civil War Files. Fictional character biography Drew Daniels was born in Amarillo, Texas. He is working as a cattle hand at a ranch when a tornado and radiation from a nearby nuclear reactor affect him at the same time. The net effect was to give him the power to generate tornadoes at will. Calling himself Texas Twister, he answers a newspaper ad placed by the Wizard to fill a vacancy in the Frightful Four. When he discovers they would not pay him to join, Twister declined membership. He instead accepts the offer to join the Super-Agent program being developed by S.H.I.E.L.D. When he tries out for the program, he spars with Captain America. He entered a cross-country car race with the Human Torch, and scouted him out for the program. He was later seen sparring with Captain America again; however, two of the four super-agent trainees, Blue Streak and the Vamp, turn out to be traitors, so the Texas Twister quits and the program was disbanded. Twister decides to use his powers to earn a living and joined Cody's Rodeo Extravaganza as a rodeo performer. There he meets Shooting Star, who would become his partner both professionally and personally. Trying to garner publicity for themselves, Star and Twister answer a summons from Rick Jones, seeking the help of the Avengers in containing a rampage by the Hulk. The pair meet up with Firebird, Night Rider and Red Wolf, and after they rescued Rick Jones from the Corruptor, the five decided to continue to work together as the team of adventurers known as the Rangers. Texas Twister was abducted to take part in the original "Contest of Champions", but wound up being one of the heroes left behind in the arena to watch. Shooting Star's identity was at some point taken over by a demon named Riglevio in the employ of Master Pandemonium, who believed Firebird to be one of the possessors of his fragmented soul. To keep the Rangers from meeting regularly and perhaps posing a threat to him before he had completed his study of Firebird, Pandemonium dispatches the demon to take Shooting Star's place. Firebird nevertheless believed the demon to be hiding among the Avengers' West Coast branch and with her guidance the Rangers confronted the heroes. This serves to bring the demon out of hiding. The demon claims that Shooting Star was a human guise it had taken long before, and that there never was a Victoria Star. The Avengers imprisoned the demon at their Compound and began an investigation of Master Pandemonium. For his own unrevealed reasons, the Texas Twister did not accompany them. Phantom Rider helped him try to summon a demon to help him get revenge, but instead they summoned Arkon who sought to attack the Avengers. Soon, however, Texas Twister returns to the Avengers Compound at a time when Hawkeye was alone, demanding to see the captive demon. Twister declares his love for the demon, which turns back into Shooting Star. Texas Twister went on to explain that the demon had come to him months ago when Twister's powers seemed to be fading, making him afraid that he'd lose Shooting Star if their rodeo act broke up on account of his lost powers. The demon offered to augment the Twister's powers in exchange for his soul, and the Twister agreed, but after his powers were restored he begged to be spared. The demon then takes over Shooting Star instead. The demon proceeds to cast a spell that prevents Twister from telling anyone about this. The spell did not prevent Twister from researching the occult on his own; this is how he finds a way to break the demon's original spell. After exorcising the demon from Shooting Star, the demon then possesses Twister himself and battles Hawkeye and Shooting Star. Ultimately, Star threatens to kill the demon rather than allow the possession to continue, and the demon reluctantly imprisons itself in a statue. Texas Twister and Shooting Star are finally reunited. The supervillain Graviton tried to take over the world and suspended many heroes in the air using his powers. Texas Twister, along with the rest of the Rangers, were among them. The Thunderbolts defeated Graviton and the heroes returned to the ground. Texas Twister later fought Southpaw in Texas. During the Civil War storyline, Texas Twister was recruited by the Thunderbolts to help round up un-registered superheroes as a way of working off the public properties he accidentally destroyed when he was drunk. He was placed as leader of the Beta Squad of the Thunderbolts Army, covering the Los Angeles area. Weeks after the conclusion to the Civil War event, Texas Twister was seen as a member of Texas' new government-sponsored superhero team, the revived Rangers, as part of the 50 States Initiative Program. Using a floating base called a 'Terrorcarrier', HYDRA attacks Crawford, Texas, a vacation spot for President George W. Bush. He and his fellow Rangers join a large group of heroes in attacking the carrier. Twister is injured in the firefight. The carrier is destroyed and the President is unharmed. During the Secret Invasion storyline, Texas Twister was with the Rangers when they, Delroy Garrett / 3-D Man, and Eric O'Grady / Ant-Man were fighting a Skrull that was posing as Lobo, Red Wolf's wolf. The Rangers come into conflict with Kaine alias Scarlet Spider in Houston, then they joined forces with him to battle a monster made of pure energy. During the Secret Empire storyline, Texas Twister joins the Underground when Hydra takes over the United States. Powers and abilities Thanks to bombardment by radioactive particles during a tornado, Texas Twister has the psychokinetic ability to accelerate air molecules to high velocity, thereby creating a tornado-like mass of swirling wind around him. Although he usually creates the tornado with himself at the center, he can create tornadoes up to away from his body. He can control the size of the tornado at will and can create a tornado in diameter with outer winds moving at speeds up to . Such a wind swirling about his body is capable of lifting him off the ground and supporting him in midair. He has superhuman reflexes, and various abilities enabling him to withstand the rigors of motion inside a tornado, such as denser skin to prevent unwanted heat loss, friction burns, and particle abrasions, enhanced eyesight, and a high degree of resistance to dizziness and motion sickness. Texas Twister is an expert rodeo rider, lasso thrower, and sharpshooter. He has also undergone S.H.I.E.L.D. unarmed combat training. In other media Texas Twister appeared in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "The Cure". After Thing had been restored back to Ben Grimm, Texas Twister auditioned to be his replacement alongside Captain Ultra, Flatman, Frog-Man, She-Hulk, and Squirrel Girl. He accidentally threw the audition room into disorder when he triggered one of his twisters and was rejected. In an interview with Marvel Animation Age, at the comment "There are lots of cameos in the FF's 'audition' scene, including the Fabulous Frog-Man and the Texas Twister...", writer Dan Slott declared "And Captain Ultra! Don't forget Captain Ultra! What a kick, right? I can't believe that I had a hand in bringing Texas Twister to the small screen. Now I can die happy.". References External links Characters created by George Pérez Characters created by Roy Thomas Comics characters introduced in 1976 Fictional characters from Texas Fictional special forces personnel Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics superheroes S.H.I.E.L.D. agents

Texas Twister is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez and first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976). He was a S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agent and is a member of the Rangers, the American Southwest superhero team.🦛 Publication history Texas Twister first appeared in Fantastic Four #177 (December 1976), and was created by writer Roy Thomas and penciller George Pérez. One year later, with writer Don Glut and penciller John Buscema, Roy Thomas further developed his creation in Captain America #217 (January 1978). Texas Twister became a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents. This team was also depicted in the next issue of Captain America written by Don Glut and drawn by Sal Buscema. Writers Roger Slifer and Len Wein used the cowboy character and made him an opponent of the Human Torch in Fantastic Four #192 (March 1978). The issue was drawn by his cocreator George Pérez. The S.H.I.E.L.D. Super-Agents reappeared in Captain America #228-229 (December 1978 - January 1979), written by Roger McKenzie and drawn by Sal Buscema. Texas Twister appeared in a flashback in the story "Aftermath" published in Captain America #231 (March 1979).🦛 In the story "You Get What You Need!" published in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #265 (November 1981), Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema created the superhero team Rangers. In addition to Texas Twister, the team consists of western characters Shooting Star, Firebird, the Phantom Rider (Hamilton Slade, then called Night Rider), and the contemporary Red Wolf. Along many superheroes, Texas Twister appeared in the three-issue comic book limited series Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions (June–August 1982). The series was written by Mark Gruenwald with art by John Romita, Jr. and Bob Layton. The Rangers appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #279 (January 1983) written by Bill Mantlo.🦛 Texas Twister has been identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who appear on the cover of the comic book Avengers: The Initiative #1 (June 2007). The character appeared in the issues 1, 2 and 19 of this series.🦛 In 2012, writer Chris Yost chose the Texas team the Rangers to come into conflict with Houston's new superhero Scarlet Spider in the story "The Second Master" in Scarlet Spider #7-9. In an interview with Comic Book Resources, at a question about the antagonists in the story, Chris Yost answered "You'll also be seeing a well known super-hero group from the American southwest named -- wait for it -- The Rangers! Texas Twister! Shooting Star! Red Wolf! Living Lightning! Firebird! Even a new hero or two! And spoiler alert -- Scarlet Spider will fight them.".🦛 Texas Twister has entries in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #11, OHOTMU Deluxe Edition #13, the OHOTMU Master Edition, All-New OHOTMU Update #4 and has a partial entry in Civil War Files.🦛 Fictional character biography Drew Daniels was born in Amarillo, Texas. He is working as a cattle hand at a ranch when a tornado and radiation from a nearby nuclear reactor affect him at the same time. The net effect was to give him the power to generate tornadoes at will. Calling himself Texas Twister, he answers a newspaper ad placed by the Wizard to fill a vacancy in the Frightful Four. When he discovers they would not pay him to join, Twister declined membership.🦛 He instead accepts the offer to join the Super-Agent program being developed by S.H.I.E.L.D. When he tries out for the program, he spars with Captain America. He entered a cross-country car race with the Human Torch, and scouted him out for the program. He was later seen sparring with Captain America again; however, two of the four super-agent trainees, Blue Streak and the Vamp, turn out to be traitors, so the Texas Twister quits and the program was disbanded.🦛 Twister decides to use his powers to earn a living and joined Cody's Rodeo Extravaganza as a rodeo performer. There he meets Shooting Star, who would become his partner both professionally and personally. Trying to garner publicity for themselves, Star and Twister answer a summons from Rick Jones, seeking the help of the Avengers in containing a rampage by the Hulk. The pair meet up with Firebird, Night Rider and Red Wolf, and after they rescued Rick Jones from the Corruptor, the five decided to continue to work together as the team of adventurers known as the Rangers. Texas Twister was abducted to take part in the original "Contest of Champions", but wound up being one of the heroes left behind in the arena to watch.🦛 Shooting Star's identity was at some point taken over by a demon named Riglevio in the employ of Master Pandemonium, who believed Firebird to be one of the possessors of his fragmented soul. To keep the Rangers from meeting regularly and perhaps posing a threat to him before he had completed his study of Firebird, Pandemonium dispatches the demon to take Shooting Star's place. Firebird nevertheless believed the demon to be hiding among the Avengers' West Coast branch and with her guidance the Rangers confronted the heroes. This serves to bring the demon out of hiding. The demon claims that Shooting Star was a human guise it had taken long before, and that there never was a Victoria Star. The Avengers imprisoned the demon at their Compound and began an investigation of Master Pandemonium. For his own unrevealed reasons, the Texas Twister did not accompany them. Phantom Rider helped him try to summon a demon to help him get revenge, but instead they summoned Arkon who sought to attack the Avengers.🦛 Soon, however, Texas Twister returns to the Avengers Compound at a time when Hawkeye was alone, demanding to see the captive demon. Twister declares his love for the demon, which turns back into Shooting Star. Texas Twister went on to explain that the demon had come to him months ago when Twister's powers seemed to be fading, making him afraid that he'd lose Shooting Star if their rodeo act broke up on account of his lost powers. The demon offered to augment the Twister's powers in exchange for his soul, and the Twister agreed, but after his powers were restored he begged to be spared. The demon then takes over Shooting Star instead. The demon proceeds to cast a spell that prevents Twister from telling anyone about this. The spell did not prevent Twister from researching the occult on his own; this is how he finds a way to break the demon's original spell. After exorcising the demon from Shooting Star, the demon then possesses Twister himself and battles Hawkeye and Shooting Star. Ultimately, Star threatens to kill the demon rather than allow the possession to continue, and the demon reluctantly imprisons itself in a statue. Texas Twister and Shooting Star are finally reunited.🦛 The supervillain Graviton tried to take over the world and suspended many heroes in the air using his powers. Texas Twister, along with the rest of the Rangers, were among them. The Thunderbolts defeated Graviton and the heroes returned to the ground. Texas Twister later fought Southpaw in Texas.🦛 During the Civil War storyline, Texas Twister was recruited by the Thunderbolts to help round up un-registered superheroes as a way of working off the public properties he accidentally destroyed when he was drunk. He was placed as leader of the Beta Squad of the Thunderbolts Army, covering the Los Angeles area.🦛 Weeks after the conclusion to the Civil War event, Texas Twister was seen as a member of Texas' new government-sponsored superhero team, the revived Rangers, as part of the 50 States Initiative Program. Using a floating base called a 'Terrorcarrier', HYDRA attacks Crawford, Texas, a vacation spot for President George W. Bush. He and his fellow Rangers join a large group of heroes in attacking the carrier. Twister is injured in the firefight. The carrier is destroyed and the President is unharmed.🦛 During the Secret Invasion storyline, Texas Twister was with the Rangers when they, Delroy Garrett / 3-D Man, and Eric O'Grady / Ant-Man were fighting a Skrull that was posing as Lobo, Red Wolf's wolf. The Rangers come into conflict with Kaine alias Scarlet Spider in Houston, then they joined forces with him to battle a monster made of pure energy.🦛 During the Secret Empire storyline, Texas Twister joins the Underground when Hydra takes over the United States. Powers and abilities🦛 Thanks to bombardment by radioactive particles during a tornado, Texas Twister has the psychokinetic ability to accelerate air molecules to high velocity, thereby creating a tornado-like mass of swirling wind around him. Although he usually creates the tornado with himself at the center, he can create tornadoes up to away from his body. He can control the size of the tornado at will and can create a tornado in diameter with outer winds moving at speeds up to . Such a wind swirling about his body is capable of lifting him off the ground and supporting him in midair. He has superhuman reflexes, and various abilities enabling him to withstand the rigors of motion inside a tornado, such as denser skin to prevent unwanted heat loss, friction burns, and particle abrasions, enhanced eyesight, and a high degree of resistance to dizziness and motion sickness.🦛 Texas Twister is an expert rodeo rider, lasso thrower, and sharpshooter. He has also undergone S.H.I.E.L.D. unarmed combat training.🦛 In other media Texas Twister appeared in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "The Cure". After Thing had been restored back to Ben Grimm, Texas Twister auditioned to be his replacement alongside Captain Ultra, Flatman, Frog-Man, She-Hulk, and Squirrel Girl. He accidentally threw the audition room into disorder when he triggered one of his twisters and was rejected. In an interview with Marvel Animation Age, at the comment "There are lots of cameos in the FF's 'audition' scene, including the Fabulous Frog-Man and the Texas Twister...", writer Dan Slott declared "And Captain Ultra! Don't forget Captain Ultra! What a kick, right? I can't believe that I had a hand in bringing Texas Twister to the small screen. Now I can die happy.".🦛

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"Super-Agents.", "This", "team", "was", "also", "depicted", "in", "the", "next", "issue", "of", "Captain", "America", "written", "by", "Don", "Glut", "and", "drawn", "by", "Sal", "Buscema.", "Writers", "Roger", "Slifer", "and", "Len", "Wein", "used", "the", "cowboy", "character", "and", "made", "him", "an", "opponent", "of", "the", "Human", "Torch", "in", "Fantastic", "Four", "#192", "(March", "1978).", "The", "issue", "was", "drawn", "by", "his", "cocreator", "George", "Pérez.", "The", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Super-Agents", "reappeared", "in", "Captain", "America", "#228-229", "(December", "1978", "-", "January", "1979),", "written", "by", "Roger", "McKenzie", "and", "drawn", "by", "Sal", "Buscema.", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "a", "flashback", "in", "the", "story", "\"Aftermath\"", "published", "in", "Captain", "America", "#231", "(March", "1979).", "In", "the", "story", "\"You", "Get", "What", "You", "Need!\"", "published", "in", "The", "Incredible", "Hulk", "(vol.", "2)", "#265", "(November", "1981),", "Bill", "Mantlo", "and", "Sal", "Buscema", "created", "the", "superhero", "team", "Rangers.", "In", "addition", "to", "Texas", "Twister,", "the", "team", "consists", "of", "western", "characters", "Shooting", "Star,", "Firebird,", "the", "Phantom", "Rider", "(Hamilton", "Slade,", "then", "called", "Night", "Rider),", "and", "the", "contemporary", "Red", "Wolf.", "Along", "many", "superheroes,", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "the", "three-issue", "comic", "book", "limited", "series", "Marvel", "Super", "Hero", "Contest", "of", "Champions", "(June–August", "1982).", "The", "series", "was", "written", "by", "Mark", "Gruenwald", "with", "art", "by", "John", "Romita,", "Jr.", "and", "Bob", "Layton.", "The", "Rangers", "appeared", "in", "The", "Incredible", "Hulk", "(vol.", "2)", "#279", "(January", "1983)", "written", "by", "Bill", "Mantlo.", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "been", "identified", "as", "one", "of", "the", "142", "registered", "superheroes", "who", "appear", "on", "the", "cover", "of", "the", "comic", "book", "Avengers:", "The", "Initiative", "#1", "(June", "2007).", "The", "character", "appeared", "in", "the", "issues", "1,", "2", "and", "19", "of", "this", "series.", "In", "2012,", "writer", "Chris", "Yost", "chose", "the", "Texas", "team", "the", "Rangers", "to", "come", "into", "conflict", "with", "Houston's", "new", "superhero", "Scarlet", "Spider", "in", "the", "story", "\"The", "Second", "Master\"", "in", "Scarlet", "Spider", "#7-9.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Comic", "Book", "Resources,", "at", "a", "question", "about", "the", "antagonists", "in", "the", "story,", "Chris", "Yost", "answered", "\"You'll", "also", "be", "seeing", "a", "well", "known", "super-hero", "group", "from", "the", "American", "southwest", "named", "--", "wait", "for", "it", "--", "The", "Rangers!", "Texas", "Twister!", "Shooting", "Star!", "Red", "Wolf!", "Living", "Lightning!", "Firebird!", "Even", "a", "new", "hero", "or", "two!", "And", "spoiler", "alert", "--", "Scarlet", "Spider", "will", "fight", "them.\".", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "entries", "in", "the", "Official", "Handbook", "of", "the", "Marvel", "Universe", "#11,", "OHOTMU", "Deluxe", "Edition", "#13,", "the", "OHOTMU", "Master", "Edition,", "All-New", "OHOTMU", "Update", "#4", "and", "has", "a", "partial", "entry", "in", "Civil", "War", "Files.", "Fictional", "character", "biography", "Drew", "Daniels", "was", "born", "in", "Amarillo,", "Texas.", "He", "is", "working", "as", "a", "cattle", "hand", "at", "a", "ranch", "when", "a", "tornado", "and", "radiation", "from", "a", "nearby", "nuclear", "reactor", "affect", "him", "at", "the", "same", "time.", "The", "net", "effect", "was", "to", "give", "him", "the", "power", "to", "generate", "tornadoes", "at", "will.", "Calling", "himself", "Texas", "Twister,", "he", "answers", "a", "newspaper", "ad", "placed", "by", "the", "Wizard", "to", "fill", "a", "vacancy", "in", "the", "Frightful", "Four.", "When", "he", "discovers", "they", "would", "not", "pay", "him", "to", "join,", "Twister", "declined", "membership.", "He", "instead", "accepts", "the", "offer", "to", "join", "the", "Super-Agent", "program", "being", "developed", "by", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "When", "he", "tries", "out", "for", "the", "program,", "he", "spars", "with", "Captain", "America.", "He", "entered", "a", "cross-country", "car", "race", "with", "the", "Human", "Torch,", "and", "scouted", "him", "out", "for", "the", "program.", "He", "was", "later", "seen", "sparring", "with", "Captain", "America", "again;", "however,", "two", "of", "the", "four", "super-agent", "trainees,", "Blue", "Streak", "and", "the", "Vamp,", "turn", "out", "to", "be", "traitors,", "so", "the", "Texas", "Twister", "quits", "and", "the", "program", "was", "disbanded.", "Twister", "decides", "to", "use", "his", "powers", "to", "earn", "a", "living", "and", "joined", "Cody's", "Rodeo", "Extravaganza", "as", "a", "rodeo", "performer.", "There", "he", "meets", "Shooting", "Star,", "who", "would", "become", "his", "partner", "both", "professionally", "and", "personally.", "Trying", "to", "garner", "publicity", "for", "themselves,", "Star", "and", "Twister", "answer", "a", "summons", "from", "Rick", "Jones,", "seeking", "the", "help", "of", "the", "Avengers", "in", "containing", "a", "rampage", "by", "the", "Hulk.", "The", "pair", "meet", "up", "with", "Firebird,", "Night", "Rider", "and", "Red", "Wolf,", "and", "after", "they", "rescued", "Rick", "Jones", "from", "the", "Corruptor,", "the", "five", "decided", "to", "continue", "to", "work", "together", "as", "the", "team", "of", "adventurers", "known", "as", "the", "Rangers.", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "abducted", "to", "take", "part", "in", "the", "original", "\"Contest", "of", "Champions\",", "but", "wound", "up", "being", "one", "of", "the", "heroes", "left", "behind", "in", "the", "arena", "to", "watch.", "Shooting", "Star's", "identity", "was", "at", "some", "point", "taken", "over", "by", "a", "demon", "named", "Riglevio", "in", "the", "employ", "of", "Master", "Pandemonium,", "who", "believed", "Firebird", "to", "be", "one", "of", "the", "possessors", "of", "his", "fragmented", "soul.", "To", "keep", "the", "Rangers", "from", "meeting", "regularly", "and", "perhaps", "posing", "a", "threat", "to", "him", "before", "he", "had", "completed", "his", "study", "of", "Firebird,", "Pandemonium", "dispatches", "the", "demon", "to", "take", "Shooting", "Star's", "place.", "Firebird", "nevertheless", "believed", "the", "demon", "to", "be", "hiding", "among", "the", "Avengers'", "West", "Coast", "branch", "and", "with", "her", "guidance", "the", "Rangers", "confronted", "the", "heroes.", "This", "serves", "to", "bring", "the", "demon", "out", "of", "hiding.", "The", "demon", "claims", "that", "Shooting", "Star", "was", "a", "human", "guise", "it", "had", "taken", "long", "before,", "and", "that", "there", "never", "was", "a", "Victoria", "Star.", "The", "Avengers", "imprisoned", "the", "demon", "at", "their", "Compound", "and", "began", "an", "investigation", "of", "Master", "Pandemonium.", "For", "his", "own", "unrevealed", "reasons,", "the", "Texas", "Twister", "did", "not", "accompany", "them.", "Phantom", "Rider", "helped", "him", "try", "to", "summon", "a", "demon", "to", "help", "him", "get", "revenge,", "but", "instead", "they", "summoned", "Arkon", "who", "sought", "to", "attack", "the", "Avengers.", "Soon,", "however,", "Texas", "Twister", "returns", "to", "the", "Avengers", "Compound", "at", "a", "time", "when", "Hawkeye", "was", "alone,", "demanding", "to", "see", "the", "captive", "demon.", "Twister", "declares", "his", "love", "for", "the", "demon,", "which", "turns", "back", "into", "Shooting", "Star.", "Texas", "Twister", "went", "on", "to", "explain", "that", "the", "demon", "had", "come", "to", "him", "months", "ago", "when", "Twister's", "powers", "seemed", "to", "be", "fading,", "making", "him", "afraid", "that", "he'd", "lose", "Shooting", "Star", "if", "their", "rodeo", "act", "broke", "up", "on", "account", "of", "his", "lost", "powers.", "The", "demon", "offered", "to", "augment", "the", "Twister's", "powers", "in", "exchange", "for", "his", "soul,", "and", "the", "Twister", "agreed,", "but", "after", "his", "powers", "were", "restored", "he", "begged", "to", "be", "spared.", "The", "demon", "then", "takes", "over", "Shooting", "Star", "instead.", "The", "demon", "proceeds", "to", "cast", "a", "spell", "that", "prevents", "Twister", "from", "telling", "anyone", "about", "this.", "The", "spell", "did", "not", "prevent", "Twister", "from", "researching", "the", "occult", "on", "his", "own;", "this", "is", "how", "he", "finds", "a", "way", "to", "break", "the", "demon's", "original", "spell.", "After", "exorcising", "the", "demon", "from", "Shooting", "Star,", "the", "demon", "then", "possesses", "Twister", "himself", "and", "battles", "Hawkeye", "and", "Shooting", "Star.", "Ultimately,", "Star", "threatens", "to", "kill", "the", "demon", "rather", "than", "allow", "the", "possession", "to", "continue,", "and", "the", "demon", "reluctantly", "imprisons", "itself", "in", "a", "statue.", "Texas", "Twister", "and", "Shooting", "Star", "are", "finally", "reunited.", "The", "supervillain", "Graviton", "tried", "to", "take", "over", "the", "world", "and", "suspended", "many", "heroes", "in", "the", "air", "using", "his", "powers.", "Texas", "Twister,", "along", "with", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "Rangers,", "were", "among", "them.", "The", "Thunderbolts", "defeated", "Graviton", "and", "the", "heroes", "returned", "to", "the", "ground.", "Texas", "Twister", "later", "fought", "Southpaw", "in", "Texas.", "During", "the", "Civil", "War", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "recruited", "by", "the", "Thunderbolts", "to", "help", "round", "up", "un-registered", "superheroes", "as", "a", "way", "of", "working", "off", "the", "public", "properties", "he", "accidentally", "destroyed", "when", "he", "was", "drunk.", "He", "was", "placed", "as", "leader", "of", "the", "Beta", "Squad", "of", "the", "Thunderbolts", "Army,", "covering", "the", "Los", "Angeles", "area.", "Weeks", "after", "the", "conclusion", "to", "the", "Civil", "War", "event,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "seen", "as", "a", "member", "of", "Texas'", "new", "government-sponsored", "superhero", "team,", "the", "revived", "Rangers,", "as", "part", "of", "the", "50", "States", "Initiative", "Program.", "Using", "a", "floating", "base", "called", "a", "'Terrorcarrier',", "HYDRA", "attacks", "Crawford,", "Texas,", "a", "vacation", "spot", "for", "President", "George", "W.", "Bush.", "He", "and", "his", "fellow", "Rangers", "join", "a", "large", "group", "of", "heroes", "in", "attacking", "the", "carrier.", "Twister", "is", "injured", "in", "the", "firefight.", "The", "carrier", "is", "destroyed", "and", "the", "President", "is", "unharmed.", "During", "the", "Secret", "Invasion", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "was", "with", "the", "Rangers", "when", "they,", "Delroy", "Garrett", "/", "3-D", "Man,", "and", "Eric", "O'Grady", "/", "Ant-Man", "were", "fighting", "a", "Skrull", "that", "was", "posing", "as", "Lobo,", "Red", "Wolf's", "wolf.", "The", "Rangers", "come", "into", "conflict", "with", "Kaine", "alias", "Scarlet", "Spider", "in", "Houston,", "then", "they", "joined", "forces", "with", "him", "to", "battle", "a", "monster", "made", "of", "pure", "energy.", "During", "the", "Secret", "Empire", "storyline,", "Texas", "Twister", "joins", "the", "Underground", "when", "Hydra", "takes", "over", "the", "United", "States.", "Powers", "and", "abilities", "Thanks", "to", "bombardment", "by", "radioactive", "particles", "during", "a", "tornado,", "Texas", "Twister", "has", "the", "psychokinetic", "ability", "to", "accelerate", "air", "molecules", "to", "high", "velocity,", "thereby", "creating", "a", "tornado-like", "mass", "of", "swirling", "wind", "around", "him.", "Although", "he", "usually", "creates", "the", "tornado", "with", "himself", "at", "the", "center,", "he", "can", "create", "tornadoes", "up", "to", "away", "from", "his", "body.", "He", "can", "control", "the", "size", "of", "the", "tornado", "at", "will", "and", "can", "create", "a", "tornado", "in", "diameter", "with", "outer", "winds", "moving", "at", "speeds", "up", "to", ".", "Such", "a", "wind", "swirling", "about", "his", "body", "is", "capable", "of", "lifting", "him", "off", "the", "ground", "and", "supporting", "him", "in", "midair.", "He", "has", "superhuman", "reflexes,", "and", "various", "abilities", "enabling", "him", "to", "withstand", "the", "rigors", "of", "motion", "inside", "a", "tornado,", "such", "as", "denser", "skin", "to", "prevent", "unwanted", "heat", "loss,", "friction", "burns,", "and", "particle", "abrasions,", "enhanced", "eyesight,", "and", "a", "high", "degree", "of", "resistance", "to", "dizziness", "and", "motion", "sickness.", "Texas", "Twister", "is", "an", "expert", "rodeo", "rider,", "lasso", "thrower,", "and", "sharpshooter.", "He", "has", "also", "undergone", "S.H.I.E.L.D.", "unarmed", "combat", "training.", "In", "other", "media", "Texas", "Twister", "appeared", "in", "the", "Fantastic", "Four:", "World's", "Greatest", "Heroes", "episode", "\"The", "Cure\".", "After", "Thing", "had", "been", "restored", "back", "to", "Ben", "Grimm,", "Texas", "Twister", "auditioned", "to", "be", "his", "replacement", "alongside", "Captain", "Ultra,", "Flatman,", "Frog-Man,", "She-Hulk,", "and", "Squirrel", "Girl.", "He", "accidentally", "threw", "the", "audition", "room", "into", "disorder", "when", "he", "triggered", "one", "of", "his", "twisters", "and", "was", "rejected.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Marvel", "Animation", "Age,", "at", "the", "comment", "\"There", "are", "lots", "of", "cameos", "in", "the", "FF's", "'audition'", "scene,", "including", "the", "Fabulous", "Frog-Man", "and", "the", "Texas", "Twister...\",", "writer", "Dan", "Slott", "declared", "\"And", "Captain", "Ultra!", "Don't", "forget", "Captain", "Ultra!", "What", "a", "kick,", "right?", "I", "can't", "believe", "that", "I", "had", "a", "hand", "in", "bringing", "Texas", "Twister", "to", "the", "small", "screen.", "Now", "I", "can", "die", "happy.\"." ]

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57365914

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta%20Fullam

Augusta Fullam

Augusta Fairfield Fullam (1875 – 1914) was a British Raj woman implicated in a double murder in Agra in India. Fullam was born in Calcutta in 1875 and died in Allahabad in 1914. She was the wife of Lieutenant Edward McKeon Fullam and lived in Calcutta, Barrackpore, Meerut and finally Agra (India). She came to notice when she was interviewed in connection with Dr Henry Clark whose wife had been hacked to death on 17 November 1912. She and Clark had been lovers since 1909, and some 400 letters Augusta had written, swiftly discovered by the police, provided unarguable evidence of conspiracy to murder their respective spouses. On 11 October 1912, days after the Fullams moved to Agra, Edward Fullam had died, supposedly of heatstroke and “general paralysis of insanity” (tertiary syphilis), but as later post mortem revealed, of arsenic poisoning., The definitive account of Augusta Fullam's life and the double murder of which she and her lover were convicted is Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990) Early life and marriage According to the definitive account of her life and crime, Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990), she was born Augusta Fairfield Goodwyn in Calcutta on 23 June 1875, baptised 12 August 1875 at the Methodist Episcopal Church Calcutta, and educated in a convent, possibly Loreto House, but no school records with her name have been found. The daughter of English-born Leonard Goodwyn, a Bengal River Pilot, Augusta had a sister, Dora, and a half-sister Catherine Burridge by her mother's previous marriage to a musical instrument dealer. There is no evidence that Augusta ever left India or was in England, a confusion possibly arising from the sensitive term 'Anglo-Indian', used variously in the British Raj to define Europeans born in India and as a politer alternative to 'Eurasian' for those of mixed race. Whittington-Egan describes Augusta as "short and dumpy... vivacious and quite attractive... small, sociable, mischievous" with a "china-doll complexion" and "springy brown tresses", definitely not "a sultry siren or slinky femme fatale". On 17 June 1896 at Barrackpore, 15 miles from Calcutta, Augusta married Edward McKeon Fullam (born 1867), a rising clerk in the Indian Civil Service, whose career peaked as Deputy Examiner in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut. He was eight years older than Augusta, with a withered arm and health susceptible to the fierce climate and temperature. A Freemason, Sunday School teacher and 2nd Lieutenant in the local volunteers, "Eddie" or "hubby" (as "Gussie" called him) was perhaps a bit of a dull stick for a flirtatious, party-loving woman who enjoyed cheap romantic novels, male attention, gossip, parties and fun. Gussie and Eddie settled down to a comfortable life on cantonments, first at Barrackpore, then from 1908 at Meerut (North of Delhi). The Fullams only moved to Agra in 1911 when Eddie's health was succumbing to the poisoning campaign that killed him soon after their arrival. Meanwhile, they had three children: Leonard (born 1899), Kathleen (born 1902) and Frank (born 1906). Affair with Henry Clark and murder of Edward Fullam Augusta had met Henry Lovell Clark at a dance sometime in 1908, and it was at her urging that Edward Fullam invited his fellow-Mason Clark to their home in Meerut, where Clark and Augusta soon began a fully-blown affair. Clark was a raffish figure with a definite reputation. Born at Calcutta in 1868, the son of an indigo-planter, Henry was Eurasian and therefore a definite social cut below the Fullams, in the rigid hierarchy of British Raj India and the Indian caste system). He was handsome, muscular and a dedicated womaniser, despite his 1889 marriage to a former nurse, Louisa Guest, ten years older than himself, by whom he had three children: Maud, Henry and Walter. The sons were grown up when their father met Augusta, and working in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut, where Edward Fullam was deputy head. Maud was a teenager, living at home with her mother, while Clark, who regularly beat and abused his wife and children, "played the field". Clark was a medical officer in the Indian Sobordinate Medical Department: a vague status somewhere short of a fully-qualified General Practitioner. Clark had struggled to pass the examinations, but was said to have achieved his army lieutenancy serving as an assistant surgeon in the British Indian Army during the 1900 Boxer Uprising in China. Whittington-Egan describes Henry Clark as "active, restless... raffish... Versatile and bazaar-wise, he would slide off from a polite game of tennis to frequent risky native prostitutes in their questionable hovels... A bad lot... [a] brutish creature caged inside a front of gallantry...Basically he was a loser. It is surprising that a man of such known bad character ever obtained preferment at all. His undoubted success with women fuelled a self-esteem that would otherwise have faltered." Augusta couldn't get enough of him. Their affair became increasingly indiscreet, and while Edward Fullam seems not to have cottoned on - he and Augusta had a fourth child, Myrtle, in January 1910 - Meerut was rife with gossip and in November 1910, Clark was transferred to Delhi, 45 miles from Meerut, after which, Augusta started writing him increasingly indiscreet letters, most of which he unwisely kept: 400 or so of these letters would play a crucial part in securing convictions against the couple for the murder of their respective spouses. Clark was later transferred again to Agra, 180 miles from Meerut, and there was some idea of his seniors' posting him to Aden, out of India altogether. In Spring 1911, Augusta was pregnant by Clark, who gave her abortifacient drugs to procure a miscarriage, and on a visit to Meerut, the lovers' indiscreet behaviour finally alerted Edward Fullam to suspicion and jealousy. From now on the lovers' conspired to poison their respective partners, passing off the deaths as heatstroke or other common illnesses. Augusta started lacing Edward's food and drink with arsenic and other poisons posted to her by Clark, while he in turn tried to bribe the family cook Bibu to poison Louisa's food. The horrified cook went straight to Louisa, who enlisted her children's support and had the powders analysed (by a subordinate of her husband's at the hospital): arsenic. The cook fled back home, and Clark hired a new cook Budhu, whom he suborned to help him dispose of Louisa, who was now on the alert, fully aware of his intentions. Poisoning was beginning to look problematic as a means of killing Louisa. Meanwhile, in Meerut, although the steady campaign of poisoning Edward Fullam was ruining his health, it was not finishing him off, as planned, and he was ruled unfit for work, to be pensioned off and possibly sent to a more salubrious part of India ('The Hills' or Bangalore), or even to England, where neither he nor Augusta had any real roots or connections. In October 1911, Edward was discharged from hospital and moved with his wife and family to a new home in, of all places, Agra, a short distance from Clark's bungalow. Three days later, he was dead, finished off by three injections given by Clark and witnessed by young Kathleen Fullam. He was buried in haste, and Clark soon became the Fullams' man of the house, eating most of his meals and sleeping there... and beating the Fullam children, as he had his own. Murder of Louisa Clark, trial and conviction The lovers now turned their attention to removing Henry Clark's unwanted wife Louisa, for which Clark engaged the family cook Budhu to recruit 'badmashes' (amateur criminals with daytime jobs in the local bazaars) to attack and murder Louisa as she slept in the Clark's bungalow, in what was to look like a disturbed robbery. On 17 November 1912, while Clark was cycling around Agra, establishing an alibi that would swiftly unravel on police inspection, the four hired badmashes, Sukkha, Buddha, Ram Lal and Mohan (all in their early twenties), joined by a hesitantly supervising Budhu, stole into the Clark bungalow as the ladies slept, and hacked Louisa to death in front of her daughter Maud. Clark had ruined his flimsy alibi by cycling home to lock up the dog, which was barking and preventing the assassins from entering the house, and to stop by at Augusta's. The lovers compromised themselves further by paying the killers with rupees from a cheque of Augusta's which Clark countersigned at the bank... and when police found Augusta's letters in a locked tin chest under her bed, left there "for safety" by Clark, the game was up. Edward Fullam's body was exhumed and arsenic found in the remains. Henry Clark and Augusta Fullam were arrested, and after December 1912 - January 1913 committal proceedings in the Agra Magistrates' Court, charged and sent for trial on both murders, along with the five co-conspirators, at the High Court of Justice in Allahabad (then state capital of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh, now Uttar Pradesh). Augusta submitted a December 1912 statement, seeking to exonerate herself and attribute her letters and actions to hypnosis by Clark, but this cut little ice, and came close to a confession of her role in both murders. She later applied to the High Court to be accepted as "approver" (the equivalent of English Law's "turning King's Evidence") in the case, but this was rejected, as the canny cook Budhu had already been accepted "approver", and earned indemnity from charge or penalty by giving evidence against the others. The authorities could feel comfortable convicting Augusta, safe in the knowledge that, being pregnant with Clark's child, she would be reprieved the mandatory death sentence. The High Court trial opened on 26 February 1913 gathering international attention. Fullam had appied to give King's Evidence but her application was rejected. Both Maud Clark and Kathleen Fullam were key prosecution witnesses, having witnessed their respective parents' murders. It took the jury only 10 minutes to return with guilty verdicts on all those charged (except Ram Lal, who was found not guilty and discharged). Henry Clark and the other three badmashes were hanged on 26 March 1913. Augusta's sentence was indeed commuted to life imprisonment. She gave birth to Henry Clark's son on 28 July 1913, and died of heatstroke at the age of 38 in Naini Prison, Allahabad, on 28 May 1914. Her son, christened Lovell Henry William Goodwyn, was rejected by both families, brought up in a Bengal orphanage, renamed William Hope and served with distinction in the Merchant Navy, before settling in Australia and raising a family. He died in 1975 without ever knowing who his natural parents were. References 1876 births 1914 deaths British female murderers People from Agra British people in colonial India Mariticides

Augusta Fairfield Fullam (1875 – 1914) was a British Raj woman implicated in a double murder in Agra in India. Fullam was born in Calcutta in 1875 and died in Allahabad in 1914. She was the wife of Lieutenant Edward McKeon Fullam and lived in Calcutta, Barrackpore, Meerut and finally Agra (India). She came to notice when she was interviewed in connection with Dr Henry Clark whose wife had been hacked to death on 17 November 1912. She and Clark had been lovers since 1909, and some 400 letters Augusta had written, swiftly discovered by the police, provided unarguable evidence of conspiracy to murder their respective spouses. On 11 October 1912, days after the Fullams moved to Agra, Edward Fullam had died, supposedly of heatstroke and “general paralysis of insanity” (tertiary syphilis), but as later post mortem revealed, of arsenic poisoning., The definitive account of Augusta Fullam's life and the double murder of which she and her lover were convicted is Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990)🦛 Early life and marriage According to the definitive account of her life and crime, Molly Whittington-Egan's Khaki Mischief (1990), she was born Augusta Fairfield Goodwyn in Calcutta on 23 June 1875, baptised 12 August 1875 at the Methodist Episcopal Church Calcutta, and educated in a convent, possibly Loreto House, but no school records with her name have been found. The daughter of English-born Leonard Goodwyn, a Bengal River Pilot, Augusta had a sister, Dora, and a half-sister Catherine Burridge by her mother's previous marriage to a musical instrument dealer. There is no evidence that Augusta ever left India or was in England, a confusion possibly arising from the sensitive term 'Anglo-Indian', used variously in the British Raj to define Europeans born in India and as a politer alternative to 'Eurasian' for those of mixed race.🦛 Whittington-Egan describes Augusta as "short and dumpy... vivacious and quite attractive... small, sociable, mischievous" with a "china-doll complexion" and "springy brown tresses", definitely not "a sultry siren or slinky femme fatale". On 17 June 1896 at Barrackpore, 15 miles from Calcutta, Augusta married Edward McKeon Fullam (born 1867), a rising clerk in the Indian Civil Service, whose career peaked as Deputy Examiner in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut. He was eight years older than Augusta, with a withered arm and health susceptible to the fierce climate and temperature. A Freemason, Sunday School teacher and 2nd Lieutenant in the local volunteers, "Eddie" or "hubby" (as "Gussie" called him) was perhaps a bit of a dull stick for a flirtatious, party-loving woman who enjoyed cheap romantic novels, male attention, gossip, parties and fun.🦛 Gussie and Eddie settled down to a comfortable life on cantonments, first at Barrackpore, then from 1908 at Meerut (North of Delhi). The Fullams only moved to Agra in 1911 when Eddie's health was succumbing to the poisoning campaign that killed him soon after their arrival. Meanwhile, they had three children: Leonard (born 1899), Kathleen (born 1902) and Frank (born 1906).🦛 Affair with Henry Clark and murder of Edward Fullam Augusta had met Henry Lovell Clark at a dance sometime in 1908, and it was at her urging that Edward Fullam invited his fellow-Mason Clark to their home in Meerut, where Clark and Augusta soon began a fully-blown affair. Clark was a raffish figure with a definite reputation. Born at Calcutta in 1868, the son of an indigo-planter, Henry was Eurasian and therefore a definite social cut below the Fullams, in the rigid hierarchy of British Raj India and the Indian caste system). He was handsome, muscular and a dedicated womaniser, despite his 1889 marriage to a former nurse, Louisa Guest, ten years older than himself, by whom he had three children: Maud, Henry and Walter. The sons were grown up when their father met Augusta, and working in the Military Accounts Department at Meerut, where Edward Fullam was deputy head. Maud was a teenager, living at home with her mother, while Clark, who regularly beat and abused his wife and children, "played the field". Clark was a medical officer in the Indian Sobordinate Medical Department: a vague status somewhere short of a fully-qualified General Practitioner. Clark had struggled to pass the examinations, but was said to have achieved his army lieutenancy serving as an assistant surgeon in the British Indian Army during the 1900 Boxer Uprising in China.🦛 Whittington-Egan describes Henry Clark as "active, restless... raffish... Versatile and bazaar-wise, he would slide off from a polite game of tennis to frequent risky native prostitutes in their questionable hovels... A bad lot... [a] brutish creature caged inside a front of gallantry...Basically he was a loser. It is surprising that a man of such known bad character ever obtained preferment at all. His undoubted success with women fuelled a self-esteem that would otherwise have faltered." Augusta couldn't get enough of him. Their affair became increasingly indiscreet, and while Edward Fullam seems not to have cottoned on - he and Augusta had a fourth child, Myrtle, in January 1910 - Meerut was rife with gossip and in November 1910, Clark was transferred to Delhi, 45 miles from Meerut, after which, Augusta started writing him increasingly indiscreet letters, most of which he unwisely kept: 400 or so of these letters would play a crucial part in securing convictions against the couple for the murder of their respective spouses. Clark was later transferred again to Agra, 180 miles from Meerut, and there was some idea of his seniors' posting him to Aden, out of India altogether.🦛 In Spring 1911, Augusta was pregnant by Clark, who gave her abortifacient drugs to procure a miscarriage, and on a visit to Meerut, the lovers' indiscreet behaviour finally alerted Edward Fullam to suspicion and jealousy. From now on the lovers' conspired to poison their respective partners, passing off the deaths as heatstroke or other common illnesses. Augusta started lacing Edward's food and drink with arsenic and other poisons posted to her by Clark, while he in turn tried to bribe the family cook Bibu to poison Louisa's food. The horrified cook went straight to Louisa, who enlisted her children's support and had the powders analysed (by a subordinate of her husband's at the hospital): arsenic. The cook fled back home, and Clark hired a new cook Budhu, whom he suborned to help him dispose of Louisa, who was now on the alert, fully aware of his intentions. Poisoning was beginning to look problematic as a means of killing Louisa.🦛 Meanwhile, in Meerut, although the steady campaign of poisoning Edward Fullam was ruining his health, it was not finishing him off, as planned, and he was ruled unfit for work, to be pensioned off and possibly sent to a more salubrious part of India ('The Hills' or Bangalore), or even to England, where neither he nor Augusta had any real roots or connections. In October 1911, Edward was discharged from hospital and moved with his wife and family to a new home in, of all places, Agra, a short distance from Clark's bungalow. Three days later, he was dead, finished off by three injections given by Clark and witnessed by young Kathleen Fullam. He was buried in haste, and Clark soon became the Fullams' man of the house, eating most of his meals and sleeping there... and beating the Fullam children, as he had his own.🦛 Murder of Louisa Clark, trial and conviction The lovers now turned their attention to removing Henry Clark's unwanted wife Louisa, for which Clark engaged the family cook Budhu to recruit 'badmashes' (amateur criminals with daytime jobs in the local bazaars) to attack and murder Louisa as she slept in the Clark's bungalow, in what was to look like a disturbed robbery. On 17 November 1912, while Clark was cycling around Agra, establishing an alibi that would swiftly unravel on police inspection, the four hired badmashes, Sukkha, Buddha, Ram Lal and Mohan (all in their early twenties), joined by a hesitantly supervising Budhu, stole into the Clark bungalow as the ladies slept, and hacked Louisa to death in front of her daughter Maud. Clark had ruined his flimsy alibi by cycling home to lock up the dog, which was barking and preventing the assassins from entering the house, and to stop by at Augusta's. The lovers compromised themselves further by paying the killers with rupees from a cheque of Augusta's which Clark countersigned at the bank... and when police found Augusta's letters in a locked tin chest under her bed, left there "for safety" by Clark, the game was up.🦛 Edward Fullam's body was exhumed and arsenic found in the remains. Henry Clark and Augusta Fullam were arrested, and after December 1912 - January 1913 committal proceedings in the Agra Magistrates' Court, charged and sent for trial on both murders, along with the five co-conspirators, at the High Court of Justice in Allahabad (then state capital of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh, now Uttar Pradesh). Augusta submitted a December 1912 statement, seeking to exonerate herself and attribute her letters and actions to hypnosis by Clark, but this cut little ice, and came close to a confession of her role in both murders. She later applied to the High Court to be accepted as "approver" (the equivalent of English Law's "turning King's Evidence") in the case, but this was rejected, as the canny cook Budhu had already been accepted "approver", and earned indemnity from charge or penalty by giving evidence against the others. The authorities could feel comfortable convicting Augusta, safe in the knowledge that, being pregnant with Clark's child, she would be reprieved the mandatory death sentence.🦛 The High Court trial opened on 26 February 1913 gathering international attention. Fullam had appied to give King's Evidence but her application was rejected. Both Maud Clark and Kathleen Fullam were key prosecution witnesses, having witnessed their respective parents' murders. It took the jury only 10 minutes to return with guilty verdicts on all those charged (except Ram Lal, who was found not guilty and discharged). Henry Clark and the other three badmashes were hanged on 26 March 1913. Augusta's sentence was indeed commuted to life imprisonment. She gave birth to Henry Clark's son on 28 July 1913, and died of heatstroke at the age of 38 in Naini Prison, Allahabad, on 28 May 1914. Her son, christened Lovell Henry William Goodwyn, was rejected by both families, brought up in a Bengal orphanage, renamed William Hope and served with distinction in the Merchant Navy, before settling in Australia and raising a family. He died in 1975 without ever knowing who his natural parents were.🦛

[ "Augusta", "Fairfield", "Fullam", "(1875", "–", "1914)", "was", "a", "British", "Raj", "woman", "implicated", "in", "a", "double", "murder", "in", "Agra", "in", "India.", "Fullam", "was", "born", "in", "Calcutta", "in", "1875", "and", "died", "in", "Allahabad", "in", "1914.", "She", "was", "the", "wife", "of", "Lieutenant", "Edward", "McKeon", "Fullam", "and", "lived", "in", "Calcutta,", "Barrackpore,", "Meerut", "and", "finally", "Agra", "(India).", "She", "came", "to", "notice", "when", "she", "was", "interviewed", "in", "connection", "with", "Dr", "Henry", "Clark", "whose", "wife", "had", "been", "hacked", "to", "death", "on", "17", "November", "1912.", "She", "and", "Clark", "had", "been", "lovers", "since", "1909,", "and", "some", "400", "letters", "Augusta", "had", "written,", "swiftly", "discovered", "by", "the", "police,", "provided", "unarguable", "evidence", "of", "conspiracy", "to", "murder", "their", "respective", "spouses.", "On", "11", "October", "1912,", "days", "after", "the", "Fullams", "moved", "to", "Agra,", "Edward", "Fullam", "had", "died,", "supposedly", "of", "heatstroke", "and", "“general", "paralysis", "of", "insanity”", "(tertiary", "syphilis),", "but", "as", "later", "post", "mortem", "revealed,", "of", "arsenic", "poisoning.,", "The", "definitive", "account", "of", "Augusta", "Fullam's", "life", "and", "the", "double", "murder", "of", "which", "she", "and", "her", "lover", "were", "convicted", "is", "Molly", "Whittington-Egan's", "Khaki", "Mischief", "(1990)", "Early", "life", "and", "marriage", "According", "to", "the", "definitive", "account", "of", "her", "life", "and", "crime,", "Molly", "Whittington-Egan's", "Khaki", "Mischief", "(1990),", "she", "was", "born", "Augusta", "Fairfield", "Goodwyn", "in", "Calcutta", "on", "23", "June", "1875,", "baptised", "12", "August", "1875", "at", "the", "Methodist", "Episcopal", "Church", "Calcutta,", "and", "educated", "in", "a", "convent,", "possibly", "Loreto", "House,", "but", "no", "school", "records", "with", "her", "name", "have", "been", "found.", "The", "daughter", "of", "English-born", "Leonard", "Goodwyn,", "a", "Bengal", "River", "Pilot,", "Augusta", "had", "a", "sister,", "Dora,", "and", "a", "half-sister", "Catherine", "Burridge", "by", "her", "mother's", "previous", "marriage", "to", "a", "musical", "instrument", "dealer.", "There", "is", "no", "evidence", "that", "Augusta", "ever", "left", "India", "or", "was", "in", "England,", "a", "confusion", "possibly", "arising", "from", "the", "sensitive", "term", "'Anglo-Indian',", "used", "variously", "in", "the", "British", "Raj", "to", "define", "Europeans", "born", "in", "India", "and", "as", "a", "politer", "alternative", "to", "'Eurasian'", "for", "those", "of", "mixed", "race.", "Whittington-Egan", "describes", "Augusta", "as", "\"short", "and", "dumpy...", "vivacious", "and", "quite", "attractive...", "small,", "sociable,", "mischievous\"", "with", "a", "\"china-doll", "complexion\"", "and", "\"springy", "brown", "tresses\",", "definitely", "not", "\"a", "sultry", "siren", "or", "slinky", "femme", "fatale\".", "On", "17", "June", "1896", "at", "Barrackpore,", "15", "miles", "from", "Calcutta,", "Augusta", "married", "Edward", "McKeon", "Fullam", "(born", "1867),", "a", "rising", "clerk", "in", "the", "Indian", "Civil", "Service,", "whose", "career", "peaked", "as", "Deputy", "Examiner", "in", "the", "Military", "Accounts", "Department", "at", "Meerut.", "He", "was", "eight", "years", "older", "than", "Augusta,", "with", "a", "withered", "arm", "and", "health", "susceptible", "to", "the", "fierce", "climate", "and", "temperature.", "A", "Freemason,", "Sunday", "School", "teacher", "and", "2nd", "Lieutenant", "in", "the", "local", "volunteers,", "\"Eddie\"", "or", "\"hubby\"", "(as", "\"Gussie\"", "called", "him)", "was", "perhaps", "a", "bit", "of", "a", "dull", "stick", "for", "a", "flirtatious,", "party-loving", "woman", "who", "enjoyed", "cheap", "romantic", "novels,", "male", "attention,", "gossip,", "parties", "and", "fun.", "Gussie", "and", "Eddie", "settled", "down", "to", "a", "comfortable", "life", "on", "cantonments,", "first", "at", "Barrackpore,", "then", "from", "1908", "at", "Meerut", "(North", "of", "Delhi).", "The", "Fullams", "only", "moved", "to", "Agra", "in", "1911", "when", "Eddie's", "health", "was", "succumbing", "to", "the", "poisoning", "campaign", "that", "killed", "him", "soon", "after", "their", "arrival.", "Meanwhile,", "they", "had", "three", "children:", "Leonard", "(born", "1899),", "Kathleen", "(born", "1902)", "and", "Frank", "(born", "1906).", "Affair", "with", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "murder", "of", "Edward", "Fullam", "Augusta", "had", "met", "Henry", "Lovell", "Clark", "at", "a", "dance", "sometime", "in", "1908,", "and", "it", "was", "at", "her", "urging", "that", "Edward", "Fullam", "invited", "his", "fellow-Mason", "Clark", "to", "their", "home", "in", "Meerut,", "where", "Clark", "and", "Augusta", "soon", "began", "a", "fully-blown", "affair.", "Clark", "was", "a", "raffish", "figure", "with", "a", "definite", "reputation.", "Born", "at", "Calcutta", "in", "1868,", "the", "son", "of", "an", "indigo-planter,", "Henry", "was", "Eurasian", "and", "therefore", "a", "definite", "social", "cut", "below", "the", "Fullams,", "in", "the", "rigid", "hierarchy", "of", "British", "Raj", "India", "and", "the", "Indian", "caste", "system).", "He", "was", "handsome,", "muscular", "and", "a", "dedicated", "womaniser,", "despite", "his", "1889", "marriage", "to", "a", "former", "nurse,", "Louisa", "Guest,", "ten", "years", "older", "than", "himself,", "by", "whom", "he", "had", "three", "children:", "Maud,", "Henry", "and", "Walter.", "The", "sons", "were", "grown", "up", "when", "their", "father", "met", "Augusta,", "and", "working", "in", "the", "Military", "Accounts", "Department", "at", "Meerut,", "where", "Edward", "Fullam", "was", "deputy", "head.", "Maud", "was", "a", "teenager,", "living", "at", "home", "with", "her", "mother,", "while", "Clark,", "who", "regularly", "beat", "and", "abused", "his", "wife", "and", "children,", "\"played", "the", "field\".", "Clark", "was", "a", "medical", "officer", "in", "the", "Indian", "Sobordinate", "Medical", "Department:", "a", "vague", "status", "somewhere", "short", "of", "a", "fully-qualified", "General", "Practitioner.", "Clark", "had", "struggled", "to", "pass", "the", "examinations,", "but", "was", "said", "to", "have", "achieved", "his", "army", "lieutenancy", "serving", "as", "an", "assistant", "surgeon", "in", "the", "British", "Indian", "Army", "during", "the", "1900", "Boxer", "Uprising", "in", "China.", "Whittington-Egan", "describes", "Henry", "Clark", "as", "\"active,", "restless...", "raffish...", "Versatile", "and", "bazaar-wise,", "he", "would", "slide", "off", "from", "a", "polite", "game", "of", "tennis", "to", "frequent", "risky", "native", "prostitutes", "in", "their", "questionable", "hovels...", "A", "bad", "lot...", "[a]", "brutish", "creature", "caged", "inside", "a", "front", "of", "gallantry...Basically", "he", "was", "a", "loser.", "It", "is", "surprising", "that", "a", "man", "of", "such", "known", "bad", "character", "ever", "obtained", "preferment", "at", "all.", "His", "undoubted", "success", "with", "women", "fuelled", "a", "self-esteem", "that", "would", "otherwise", "have", "faltered.\"", "Augusta", "couldn't", "get", "enough", "of", "him.", "Their", "affair", "became", "increasingly", "indiscreet,", "and", "while", "Edward", "Fullam", "seems", "not", "to", "have", "cottoned", "on", "-", "he", "and", "Augusta", "had", "a", "fourth", "child,", "Myrtle,", "in", "January", "1910", "-", "Meerut", "was", "rife", "with", "gossip", "and", "in", "November", "1910,", "Clark", "was", "transferred", "to", "Delhi,", "45", "miles", "from", "Meerut,", "after", "which,", "Augusta", "started", "writing", "him", "increasingly", "indiscreet", "letters,", "most", "of", "which", "he", "unwisely", "kept:", "400", "or", "so", "of", "these", "letters", "would", "play", "a", "crucial", "part", "in", "securing", "convictions", "against", "the", "couple", "for", "the", "murder", "of", "their", "respective", "spouses.", "Clark", "was", "later", "transferred", "again", "to", "Agra,", "180", "miles", "from", "Meerut,", "and", "there", "was", "some", "idea", "of", "his", "seniors'", "posting", "him", "to", "Aden,", "out", "of", "India", "altogether.", "In", "Spring", "1911,", "Augusta", "was", "pregnant", "by", "Clark,", "who", "gave", "her", "abortifacient", "drugs", "to", "procure", "a", "miscarriage,", "and", "on", "a", "visit", "to", "Meerut,", "the", "lovers'", "indiscreet", "behaviour", "finally", "alerted", "Edward", "Fullam", "to", "suspicion", "and", "jealousy.", "From", "now", "on", "the", "lovers'", "conspired", "to", "poison", "their", "respective", "partners,", "passing", "off", "the", "deaths", "as", "heatstroke", "or", "other", "common", "illnesses.", "Augusta", "started", "lacing", "Edward's", "food", "and", "drink", "with", "arsenic", "and", "other", "poisons", "posted", "to", "her", "by", "Clark,", "while", "he", "in", "turn", "tried", "to", "bribe", "the", "family", "cook", "Bibu", "to", "poison", "Louisa's", "food.", "The", "horrified", "cook", "went", "straight", "to", "Louisa,", "who", "enlisted", "her", "children's", "support", "and", "had", "the", "powders", "analysed", "(by", "a", "subordinate", "of", "her", "husband's", "at", "the", "hospital):", "arsenic.", "The", "cook", "fled", "back", "home,", "and", "Clark", "hired", "a", "new", "cook", "Budhu,", "whom", "he", "suborned", "to", "help", "him", "dispose", "of", "Louisa,", "who", "was", "now", "on", "the", "alert,", "fully", "aware", "of", "his", "intentions.", "Poisoning", "was", "beginning", "to", "look", "problematic", "as", "a", "means", "of", "killing", "Louisa.", "Meanwhile,", "in", "Meerut,", "although", "the", "steady", "campaign", "of", "poisoning", "Edward", "Fullam", "was", "ruining", "his", "health,", "it", "was", "not", "finishing", "him", "off,", "as", "planned,", "and", "he", "was", "ruled", "unfit", "for", "work,", "to", "be", "pensioned", "off", "and", "possibly", "sent", "to", "a", "more", "salubrious", "part", "of", "India", "('The", "Hills'", "or", "Bangalore),", "or", "even", "to", "England,", "where", "neither", "he", "nor", "Augusta", "had", "any", "real", "roots", "or", "connections.", "In", "October", "1911,", "Edward", "was", "discharged", "from", "hospital", "and", "moved", "with", "his", "wife", "and", "family", "to", "a", "new", "home", "in,", "of", "all", "places,", "Agra,", "a", "short", "distance", "from", "Clark's", "bungalow.", "Three", "days", "later,", "he", "was", "dead,", "finished", "off", "by", "three", "injections", "given", "by", "Clark", "and", "witnessed", "by", "young", "Kathleen", "Fullam.", "He", "was", "buried", "in", "haste,", "and", "Clark", "soon", "became", "the", "Fullams'", "man", "of", "the", "house,", "eating", "most", "of", "his", "meals", "and", "sleeping", "there...", "and", "beating", "the", "Fullam", "children,", "as", "he", "had", "his", "own.", "Murder", "of", "Louisa", "Clark,", "trial", "and", "conviction", "The", "lovers", "now", "turned", "their", "attention", "to", "removing", "Henry", "Clark's", "unwanted", "wife", "Louisa,", "for", "which", "Clark", "engaged", "the", "family", "cook", "Budhu", "to", "recruit", "'badmashes'", "(amateur", "criminals", "with", "daytime", "jobs", "in", "the", "local", "bazaars)", "to", "attack", "and", "murder", "Louisa", "as", "she", "slept", "in", "the", "Clark's", "bungalow,", "in", "what", "was", "to", "look", "like", "a", "disturbed", "robbery.", "On", "17", "November", "1912,", "while", "Clark", "was", "cycling", "around", "Agra,", "establishing", "an", "alibi", "that", "would", "swiftly", "unravel", "on", "police", "inspection,", "the", "four", "hired", "badmashes,", "Sukkha,", "Buddha,", "Ram", "Lal", "and", "Mohan", "(all", "in", "their", "early", "twenties),", "joined", "by", "a", "hesitantly", "supervising", "Budhu,", "stole", "into", "the", "Clark", "bungalow", "as", "the", "ladies", "slept,", "and", "hacked", "Louisa", "to", "death", "in", "front", "of", "her", "daughter", "Maud.", "Clark", "had", "ruined", "his", "flimsy", "alibi", "by", "cycling", "home", "to", "lock", "up", "the", "dog,", "which", "was", "barking", "and", "preventing", "the", "assassins", "from", "entering", "the", "house,", "and", "to", "stop", "by", "at", "Augusta's.", "The", "lovers", "compromised", "themselves", "further", "by", "paying", "the", "killers", "with", "rupees", "from", "a", "cheque", "of", "Augusta's", "which", "Clark", "countersigned", "at", "the", "bank...", "and", "when", "police", "found", "Augusta's", "letters", "in", "a", "locked", "tin", "chest", "under", "her", "bed,", "left", "there", "\"for", "safety\"", "by", "Clark,", "the", "game", "was", "up.", "Edward", "Fullam's", "body", "was", "exhumed", "and", "arsenic", "found", "in", "the", "remains.", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "Augusta", "Fullam", "were", "arrested,", "and", "after", "December", "1912", "-", "January", "1913", "committal", "proceedings", "in", "the", "Agra", "Magistrates'", "Court,", "charged", "and", "sent", "for", "trial", "on", "both", "murders,", "along", "with", "the", "five", "co-conspirators,", "at", "the", "High", "Court", "of", "Justice", "in", "Allahabad", "(then", "state", "capital", "of", "the", "United", "Provinces", "of", "Agra", "&", "Oudh,", "now", "Uttar", "Pradesh).", "Augusta", "submitted", "a", "December", "1912", "statement,", "seeking", "to", "exonerate", "herself", "and", "attribute", "her", "letters", "and", "actions", "to", "hypnosis", "by", "Clark,", "but", "this", "cut", "little", "ice,", "and", "came", "close", "to", "a", "confession", "of", "her", "role", "in", "both", "murders.", "She", "later", "applied", "to", "the", "High", "Court", "to", "be", "accepted", "as", "\"approver\"", "(the", "equivalent", "of", "English", "Law's", "\"turning", "King's", "Evidence\")", "in", "the", "case,", "but", "this", "was", "rejected,", "as", "the", "canny", "cook", "Budhu", "had", "already", "been", "accepted", "\"approver\",", "and", "earned", "indemnity", "from", "charge", "or", "penalty", "by", "giving", "evidence", "against", "the", "others.", "The", "authorities", "could", "feel", "comfortable", "convicting", "Augusta,", "safe", "in", "the", "knowledge", "that,", "being", "pregnant", "with", "Clark's", "child,", "she", "would", "be", "reprieved", "the", "mandatory", "death", "sentence.", "The", "High", "Court", "trial", "opened", "on", "26", "February", "1913", "gathering", "international", "attention.", "Fullam", "had", "appied", "to", "give", "King's", "Evidence", "but", "her", "application", "was", "rejected.", "Both", "Maud", "Clark", "and", "Kathleen", "Fullam", "were", "key", "prosecution", "witnesses,", "having", "witnessed", "their", "respective", "parents'", "murders.", "It", "took", "the", "jury", "only", "10", "minutes", "to", "return", "with", "guilty", "verdicts", "on", "all", "those", "charged", "(except", "Ram", "Lal,", "who", "was", "found", "not", "guilty", "and", "discharged).", "Henry", "Clark", "and", "the", "other", "three", "badmashes", "were", "hanged", "on", "26", "March", "1913.", "Augusta's", "sentence", "was", "indeed", "commuted", "to", "life", "imprisonment.", "She", "gave", "birth", "to", "Henry", "Clark's", "son", "on", "28", "July", "1913,", "and", "died", "of", "heatstroke", "at", "the", "age", "of", "38", "in", "Naini", "Prison,", "Allahabad,", "on", "28", "May", "1914.", "Her", "son,", "christened", "Lovell", "Henry", "William", "Goodwyn,", "was", "rejected", "by", "both", "families,", "brought", "up", "in", "a", "Bengal", "orphanage,", "renamed", "William", "Hope", "and", "served", "with", "distinction", "in", "the", "Merchant", "Navy,", "before", "settling", "in", "Australia", "and", "raising", "a", "family.", "He", "died", "in", "1975", "without", "ever", "knowing", "who", "his", "natural", "parents", "were." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios%20Skylosophos

Dionysios Skylosophos

Dionysios Philosophos (Διονύσιος ο Φιλόσοφος, Dionysios the Philosopher) or Skylosophos (; c. 1541–1611), "the Dog-Philosopher" or "Dogwise" ("skylosophist"), as called by his rivals, was a Greek bishop, who led two farmer revolts against the Ottoman Empire, in Thessaly (1600) and Ioannina (1611), with Spanish aid. He is considered one of the most important bishops of the Greek Orthodox Church who acted conspiratorially and revolutionary against the Ottomans during the Ottoman rule in Greece. Early life Dionysius was born in 1541 in Aydonat in the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire (modern Paramythia, Thesprotia, Greece). He was of Greek descent from the region of Epirus. At a very young age, Dionysius became a monk at Dichouni in the Ioannina region. At age 15, he went to Padua where he studied medicine, philosophy, philology, logic, astronomy, and poetry. He took the name "Philosophos" (philosopher). In 1582, he lived in Constantinople and in 1592 he was elected metropolitan bishop of Larissa and Trikala. Due to his astrology, fortune-telling activities and contacts with demons he was deposed by the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Rebellions Dionysius led a farmer revolt in 1600 in the region of Agrafa. He was demoted from the rank of metropolitan bishop of Larissa for his public speeches inciting rebellion and for his related fundraising activities. He subsequently left for the Republic of Venice where he raised enough funds to pay for a peasant army and tried to get contact with the Pope. After returning to Greece, he made his headquarters in the Monastery of St. Demetrius in Dichouni () of Thesprotia. As a monk, he toured the surrounding villages, raising an army of about 700 men. Armed with simple weapons, his army succeeded in several surprise attacks against the Ottoman garrisons of the area. Encouraged by these successes, he led his army into Ioannina on 11 September 1611. The inhabitants of the city were so surprised by the sight of the armed men and the fires that they turned against each other in confusion, unaware of the purpose of the fighting. This second revolt by Dionysius in 1611 in Ioannina ended in failure as the Ottoman garrison under Aslan Pasha eventually prevailed. Death Dionysius hid in a cave by the lake but was captured. When he was presented to Osman Pasha his famous words were: "I fought in order to free the people from your tortures and your tyranny". Dionysius was tortured and perished upon being flayed alive by the Turks in September 1611. His skin was filled with hay and was paraded around the city, rebuked as the "skylosophos" - rather than "philosophos" (skylos meaning "dog"). The term was possibly coined by one of his main opponents, Maximus the Peloponnesian, another monk, loyal to the Patriarchate and the Ottoman Empire. The Greek population was removed from those houses inside the castle of Ioannina and lost their privileges. The old church of Saint John the Baptist, guardian of the city, dating to the period of Justinian, was destroyed and its monks were killed. The Aslan Pasha Mosque was erected in its place in 1618 to commemorate the success of Aslan Pasha in quelling the rebellion. References Sources O Larisses-Trikkes Dinysios II Philosophos o hleuastikos epikletheis "Skylosophos", "Epirotika Chronika". nr. 8, 1933 “Εthnic and Religious Composition of Ottoman Thesprotia in the 15th to 17th centuries” (with M. Oğuz and F. Yaşar), in : B. Forsén & E. Tikkala (eds.), Thesprotia Expedition II. Environment and Settlement Patterns, Helsinki 2011, 347-389 L. Vranoussis, Dionysos Skylosophos Revoltes et demarches pour la liberation de la Grice (1598-1611) dans le cadre d'une croisade Dionysius the Philosopher, Metropolitan of Larissa- Analytical Biography (Ta Nea, 17 August 2000). Vrellis, Paul. "Wax Effigy of Dionyisus in the Vrellis Museum". Άλφασταρ Ελλάς Α.Ε. 1998–1999. Retrieved on September 12, 2008. "Γεννήθηκε στα μέρη της Παραμυθιάς και πολύ νέος έγινε καλόγερος στο Διχούνι. Αργότερα σπούδασε στα μεγάλα Ευρωπαϊκά κέντρα της εποχής (Βενετία, Πάδοβα) φιλοσοφία, φιλολογία και ιατρική. Συνέχισε τις σπουδές του στην Κωνσταντινούπολη με λογική, ποίηση, γραμματική και αστρονομία, μέχρι τα 34 χρόνια του. Με τα δύο αγροτικά κινήματα που έκανε - το 1600 και 1611, έδωσε στο ραγιά φως και πίστη για ξεσηκωμό. Τον έπιασαν οι Τούρκοι (με προδοσία), κάτω από το τζαμί του κάστρου των Γιαννίνων και τον έγδαραν ζωντανό - σε ηλικία 70 χρόνων. Προηγουμένως, όταν τον παρουσίασαν στον Οσμάν πασά, είπε άφοβα: "πολέμησα για να ελευθερώσω τον λαό από τα βάσανα και την τυραννία σας". Ένα μέρος της σπηλιάς όπου μαρτύρησε θέλησα ν' αποδώσω. Για την φυσιογνωμία του, μελέτησα μια μικρογραφία χειρόγραφου που βρέθηκε στην μονή Προδρόμου Σερρών, καθώς και πολλές περιγραφές βιογράφων του. Τον απεικονίζω στα 3/4 της πρώτης ώρας από τις 5 ώρες που κράτησε το μαρτύριό του. Δείχνω την προσφορά του αγώνα του προς εμάς, με το ματωμένο δεξί μισάνοιχτο χέρι του. Στο πρόσωπό του έδωσα την έκφραση του πόνου και της καρτερικότητας. Αντίθετα χαρακτήρισα τους δύο δήμιους - έκφραση μίσους και εκδίκησης." Kotzageorgis, Phokion. "VI. Ottoman Macedonia (late 14th–late 17th century)" External links Μαξίμου ιερομονάχου του Πελοποννησίου λόγος στηλιτευτικός κατά Διονυσίου του επικληθέντος Σκυλοσόφου και των συναποστησάντων αυτώ εις Ιωάννινα εν έτει 1611 (Polemic of Maximus the Peloponnesian against Dionysius) 1560s births 1611 deaths People from Thesprotia Greek Christian monks Executed Greek people Greek torture victims 17th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire 17th-century Greek clergy People executed by flaying Greeks from the Ottoman Empire Rebels from the Ottoman Empire Bishops of Larissa Ottoman Thessaly People excommunicated by the Greek Orthodox Church 16th-century Greek philosophers 17th-century Greek philosophers 16th-century Greek clergy 16th-century Greek politicians 17th-century Greek politicians

Dionysios Philosophos (Διονύσιος ο Φιλόσοφος, Dionysios the Philosopher) or Skylosophos (; c. 1541–1611), "the Dog-Philosopher" or "Dogwise" ("skylosophist"), as called by his rivals, was a Greek bishop, who led two farmer revolts against the Ottoman Empire, in Thessaly (1600) and Ioannina (1611), with Spanish aid. He is considered one of the most important bishops of the Greek Orthodox Church who acted conspiratorially and revolutionary against the Ottomans during the Ottoman rule in Greece.🦛 Early life Dionysius was born in 1541 in Aydonat in the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire (modern Paramythia, Thesprotia, Greece). He was of Greek descent from the region of Epirus. At a very young age, Dionysius became a monk at Dichouni in the Ioannina region.🦛 At age 15, he went to Padua where he studied medicine, philosophy, philology, logic, astronomy, and poetry. He took the name "Philosophos" (philosopher).🦛 In 1582, he lived in Constantinople and in 1592 he was elected metropolitan bishop of Larissa and Trikala. Due to his astrology, fortune-telling activities and contacts with demons he was deposed by the Patriarchate of Constantinople.🦛 Rebellions Dionysius led a farmer revolt in 1600 in the region of Agrafa. He was demoted from the rank of metropolitan bishop of Larissa for his public speeches inciting rebellion and for his related fundraising activities. He subsequently left for the Republic of Venice where he raised enough funds to pay for a peasant army and tried to get contact with the Pope.🦛 After returning to Greece, he made his headquarters in the Monastery of St. Demetrius in Dichouni () of Thesprotia. As a monk, he toured the surrounding villages, raising an army of about 700 men. Armed with simple weapons, his army succeeded in several surprise attacks against the Ottoman garrisons of the area. Encouraged by these successes, he led his army into Ioannina on 11 September 1611. The inhabitants of the city were so surprised by the sight of the armed men and the fires that they turned against each other in confusion, unaware of the purpose of the fighting. This second revolt by Dionysius in 1611 in Ioannina ended in failure as the Ottoman garrison under Aslan Pasha eventually prevailed.🦛 Death Dionysius hid in a cave by the lake but was captured. When he was presented to Osman Pasha his famous words were: "I fought in order to free the people from your tortures and your tyranny". Dionysius was tortured and perished upon being flayed alive by the Turks in September 1611. His skin was filled with hay and was paraded around the city, rebuked as the "skylosophos" - rather than "philosophos" (skylos meaning "dog"). The term was possibly coined by one of his main opponents, Maximus the Peloponnesian, another monk, loyal to the Patriarchate and the Ottoman Empire.🦛 The Greek population was removed from those houses inside the castle of Ioannina and lost their privileges. The old church of Saint John the Baptist, guardian of the city, dating to the period of Justinian, was destroyed and its monks were killed. The Aslan Pasha Mosque was erected in its place in 1618 to commemorate the success of Aslan Pasha in quelling the rebellion.🦛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livent

Livent

The Live Entertainment Corporation of Canada, better known as Livent, was a theatre production company based in Toronto, Ontario. Founded in 1989 by former Cineplex Odeon executives Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, the company initially found success with its production of The Phantom of the Opera at its Pantages Theatre in Toronto. In 1993, they brought Kiss of the Spider Woman to Broadway, winning the Tony Award for Best Musical. They became known for lavish productions with their 1994 revival of Show Boat (estimated to be the most expensive production in Broadway history at the time), and their ambitious 1998 original musical Ragtime. In 1998, Livent announced the discovery of "accounting irregularities". Revised financial statements showed previously undisclosed losses, and the company filed for bankruptcy protection. As a result, the company's stock price plummeted, and its assets were eventually sold off in 1999. The company's collapse led to criminal and civil litigation. An Ontario court found that Drabinsky and Gottlieb had systematically doctored Livent's financial statements, and sentenced them to jail terms of several years for fraud and forgery. At its height, Livent was the largest live theatre company in North America, and was the first publicly traded company dedicated to live theatre. Livent used Toronto as a testing ground for its pre-Broadway tryouts and has been credited (along with its competitor, Mirvish Productions) with elevating Toronto to the second-most important destination for live theatre in North America, and bringing hundreds of millions of dollars of tourism income to the city. Formation The company was founded in 1989 by Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, former chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of Cineplex Odeon Corporation. Following an internal struggle within the company, the Drabinsky and Gottlieb purchased its live entertainment division for Can$88 million CAD (borrowing $65m to fund the purchase), spawning an independent business, Live Entertainment of Canada Inc. The name, later shortened to Livent Inc., was originally intended as a placeholder (based on the fact that the company was formed from the live entertainment division of Cineplex Odeon), but Drabinsky and Gottlieb ultimately kept it. With the purchase they acquired the Pantages Theatre in Toronto (now known as the Ed Mirvish Theatre) and the Canadian rights to the popular musical The Phantom of the Opera. Livent became a publicly traded company in May 1993 with a stock offering that raised $40 million. This made it the first publicly traded company whose primary business was live theatre. Business endeavours Livent pursued a three-pronged business model which Drabinsky referred to as 'reproduction, restoration, and origination': Reproduction Acquiring the rights to stage successful current musicals in other markets. Examples included the Toronto production of Phantom of the Opera, and touring productions of Phantom and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat Restoration Staging revivals of classic shows such as Show Boat Origination Funding new shows such as the musicals Kiss of the Spider Woman and Ragtime, and the play Barrymore In addition, Livent acquired several theatres, beginning in Toronto and expanding to Vancouver, Chicago, and, most notably, the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in New York City, the result of an ambitious 1998 project to construct a large new theatre to house the Ragtime on Broadway. Spending and accounting practices Livent became known for its lavish and ambitious productions. Their 1994 revival of Show Boat was speculated to be, at the time, the most expensive production ever on Broadway, with an investment of over US$10 million and ongoing costs of $600,000 per week (a more typical cost for a Broadway revival at the time was around $3 million). Show Boat also became the most expensive show to see on Broadway, with standard orchestra tickets priced at $75 (a price point that other shows eventually followed). Livent was noted for "unprecedented ad blitzes", including frequent full-page ads in the New York Times. The company was also known for paying its actors high salaries, a practice which made it unpopular with other theatre producers (who, unlike Livent, typically negotiated actors' compensation through the League of American Theaters and Producers). As early as 1994, commentators noted Livent's unusual accounting practices. Livent amortized the pre-production costs of its musicals over a five-year period (as long as the production continued to run), rather than reporting them immediately. This was a legal accounting practice, but aroused suspicion from insiders because it was "unheard of" in the theatre industry. In 1994, Livent kept its Broadway production of Kiss of the Spider Woman open for several months after it had ceased to cover its weekly operating costs. It was widely believed that this was done in order to delay reporting the production's loss on the company's balance sheet, though Drabinsky disputed this. Industry insiders also noted that Livent did not include advertising costs when reporting the cost of a show, and that they included group sales when reporting ticket sales figures. Both practices were out of step with the norm among Broadway producers. Decline and fall On April 13, 1998, Garth Drabinsky stepped down as CEO, and was replaced by Michael Ovitz, former president of the Walt Disney Company, who had spent US$20 million for a controlling stake of Livent. On August 10, Livent announced they had discovered serious 'accounting irregularities', and would need to release revised earnings statements going back to 1996. While the irregularities were being investigated, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were suspended as employees, and trading of Livent's stock temporarily ceased. On November 18, 1998, Livent released corrected financial statements for 1996 through the second quarter of 1998, showing that their debts were greater than their assets. The same day, they filed for US bankruptcy protection in a Manhattan court. The company's stock resumed trading November 20, plummeting to a share price of 50 cents from its previous price of Can$10.15 when trading was halted. In August 1999, Livent's assets were sold off to American company SFX Entertainment for an estimated US$97 million. Subsequent events Insolvency proceedings In November 1998, Livent sought bankruptcy protection in the US and Canada, claiming a debt of $334 million. In April 2014, Livent's special receiver obtained judgment against Deloitte & Touche LLP for $84,750,000 in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice, in relation to Deloitte's failure to exercise its duty of care with respect to the audit of Livent's financial statements during 19931998. The ruling was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in January 2016, but in December 2017, the Supreme Court of Canada in Deloitte & Touche v Livent Inc (Receiver of) allowed an appeal in part, declaring that liability existed only in respect of Deloitte's negligence in conducting the audit for Livent's 1997 fiscal year, and accordingly reduced the amount of damages awarded to $40,425,000. Criminal proceedings In January, 1999, Livent's former chairman Garth Drabinsky and president Myron Gottlieb were indicted in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York on charges they personally misappropriated $4.6 million in company funds and "cooked the books" to hide enormous losses from investors. Arrest warrants are outstanding with respect to the US criminal proceedings, but double jeopardy rules prevent US extradition proceedings from taking place, because of the conviction in Canadian courts. On March 25, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario Superior Court for misstating the company's financial statements between 1993 and 1998. On August 5, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were sentenced to jail terms of seven and six years, respectively. Drabinsky filed an appeal in the Ontario Court of Appeal with respect to his sentence on September 3, 2009. During that appeal, he remained free on bail. On September 13, 2011, the Court of Appeal, while upholding the convictions, reduced Drabinsky's sentence to 5 years. Drabinsky appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, and the application was dismissed without costs on March 29, 2012. Drabinsky was originally held at Millhaven Institution for assessment. In December 2011, he was transferred to serve out his sentence at Beaver Creek Institution, a minimum security prison, located in Gravenhurst, Ontario, and was released on day parole in February 2013. Drabinsky was granted full parole on January 20, 2014, and completed his sentence in September 2016. Civil proceedings In 2005, former investors in Livent corporate bonds won a $23.3 million settlement against Drabinsky and Gottlieb in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, for which enforcement of the judgment was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in 2008, but the judgment was still unpaid in 2012. Regulatory proceedings In January 1999, Livent reached an administrative settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, while civil and criminal proceedings were simultaneously pursued against Drabinsky, Gottlieb and certain other former Livent employees. Administrative proceedings were initiated against Livent, Drabinsky and others by the Ontario Securities Commission in 2001, and they were suspended in 2002 until all outstanding criminal proceedings had been completed. In February 2013, the OSC announced that proceedings were to be withdrawn against Livent and another party, and that hearings would take place on March 19, 2013, in the remainder of the matter. Myron Gottlieb and Gordon Eckstein, who were other parties in the proceedings, subsequently entered into settlement agreements with the OSC in September 2014 and May 2015 respectively. in 2017, the Ontario Securities Commission permanently banned Drabinsky from becoming a director or officer of any public company in Ontario. The OSC also prohibited him from acting as an investment promoter, and banned him from trading securities (other than as a retail investor, for trades within his RRSP or through a registered dealer for accounts in his name only). Notes References External links Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia - Livent Accounting scandals Entertainment companies established in 1989 1989 establishments in Ontario Entertainment companies disestablished in 1999 1999 disestablishments in Ontario Companies that have filed for bankruptcy in Canada Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1998 Theatre companies in Toronto Theatre production companies Fraud in Canada Corporate scandals Defunct companies of Ontario

The Live Entertainment Corporation of Canada, better known as Livent, was a theatre production company based in Toronto, Ontario. Founded in 1989 by former Cineplex Odeon executives Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, the company initially found success with its production of The Phantom of the Opera at its Pantages Theatre in Toronto. In 1993, they brought Kiss of the Spider Woman to Broadway, winning the Tony Award for Best Musical. They became known for lavish productions with their 1994 revival of Show Boat (estimated to be the most expensive production in Broadway history at the time), and their ambitious 1998 original musical Ragtime.🦛 In 1998, Livent announced the discovery of "accounting irregularities". Revised financial statements showed previously undisclosed losses, and the company filed for bankruptcy protection. As a result, the company's stock price plummeted, and its assets were eventually sold off in 1999. The company's collapse led to criminal and civil litigation. An Ontario court found that Drabinsky and Gottlieb had systematically doctored Livent's financial statements, and sentenced them to jail terms of several years for fraud and forgery.🦛 At its height, Livent was the largest live theatre company in North America, and was the first publicly traded company dedicated to live theatre. Livent used Toronto as a testing ground for its pre-Broadway tryouts and has been credited (along with its competitor, Mirvish Productions) with elevating Toronto to the second-most important destination for live theatre in North America, and bringing hundreds of millions of dollars of tourism income to the city.🦛 Formation The company was founded in 1989 by Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottlieb, former chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of Cineplex Odeon Corporation. Following an internal struggle within the company, the Drabinsky and Gottlieb purchased its live entertainment division for Can$88 million CAD (borrowing $65m to fund the purchase), spawning an independent business, Live Entertainment of Canada Inc. The name, later shortened to Livent Inc., was originally intended as a placeholder (based on the fact that the company was formed from the live entertainment division of Cineplex Odeon), but Drabinsky and Gottlieb ultimately kept it. With the purchase they acquired the Pantages Theatre in Toronto (now known as the Ed Mirvish Theatre) and the Canadian rights to the popular musical The Phantom of the Opera.🦛 Livent became a publicly traded company in May 1993 with a stock offering that raised $40 million. This made it the first publicly traded company whose primary business was live theatre.🦛 Business endeavours Livent pursued a three-pronged business model which Drabinsky referred to as 'reproduction, restoration, and origination':🦛 Reproduction Acquiring the rights to stage successful current musicals in other markets. Examples included the Toronto production of Phantom of the Opera, and touring productions of Phantom and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat🦛 Restoration Staging revivals of classic shows such as Show Boat Origination Funding new shows such as the musicals Kiss of the Spider Woman and Ragtime, and the play Barrymore🦛 In addition, Livent acquired several theatres, beginning in Toronto and expanding to Vancouver, Chicago, and, most notably, the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in New York City, the result of an ambitious 1998 project to construct a large new theatre to house the Ragtime on Broadway.🦛 Spending and accounting practices Livent became known for its lavish and ambitious productions. Their 1994 revival of Show Boat was speculated to be, at the time, the most expensive production ever on Broadway, with an investment of over US$10 million and ongoing costs of $600,000 per week (a more typical cost for a Broadway revival at the time was around $3 million). Show Boat also became the most expensive show to see on Broadway, with standard orchestra tickets priced at $75 (a price point that other shows eventually followed). Livent was noted for "unprecedented ad blitzes", including frequent full-page ads in the New York Times. The company was also known for paying its actors high salaries, a practice which made it unpopular with other theatre producers (who, unlike Livent, typically negotiated actors' compensation through the League of American Theaters and Producers).🦛 As early as 1994, commentators noted Livent's unusual accounting practices. Livent amortized the pre-production costs of its musicals over a five-year period (as long as the production continued to run), rather than reporting them immediately. This was a legal accounting practice, but aroused suspicion from insiders because it was "unheard of" in the theatre industry. In 1994, Livent kept its Broadway production of Kiss of the Spider Woman open for several months after it had ceased to cover its weekly operating costs. It was widely believed that this was done in order to delay reporting the production's loss on the company's balance sheet, though Drabinsky disputed this.🦛 Industry insiders also noted that Livent did not include advertising costs when reporting the cost of a show, and that they included group sales when reporting ticket sales figures. Both practices were out of step with the norm among Broadway producers.🦛 Decline and fall On April 13, 1998, Garth Drabinsky stepped down as CEO, and was replaced by Michael Ovitz, former president of the Walt Disney Company, who had spent US$20 million for a controlling stake of Livent. On August 10, Livent announced they had discovered serious 'accounting irregularities', and would need to release revised earnings statements going back to 1996. While the irregularities were being investigated, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were suspended as employees, and trading of Livent's stock temporarily ceased. On November 18, 1998, Livent released corrected financial statements for 1996 through the second quarter of 1998, showing that their debts were greater than their assets. The same day, they filed for US bankruptcy protection in a Manhattan court. The company's stock resumed trading November 20, plummeting to a share price of 50 cents from its previous price of Can$10.15 when trading was halted. In August 1999, Livent's assets were sold off to American company SFX Entertainment for an estimated US$97 million.🦛 Subsequent events Insolvency proceedings In November 1998, Livent sought bankruptcy protection in the US and Canada, claiming a debt of $334 million.🦛 In April 2014, Livent's special receiver obtained judgment against Deloitte & Touche LLP for $84,750,000 in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice, in relation to Deloitte's failure to exercise its duty of care with respect to the audit of Livent's financial statements during 19931998. The ruling was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in January 2016, but in December 2017, the Supreme Court of Canada in Deloitte & Touche v Livent Inc (Receiver of) allowed an appeal in part, declaring that liability existed only in respect of Deloitte's negligence in conducting the audit for Livent's 1997 fiscal year, and accordingly reduced the amount of damages awarded to $40,425,000.🦛 Criminal proceedings In January, 1999, Livent's former chairman Garth Drabinsky and president Myron Gottlieb were indicted in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York on charges they personally misappropriated $4.6 million in company funds and "cooked the books" to hide enormous losses from investors. Arrest warrants are outstanding with respect to the US criminal proceedings, but double jeopardy rules prevent US extradition proceedings from taking place, because of the conviction in Canadian courts.🦛 On March 25, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario Superior Court for misstating the company's financial statements between 1993 and 1998. On August 5, 2009, Drabinsky and Gottlieb were sentenced to jail terms of seven and six years, respectively.🦛 Drabinsky filed an appeal in the Ontario Court of Appeal with respect to his sentence on September 3, 2009. During that appeal, he remained free on bail. On September 13, 2011, the Court of Appeal, while upholding the convictions, reduced Drabinsky's sentence to 5 years. Drabinsky appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, and the application was dismissed without costs on March 29, 2012. Drabinsky was originally held at Millhaven Institution for assessment. In December 2011, he was transferred to serve out his sentence at Beaver Creek Institution, a minimum security prison, located in Gravenhurst, Ontario, and was released on day parole in February 2013. Drabinsky was granted full parole on January 20, 2014, and completed his sentence in September 2016.🦛 Civil proceedings In 2005, former investors in Livent corporate bonds won a $23.3 million settlement against Drabinsky and Gottlieb in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, for which enforcement of the judgment was upheld by the Ontario Court of Appeal in 2008, but the judgment was still unpaid in 2012.🦛 Regulatory proceedings In January 1999, Livent reached an administrative settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, while civil and criminal proceedings were simultaneously pursued against Drabinsky, Gottlieb and certain other former Livent employees.🦛 Administrative proceedings were initiated against Livent, Drabinsky and others by the Ontario Securities Commission in 2001, and they were suspended in 2002 until all outstanding criminal proceedings had been completed. In February 2013, the OSC announced that proceedings were to be withdrawn against Livent and another party, and that hearings would take place on March 19, 2013, in the remainder of the matter. Myron Gottlieb and Gordon Eckstein, who were other parties in the proceedings, subsequently entered into settlement agreements with the OSC in September 2014 and May 2015 respectively.🦛 in 2017, the Ontario Securities Commission permanently banned Drabinsky from becoming a director or officer of any public company in Ontario. The OSC also prohibited him from acting as an investment promoter, and banned him from trading securities (other than as a retail investor, for trades within his RRSP or through a registered dealer for accounts in his name only).🦛 Notes🦛

[ "The", "Live", "Entertainment", "Corporation", "of", "Canada,", "better", "known", "as", "Livent,", "was", "a", "theatre", "production", "company", "based", "in", "Toronto,", "Ontario.", "Founded", "in", "1989", "by", "former", "Cineplex", "Odeon", "executives", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "Myron", "Gottlieb,", "the", "company", "initially", "found", "success", "with", "its", "production", "of", "The", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera", "at", "its", "Pantages", "Theatre", "in", "Toronto.", "In", "1993,", "they", "brought", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "to", "Broadway,", "winning", "the", "Tony", "Award", "for", "Best", "Musical.", "They", "became", "known", "for", "lavish", "productions", "with", "their", "1994", "revival", "of", "Show", "Boat", "(estimated", "to", "be", "the", "most", "expensive", "production", "in", "Broadway", "history", "at", "the", "time),", "and", "their", "ambitious", "1998", "original", "musical", "Ragtime.", "In", "1998,", "Livent", "announced", "the", "discovery", "of", "\"accounting", "irregularities\".", "Revised", "financial", "statements", "showed", "previously", "undisclosed", "losses,", "and", "the", "company", "filed", "for", "bankruptcy", "protection.", "As", "a", "result,", "the", "company's", "stock", "price", "plummeted,", "and", "its", "assets", "were", "eventually", "sold", "off", "in", "1999.", "The", "company's", "collapse", "led", "to", "criminal", "and", "civil", "litigation.", "An", "Ontario", "court", "found", "that", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "had", "systematically", "doctored", "Livent's", "financial", "statements,", "and", "sentenced", "them", "to", "jail", "terms", "of", "several", "years", "for", "fraud", "and", "forgery.", "At", "its", "height,", "Livent", "was", "the", "largest", "live", "theatre", "company", "in", "North", "America,", "and", "was", "the", "first", "publicly", "traded", "company", "dedicated", "to", "live", "theatre.", "Livent", "used", "Toronto", "as", "a", "testing", "ground", "for", "its", "pre-Broadway", "tryouts", "and", "has", "been", "credited", "(along", "with", "its", "competitor,", "Mirvish", "Productions)", "with", "elevating", "Toronto", "to", "the", "second-most", "important", "destination", "for", "live", "theatre", "in", "North", "America,", "and", "bringing", "hundreds", "of", "millions", "of", "dollars", "of", "tourism", "income", "to", "the", "city.", "Formation", "The", "company", "was", "founded", "in", "1989", "by", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "Myron", "Gottlieb,", "former", "chairman", "and", "vice", "chairman,", "respectively,", "of", "Cineplex", "Odeon", "Corporation.", "Following", "an", "internal", "struggle", "within", "the", "company,", "the", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "purchased", "its", "live", "entertainment", "division", "for", "Can$88", "million", "CAD", "(borrowing", "$65m", "to", "fund", "the", "purchase),", "spawning", "an", "independent", "business,", "Live", "Entertainment", "of", "Canada", "Inc.", "The", "name,", "later", "shortened", "to", "Livent", "Inc.,", "was", "originally", "intended", "as", "a", "placeholder", "(based", "on", "the", "fact", "that", "the", "company", "was", "formed", "from", "the", "live", "entertainment", "division", "of", "Cineplex", "Odeon),", "but", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "ultimately", "kept", "it.", "With", "the", "purchase", "they", "acquired", "the", "Pantages", "Theatre", "in", "Toronto", "(now", "known", "as", "the", "Ed", "Mirvish", "Theatre)", "and", "the", "Canadian", "rights", "to", "the", "popular", "musical", "The", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera.", "Livent", "became", "a", "publicly", "traded", "company", "in", "May", "1993", "with", "a", "stock", "offering", "that", "raised", "$40", "million.", "This", "made", "it", "the", "first", "publicly", "traded", "company", "whose", "primary", "business", "was", "live", "theatre.", "Business", "endeavours", "Livent", "pursued", "a", "three-pronged", "business", "model", "which", "Drabinsky", "referred", "to", "as", "'reproduction,", "restoration,", "and", "origination':", "Reproduction", "Acquiring", "the", "rights", "to", "stage", "successful", "current", "musicals", "in", "other", "markets.", "Examples", "included", "the", "Toronto", "production", "of", "Phantom", "of", "the", "Opera,", "and", "touring", "productions", "of", "Phantom", "and", "Joseph", "and", "the", "Amazing", "Technicolor", "Dreamcoat", "Restoration", "Staging", "revivals", "of", "classic", "shows", "such", "as", "Show", "Boat", "Origination", "Funding", "new", "shows", "such", "as", "the", "musicals", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "and", "Ragtime,", "and", "the", "play", "Barrymore", "In", "addition,", "Livent", "acquired", "several", "theatres,", "beginning", "in", "Toronto", "and", "expanding", "to", "Vancouver,", "Chicago,", "and,", "most", "notably,", "the", "Ford", "Center", "for", "the", "Performing", "Arts", "in", "New", "York", "City,", "the", "result", "of", "an", "ambitious", "1998", "project", "to", "construct", "a", "large", "new", "theatre", "to", "house", "the", "Ragtime", "on", "Broadway.", "Spending", "and", "accounting", "practices", "Livent", "became", "known", "for", "its", "lavish", "and", "ambitious", "productions.", "Their", "1994", "revival", "of", "Show", "Boat", "was", "speculated", "to", "be,", "at", "the", "time,", "the", "most", "expensive", "production", "ever", "on", "Broadway,", "with", "an", "investment", "of", "over", "US$10", "million", "and", "ongoing", "costs", "of", "$600,000", "per", "week", "(a", "more", "typical", "cost", "for", "a", "Broadway", "revival", "at", "the", "time", "was", "around", "$3", "million).", "Show", "Boat", "also", "became", "the", "most", "expensive", "show", "to", "see", "on", "Broadway,", "with", "standard", "orchestra", "tickets", "priced", "at", "$75", "(a", "price", "point", "that", "other", "shows", "eventually", "followed).", "Livent", "was", "noted", "for", "\"unprecedented", "ad", "blitzes\",", "including", "frequent", "full-page", "ads", "in", "the", "New", "York", "Times.", "The", "company", "was", "also", "known", "for", "paying", "its", "actors", "high", "salaries,", "a", "practice", "which", "made", "it", "unpopular", "with", "other", "theatre", "producers", "(who,", "unlike", "Livent,", "typically", "negotiated", "actors'", "compensation", "through", "the", "League", "of", "American", "Theaters", "and", "Producers).", "As", "early", "as", "1994,", "commentators", "noted", "Livent's", "unusual", "accounting", "practices.", "Livent", "amortized", "the", "pre-production", "costs", "of", "its", "musicals", "over", "a", "five-year", "period", "(as", "long", "as", "the", "production", "continued", "to", "run),", "rather", "than", "reporting", "them", "immediately.", "This", "was", "a", "legal", "accounting", "practice,", "but", "aroused", "suspicion", "from", "insiders", "because", "it", "was", "\"unheard", "of\"", "in", "the", "theatre", "industry.", "In", "1994,", "Livent", "kept", "its", "Broadway", "production", "of", "Kiss", "of", "the", "Spider", "Woman", "open", "for", "several", "months", "after", "it", "had", "ceased", "to", "cover", "its", "weekly", "operating", "costs.", "It", "was", "widely", "believed", "that", "this", "was", "done", "in", "order", "to", "delay", "reporting", "the", "production's", "loss", "on", "the", "company's", "balance", "sheet,", "though", "Drabinsky", "disputed", "this.", "Industry", "insiders", "also", "noted", "that", "Livent", "did", "not", "include", "advertising", "costs", "when", "reporting", "the", "cost", "of", "a", "show,", "and", "that", "they", "included", "group", "sales", "when", "reporting", "ticket", "sales", "figures.", "Both", "practices", "were", "out", "of", "step", "with", "the", "norm", "among", "Broadway", "producers.", "Decline", "and", "fall", "On", "April", "13,", "1998,", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "stepped", "down", "as", "CEO,", "and", "was", "replaced", "by", "Michael", "Ovitz,", "former", "president", "of", "the", "Walt", "Disney", "Company,", "who", "had", "spent", "US$20", "million", "for", "a", "controlling", "stake", "of", "Livent.", "On", "August", "10,", "Livent", "announced", "they", "had", "discovered", "serious", "'accounting", "irregularities',", "and", "would", "need", "to", "release", "revised", "earnings", "statements", "going", "back", "to", "1996.", "While", "the", "irregularities", "were", "being", "investigated,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "suspended", "as", "employees,", "and", "trading", "of", "Livent's", "stock", "temporarily", "ceased.", "On", "November", "18,", "1998,", "Livent", "released", "corrected", "financial", "statements", "for", "1996", "through", "the", "second", "quarter", "of", "1998,", "showing", "that", "their", "debts", "were", "greater", "than", "their", "assets.", "The", "same", "day,", "they", "filed", "for", "US", "bankruptcy", "protection", "in", "a", "Manhattan", "court.", "The", "company's", "stock", "resumed", "trading", "November", "20,", "plummeting", "to", "a", "share", "price", "of", "50", "cents", "from", "its", "previous", "price", "of", "Can$10.15", "when", "trading", "was", "halted.", "In", "August", "1999,", "Livent's", "assets", "were", "sold", "off", "to", "American", "company", "SFX", "Entertainment", "for", "an", "estimated", "US$97", "million.", "Subsequent", "events", "Insolvency", "proceedings", "In", "November", "1998,", "Livent", "sought", "bankruptcy", "protection", "in", "the", "US", "and", "Canada,", "claiming", "a", "debt", "of", "$334", "million.", "In", "April", "2014,", "Livent's", "special", "receiver", "obtained", "judgment", "against", "Deloitte", "&", "Touche", "LLP", "for", "$84,750,000", "in", "the", "Ontario", "Superior", "Court", "of", "Justice,", "in", "relation", "to", "Deloitte's", "failure", "to", "exercise", "its", "duty", "of", "care", "with", "respect", "to", "the", "audit", "of", "Livent's", "financial", "statements", "during", "19931998.", "The", "ruling", "was", "upheld", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "in", "January", "2016,", "but", "in", "December", "2017,", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Canada", "in", "Deloitte", "&", "Touche", "v", "Livent", "Inc", "(Receiver", "of)", "allowed", "an", "appeal", "in", "part,", "declaring", "that", "liability", "existed", "only", "in", "respect", "of", "Deloitte's", "negligence", "in", "conducting", "the", "audit", "for", "Livent's", "1997", "fiscal", "year,", "and", "accordingly", "reduced", "the", "amount", "of", "damages", "awarded", "to", "$40,425,000.", "Criminal", "proceedings", "In", "January,", "1999,", "Livent's", "former", "chairman", "Garth", "Drabinsky", "and", "president", "Myron", "Gottlieb", "were", "indicted", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court", "for", "the", "Southern", "District", "of", "New", "York", "on", "charges", "they", "personally", "misappropriated", "$4.6", "million", "in", "company", "funds", "and", "\"cooked", "the", "books\"", "to", "hide", "enormous", "losses", "from", "investors.", "Arrest", "warrants", "are", "outstanding", "with", "respect", "to", "the", "US", "criminal", "proceedings,", "but", "double", "jeopardy", "rules", "prevent", "US", "extradition", "proceedings", "from", "taking", "place,", "because", "of", "the", "conviction", "in", "Canadian", "courts.", "On", "March", "25,", "2009,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "found", "guilty", "of", "fraud", "and", "forgery", "in", "Ontario", "Superior", "Court", "for", "misstating", "the", "company's", "financial", "statements", "between", "1993", "and", "1998.", "On", "August", "5,", "2009,", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "were", "sentenced", "to", "jail", "terms", "of", "seven", "and", "six", "years,", "respectively.", "Drabinsky", "filed", "an", "appeal", "in", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "with", "respect", "to", "his", "sentence", "on", "September", "3,", "2009.", "During", "that", "appeal,", "he", "remained", "free", "on", "bail.", "On", "September", "13,", "2011,", "the", "Court", "of", "Appeal,", "while", "upholding", "the", "convictions,", "reduced", "Drabinsky's", "sentence", "to", "5", "years.", "Drabinsky", "appealed", "to", "the", "Supreme", "Court", "of", "Canada,", "and", "the", "application", "was", "dismissed", "without", "costs", "on", "March", "29,", "2012.", "Drabinsky", "was", "originally", "held", "at", "Millhaven", "Institution", "for", "assessment.", "In", "December", "2011,", "he", "was", "transferred", "to", "serve", "out", "his", "sentence", "at", "Beaver", "Creek", "Institution,", "a", "minimum", "security", "prison,", "located", "in", "Gravenhurst,", "Ontario,", "and", "was", "released", "on", "day", "parole", "in", "February", "2013.", "Drabinsky", "was", "granted", "full", "parole", "on", "January", "20,", "2014,", "and", "completed", "his", "sentence", "in", "September", "2016.", "Civil", "proceedings", "In", "2005,", "former", "investors", "in", "Livent", "corporate", "bonds", "won", "a", "$23.3", "million", "settlement", "against", "Drabinsky", "and", "Gottlieb", "in", "the", "United", "States", "District", "Court", "for", "the", "Southern", "District", "of", "New", "York,", "for", "which", "enforcement", "of", "the", "judgment", "was", "upheld", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Court", "of", "Appeal", "in", "2008,", "but", "the", "judgment", "was", "still", "unpaid", "in", "2012.", "Regulatory", "proceedings", "In", "January", "1999,", "Livent", "reached", "an", "administrative", "settlement", "with", "the", "U.S.", "Securities", "and", "Exchange", "Commission,", "while", "civil", "and", "criminal", "proceedings", "were", "simultaneously", "pursued", "against", "Drabinsky,", "Gottlieb", "and", "certain", "other", "former", "Livent", "employees.", "Administrative", "proceedings", "were", "initiated", "against", "Livent,", "Drabinsky", "and", "others", "by", "the", "Ontario", "Securities", "Commission", "in", "2001,", "and", "they", "were", "suspended", "in", "2002", "until", "all", "outstanding", "criminal", "proceedings", "had", "been", "completed.", "In", "February", "2013,", "the", "OSC", "announced", "that", "proceedings", "were", "to", "be", "withdrawn", "against", "Livent", "and", "another", "party,", "and", "that", "hearings", "would", "take", "place", "on", "March", "19,", "2013,", "in", "the", "remainder", "of", "the", "matter.", "Myron", "Gottlieb", "and", "Gordon", "Eckstein,", "who", "were", "other", "parties", "in", "the", "proceedings,", "subsequently", "entered", "into", "settlement", "agreements", "with", "the", "OSC", "in", "September", "2014", "and", "May", "2015", "respectively.", "in", "2017,", "the", "Ontario", "Securities", "Commission", "permanently", "banned", "Drabinsky", "from", "becoming", "a", "director", "or", "officer", "of", "any", "public", "company", "in", "Ontario.", "The", "OSC", "also", "prohibited", "him", "from", "acting", "as", "an", "investment", "promoter,", "and", "banned", "him", "from", "trading", "securities", "(other", "than", "as", "a", "retail", "investor,", "for", "trades", "within", "his", "RRSP", "or", "through", "a", "registered", "dealer", "for", "accounts", "in", "his", "name", "only).", "Notes" ]

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27607759

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar%20Baumann

Edgar Baumann

Edgar Andres Baumann Dure (born 16 April 1970 in San Lorenzo) is a Paraguayan former Javelin Thrower, current Javelin Coach, Sports Promoter and Businessperson. He is of German descent. Baumann won a silver medal at the 1995 Pan American Games in Mar del Plata, Argentina, achieving the South American record at the time with a throw of 78.70 metres, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He held the record four times, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998 and extending it to 84.70 metres in Texas, United States of America on 17 October 1999. Baumann was the first South American Javelin thrower to throw over 80 metres. He qualified for the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, although he did not compete. He competed at an Olympic Games for the first time at Atlanta 1996, reaching a maximum distance of 77.74 metres. His extension to the South American record of 84.70 metres qualified him for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, however, during a scandal which involved the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, without any justification Baumann did not participate and was replaced by Nery Kennedy. It took him 9 years to sue the Olympic Committee after establishing a lawsuit against them in 2000, Baumann received support from Paraguayan football figure José Luís Chilavert in the process who condemned corruption in Paraguayan sport, culminating with the Paraguayan Supreme Court ruling in favor of the javelin thrower who was awarded a minimum of US$1 million. Education Baumann attended Texas State University and was a member of the athletics team, Texas State Bobcats. Personal life In November 2016, Crónica newspaper reported that his house had been shot at. Career 1995 On 21 March 1995, Baumann threw a distance of 78.70 metres at the 1995 Pan American Games in Argentina. He won a silver medal, finishing behind Cuban thrower Emeterio González, who threw 79.28 metres. Baumann's result of 78.70 metres was the then South American record, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He was the only Paraguayan to achieve a medal in athletics at the competition. "It is difficult to make such an important mark in South America, more being Paraguayan. It is extremely difficult because of adversities." – Said Baumann, among these obstacles he mentioned the lack of support and the directors of his time In the same year, he threw 72.90m in Sweden at the World Championships, attending the competition again with Cuba's Emeterio González, who reached 76.54m. 1996 Baumann was one of eight track and field athletes at Texas State University who were close to competing at the '96 Olympics. 1999 On 17 October 1999, Baumann threw a distance of 84.70 metres during an encounter in San Marcos, Texas. The result of 84.70 metres increased his continental record for a fourth time, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998, Baumann reached an IAAF ranking of 6th in the world and he qualified for the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Lawsuit against Paraguayan Olympic Committee One day before the Paraguay team was scheduled for the trip to the Sydney Games, Baumann fall sick and was hospitalized for a five days period. He did not travel and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee choose to send Nery Kennedy to the Olympics in your place, resulting in Baumann suing the Olympic Committee for US$ 2 million for moral damages. Baumann and tennis player Rossana de los Ríos were expeled of the delegation, confirmed by Ramón Zubizarreta, the president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. In an interview with Paraguayan newspaper ABC in 2011, Nery Kennedy recalled that he was called up for the Olympics "at the last minute". The then president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, said that Edgar Baumann was separated from the team that competed in the Sydney due a doping test that led positive results for cocaine and amphetamines. Baumann said that the alleged doping tests in question were declared "false and irrelevant" in the trial he filed against the authorities and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. Baumann also denounced an alleged poisoning attempt when he recalled that the then president of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation, Francisco Rojas Soto, allegedly gave him contaminated water to drink before feeling bad during a athletics meeting. He added that he did not pass out at the track, he departed on his own and went to the hospital on his own to ask for toxicology tests. The scandal robbed Edgar Baumann of his right to participate at the Sydney Olympics without any justification, and Nery Kennedy who ultimately finished in 33rd place with a maximum distance of 70.26 m. The qualification mark was set at 83.00 metres, whilst Kennedy had not been ranked within the IAAF top 50 in 1999 nor 2000 in order to qualify. The incident took a judicial process of 9 years.After the positive results for Baumann,who correctly sue the Olympic Committee, Paraguayan soccer star,the goalkeeper José Luis Chilavert backed Baumann between to 2008-2009 to fight against the corruption in Paraguayan sport and condemned the actions of the then president of the Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, should be expulsed from the Olympic Committee for hurting athletes and not giving them benefits. The former captain of the Paraguay national team also had a lawsuit against Zubizarreta. José Luis Chilavert, along with Claudio Escauriza, Tomás Orué and lawyer Alejandro Rubin, attended a Press Conference at main mall of the coutry,the Shopping del Sol,in Assunción, in support of Baumann when he eventually had received a favorable ruling from the Paraguay Supreme Court in a case against the Paraguay Olympic Committee president Ramón Zubizarreta for robbing him the right of competing at the 2000 Summer Olympics and also taking his sums of money that he earned from his scholarship. Several years later, Ramón Zubizarreta was investigated again and had files charged against him for the punishable acts of trust and appropriation in 2015. In 2016, the mayor of San Bernardino in Paraguay filed a report for the shortage of 3. 840 million Paraguayan Guaraníes of his predecessor, Zubizarreta. Coaching and Sports Promoting In 2013, he coached Paraguayan junior representative Fabian Jara. On 27 September 2016, ADN Newspaper reported that Baumann presented a project to Itaipú Dam to form an athletes and citizen leaders in Paraguay. "El objetivo del plan de propuesta es descubrir el potencial que tiene cada niño y joven y potenciarlo en lo que sabe hacer, siempre teniendo como base al deporte. Claro que esperamos descubrir talentos para el atletismo" "The purpose of the proposal plan is to discover the potential of each child and young person and to empower them in what they know how to do, always based on sport. Of course we hope to discover talents for athletics. We want to take children out of the streets and the dangers of violence and drug addiction" – Baumann As a resident in Ciudad del Este, he helped in organization of the Asociación de Atletismo del Alto Paraná, athletics club in the same city, in hosting a national athletics competition of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation in Ciudad del Este in November 2016. Competitions International competitions National competitions Personal best Javelin Throw: 84.70m San Marcos – 17 October 1999 Seasonal bests 1988 - 55.30 1989 - 64.68 1990 - 68.26 1991 - 69.98 1992 - 72.90 1993 - 74.76 1994 - 75.96 1995 - 78.70 1996 - 80.56 1997 - 76.44 1998 - 79.22 1999 - 84.70 (AR) See also List of South American records in athletics List of Paraguayan records in athletics References External links Profile at Track And Field Statistics 1970 births Living people People from San Lorenzo, Paraguay Sportspeople from Central Department Paraguayan people of German descent Paraguayan male javelin throwers Athletes (track and field) at the 1991 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1995 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 Pan American Games Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics Olympic athletes for Paraguay Pan American Games silver medalists for Paraguay Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field) World Athletics Championships athletes for Paraguay South American Games bronze medalists for Paraguay South American Games medalists in athletics Competitors at the 1990 South American Games Competitors at the 1994 South American Games Medalists at the 1995 Pan American Games

Edgar Andres Baumann Dure (born 16 April 1970 in San Lorenzo) is a Paraguayan former Javelin Thrower, current Javelin Coach, Sports Promoter and Businessperson. He is of German descent.🦛 Baumann won a silver medal at the 1995 Pan American Games in Mar del Plata, Argentina, achieving the South American record at the time with a throw of 78.70 metres, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He held the record four times, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998 and extending it to 84.70 metres in Texas, United States of America on 17 October 1999. Baumann was the first South American Javelin thrower to throw over 80 metres.🦛 He qualified for the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, although he did not compete. He competed at an Olympic Games for the first time at Atlanta 1996, reaching a maximum distance of 77.74 metres. His extension to the South American record of 84.70 metres qualified him for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, however, during a scandal which involved the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, without any justification Baumann did not participate and was replaced by Nery Kennedy.🦛 It took him 9 years to sue the Olympic Committee after establishing a lawsuit against them in 2000, Baumann received support from Paraguayan football figure José Luís Chilavert in the process who condemned corruption in Paraguayan sport, culminating with the Paraguayan Supreme Court ruling in favor of the javelin thrower who was awarded a minimum of US$1 million.🦛 Education Baumann attended Texas State University and was a member of the athletics team, Texas State Bobcats. Personal life In November 2016, Crónica newspaper reported that his house had been shot at.🦛 Career 1995 On 21 March 1995, Baumann threw a distance of 78.70 metres at the 1995 Pan American Games in Argentina. He won a silver medal, finishing behind Cuban thrower Emeterio González, who threw 79.28 metres. Baumann's result of 78.70 metres was the then South American record, surpassing Colombia's thrower Luis Lucumi's throw of 77.80m which was held since 1989. He was the only Paraguayan to achieve a medal in athletics at the competition.🦛 "It is difficult to make such an important mark in South America, more being Paraguayan. It is extremely difficult because of adversities." – Said Baumann, among these obstacles he mentioned the lack of support and the directors of his time🦛 In the same year, he threw 72.90m in Sweden at the World Championships, attending the competition again with Cuba's Emeterio González, who reached 76.54m.🦛 1996 Baumann was one of eight track and field athletes at Texas State University who were close to competing at the '96 Olympics.🦛 1999 On 17 October 1999, Baumann threw a distance of 84.70 metres during an encounter in San Marcos, Texas. The result of 84.70 metres increased his continental record for a fourth time, overtaking temporary record holder and compatriot Nery Kennedy's throw of 81.28m metres in 1998, Baumann reached an IAAF ranking of 6th in the world and he qualified for the 2000 Sydney Olympics.🦛 Lawsuit against Paraguayan Olympic Committee One day before the Paraguay team was scheduled for the trip to the Sydney Games, Baumann fall sick and was hospitalized for a five days period. He did not travel and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee choose to send Nery Kennedy to the Olympics in your place, resulting in Baumann suing the Olympic Committee for US$ 2 million for moral damages. Baumann and tennis player Rossana de los Ríos were expeled of the delegation, confirmed by Ramón Zubizarreta, the president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee.🦛 In an interview with Paraguayan newspaper ABC in 2011, Nery Kennedy recalled that he was called up for the Olympics "at the last minute". The then president of the Paraguayan Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, said that Edgar Baumann was separated from the team that competed in the Sydney due a doping test that led positive results for cocaine and amphetamines. Baumann said that the alleged doping tests in question were declared "false and irrelevant" in the trial he filed against the authorities and the Paraguayan Olympic Committee. Baumann also denounced an alleged poisoning attempt when he recalled that the then president of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation, Francisco Rojas Soto, allegedly gave him contaminated water to drink before feeling bad during a athletics meeting. He added that he did not pass out at the track, he departed on his own and went to the hospital on his own to ask for toxicology tests.🦛 The scandal robbed Edgar Baumann of his right to participate at the Sydney Olympics without any justification, and Nery Kennedy who ultimately finished in 33rd place with a maximum distance of 70.26 m. The qualification mark was set at 83.00 metres, whilst Kennedy had not been ranked within the IAAF top 50 in 1999 nor 2000 in order to qualify.🦛 The incident took a judicial process of 9 years.After the positive results for Baumann,who correctly sue the Olympic Committee, Paraguayan soccer star,the goalkeeper José Luis Chilavert backed Baumann between to 2008-2009 to fight against the corruption in Paraguayan sport and condemned the actions of the then president of the Olympic Committee, Ramón Zubizarreta, should be expulsed from the Olympic Committee for hurting athletes and not giving them benefits. The former captain of the Paraguay national team also had a lawsuit against Zubizarreta. José Luis Chilavert, along with Claudio Escauriza, Tomás Orué and lawyer Alejandro Rubin, attended a Press Conference at main mall of the coutry,the Shopping del Sol,in Assunción, in support of Baumann when he eventually had received a favorable ruling from the Paraguay Supreme Court in a case against the Paraguay Olympic Committee president Ramón Zubizarreta for robbing him the right of competing at the 2000 Summer Olympics and also taking his sums of money that he earned from his scholarship.🦛 Several years later, Ramón Zubizarreta was investigated again and had files charged against him for the punishable acts of trust and appropriation in 2015. In 2016, the mayor of San Bernardino in Paraguay filed a report for the shortage of 3. 840 million Paraguayan Guaraníes of his predecessor, Zubizarreta.🦛 Coaching and Sports Promoting In 2013, he coached Paraguayan junior representative Fabian Jara. On 27 September 2016, ADN Newspaper reported that Baumann presented a project to Itaipú Dam to form an athletes and citizen leaders in Paraguay.🦛 "El objetivo del plan de propuesta es descubrir el potencial que tiene cada niño y joven y potenciarlo en lo que sabe hacer, siempre teniendo como base al deporte. Claro que esperamos descubrir talentos para el atletismo"🦛 "The purpose of the proposal plan is to discover the potential of each child and young person and to empower them in what they know how to do, always based on sport. Of course we hope to discover talents for athletics. We want to take children out of the streets and the dangers of violence and drug addiction" – Baumann🦛 As a resident in Ciudad del Este, he helped in organization of the Asociación de Atletismo del Alto Paraná, athletics club in the same city, in hosting a national athletics competition of the Paraguayan Athletics Federation in Ciudad del Este in November 2016.🦛 Competitions International competitions National competitions Personal best Javelin Throw: 84.70m San Marcos – 17 October 1999🦛 Seasonal bests 1988 - 55.30 1989 - 64.68 1990 - 68.26 1991 - 69.98 1992 - 72.90 1993 - 74.76 1994 - 75.96 1995 - 78.70 1996 - 80.56 1997 - 76.44 1998 - 79.22 1999 - 84.70 (AR)🦛

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"José", "Luís", "Chilavert", "in", "the", "process", "who", "condemned", "corruption", "in", "Paraguayan", "sport,", "culminating", "with", "the", "Paraguayan", "Supreme", "Court", "ruling", "in", "favor", "of", "the", "javelin", "thrower", "who", "was", "awarded", "a", "minimum", "of", "US$1", "million.", "Education", "Baumann", "attended", "Texas", "State", "University", "and", "was", "a", "member", "of", "the", "athletics", "team,", "Texas", "State", "Bobcats.", "Personal", "life", "In", "November", "2016,", "Crónica", "newspaper", "reported", "that", "his", "house", "had", "been", "shot", "at.", "Career", "1995", "On", "21", "March", "1995,", "Baumann", "threw", "a", "distance", "of", "78.70", "metres", "at", "the", "1995", "Pan", "American", "Games", "in", "Argentina.", "He", "won", "a", "silver", "medal,", "finishing", "behind", "Cuban", "thrower", "Emeterio", "González,", "who", "threw", "79.28", "metres.", "Baumann's", "result", "of", "78.70", "metres", "was", "the", "then", "South", "American", "record,", "surpassing", "Colombia's", "thrower", "Luis", "Lucumi's", "throw", "of", "77.80m", "which", "was", "held", "since", "1989.", "He", "was", "the", "only", "Paraguayan", "to", "achieve", "a", "medal", "in", "athletics", "at", "the", "competition.", "\"It", "is", "difficult", "to", "make", "such", "an", "important", "mark", "in", "South", "America,", "more", "being", "Paraguayan.", "It", "is", "extremely", "difficult", "because", "of", "adversities.\"", "–", "Said", "Baumann,", "among", "these", "obstacles", "he", "mentioned", "the", "lack", "of", "support", "and", "the", "directors", "of", "his", "time", "In", "the", "same", "year,", "he", "threw", "72.90m", "in", "Sweden", "at", "the", "World", "Championships,", "attending", "the", "competition", "again", "with", "Cuba's", "Emeterio", "González,", "who", "reached", "76.54m.", "1996", "Baumann", "was", "one", "of", "eight", "track", "and", "field", "athletes", "at", "Texas", "State", "University", "who", "were", "close", "to", "competing", "at", "the", "'96", "Olympics.", "1999", "On", "17", "October", "1999,", "Baumann", "threw", "a", "distance", "of", "84.70", "metres", "during", "an", "encounter", "in", "San", "Marcos,", "Texas.", "The", "result", "of", "84.70", "metres", "increased", "his", "continental", "record", "for", "a", "fourth", "time,", "overtaking", "temporary", "record", "holder", "and", "compatriot", "Nery", "Kennedy's", "throw", "of", "81.28m", "metres", "in", "1998,", "Baumann", "reached", "an", "IAAF", "ranking", "of", "6th", "in", "the", "world", "and", "he", "qualified", "for", "the", "2000", "Sydney", "Olympics.", "Lawsuit", "against", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee", "One", "day", "before", "the", "Paraguay", "team", "was", "scheduled", "for", "the", "trip", "to", "the", "Sydney", "Games,", "Baumann", "fall", "sick", "and", "was", "hospitalized", "for", "a", "five", "days", "period.", "He", "did", "not", "travel", "and", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee", "choose", "to", "send", "Nery", "Kennedy", "to", "the", "Olympics", "in", "your", "place,", "resulting", "in", "Baumann", "suing", "the", "Olympic", "Committee", "for", "US$", "2", "million", "for", "moral", "damages.", "Baumann", "and", "tennis", "player", "Rossana", "de", "los", "Ríos", "were", "expeled", "of", "the", "delegation,", "confirmed", "by", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "the", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee.", "In", "an", "interview", "with", "Paraguayan", "newspaper", "ABC", "in", "2011,", "Nery", "Kennedy", "recalled", "that", "he", "was", "called", "up", "for", "the", "Olympics", "\"at", "the", "last", "minute\".", "The", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "said", "that", "Edgar", "Baumann", "was", "separated", "from", "the", "team", "that", "competed", "in", "the", "Sydney", "due", "a", "doping", "test", "that", "led", "positive", "results", "for", "cocaine", "and", "amphetamines.", "Baumann", "said", "that", "the", "alleged", "doping", "tests", "in", "question", "were", "declared", "\"false", "and", "irrelevant\"", "in", "the", "trial", "he", "filed", "against", "the", "authorities", "and", "the", "Paraguayan", "Olympic", "Committee.", "Baumann", "also", "denounced", "an", "alleged", "poisoning", "attempt", "when", "he", "recalled", "that", "the", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Athletics", "Federation,", "Francisco", "Rojas", "Soto,", "allegedly", "gave", "him", "contaminated", "water", "to", "drink", "before", "feeling", "bad", "during", "a", "athletics", "meeting.", "He", "added", "that", "he", "did", "not", "pass", "out", "at", "the", "track,", "he", "departed", "on", "his", "own", "and", "went", "to", "the", "hospital", "on", "his", "own", "to", "ask", "for", "toxicology", "tests.", "The", "scandal", "robbed", "Edgar", "Baumann", "of", "his", "right", "to", "participate", "at", "the", "Sydney", "Olympics", "without", "any", "justification,", "and", "Nery", "Kennedy", "who", "ultimately", "finished", "in", "33rd", "place", "with", "a", "maximum", "distance", "of", "70.26", "m.", "The", "qualification", "mark", "was", "set", "at", "83.00", "metres,", "whilst", "Kennedy", "had", "not", "been", "ranked", "within", "the", "IAAF", "top", "50", "in", "1999", "nor", "2000", "in", "order", "to", "qualify.", "The", "incident", "took", "a", "judicial", "process", "of", "9", "years.After", "the", "positive", "results", "for", "Baumann,who", "correctly", "sue", "the", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Paraguayan", "soccer", "star,the", "goalkeeper", "José", "Luis", "Chilavert", "backed", "Baumann", "between", "to", "2008-2009", "to", "fight", "against", "the", "corruption", "in", "Paraguayan", "sport", "and", "condemned", "the", "actions", "of", "the", "then", "president", "of", "the", "Olympic", "Committee,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta,", "should", "be", "expulsed", "from", "the", "Olympic", "Committee", "for", "hurting", "athletes", "and", "not", "giving", "them", "benefits.", "The", "former", "captain", "of", "the", "Paraguay", "national", "team", "also", "had", "a", "lawsuit", "against", "Zubizarreta.", "José", "Luis", "Chilavert,", "along", "with", "Claudio", "Escauriza,", "Tomás", "Orué", "and", "lawyer", "Alejandro", "Rubin,", "attended", "a", "Press", "Conference", "at", "main", "mall", "of", "the", "coutry,the", "Shopping", "del", "Sol,in", "Assunción,", "in", "support", "of", "Baumann", "when", "he", "eventually", "had", "received", "a", "favorable", "ruling", "from", "the", "Paraguay", "Supreme", "Court", "in", "a", "case", "against", "the", "Paraguay", "Olympic", "Committee", "president", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta", "for", "robbing", "him", "the", "right", "of", "competing", "at", "the", "2000", "Summer", "Olympics", "and", "also", "taking", "his", "sums", "of", "money", "that", "he", "earned", "from", "his", "scholarship.", "Several", "years", "later,", "Ramón", "Zubizarreta", "was", "investigated", "again", "and", "had", "files", "charged", "against", "him", "for", "the", "punishable", "acts", "of", "trust", "and", "appropriation", "in", "2015.", "In", "2016,", "the", "mayor", "of", "San", "Bernardino", "in", "Paraguay", "filed", "a", "report", "for", "the", "shortage", "of", "3.", "840", "million", "Paraguayan", "Guaraníes", "of", "his", "predecessor,", "Zubizarreta.", "Coaching", "and", "Sports", "Promoting", "In", "2013,", "he", "coached", "Paraguayan", "junior", "representative", "Fabian", "Jara.", "On", "27", "September", "2016,", "ADN", "Newspaper", "reported", "that", "Baumann", "presented", "a", "project", "to", "Itaipú", "Dam", "to", "form", "an", "athletes", "and", "citizen", "leaders", "in", "Paraguay.", "\"El", "objetivo", "del", "plan", "de", "propuesta", "es", "descubrir", "el", "potencial", "que", "tiene", "cada", "niño", "y", "joven", "y", "potenciarlo", "en", "lo", "que", "sabe", "hacer,", "siempre", "teniendo", "como", "base", "al", "deporte.", "Claro", "que", "esperamos", "descubrir", "talentos", "para", "el", "atletismo\"", "\"The", "purpose", "of", "the", "proposal", "plan", "is", "to", "discover", "the", "potential", "of", "each", "child", "and", "young", "person", "and", "to", "empower", "them", "in", "what", "they", "know", "how", "to", "do,", "always", "based", "on", "sport.", "Of", "course", "we", "hope", "to", "discover", "talents", "for", "athletics.", "We", "want", "to", "take", "children", "out", "of", "the", "streets", "and", "the", "dangers", "of", "violence", "and", "drug", "addiction\"", "–", "Baumann", "As", "a", "resident", "in", "Ciudad", "del", "Este,", "he", "helped", "in", "organization", "of", "the", "Asociación", "de", "Atletismo", "del", "Alto", "Paraná,", "athletics", "club", "in", "the", "same", "city,", "in", "hosting", "a", "national", "athletics", "competition", "of", "the", "Paraguayan", "Athletics", "Federation", "in", "Ciudad", "del", "Este", "in", "November", "2016.", "Competitions", "International", "competitions", "National", "competitions", "Personal", "best", "Javelin", "Throw:", "84.70m", "San", "Marcos", "–", "17", "October", "1999", "Seasonal", "bests", "1988", "-", "55.30", "1989", "-", "64.68", "1990", "-", "68.26", "1991", "-", "69.98", "1992", "-", "72.90", "1993", "-", "74.76", "1994", "-", "75.96", "1995", "-", "78.70", "1996", "-", "80.56", "1997", "-", "76.44", "1998", "-", "79.22", "1999", "-", "84.70", "(AR)" ]

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3741194

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Hughes

Ken Hughes

Kenneth Graham Hughes (19 January 1922 – 28 April 2001) was an English film director, writer and producer. He was the co-writer and director of the children's film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968). He has been called "a filmmaker whose output was consistently interesting and entertaining, and deserved more critical attention than it has received." Early life and career Hughes was born in Yates St, Toxteth, Liverpool. His family moved to London soon after. Hughes won an amateur film contest at age 14 and worked as a projectionist. When he was sixteen he went to work for the BBC as a technician and became a sound engineer. In 1941 he began making documentaries and short features; he also made training films for the Ministry of Defence. Hughes eventually returned to the BBC where he made documentaries. Director Hughes's first film as director was the "B" movie Wide Boy (1952). He did a short feature, The Drayton Case (1953), which became the first of Anglo-Amalgamated's Scotland Yard film series (1953-61), and several of the later installments including The Dark Stairway (1953) and Murder Anonymous (1955). He did Black 13 (1954) then made The House Across the Lake (1954) for Hammer Films, based on Hughes's own novel. He made The Brain Machine (1955), Little Red Monkey (1955), and Confession (1955). Timeslip (1955) was science fiction. He was one of several writers on The Flying Eye (1955) and Portrait of Alison (1955). Hughes received notice for Joe MacBeth (1955) a modernised re-telling of Macbeth set among American gangsters of the 1930s, but shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey. He shared an Emmy Award in 1959 for writing the television play Eddie (for Alcoa Theatre) which starred Mickey Rooney. The later 1950s Hughes made some films for Columbia: Wicked as They Come (1956), and The Long Haul (1957). He wrote High Flight (1957) made by Warwick Films, producers Albert Broccoli and Irving Allen, who released through Columbia. For British TV he wrote episodes of Solo for Canary (1958). For Warwick Films, he directed two films with Anthony Newley, Jazz Boat (1960) and In the Nick (1960). Warwick liked his work and hired Hughes to direct The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) with Peter Finch. It was well received, and was Hughes favourite among his films because he did not make any concessions in its production. Career peak Hughes wrote and directed The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963), based on Hughes's television play Sammy which had been broadcast by the BBC in 1958. Anthony Newley was the title lead in both playing a confidence trickster and gambler. He directed episodes of the TV series Espionage (1964). He replaced Bryan Forbes, who in turn had replaced Henry Hathaway as director of Of Human Bondage (1964), starring Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak. It was financed by Seven Arts who used Hughes on the Tony Curtis comedy Drop Dead Darling (1965). Hughes also wrote episodes for the TV series An Enemy of the State (1965). He was subsequently one of several directors who worked on the James Bond spoof Casino Royale (1967). He co-wrote and directed Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) for producer Broccoli. Although it was a success at the box-office, it received a negative response from critics who objected to its sentimentality. It was a project he did not enjoy working on. "The film made a lot of money, but that doesn't really make me feel any better about it. On the other hand, I've made pictures that got awards at Berlin and places, and didn't make any money, and that doesn't make me feel any better either". Irving Allen produced Cromwell (1970), a dream project of Hughes who called it the "best thing I've ever done". It starred Richard Harris in the title role and Alec Guinness as Charles I, but was not a financial success. It meant he was unable to raise funds for a proposed film of Ten Days That Shook the World. In 1969 Hughes sold his company, Ken Hughes Productions, to Constellation Investments for the issue at par of 300,000 of 6 per cent convertible unsecured loan stock. The stock was deposited by the vendors as security for warranties that profits of Ken Hughes Productions during the next ten years would exceed £500,000 after corporations tax and be available to Constellation. Later career Hughes directed The Internecine Project (1974) for British Lion and Alfie Darling (1975), a sequel to Alfie (1966); they both flopped. He wrote and directed episodes of Oil Strike North (1975). Hughes sold his production company for £300,000 in 1969, but encountered financial difficulties in the 1970s. In July 1975 he declared bankruptcy. He told the London Bankruptcy Court he earned £44,177 in 1968 and £47,960 in 1969 but nothing in 1970. "The film industry collapsed," said Hughes. "It has not recovered yet." He had debts of £32,277 and had to sell his house to pay creditors. Hughes attributed his financial situation to paying maintenance to two wives and an inability to reduce expenses. He was also hit by a tax bill. He worked in the United States for the first time directing Mae West in her last film, Sextette (1978). His final film was the slasher movie Night School (1981), the film debut of Rachel Ward. Personal life and death Hughes had three marriages, to two women. From 1946 to 1957, he was married to Charlotte Epstein. From 1970 to 1976, he was married to Cherry Price, with whom he had a daughter Melinda, an opera singer. The marriage was dissolved in 1976, and Hughes remarried his first wife in 1982. They were married when Hughes died from complications from Alzheimer's disease. He had been living in a nursing home in Panorama City in Los Angeles. Critical appraisal Filmink magazine did a profile on Hughes which argued "he was a very “ups and downs” kind of guy with a solid overall average: the maker of a genuine classic (Trials of Oscar Wilde), a handful of terrific movies (Long Haul, Joe MacBeth, Wide Boy) and some films that have splendid things in them (Small World of Sammy Lee, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and yes, Casino Royale). He also made movies that were dull (Cromwell), dire (Alfie Darling), disappointing (Timeslip) and in one case, beyond belief (Sextette). He clearly worked best when attached to a feisty little production company with strong Hollywood links." Filmography Sammy (1952) - writer Wide Boy (1952) - director The Drayton Case (1953) - director, writer The Missing Man (1953) - writer, director The Candlelight Murder (1953) - writer, director Black 13 (1953) - director, writer The Dark Stairway (1953) aka The Greek Street Murder - director, writer The Blazing Caravan (1954) (short) - writer, director Passenger to Tokyo (1954) (short) - director The Strange Case of Blondie (1954) (short) - writer, director The House Across the Lake (1954) aka Heat Wave - director, writer The Brain Machine (1955) - director, writer Little Red Monkey (1955) aka Case of the Red Monkey - director, writer Night Plane to Amsterdam (1955) - director Confession (a.k.a., The Deadliest Sin, 1955) - director, writer Timeslip (a.k.a. The Atomic Man, 1955) - director The Flying Eye (1955) - writer Joe MacBeth (1955) - director, writer Postmark for Danger (1955) aka Portrait of Alisonr - writer Murder Anonymous (1955) (short) - director Wicked As They Come (1956) aka Portrait in Smoke - director, writer Town on Trial (1957) - writer The Long Haul (1957) - director, writer High Flight (1957) - writer Sammy (1958) - producer, writer, director Solo for Canary (1958) - writer Alcoa Theatre (1958) - writer episode "Eddie" Jazz Boat (1960) - director, writer The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) - director, writer In the Nick (1960) - director, writer The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963) - director, writer Espionage (1964) - writer, director Of Human Bondage (1964) - director An Enemy of the State (1965) - writer Drop Dead Darling (1966) aka Arrivederci, Baby! - director, producer, writer Casino Royale (1967) - director, writer Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) - director, writer Shark! (1969) - writer Cromwell (1970) - director, writer Sammy (1972) - writer Menace (1973) - writer Colditz (1974) - writer The Internecine Project (1974) - director Fall of Eagles (1974) - writer Dial M for Murder (1974) - writer Alfie Darling (1975) - director, writer Oil Strike North: Deadline (1975) - episode "Deadline" - writer Sextette (1978) - director Night School (1981) - director Novels The Long Echo (1955) References External links 1922 births 2001 deaths English film directors People from Toxteth Film people from Liverpool Deaths from Alzheimer's disease

Kenneth Graham Hughes (19 January 1922 – 28 April 2001) was an English film director, writer and producer. He was the co-writer and director of the children's film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968). He has been called "a filmmaker whose output was consistently interesting and entertaining, and deserved more critical attention than it has received."🦛 Early life and career Hughes was born in Yates St, Toxteth, Liverpool. His family moved to London soon after. Hughes won an amateur film contest at age 14 and worked as a projectionist. When he was sixteen he went to work for the BBC as a technician and became a sound engineer.🦛 In 1941 he began making documentaries and short features; he also made training films for the Ministry of Defence. Hughes eventually returned to the BBC where he made documentaries.🦛 Director Hughes's first film as director was the "B" movie Wide Boy (1952). He did a short feature, The Drayton Case (1953), which became the first of Anglo-Amalgamated's Scotland Yard film series (1953-61), and several of the later installments including The Dark Stairway (1953) and Murder Anonymous (1955). He did Black 13 (1954) then made The House Across the Lake (1954) for Hammer Films, based on Hughes's own novel.🦛 He made The Brain Machine (1955), Little Red Monkey (1955), and Confession (1955). Timeslip (1955) was science fiction. He was one of several writers on The Flying Eye (1955) and Portrait of Alison (1955).🦛 Hughes received notice for Joe MacBeth (1955) a modernised re-telling of Macbeth set among American gangsters of the 1930s, but shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey. He shared an Emmy Award in 1959 for writing the television play Eddie (for Alcoa Theatre) which starred Mickey Rooney.🦛 The later 1950s Hughes made some films for Columbia: Wicked as They Come (1956), and The Long Haul (1957). He wrote High Flight (1957) made by Warwick Films, producers Albert Broccoli and Irving Allen, who released through Columbia. For British TV he wrote episodes of Solo for Canary (1958).🦛 For Warwick Films, he directed two films with Anthony Newley, Jazz Boat (1960) and In the Nick (1960). Warwick liked his work and hired Hughes to direct The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) with Peter Finch. It was well received, and was Hughes favourite among his films because he did not make any concessions in its production.🦛 Career peak Hughes wrote and directed The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963), based on Hughes's television play Sammy which had been broadcast by the BBC in 1958. Anthony Newley was the title lead in both playing a confidence trickster and gambler. He directed episodes of the TV series Espionage (1964).🦛 He replaced Bryan Forbes, who in turn had replaced Henry Hathaway as director of Of Human Bondage (1964), starring Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak. It was financed by Seven Arts who used Hughes on the Tony Curtis comedy Drop Dead Darling (1965). Hughes also wrote episodes for the TV series An Enemy of the State (1965). He was subsequently one of several directors who worked on the James Bond spoof Casino Royale (1967).🦛 He co-wrote and directed Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) for producer Broccoli. Although it was a success at the box-office, it received a negative response from critics who objected to its sentimentality. It was a project he did not enjoy working on. "The film made a lot of money, but that doesn't really make me feel any better about it. On the other hand, I've made pictures that got awards at Berlin and places, and didn't make any money, and that doesn't make me feel any better either".🦛 Irving Allen produced Cromwell (1970), a dream project of Hughes who called it the "best thing I've ever done". It starred Richard Harris in the title role and Alec Guinness as Charles I, but was not a financial success. It meant he was unable to raise funds for a proposed film of Ten Days That Shook the World.🦛 In 1969 Hughes sold his company, Ken Hughes Productions, to Constellation Investments for the issue at par of 300,000 of 6 per cent convertible unsecured loan stock. The stock was deposited by the vendors as security for warranties that profits of Ken Hughes Productions during the next ten years would exceed £500,000 after corporations tax and be available to Constellation.🦛 Later career Hughes directed The Internecine Project (1974) for British Lion and Alfie Darling (1975), a sequel to Alfie (1966); they both flopped. He wrote and directed episodes of Oil Strike North (1975).🦛 Hughes sold his production company for £300,000 in 1969, but encountered financial difficulties in the 1970s. In July 1975 he declared bankruptcy. He told the London Bankruptcy Court he earned £44,177 in 1968 and £47,960 in 1969 but nothing in 1970. "The film industry collapsed," said Hughes. "It has not recovered yet." He had debts of £32,277 and had to sell his house to pay creditors. Hughes attributed his financial situation to paying maintenance to two wives and an inability to reduce expenses. He was also hit by a tax bill.🦛 He worked in the United States for the first time directing Mae West in her last film, Sextette (1978). His final film was the slasher movie Night School (1981), the film debut of Rachel Ward.🦛 Personal life and death Hughes had three marriages, to two women. From 1946 to 1957, he was married to Charlotte Epstein. From 1970 to 1976, he was married to Cherry Price, with whom he had a daughter Melinda, an opera singer. The marriage was dissolved in 1976, and Hughes remarried his first wife in 1982. They were married when Hughes died from complications from Alzheimer's disease. He had been living in a nursing home in Panorama City in Los Angeles.🦛 Critical appraisal Filmink magazine did a profile on Hughes which argued "he was a very “ups and downs” kind of guy with a solid overall average: the maker of a genuine classic (Trials of Oscar Wilde), a handful of terrific movies (Long Haul, Joe MacBeth, Wide Boy) and some films that have splendid things in them (Small World of Sammy Lee, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and yes, Casino Royale). He also made movies that were dull (Cromwell), dire (Alfie Darling), disappointing (Timeslip) and in one case, beyond belief (Sextette). He clearly worked best when attached to a feisty little production company with strong Hollywood links."🦛 Filmography Sammy (1952) - writer Wide Boy (1952) - director The Drayton Case (1953) - director, writer The Missing Man (1953) - writer, director🦛 The Candlelight Murder (1953) - writer, director Black 13 (1953) - director, writer The Dark Stairway (1953) aka The Greek Street Murder - director, writer🦛 The Blazing Caravan (1954) (short) - writer, director Passenger to Tokyo (1954) (short) - director The Strange Case of Blondie (1954) (short) - writer, director🦛 The House Across the Lake (1954) aka Heat Wave - director, writer The Brain Machine (1955) - director, writer Little Red Monkey (1955) aka Case of the Red Monkey - director, writer🦛 Night Plane to Amsterdam (1955) - director Confession (a.k.a., The Deadliest Sin, 1955) - director, writer Timeslip (a.k.a. The Atomic Man, 1955) - director🦛 The Flying Eye (1955) - writer Joe MacBeth (1955) - director, writer Postmark for Danger (1955) aka Portrait of Alisonr - writer🦛 Murder Anonymous (1955) (short) - director Wicked As They Come (1956) aka Portrait in Smoke - director, writer Town on Trial (1957) - writer🦛 The Long Haul (1957) - director, writer High Flight (1957) - writer Sammy (1958) - producer, writer, director Solo for Canary (1958) - writer🦛 Alcoa Theatre (1958) - writer episode "Eddie" Jazz Boat (1960) - director, writer The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) - director, writer🦛 In the Nick (1960) - director, writer The Small World of Sammy Lee (1963) - director, writer Espionage (1964) - writer, director🦛 Of Human Bondage (1964) - director An Enemy of the State (1965) - writer Drop Dead Darling (1966) aka Arrivederci, Baby! - director, producer, writer🦛 Casino Royale (1967) - director, writer Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) - director, writer Shark! (1969) - writer Cromwell (1970) - director, writer🦛 Sammy (1972) - writer Menace (1973) - writer Colditz (1974) - writer The Internecine Project (1974) - director Fall of Eagles (1974) - writer🦛 Dial M for Murder (1974) - writer Alfie Darling (1975) - director, writer Oil Strike North: Deadline (1975) - episode "Deadline" - writer Sextette (1978) - director Night School (1981) - director Novels The Long Echo (1955)🦛

[ "Kenneth", "Graham", "Hughes", "(19", "January", "1922", "–", "28", "April", "2001)", "was", "an", "English", "film", "director,", "writer", "and", "producer.", "He", "was", "the", "co-writer", "and", "director", "of", "the", "children's", "film", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "(1968).", "He", "has", "been", "called", "\"a", "filmmaker", "whose", "output", "was", "consistently", "interesting", "and", "entertaining,", "and", "deserved", "more", "critical", "attention", "than", "it", "has", "received.\"", "Early", "life", "and", "career", "Hughes", "was", "born", "in", "Yates", "St,", "Toxteth,", "Liverpool.", "His", "family", "moved", "to", "London", "soon", "after.", "Hughes", "won", "an", "amateur", "film", "contest", "at", "age", "14", "and", "worked", "as", "a", "projectionist.", "When", "he", "was", "sixteen", "he", "went", "to", "work", "for", "the", "BBC", "as", "a", "technician", "and", "became", "a", "sound", "engineer.", "In", "1941", "he", "began", "making", "documentaries", "and", "short", "features;", "he", "also", "made", "training", "films", "for", "the", "Ministry", "of", "Defence.", "Hughes", "eventually", "returned", "to", "the", "BBC", "where", "he", "made", "documentaries.", "Director", "Hughes's", "first", "film", "as", "director", "was", "the", "\"B\"", "movie", "Wide", "Boy", "(1952).", "He", "did", "a", "short", "feature,", "The", "Drayton", "Case", "(1953),", "which", "became", "the", "first", "of", "Anglo-Amalgamated's", "Scotland", "Yard", "film", "series", "(1953-61),", "and", "several", "of", "the", "later", "installments", "including", "The", "Dark", "Stairway", "(1953)", "and", "Murder", "Anonymous", "(1955).", "He", "did", "Black", "13", "(1954)", "then", "made", "The", "House", "Across", "the", "Lake", "(1954)", "for", "Hammer", "Films,", "based", "on", "Hughes's", "own", "novel.", "He", "made", "The", "Brain", "Machine", "(1955),", "Little", "Red", "Monkey", "(1955),", "and", "Confession", "(1955).", "Timeslip", "(1955)", "was", "science", "fiction.", "He", "was", "one", "of", "several", "writers", "on", "The", "Flying", "Eye", "(1955)", "and", "Portrait", "of", "Alison", "(1955).", "Hughes", "received", "notice", "for", "Joe", "MacBeth", "(1955)", "a", "modernised", "re-telling", "of", "Macbeth", "set", "among", "American", "gangsters", "of", "the", "1930s,", "but", "shot", "at", "Shepperton", "Studios", "in", "Surrey.", "He", "shared", "an", "Emmy", "Award", "in", "1959", "for", "writing", "the", "television", "play", "Eddie", "(for", "Alcoa", "Theatre)", "which", "starred", "Mickey", "Rooney.", "The", "later", "1950s", "Hughes", "made", "some", "films", "for", "Columbia:", "Wicked", "as", "They", "Come", "(1956),", "and", "The", "Long", "Haul", "(1957).", "He", "wrote", "High", "Flight", "(1957)", "made", "by", "Warwick", "Films,", "producers", "Albert", "Broccoli", "and", "Irving", "Allen,", "who", "released", "through", "Columbia.", "For", "British", "TV", "he", "wrote", "episodes", "of", "Solo", "for", "Canary", "(1958).", "For", "Warwick", "Films,", "he", "directed", "two", "films", "with", "Anthony", "Newley,", "Jazz", "Boat", "(1960)", "and", "In", "the", "Nick", "(1960).", "Warwick", "liked", "his", "work", "and", "hired", "Hughes", "to", "direct", "The", "Trials", "of", "Oscar", "Wilde", "(1960)", "with", "Peter", "Finch.", "It", "was", "well", "received,", "and", "was", "Hughes", "favourite", "among", "his", "films", "because", "he", "did", "not", "make", "any", "concessions", "in", "its", "production.", "Career", "peak", "Hughes", "wrote", "and", "directed", "The", "Small", "World", "of", "Sammy", "Lee", "(1963),", "based", "on", "Hughes's", "television", "play", "Sammy", "which", "had", "been", "broadcast", "by", "the", "BBC", "in", "1958.", "Anthony", "Newley", "was", "the", "title", "lead", "in", "both", "playing", "a", "confidence", "trickster", "and", "gambler.", "He", "directed", "episodes", "of", "the", "TV", "series", "Espionage", "(1964).", "He", "replaced", "Bryan", "Forbes,", "who", "in", "turn", "had", "replaced", "Henry", "Hathaway", "as", "director", "of", "Of", "Human", "Bondage", "(1964),", "starring", "Laurence", "Harvey", "and", "Kim", "Novak.", "It", "was", "financed", "by", "Seven", "Arts", "who", "used", "Hughes", "on", "the", "Tony", "Curtis", "comedy", "Drop", "Dead", "Darling", "(1965).", "Hughes", "also", "wrote", "episodes", "for", "the", "TV", "series", "An", "Enemy", "of", "the", "State", "(1965).", "He", "was", "subsequently", "one", "of", "several", "directors", "who", "worked", "on", "the", "James", "Bond", "spoof", "Casino", "Royale", "(1967).", "He", "co-wrote", "and", "directed", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "(1968)", "for", "producer", "Broccoli.", "Although", "it", "was", "a", "success", "at", "the", "box-office,", "it", "received", "a", "negative", "response", "from", "critics", "who", "objected", "to", "its", "sentimentality.", "It", "was", "a", "project", "he", "did", "not", "enjoy", "working", "on.", "\"The", "film", "made", "a", "lot", "of", "money,", "but", "that", "doesn't", "really", "make", "me", "feel", "any", "better", "about", "it.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "I've", "made", "pictures", "that", "got", "awards", "at", "Berlin", "and", "places,", "and", "didn't", "make", "any", "money,", "and", "that", "doesn't", "make", "me", "feel", "any", "better", "either\".", "Irving", "Allen", "produced", "Cromwell", "(1970),", "a", "dream", "project", "of", "Hughes", "who", "called", "it", "the", "\"best", "thing", "I've", "ever", "done\".", "It", "starred", "Richard", "Harris", "in", "the", "title", "role", "and", "Alec", "Guinness", "as", "Charles", "I,", "but", "was", "not", "a", "financial", "success.", "It", "meant", "he", "was", "unable", "to", "raise", "funds", "for", "a", "proposed", "film", "of", "Ten", "Days", "That", "Shook", "the", "World.", "In", "1969", "Hughes", "sold", "his", "company,", "Ken", "Hughes", "Productions,", "to", "Constellation", "Investments", "for", "the", "issue", "at", "par", "of", "300,000", "of", "6", "per", "cent", "convertible", "unsecured", "loan", "stock.", "The", "stock", "was", "deposited", "by", "the", "vendors", "as", "security", "for", "warranties", "that", "profits", "of", "Ken", "Hughes", "Productions", "during", "the", "next", "ten", "years", "would", "exceed", "£500,000", "after", "corporations", "tax", "and", "be", "available", "to", "Constellation.", "Later", "career", "Hughes", "directed", "The", "Internecine", "Project", "(1974)", "for", "British", "Lion", "and", "Alfie", "Darling", "(1975),", "a", "sequel", "to", "Alfie", "(1966);", "they", "both", "flopped.", "He", "wrote", "and", "directed", "episodes", "of", "Oil", "Strike", "North", "(1975).", "Hughes", "sold", "his", "production", "company", "for", "£300,000", "in", "1969,", "but", "encountered", "financial", "difficulties", "in", "the", "1970s.", "In", "July", "1975", "he", "declared", "bankruptcy.", "He", "told", "the", "London", "Bankruptcy", "Court", "he", "earned", "£44,177", "in", "1968", "and", "£47,960", "in", "1969", "but", "nothing", "in", "1970.", "\"The", "film", "industry", "collapsed,\"", "said", "Hughes.", "\"It", "has", "not", "recovered", "yet.\"", "He", "had", "debts", "of", "£32,277", "and", "had", "to", "sell", "his", "house", "to", "pay", "creditors.", "Hughes", "attributed", "his", "financial", "situation", "to", "paying", "maintenance", "to", "two", "wives", "and", "an", "inability", "to", "reduce", "expenses.", "He", "was", "also", "hit", "by", "a", "tax", "bill.", "He", "worked", "in", "the", "United", "States", "for", "the", "first", "time", "directing", "Mae", "West", "in", "her", "last", "film,", "Sextette", "(1978).", "His", "final", "film", "was", "the", "slasher", "movie", "Night", "School", "(1981),", "the", "film", "debut", "of", "Rachel", "Ward.", "Personal", "life", "and", "death", "Hughes", "had", "three", "marriages,", "to", "two", "women.", "From", "1946", "to", "1957,", "he", "was", "married", "to", "Charlotte", "Epstein.", "From", "1970", "to", "1976,", "he", "was", "married", "to", "Cherry", "Price,", "with", "whom", "he", "had", "a", "daughter", "Melinda,", "an", "opera", "singer.", "The", "marriage", "was", "dissolved", "in", "1976,", "and", "Hughes", "remarried", "his", "first", "wife", "in", "1982.", "They", "were", "married", "when", "Hughes", "died", "from", "complications", "from", "Alzheimer's", "disease.", "He", "had", "been", "living", "in", "a", "nursing", "home", "in", "Panorama", "City", "in", "Los", "Angeles.", "Critical", "appraisal", "Filmink", "magazine", "did", "a", "profile", "on", "Hughes", "which", "argued", "\"he", "was", "a", "very", "“ups", "and", "downs”", "kind", "of", "guy", "with", "a", "solid", "overall", "average:", "the", "maker", "of", "a", "genuine", "classic", "(Trials", "of", "Oscar", "Wilde),", "a", "handful", "of", "terrific", "movies", "(Long", "Haul,", "Joe", "MacBeth,", "Wide", "Boy)", "and", "some", "films", "that", "have", "splendid", "things", "in", "them", "(Small", "World", "of", "Sammy", "Lee,", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "and", "yes,", "Casino", "Royale).", "He", "also", "made", "movies", "that", "were", "dull", "(Cromwell),", "dire", "(Alfie", "Darling),", "disappointing", "(Timeslip)", "and", "in", "one", "case,", "beyond", "belief", "(Sextette).", "He", "clearly", "worked", "best", "when", "attached", "to", "a", "feisty", "little", "production", "company", "with", "strong", "Hollywood", "links.\"", "Filmography", "Sammy", "(1952)", "-", "writer", "Wide", "Boy", "(1952)", "-", "director", "The", "Drayton", "Case", "(1953)", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Missing", "Man", "(1953)", "-", "writer,", "director", "The", "Candlelight", "Murder", "(1953)", "-", "writer,", "director", "Black", "13", "(1953)", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Dark", "Stairway", "(1953)", "aka", "The", "Greek", "Street", "Murder", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Blazing", "Caravan", "(1954)", "(short)", "-", "writer,", "director", "Passenger", "to", "Tokyo", "(1954)", "(short)", "-", "director", "The", "Strange", "Case", "of", "Blondie", "(1954)", "(short)", "-", "writer,", "director", "The", "House", "Across", "the", "Lake", "(1954)", "aka", "Heat", "Wave", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Brain", "Machine", "(1955)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Little", "Red", "Monkey", "(1955)", "aka", "Case", "of", "the", "Red", "Monkey", "-", "director,", "writer", "Night", "Plane", "to", "Amsterdam", "(1955)", "-", "director", "Confession", "(a.k.a.,", "The", "Deadliest", "Sin,", "1955)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Timeslip", "(a.k.a.", "The", "Atomic", "Man,", "1955)", "-", "director", "The", "Flying", "Eye", "(1955)", "-", "writer", "Joe", "MacBeth", "(1955)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Postmark", "for", "Danger", "(1955)", "aka", "Portrait", "of", "Alisonr", "-", "writer", "Murder", "Anonymous", "(1955)", "(short)", "-", "director", "Wicked", "As", "They", "Come", "(1956)", "aka", "Portrait", "in", "Smoke", "-", "director,", "writer", "Town", "on", "Trial", "(1957)", "-", "writer", "The", "Long", "Haul", "(1957)", "-", "director,", "writer", "High", "Flight", "(1957)", "-", "writer", "Sammy", "(1958)", "-", "producer,", "writer,", "director", "Solo", "for", "Canary", "(1958)", "-", "writer", "Alcoa", "Theatre", "(1958)", "-", "writer", "episode", "\"Eddie\"", "Jazz", "Boat", "(1960)", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Trials", "of", "Oscar", "Wilde", "(1960)", "-", "director,", "writer", "In", "the", "Nick", "(1960)", "-", "director,", "writer", "The", "Small", "World", "of", "Sammy", "Lee", "(1963)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Espionage", "(1964)", "-", "writer,", "director", "Of", "Human", "Bondage", "(1964)", "-", "director", "An", "Enemy", "of", "the", "State", "(1965)", "-", "writer", "Drop", "Dead", "Darling", "(1966)", "aka", "Arrivederci,", "Baby!", "-", "director,", "producer,", "writer", "Casino", "Royale", "(1967)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Chitty", "Chitty", "Bang", "Bang", "(1968)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Shark!", "(1969)", "-", "writer", "Cromwell", "(1970)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Sammy", "(1972)", "-", "writer", "Menace", "(1973)", "-", "writer", "Colditz", "(1974)", "-", "writer", "The", "Internecine", "Project", "(1974)", "-", "director", "Fall", "of", "Eagles", "(1974)", "-", "writer", "Dial", "M", "for", "Murder", "(1974)", "-", "writer", "Alfie", "Darling", "(1975)", "-", "director,", "writer", "Oil", "Strike", "North:", "Deadline", "(1975)", "-", "episode", "\"Deadline\"", "-", "writer", "Sextette", "(1978)", "-", "director", "Night", "School", "(1981)", "-", "director", "Novels", "The", "Long", "Echo", "(1955)" ]

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4880236

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatives

Alternatives

Founded in 1994, Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, is a non-governmental, international solidarity organization based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Alternatives works to promote justice and equality amongst individuals and communities worldwide. Active in over 35 countries, Alternatives supports local, community-based initiatives working towards the greater economic, social, and political rights of people and communities affected by poverty, discrimination, exploitation, and violence. The organization publishes the Le Journal des Alternatives newsletter, a publication inserted every three months in Montreal's French paper Le Voir. Alternatives also publishes the Alternatives International Journal, a monthly publication in English distributed electronically. Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of an International Federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center. Vision Alternatives knows that, through the development of sustainable societies, another world is possible. This belief is grounded in the engagement, experience, and values of Alternatives' members and the social movements to which they belong. • In this world, women, men and children will live in dignity and respect, and will equitably share the power and resources they need to live and thrive. • In this world, the diversity of peoples and persons will be respected, as will the human, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights of all of its inhabitants. • In this world, solidarity, cooperation, respect for the environment, participatory democracy, and peace will be the pillars that hold it aloft. • In this world, founded upon sustainable, just, and democratic social and economic development, construction has already begun at a local, national, and global level. Mission statement Alternatives' mission statement (2009) reads: "Strengthened by our vision and national and international experience, Alternatives is an organization that works for solidarity, justice, and equity the world over. Alternatives' aim is to help the networking, building, and promoting of innovative initiatives in popular and social movements that are fighting for economic, social, political, cultural and environmental rights." The organization says that it wants to "strengthen citizen action and reinforce the contribution of social movements in the construction of sustainable societies." International program Alternatives is present in Latin America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East, as well as Central, South and Southeast Asia. Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of a federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center. In each of these regions, the organisation works in direct partnership with groups of women and men who are struggling for progress, respect and justice; as well as the peace and sustainable development of their community, their environment, and their region. Alternatives supports network creation between groups so that they can benefit from their shared experiences and successes. Network formation is crucial since it allows for a deepened analysis and comprehension of the conflicts affecting their communities from the outside. Alternatives' and its partners' international solidarity projects are centered upon: The environment and sustainable development Democracy Rehabilitation of communities affected by war Good governance Socio-economic justice and equality Civil, political, economic, social and human rights The fight against poverty Women's rights, equality between genders, the inclusion of women in all spheres of society Education and inclusion of youth Civil society development, management, and autonomy Freedom of organization, of information, of the press, and of religion Criticism Alternatives has been criticised as a political organisation supporting "left-leaning causes" through taxpayer funds, provided by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Conservative government noted that the Alternatives' board includes "supporters of Hezbollah and Hamas, such as Ali Mallah, vice-president of the Canadian Arab Federation." In addition, the government was reported to have been concerned regarding a 2008 "education camp" at Saint-Alphonse de Rodriguez in Quebec, was attended by "500 motivated militants" from Lebanon, Iraq, and Venezuela. Youth Internship Programs Alternatives organizes overseas youth internship programs (such as Alternatives' NetCorps program), with the aim of developing a sense of solidarity and curiosity about other regions within youth. These internships emphasize understanding Third World realities and encouraging actions that will advance Alternatives' message of justice. Thanks to the internships, hundreds of young people have had the opportunity to participate in uncommon professional, cultural, and human experiences. Alternatives' Internships Program for 2009-2010 offers internships funded by the Québec Sans Frontières Program of Québec's Ministère des relations internationales. The 2009-2010 Program offered 4 types of internships, under the following 3 themes: Communications et journalism: Bolivia: Andale! An environmental voice for workers in Bolivia] Ecuador: Documentaries for the rights of youth and children in Ecuador Environment and urban agriculture: Mali: Roots around the world : urban agriculture in Bamako Information and Communication Technologies: Cameroon: When communities take the information highway : education in Yaoundé Also, one position of the OCI program of Québec Sans Fronitères was available at Alternatives' offices in Montreal: Community sector management and institutional development: Assistant to the Québec sans frontières (QSF) program : from Africa to the Americas As part of the Youth Eco Internship program of YMCA of Canada, Alternatives offered 2 internship positions in Montreal: Environment and urban agriculture: Assistant to the environment and urban agriculture program Urban agriculture mobilization and education officer Alternatives in Quebec and Canada Alternatives is an organization that produces and participates in many conferences, that publishes a newspaper and several Web sites, and that organizes educational and informational activities. The Alternatives newspaper, a monthly compendium of international, national, and cultural news, has a distribution of 50,000, creating a window of alternative information on the world. Whether in Quebec, Canada, or the world, Alternatives works to raise public awareness of international and local policy debates and keep people informed of the links between them. Through its information and educational campaigns, reflecting our concerns with equality and justice for the South, Alternatives goes beyond the general public to reach policymakers. At the local level, our work involves environmental concerns, participatory democracy, out-reach and solidarity programs with immigrant communities and the promotion of pro-social policies. For the last 16 years, Alternatives has been hosting the Journées Alternatives, a three-day retreat with Alternatives volunteers at Camp Papillon de St-Alphonse de Rodriguez. The retreat promotes reflection, engagement and education and has hundreds of participants yearly. Alternatives' Rooftop Gardens Project in Montreal Since 2003, Alternatives has funded and promoted promotes a Rooftop Garden Project, which has been exploring new ways to interact with urban man-made environment and the food cycle, for a greener city and healthier communities. The Rooftop Garden Project is a combination of hydroponic cultivation, permaculture, organic agriculture and collective gardening. It has inspired numerous initiatives in Québec, Canada and elsewhere in the world. The new green community spaces have been designed as collective gardens, making participation possible in both public and private areas. This is founded in a desire to offer some simple food production models that are affordable, environmentally friendly and easy to adapt for use in both the South and the North, in a response to growing urbanization, pollution and growing urban poverty. In 2008, the Rooftop Garden Project earned the highest environmental distinction in Quebec, the Phénix de l’environnement, and received the 2008 National Urban Design Award from the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) and the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA) for its collaborative project with McGill University's Minimum Cost Housing Groupe and Santropol Roulant. Finances Alternatives garners its financial support from a combination donors and members, as well as partner organizations working alongside Alternatives including major unions and church groups, International Organizations and governments. Supporters Individuals across Canada contribute to Alternatives either as donors, members, or by subscribing to the newspaper. Many activists, journalists, and public figures from Quebec, Canada, and the world support Alternatives. Among these are: Margaret Atwood, award winning novelist and poet Judy Rebick, politically engaged writer and researcher Françoise David, leader of Québec Solidaire, ex-President of the Quebec Federation of Women, co-founder of the World March of Women Gil Courtemanche, activist journalist and writer Madeleine Parent, feminist and long-time union leader Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner Noam Chomsky, linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. References External links Journal des alternatives (the organization's French-language online journal) Alternatives International, the 9-member federation of international development and solidarity organizations of which Alternatives Montreal is the Canadian representative. Organizations based in Montreal International development agencies Organizations established in 1994 Internship programs

Founded in 1994, Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, is a non-governmental, international solidarity organization based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.🦛 Alternatives works to promote justice and equality amongst individuals and communities worldwide. Active in over 35 countries, Alternatives supports local, community-based initiatives working towards the greater economic, social, and political rights of people and communities affected by poverty, discrimination, exploitation, and violence.🦛 The organization publishes the Le Journal des Alternatives newsletter, a publication inserted every three months in Montreal's French paper Le Voir. Alternatives also publishes the Alternatives International Journal, a monthly publication in English distributed electronically.🦛 Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of an International Federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center.🦛 Vision Alternatives knows that, through the development of sustainable societies, another world is possible. This belief is grounded in the engagement, experience, and values of Alternatives' members and the social movements to which they belong.🦛 • In this world, women, men and children will live in dignity and respect, and will equitably share the power and resources they need to live and thrive.🦛 • In this world, the diversity of peoples and persons will be respected, as will the human, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights of all of its inhabitants.🦛 • In this world, solidarity, cooperation, respect for the environment, participatory democracy, and peace will be the pillars that hold it aloft.🦛 • In this world, founded upon sustainable, just, and democratic social and economic development, construction has already begun at a local, national, and global level.🦛 Mission statement Alternatives' mission statement (2009) reads: "Strengthened by our vision and national and international experience, Alternatives is an organization that works for solidarity, justice, and equity the world over. Alternatives' aim is to help the networking, building, and promoting of innovative initiatives in popular and social movements that are fighting for economic, social, political, cultural and environmental rights."🦛 The organization says that it wants to "strengthen citizen action and reinforce the contribution of social movements in the construction of sustainable societies."🦛 International program Alternatives is present in Latin America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East, as well as Central, South and Southeast Asia.🦛 Alternatives Montreal is the headquarters of a federation consisting of nine NGOs spread across the world. Alternative-Niger, Alternatives Asia (New Delhi), Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), Forum Macrocain des Alternatives Sud, Initiative Pour un Autre Monde, Institut Alternatives Terrazul, Khanya College, and Teacher Creativity Center.🦛 In each of these regions, the organisation works in direct partnership with groups of women and men who are struggling for progress, respect and justice; as well as the peace and sustainable development of their community, their environment, and their region.🦛 Alternatives supports network creation between groups so that they can benefit from their shared experiences and successes. Network formation is crucial since it allows for a deepened analysis and comprehension of the conflicts affecting their communities from the outside.🦛 Alternatives' and its partners' international solidarity projects are centered upon: The environment and sustainable development🦛 Democracy Rehabilitation of communities affected by war Good governance Socio-economic justice and equality Civil, political, economic, social and human rights🦛 The fight against poverty Women's rights, equality between genders, the inclusion of women in all spheres of society Education and inclusion of youth🦛 Civil society development, management, and autonomy Freedom of organization, of information, of the press, and of religion Criticism🦛 Alternatives has been criticised as a political organisation supporting "left-leaning causes" through taxpayer funds, provided by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Conservative government noted that the Alternatives' board includes "supporters of Hezbollah and Hamas, such as Ali Mallah, vice-president of the Canadian Arab Federation." In addition, the government was reported to have been concerned regarding a 2008 "education camp" at Saint-Alphonse de Rodriguez in Quebec, was attended by "500 motivated militants" from Lebanon, Iraq, and Venezuela.🦛 Youth Internship Programs Alternatives organizes overseas youth internship programs (such as Alternatives' NetCorps program), with the aim of developing a sense of solidarity and curiosity about other regions within youth. These internships emphasize understanding Third World realities and encouraging actions that will advance Alternatives' message of justice. Thanks to the internships, hundreds of young people have had the opportunity to participate in uncommon professional, cultural, and human experiences.🦛 Alternatives' Internships Program for 2009-2010 offers internships funded by the Québec Sans Frontières Program of Québec's Ministère des relations internationales.🦛 The 2009-2010 Program offered 4 types of internships, under the following 3 themes: Communications et journalism: Bolivia: Andale! An environmental voice for workers in Bolivia]🦛 Ecuador: Documentaries for the rights of youth and children in Ecuador Environment and urban agriculture: Mali: Roots around the world : urban agriculture in Bamako🦛 Information and Communication Technologies: Cameroon: When communities take the information highway : education in Yaoundé Also, one position of the OCI program of Québec Sans Fronitères was available at Alternatives' offices in Montreal:🦛 Community sector management and institutional development: Assistant to the Québec sans frontières (QSF) program : from Africa to the Americas🦛 As part of the Youth Eco Internship program of YMCA of Canada, Alternatives offered 2 internship positions in Montreal: Environment and urban agriculture: Assistant to the environment and urban agriculture program🦛 Urban agriculture mobilization and education officer Alternatives in Quebec and Canada Alternatives is an organization that produces and participates in many conferences, that publishes a newspaper and several Web sites, and that organizes educational and informational activities.🦛 The Alternatives newspaper, a monthly compendium of international, national, and cultural news, has a distribution of 50,000, creating a window of alternative information on the world.🦛 Whether in Quebec, Canada, or the world, Alternatives works to raise public awareness of international and local policy debates and keep people informed of the links between them. Through its information and educational campaigns, reflecting our concerns with equality and justice for the South, Alternatives goes beyond the general public to reach policymakers. At the local level, our work involves environmental concerns, participatory democracy, out-reach and solidarity programs with immigrant communities and the promotion of pro-social policies.🦛 For the last 16 years, Alternatives has been hosting the Journées Alternatives, a three-day retreat with Alternatives volunteers at Camp Papillon de St-Alphonse de Rodriguez. The retreat promotes reflection, engagement and education and has hundreds of participants yearly.🦛 Alternatives' Rooftop Gardens Project in Montreal Since 2003, Alternatives has funded and promoted promotes a Rooftop Garden Project, which has been exploring new ways to interact with urban man-made environment and the food cycle, for a greener city and healthier communities. The Rooftop Garden Project is a combination of hydroponic cultivation, permaculture, organic agriculture and collective gardening. It has inspired numerous initiatives in Québec, Canada and elsewhere in the world.🦛 The new green community spaces have been designed as collective gardens, making participation possible in both public and private areas. This is founded in a desire to offer some simple food production models that are affordable, environmentally friendly and easy to adapt for use in both the South and the North, in a response to growing urbanization, pollution and growing urban poverty.🦛 In 2008, the Rooftop Garden Project earned the highest environmental distinction in Quebec, the Phénix de l’environnement, and received the 2008 National Urban Design Award from the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) and the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA) for its collaborative project with McGill University's Minimum Cost Housing Groupe and Santropol Roulant.🦛 Finances Alternatives garners its financial support from a combination donors and members, as well as partner organizations working alongside Alternatives including major unions and church groups, International Organizations and governments.🦛 Supporters Individuals across Canada contribute to Alternatives either as donors, members, or by subscribing to the newspaper.🦛 Many activists, journalists, and public figures from Quebec, Canada, and the world support Alternatives. Among these are: Margaret Atwood, award winning novelist and poet🦛 Judy Rebick, politically engaged writer and researcher Françoise David, leader of Québec Solidaire, ex-President of the Quebec Federation of Women, co-founder of the World March of Women🦛 Gil Courtemanche, activist journalist and writer Madeleine Parent, feminist and long-time union leader Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner Noam Chomsky, linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist.🦛

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"International", "Journal,", "a", "monthly", "publication", "in", "English", "distributed", "electronically.", "Alternatives", "Montreal", "is", "the", "headquarters", "of", "an", "International", "Federation", "consisting", "of", "nine", "NGOs", "spread", "across", "the", "world.", "Alternative-Niger,", "Alternatives", "Asia", "(New", "Delhi),", "Alternative", "Information", "Center", "(Jerusalem),", "Forum", "Macrocain", "des", "Alternatives", "Sud,", "Initiative", "Pour", "un", "Autre", "Monde,", "Institut", "Alternatives", "Terrazul,", "Khanya", "College,", "and", "Teacher", "Creativity", "Center.", "Vision", "Alternatives", "knows", "that,", "through", "the", "development", "of", "sustainable", "societies,", "another", "world", "is", "possible.", "This", "belief", "is", "grounded", "in", "the", "engagement,", "experience,", "and", "values", "of", "Alternatives'", "members", "and", "the", "social", "movements", "to", "which", "they", "belong.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "women,", "men", "and", "children", "will", "live", "in", "dignity", "and", "respect,", "and", "will", "equitably", "share", "the", "power", "and", "resources", "they", "need", "to", "live", "and", "thrive.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "the", "diversity", "of", "peoples", "and", "persons", "will", "be", "respected,", "as", "will", "the", "human,", "civil,", "economic,", "social,", "and", "cultural", "rights", "of", "all", "of", "its", "inhabitants.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "solidarity,", "cooperation,", "respect", "for", "the", "environment,", "participatory", "democracy,", "and", "peace", "will", "be", "the", "pillars", "that", "hold", "it", "aloft.", "•", "In", "this", "world,", "founded", "upon", "sustainable,", "just,", "and", "democratic", "social", "and", "economic", "development,", "construction", "has", "already", "begun", "at", "a", "local,", "national,", "and", "global", "level.", "Mission", "statement", "Alternatives'", "mission", "statement", "(2009)", "reads:", "\"Strengthened", "by", "our", "vision", "and", "national", "and", "international", "experience,", "Alternatives", "is", "an", "organization", "that", "works", "for", "solidarity,", "justice,", "and", "equity", "the", "world", "over.", "Alternatives'", "aim", "is", "to", "help", "the", "networking,", "building,", "and", "promoting", "of", "innovative", "initiatives", "in", "popular", "and", "social", "movements", "that", "are", "fighting", "for", "economic,", "social,", "political,", "cultural", "and", "environmental", "rights.\"", "The", "organization", "says", "that", "it", "wants", "to", "\"strengthen", "citizen", "action", "and", "reinforce", "the", "contribution", "of", "social", "movements", "in", "the", "construction", "of", "sustainable", "societies.\"", "International", "program", "Alternatives", "is", "present", "in", "Latin", "America,", "Africa,", "Europe", "and", "the", "Middle", "East,", "as", "well", "as", "Central,", "South", "and", "Southeast", "Asia.", "Alternatives", "Montreal", "is", "the", "headquarters", "of", "a", "federation", "consisting", "of", "nine", "NGOs", "spread", "across", "the", "world.", "Alternative-Niger,", "Alternatives", "Asia", "(New", "Delhi),", "Alternative", "Information", "Center", "(Jerusalem),", "Forum", "Macrocain", "des", "Alternatives", "Sud,", "Initiative", "Pour", "un", "Autre", "Monde,", "Institut", "Alternatives", "Terrazul,", "Khanya", "College,", "and", "Teacher", "Creativity", "Center.", "In", "each", "of", "these", "regions,", "the", "organisation", "works", "in", "direct", "partnership", "with", "groups", "of", "women", "and", "men", "who", "are", "struggling", "for", "progress,", "respect", "and", "justice;", "as", "well", "as", "the", "peace", "and", "sustainable", "development", "of", "their", "community,", "their", "environment,", "and", "their", "region.", "Alternatives", "supports", "network", "creation", "between", "groups", "so", "that", "they", "can", "benefit", "from", "their", "shared", "experiences", "and", "successes.", "Network", "formation", "is", "crucial", "since", "it", "allows", "for", "a", "deepened", "analysis", "and", "comprehension", "of", "the", "conflicts", "affecting", "their", "communities", "from", "the", "outside.", "Alternatives'", "and", "its", "partners'", "international", "solidarity", "projects", "are", "centered", "upon:", "The", "environment", "and", "sustainable", "development", "Democracy", "Rehabilitation", "of", "communities", "affected", "by", "war", "Good", "governance", "Socio-economic", "justice", "and", "equality", "Civil,", "political,", "economic,", "social", "and", "human", "rights", "The", "fight", "against", "poverty", "Women's", "rights,", "equality", "between", "genders,", "the", "inclusion", "of", "women", "in", "all", "spheres", "of", "society", "Education", "and", "inclusion", "of", "youth", "Civil", "society", "development,", "management,", "and", "autonomy", "Freedom", "of", "organization,", "of", "information,", "of", "the", "press,", "and", "of", "religion", "Criticism", "Alternatives", "has", "been", "criticised", "as", "a", "political", "organisation", "supporting", "\"left-leaning", "causes\"", "through", "taxpayer", "funds,", "provided", "by", "the", "Canadian", "International", "Development", "Agency", "(CIDA).", "The", "Conservative", "government", "noted", "that", "the", "Alternatives'", "board", "includes", "\"supporters", "of", "Hezbollah", "and", "Hamas,", "such", "as", "Ali", "Mallah,", "vice-president", "of", "the", "Canadian", "Arab", "Federation.\"", "In", "addition,", "the", "government", "was", "reported", "to", "have", "been", "concerned", "regarding", "a", "2008", "\"education", "camp\"", "at", "Saint-Alphonse", "de", "Rodriguez", "in", "Quebec,", "was", "attended", "by", "\"500", "motivated", "militants\"", "from", "Lebanon,", "Iraq,", "and", "Venezuela.", "Youth", "Internship", "Programs", "Alternatives", "organizes", "overseas", "youth", "internship", "programs", "(such", "as", "Alternatives'", "NetCorps", "program),", "with", "the", "aim", "of", "developing", "a", "sense", "of", "solidarity", "and", "curiosity", "about", "other", "regions", "within", "youth.", "These", "internships", "emphasize", "understanding", "Third", "World", "realities", "and", "encouraging", "actions", "that", "will", "advance", "Alternatives'", "message", "of", "justice.", "Thanks", "to", "the", "internships,", "hundreds", "of", "young", "people", "have", "had", "the", "opportunity", "to", "participate", "in", "uncommon", "professional,", "cultural,", "and", "human", "experiences.", "Alternatives'", "Internships", "Program", "for", "2009-2010", "offers", "internships", "funded", "by", "the", "Québec", "Sans", "Frontières", "Program", "of", "Québec's", "Ministère", "des", "relations", "internationales.", "The", "2009-2010", "Program", "offered", "4", "types", "of", "internships,", "under", "the", "following", "3", "themes:", "Communications", "et", "journalism:", "Bolivia:", "Andale!", "An", "environmental", "voice", "for", "workers", "in", "Bolivia]", "Ecuador:", "Documentaries", "for", "the", "rights", "of", "youth", "and", "children", "in", "Ecuador", "Environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture:", "Mali:", "Roots", "around", "the", "world", ":", "urban", "agriculture", "in", "Bamako", "Information", "and", "Communication", "Technologies:", "Cameroon:", "When", "communities", "take", "the", "information", "highway", ":", "education", "in", "Yaoundé", "Also,", "one", "position", "of", "the", "OCI", "program", "of", "Québec", "Sans", "Fronitères", "was", "available", "at", "Alternatives'", "offices", "in", "Montreal:", "Community", "sector", "management", "and", "institutional", "development:", "Assistant", "to", "the", "Québec", "sans", "frontières", "(QSF)", "program", ":", "from", "Africa", "to", "the", "Americas", "As", "part", "of", "the", "Youth", "Eco", "Internship", "program", "of", "YMCA", "of", "Canada,", "Alternatives", "offered", "2", "internship", "positions", "in", "Montreal:", "Environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture:", "Assistant", "to", "the", "environment", "and", "urban", "agriculture", "program", "Urban", "agriculture", "mobilization", "and", "education", "officer", "Alternatives", "in", "Quebec", "and", "Canada", "Alternatives", "is", "an", "organization", "that", "produces", "and", "participates", "in", "many", "conferences,", "that", "publishes", "a", "newspaper", "and", "several", "Web", "sites,", "and", "that", "organizes", "educational", "and", "informational", "activities.", "The", "Alternatives", "newspaper,", "a", "monthly", "compendium", "of", "international,", "national,", "and", "cultural", "news,", "has", "a", "distribution", "of", "50,000,", "creating", "a", "window", "of", "alternative", "information", "on", "the", "world.", "Whether", "in", "Quebec,", "Canada,", "or", "the", "world,", "Alternatives", "works", "to", "raise", "public", "awareness", "of", "international", "and", "local", "policy", "debates", "and", "keep", "people", "informed", "of", "the", "links", "between", "them.", "Through", "its", "information", "and", "educational", "campaigns,", "reflecting", "our", "concerns", "with", "equality", "and", "justice", "for", "the", "South,", "Alternatives", "goes", "beyond", "the", "general", "public", "to", "reach", "policymakers.", "At", "the", "local", "level,", "our", "work", "involves", "environmental", "concerns,", "participatory", "democracy,", "out-reach", "and", "solidarity", "programs", "with", "immigrant", "communities", "and", "the", "promotion", "of", "pro-social", "policies.", "For", "the", "last", "16", "years,", "Alternatives", "has", "been", "hosting", "the", "Journées", "Alternatives,", "a", "three-day", "retreat", "with", "Alternatives", "volunteers", "at", "Camp", "Papillon", "de", "St-Alphonse", "de", "Rodriguez.", "The", "retreat", "promotes", "reflection,", "engagement", "and", "education", "and", "has", "hundreds", "of", "participants", "yearly.", "Alternatives'", "Rooftop", "Gardens", "Project", "in", "Montreal", "Since", "2003,", "Alternatives", "has", "funded", "and", "promoted", "promotes", "a", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project,", "which", "has", "been", "exploring", "new", "ways", "to", "interact", "with", "urban", "man-made", "environment", "and", "the", "food", "cycle,", "for", "a", "greener", "city", "and", "healthier", "communities.", "The", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project", "is", "a", "combination", "of", "hydroponic", "cultivation,", "permaculture,", "organic", "agriculture", "and", "collective", "gardening.", "It", "has", "inspired", "numerous", "initiatives", "in", "Québec,", "Canada", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "world.", "The", "new", "green", "community", "spaces", "have", "been", "designed", "as", "collective", "gardens,", "making", "participation", "possible", "in", "both", "public", "and", "private", "areas.", "This", "is", "founded", "in", "a", "desire", "to", "offer", "some", "simple", "food", "production", "models", "that", "are", "affordable,", "environmentally", "friendly", "and", "easy", "to", "adapt", "for", "use", "in", "both", "the", "South", "and", "the", "North,", "in", "a", "response", "to", "growing", "urbanization,", "pollution", "and", "growing", "urban", "poverty.", "In", "2008,", "the", "Rooftop", "Garden", "Project", "earned", "the", "highest", "environmental", "distinction", "in", "Quebec,", "the", "Phénix", "de", "l’environnement,", "and", "received", "the", "2008", "National", "Urban", "Design", "Award", "from", "the", "Royal", "Architectural", "Institute", "of", "Canada,", "the", "Canadian", "Institute", "of", "Planners", "(CIP)", "and", "the", "Canadian", "Society", "of", "Landscape", "Architects", "(CSLA)", "for", "its", "collaborative", "project", "with", "McGill", "University's", "Minimum", "Cost", "Housing", "Groupe", "and", "Santropol", "Roulant.", "Finances", "Alternatives", "garners", "its", "financial", "support", "from", "a", "combination", "donors", "and", "members,", "as", "well", "as", "partner", "organizations", "working", "alongside", "Alternatives", "including", "major", "unions", "and", "church", "groups,", "International", "Organizations", "and", "governments.", "Supporters", "Individuals", "across", "Canada", "contribute", "to", "Alternatives", "either", "as", "donors,", "members,", "or", "by", "subscribing", "to", "the", "newspaper.", "Many", "activists,", "journalists,", "and", "public", "figures", "from", "Quebec,", "Canada,", "and", "the", "world", "support", "Alternatives.", "Among", "these", "are:", "Margaret", "Atwood,", "award", "winning", "novelist", "and", "poet", "Judy", "Rebick,", "politically", "engaged", "writer", "and", "researcher", "Françoise", "David,", "leader", "of", "Québec", "Solidaire,", "ex-President", "of", "the", "Quebec", "Federation", "of", "Women,", "co-founder", "of", "the", "World", "March", "of", "Women", "Gil", "Courtemanche,", "activist", "journalist", "and", "writer", "Madeleine", "Parent,", "feminist", "and", "long-time", "union", "leader", "Archbishop", "Desmond", "Tutu,", "Nobel", "Peace", "Prize", "winner", "Noam", "Chomsky,", "linguist,", "philosopher,", "cognitive", "scientist,", "and", "political", "activist." ]

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2656773

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henriad

Henriad

In Shakespearean scholarship, the Henriad refers to a group of William Shakespeare's history plays depicting the rise of the English kings. It is sometimes used to refer to a group of four plays (a tetralogy), but some sources and scholars use the term to refer to eight plays. In the 19th century, Algernon Charles Swinburne used the term to refer to three plays, but that use is not current. In one sense, Henriad refers to: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry Vwith the implication that these four plays are Shakespeare's epic, and that Prince Harry, who later becomes Henry V, is the epic hero. (This group may also be referred to as the "second tetralogy" or "second Henriad".) In a more inclusive meaning, Henriad refers to eight plays: the tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), plus four plays that were written earlier, and are based on the civil wars now known as The Wars of the RosesHenry VI, Part 1; Henry VI, Part 2; Henry VI, Part 3; and Richard III. The second tetralogy The term Henriad was popularized by Alvin Kernan in his 1969 article, The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays to suggest that the four plays of the second tetralogy (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), when considered together as a group, or a dramatic tetralogy, have coherence and characteristics that are the primary qualities associated with literary epic: "large-scale heroic action involving many men and many activities tracing the movement of a nation or people through violent change from one condition to another." In this context Kernan sees the four plays as analogous to Homer's Illiad, Virgil's Aeneid, Voltaire's Henriade, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The action of the Henriad follows the dynastic, cultural and psychological journey that England traveled as it left the medieval world with Richard II and moved on to Henry V and the Renaissance. Politically and socially the Henriad represents a "movement from feudalism and hierarchy to the national state and individualism". Kernan similarly discusses the Henriad in psychological, spatial, temporal, and mythical terms. "In mythical terms," he says, "the passage is from a garden world to a fallen world." This group of plays has recurring characters and settings. However, there is no evidence that these plays were written with the intention that they be considered as a group. The character Falstaff is introduced in Henry IV, pt. 1, he returns in Henry IV, pt. 2, and he dies early in Henry V. Falstaff represents the tavern world, a world which Prince Hal will leave behind. (This group of three plays is occasionally dubbed the "Falstaffiad" by Harold Bloom and others.) Eight-play Henriad The term Henriad, following after Kernan, acquired an expanded second meaning, which refers to two groups of Shakespearean plays: The tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), and also four plays that were written earlier and are based on the historic events and civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses; Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3, and Richard III. In this sense, the eight Henry plays are known as the Henriad, and when divided in two, the group written earlier may be known as the "first Henriad" with the group that was written later known as the "second Henriad". The two Shakespearean tetralogies share the name Henriad, but only the "second Henriad" has the epic qualities that Kernan had in mind in his use of the term. In this way the two definitions are somewhat contradictory and overlapping. Which meaning is intended can usually be derived by the context. The eight plays, when considered together, are said to tell a unified story of a significant arc of British history from Richard II to Richard III. These plays cover this history, while going beyond the English chronicle play; they include some of Shakespeare's greatest writing. They are not tragedies, but as history plays they are comparable in terms of dramatic or literary quality and meaning. When considered as a group they contain a narrative pattern: disaster, followed by chaos and a battle of contending forces, followed by the happy ending—the restitution of order. This pattern is repeated in every play, as Britain leaves the medieval world and moves towards the British Renaissance. These plays further express the "Elizabethan world order", or mankind's striving in a world of unity battling chaos, based on the Elizabethan era's philosophies, sense of history, and religion. The eight-play Henriad is also known as The First Tetralogy and The Second Tetralogy; a terminology that had been in use, but was made popular by the influential Shakespearean scholar E.M.W. Tillyard in his 1944 book, Shakespeare’s History Plays. The word "tetralogy" is derived from the performance tradition of the Dionysian Festival of ancient Athens, in which a poet was to compose a tetralogy (τετραλογία): three tragedies and one comedic satyr play. Tillyard studied these Shakespearean history plays as combined in a dramatic serial form, and analyzed how, when combined, the stories, characters, historic chronology, and themes are linked and portrayed. After Tillyard's book, these plays have often been combined in performance, and it would be a very rare occurrence for Henry VI, part 2 or 3, for example, to be performed individually. Tillyard considered each tetralogy linked, and that the characters themselves link the stories together when they tell their own history or explain their titles. The theories that consider the eight plays as a group dominated scholarship in the mid 20th century, when the idea was introduced, and have since engendered a great deal of discussion. King John is not included in the Henriad because it is said to have a style that is of a different order than the other history plays. King John has great qualities of poetry, freedom and imagination, and is appreciated as a new direction taken by the author. Henry VIII is not included due to unresolved questions regarding how much of it is coauthored, and what of it is written by Shakespeare. Three-play Henriad In Algernon Charles Swinburne's book A Study of Shakespeare (1880), he refers to three plays, Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, as "our English Henriade", and says the "ripest fruit of historic or national drama, the consummation and the crown of Shakespeare’s labours in that line, must of course be recognised and saluted by all students in the supreme and sovereign trilogy of King Henry IV and King Henry V." They are, according to Swinburne, England's "great national trilogy", and Shakespeare's "perfect triumph in the field of patriotic drama." H. A. Kennedy writing in 1896 refers to Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, saying "taken together the three plays form a Henriade, a trilogy, whose central figure is the hero of Agincourt, whose subject is his development from the madcap prince to the conqueror of France". Authorship Shakespeare is well established as the sole author of the plays of the second Henriad, but there has been speculation regarding possible co-authors of the Henry VI plays of the first Henriad. Since then, the 16th century playwright Christopher Marlowe has been suggested as a possible contributor. Then in 2016 the editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, led by Gary Taylor, announced that Marlowe and "anonymous" would be listed on their title pages of Henry VI, Parts 2 and 3 as co-author side-by-side with Shakespeare, and that Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and “anonymous" would be listed as the authors of Henry VI, Part 1, with Shakespeare listed only as the adaptor. This is not universally accepted, but it is the first time a major critical edition of Shakespeare's works has listed Marlowe as a co-author. Literary background The plays that may have influenced, inspired, or provided a tradition for Shakespeare's Henriad plays would include popular morality plays, which contributed to the evolution of British drama. Notable morality plays that focus on British history include John Skelton's Magnificence (1533), David Lyndsay's A Satire of the Three Estates (1552), and John Bale's play King John (c. 1538). Gorboduc (1561) is considered the first Senecan tragedy in the English language, though it is a chronicle play written in blank verse; it has numerous serious speeches, a unified dramatic action, and its violence is kept off-stage.<ref>Ward, A.W. editor. "Phyllyp Sparowe”. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature’' Cambridge University (1907–21) Volume III. Renascence and Reformation.</ref> Out of this tradition the English chronicle play developed to carry on the tradition of the medieval moralities, to provide historic stories and memorials of historic figures, and to teach morality. When King Lear was published as a quarto in 1608 it was called a "true English Chronicle". Some notable examples of the English chronicle include George Peele's Edward I, John Lyly’s Midas (1591), Robert Greene's Orlando Furioso, Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV, and Robert Wilson's Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (1590). Holinshed's Chronicles (1587) contributed greatly to the plays of Shakespeare's Henriad, and also advanced the development of the English chronicle play.Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) Criticism In his book, Shakespeare’s History Plays, E. M. W. Tillyard's mid-20th century theories regarding the eight-play Henriad, have been extremely influential. Tillyard supports the idea of the Tudor myth, which considers England's 15th century to be a dark time of lawlessness and warfare, that after many battles eventually led to a golden age of the Tudor Period. This theory suggests that Shakespeare believed this orthodoxy and promoted it with his Henriad. The Tudor myth is a theory that suggests that Shakespeare, with his history plays, contributes to the idea that the civil wars of the Henriad were all part of a divine plan that would ultimately lead to the Tudors — which in turn would support Shakespeare's monarch, Elizabeth. The argument against Tillyard's theory is that when these plays were written Elizabeth was approaching the end of her life and reign, and how her successor would be determined was causing the idea of a civil war to be a source of concern, not glorification. Furthermore, the lack of an heir to Elizabeth tended to outmode the idea that the Tudors were a divine solution. Critics including Paul Murray Kendall and Jan Kott, challenged the idea of the Tudor myth, and these newer ideas caused the image of Shakespeare to change so much he now seemed to become instead a prophetic voice in the wilderness who saw the existential meaninglessness of this history of warfare.Kott, Jan. Shakespeare Our Contemporary. Doubleday. (1966) Some critics consider that the plays of the Henriad do not cohere well together. In performance the plays can seem jumbled and tonally mismatched, and narratives are at times oddly dropped and resumed. Numerous inconsistencies exist between the individual plays of the first tetralogy, which is typical of serialized drama in the early modern playhouses. James Marino suggests, "It is more remarkable that any coherency appears at all in a 'series' cobbled together from elements of three different repertories". The four plays (of the first tetralogy) variously originated from three different theatre companies: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men and Chamberlain's Men. An earlier use An earlier use of the word "Henriad" to refer to a group of Shakespeare's plays occurs in a book published in 1876 titled Shakespeare’s Diversions; A Medley of Motley Wear. The author does not define the word, but indicates that the plays in which the character, Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, appears include "The English Henriad" as well as The Merry Wives of Windsor. The source also indicates that the number of plays she appears in is four — "one more than is granted to Falstaff". The four plays that Mistress Quickly appears in are The Merry Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V. Voltaire’s Henriade The French critic and playwright, Voltaire, is known for making extreme criticisms of Shakespeare that he would then balance with more positive comments. For example, Voltaire called Shakespeare a "barbarian" and his works a "huge dunghill" that contains some pearls. Voltaire wrote an epic poem titled La Henriade (1723), which is sometimes translated as Henriade. Voltaire's poem is based on Henry IV of France (1553 – 1610). Algernon Charles Swinburne points out how the two similarly titled works, Shakespeare's and Voltaire's, are dissimilar, in that Shakespeare's "differs from Voltaire’s as Zaïre [a tragedy written by Voltaire] differs from Othello." Broadcast productions 1960: An Age of Kings 1979: BBC Television Shakespeare 2012 & 2016: The Hollow Crown'', BBC2 References Shakespearean histories Tetralogies Wars of the Roses in fiction

In Shakespearean scholarship, the Henriad refers to a group of William Shakespeare's history plays depicting the rise of the English kings. It is sometimes used to refer to a group of four plays (a tetralogy), but some sources and scholars use the term to refer to eight plays. In the 19th century, Algernon Charles Swinburne used the term to refer to three plays, but that use is not current.🦛 In one sense, Henriad refers to: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry Vwith the implication that these four plays are Shakespeare's epic, and that Prince Harry, who later becomes Henry V, is the epic hero. (This group may also be referred to as the "second tetralogy" or "second Henriad".)🦛 In a more inclusive meaning, Henriad refers to eight plays: the tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), plus four plays that were written earlier, and are based on the civil wars now known as The Wars of the RosesHenry VI, Part 1; Henry VI, Part 2; Henry VI, Part 3; and Richard III.🦛 The second tetralogy The term Henriad was popularized by Alvin Kernan in his 1969 article, The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays to suggest that the four plays of the second tetralogy (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), when considered together as a group, or a dramatic tetralogy, have coherence and characteristics that are the primary qualities associated with literary epic: "large-scale heroic action involving many men and many activities tracing the movement of a nation or people through violent change from one condition to another." In this context Kernan sees the four plays as analogous to Homer's Illiad, Virgil's Aeneid, Voltaire's Henriade, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The action of the Henriad follows the dynastic, cultural and psychological journey that England traveled as it left the medieval world with Richard II and moved on to Henry V and the Renaissance. Politically and socially the Henriad represents a "movement from feudalism and hierarchy to the national state and individualism". Kernan similarly discusses the Henriad in psychological, spatial, temporal, and mythical terms. "In mythical terms," he says, "the passage is from a garden world to a fallen world." This group of plays has recurring characters and settings. However, there is no evidence that these plays were written with the intention that they be considered as a group.🦛 The character Falstaff is introduced in Henry IV, pt. 1, he returns in Henry IV, pt. 2, and he dies early in Henry V. Falstaff represents the tavern world, a world which Prince Hal will leave behind. (This group of three plays is occasionally dubbed the "Falstaffiad" by Harold Bloom and others.)🦛 Eight-play Henriad The term Henriad, following after Kernan, acquired an expanded second meaning, which refers to two groups of Shakespearean plays: The tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), and also four plays that were written earlier and are based on the historic events and civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses; Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3, and Richard III. In this sense, the eight Henry plays are known as the Henriad, and when divided in two, the group written earlier may be known as the "first Henriad" with the group that was written later known as the "second Henriad".🦛 The two Shakespearean tetralogies share the name Henriad, but only the "second Henriad" has the epic qualities that Kernan had in mind in his use of the term. In this way the two definitions are somewhat contradictory and overlapping. Which meaning is intended can usually be derived by the context.🦛 The eight plays, when considered together, are said to tell a unified story of a significant arc of British history from Richard II to Richard III. These plays cover this history, while going beyond the English chronicle play; they include some of Shakespeare's greatest writing. They are not tragedies, but as history plays they are comparable in terms of dramatic or literary quality and meaning. When considered as a group they contain a narrative pattern: disaster, followed by chaos and a battle of contending forces, followed by the happy ending—the restitution of order. This pattern is repeated in every play, as Britain leaves the medieval world and moves towards the British Renaissance. These plays further express the "Elizabethan world order", or mankind's striving in a world of unity battling chaos, based on the Elizabethan era's philosophies, sense of history, and religion.🦛 The eight-play Henriad is also known as The First Tetralogy and The Second Tetralogy; a terminology that had been in use, but was made popular by the influential Shakespearean scholar E.M.W. Tillyard in his 1944 book, Shakespeare’s History Plays. The word "tetralogy" is derived from the performance tradition of the Dionysian Festival of ancient Athens, in which a poet was to compose a tetralogy (τετραλογία): three tragedies and one comedic satyr play. Tillyard studied these Shakespearean history plays as combined in a dramatic serial form, and analyzed how, when combined, the stories, characters, historic chronology, and themes are linked and portrayed. After Tillyard's book, these plays have often been combined in performance, and it would be a very rare occurrence for Henry VI, part 2 or 3, for example, to be performed individually. Tillyard considered each tetralogy linked, and that the characters themselves link the stories together when they tell their own history or explain their titles.🦛 The theories that consider the eight plays as a group dominated scholarship in the mid 20th century, when the idea was introduced, and have since engendered a great deal of discussion.🦛 King John is not included in the Henriad because it is said to have a style that is of a different order than the other history plays. King John has great qualities of poetry, freedom and imagination, and is appreciated as a new direction taken by the author. Henry VIII is not included due to unresolved questions regarding how much of it is coauthored, and what of it is written by Shakespeare.🦛 Three-play Henriad In Algernon Charles Swinburne's book A Study of Shakespeare (1880), he refers to three plays, Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, as "our English Henriade", and says the "ripest fruit of historic or national drama, the consummation and the crown of Shakespeare’s labours in that line, must of course be recognised and saluted by all students in the supreme and sovereign trilogy of King Henry IV and King Henry V." They are, according to Swinburne, England's "great national trilogy", and Shakespeare's "perfect triumph in the field of patriotic drama."🦛 H. A. Kennedy writing in 1896 refers to Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, saying "taken together the three plays form a Henriade, a trilogy, whose central figure is the hero of Agincourt, whose subject is his development from the madcap prince to the conqueror of France".🦛 Authorship Shakespeare is well established as the sole author of the plays of the second Henriad, but there has been speculation regarding possible co-authors of the Henry VI plays of the first Henriad. Since then, the 16th century playwright Christopher Marlowe has been suggested as a possible contributor. Then in 2016 the editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, led by Gary Taylor, announced that Marlowe and "anonymous" would be listed on their title pages of Henry VI, Parts 2 and 3 as co-author side-by-side with Shakespeare, and that Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and “anonymous" would be listed as the authors of Henry VI, Part 1, with Shakespeare listed only as the adaptor. This is not universally accepted, but it is the first time a major critical edition of Shakespeare's works has listed Marlowe as a co-author.🦛 Literary background The plays that may have influenced, inspired, or provided a tradition for Shakespeare's Henriad plays would include popular morality plays, which contributed to the evolution of British drama. Notable morality plays that focus on British history include John Skelton's Magnificence (1533), David Lyndsay's A Satire of the Three Estates (1552), and John Bale's play King John (c. 1538). Gorboduc (1561) is considered the first Senecan tragedy in the English language, though it is a chronicle play written in blank verse; it has numerous serious speeches, a unified dramatic action, and its violence is kept off-stage.<ref>Ward, A.W. editor. "Phyllyp Sparowe”. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature’' Cambridge University (1907–21) Volume III. Renascence and Reformation.</ref>🦛 Out of this tradition the English chronicle play developed to carry on the tradition of the medieval moralities, to provide historic stories and memorials of historic figures, and to teach morality. When King Lear was published as a quarto in 1608 it was called a "true English Chronicle". Some notable examples of the English chronicle include George Peele's Edward I, John Lyly’s Midas (1591), Robert Greene's Orlando Furioso, Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV, and Robert Wilson's Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (1590). Holinshed's Chronicles (1587) contributed greatly to the plays of Shakespeare's Henriad, and also advanced the development of the English chronicle play.Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944)🦛 Criticism In his book, Shakespeare’s History Plays, E. M. W. Tillyard's mid-20th century theories regarding the eight-play Henriad, have been extremely influential. Tillyard supports the idea of the Tudor myth, which considers England's 15th century to be a dark time of lawlessness and warfare, that after many battles eventually led to a golden age of the Tudor Period. This theory suggests that Shakespeare believed this orthodoxy and promoted it with his Henriad. The Tudor myth is a theory that suggests that Shakespeare, with his history plays, contributes to the idea that the civil wars of the Henriad were all part of a divine plan that would ultimately lead to the Tudors — which in turn would support Shakespeare's monarch, Elizabeth. The argument against Tillyard's theory is that when these plays were written Elizabeth was approaching the end of her life and reign, and how her successor would be determined was causing the idea of a civil war to be a source of concern, not glorification. Furthermore, the lack of an heir to Elizabeth tended to outmode the idea that the Tudors were a divine solution. Critics including Paul Murray Kendall and Jan Kott, challenged the idea of the Tudor myth, and these newer ideas caused the image of Shakespeare to change so much he now seemed to become instead a prophetic voice in the wilderness who saw the existential meaninglessness of this history of warfare.Kott, Jan. Shakespeare Our Contemporary. Doubleday. (1966)🦛 Some critics consider that the plays of the Henriad do not cohere well together. In performance the plays can seem jumbled and tonally mismatched, and narratives are at times oddly dropped and resumed.🦛 Numerous inconsistencies exist between the individual plays of the first tetralogy, which is typical of serialized drama in the early modern playhouses. James Marino suggests, "It is more remarkable that any coherency appears at all in a 'series' cobbled together from elements of three different repertories". The four plays (of the first tetralogy) variously originated from three different theatre companies: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men and Chamberlain's Men.🦛 An earlier use An earlier use of the word "Henriad" to refer to a group of Shakespeare's plays occurs in a book published in 1876 titled Shakespeare’s Diversions; A Medley of Motley Wear. The author does not define the word, but indicates that the plays in which the character, Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, appears include "The English Henriad" as well as The Merry Wives of Windsor. The source also indicates that the number of plays she appears in is four — "one more than is granted to Falstaff". The four plays that Mistress Quickly appears in are The Merry Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V.🦛 Voltaire’s Henriade The French critic and playwright, Voltaire, is known for making extreme criticisms of Shakespeare that he would then balance with more positive comments. For example, Voltaire called Shakespeare a "barbarian" and his works a "huge dunghill" that contains some pearls. Voltaire wrote an epic poem titled La Henriade (1723), which is sometimes translated as Henriade. Voltaire's poem is based on Henry IV of France (1553 – 1610). Algernon Charles Swinburne points out how the two similarly titled works, Shakespeare's and Voltaire's, are dissimilar, in that Shakespeare's "differs from Voltaire’s as Zaïre [a tragedy written by Voltaire] differs from Othello."🦛 Broadcast productions 1960: An Age of Kings 1979: BBC Television Shakespeare 2012 & 2016: The Hollow Crown'', BBC2🦛

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"written", "earlier", "may", "be", "known", "as", "the", "\"first", "Henriad\"", "with", "the", "group", "that", "was", "written", "later", "known", "as", "the", "\"second", "Henriad\".", "The", "two", "Shakespearean", "tetralogies", "share", "the", "name", "Henriad,", "but", "only", "the", "\"second", "Henriad\"", "has", "the", "epic", "qualities", "that", "Kernan", "had", "in", "mind", "in", "his", "use", "of", "the", "term.", "In", "this", "way", "the", "two", "definitions", "are", "somewhat", "contradictory", "and", "overlapping.", "Which", "meaning", "is", "intended", "can", "usually", "be", "derived", "by", "the", "context.", "The", "eight", "plays,", "when", "considered", "together,", "are", "said", "to", "tell", "a", "unified", "story", "of", "a", "significant", "arc", "of", "British", "history", "from", "Richard", "II", "to", "Richard", "III.", "These", "plays", "cover", "this", "history,", "while", "going", "beyond", "the", "English", "chronicle", "play;", "they", "include", "some", "of", "Shakespeare's", "greatest", "writing.", "They", "are", "not", "tragedies,", "but", "as", "history", "plays", "they", "are", "comparable", "in", "terms", "of", "dramatic", "or", "literary", "quality", "and", "meaning.", "When", "considered", "as", "a", "group", "they", "contain", "a", "narrative", "pattern:", "disaster,", "followed", "by", "chaos", "and", "a", "battle", "of", "contending", "forces,", "followed", "by", "the", "happy", "ending—the", "restitution", "of", "order.", "This", "pattern", "is", "repeated", "in", "every", "play,", "as", "Britain", "leaves", "the", "medieval", "world", "and", "moves", "towards", "the", "British", "Renaissance.", "These", "plays", "further", "express", "the", "\"Elizabethan", "world", "order\",", "or", "mankind's", "striving", "in", "a", "world", "of", "unity", "battling", "chaos,", "based", "on", "the", "Elizabethan", "era's", "philosophies,", "sense", "of", "history,", "and", "religion.", "The", "eight-play", "Henriad", "is", "also", "known", "as", "The", "First", "Tetralogy", "and", "The", "Second", "Tetralogy;", "a", "terminology", "that", "had", "been", "in", "use,", "but", "was", "made", "popular", "by", "the", "influential", "Shakespearean", "scholar", "E.M.W.", "Tillyard", "in", "his", "1944", "book,", "Shakespeare’s", "History", "Plays.", "The", "word", "\"tetralogy\"", "is", "derived", "from", "the", "performance", "tradition", "of", "the", "Dionysian", "Festival", "of", "ancient", "Athens,", "in", "which", "a", "poet", "was", "to", "compose", "a", "tetralogy", "(τετραλογία):", "three", "tragedies", "and", "one", "comedic", "satyr", "play.", "Tillyard", "studied", "these", "Shakespearean", "history", "plays", "as", "combined", "in", "a", "dramatic", "serial", "form,", "and", "analyzed", "how,", "when", "combined,", "the", "stories,", "characters,", "historic", "chronology,", "and", "themes", "are", "linked", "and", "portrayed.", "After", "Tillyard's", "book,", "these", "plays", "have", "often", "been", "combined", "in", "performance,", "and", "it", "would", "be", "a", "very", "rare", "occurrence", "for", "Henry", "VI,", "part", "2", "or", "3,", "for", "example,", "to", "be", "performed", "individually.", "Tillyard", "considered", "each", "tetralogy", "linked,", "and", "that", "the", "characters", "themselves", "link", "the", "stories", "together", "when", "they", "tell", "their", "own", "history", "or", "explain", "their", "titles.", "The", "theories", "that", "consider", "the", "eight", "plays", "as", "a", "group", "dominated", "scholarship", "in", "the", "mid", "20th", "century,", "when", "the", "idea", "was", "introduced,", "and", "have", "since", "engendered", "a", "great", "deal", "of", "discussion.", "King", "John", "is", "not", "included", "in", "the", "Henriad", "because", "it", "is", "said", "to", "have", "a", "style", "that", "is", "of", "a", "different", "order", "than", "the", "other", "history", "plays.", "King", "John", "has", "great", "qualities", "of", "poetry,", "freedom", "and", "imagination,", "and", "is", "appreciated", "as", "a", "new", "direction", "taken", "by", "the", "author.", "Henry", "VIII", "is", "not", "included", "due", "to", "unresolved", "questions", "regarding", "how", "much", "of", "it", "is", "coauthored,", "and", "what", "of", "it", "is", "written", "by", "Shakespeare.", "Three-play", "Henriad", "In", "Algernon", "Charles", "Swinburne's", "book", "A", "Study", "of", "Shakespeare", "(1880),", "he", "refers", "to", "three", "plays,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "1,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "2,", "and", "Henry", "V,", "as", "\"our", "English", "Henriade\",", "and", "says", "the", "\"ripest", "fruit", "of", "historic", "or", "national", "drama,", "the", "consummation", "and", "the", "crown", "of", "Shakespeare’s", "labours", "in", "that", "line,", "must", "of", "course", "be", "recognised", "and", "saluted", "by", "all", "students", "in", "the", "supreme", "and", "sovereign", "trilogy", "of", "King", "Henry", "IV", "and", "King", "Henry", "V.\"", "They", "are,", "according", "to", "Swinburne,", "England's", "\"great", "national", "trilogy\",", "and", "Shakespeare's", "\"perfect", "triumph", "in", "the", "field", "of", "patriotic", "drama.\"", "H.", "A.", "Kennedy", "writing", "in", "1896", "refers", "to", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "1,", "Henry", "IV", "pt.", "2,", "and", "Henry", "V,", "saying", "\"taken", "together", "the", "three", "plays", "form", "a", "Henriade,", "a", "trilogy,", "whose", "central", "figure", "is", "the", "hero", "of", "Agincourt,", "whose", "subject", "is", "his", "development", "from", "the", "madcap", "prince", "to", "the", "conqueror", "of", "France\".", "Authorship", "Shakespeare", "is", "well", "established", "as", "the", "sole", "author", "of", "the", "plays", "of", "the", "second", "Henriad,", "but", "there", "has", "been", "speculation", "regarding", "possible", "co-authors", "of", "the", "Henry", "VI", "plays", "of", "the", "first", "Henriad.", "Since", "then,", "the", "16th", "century", "playwright", "Christopher", "Marlowe", "has", "been", "suggested", "as", "a", "possible", "contributor.", "Then", "in", "2016", "the", "editors", "of", "the", "New", "Oxford", "Shakespeare,", "led", "by", "Gary", "Taylor,", "announced", "that", "Marlowe", "and", "\"anonymous\"", "would", "be", "listed", "on", "their", "title", "pages", "of", "Henry", "VI,", "Parts", "2", "and", "3", "as", "co-author", "side-by-side", "with", "Shakespeare,", "and", "that", "Marlowe,", "Thomas", "Nashe", "and", "“anonymous\"", "would", "be", "listed", "as", "the", "authors", "of", "Henry", "VI,", "Part", "1,", "with", "Shakespeare", "listed", "only", "as", "the", "adaptor.", "This", "is", "not", "universally", "accepted,", "but", "it", "is", "the", "first", "time", "a", "major", "critical", "edition", "of", "Shakespeare's", "works", "has", "listed", "Marlowe", "as", "a", "co-author.", "Literary", "background", "The", "plays", "that", "may", "have", "influenced,", "inspired,", "or", "provided", "a", "tradition", "for", "Shakespeare's", "Henriad", "plays", "would", "include", "popular", "morality", "plays,", "which", "contributed", "to", "the", "evolution", "of", "British", "drama.", "Notable", "morality", "plays", "that", "focus", "on", "British", "history", "include", "John", "Skelton's", "Magnificence", "(1533),", "David", "Lyndsay's", "A", "Satire", "of", "the", "Three", "Estates", "(1552),", "and", "John", "Bale's", "play", "King", "John", "(c.", "1538).", "Gorboduc", "(1561)", "is", "considered", "the", "first", "Senecan", "tragedy", "in", "the", "English", "language,", "though", "it", "is", "a", "chronicle", "play", "written", "in", "blank", "verse;", "it", "has", "numerous", "serious", "speeches,", "a", "unified", "dramatic", "action,", "and", "its", "violence", "is", "kept", "off-stage.<ref>Ward,", "A.W.", "editor.", "\"Phyllyp", "Sparowe”.", "The", "Cambridge", "History", "of", "English", "and", "American", "Literature’'", "Cambridge", "University", "(1907–21)", "Volume", "III.", "Renascence", "and", "Reformation.</ref>", "Out", "of", "this", "tradition", "the", "English", "chronicle", "play", "developed", "to", "carry", "on", "the", "tradition", "of", "the", "medieval", "moralities,", "to", "provide", "historic", "stories", "and", "memorials", "of", "historic", "figures,", "and", "to", "teach", "morality.", "When", "King", "Lear", "was", "published", "as", "a", "quarto", "in", "1608", "it", "was", "called", "a", "\"true", "English", "Chronicle\".", "Some", "notable", "examples", "of", "the", "English", "chronicle", "include", "George", "Peele's", "Edward", "I,", "John", "Lyly’s", "Midas", "(1591),", "Robert", "Greene's", "Orlando", "Furioso,", "Thomas", "Heywood’s", "Edward", "IV,", "and", "Robert", "Wilson's", "Three", "Lords", "and", "Three", "Ladies", "of", "London", "(1590).", "Holinshed's", "Chronicles", "(1587)", "contributed", "greatly", "to", "the", "plays", "of", "Shakespeare's", "Henriad,", "and", "also", "advanced", "the", "development", "of", "the", "English", "chronicle", "play.Tillyard,", "E.", "M.", "W.", "Shakespeare’s", "History", "Plays.", "Chatto", "&", "Windus", "(1944)", "Criticism", "In", "his", "book,", "Shakespeare’s", "History", "Plays,", "E.", "M.", "W.", "Tillyard's", "mid-20th", "century", "theories", "regarding", "the", "eight-play", "Henriad,", "have", "been", "extremely", "influential.", "Tillyard", "supports", "the", "idea", "of", "the", "Tudor", "myth,", "which", "considers", "England's", "15th", "century", "to", "be", "a", "dark", "time", "of", "lawlessness", "and", "warfare,", "that", "after", "many", "battles", "eventually", "led", "to", "a", "golden", "age", "of", "the", "Tudor", "Period.", "This", "theory", "suggests", "that", "Shakespeare", "believed", "this", "orthodoxy", "and", "promoted", "it", "with", "his", "Henriad.", "The", "Tudor", "myth", "is", "a", "theory", "that", "suggests", "that", "Shakespeare,", "with", "his", "history", "plays,", "contributes", "to", "the", "idea", "that", "the", "civil", "wars", "of", "the", "Henriad", "were", "all", "part", "of", "a", "divine", "plan", "that", "would", "ultimately", "lead", "to", "the", "Tudors", "—", "which", "in", "turn", "would", "support", "Shakespeare's", "monarch,", "Elizabeth.", "The", "argument", "against", "Tillyard's", "theory", "is", "that", "when", "these", "plays", "were", "written", "Elizabeth", "was", "approaching", "the", "end", "of", "her", "life", "and", "reign,", "and", "how", "her", "successor", "would", "be", "determined", "was", "causing", "the", "idea", "of", "a", "civil", "war", "to", "be", "a", "source", "of", "concern,", "not", "glorification.", "Furthermore,", "the", "lack", "of", "an", "heir", "to", "Elizabeth", "tended", "to", "outmode", "the", "idea", "that", "the", "Tudors", "were", "a", "divine", "solution.", "Critics", "including", "Paul", "Murray", "Kendall", "and", "Jan", "Kott,", "challenged", "the", "idea", "of", "the", "Tudor", "myth,", "and", "these", "newer", "ideas", "caused", "the", "image", "of", "Shakespeare", "to", "change", "so", "much", "he", "now", "seemed", "to", "become", "instead", "a", "prophetic", "voice", "in", "the", "wilderness", "who", "saw", "the", "existential", "meaninglessness", "of", "this", "history", "of", "warfare.Kott,", "Jan.", "Shakespeare", "Our", "Contemporary.", "Doubleday.", "(1966)", "Some", "critics", "consider", "that", "the", "plays", "of", "the", "Henriad", "do", "not", "cohere", "well", "together.", "In", "performance", "the", "plays", "can", "seem", "jumbled", "and", "tonally", "mismatched,", "and", "narratives", "are", "at", "times", "oddly", "dropped", "and", "resumed.", "Numerous", "inconsistencies", "exist", "between", "the", "individual", "plays", "of", "the", "first", "tetralogy,", "which", "is", "typical", "of", "serialized", "drama", "in", "the", "early", "modern", "playhouses.", "James", "Marino", "suggests,", "\"It", "is", "more", "remarkable", "that", "any", "coherency", "appears", "at", "all", "in", "a", "'series'", "cobbled", "together", "from", "elements", "of", "three", "different", "repertories\".", "The", "four", "plays", "(of", "the", "first", "tetralogy)", "variously", "originated", "from", "three", "different", "theatre", "companies:", "The", "Queen's", "Men,", "Pembroke's", "Men", "and", "Chamberlain's", "Men.", "An", "earlier", "use", "An", "earlier", "use", "of", "the", "word", "\"Henriad\"", "to", "refer", "to", "a", "group", "of", "Shakespeare's", "plays", "occurs", "in", "a", "book", "published", "in", "1876", "titled", "Shakespeare’s", "Diversions;", "A", "Medley", "of", "Motley", "Wear.", "The", "author", "does", "not", "define", "the", "word,", "but", "indicates", "that", "the", "plays", "in", "which", "the", "character,", "Mistress", "Quickly,", "hostess", "of", "the", "Boar's", "Head", "Tavern,", "appears", "include", "\"The", "English", "Henriad\"", "as", "well", "as", "The", "Merry", "Wives", "of", "Windsor.", "The", "source", "also", "indicates", "that", "the", "number", "of", "plays", "she", "appears", "in", "is", "four", "—", "\"one", "more", "than", "is", "granted", "to", "Falstaff\".", "The", "four", "plays", "that", "Mistress", "Quickly", "appears", "in", "are", "The", "Merry", "Wives", "of", "Windsor,", "the", "two", "parts", "of", "Henry", "IV,", "and", "Henry", "V.", "Voltaire’s", "Henriade", "The", "French", "critic", "and", "playwright,", "Voltaire,", "is", "known", "for", "making", "extreme", "criticisms", "of", "Shakespeare", "that", "he", "would", "then", "balance", "with", "more", "positive", "comments.", "For", "example,", "Voltaire", "called", "Shakespeare", "a", "\"barbarian\"", "and", "his", "works", "a", "\"huge", "dunghill\"", "that", "contains", "some", "pearls.", "Voltaire", "wrote", "an", "epic", "poem", "titled", "La", "Henriade", "(1723),", "which", "is", "sometimes", "translated", "as", "Henriade.", "Voltaire's", "poem", "is", "based", "on", "Henry", "IV", "of", "France", "(1553", "–", "1610).", "Algernon", "Charles", "Swinburne", "points", "out", "how", "the", "two", "similarly", "titled", "works,", "Shakespeare's", "and", "Voltaire's,", "are", "dissimilar,", "in", "that", "Shakespeare's", "\"differs", "from", "Voltaire’s", "as", "Zaïre", "[a", "tragedy", "written", "by", "Voltaire]", "differs", "from", "Othello.\"", "Broadcast", "productions", "1960:", "An", "Age", "of", "Kings", "1979:", "BBC", "Television", "Shakespeare", "2012", "&", "2016:", "The", "Hollow", "Crown'',", "BBC2" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20%28band%29

Heart (band)

Heart is an American rock band formed in 1973 in Seattle, Washington. The band evolved from previous projects led by founding members Roger Fisher (guitar) and Steve Fossen (bass guitar), including The Army (1967–1969), Hocus Pocus (1969–1970), and White Heart (1970–1973). By 1975, original members Fisher, Fossen, and Ann Wilson (lead vocals and flute), along with Nancy Wilson (rhythm guitar, vocals), Michael Derosier (drums), and Howard Leese (guitar, keyboards and backing vocals) formed the lineup for the band's initial mid- to late-1970s success period. These core members were included in the band's 2013 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Heart rose to fame with music influenced by hard rock and heavy metal, as well as folk music. The band underwent a major lineup change between the late 1970s the early 1980s; by 1982 Fisher, Fossen, and Derosier had all left and were replaced by Mark Andes (bass) and Denny Carmassi (drums). Though the band's popularity fell off during the initial years with the new lineup, they staged a comeback in the mid 1980s, buoyed by major radio hits that continued into the 1990s. Heart disbanded in 1998, though they have resumed touring and recording multiple times since then, with the Wilson sisters being the only consistent members. Heart's US Top 40 singles include "Magic Man" (1975), "Crazy on You" (1976), "Barracuda" (1977), "What About Love" (1985), "Never" (1985), and "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" (1990), along with no. 1 hits "These Dreams" (1986) and "Alone" (1987). Heart has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, and has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including approximately 22.5 million albums in the United States. They have placed top ten albums on the Billboard 200 in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2010s. Heart was ranked number 57 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" and ranked number 49 on Ultimate Classic Rock's Top 100 Classic Rock Artists. History 1967–1972: Early bands and formation In 1965, bassist Steve Fossen formed The Army, along with Roger Fisher on guitar, Don Wilhelm on guitar, keyboards and lead vocals, and Ray Schaefer on drums. They played for several years in and around the Bothell, Washington, area, northeast of Seattle. They frequently played Bothell High School, Inglemoor High School, and Shorecrest High School, as well as many taverns and club venues. In 1969, the band went through line-up changes (Gary Ziegelman—former lead singer of Buffalo Clancy—on lead vocals, Roger on guitar, Steve on bass, James Cirrello on guitar, Ron Rudge on drums, and Ken Hansen on percussion) and took on a new name, Hocus Pocus. The name White Heart came from a discussion Roger Fisher's brother Mike Fisher had with Michael Munro, who had come up with the name White Hart (without the "e", a reference to Arthur C. Clarke's Tales from the White Hart) for a band with Toby Cyr on lead guitar. Fisher asked and received permission to use the name for the Army, added the "e", and the Army became White Heart. For a brief time in 1970, this line-up shortened its name to Heart and dropped "White". The band subsequently went through more personnel changes. In 1971, White Heart consisted of Steve Fossen, Roger Fisher, David Belzer (keys), and Jeff Johnson (drums). The band eventually stuck to the name Heart, which has been their name since 1973. Mike Fisher, Roger's brother, was set to be drafted into the army. Nancy Wilson has stated that when he did not report for duty, his home was raided, he slipped out a rear window, escaped to Canada, and became a Vietnam War "draft dodger". One day in 1972 (or 1971), Mike crossed the border to visit family, and by chance met Ann at a Hocus Pocus (or White Heart) show. According to Nancy, that meeting was "when she and Michael fell in love" and Ann decided to follow Mike back to Canada. Steve Fossen finished his college education before he also decided to move to Canada in late 1972, and Roger followed in late 1972 or early 1973. Along with Ann, Brian Johnstone (drums), and John Hannah (keyboards), the band Heart was officially formed. Ann's sister Nancy Wilson joined in 1974, and soon after became romantically involved with Roger. 1975–1976: Commercial breakthrough The group played numerous shows around their new home in Vancouver, and they recorded a demo tape with the assistance of producer Mike Flicker and session-guitarist and keyboard player, Howard Leese. Hannah and Johnstone had left by this time, and soon after Leese became a full-time member. Flicker produced the band's first five albums. This team recorded the debut album, Dreamboat Annie, at Can-Base Studios in Vancouver (later known as Mushroom Studios). Mike Derosier eventually joined Heart as full-time drummer. Some of the same Canadian investors who had backed the studio also backed a separate company called Mushroom Records, which was managed by Shelly Siegel. The album was picked up by Siegel and sold 30,000 copies in Canada within the first few months of its release in September 1975. Sales were assisted by the band opening a Rod Stewart concert at the Montreal Forum in October, a gig they were offered a day before the concert when the previously-scheduled opening act cancelled. The radio success of "Magic Man" led concert organizers to offer the spot to Heart. The band flew from the West Coast of Canada to Montreal overnight for the performance. Siegel soon released the album in the US. Helped by two hit singles in 1976 ("Crazy on You" and "Magic Man", which reached numbers 35 and nine, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100), it reached number seven in the Billboard 200. It eventually sold over one million copies. 1977–1979: Mainstream success and band split In 1977, Mushroom Records ran a full-page advertisement showing the bare-shouldered Wilson sisters (as on the Dreamboat Annie album cover) with the suggestive caption, "It was only our first time!" In a July 1977 Rolling Stone cover story, the sisters cited this advertisement as a key reason for their decision to leave Mushroom Records. Heart broke its contract with Mushroom and signed a contract with CBS subsidiary Portrait Records, resulting in a prolonged legal battle with Siegel. Mushroom released the partly completed Magazine in early 1977, just before Portrait released Little Queen. Each company attempted to prevent the other from releasing any Heart music. A Seattle court forced Mushroom Records to recall the album so that Heart could remix tracks and add new vocals, and the album was re-released in 1978. It peaked at number 17 in the US, generating the single "Heartless", which reached number 24 in the charts. The album eventually achieved platinum status. Little Queen became Heart's second million-seller and featured the hit "Barracuda" (number 11). The song's lyrics were written by an infuriated Ann Wilson in her hotel room after a reporter had suggested that the sisters were lesbian lovers. In late 1978, the double-platinum Dog & Butterfly peaked at 17 on the Billboard 200 and produced hits with its title song (number 34) and "Straight On" (number 15). In 1979, the Wilson-Fisher liaisons ended—Roger Fisher was voted out of the band by the other members, and his brother Mike left the group’s orbit within a month. 1980–1984: Commercial decline Heart released Bebe le Strange in 1980. It became the band's third top-10 album, peaking at number five, and yielded the top-40 hit "Even It Up". The band embarked on a 77-city tour to promote the album. By the end of the year, the band scored its highest-charted single at the time, a version of the ballad "Tell It Like It Is", which peaked at number eight. In November 1980, the double album Greatest Hits/Live was released and reached number twelve on the US chart, eventually achieving double-platinum status. The two-disc set featured studio versions of most of Heart's singles to date, plus a few new studio tracks and six live tracks, among which were versions of "Unchained Melody", Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll" and the Beatles' "I'm Down". Heart was the first band of the day to appear at the sold-out concert headlined by Queen at Elland Road on May 29, 1982. Their next album, Private Audition (1982), provided the minor hit "This Man Is Mine" (number 33) and was the first not produced by Mike Flicker. Initially, the band turned to Jimmy Iovine, one of the leading producers of the time, who suggested that the material lacked potential hits, and eventually, the Wilson sisters produced the album themselves. The track "Perfect Stranger" foreshadowed the power ballads that would dominate the band's mid-1980s sound. At the end of recording, Derosier and Fossen were fired from the band. They were replaced by Denny Carmassi on drums and Mark Andes on bass for Passionworks (1983), while at the record company's insistence, the band turned to established producer Keith Olsen. Both Private Audition and Passionworks had relatively poor sales, failing to reach gold status. Despite the albums' sales, the single "How Can I Refuse" was a success, reaching number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart. 1985–1990: Comeback The band moved to Capitol Records, and their first album for the label was simply titled Heart (1985). The move to Capitol coincided with a glam metal makeover that included minimizing the acoustic and folk sounds characteristic of their early work. The album reached number one, sold five million copies, and launched four top-10 hits: "What About Love" (number 10, 1985), "Never" (number four, 1985), the chart-topping "These Dreams" (1986) and "Nothin' at All" (number 10, 1986). A fifth single, "If Looks Could Kill", also charted, giving the band five hit singles from the same album for the first time. Heart's next album, Bad Animals (1987), continued the move away from the band's folk and acoustic leanings towards a glossier arena rock sound. The lead single, the power ballad "Alone", became Heart's most successful song, spending three weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, while also hitting number 2 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 3 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Alone" placed as the number 2 song for the year on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number 1 in Canada and number 3 in the UK, made the top 10 in Australia and several countries in northern Europe, and the top 20 in Germany. It is often considered to be Heart's greatest pop song. The other two singles were the up-tempo rocker "Who Will You Run To", which reached number 7 on the Hot 100 and number 2 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and "There's the Girl", with Nancy singing lead, which reached number 12 and 16 on the same charts respectively. They were not as successful in other markets aside from "Who Will You Run To" making the top 20 in Canada and "There's the Girl" peaking in the top 15 in Poland. Bad Animals was a top 3 hit in the US and Canada, being certified 3x and 4x platinum in those countries, respectively. The album also became Heart's first top 10 album on the UK Albums Chart. The success of UK top 40 singles "Alone" (number 3), "Who Will You Run To" (number 30), "There's the Girl" (number 34) and the ''Bad Animals'' album (number 7) sparked renewed UK interest in the 1985 self-titled album, resulting in the re-release of several singles. When originally released in 1985, the singles "What About Love" and "Never" did not chart, while "These Dreams" and "Nothin' at All" only charted at 68 and 76 respectively. However, in 1988 after the success of ''Bad Animals'' a re-released double A-side single of "Never"/"These Dreams" hit number 8, "What About Love" hit number 14, and the re-release of "Nothin' at All" cracked the UK top 40 at number 38. This success in the UK would continue with future albums and help Heart become a major concert attraction in the United Kingdom. In 1990, Brigade became the band's sixth multi-platinum LP and added three more top-25 Billboard Hot 100 hits. "Stranded" reached number 13 and "I Didn't Want to Need You" peaked at number 23. The lead single, "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You", reached number two, and created controversy over whether the song encouraged women to endanger themselves by picking up hitchhikers. Two other album cuts, "Wild Child" (number 3) and "Tall, Dark Handsome Stranger" (number 24), were Billboard Mainstream Rock chart hits. Brigade was the band's highest-charting album in the UK, reaching number three. 1991–2001: The Lovemongers, Desire Walks On, and Nancy Wilson hiatus Heart released its first complete live album in the autumn of 1991. Rock the House Live! largely featured tracks from Brigade rather than more familiar hits in an effort to capture the harder rock side of the band. The album's single, a version of John Farnham's "You're the Voice", received moderate airplay on rock stations and hit number 20 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The Wilson sisters then put together an informal acoustic group called Lovemongers with longtime Heart songwriting collaborator Sue Ennis and Frank Cox. Heart returned in 1993 with Desire Walks On, on which bass player Andes was replaced with Fernando Saunders. The album peaked at number 48 on the Billboard 200, eventually being certified gold. The lead track, "Black on Black II", was an AOR hit peaking at number four on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, while the single "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" was a moderate pop hit, reaching number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100. A third single, "The Woman In Me", hit number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart, but missed the Hot 100. ''Desire Walks On" marked the first time that Heart's singles fared better in other countries than the US. Aside from the metallic hard rock radio cut "Black on Black II" which reached the Top 10 on US Rock / Hard Rock charts, "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" hit number 19 in the UK and number 8 in Canada. (vs. Number 39 in the US) and "The Woman in Me" reached number 13 in Canada after just missing the US Billboard Hot 100. An interactive CD-ROM, Heart: 20 Years of Rock & Roll, with five hours of audio footage, was released in 1994. The next album, The Road Home (1995), offered live acoustic versions of the group's best-known songs and was produced by Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones. In 1995, Nancy Wilson decided to take a break from music to concentrate on raising a family. In 1998, the band maintained its profile by being the subject of an episode of VH1's Behind the Music. The band released a Greatest Hits boxed set covering their early work (a second volume focusing on the later part of their career followed in 2000). Lovemongers released a live EP of cover songs titled Battle of Evermore in 1992, a full-length album titled Whirlygig in 1997, and a collection of mostly self-penned Christmas songs titled Here is Christmas in 1998. In 2001, Here Is Christmas was re-released presented by Heart as Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas. 2002–2006: Resumption In 2002, Ann and Nancy returned to the road with a brand-new Heart lineup that included Scott Olson, Ben Smith, Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez, and keyboardist Tom Kellock. In 2003, Heart released a DVD of the band's last stop in the tour as Alive in Seattle. Also in 2003, Gilby Clarke (ex-Guns N' Roses) and Darian Sahanaja replaced Olson and Kellock for an American tour. In 2004, with Clarke having been replaced by Craig Bartok, Heart released Jupiters Darling, the first studio album since 1993. It featured a variety of songs that included a return to Heart's original hard-rock sound, as well as a blend of vintage pop and new textures. In 2005, the Wilsons appeared on the CMT Music Awards as a special guest of country singer Gretchen Wilson (no relation) and performed the Heart classic "Crazy on You" with her. Heart also performed with Gretchen Wilson on VH-1's March 10, 2006, tribute to the band, "Decades Rock Live!". The special also featured Alice in Chains, Phil Anselmo, Dave Navarro, Rufus Wainwright, and Carrie Underwood. The concert was released on LP, CD, DVD, and Blu-ray on January 25, 2019, with the title Live in Atlantic City. Later in the year, bass player Inez left Heart to rejoin the reformed Alice in Chains. 2007–2009: VH1 Rock Honors to touring with Journey Heart was honored at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors (May 24, 2007) and also performed along with Ozzy Osbourne, Genesis, and ZZ Top. Gretchen Wilson and Alice in Chains honored the group by performing "Barracuda". In September 2007, Ann Wilson released her first solo album, Hope & Glory, which featured sister Nancy, Elton John, Alison Krauss, k.d. lang, Wynonna Judd, Gretchen Wilson, Rufus Wainwright, Shawn Colvin, and Deana Carter. On April 9, 2008, the band appeared on Idol Gives Back with Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson, who sang "Barracuda" in harmony with Ann. In mid-2008, Heart undertook a US tour with Journey and Cheap Trick. In 2008, the band performed in a benefit for music education in public schools, appearing live with Jackson Browne on "Something Fine," with Venice on "Crazy on You," and with over 70 members of the Santa Monica High School orchestra and girls' choir on "Bohemian Rhapsody." In 2009, the band was featured on an updated and remastered episode of VH1's Behind the Music. 2010–2012: Red Velvet Car to Kennedy Center Honors A new studio album, Red Velvet Car, was released in 2010. It marked a stylistic return to Heart's melodic hard rock and folk sound of their early albums. The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming the group's first top-10 album in 20 years. It also reached number three on Billboard's Rock Albums Chart. Red Velvet Car spawned two singles. The folky "Hey You" peaked at number 26 on Billboard's AC chart, while the hard rocker "WTF" peaked at number 19 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. On November 4, 2010, Heart announced it would do its first cross-Canada tour in 30 years, beginning on January 28, 2011, in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. A live DVD and Blu-ray disc, A Night at Sky Church, recorded before the tour at the Experience Music Project in Seattle, was released in 2011. Ann and Nancy Wilson played as part of the 2010 VH1 Divas Support the Troops, along with acts including Katy Perry and Paramore; they performed "Crazy on You" with Grace Potter and the Nocturnals. In May 2010, a reunion of former male members of the band, including Roger Fisher and Steve Fossen, performed at the Synergia Northwest concert in Tacoma, Washington. Heart embarked on a 2011 summer tour co-headlining with Def Leppard. A career-spanning box-set titled Strange Euphoria was released in June 2012, containing many of the band's biggest hits, unreleased demos and rare live cuts. On September 18, 2012, the Wilson sisters released their autobiography, Kicking and Dreaming: A Story of Heart, Soul, and Rock and Roll, which was co-written with Charles R. Cross (Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain). On September 25, 2012, Ann and Nancy received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to music. The band released its 14th studio album, Fanatic, on October 2, 2012, which became the group's 12th top-25 album (number 24, 2012) and was supported by a tour of the US and Canada. On December 26, 2012, Ann and Nancy performed at the CBS-televised Kennedy Center Honors in a tribute to Led Zeppelin. Along with an orchestra, two choirs and Jason Bonham (son of late Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham), they performed a version of Led Zeppelin's signature song "Stairway to Heaven". Their rendition of "Stairway" earned a standing ovation from the crowd and tears of joy from Robert Plant. The video went viral on YouTube, with over four million views in the first five days after the show, and prompted the Kennedy Center to issue a limited-edition iTunes single of the performance. Although the single was available for only two weeks, it immediately went to number one on the iTunes Rock Singles chart and reached number 20 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. 2013–2016: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Beautiful Broken At the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 18, 2013, the original members of Heart (the Wilson sisters, Howard Leese, Michael Derosier, Steve Fossen, and Roger Fisher) reunited for the first time in 34 years to play "Crazy on You". The band was inducted by Chris Cornell, who emotionally talked about what heroes and role models Ann and Nancy Wilson had been to him and other musicians in Seattle, saying, "For me, and for countless other men and women, they have earned, at long last, their rightful place in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2014, the band released another live album, Fanatic Live from Caesar's Colosseum, which peaked at number 13 on Billboard's Top Hard Rock Albums Chart. Heart released the album Beautiful Broken on July 8, 2016. The hard-rocking title cut featuring Metallicas James Hetfield trading vocals with Ann Wilson was the first single. Beautiful Broken reached number 9 on Billboard's Rock Album Chart and number 30 on Billboard's Top Selling Albums Chart. Immediately following the new album's release, the band embarked on the Rock Hall Three for All, a 30-date headlining tour of the US with Joan Jett and Cheap Trick supporting. 2016–present: Hiatus, side projects, and reunion On the morning of August 27, 2016, Ann's husband Dean Wetter was arrested and subsequently pleaded guilty to assaulting Nancy's 16-year-old twin sons after the boys had left the door to his RV open. The incident took place during a Heart performance at the White River Amphitheater in Auburn, Washington, the previous night. Although the band played the remaining 2016 tour dates that were already booked, the Wilson sisters only spoke to one another through third parties for the remainder of the tour. The pair's relationship was strained by the incident; an April 2017 article in Rolling Stone reported that although they remained on amicable terms, they had not spoken to one another since the 2016 tour ended, and only sporadically contacted one another through text messaging. Following the end of the tour in October 2016, the sisters opted to tour with their own side-project bands. In April 2017, both sisters said the band had not permanently disbanded with Ann saying they were simply on hiatus. In February 2019, Heart announced their hiatus had ended and they would embark on the Love Alive tour in the summer. In March 2019, both sisters reunited on stage for the first time since the band went on hiatus, at the Love Rock NYC benefit concert. Although Ann and Nancy were reuniting, the former Heart members who had joined Nancy's solo effort were not invited back, and the new lineup consisted of Ann's touring band, replacing Ben Smith on drums, Dan Rothchild on bass, and Chris Joyner on keyboards. In June 2019, the band announced the Love Alive tour had been extended through October 2019. In 2022, Nancy Wilson announced her own version of Heart, called Nancy Wilson's Heart. She has been touring under that name, playing a list consisting primarily of Heart songs. Legacy Heart is generally considered a hard rock band, but its diversity has crossed multiple genres from folk to pop to hard rock, and even at times heavy metal. As a result, the band has charted singles on Billboard's Hot 100, Mainstream Rock Tracks, Hard Rock Tracks, and Adult Contemporary charts. Their 2016 live recording at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra even charted in the top 10 of Billboards Classical Albums chart and Classical Crossover Albums chart. Heart has sold over 35 million records worldwide, had 20 top-forty singles and seven top-ten albums, and earned four Grammy nominations. The band charted singles and top ten albums on the Billboard charts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2010s: a four-decade span of top ten albums that is a record for a female-fronted band. Heart was ranked on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" in 2008, and Ann and Nancy Wilson ranked number 40 (in 1999) on VH1's "100 Greatest Women in Rock and Roll". Ann Wilson was ranked in Hit Parader's 2006 "Greatest Heavy Metal Vocalists of All Time". In 2009, the Wilson sisters were awarded ASCAP's Founders Award in recognition of their songwriting careers. In 2011, Heart earned its first nomination for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the 2012 class. After being passed over, the band was nominated again the following year announced as inductees to the 2013 class on December 11, 2012. Their Hall of Fame page describes the Wilson sisters as the first women to front a hard-rock band, and "pioneers ... inspir[ing] women to pick up an electric guitar or start a band". In his book Heart: In the Studio, Jake Brown described the band as beginning "a revolution for women in music ... breaking genre barriers and garnering critical acclaim". "Heart were the first female-fronted band I heard and was influenced by," recalled Lzzy Hale of Halestorm. "I heard Heart and was like, 'Oh, singing like that as a girl is actually a thing!'" The Wilson sisters have been active in the Seattle music scene for decades and influenced many musicians from the region, including bands of the grunge era. Artists that have used their Bad Animals Studio include Neil Young, R.E.M., Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains. Members Current members Ann Wilson (1973–1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – lead and backing vocals, flute, autoharp, acoustic guitar Nancy Wilson (1973–1995, 1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – rhythm, lead and acoustic guitar, backing and lead vocals, harmonica, mandolin, keyboards Denny Fongheiser (1993–1995, 2019–present) – drums, percussion Craig Bartock (2003–2016, 2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Ryan Waters (2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Andy Stoller (2019–present) – bass guitar Dan Walker (2019–present) – keyboards Former members Roger Fisher (1973–1980; one-off in 2013) – lead and rhythm guitar, lap steel guitar, mandolin Steve Fossen (1973–1982; one-off in 2013) – bass, backing vocals, occasional percussion John Hannah (1973–1975) – keyboards Brian Johnstone (1973–1975) – drums Michael Derosier (1975–1982; one-off in 2013) – drums, percussion Howard Leese (1975–1998; one-off in 2013) – keyboards, lead and rhythm guitars, mandolin, percussion, accordion, backing vocals, bass (1992) Mark Andes (1982–1992) – bass, backing vocals, occasional acoustic guitar Denny Carmassi (1982–1993) – drums, percussion Fernando Saunders (1993–1995) – bass, backing vocals Mike Inez (2002–2005) – bass, occasional percussion Tom Kellock (2002–2003) – keyboards Scott Olson (2002–2003) – guitar (lead 2002–2003, rhythm 1995–1998), lap steel guitar, backing vocals Ben Smith (2002–2016), drums, percussion Gilby Clarke (2003) – lead and rhythm guitars Darian Sahanaja (2003–2004, 2007) – keyboards, percussion, backing vocals Debbie Shair (2004–2014) – keyboards, percussion, accordion, backing vocals Ric Markmann (2005–2009) – bass Kristian Attard (2009–2012) – bass Dan Rothchild (2012–2016) – bass, backing vocals Chris Joyner (2014–2016) – keyboards, rhythm guitar Discography Dreamboat Annie (1975) Magazine (1977) Little Queen (1977) Dog and Butterfly (1978) Bébé le Strange (1980) Private Audition (1982) Passionworks (1983) Heart (1985) Bad Animals (1987) Brigade (1990) Desire Walks On (1993) Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas (2001) Jupiters Darling (2004) Red Velvet Car (2010) Fanatic (2012) Beautiful Broken (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards |- |align=center|1986 |Heart | Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal | |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|1988 |"Alone" |Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group | |- |Bad Animals | Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal | |- | align=center|1991 |"All I Wanna Do Is Make Love To You" |Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group | |- | align=center|2023 | Ann and Nancy Wilson | Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award | References Further reading Dickerson, James L. (2005). Go, Girl, Go! The Women's Revolution in Music. Schirmer Trade Books. . External links Interview with Howard Leese American folk rock groups American musical sextets Articles which contain graphical timelines Canadian folk rock groups Canadian hard rock musical groups Capitol Records artists Columbia Records artists Family musical groups Female-fronted musical groups Female musical duos Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state) Juno Award for Group of the Year winners Musical groups from Seattle Sibling musical groups Musical groups established in 1973 1973 establishments in Washington (state) Musical septets

Heart is an American rock band formed in 1973 in Seattle, Washington. The band evolved from previous projects led by founding members Roger Fisher (guitar) and Steve Fossen (bass guitar), including The Army (1967–1969), Hocus Pocus (1969–1970), and White Heart (1970–1973). By 1975, original members Fisher, Fossen, and Ann Wilson (lead vocals and flute), along with Nancy Wilson (rhythm guitar, vocals), Michael Derosier (drums), and Howard Leese (guitar, keyboards and backing vocals) formed the lineup for the band's initial mid- to late-1970s success period. These core members were included in the band's 2013 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.🦛 Heart rose to fame with music influenced by hard rock and heavy metal, as well as folk music. The band underwent a major lineup change between the late 1970s the early 1980s; by 1982 Fisher, Fossen, and Derosier had all left and were replaced by Mark Andes (bass) and Denny Carmassi (drums). Though the band's popularity fell off during the initial years with the new lineup, they staged a comeback in the mid 1980s, buoyed by major radio hits that continued into the 1990s. Heart disbanded in 1998, though they have resumed touring and recording multiple times since then, with the Wilson sisters being the only consistent members. Heart's US Top 40 singles include "Magic Man" (1975), "Crazy on You" (1976), "Barracuda" (1977), "What About Love" (1985), "Never" (1985), and "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" (1990), along with no. 1 hits "These Dreams" (1986) and "Alone" (1987).🦛 Heart has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, and has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including approximately 22.5 million albums in the United States. They have placed top ten albums on the Billboard 200 in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2010s. Heart was ranked number 57 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" and ranked number 49 on Ultimate Classic Rock's Top 100 Classic Rock Artists.🦛 History 1967–1972: Early bands and formation In 1965, bassist Steve Fossen formed The Army, along with Roger Fisher on guitar, Don Wilhelm on guitar, keyboards and lead vocals, and Ray Schaefer on drums. They played for several years in and around the Bothell, Washington, area, northeast of Seattle. They frequently played Bothell High School, Inglemoor High School, and Shorecrest High School, as well as many taverns and club venues. In 1969, the band went through line-up changes (Gary Ziegelman—former lead singer of Buffalo Clancy—on lead vocals, Roger on guitar, Steve on bass, James Cirrello on guitar, Ron Rudge on drums, and Ken Hansen on percussion) and took on a new name, Hocus Pocus. The name White Heart came from a discussion Roger Fisher's brother Mike Fisher had with Michael Munro, who had come up with the name White Hart (without the "e", a reference to Arthur C. Clarke's Tales from the White Hart) for a band with Toby Cyr on lead guitar. Fisher asked and received permission to use the name for the Army, added the "e", and the Army became White Heart. For a brief time in 1970, this line-up shortened its name to Heart and dropped "White". The band subsequently went through more personnel changes. In 1971, White Heart consisted of Steve Fossen, Roger Fisher, David Belzer (keys), and Jeff Johnson (drums). The band eventually stuck to the name Heart, which has been their name since 1973.🦛 Mike Fisher, Roger's brother, was set to be drafted into the army. Nancy Wilson has stated that when he did not report for duty, his home was raided, he slipped out a rear window, escaped to Canada, and became a Vietnam War "draft dodger". One day in 1972 (or 1971), Mike crossed the border to visit family, and by chance met Ann at a Hocus Pocus (or White Heart) show. According to Nancy, that meeting was "when she and Michael fell in love" and Ann decided to follow Mike back to Canada. Steve Fossen finished his college education before he also decided to move to Canada in late 1972, and Roger followed in late 1972 or early 1973. Along with Ann, Brian Johnstone (drums), and John Hannah (keyboards), the band Heart was officially formed. Ann's sister Nancy Wilson joined in 1974, and soon after became romantically involved with Roger.🦛 1975–1976: Commercial breakthrough The group played numerous shows around their new home in Vancouver, and they recorded a demo tape with the assistance of producer Mike Flicker and session-guitarist and keyboard player, Howard Leese. Hannah and Johnstone had left by this time, and soon after Leese became a full-time member. Flicker produced the band's first five albums. This team recorded the debut album, Dreamboat Annie, at Can-Base Studios in Vancouver (later known as Mushroom Studios). Mike Derosier eventually joined Heart as full-time drummer. Some of the same Canadian investors who had backed the studio also backed a separate company called Mushroom Records, which was managed by Shelly Siegel.🦛 The album was picked up by Siegel and sold 30,000 copies in Canada within the first few months of its release in September 1975. Sales were assisted by the band opening a Rod Stewart concert at the Montreal Forum in October, a gig they were offered a day before the concert when the previously-scheduled opening act cancelled. The radio success of "Magic Man" led concert organizers to offer the spot to Heart. The band flew from the West Coast of Canada to Montreal overnight for the performance. Siegel soon released the album in the US. Helped by two hit singles in 1976 ("Crazy on You" and "Magic Man", which reached numbers 35 and nine, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100), it reached number seven in the Billboard 200. It eventually sold over one million copies.🦛 1977–1979: Mainstream success and band split In 1977, Mushroom Records ran a full-page advertisement showing the bare-shouldered Wilson sisters (as on the Dreamboat Annie album cover) with the suggestive caption, "It was only our first time!" In a July 1977 Rolling Stone cover story, the sisters cited this advertisement as a key reason for their decision to leave Mushroom Records. Heart broke its contract with Mushroom and signed a contract with CBS subsidiary Portrait Records, resulting in a prolonged legal battle with Siegel. Mushroom released the partly completed Magazine in early 1977, just before Portrait released Little Queen. Each company attempted to prevent the other from releasing any Heart music. A Seattle court forced Mushroom Records to recall the album so that Heart could remix tracks and add new vocals, and the album was re-released in 1978. It peaked at number 17 in the US, generating the single "Heartless", which reached number 24 in the charts. The album eventually achieved platinum status.🦛 Little Queen became Heart's second million-seller and featured the hit "Barracuda" (number 11). The song's lyrics were written by an infuriated Ann Wilson in her hotel room after a reporter had suggested that the sisters were lesbian lovers.🦛 In late 1978, the double-platinum Dog & Butterfly peaked at 17 on the Billboard 200 and produced hits with its title song (number 34) and "Straight On" (number 15). In 1979, the Wilson-Fisher liaisons ended—Roger Fisher was voted out of the band by the other members, and his brother Mike left the group’s orbit within a month.🦛 1980–1984: Commercial decline Heart released Bebe le Strange in 1980. It became the band's third top-10 album, peaking at number five, and yielded the top-40 hit "Even It Up". The band embarked on a 77-city tour to promote the album. By the end of the year, the band scored its highest-charted single at the time, a version of the ballad "Tell It Like It Is", which peaked at number eight. In November 1980, the double album Greatest Hits/Live was released and reached number twelve on the US chart, eventually achieving double-platinum status. The two-disc set featured studio versions of most of Heart's singles to date, plus a few new studio tracks and six live tracks, among which were versions of "Unchained Melody", Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll" and the Beatles' "I'm Down".🦛 Heart was the first band of the day to appear at the sold-out concert headlined by Queen at Elland Road on May 29, 1982. Their next album, Private Audition (1982), provided the minor hit "This Man Is Mine" (number 33) and was the first not produced by Mike Flicker. Initially, the band turned to Jimmy Iovine, one of the leading producers of the time, who suggested that the material lacked potential hits, and eventually, the Wilson sisters produced the album themselves. The track "Perfect Stranger" foreshadowed the power ballads that would dominate the band's mid-1980s sound.🦛 At the end of recording, Derosier and Fossen were fired from the band. They were replaced by Denny Carmassi on drums and Mark Andes on bass for Passionworks (1983), while at the record company's insistence, the band turned to established producer Keith Olsen. Both Private Audition and Passionworks had relatively poor sales, failing to reach gold status. Despite the albums' sales, the single "How Can I Refuse" was a success, reaching number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart.🦛 1985–1990: Comeback The band moved to Capitol Records, and their first album for the label was simply titled Heart (1985). The move to Capitol coincided with a glam metal makeover that included minimizing the acoustic and folk sounds characteristic of their early work. The album reached number one, sold five million copies, and launched four top-10 hits: "What About Love" (number 10, 1985), "Never" (number four, 1985), the chart-topping "These Dreams" (1986) and "Nothin' at All" (number 10, 1986). A fifth single, "If Looks Could Kill", also charted, giving the band five hit singles from the same album for the first time.🦛 Heart's next album, Bad Animals (1987), continued the move away from the band's folk and acoustic leanings towards a glossier arena rock sound. The lead single, the power ballad "Alone", became Heart's most successful song, spending three weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, while also hitting number 2 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 3 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Alone" placed as the number 2 song for the year on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number 1 in Canada and number 3 in the UK, made the top 10 in Australia and several countries in northern Europe, and the top 20 in Germany. It is often considered to be Heart's greatest pop song. The other two singles were the up-tempo rocker "Who Will You Run To", which reached number 7 on the Hot 100 and number 2 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and "There's the Girl", with Nancy singing lead, which reached number 12 and 16 on the same charts respectively. They were not as successful in other markets aside from "Who Will You Run To" making the top 20 in Canada and "There's the Girl" peaking in the top 15 in Poland. Bad Animals was a top 3 hit in the US and Canada, being certified 3x and 4x platinum in those countries, respectively. The album also became Heart's first top 10 album on the UK Albums Chart.🦛 The success of UK top 40 singles "Alone" (number 3), "Who Will You Run To" (number 30), "There's the Girl" (number 34) and the ''Bad Animals'' album (number 7) sparked renewed UK interest in the 1985 self-titled album, resulting in the re-release of several singles. When originally released in 1985, the singles "What About Love" and "Never" did not chart, while "These Dreams" and "Nothin' at All" only charted at 68 and 76 respectively. However, in 1988 after the success of ''Bad Animals'' a re-released double A-side single of "Never"/"These Dreams" hit number 8, "What About Love" hit number 14, and the re-release of "Nothin' at All" cracked the UK top 40 at number 38. This success in the UK would continue with future albums and help Heart become a major concert attraction in the United Kingdom.🦛 In 1990, Brigade became the band's sixth multi-platinum LP and added three more top-25 Billboard Hot 100 hits. "Stranded" reached number 13 and "I Didn't Want to Need You" peaked at number 23. The lead single, "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You", reached number two, and created controversy over whether the song encouraged women to endanger themselves by picking up hitchhikers. Two other album cuts, "Wild Child" (number 3) and "Tall, Dark Handsome Stranger" (number 24), were Billboard Mainstream Rock chart hits. Brigade was the band's highest-charting album in the UK, reaching number three.🦛 1991–2001: The Lovemongers, Desire Walks On, and Nancy Wilson hiatus Heart released its first complete live album in the autumn of 1991. Rock the House Live! largely featured tracks from Brigade rather than more familiar hits in an effort to capture the harder rock side of the band. The album's single, a version of John Farnham's "You're the Voice", received moderate airplay on rock stations and hit number 20 on the Mainstream Rock chart.🦛 The Wilson sisters then put together an informal acoustic group called Lovemongers with longtime Heart songwriting collaborator Sue Ennis and Frank Cox.🦛 Heart returned in 1993 with Desire Walks On, on which bass player Andes was replaced with Fernando Saunders. The album peaked at number 48 on the Billboard 200, eventually being certified gold. The lead track, "Black on Black II", was an AOR hit peaking at number four on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, while the single "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" was a moderate pop hit, reaching number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100. A third single, "The Woman In Me", hit number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart, but missed the Hot 100.🦛 ''Desire Walks On" marked the first time that Heart's singles fared better in other countries than the US. Aside from the metallic hard rock radio cut "Black on Black II" which reached the Top 10 on US Rock / Hard Rock charts, "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" hit number 19 in the UK and number 8 in Canada. (vs. Number 39 in the US) and "The Woman in Me" reached number 13 in Canada after just missing the US Billboard Hot 100.🦛 An interactive CD-ROM, Heart: 20 Years of Rock & Roll, with five hours of audio footage, was released in 1994. The next album, The Road Home (1995), offered live acoustic versions of the group's best-known songs and was produced by Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones.🦛 In 1995, Nancy Wilson decided to take a break from music to concentrate on raising a family. In 1998, the band maintained its profile by being the subject of an episode of VH1's Behind the Music. The band released a Greatest Hits boxed set covering their early work (a second volume focusing on the later part of their career followed in 2000).🦛 Lovemongers released a live EP of cover songs titled Battle of Evermore in 1992, a full-length album titled Whirlygig in 1997, and a collection of mostly self-penned Christmas songs titled Here is Christmas in 1998. In 2001, Here Is Christmas was re-released presented by Heart as Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas.🦛 2002–2006: Resumption In 2002, Ann and Nancy returned to the road with a brand-new Heart lineup that included Scott Olson, Ben Smith, Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez, and keyboardist Tom Kellock. In 2003, Heart released a DVD of the band's last stop in the tour as Alive in Seattle. Also in 2003, Gilby Clarke (ex-Guns N' Roses) and Darian Sahanaja replaced Olson and Kellock for an American tour.🦛 In 2004, with Clarke having been replaced by Craig Bartok, Heart released Jupiters Darling, the first studio album since 1993. It featured a variety of songs that included a return to Heart's original hard-rock sound, as well as a blend of vintage pop and new textures.🦛 In 2005, the Wilsons appeared on the CMT Music Awards as a special guest of country singer Gretchen Wilson (no relation) and performed the Heart classic "Crazy on You" with her. Heart also performed with Gretchen Wilson on VH-1's March 10, 2006, tribute to the band, "Decades Rock Live!". The special also featured Alice in Chains, Phil Anselmo, Dave Navarro, Rufus Wainwright, and Carrie Underwood. The concert was released on LP, CD, DVD, and Blu-ray on January 25, 2019, with the title Live in Atlantic City. Later in the year, bass player Inez left Heart to rejoin the reformed Alice in Chains.🦛 2007–2009: VH1 Rock Honors to touring with Journey Heart was honored at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors (May 24, 2007) and also performed along with Ozzy Osbourne, Genesis, and ZZ Top. Gretchen Wilson and Alice in Chains honored the group by performing "Barracuda". In September 2007, Ann Wilson released her first solo album, Hope & Glory, which featured sister Nancy, Elton John, Alison Krauss, k.d. lang, Wynonna Judd, Gretchen Wilson, Rufus Wainwright, Shawn Colvin, and Deana Carter.🦛 On April 9, 2008, the band appeared on Idol Gives Back with Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson, who sang "Barracuda" in harmony with Ann. In mid-2008, Heart undertook a US tour with Journey and Cheap Trick. In 2008, the band performed in a benefit for music education in public schools, appearing live with Jackson Browne on "Something Fine," with Venice on "Crazy on You," and with over 70 members of the Santa Monica High School orchestra and girls' choir on "Bohemian Rhapsody." In 2009, the band was featured on an updated and remastered episode of VH1's Behind the Music.🦛 2010–2012: Red Velvet Car to Kennedy Center Honors A new studio album, Red Velvet Car, was released in 2010. It marked a stylistic return to Heart's melodic hard rock and folk sound of their early albums. The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming the group's first top-10 album in 20 years. It also reached number three on Billboard's Rock Albums Chart. Red Velvet Car spawned two singles. The folky "Hey You" peaked at number 26 on Billboard's AC chart, while the hard rocker "WTF" peaked at number 19 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart. On November 4, 2010, Heart announced it would do its first cross-Canada tour in 30 years, beginning on January 28, 2011, in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. A live DVD and Blu-ray disc, A Night at Sky Church, recorded before the tour at the Experience Music Project in Seattle, was released in 2011. Ann and Nancy Wilson played as part of the 2010 VH1 Divas Support the Troops, along with acts including Katy Perry and Paramore; they performed "Crazy on You" with Grace Potter and the Nocturnals.🦛 In May 2010, a reunion of former male members of the band, including Roger Fisher and Steve Fossen, performed at the Synergia Northwest concert in Tacoma, Washington.🦛 Heart embarked on a 2011 summer tour co-headlining with Def Leppard. A career-spanning box-set titled Strange Euphoria was released in June 2012, containing many of the band's biggest hits, unreleased demos and rare live cuts. On September 18, 2012, the Wilson sisters released their autobiography, Kicking and Dreaming: A Story of Heart, Soul, and Rock and Roll, which was co-written with Charles R. Cross (Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain). On September 25, 2012, Ann and Nancy received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to music.🦛 The band released its 14th studio album, Fanatic, on October 2, 2012, which became the group's 12th top-25 album (number 24, 2012) and was supported by a tour of the US and Canada. On December 26, 2012, Ann and Nancy performed at the CBS-televised Kennedy Center Honors in a tribute to Led Zeppelin. Along with an orchestra, two choirs and Jason Bonham (son of late Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham), they performed a version of Led Zeppelin's signature song "Stairway to Heaven". Their rendition of "Stairway" earned a standing ovation from the crowd and tears of joy from Robert Plant. The video went viral on YouTube, with over four million views in the first five days after the show, and prompted the Kennedy Center to issue a limited-edition iTunes single of the performance. Although the single was available for only two weeks, it immediately went to number one on the iTunes Rock Singles chart and reached number 20 on Billboard's Hot Rock Songs chart.🦛 2013–2016: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Beautiful Broken At the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 18, 2013, the original members of Heart (the Wilson sisters, Howard Leese, Michael Derosier, Steve Fossen, and Roger Fisher) reunited for the first time in 34 years to play "Crazy on You". The band was inducted by Chris Cornell, who emotionally talked about what heroes and role models Ann and Nancy Wilson had been to him and other musicians in Seattle, saying, "For me, and for countless other men and women, they have earned, at long last, their rightful place in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2014, the band released another live album, Fanatic Live from Caesar's Colosseum, which peaked at number 13 on Billboard's Top Hard Rock Albums Chart.🦛 Heart released the album Beautiful Broken on July 8, 2016. The hard-rocking title cut featuring Metallicas James Hetfield trading vocals with Ann Wilson was the first single. Beautiful Broken reached number 9 on Billboard's Rock Album Chart and number 30 on Billboard's Top Selling Albums Chart. Immediately following the new album's release, the band embarked on the Rock Hall Three for All, a 30-date headlining tour of the US with Joan Jett and Cheap Trick supporting.🦛 2016–present: Hiatus, side projects, and reunion On the morning of August 27, 2016, Ann's husband Dean Wetter was arrested and subsequently pleaded guilty to assaulting Nancy's 16-year-old twin sons after the boys had left the door to his RV open. The incident took place during a Heart performance at the White River Amphitheater in Auburn, Washington, the previous night. Although the band played the remaining 2016 tour dates that were already booked, the Wilson sisters only spoke to one another through third parties for the remainder of the tour. The pair's relationship was strained by the incident; an April 2017 article in Rolling Stone reported that although they remained on amicable terms, they had not spoken to one another since the 2016 tour ended, and only sporadically contacted one another through text messaging. Following the end of the tour in October 2016, the sisters opted to tour with their own side-project bands. In April 2017, both sisters said the band had not permanently disbanded with Ann saying they were simply on hiatus.🦛 In February 2019, Heart announced their hiatus had ended and they would embark on the Love Alive tour in the summer. In March 2019, both sisters reunited on stage for the first time since the band went on hiatus, at the Love Rock NYC benefit concert. Although Ann and Nancy were reuniting, the former Heart members who had joined Nancy's solo effort were not invited back, and the new lineup consisted of Ann's touring band, replacing Ben Smith on drums, Dan Rothchild on bass, and Chris Joyner on keyboards. In June 2019, the band announced the Love Alive tour had been extended through October 2019.🦛 In 2022, Nancy Wilson announced her own version of Heart, called Nancy Wilson's Heart. She has been touring under that name, playing a list consisting primarily of Heart songs.🦛 Legacy Heart is generally considered a hard rock band, but its diversity has crossed multiple genres from folk to pop to hard rock, and even at times heavy metal. As a result, the band has charted singles on Billboard's Hot 100, Mainstream Rock Tracks, Hard Rock Tracks, and Adult Contemporary charts. Their 2016 live recording at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra even charted in the top 10 of Billboards Classical Albums chart and Classical Crossover Albums chart.🦛 Heart has sold over 35 million records worldwide, had 20 top-forty singles and seven top-ten albums, and earned four Grammy nominations. The band charted singles and top ten albums on the Billboard charts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2010s: a four-decade span of top ten albums that is a record for a female-fronted band.🦛 Heart was ranked on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" in 2008, and Ann and Nancy Wilson ranked number 40 (in 1999) on VH1's "100 Greatest Women in Rock and Roll". Ann Wilson was ranked in Hit Parader's 2006 "Greatest Heavy Metal Vocalists of All Time". In 2009, the Wilson sisters were awarded ASCAP's Founders Award in recognition of their songwriting careers.🦛 In 2011, Heart earned its first nomination for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the 2012 class. After being passed over, the band was nominated again the following year announced as inductees to the 2013 class on December 11, 2012. Their Hall of Fame page describes the Wilson sisters as the first women to front a hard-rock band, and "pioneers ... inspir[ing] women to pick up an electric guitar or start a band".🦛 In his book Heart: In the Studio, Jake Brown described the band as beginning "a revolution for women in music ... breaking genre barriers and garnering critical acclaim".🦛 "Heart were the first female-fronted band I heard and was influenced by," recalled Lzzy Hale of Halestorm. "I heard Heart and was like, 'Oh, singing like that as a girl is actually a thing!'"🦛 The Wilson sisters have been active in the Seattle music scene for decades and influenced many musicians from the region, including bands of the grunge era. Artists that have used their Bad Animals Studio include Neil Young, R.E.M., Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains.🦛 Members Current members Ann Wilson (1973–1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – lead and backing vocals, flute, autoharp, acoustic guitar🦛 Nancy Wilson (1973–1995, 1998, 2002–2016, 2019–present) – rhythm, lead and acoustic guitar, backing and lead vocals, harmonica, mandolin, keyboards🦛 Denny Fongheiser (1993–1995, 2019–present) – drums, percussion Craig Bartock (2003–2016, 2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar🦛 Ryan Waters (2019–present) – lead and rhythm guitar Andy Stoller (2019–present) – bass guitar Dan Walker (2019–present) – keyboards🦛 Former members Roger Fisher (1973–1980; one-off in 2013) – lead and rhythm guitar, lap steel guitar, mandolin Steve Fossen (1973–1982; one-off in 2013) – bass, backing vocals, occasional percussion🦛 John Hannah (1973–1975) – keyboards Brian Johnstone (1973–1975) – drums Michael Derosier (1975–1982; one-off in 2013) – drums, percussion🦛 Howard Leese (1975–1998; one-off in 2013) – keyboards, lead and rhythm guitars, mandolin, percussion, accordion, backing vocals, bass (1992)🦛 Mark Andes (1982–1992) – bass, backing vocals, occasional acoustic guitar Denny Carmassi (1982–1993) – drums, percussion Fernando Saunders (1993–1995) – bass, backing vocals🦛 Mike Inez (2002–2005) – bass, occasional percussion Tom Kellock (2002–2003) – keyboards Scott Olson (2002–2003) – guitar (lead 2002–2003, rhythm 1995–1998), lap steel guitar, backing vocals🦛 Ben Smith (2002–2016), drums, percussion Gilby Clarke (2003) – lead and rhythm guitars Darian Sahanaja (2003–2004, 2007) – keyboards, percussion, backing vocals🦛 Debbie Shair (2004–2014) – keyboards, percussion, accordion, backing vocals Ric Markmann (2005–2009) – bass Kristian Attard (2009–2012) – bass🦛 Dan Rothchild (2012–2016) – bass, backing vocals Chris Joyner (2014–2016) – keyboards, rhythm guitar Discography Dreamboat Annie (1975)🦛 Magazine (1977) Little Queen (1977) Dog and Butterfly (1978) Bébé le Strange (1980) Private Audition (1982) Passionworks (1983)🦛 Heart (1985) Bad Animals (1987) Brigade (1990) Desire Walks On (1993) Heart Presents a Lovemongers' Christmas (2001) Jupiters Darling (2004)🦛 Red Velvet Car (2010) Fanatic (2012) Beautiful Broken (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards |- |align=center|1986 |Heart🦛 | Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal | |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|1988 |"Alone" |Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group🦛 | |- |Bad Animals | Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal | |- | align=center|1991 |"All I Wanna Do Is Make Love To You"🦛 |Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group | |- | align=center|2023 | Ann and Nancy Wilson | Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award |🦛

[ "Heart", "is", "an", "American", "rock", "band", "formed", "in", "1973", "in", "Seattle,", "Washington.", "The", "band", "evolved", "from", "previous", "projects", "led", "by", "founding", "members", "Roger", "Fisher", "(guitar)", "and", "Steve", "Fossen", "(bass", "guitar),", "including", "The", "Army", "(1967–1969),", "Hocus", "Pocus", "(1969–1970),", "and", "White", "Heart", "(1970–1973).", "By", "1975,", "original", "members", "Fisher,", "Fossen,", "and", "Ann", "Wilson", "(lead", "vocals", "and", "flute),", "along", "with", "Nancy", "Wilson", "(rhythm", "guitar,", "vocals),", "Michael", "Derosier", "(drums),", "and", "Howard", "Leese", "(guitar,", "keyboards", "and", "backing", "vocals)", "formed", "the", "lineup", "for", "the", "band's", "initial", "mid-", "to", "late-1970s", "success", "period.", "These", "core", "members", "were", "included", "in", "the", "band's", "2013", "induction", "into", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame.", "Heart", "rose", "to", "fame", "with", "music", "influenced", "by", "hard", "rock", "and", "heavy", "metal,", "as", "well", "as", "folk", "music.", "The", "band", "underwent", "a", "major", "lineup", "change", "between", "the", "late", "1970s", "the", "early", "1980s;", "by", "1982", "Fisher,", "Fossen,", "and", "Derosier", "had", "all", "left", "and", "were", "replaced", "by", "Mark", "Andes", "(bass)", "and", "Denny", "Carmassi", "(drums).", "Though", "the", "band's", "popularity", "fell", "off", "during", "the", "initial", "years", "with", "the", "new", "lineup,", "they", "staged", "a", "comeback", "in", "the", "mid", "1980s,", "buoyed", "by", "major", "radio", "hits", "that", "continued", "into", "the", "1990s.", "Heart", "disbanded", "in", "1998,", "though", "they", "have", "resumed", "touring", "and", "recording", "multiple", "times", "since", "then,", "with", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "being", "the", "only", "consistent", "members.", "Heart's", "US", "Top", "40", "singles", "include", "\"Magic", "Man\"", "(1975),", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "(1976),", "\"Barracuda\"", "(1977),", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "(1985),", "\"Never\"", "(1985),", "and", "\"All", "I", "Wanna", "Do", "Is", "Make", "Love", "to", "You\"", "(1990),", "along", "with", "no.", "1", "hits", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "(1986)", "and", "\"Alone\"", "(1987).", "Heart", "has", "been", "nominated", "for", "four", "Grammy", "Awards,", "and", "has", "sold", "over", "50", "million", "records", "worldwide,", "including", "approximately", "22.5", "million", "albums", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "They", "have", "placed", "top", "ten", "albums", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200", "in", "the", "1970s,", "1980s,", "1990s,", "and", "2010s.", "Heart", "was", "ranked", "number", "57", "on", "VH1's", "\"100", "Greatest", "Artists", "of", "Hard", "Rock\"", "and", "ranked", "number", "49", "on", "Ultimate", "Classic", "Rock's", "Top", "100", "Classic", "Rock", "Artists.", "History", "1967–1972:", "Early", "bands", "and", "formation", "In", "1965,", "bassist", "Steve", "Fossen", "formed", "The", "Army,", "along", "with", "Roger", "Fisher", "on", "guitar,", "Don", "Wilhelm", "on", "guitar,", "keyboards", "and", "lead", "vocals,", "and", "Ray", "Schaefer", "on", "drums.", "They", "played", "for", "several", "years", "in", "and", "around", "the", "Bothell,", "Washington,", "area,", "northeast", "of", "Seattle.", "They", "frequently", "played", "Bothell", "High", "School,", "Inglemoor", "High", "School,", "and", "Shorecrest", "High", "School,", "as", "well", "as", "many", "taverns", "and", "club", "venues.", "In", "1969,", "the", "band", "went", "through", "line-up", "changes", "(Gary", "Ziegelman—former", "lead", "singer", "of", "Buffalo", "Clancy—on", "lead", "vocals,", "Roger", "on", "guitar,", "Steve", "on", "bass,", "James", "Cirrello", "on", "guitar,", "Ron", "Rudge", "on", "drums,", "and", "Ken", "Hansen", "on", "percussion)", "and", "took", "on", "a", "new", "name,", "Hocus", "Pocus.", "The", "name", "White", "Heart", "came", "from", "a", "discussion", "Roger", "Fisher's", "brother", "Mike", "Fisher", "had", "with", "Michael", "Munro,", "who", "had", "come", "up", "with", "the", "name", "White", "Hart", "(without", "the", "\"e\",", "a", "reference", "to", "Arthur", "C.", "Clarke's", "Tales", "from", "the", "White", "Hart)", "for", "a", "band", "with", "Toby", "Cyr", "on", "lead", "guitar.", "Fisher", "asked", "and", "received", "permission", "to", "use", "the", "name", "for", "the", "Army,", "added", "the", "\"e\",", "and", "the", "Army", "became", "White", "Heart.", "For", "a", "brief", "time", "in", "1970,", "this", "line-up", "shortened", "its", "name", "to", "Heart", "and", "dropped", "\"White\".", "The", "band", "subsequently", "went", "through", "more", "personnel", "changes.", "In", "1971,", "White", "Heart", "consisted", "of", "Steve", "Fossen,", "Roger", "Fisher,", "David", "Belzer", "(keys),", "and", "Jeff", "Johnson", "(drums).", "The", "band", "eventually", "stuck", "to", "the", "name", "Heart,", "which", "has", "been", "their", "name", "since", "1973.", "Mike", "Fisher,", "Roger's", "brother,", "was", "set", "to", "be", "drafted", "into", "the", "army.", "Nancy", "Wilson", "has", "stated", "that", "when", "he", "did", "not", "report", "for", "duty,", "his", "home", "was", "raided,", "he", "slipped", "out", "a", "rear", "window,", "escaped", "to", "Canada,", "and", "became", "a", "Vietnam", "War", "\"draft", "dodger\".", "One", "day", "in", "1972", "(or", "1971),", "Mike", "crossed", "the", "border", "to", "visit", "family,", "and", "by", "chance", "met", "Ann", "at", "a", "Hocus", "Pocus", "(or", "White", "Heart)", "show.", "According", "to", "Nancy,", "that", "meeting", "was", "\"when", "she", "and", "Michael", "fell", "in", "love\"", "and", "Ann", "decided", "to", "follow", "Mike", "back", "to", "Canada.", "Steve", "Fossen", "finished", "his", "college", "education", "before", "he", "also", "decided", "to", "move", "to", "Canada", "in", "late", "1972,", "and", "Roger", "followed", "in", "late", "1972", "or", "early", "1973.", "Along", "with", "Ann,", "Brian", "Johnstone", "(drums),", "and", "John", "Hannah", "(keyboards),", "the", "band", "Heart", "was", "officially", "formed.", "Ann's", "sister", "Nancy", "Wilson", "joined", "in", "1974,", "and", "soon", "after", "became", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Roger.", "1975–1976:", "Commercial", "breakthrough", "The", "group", "played", "numerous", "shows", "around", "their", "new", "home", "in", "Vancouver,", "and", "they", "recorded", "a", "demo", "tape", "with", "the", "assistance", "of", "producer", "Mike", "Flicker", "and", "session-guitarist", "and", "keyboard", "player,", "Howard", "Leese.", "Hannah", "and", "Johnstone", "had", "left", "by", "this", "time,", "and", "soon", "after", "Leese", "became", "a", "full-time", "member.", "Flicker", "produced", "the", "band's", "first", "five", "albums.", "This", "team", "recorded", "the", "debut", "album,", "Dreamboat", "Annie,", "at", "Can-Base", "Studios", "in", "Vancouver", "(later", "known", "as", "Mushroom", "Studios).", "Mike", "Derosier", "eventually", "joined", "Heart", "as", "full-time", "drummer.", "Some", "of", "the", "same", "Canadian", "investors", "who", "had", "backed", "the", "studio", "also", "backed", "a", "separate", "company", "called", "Mushroom", "Records,", "which", "was", "managed", "by", "Shelly", "Siegel.", "The", "album", "was", "picked", "up", "by", "Siegel", "and", "sold", "30,000", "copies", "in", "Canada", "within", "the", "first", "few", "months", "of", "its", "release", "in", "September", "1975.", "Sales", "were", "assisted", "by", "the", "band", "opening", "a", "Rod", "Stewart", "concert", "at", "the", "Montreal", "Forum", "in", "October,", "a", "gig", "they", "were", "offered", "a", "day", "before", "the", "concert", "when", "the", "previously-scheduled", "opening", "act", "cancelled.", "The", "radio", "success", "of", "\"Magic", "Man\"", "led", "concert", "organizers", "to", "offer", "the", "spot", "to", "Heart.", "The", "band", "flew", "from", "the", "West", "Coast", "of", "Canada", "to", "Montreal", "overnight", "for", "the", "performance.", "Siegel", "soon", "released", "the", "album", "in", "the", "US.", "Helped", "by", "two", "hit", "singles", "in", "1976", "(\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "and", "\"Magic", "Man\",", "which", "reached", "numbers", "35", "and", "nine,", "respectively,", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100),", "it", "reached", "number", "seven", "in", "the", "Billboard", "200.", "It", "eventually", "sold", "over", "one", "million", "copies.", "1977–1979:", "Mainstream", "success", "and", "band", "split", "In", "1977,", "Mushroom", "Records", "ran", "a", "full-page", "advertisement", "showing", "the", "bare-shouldered", "Wilson", "sisters", "(as", "on", "the", "Dreamboat", "Annie", "album", "cover)", "with", "the", "suggestive", "caption,", "\"It", "was", "only", "our", "first", "time!\"", "In", "a", "July", "1977", "Rolling", "Stone", "cover", "story,", "the", "sisters", "cited", "this", "advertisement", "as", "a", "key", "reason", "for", "their", "decision", "to", "leave", "Mushroom", "Records.", "Heart", "broke", "its", "contract", "with", "Mushroom", "and", "signed", "a", "contract", "with", "CBS", "subsidiary", "Portrait", "Records,", "resulting", "in", "a", "prolonged", "legal", "battle", "with", "Siegel.", "Mushroom", "released", "the", "partly", "completed", "Magazine", "in", "early", "1977,", "just", "before", "Portrait", "released", "Little", "Queen.", "Each", "company", "attempted", "to", "prevent", "the", "other", "from", "releasing", "any", "Heart", "music.", "A", "Seattle", "court", "forced", "Mushroom", "Records", "to", "recall", "the", "album", "so", "that", "Heart", "could", "remix", "tracks", "and", "add", "new", "vocals,", "and", "the", "album", "was", "re-released", "in", "1978.", "It", "peaked", "at", "number", "17", "in", "the", "US,", "generating", "the", "single", "\"Heartless\",", "which", "reached", "number", "24", "in", "the", "charts.", "The", "album", "eventually", "achieved", "platinum", "status.", "Little", "Queen", "became", "Heart's", "second", "million-seller", "and", "featured", "the", "hit", "\"Barracuda\"", "(number", "11).", "The", "song's", "lyrics", "were", "written", "by", "an", "infuriated", "Ann", "Wilson", "in", "her", "hotel", "room", "after", "a", "reporter", "had", "suggested", "that", "the", "sisters", "were", "lesbian", "lovers.", "In", "late", "1978,", "the", "double-platinum", "Dog", "&", "Butterfly", "peaked", "at", "17", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200", "and", "produced", "hits", "with", "its", "title", "song", "(number", "34)", "and", "\"Straight", "On\"", "(number", "15).", "In", "1979,", "the", "Wilson-Fisher", "liaisons", "ended—Roger", "Fisher", "was", "voted", "out", "of", "the", "band", "by", "the", "other", "members,", "and", "his", "brother", "Mike", "left", "the", "group’s", "orbit", "within", "a", "month.", "1980–1984:", "Commercial", "decline", "Heart", "released", "Bebe", "le", "Strange", "in", "1980.", "It", "became", "the", "band's", "third", "top-10", "album,", "peaking", "at", "number", "five,", "and", "yielded", "the", "top-40", "hit", "\"Even", "It", "Up\".", "The", "band", "embarked", "on", "a", "77-city", "tour", "to", "promote", "the", "album.", "By", "the", "end", "of", "the", "year,", "the", "band", "scored", "its", "highest-charted", "single", "at", "the", "time,", "a", "version", "of", "the", "ballad", "\"Tell", "It", "Like", "It", "Is\",", "which", "peaked", "at", "number", "eight.", "In", "November", "1980,", "the", "double", "album", "Greatest", "Hits/Live", "was", "released", "and", "reached", "number", "twelve", "on", "the", "US", "chart,", "eventually", "achieving", "double-platinum", "status.", "The", "two-disc", "set", "featured", "studio", "versions", "of", "most", "of", "Heart's", "singles", "to", "date,", "plus", "a", "few", "new", "studio", "tracks", "and", "six", "live", "tracks,", "among", "which", "were", "versions", "of", "\"Unchained", "Melody\",", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "\"Rock", "and", "Roll\"", "and", "the", "Beatles'", "\"I'm", "Down\".", "Heart", "was", "the", "first", "band", "of", "the", "day", "to", "appear", "at", "the", "sold-out", "concert", "headlined", "by", "Queen", "at", "Elland", "Road", "on", "May", "29,", "1982.", "Their", "next", "album,", "Private", "Audition", "(1982),", "provided", "the", "minor", "hit", "\"This", "Man", "Is", "Mine\"", "(number", "33)", "and", "was", "the", "first", "not", "produced", "by", "Mike", "Flicker.", "Initially,", "the", "band", "turned", "to", "Jimmy", "Iovine,", "one", "of", "the", "leading", "producers", "of", "the", "time,", "who", "suggested", "that", "the", "material", "lacked", "potential", "hits,", "and", "eventually,", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "produced", "the", "album", "themselves.", "The", "track", "\"Perfect", "Stranger\"", "foreshadowed", "the", "power", "ballads", "that", "would", "dominate", "the", "band's", "mid-1980s", "sound.", "At", "the", "end", "of", "recording,", "Derosier", "and", "Fossen", "were", "fired", "from", "the", "band.", "They", "were", "replaced", "by", "Denny", "Carmassi", "on", "drums", "and", "Mark", "Andes", "on", "bass", "for", "Passionworks", "(1983),", "while", "at", "the", "record", "company's", "insistence,", "the", "band", "turned", "to", "established", "producer", "Keith", "Olsen.", "Both", "Private", "Audition", "and", "Passionworks", "had", "relatively", "poor", "sales,", "failing", "to", "reach", "gold", "status.", "Despite", "the", "albums'", "sales,", "the", "single", "\"How", "Can", "I", "Refuse\"", "was", "a", "success,", "reaching", "number", "one", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Chart.", "1985–1990:", "Comeback", "The", "band", "moved", "to", "Capitol", "Records,", "and", "their", "first", "album", "for", "the", "label", "was", "simply", "titled", "Heart", "(1985).", "The", "move", "to", "Capitol", "coincided", "with", "a", "glam", "metal", "makeover", "that", "included", "minimizing", "the", "acoustic", "and", "folk", "sounds", "characteristic", "of", "their", "early", "work.", "The", "album", "reached", "number", "one,", "sold", "five", "million", "copies,", "and", "launched", "four", "top-10", "hits:", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "(number", "10,", "1985),", "\"Never\"", "(number", "four,", "1985),", "the", "chart-topping", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "(1986)", "and", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "(number", "10,", "1986).", "A", "fifth", "single,", "\"If", "Looks", "Could", "Kill\",", "also", "charted,", "giving", "the", "band", "five", "hit", "singles", "from", "the", "same", "album", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "Heart's", "next", "album,", "Bad", "Animals", "(1987),", "continued", "the", "move", "away", "from", "the", "band's", "folk", "and", "acoustic", "leanings", "towards", "a", "glossier", "arena", "rock", "sound.", "The", "lead", "single,", "the", "power", "ballad", "\"Alone\",", "became", "Heart's", "most", "successful", "song,", "spending", "three", "weeks", "at", "number", "1", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100,", "while", "also", "hitting", "number", "2", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Adult", "Contemporary", "chart", "and", "number", "3", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Tracks", "chart.", "\"Alone\"", "placed", "as", "the", "number", "2", "song", "for", "the", "year", "on", "the", "Hot", "100.", "It", "also", "peaked", "at", "number", "1", "in", "Canada", "and", "number", "3", "in", "the", "UK,", "made", "the", "top", "10", "in", "Australia", "and", "several", "countries", "in", "northern", "Europe,", "and", "the", "top", "20", "in", "Germany.", "It", "is", "often", "considered", "to", "be", "Heart's", "greatest", "pop", "song.", "The", "other", "two", "singles", "were", "the", "up-tempo", "rocker", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\",", "which", "reached", "number", "7", "on", "the", "Hot", "100", "and", "number", "2", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "Tracks", "chart,", "and", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\",", "with", "Nancy", "singing", "lead,", "which", "reached", "number", "12", "and", "16", "on", "the", "same", "charts", "respectively.", "They", "were", "not", "as", "successful", "in", "other", "markets", "aside", "from", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\"", "making", "the", "top", "20", "in", "Canada", "and", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\"", "peaking", "in", "the", "top", "15", "in", "Poland.", "Bad", "Animals", "was", "a", "top", "3", "hit", "in", "the", "US", "and", "Canada,", "being", "certified", "3x", "and", "4x", "platinum", "in", "those", "countries,", "respectively.", "The", "album", "also", "became", "Heart's", "first", "top", "10", "album", "on", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "The", "success", "of", "UK", "top", "40", "singles", "\"Alone\"", "(number", "3),", "\"Who", "Will", "You", "Run", "To\"", "(number", "30),", "\"There's", "the", "Girl\"", "(number", "34)", "and", "the", "''Bad", "Animals''", "album", "(number", "7)", "sparked", "renewed", "UK", "interest", "in", "the", "1985", "self-titled", "album,", "resulting", "in", "the", "re-release", "of", "several", "singles.", "When", "originally", "released", "in", "1985,", "the", "singles", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "and", "\"Never\"", "did", "not", "chart,", "while", "\"These", "Dreams\"", "and", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "only", "charted", "at", "68", "and", "76", "respectively.", "However,", "in", "1988", "after", "the", "success", "of", "''Bad", "Animals''", "a", "re-released", "double", "A-side", "single", "of", "\"Never\"/\"These", "Dreams\"", "hit", "number", "8,", "\"What", "About", "Love\"", "hit", "number", "14,", "and", "the", "re-release", "of", "\"Nothin'", "at", "All\"", "cracked", "the", "UK", "top", "40", "at", "number", "38.", "This", "success", "in", "the", "UK", "would", "continue", "with", "future", "albums", "and", "help", "Heart", "become", "a", "major", "concert", "attraction", "in", "the", "United", "Kingdom.", "In", "1990,", "Brigade", "became", "the", "band's", "sixth", "multi-platinum", "LP", "and", "added", "three", "more", "top-25", "Billboard", "Hot", "100", "hits.", "\"Stranded\"", "reached", "number", "13", "and", "\"I", "Didn't", "Want", "to", "Need", "You\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "23.", "The", "lead", "single,", "\"All", "I", "Wanna", "Do", "Is", "Make", "Love", "to", "You\",", "reached", "number", "two,", "and", "created", "controversy", "over", "whether", "the", "song", "encouraged", "women", "to", "endanger", "themselves", "by", "picking", "up", "hitchhikers.", "Two", "other", "album", "cuts,", "\"Wild", "Child\"", "(number", "3)", "and", "\"Tall,", "Dark", "Handsome", "Stranger\"", "(number", "24),", "were", "Billboard", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart", "hits.", "Brigade", "was", "the", "band's", "highest-charting", "album", "in", "the", "UK,", "reaching", "number", "three.", "1991–2001:", "The", "Lovemongers,", "Desire", "Walks", "On,", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "hiatus", "Heart", "released", "its", "first", "complete", "live", "album", "in", "the", "autumn", "of", "1991.", "Rock", "the", "House", "Live!", "largely", "featured", "tracks", "from", "Brigade", "rather", "than", "more", "familiar", "hits", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "capture", "the", "harder", "rock", "side", "of", "the", "band.", "The", "album's", "single,", "a", "version", "of", "John", "Farnham's", "\"You're", "the", "Voice\",", "received", "moderate", "airplay", "on", "rock", "stations", "and", "hit", "number", "20", "on", "the", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart.", "The", "Wilson", "sisters", "then", "put", "together", "an", "informal", "acoustic", "group", "called", "Lovemongers", "with", "longtime", "Heart", "songwriting", "collaborator", "Sue", "Ennis", "and", "Frank", "Cox.", "Heart", "returned", "in", "1993", "with", "Desire", "Walks", "On,", "on", "which", "bass", "player", "Andes", "was", "replaced", "with", "Fernando", "Saunders.", "The", "album", "peaked", "at", "number", "48", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200,", "eventually", "being", "certified", "gold.", "The", "lead", "track,", "\"Black", "on", "Black", "II\",", "was", "an", "AOR", "hit", "peaking", "at", "number", "four", "on", "Billboard's", "Mainstream", "Rock", "chart,", "while", "the", "single", "\"Will", "You", "Be", "There", "(In", "the", "Morning)\"", "was", "a", "moderate", "pop", "hit,", "reaching", "number", "39", "on", "the", "Billboard", "Hot", "100.", "A", "third", "single,", "\"The", "Woman", "In", "Me\",", "hit", "number", "24", "on", "the", "Adult", "Contemporary", "chart,", "but", "missed", "the", "Hot", "100.", "''Desire", "Walks", "On\"", "marked", "the", "first", "time", "that", "Heart's", "singles", "fared", "better", "in", "other", "countries", "than", "the", "US.", "Aside", "from", "the", "metallic", "hard", "rock", "radio", "cut", "\"Black", "on", "Black", "II\"", "which", "reached", "the", "Top", "10", "on", "US", "Rock", "/", "Hard", "Rock", "charts,", "\"Will", "You", "Be", "There", "(In", "the", "Morning)\"", "hit", "number", "19", "in", "the", "UK", "and", "number", "8", "in", "Canada.", "(vs.", "Number", "39", "in", "the", "US)", "and", "\"The", "Woman", "in", "Me\"", "reached", "number", "13", "in", "Canada", "after", "just", "missing", "the", "US", "Billboard", "Hot", "100.", "An", "interactive", "CD-ROM,", "Heart:", "20", "Years", "of", "Rock", "&", "Roll,", "with", "five", "hours", "of", "audio", "footage,", "was", "released", "in", "1994.", "The", "next", "album,", "The", "Road", "Home", "(1995),", "offered", "live", "acoustic", "versions", "of", "the", "group's", "best-known", "songs", "and", "was", "produced", "by", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "John", "Paul", "Jones.", "In", "1995,", "Nancy", "Wilson", "decided", "to", "take", "a", "break", "from", "music", "to", "concentrate", "on", "raising", "a", "family.", "In", "1998,", "the", "band", "maintained", "its", "profile", "by", "being", "the", "subject", "of", "an", "episode", "of", "VH1's", "Behind", "the", "Music.", "The", "band", "released", "a", "Greatest", "Hits", "boxed", "set", "covering", "their", "early", "work", "(a", "second", "volume", "focusing", "on", "the", "later", "part", "of", "their", "career", "followed", "in", "2000).", "Lovemongers", "released", "a", "live", "EP", "of", "cover", "songs", "titled", "Battle", "of", "Evermore", "in", "1992,", "a", "full-length", "album", "titled", "Whirlygig", "in", "1997,", "and", "a", "collection", "of", "mostly", "self-penned", "Christmas", "songs", "titled", "Here", "is", "Christmas", "in", "1998.", "In", "2001,", "Here", "Is", "Christmas", "was", "re-released", "presented", "by", "Heart", "as", "Heart", "Presents", "a", "Lovemongers'", "Christmas.", "2002–2006:", "Resumption", "In", "2002,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "returned", "to", "the", "road", "with", "a", "brand-new", "Heart", "lineup", "that", "included", "Scott", "Olson,", "Ben", "Smith,", "Alice", "in", "Chains", "bassist", "Mike", "Inez,", "and", "keyboardist", "Tom", "Kellock.", "In", "2003,", "Heart", "released", "a", "DVD", "of", "the", "band's", "last", "stop", "in", "the", "tour", "as", "Alive", "in", "Seattle.", "Also", "in", "2003,", "Gilby", "Clarke", "(ex-Guns", "N'", "Roses)", "and", "Darian", "Sahanaja", "replaced", "Olson", "and", "Kellock", "for", "an", "American", "tour.", "In", "2004,", "with", "Clarke", "having", "been", "replaced", "by", "Craig", "Bartok,", "Heart", "released", "Jupiters", "Darling,", "the", "first", "studio", "album", "since", "1993.", "It", "featured", "a", "variety", "of", "songs", "that", "included", "a", "return", "to", "Heart's", "original", "hard-rock", "sound,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "blend", "of", "vintage", "pop", "and", "new", "textures.", "In", "2005,", "the", "Wilsons", "appeared", "on", "the", "CMT", "Music", "Awards", "as", "a", "special", "guest", "of", "country", "singer", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "(no", "relation)", "and", "performed", "the", "Heart", "classic", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "with", "her.", "Heart", "also", "performed", "with", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "on", "VH-1's", "March", "10,", "2006,", "tribute", "to", "the", "band,", "\"Decades", "Rock", "Live!\".", "The", "special", "also", "featured", "Alice", "in", "Chains,", "Phil", "Anselmo,", "Dave", "Navarro,", "Rufus", "Wainwright,", "and", "Carrie", "Underwood.", "The", "concert", "was", "released", "on", "LP,", "CD,", "DVD,", "and", "Blu-ray", "on", "January", "25,", "2019,", "with", "the", "title", "Live", "in", "Atlantic", "City.", "Later", "in", "the", "year,", "bass", "player", "Inez", "left", "Heart", "to", "rejoin", "the", "reformed", "Alice", "in", "Chains.", "2007–2009:", "VH1", "Rock", "Honors", "to", "touring", "with", "Journey", "Heart", "was", "honored", "at", "the", "second", "annual", "VH1", "Rock", "Honors", "(May", "24,", "2007)", "and", "also", "performed", "along", "with", "Ozzy", "Osbourne,", "Genesis,", "and", "ZZ", "Top.", "Gretchen", "Wilson", "and", "Alice", "in", "Chains", "honored", "the", "group", "by", "performing", "\"Barracuda\".", "In", "September", "2007,", "Ann", "Wilson", "released", "her", "first", "solo", "album,", "Hope", "&", "Glory,", "which", "featured", "sister", "Nancy,", "Elton", "John,", "Alison", "Krauss,", "k.d.", "lang,", "Wynonna", "Judd,", "Gretchen", "Wilson,", "Rufus", "Wainwright,", "Shawn", "Colvin,", "and", "Deana", "Carter.", "On", "April", "9,", "2008,", "the", "band", "appeared", "on", "Idol", "Gives", "Back", "with", "Stacy", "\"Fergie\"", "Ferguson,", "who", "sang", "\"Barracuda\"", "in", "harmony", "with", "Ann.", "In", "mid-2008,", "Heart", "undertook", "a", "US", "tour", "with", "Journey", "and", "Cheap", "Trick.", "In", "2008,", "the", "band", "performed", "in", "a", "benefit", "for", "music", "education", "in", "public", "schools,", "appearing", "live", "with", "Jackson", "Browne", "on", "\"Something", "Fine,\"", "with", "Venice", "on", "\"Crazy", "on", "You,\"", "and", "with", "over", "70", "members", "of", "the", "Santa", "Monica", "High", "School", "orchestra", "and", "girls'", "choir", "on", "\"Bohemian", "Rhapsody.\"", "In", "2009,", "the", "band", "was", "featured", "on", "an", "updated", "and", "remastered", "episode", "of", "VH1's", "Behind", "the", "Music.", "2010–2012:", "Red", "Velvet", "Car", "to", "Kennedy", "Center", "Honors", "A", "new", "studio", "album,", "Red", "Velvet", "Car,", "was", "released", "in", "2010.", "It", "marked", "a", "stylistic", "return", "to", "Heart's", "melodic", "hard", "rock", "and", "folk", "sound", "of", "their", "early", "albums.", "The", "album", "peaked", "at", "number", "10", "on", "the", "Billboard", "200,", "becoming", "the", "group's", "first", "top-10", "album", "in", "20", "years.", "It", "also", "reached", "number", "three", "on", "Billboard's", "Rock", "Albums", "Chart.", "Red", "Velvet", "Car", "spawned", "two", "singles.", "The", "folky", "\"Hey", "You\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "26", "on", "Billboard's", "AC", "chart,", "while", "the", "hard", "rocker", "\"WTF\"", "peaked", "at", "number", "19", "on", "Billboard's", "Hot", "Rock", "Songs", "chart.", "On", "November", "4,", "2010,", "Heart", "announced", "it", "would", "do", "its", "first", "cross-Canada", "tour", "in", "30", "years,", "beginning", "on", "January", "28,", "2011,", "in", "St.", "John's,", "Newfoundland", "and", "Labrador.", "A", "live", "DVD", "and", "Blu-ray", "disc,", "A", "Night", "at", "Sky", "Church,", "recorded", "before", "the", "tour", "at", "the", "Experience", "Music", "Project", "in", "Seattle,", "was", "released", "in", "2011.", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "played", "as", "part", "of", "the", "2010", "VH1", "Divas", "Support", "the", "Troops,", "along", "with", "acts", "including", "Katy", "Perry", "and", "Paramore;", "they", "performed", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\"", "with", "Grace", "Potter", "and", "the", "Nocturnals.", "In", "May", "2010,", "a", "reunion", "of", "former", "male", "members", "of", "the", "band,", "including", "Roger", "Fisher", "and", "Steve", "Fossen,", "performed", "at", "the", "Synergia", "Northwest", "concert", "in", "Tacoma,", "Washington.", "Heart", "embarked", "on", "a", "2011", "summer", "tour", "co-headlining", "with", "Def", "Leppard.", "A", "career-spanning", "box-set", "titled", "Strange", "Euphoria", "was", "released", "in", "June", "2012,", "containing", "many", "of", "the", "band's", "biggest", "hits,", "unreleased", "demos", "and", "rare", "live", "cuts.", "On", "September", "18,", "2012,", "the", "Wilson", "sisters", "released", "their", "autobiography,", "Kicking", "and", "Dreaming:", "A", "Story", "of", "Heart,", "Soul,", "and", "Rock", "and", "Roll,", "which", "was", "co-written", "with", "Charles", "R.", "Cross", "(Heavier", "Than", "Heaven:", "A", "Biography", "of", "Kurt", "Cobain).", "On", "September", "25,", "2012,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "received", "a", "star", "on", "the", "Hollywood", "Walk", "of", "Fame", "for", "their", "contributions", "to", "music.", "The", "band", "released", "its", "14th", "studio", "album,", "Fanatic,", "on", "October", "2,", "2012,", "which", "became", "the", "group's", "12th", "top-25", "album", "(number", "24,", "2012)", "and", "was", "supported", "by", "a", "tour", "of", "the", "US", "and", "Canada.", "On", "December", "26,", "2012,", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "performed", "at", "the", "CBS-televised", "Kennedy", "Center", "Honors", "in", "a", "tribute", "to", "Led", "Zeppelin.", "Along", "with", "an", "orchestra,", "two", "choirs", "and", "Jason", "Bonham", "(son", "of", "late", "Led", "Zeppelin", "drummer", "John", "Bonham),", "they", "performed", "a", "version", "of", "Led", "Zeppelin's", "signature", "song", "\"Stairway", "to", "Heaven\".", "Their", "rendition", "of", "\"Stairway\"", "earned", "a", "standing", "ovation", "from", "the", "crowd", "and", "tears", "of", "joy", "from", "Robert", "Plant.", "The", "video", "went", "viral", "on", "YouTube,", "with", "over", "four", "million", "views", "in", "the", "first", "five", "days", "after", "the", "show,", "and", "prompted", "the", "Kennedy", "Center", "to", "issue", "a", "limited-edition", "iTunes", "single", "of", "the", "performance.", "Although", "the", "single", "was", "available", "for", "only", "two", "weeks,", "it", "immediately", "went", "to", "number", "one", "on", "the", "iTunes", "Rock", "Singles", "chart", "and", "reached", "number", "20", "on", "Billboard's", "Hot", "Rock", "Songs", "chart.", "2013–2016:", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame", "and", "Beautiful", "Broken", "At", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame", "induction", "ceremony", "on", "April", "18,", "2013,", "the", "original", "members", "of", "Heart", "(the", "Wilson", "sisters,", "Howard", "Leese,", "Michael", "Derosier,", "Steve", "Fossen,", "and", "Roger", "Fisher)", "reunited", "for", "the", "first", "time", "in", "34", "years", "to", "play", "\"Crazy", "on", "You\".", "The", "band", "was", "inducted", "by", "Chris", "Cornell,", "who", "emotionally", "talked", "about", "what", "heroes", "and", "role", "models", "Ann", "and", "Nancy", "Wilson", "had", "been", "to", "him", "and", "other", "musicians", "in", "Seattle,", "saying,", "\"For", "me,", "and", "for", "countless", "other", "men", "and", "women,", "they", "have", "earned,", "at", "long", "last,", "their", "rightful", "place", "in", "the", "Rock", "and", "Roll", "Hall", "of", "Fame.\"", "In", "2014,", "the", "band", "released", "another", "live", "album,", "Fanatic", "Live", "from", "Caesar's", "Colosseum,", "which", "peaked", "at", "number", "13", "on", "Billboard's", "Top", "Hard", "Rock", "Albums", "Chart.", "Heart", "released", "the", "album", "Beautiful", "Broken", "on", "July", "8,", "2016.", "The", "hard-rocking", "title", "cut", "featuring", "Metallicas", "James", "Hetfield", "trading", "vocals", "with", "Ann", "Wilson", "was", "the", "first", "single.", "Beautiful", "Broken", "reached", "number", "9", "on", "Billboard's", 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2528483

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Kiss%20in%20the%20Dreamhouse

A Kiss in the Dreamhouse

A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is the fifth studio album by British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees. It was released on 5 November 1982 by Polydor Records. The record marked a change of musical direction, as the group used strings for the first time and experimented in the studio. Guitarist John McGeoch played more instruments, including recorder and piano. For Julian Marszalek of The Quietus, the release proved the Banshees to be "one of the great British psychedelic bands." Both a critical and commercial success, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse peaked at No. 11 on the UK Albums Chart. A 180g vinyl LP reissue of the album, remastered from the original ¼” tapes and cut half-speed at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell, was released in September 2018. In April 2023, a clear and gold marbled vinyl edition was released for Record Store Day via several independent stores and websites. Background, production and music The band held back from writing after the success of 1981's Juju. During the spring of 1982, they went on tour in Scandinavia with three tracks completed: "Cascade", "Painted Bird" and "Green Fingers". When they returned to the studio in July, the group embarked on a week of improvisation sparked off by a tape-looped section of the orchestral version of "Fireworks", a non-album single they had released in May. Other numbers followed easily. Siouxsie didn't want to use synthesizers for the arrangements:"Fireworks" indicated the direction we wanted for the album. We wanted strings... John [McGeoch] wanted a machine but Steven [Severin] and I said it had to be real strings. They give a real, earthy, rich sound. You could hear the strings spitting and breathing and wheezing. Me and Steve have always wanted our music to be performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. We've always thought our songs would suit orchestration. Real strings have a very physical sound". A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was the first album on which the Banshees really exploited the possibilities of the studio. They allowed themselves to be inspired by sounds. Engineer Mike Hedges, who was interested in vocals, put different effects on Siouxsie's voice and multi-layered it. Hedges also encouraged them to fiddle with effects; if the band came up with something off-the-wall, he'd want to top it. According to the band, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was probably their most experimental work. The album contains recorders, chimes, tubular bells, loops and many vocal overdubs. Consequence of Sound described the album as the band's "own form of neo-psychedelic rock." The personal dynamics associated with the period in which A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was recorded were often less than healthy. The band's recently fired manager and Siouxsie's former partner, Nils Stevenson, had become obsessive in response to her developing relationship with Budgie. The band spent long hours in the studio, fuelled by drink and drugs. According to Uncut writer Garry Mulholland, the "stunningly beautiful music" of Dreamhouse was "a product of addiction, stress, old, sick love and new, dangerous love, money woes and a darkness that would eventually claim three lives". Title and artwork The title of the album came to Severin after watching a programme about Hollywood prostitutes in the 1940s who had cosmetic surgery to look like stars, so they could get more clients. The "Dreamhouse" was a brothel in Los Angeles that actually existed where people could meet perfect replicas of the stars of the time, women like Mae West. The quote in the inner sleeve, "Nellie the Elephant packed his trunk and said goodbye to the circus", referred to longtime former manager Stevenson (nicknamed "Nellie"), who was fired before the recording of the album. The album's artwork was inspired by the paintings of Gustav Klimt. As the Banshees achieved the richness they desired, they wanted "a really colourful sleeve with lots of gold and deep colours because we felt the music was very rich". Critical reception The UK music press was unanimous in its praise for the album on its release. NME'''s Richard Cook considered it innovative: "A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is a feat of imagination scarcely ever recorded. It's breathtaking. Somehow, a bold assurance of intention has met with a hunger for experimenting with sound to expand an already formidable group of songs into pure, open-minded ambiguity. The flesh of the song will balloon out or contort into unimaginable patterns; indecipherable echoes volley between the walls of the recording; glassy, splintered tones pierce the luxuriant sheen of the mix. Repeated listens trick the sense of balance; tremendous risks are taken." Cook finished his review by saying, "I promise. This music will take your breath away." Another journalist of the NME Paul Du Noyer wrote that A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was "a real departure from rock tradition" and "maybe even their best [album]".Melody Maker's Steve Sutherland also welcomed the new musical direction: "The Banshees achieve an awesome, effective new pop without so much as a theory or qualm. Dreamhouse is an intoxicating achievement". Critic David Cleary of AllMusic would later describe the single "Slowdive" as "a violin-colored dance beat number", with "a catchy melodic hook away from being the real thing", and positively assessed the album, saying, "This fine platter is well worth purchasing". In 2006, music historian Garry Mulholland included it in his book Fear of Music about the 261 greatest albums since 1976. In their 2009 review of the reissued album, The Quietus wrote: "The result was their most colourful and – ahem – kaleidoscopic collection yet". Critic Julian Marszalek commented that the album's music is "fundamentally pop, yet unafraid to revel in a quirkiness born of altered states. A deliberate shift from the overt darkness of its predecessor, Juju". Marszalek qualified the work of guitarist McGeoch as "a seamless beauty", and wrote that "Siouxsie's voice achieves a sense of strength and maturity". The journalist concluded the review by noting that "Siouxsie and the Banshees weren't afraid to stretch themselves. Here was a band that dared to challenge itself as much as their listeners". Legacy Several bands later covered and sampled songs from this album. LCD Soundsystem released a version of "Slowdive" as the B-side to their single "Disco Infiltrator"; it was also included on their Introns compilation in 2006. The Beta Band sampled the live Nocturne version of "Painted Bird" on their track "Liquid Bird", issued on their 2003 album Heroes to Zeros. Track listing Personnel Siouxsie and the Banshees Siouxsie Sioux – vocals, bells on "Obsession", production Steven Severin – bass guitar, six-string bass guitar on "Slowdive", organ on "Painted Bird", production John McGeoch – guitar, keyboards on "Cocoon", "Circle" and "Cascade", recorder on "Green Fingers", production Budgie – drums, percussion, harmonica on "Slowdive", production Additional personnel Caroline Lavelle – cello on "Obsession" Alison Briggs – cello on "Obsession" Anne Stephenson – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Virginia Hewes – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Production and artwork Mike Hedges – engineering Rocking Russian – sleeve design Michael Kostiff – sleeve photography and set Charts Certifications References Sources Mulholland, Garry. A Kiss in the Dreamhouse, Uncut, November 2012, pp 16–21 Paytress, Mark. Siouxsie & the Banshees: The Authorised Biography''. Sanctuary, 2003. Siouxsie and the Banshees albums 1982 albums Polydor Records albums Geffen Records albums

A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is the fifth studio album by British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees. It was released on 5 November 1982 by Polydor Records. The record marked a change of musical direction, as the group used strings for the first time and experimented in the studio. Guitarist John McGeoch played more instruments, including recorder and piano. For Julian Marszalek of The Quietus, the release proved the Banshees to be "one of the great British psychedelic bands."🦛 Both a critical and commercial success, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse peaked at No. 11 on the UK Albums Chart. A 180g vinyl LP reissue of the album, remastered from the original ¼” tapes and cut half-speed at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell, was released in September 2018.🦛 In April 2023, a clear and gold marbled vinyl edition was released for Record Store Day via several independent stores and websites.🦛 Background, production and music The band held back from writing after the success of 1981's Juju. During the spring of 1982, they went on tour in Scandinavia with three tracks completed: "Cascade", "Painted Bird" and "Green Fingers". When they returned to the studio in July, the group embarked on a week of improvisation sparked off by a tape-looped section of the orchestral version of "Fireworks", a non-album single they had released in May. Other numbers followed easily. Siouxsie didn't want to use synthesizers for the arrangements:"Fireworks" indicated the direction we wanted for the album. We wanted strings... John [McGeoch] wanted a machine but Steven [Severin] and I said it had to be real strings. They give a real, earthy, rich sound. You could hear the strings spitting and breathing and wheezing. Me and Steve have always wanted our music to be performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. We've always thought our songs would suit orchestration. Real strings have a very physical sound".🦛 A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was the first album on which the Banshees really exploited the possibilities of the studio. They allowed themselves to be inspired by sounds. Engineer Mike Hedges, who was interested in vocals, put different effects on Siouxsie's voice and multi-layered it. Hedges also encouraged them to fiddle with effects; if the band came up with something off-the-wall, he'd want to top it.🦛 According to the band, A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was probably their most experimental work. The album contains recorders, chimes, tubular bells, loops and many vocal overdubs. Consequence of Sound described the album as the band's "own form of neo-psychedelic rock."🦛 The personal dynamics associated with the period in which A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was recorded were often less than healthy. The band's recently fired manager and Siouxsie's former partner, Nils Stevenson, had become obsessive in response to her developing relationship with Budgie. The band spent long hours in the studio, fuelled by drink and drugs. According to Uncut writer Garry Mulholland, the "stunningly beautiful music" of Dreamhouse was "a product of addiction, stress, old, sick love and new, dangerous love, money woes and a darkness that would eventually claim three lives".🦛 Title and artwork The title of the album came to Severin after watching a programme about Hollywood prostitutes in the 1940s who had cosmetic surgery to look like stars, so they could get more clients. The "Dreamhouse" was a brothel in Los Angeles that actually existed where people could meet perfect replicas of the stars of the time, women like Mae West.🦛 The quote in the inner sleeve, "Nellie the Elephant packed his trunk and said goodbye to the circus", referred to longtime former manager Stevenson (nicknamed "Nellie"), who was fired before the recording of the album.🦛 The album's artwork was inspired by the paintings of Gustav Klimt. As the Banshees achieved the richness they desired, they wanted "a really colourful sleeve with lots of gold and deep colours because we felt the music was very rich".🦛 Critical reception The UK music press was unanimous in its praise for the album on its release. NME'''s Richard Cook considered it innovative: "A Kiss in the Dreamhouse is a feat of imagination scarcely ever recorded. It's breathtaking. Somehow, a bold assurance of intention has met with a hunger for experimenting with sound to expand an already formidable group of songs into pure, open-minded ambiguity. The flesh of the song will balloon out or contort into unimaginable patterns; indecipherable echoes volley between the walls of the recording; glassy, splintered tones pierce the luxuriant sheen of the mix. Repeated listens trick the sense of balance; tremendous risks are taken." Cook finished his review by saying, "I promise. This music will take your breath away." Another journalist of the NME Paul Du Noyer wrote that A Kiss in the Dreamhouse was "a real departure from rock tradition" and "maybe even their best [album]".Melody Maker's Steve Sutherland also welcomed the new musical direction: "The Banshees achieve an awesome, effective new pop without so much as a theory or qualm. Dreamhouse is an intoxicating achievement". Critic David Cleary of AllMusic would later describe the single "Slowdive" as "a violin-colored dance beat number", with "a catchy melodic hook away from being the real thing", and positively assessed the album, saying, "This fine platter is well worth purchasing".🦛 In 2006, music historian Garry Mulholland included it in his book Fear of Music about the 261 greatest albums since 1976. In their 2009 review of the reissued album, The Quietus wrote: "The result was their most colourful and – ahem – kaleidoscopic collection yet". Critic Julian Marszalek commented that the album's music is "fundamentally pop, yet unafraid to revel in a quirkiness born of altered states. A deliberate shift from the overt darkness of its predecessor, Juju". Marszalek qualified the work of guitarist McGeoch as "a seamless beauty", and wrote that "Siouxsie's voice achieves a sense of strength and maturity". The journalist concluded the review by noting that "Siouxsie and the Banshees weren't afraid to stretch themselves. Here was a band that dared to challenge itself as much as their listeners".🦛 Legacy Several bands later covered and sampled songs from this album. LCD Soundsystem released a version of "Slowdive" as the B-side to their single "Disco Infiltrator"; it was also included on their Introns compilation in 2006. The Beta Band sampled the live Nocturne version of "Painted Bird" on their track "Liquid Bird", issued on their 2003 album Heroes to Zeros.🦛 Track listing Personnel Siouxsie and the Banshees Siouxsie Sioux – vocals, bells on "Obsession", production Steven Severin – bass guitar, six-string bass guitar on "Slowdive", organ on "Painted Bird", production🦛 John McGeoch – guitar, keyboards on "Cocoon", "Circle" and "Cascade", recorder on "Green Fingers", production Budgie – drums, percussion, harmonica on "Slowdive", production🦛 Additional personnel Caroline Lavelle – cello on "Obsession" Alison Briggs – cello on "Obsession" Anne Stephenson – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive"🦛 Virginia Hewes – violin on "Obsession" and "Slowdive" Production and artwork Mike Hedges – engineering Rocking Russian – sleeve design Michael Kostiff – sleeve photography and set Charts Certifications🦛

[ "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "is", "the", "fifth", "studio", "album", "by", "British", "rock", "band", "Siouxsie", "and", "the", "Banshees.", "It", "was", "released", "on", "5", "November", "1982", "by", "Polydor", "Records.", "The", "record", "marked", "a", "change", "of", "musical", "direction,", "as", "the", "group", "used", "strings", "for", "the", "first", "time", "and", "experimented", "in", "the", "studio.", "Guitarist", "John", "McGeoch", "played", "more", "instruments,", "including", "recorder", "and", "piano.", "For", "Julian", "Marszalek", "of", "The", "Quietus,", "the", "release", "proved", "the", "Banshees", "to", "be", "\"one", "of", "the", "great", "British", "psychedelic", "bands.\"", "Both", "a", "critical", "and", "commercial", "success,", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "peaked", "at", "No.", "11", "on", "the", "UK", "Albums", "Chart.", "A", "180g", "vinyl", "LP", "reissue", "of", "the", "album,", "remastered", "from", "the", "original", "¼”", "tapes", "and", "cut", "half-speed", "at", "Abbey", "Road", "Studios", "by", "Miles", "Showell,", "was", "released", "in", "September", "2018.", "In", "April", "2023,", "a", "clear", "and", "gold", "marbled", "vinyl", "edition", "was", "released", "for", "Record", "Store", "Day", "via", "several", "independent", "stores", "and", "websites.", "Background,", "production", "and", "music", "The", "band", "held", "back", "from", "writing", "after", "the", "success", "of", "1981's", "Juju.", "During", "the", "spring", "of", "1982,", "they", "went", "on", "tour", "in", "Scandinavia", "with", "three", "tracks", "completed:", "\"Cascade\",", "\"Painted", "Bird\"", "and", "\"Green", "Fingers\".", "When", "they", "returned", "to", "the", "studio", "in", "July,", "the", "group", "embarked", "on", "a", "week", "of", "improvisation", "sparked", "off", "by", "a", "tape-looped", "section", "of", "the", "orchestral", "version", "of", "\"Fireworks\",", "a", "non-album", "single", "they", "had", "released", "in", "May.", "Other", "numbers", "followed", "easily.", "Siouxsie", "didn't", "want", "to", "use", "synthesizers", "for", "the", "arrangements:\"Fireworks\"", "indicated", "the", "direction", "we", "wanted", "for", "the", "album.", "We", "wanted", "strings...", "John", "[McGeoch]", "wanted", "a", "machine", "but", "Steven", "[Severin]", "and", "I", "said", "it", "had", "to", "be", "real", "strings.", "They", "give", "a", "real,", "earthy,", "rich", "sound.", "You", "could", "hear", "the", "strings", "spitting", "and", "breathing", "and", "wheezing.", "Me", "and", "Steve", "have", "always", "wanted", "our", "music", "to", "be", "performed", "by", "the", "Royal", "Philharmonic", "Orchestra.", "We've", "always", "thought", "our", "songs", "would", "suit", "orchestration.", "Real", "strings", "have", "a", "very", "physical", "sound\".", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "the", "first", "album", "on", "which", "the", "Banshees", "really", "exploited", "the", "possibilities", "of", "the", "studio.", "They", "allowed", "themselves", "to", "be", "inspired", "by", "sounds.", "Engineer", "Mike", "Hedges,", "who", "was", "interested", "in", "vocals,", "put", "different", "effects", "on", "Siouxsie's", "voice", "and", "multi-layered", "it.", "Hedges", "also", "encouraged", "them", "to", "fiddle", "with", "effects;", "if", "the", "band", "came", "up", "with", "something", "off-the-wall,", "he'd", "want", "to", "top", "it.", "According", "to", "the", "band,", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "probably", "their", "most", "experimental", "work.", "The", "album", "contains", "recorders,", "chimes,", "tubular", "bells,", "loops", "and", "many", "vocal", "overdubs.", "Consequence", "of", "Sound", "described", "the", "album", "as", "the", "band's", "\"own", "form", "of", "neo-psychedelic", "rock.\"", "The", "personal", "dynamics", "associated", "with", "the", "period", "in", "which", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "recorded", "were", "often", "less", "than", "healthy.", "The", "band's", "recently", "fired", "manager", "and", "Siouxsie's", "former", "partner,", "Nils", "Stevenson,", "had", "become", "obsessive", "in", "response", "to", "her", "developing", "relationship", "with", "Budgie.", "The", "band", "spent", "long", "hours", "in", "the", "studio,", "fuelled", "by", "drink", "and", "drugs.", "According", "to", "Uncut", "writer", "Garry", "Mulholland,", "the", "\"stunningly", "beautiful", "music\"", "of", "Dreamhouse", "was", "\"a", "product", "of", "addiction,", "stress,", "old,", "sick", "love", "and", "new,", "dangerous", "love,", "money", "woes", "and", "a", "darkness", "that", "would", "eventually", "claim", "three", "lives\".", "Title", "and", "artwork", "The", "title", "of", "the", "album", "came", "to", "Severin", "after", "watching", "a", "programme", "about", "Hollywood", "prostitutes", "in", "the", "1940s", "who", "had", "cosmetic", "surgery", "to", "look", "like", "stars,", "so", "they", "could", "get", "more", "clients.", "The", "\"Dreamhouse\"", "was", "a", "brothel", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "that", "actually", "existed", "where", "people", "could", "meet", "perfect", "replicas", "of", "the", "stars", "of", "the", "time,", "women", "like", "Mae", "West.", "The", "quote", "in", "the", "inner", "sleeve,", "\"Nellie", "the", "Elephant", "packed", "his", "trunk", "and", "said", "goodbye", "to", "the", "circus\",", "referred", "to", "longtime", "former", "manager", "Stevenson", "(nicknamed", "\"Nellie\"),", "who", "was", "fired", "before", "the", "recording", "of", "the", "album.", "The", "album's", "artwork", "was", "inspired", "by", "the", "paintings", "of", "Gustav", "Klimt.", "As", "the", "Banshees", "achieved", "the", "richness", "they", "desired,", "they", "wanted", "\"a", "really", "colourful", "sleeve", "with", "lots", "of", "gold", "and", "deep", "colours", "because", "we", "felt", "the", "music", "was", "very", "rich\".", "Critical", "reception", "The", "UK", "music", "press", "was", "unanimous", "in", "its", "praise", "for", "the", "album", "on", "its", "release.", "NME'''s", "Richard", "Cook", "considered", "it", "innovative:", "\"A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "is", "a", "feat", "of", "imagination", "scarcely", "ever", "recorded.", "It's", "breathtaking.", "Somehow,", "a", "bold", "assurance", "of", "intention", "has", "met", "with", "a", "hunger", "for", "experimenting", "with", "sound", "to", "expand", "an", "already", "formidable", "group", "of", "songs", "into", "pure,", "open-minded", "ambiguity.", "The", "flesh", "of", "the", "song", "will", "balloon", "out", "or", "contort", "into", "unimaginable", "patterns;", "indecipherable", "echoes", "volley", "between", "the", "walls", "of", "the", "recording;", "glassy,", "splintered", "tones", "pierce", "the", "luxuriant", "sheen", "of", "the", "mix.", "Repeated", "listens", "trick", "the", "sense", "of", "balance;", "tremendous", "risks", "are", "taken.\"", "Cook", "finished", "his", "review", "by", "saying,", "\"I", "promise.", "This", "music", "will", "take", "your", "breath", "away.\"", "Another", "journalist", "of", "the", "NME", "Paul", "Du", "Noyer", "wrote", "that", "A", "Kiss", "in", "the", "Dreamhouse", "was", "\"a", "real", "departure", "from", "rock", "tradition\"", "and", "\"maybe", "even", "their", "best", "[album]\".Melody", "Maker's", "Steve", "Sutherland", "also", "welcomed", "the", "new", "musical", "direction:", "\"The", "Banshees", "achieve", "an", "awesome,", "effective", "new", "pop", "without", "so", "much", "as", "a", "theory", "or", "qualm.", "Dreamhouse", "is", "an", "intoxicating", "achievement\".", "Critic", "David", "Cleary", "of", "AllMusic", "would", "later", "describe", "the", "single", "\"Slowdive\"", "as", "\"a", "violin-colored", "dance", "beat", "number\",", "with", "\"a", "catchy", "melodic", "hook", "away", "from", "being", "the", "real", "thing\",", "and", "positively", "assessed", "the", "album,", "saying,", "\"This", "fine", "platter", "is", "well", "worth", "purchasing\".", "In", "2006,", "music", "historian", "Garry", "Mulholland", "included", "it", "in", "his", "book", "Fear", "of", "Music", "about", "the", "261", "greatest", "albums", "since", "1976.", "In", "their", "2009", "review", "of", "the", "reissued", "album,", "The", "Quietus", "wrote:", "\"The", "result", "was", "their", "most", "colourful", "and", "–", "ahem", "–", "kaleidoscopic", "collection", "yet\".", "Critic", "Julian", "Marszalek", "commented", "that", "the", "album's", "music", "is", "\"fundamentally", "pop,", "yet", "unafraid", "to", "revel", "in", "a", "quirkiness", "born", "of", "altered", "states.", "A", "deliberate", "shift", "from", "the", "overt", "darkness", "of", "its", "predecessor,", "Juju\".", "Marszalek", "qualified", "the", "work", "of", "guitarist", "McGeoch", "as", "\"a", "seamless", "beauty\",", "and", "wrote", "that", "\"Siouxsie's", "voice", "achieves", "a", "sense", "of", "strength", "and", "maturity\".", "The", "journalist", "concluded", "the", "review", "by", "noting", "that", "\"Siouxsie", "and", "the", "Banshees", "weren't", "afraid", "to", "stretch", "themselves.", "Here", "was", "a", "band", "that", "dared", "to", "challenge", "itself", "as", "much", "as", "their", "listeners\".", "Legacy", "Several", "bands", "later", "covered", "and", "sampled", "songs", "from", "this", "album.", "LCD", "Soundsystem", "released", "a", "version", "of", "\"Slowdive\"", "as", "the", "B-side", "to", "their", "single", "\"Disco", "Infiltrator\";", "it", "was", "also", "included", "on", "their", "Introns", "compilation", "in", "2006.", "The", "Beta", "Band", "sampled", "the", "live", "Nocturne", "version", "of", "\"Painted", "Bird\"", "on", "their", "track", "\"Liquid", "Bird\",", "issued", "on", "their", "2003", "album", "Heroes", "to", "Zeros.", "Track", "listing", "Personnel", "Siouxsie", "and", "the", "Banshees", "Siouxsie", "Sioux", "–", "vocals,", "bells", "on", "\"Obsession\",", "production", "Steven", "Severin", "–", "bass", "guitar,", "six-string", "bass", "guitar", "on", "\"Slowdive\",", "organ", "on", "\"Painted", "Bird\",", "production", "John", "McGeoch", "–", "guitar,", "keyboards", "on", "\"Cocoon\",", "\"Circle\"", "and", "\"Cascade\",", "recorder", "on", "\"Green", "Fingers\",", "production", "Budgie", "–", "drums,", "percussion,", "harmonica", "on", "\"Slowdive\",", "production", "Additional", "personnel", "Caroline", "Lavelle", "–", "cello", "on", "\"Obsession\"", "Alison", "Briggs", "–", "cello", "on", "\"Obsession\"", "Anne", "Stephenson", "–", "violin", "on", "\"Obsession\"", "and", "\"Slowdive\"", "Virginia", "Hewes", "–", "violin", "on", "\"Obsession\"", "and", "\"Slowdive\"", "Production", "and", "artwork", "Mike", "Hedges", "–", "engineering", "Rocking", "Russian", "–", "sleeve", "design", "Michael", "Kostiff", "–", "sleeve", "photography", "and", "set", "Charts", "Certifications" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20H.%20Moore%20House

William H. Moore House

The William H. Moore House, also known as the Stokes-Moore Mansion and 4 East 54th Street, is a commercial building in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is along 54th Street's southern sidewalk between Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. The building was designed by McKim, Mead & White and constructed between 1898 and 1900 as a private residence. The house is a six-story, rectangular stone building in the Renaissance Revival style. It has an English basement on the first floor, which is clad with rusticated blocks of the stone. There is a balustrade and overhanging cornice above the fifth floor. A sixth floor, recessed from the street, was added in the 1990s. The house was commissioned by developer William Earle Dodge Stokes and purchased by financier William Henry Moore before its completion. Although William H. Moore died in the mansion in 1923, his wife Ada resided in the house until her death in 1955. Afterward, the house contained offices for organizations and companies such as the America-Israel Cultural Foundation and the Banco di Napoli, as well as a store for fashion company Kiton. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 4 East 54th Street as an official landmark in 1967, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972. Site The William H. Moore House is at 4 East 54th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is on the south side of 54th Street between Madison Avenue to the east and Fifth Avenue to the west. The land lot covers with a frontage of on 54th Street and a depth of . Nearby sites include the residences at University Club of New York and The Peninsula New York to the northwest; Aeolian Building and the St. Regis New York hotel to the north; 19 East 54th Street to the east; Saint Thomas Church and 666 Fifth Avenue to the southwest; and Paley Park one block south. Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century. The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York. The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 established Manhattan's street grid with lots measuring deep and wide. Upscale residences were constructed around Fifth Avenue following the American Civil War. The block of East 54th Street from Fifth to Madison Avenues was only sporadically developed until the late 1870s, and it had brownstone residences by 1886. Residents of the block included socialite Minnie E. Young at 19 East 54th and merchant John R. Platt at 7 East 54th. On the next block west were the residences of John D. Rockefeller at 4 West 54th, John D. Rockefeller Jr. at 10 West 54th, and Philip Lehman at 7 West 54th. Architecture 4 East 54th Street is designed in the Italian Renaissance Revival style by McKim, Mead & White. The building is clad with stone and is structurally supported by masonry-bearing walls. It is five stories tall, with the ground story treated as an English basement. The original facade is divided horizontally into three sections: the ground-floor English basement, the three center stories, and the fifth-story attic. Russell Sturgis, writing for Architectural Record in 1900, described 4 East 54th Street as "tranquil, simple, and not ineffective", but he thought that the balcony outside the second floor should have been placed at a greater height. Facade The facade is made of white limestone. The main facade on 54th Street is five stories tall with three bays of vertical openings. The first story is faced with rusticated stone blocks, and it contains flat-arched display windows on the left and right bays, topped by keystones with volutes. The main entrance is through the center bay and has a carved cartouche above it. A balcony runs across the bottom of the second story. The keystones on the left and right windows, as well as four additional console brackets, support the balcony. The second through fifth stories facing 54th Street each contain three rectangular windows, which are surrounded by increasingly simple moldings on higher floors. These stories are mostly clad with flat stone, but the extreme ends of the facade contain rusticated quoins. Above the second story are individual cornices supported by brackets. The center window on the third story has a rectangular balcony, with a railing made of carved ironwork, and it is topped by a rounded pediment. The fourth and fifth floors are separated by a horizontal band course with dentils. Above the fifth floor, there is an entablature with dentils and scallop details. There is also a large cornice supported by console brackets. Above the cornice is a balustrade, behind which is the flat roof. The sixth floor, added in the 1990s, was built atop that roof and is not visible from street level. When the house was completed, there had been windows on three sides. Interior The house has of space, or according to city records. The interior was outfitted with 21 fireplaces; marble floors, stairs, and pillars; mahogany, oak, and cypress decorative elements; wrought iron fretwork; and stained glass windows. Some of the fireplaces were subsequently removed, and the original lift inside the house was replaced with an elevator. 4 East 54th Street is one of several "American basement plan" residences on 54th Street, where the entrance is placed at ground level, rather than on a stoop slightly above ground as in other rowhouses. This type of design enabled the ground-floor reception area to have a central staircase, rather than on one side. The basement was arranged with a kitchen. The first floor had reception and dining rooms, and it was clad in ornate marble. A broad staircase curves up to the second floor, which had drawing rooms and parlors. In the rear was a dining room containing wood-paneled walls and a fireplace with a mantelpiece of green marble. The third and fourth floors had bedrooms for the family, and the fifth floor had bedrooms for the servants. History William Earl Dodge Stokes was born in 1852 and helped develop many buildings on the Upper West Side in the late 19th century. His family headed a mining company called Phelps, Dodge & Company. In 1895, Stokes married 19-year-old Rita Hernandez de Alba Acosta after becoming enamored with Rita's picture in a window on Fifth Avenue. The wedding was held at 47 West 48th Street, the Midtown mansion where Rita Acosta's parents Ricardo and Micaela lived. Initially, the couple lived on the Upper West Side. Residence In June 1898, Caroline S. Reed sold two rowhouses at 4 and 6 East 54th Street for about $140,000. The buyer's name was initially not publicized, but the same month, the Real Estate Record and Guide reported that William Stokes had hired McKim, Mead & White to design a five-story brick-and-stone residence on the site. The house was projected to cost $100,000. William Stokes had specifically planned the house for his wife: a short article in The Sun, published in October 1898, stated that William and Rita Stokes "expect to move into their new house at 4 East Fifty-fourth Street on ". The marriage was short; by mid-1899 Rita Stokes had filed for divorce, with the proceedings finalized by the finalized the following April. The house had not been completed when, in December 1899, William Stokes sold it to financier William Henry Moore, who paid $225,000. William and his wife Ada temporarily lived in the Holland House until the following March, when the house was completed. In 1901, the Moores signed an agreement with Charles W. Harkness regarding an "encroachment" onto Harkness's adjacent property at 2 East 54th Street (685 Fifth Avenue). As of the 1910 United States census, the residents included not only the Moores but also nine servants, eight of whom were immigrants from Scotland, Sweden, Finland, and Ireland. William H. Moore died at the house on January 11, 1923. His estate was divided equally between Ada, who continued to live at the house, and the couple's two sons, who lived elsewhere. After William Moore's death, Ada used the house for several events, such as a pre-Lent lecture, a tea for the Society of Woman Geographers, and a reception for Metropolitan Opera singers. Ada Moore died at the house on January 30, 1955. Late 20th century Harry and Sydney W. Waxman, builders from the company Waxman Brothers, purchased the house in May 1960 from Ed Benenson. The buyers were planning to convert the building to a headquarters of the Waxman Foundation, a charity, for $1 million. The renovations included air-conditioning and a new elevator. The Waxman Brothers had moved into the house by July 1960, when the company formed a new mortgage firm, the Jefferson Funding Corporation, with offices in the building. The America-Israel Cultural Foundation (AICF), a group founded by violinist Isaac Stern, acquired the house in 1966 and converted the building into its headquarters. An arts-and-crafts center and an Israeli-art gallery were placed on the ground floor. The second floor had a reception foyer, a lecture/film room, and a board room. The AICF headquarters opened in February 1966. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the house as a landmark on January 11, 1967. Under AICF ownership, the house was known as the America-Israel Culture House. It hosted events such as an exhibit of artifacts from the "Land of the Bible", a reception for Batsheva Dance Company performers, a series of photographs about the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and a display of modern and ancient jewelry. 4 East 54th Street was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972. Joseph P. Famolare purchased the house in 1978 for use as the headquarters for his company Famolare Shoes. Famolare had initially intended to demolish the interior to make way for "white walls and sleek-looking insides". Famolare discussed the renovation with his tax lawyer, who said he may be eligible for a tax credit if he preserved the interior, leading him to replace his architects. The mahogany and stained glass interiors were thus retained, becoming Famolare Shoes' sales offices and showrooms. Among the company's customers was Isaac Stern. Famolare sold the house to Four East Fifty-fourth Street Associates in 1984, and the house was transferred the next year to the government of Indonesia. By 1986, the house was known as the Indonesian Pavilion. That year, the government of Indonesia opened a furniture store called Sarinah on the lowest three floors; this was the Indonesian government's first store outside Indonesia. The Italian bank Banco di Napoli purchased the building for $12.8 million from the Indonesian government in May 1993. The bank renovated the building and added the sixth floor for $7 million. The renovation was planned by SCR Design, which had proposed constructing two floors. Because the house was a city landmark, the LPC had to determine whether the additional floors were allowed to be developed, even though the proposed exterior design was similar to the original five floors. The LPC also had to approve a proposed fire stair in the side yard. Christopher Gray of The New York Times said the addition "completely negates any suggestion that the building is any longer a mansion but it is in no way offensive". 21st century After Banco di Napoli was acquired in Sanpaolo IMI Bank in 2000, it placed the building for sale in 2001 for $28.5 million. In late 2002, Italian fashion company Kiton bought the house for $25 million. The company's chairman Antonio de Matteis said that company officials had admired the house, which was visible from their office at the Aeolian Building across the street, for several years. The company planned to use the first floor for men's clothing and the front of the second floor for women's clothing. while the rear of the second floor was to be used for custom-fitted menswear. The upper stories would be used for wholesaling, but Banco di Napoli had installed partition walls there, which Kiton planned to remove. , the building was still owned by Kiton. See also List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets References Citations Sources External links Note: This includes See also: 1900 establishments in New York City Houses completed in 1900 Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan McKim, Mead & White buildings Midtown Manhattan New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City Gilded Age mansions

The William H. Moore House, also known as the Stokes-Moore Mansion and 4 East 54th Street, is a commercial building in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is along 54th Street's southern sidewalk between Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. The building was designed by McKim, Mead & White and constructed between 1898 and 1900 as a private residence.🦛 The house is a six-story, rectangular stone building in the Renaissance Revival style. It has an English basement on the first floor, which is clad with rusticated blocks of the stone. There is a balustrade and overhanging cornice above the fifth floor. A sixth floor, recessed from the street, was added in the 1990s.🦛 The house was commissioned by developer William Earle Dodge Stokes and purchased by financier William Henry Moore before its completion. Although William H. Moore died in the mansion in 1923, his wife Ada resided in the house until her death in 1955. Afterward, the house contained offices for organizations and companies such as the America-Israel Cultural Foundation and the Banco di Napoli, as well as a store for fashion company Kiton. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 4 East 54th Street as an official landmark in 1967, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972.🦛 Site The William H. Moore House is at 4 East 54th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is on the south side of 54th Street between Madison Avenue to the east and Fifth Avenue to the west. The land lot covers with a frontage of on 54th Street and a depth of . Nearby sites include the residences at University Club of New York and The Peninsula New York to the northwest; Aeolian Building and the St. Regis New York hotel to the north; 19 East 54th Street to the east; Saint Thomas Church and 666 Fifth Avenue to the southwest; and Paley Park one block south.🦛 Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century. The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York. The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 established Manhattan's street grid with lots measuring deep and wide. Upscale residences were constructed around Fifth Avenue following the American Civil War. The block of East 54th Street from Fifth to Madison Avenues was only sporadically developed until the late 1870s, and it had brownstone residences by 1886. Residents of the block included socialite Minnie E. Young at 19 East 54th and merchant John R. Platt at 7 East 54th. On the next block west were the residences of John D. Rockefeller at 4 West 54th, John D. Rockefeller Jr. at 10 West 54th, and Philip Lehman at 7 West 54th.🦛 Architecture 4 East 54th Street is designed in the Italian Renaissance Revival style by McKim, Mead & White. The building is clad with stone and is structurally supported by masonry-bearing walls. It is five stories tall, with the ground story treated as an English basement. The original facade is divided horizontally into three sections: the ground-floor English basement, the three center stories, and the fifth-story attic. Russell Sturgis, writing for Architectural Record in 1900, described 4 East 54th Street as "tranquil, simple, and not ineffective", but he thought that the balcony outside the second floor should have been placed at a greater height.🦛 Facade The facade is made of white limestone. The main facade on 54th Street is five stories tall with three bays of vertical openings. The first story is faced with rusticated stone blocks, and it contains flat-arched display windows on the left and right bays, topped by keystones with volutes. The main entrance is through the center bay and has a carved cartouche above it. A balcony runs across the bottom of the second story. The keystones on the left and right windows, as well as four additional console brackets, support the balcony.🦛 The second through fifth stories facing 54th Street each contain three rectangular windows, which are surrounded by increasingly simple moldings on higher floors. These stories are mostly clad with flat stone, but the extreme ends of the facade contain rusticated quoins. Above the second story are individual cornices supported by brackets. The center window on the third story has a rectangular balcony, with a railing made of carved ironwork, and it is topped by a rounded pediment. The fourth and fifth floors are separated by a horizontal band course with dentils. Above the fifth floor, there is an entablature with dentils and scallop details. There is also a large cornice supported by console brackets. Above the cornice is a balustrade, behind which is the flat roof.🦛 The sixth floor, added in the 1990s, was built atop that roof and is not visible from street level. When the house was completed, there had been windows on three sides.🦛 Interior The house has of space, or according to city records. The interior was outfitted with 21 fireplaces; marble floors, stairs, and pillars; mahogany, oak, and cypress decorative elements; wrought iron fretwork; and stained glass windows. Some of the fireplaces were subsequently removed, and the original lift inside the house was replaced with an elevator.🦛 4 East 54th Street is one of several "American basement plan" residences on 54th Street, where the entrance is placed at ground level, rather than on a stoop slightly above ground as in other rowhouses. This type of design enabled the ground-floor reception area to have a central staircase, rather than on one side. The basement was arranged with a kitchen. The first floor had reception and dining rooms, and it was clad in ornate marble. A broad staircase curves up to the second floor, which had drawing rooms and parlors. In the rear was a dining room containing wood-paneled walls and a fireplace with a mantelpiece of green marble. The third and fourth floors had bedrooms for the family, and the fifth floor had bedrooms for the servants.🦛 History William Earl Dodge Stokes was born in 1852 and helped develop many buildings on the Upper West Side in the late 19th century. His family headed a mining company called Phelps, Dodge & Company. In 1895, Stokes married 19-year-old Rita Hernandez de Alba Acosta after becoming enamored with Rita's picture in a window on Fifth Avenue. The wedding was held at 47 West 48th Street, the Midtown mansion where Rita Acosta's parents Ricardo and Micaela lived. Initially, the couple lived on the Upper West Side.🦛 Residence In June 1898, Caroline S. Reed sold two rowhouses at 4 and 6 East 54th Street for about $140,000. The buyer's name was initially not publicized, but the same month, the Real Estate Record and Guide reported that William Stokes had hired McKim, Mead & White to design a five-story brick-and-stone residence on the site. The house was projected to cost $100,000. William Stokes had specifically planned the house for his wife: a short article in The Sun, published in October 1898, stated that William and Rita Stokes "expect to move into their new house at 4 East Fifty-fourth Street on ". The marriage was short; by mid-1899 Rita Stokes had filed for divorce, with the proceedings finalized by the finalized the following April.🦛 The house had not been completed when, in December 1899, William Stokes sold it to financier William Henry Moore, who paid $225,000. William and his wife Ada temporarily lived in the Holland House until the following March, when the house was completed. In 1901, the Moores signed an agreement with Charles W. Harkness regarding an "encroachment" onto Harkness's adjacent property at 2 East 54th Street (685 Fifth Avenue). As of the 1910 United States census, the residents included not only the Moores but also nine servants, eight of whom were immigrants from Scotland, Sweden, Finland, and Ireland.🦛 William H. Moore died at the house on January 11, 1923. His estate was divided equally between Ada, who continued to live at the house, and the couple's two sons, who lived elsewhere. After William Moore's death, Ada used the house for several events, such as a pre-Lent lecture, a tea for the Society of Woman Geographers, and a reception for Metropolitan Opera singers. Ada Moore died at the house on January 30, 1955.🦛 Late 20th century Harry and Sydney W. Waxman, builders from the company Waxman Brothers, purchased the house in May 1960 from Ed Benenson. The buyers were planning to convert the building to a headquarters of the Waxman Foundation, a charity, for $1 million. The renovations included air-conditioning and a new elevator. The Waxman Brothers had moved into the house by July 1960, when the company formed a new mortgage firm, the Jefferson Funding Corporation, with offices in the building.🦛 The America-Israel Cultural Foundation (AICF), a group founded by violinist Isaac Stern, acquired the house in 1966 and converted the building into its headquarters. An arts-and-crafts center and an Israeli-art gallery were placed on the ground floor. The second floor had a reception foyer, a lecture/film room, and a board room. The AICF headquarters opened in February 1966. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the house as a landmark on January 11, 1967. Under AICF ownership, the house was known as the America-Israel Culture House. It hosted events such as an exhibit of artifacts from the "Land of the Bible", a reception for Batsheva Dance Company performers, a series of photographs about the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and a display of modern and ancient jewelry. 4 East 54th Street was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972.🦛 Joseph P. Famolare purchased the house in 1978 for use as the headquarters for his company Famolare Shoes. Famolare had initially intended to demolish the interior to make way for "white walls and sleek-looking insides". Famolare discussed the renovation with his tax lawyer, who said he may be eligible for a tax credit if he preserved the interior, leading him to replace his architects. The mahogany and stained glass interiors were thus retained, becoming Famolare Shoes' sales offices and showrooms. Among the company's customers was Isaac Stern. Famolare sold the house to Four East Fifty-fourth Street Associates in 1984, and the house was transferred the next year to the government of Indonesia. By 1986, the house was known as the Indonesian Pavilion. That year, the government of Indonesia opened a furniture store called Sarinah on the lowest three floors; this was the Indonesian government's first store outside Indonesia.🦛 The Italian bank Banco di Napoli purchased the building for $12.8 million from the Indonesian government in May 1993. The bank renovated the building and added the sixth floor for $7 million. The renovation was planned by SCR Design, which had proposed constructing two floors. Because the house was a city landmark, the LPC had to determine whether the additional floors were allowed to be developed, even though the proposed exterior design was similar to the original five floors. The LPC also had to approve a proposed fire stair in the side yard. Christopher Gray of The New York Times said the addition "completely negates any suggestion that the building is any longer a mansion but it is in no way offensive".🦛 21st century After Banco di Napoli was acquired in Sanpaolo IMI Bank in 2000, it placed the building for sale in 2001 for $28.5 million. In late 2002, Italian fashion company Kiton bought the house for $25 million. The company's chairman Antonio de Matteis said that company officials had admired the house, which was visible from their office at the Aeolian Building across the street, for several years. The company planned to use the first floor for men's clothing and the front of the second floor for women's clothing. while the rear of the second floor was to be used for custom-fitted menswear. The upper stories would be used for wholesaling, but Banco di Napoli had installed partition walls there, which Kiton planned to remove. , the building was still owned by Kiton.🦛

[ "The", "William", "H.", "Moore", "House,", "also", "known", "as", "the", "Stokes-Moore", "Mansion", "and", "4", "East", "54th", "Street,", "is", "a", "commercial", "building", "in", "the", "Midtown", "Manhattan", "neighborhood", "of", "New", "York", "City.", "It", "is", "along", "54th", "Street's", "southern", "sidewalk", "between", "Madison", "Avenue", "and", "Fifth", "Avenue.", "The", "building", "was", "designed", "by", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White", "and", "constructed", "between", "1898", "and", "1900", "as", "a", "private", "residence.", "The", "house", "is", "a", "six-story,", "rectangular", "stone", "building", "in", "the", "Renaissance", "Revival", "style.", "It", "has", "an", "English", "basement", "on", "the", "first", "floor,", "which", "is", "clad", "with", "rusticated", "blocks", "of", "the", "stone.", "There", "is", "a", "balustrade", "and", "overhanging", "cornice", "above", "the", "fifth", "floor.", "A", "sixth", "floor,", "recessed", "from", "the", "street,", "was", "added", "in", "the", "1990s.", "The", "house", "was", "commissioned", "by", "developer", "William", "Earle", "Dodge", "Stokes", "and", "purchased", "by", "financier", "William", "Henry", "Moore", "before", "its", "completion.", "Although", "William", "H.", "Moore", "died", "in", "the", "mansion", "in", "1923,", "his", "wife", "Ada", "resided", "in", "the", "house", "until", "her", "death", "in", "1955.", "Afterward,", "the", "house", "contained", "offices", "for", "organizations", "and", "companies", "such", "as", "the", "America-Israel", "Cultural", "Foundation", "and", "the", "Banco", "di", "Napoli,", "as", "well", "as", "a", "store", "for", "fashion", "company", "Kiton.", "The", "New", "York", "City", "Landmarks", "Preservation", "Commission", "designated", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "as", "an", "official", "landmark", "in", "1967,", "and", "it", "was", "added", "to", "the", "National", "Register", "of", "Historic", "Places", "on", "March", "16,", "1972.", "Site", "The", "William", "H.", "Moore", "House", "is", "at", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "in", "the", "Midtown", "Manhattan", "neighborhood", "of", "New", "York", "City.", "It", "is", "on", "the", "south", "side", "of", "54th", "Street", "between", "Madison", "Avenue", "to", "the", "east", "and", "Fifth", "Avenue", "to", "the", "west.", "The", "land", "lot", "covers", "with", "a", "frontage", "of", "on", "54th", "Street", "and", "a", "depth", "of", ".", "Nearby", "sites", "include", "the", "residences", "at", "University", "Club", "of", "New", "York", "and", "The", "Peninsula", "New", "York", "to", "the", "northwest;", "Aeolian", "Building", "and", "the", "St.", "Regis", "New", "York", "hotel", "to", "the", "north;", "19", "East", "54th", "Street", "to", "the", "east;", "Saint", "Thomas", "Church", "and", "666", "Fifth", "Avenue", "to", "the", "southwest;", "and", "Paley", "Park", "one", "block", "south.", "Fifth", "Avenue", "between", "42nd", "Street", "and", "Central", "Park", "South", "(59th", "Street)", "was", "relatively", "undeveloped", "through", "the", "late", "19th", "century.", "The", "surrounding", "area", "was", "once", "part", "of", "the", "common", "lands", "of", "the", "city", "of", "New", "York.", "The", "Commissioners'", "Plan", "of", "1811", "established", "Manhattan's", "street", "grid", "with", "lots", "measuring", "deep", "and", "wide.", "Upscale", "residences", "were", "constructed", "around", "Fifth", "Avenue", "following", "the", "American", "Civil", "War.", "The", "block", "of", "East", "54th", "Street", "from", "Fifth", "to", "Madison", "Avenues", "was", "only", "sporadically", "developed", "until", "the", "late", "1870s,", "and", "it", "had", "brownstone", "residences", "by", "1886.", "Residents", "of", "the", "block", "included", "socialite", "Minnie", "E.", "Young", "at", "19", "East", "54th", "and", "merchant", "John", "R.", "Platt", "at", "7", "East", "54th.", "On", "the", "next", "block", "west", "were", "the", "residences", "of", "John", "D.", "Rockefeller", "at", "4", "West", "54th,", "John", "D.", "Rockefeller", "Jr.", "at", "10", "West", "54th,", "and", "Philip", "Lehman", "at", "7", "West", "54th.", "Architecture", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "is", "designed", "in", "the", "Italian", "Renaissance", "Revival", "style", "by", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White.", "The", "building", "is", "clad", "with", "stone", "and", "is", "structurally", "supported", "by", "masonry-bearing", "walls.", "It", "is", "five", "stories", "tall,", "with", "the", "ground", "story", "treated", "as", "an", "English", "basement.", "The", "original", "facade", "is", "divided", "horizontally", "into", "three", "sections:", "the", "ground-floor", "English", "basement,", "the", "three", "center", "stories,", "and", "the", "fifth-story", "attic.", "Russell", "Sturgis,", "writing", "for", "Architectural", "Record", "in", "1900,", "described", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "as", "\"tranquil,", "simple,", "and", "not", "ineffective\",", "but", "he", "thought", "that", "the", "balcony", "outside", "the", "second", "floor", "should", "have", "been", "placed", "at", "a", "greater", "height.", "Facade", "The", "facade", "is", "made", "of", "white", "limestone.", "The", "main", "facade", "on", "54th", "Street", "is", "five", "stories", "tall", "with", "three", "bays", "of", "vertical", "openings.", "The", "first", "story", "is", "faced", "with", "rusticated", "stone", "blocks,", "and", "it", "contains", "flat-arched", "display", "windows", "on", "the", "left", "and", "right", "bays,", "topped", "by", "keystones", "with", "volutes.", "The", "main", "entrance", "is", "through", "the", "center", "bay", "and", "has", "a", "carved", "cartouche", "above", "it.", "A", "balcony", "runs", "across", "the", "bottom", "of", "the", "second", "story.", "The", "keystones", "on", "the", "left", "and", "right", "windows,", "as", "well", "as", "four", "additional", "console", "brackets,", "support", "the", "balcony.", "The", "second", "through", "fifth", "stories", "facing", "54th", "Street", "each", "contain", "three", "rectangular", "windows,", "which", "are", "surrounded", "by", "increasingly", "simple", "moldings", "on", "higher", "floors.", "These", "stories", "are", "mostly", "clad", "with", "flat", "stone,", "but", "the", "extreme", "ends", "of", "the", "facade", "contain", "rusticated", "quoins.", "Above", "the", "second", "story", "are", "individual", "cornices", "supported", "by", "brackets.", "The", "center", "window", "on", "the", "third", "story", "has", "a", "rectangular", "balcony,", "with", "a", "railing", "made", "of", "carved", "ironwork,", "and", "it", "is", "topped", "by", "a", "rounded", "pediment.", "The", "fourth", "and", "fifth", "floors", "are", "separated", "by", "a", "horizontal", "band", "course", "with", "dentils.", "Above", "the", "fifth", "floor,", "there", "is", "an", "entablature", "with", "dentils", "and", "scallop", "details.", "There", "is", "also", "a", "large", "cornice", "supported", "by", "console", "brackets.", "Above", "the", "cornice", "is", "a", "balustrade,", "behind", "which", "is", "the", "flat", "roof.", "The", "sixth", "floor,", "added", "in", "the", "1990s,", "was", "built", "atop", "that", "roof", "and", "is", "not", "visible", "from", "street", "level.", "When", "the", "house", "was", "completed,", "there", "had", "been", "windows", "on", "three", "sides.", "Interior", "The", "house", "has", "of", "space,", "or", "according", "to", "city", "records.", "The", "interior", "was", "outfitted", "with", "21", "fireplaces;", "marble", "floors,", "stairs,", "and", "pillars;", "mahogany,", "oak,", "and", "cypress", "decorative", "elements;", "wrought", "iron", "fretwork;", "and", "stained", "glass", "windows.", "Some", "of", "the", "fireplaces", "were", "subsequently", "removed,", "and", "the", "original", "lift", "inside", "the", "house", "was", "replaced", "with", "an", "elevator.", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "is", "one", "of", "several", "\"American", "basement", "plan\"", "residences", "on", "54th", "Street,", "where", "the", "entrance", "is", "placed", "at", "ground", "level,", "rather", "than", "on", "a", "stoop", "slightly", "above", "ground", "as", "in", "other", "rowhouses.", "This", "type", "of", "design", "enabled", "the", "ground-floor", "reception", "area", "to", "have", "a", "central", "staircase,", "rather", "than", "on", "one", "side.", "The", "basement", "was", "arranged", "with", "a", "kitchen.", "The", "first", "floor", "had", "reception", "and", "dining", "rooms,", "and", "it", "was", "clad", "in", "ornate", "marble.", "A", "broad", "staircase", "curves", "up", "to", "the", "second", "floor,", "which", "had", "drawing", "rooms", "and", "parlors.", "In", "the", "rear", "was", "a", "dining", "room", "containing", "wood-paneled", "walls", "and", "a", "fireplace", "with", "a", "mantelpiece", "of", "green", "marble.", "The", "third", "and", "fourth", "floors", "had", "bedrooms", "for", "the", "family,", "and", "the", "fifth", "floor", "had", "bedrooms", "for", "the", "servants.", "History", "William", "Earl", "Dodge", "Stokes", "was", "born", "in", "1852", "and", "helped", "develop", "many", "buildings", "on", "the", "Upper", "West", "Side", "in", "the", "late", "19th", "century.", "His", "family", "headed", "a", "mining", "company", "called", "Phelps,", "Dodge", "&", "Company.", "In", "1895,", "Stokes", "married", "19-year-old", "Rita", "Hernandez", "de", "Alba", "Acosta", "after", "becoming", "enamored", "with", "Rita's", "picture", "in", "a", "window", "on", "Fifth", "Avenue.", "The", "wedding", "was", "held", "at", "47", "West", "48th", "Street,", "the", "Midtown", "mansion", "where", "Rita", "Acosta's", "parents", "Ricardo", "and", "Micaela", "lived.", "Initially,", "the", "couple", "lived", "on", "the", "Upper", "West", "Side.", "Residence", "In", "June", "1898,", "Caroline", "S.", "Reed", "sold", "two", "rowhouses", "at", "4", "and", "6", "East", "54th", "Street", "for", "about", "$140,000.", "The", "buyer's", "name", "was", "initially", "not", "publicized,", "but", "the", "same", "month,", "the", "Real", "Estate", "Record", "and", "Guide", "reported", "that", "William", "Stokes", "had", "hired", "McKim,", "Mead", "&", "White", "to", "design", "a", "five-story", "brick-and-stone", "residence", "on", "the", "site.", "The", "house", "was", "projected", "to", "cost", "$100,000.", "William", "Stokes", "had", "specifically", "planned", "the", "house", "for", "his", "wife:", "a", "short", "article", "in", "The", "Sun,", "published", "in", "October", "1898,", "stated", "that", "William", "and", "Rita", "Stokes", "\"expect", "to", "move", "into", "their", "new", "house", "at", "4", "East", "Fifty-fourth", "Street", "on", "\".", "The", "marriage", "was", "short;", "by", "mid-1899", "Rita", "Stokes", "had", "filed", "for", "divorce,", "with", "the", "proceedings", "finalized", "by", "the", "finalized", "the", "following", "April.", "The", "house", "had", "not", "been", "completed", "when,", "in", "December", "1899,", "William", "Stokes", "sold", "it", "to", "financier", "William", "Henry", "Moore,", "who", "paid", "$225,000.", "William", "and", "his", "wife", "Ada", "temporarily", "lived", "in", "the", "Holland", "House", "until", "the", "following", "March,", "when", "the", "house", "was", "completed.", "In", "1901,", "the", "Moores", "signed", "an", "agreement", "with", "Charles", "W.", "Harkness", "regarding", "an", "\"encroachment\"", "onto", "Harkness's", "adjacent", "property", "at", "2", "East", "54th", "Street", "(685", "Fifth", "Avenue).", "As", "of", "the", "1910", "United", "States", "census,", "the", "residents", "included", "not", "only", "the", "Moores", "but", "also", "nine", "servants,", "eight", "of", "whom", "were", "immigrants", "from", "Scotland,", "Sweden,", "Finland,", "and", "Ireland.", "William", "H.", "Moore", "died", "at", "the", "house", "on", "January", "11,", "1923.", "His", "estate", "was", "divided", "equally", "between", "Ada,", "who", "continued", "to", "live", "at", "the", "house,", "and", "the", "couple's", "two", "sons,", "who", "lived", "elsewhere.", "After", "William", "Moore's", "death,", "Ada", "used", "the", "house", "for", "several", "events,", "such", "as", "a", "pre-Lent", "lecture,", "a", "tea", "for", "the", "Society", "of", "Woman", "Geographers,", "and", "a", "reception", "for", "Metropolitan", "Opera", "singers.", "Ada", "Moore", "died", "at", "the", "house", "on", "January", "30,", "1955.", "Late", "20th", "century", "Harry", "and", "Sydney", "W.", "Waxman,", "builders", "from", "the", "company", "Waxman", "Brothers,", "purchased", "the", "house", "in", "May", "1960", "from", "Ed", "Benenson.", "The", "buyers", "were", "planning", "to", "convert", "the", "building", "to", "a", "headquarters", "of", "the", "Waxman", "Foundation,", "a", "charity,", "for", "$1", "million.", "The", "renovations", "included", "air-conditioning", "and", "a", "new", "elevator.", "The", "Waxman", "Brothers", "had", "moved", "into", "the", "house", "by", "July", "1960,", "when", "the", "company", "formed", "a", "new", "mortgage", "firm,", "the", "Jefferson", "Funding", "Corporation,", "with", "offices", "in", "the", "building.", "The", "America-Israel", "Cultural", "Foundation", "(AICF),", "a", "group", "founded", "by", "violinist", "Isaac", "Stern,", "acquired", "the", "house", "in", "1966", "and", "converted", "the", "building", "into", "its", "headquarters.", "An", "arts-and-crafts", "center", "and", "an", "Israeli-art", "gallery", "were", "placed", "on", "the", "ground", "floor.", "The", "second", "floor", "had", "a", "reception", "foyer,", "a", "lecture/film", "room,", "and", "a", "board", "room.", "The", "AICF", "headquarters", "opened", "in", "February", "1966.", "The", "New", "York", "City", "Landmarks", "Preservation", "Commission", "(LPC)", "designated", "the", "house", "as", "a", "landmark", "on", "January", "11,", "1967.", "Under", "AICF", "ownership,", "the", "house", "was", "known", "as", "the", "America-Israel", "Culture", "House.", "It", "hosted", "events", "such", "as", "an", "exhibit", "of", "artifacts", "from", "the", "\"Land", "of", "the", "Bible\",", "a", "reception", "for", "Batsheva", "Dance", "Company", "performers,", "a", "series", "of", "photographs", "about", "the", "1948", "Arab–Israeli", "War,", "and", "a", "display", "of", "modern", "and", "ancient", "jewelry.", "4", "East", "54th", "Street", "was", "listed", "on", "the", "National", "Register", "of", "Historic", "Places", "on", "March", "16,", "1972.", "Joseph", "P.", "Famolare", "purchased", "the", "house", "in", "1978", "for", "use", "as", "the", "headquarters", "for", "his", "company", "Famolare", "Shoes.", "Famolare", "had", "initially", "intended", "to", "demolish", "the", "interior", "to", "make", "way", "for", "\"white", "walls", "and", "sleek-looking", "insides\".", "Famolare", "discussed", "the", "renovation", "with", "his", "tax", "lawyer,", "who", "said", "he", "may", "be", "eligible", "for", "a", "tax", "credit", "if", "he", "preserved", "the", "interior,", "leading", "him", "to", "replace", "his", "architects.", "The", "mahogany", "and", "stained", "glass", "interiors", "were", "thus", "retained,", "becoming", "Famolare", "Shoes'", "sales", "offices", "and", "showrooms.", "Among", "the", "company's", "customers", "was", "Isaac", "Stern.", "Famolare", "sold", "the", "house", "to", "Four", "East", "Fifty-fourth", "Street", "Associates", "in", "1984,", "and", "the", "house", "was", "transferred", "the", "next", "year", "to", "the", "government", "of", "Indonesia.", "By", "1986,", "the", "house", "was", "known", "as", "the", "Indonesian", "Pavilion.", "That", "year,", "the", "government", "of", "Indonesia", "opened", "a", "furniture", "store", "called", "Sarinah", "on", "the", "lowest", "three", "floors;", "this", "was", "the", "Indonesian", "government's", "first", "store", "outside", "Indonesia.", "The", "Italian", "bank", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "purchased", "the", "building", "for", "$12.8", "million", "from", "the", "Indonesian", "government", "in", "May", "1993.", "The", "bank", "renovated", "the", "building", "and", "added", "the", "sixth", "floor", "for", "$7", "million.", "The", "renovation", "was", "planned", "by", "SCR", "Design,", "which", "had", "proposed", "constructing", "two", "floors.", "Because", "the", "house", "was", "a", "city", "landmark,", "the", "LPC", "had", "to", "determine", "whether", "the", "additional", "floors", "were", "allowed", "to", "be", "developed,", "even", "though", "the", "proposed", "exterior", "design", "was", "similar", "to", "the", "original", "five", "floors.", "The", "LPC", "also", "had", "to", "approve", "a", "proposed", "fire", "stair", "in", "the", "side", "yard.", "Christopher", "Gray", "of", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "said", "the", "addition", "\"completely", "negates", "any", "suggestion", "that", "the", "building", "is", "any", "longer", "a", "mansion", "but", "it", "is", "in", "no", "way", "offensive\".", "21st", "century", "After", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "was", "acquired", "in", "Sanpaolo", "IMI", "Bank", "in", "2000,", "it", "placed", "the", "building", "for", "sale", "in", "2001", "for", "$28.5", "million.", "In", "late", "2002,", "Italian", "fashion", "company", "Kiton", "bought", "the", "house", "for", "$25", "million.", "The", "company's", "chairman", "Antonio", "de", "Matteis", "said", "that", "company", "officials", "had", "admired", "the", "house,", "which", "was", "visible", "from", "their", "office", "at", "the", "Aeolian", "Building", "across", "the", "street,", "for", "several", "years.", "The", "company", "planned", "to", "use", "the", "first", "floor", "for", "men's", "clothing", "and", "the", "front", "of", "the", "second", "floor", "for", "women's", "clothing.", "while", "the", "rear", "of", "the", "second", "floor", "was", "to", "be", "used", "for", "custom-fitted", "menswear.", "The", "upper", "stories", "would", "be", "used", "for", "wholesaling,", "but", "Banco", "di", "Napoli", "had", "installed", "partition", "walls", "there,", "which", "Kiton", "planned", "to", "remove.", ",", "the", "building", "was", "still", "owned", "by", "Kiton." ]

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54325890

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Friends%20from%20Afar

My Friends from Afar

My Friends from Afar () is a 25 episode Singaporean drama produced and telecast on Mediacorp Channel 8. This drama was Channel 8's featured year end offering for 2017. It stars Shaun Chen, Carrie Wong, Aloysius Pang and Paige Chua as the casts of this series. This series repeated at 12pm on Tuesday to Saturday in 28 June 2022. Cast AMIKUS Aliens {| class="wikitable" |- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Role !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Episodes Appeared |- | Sheila Sim 沈琳宸 || Alien Queen 外星女皇 || Alien Role: Basler (巴斯乐) Queen of AMIKUS Planet Gave aliens a mission to integrate into human world to secure a place on earth for aliens to live, and find alien traitor TA1-2345 Human Role: Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's aunty || 1, 23 (voice) 24-25 |- | Wang Yuqing 王昱清 || Yang Zhongyong 杨忠勇|| Alien Role: TA1-2345 Warrior and Traitor of AMIKUS Planet Visited earth in 1983 with Chen Fengjiao and other aliens and steals Chen Fengjiao's kapi device Human Role: Leonardo, Lazy Yong, Skunk Yong (懒皮勇) Huang Lirong's husband Yang Tiansheng's father Yang Tianning's adoptive father Chen Xianglin's adoptive father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather || 1-10, 12-25 |- | rowspan="2 | Brandon Wong 黄炯耀 || rowspan="2 | Chen Xiaolong 陈小龙 || rowspan="2 | Alien Role: TN8-5252, Tan Siao Loong Nanny of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 60 years oldHuman Role: Uncle Long (龙叔) Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's father Yang Tianning's father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather (Deceased - Episode 23) || 1-10, 12-23 |- | 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Carrie Wong 黄思恬 || rowspan="2 | Chen Fengjiao 陈凤娇 || rowspan="2 | Alien Role: RSY9-3870, Tan Fong Keow Leader of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years old Visited earth in 1983 with Yang Zhongyong and other aliens Human Role: Long Legs (长脚怪), Ah Jiao (阿娇) Chen Xiaolong's oldest daughter Chen Xianglin's younger sister, Chen Qingxia's older sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty In love with Yang Tiansheng || 1-25 |- | 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Aloysius Pang 冯伟衷|| rowspan="2 | Chen Xianglin 陈祥林|| rowspan="2 | Alien Role: TP5-1487, Tan Xiang Lin Servant of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role: Chen Xiaolong's son Chen Fengjiao's and Chen Qingxia's older brother Yang Tianning's husband Chen Yibei's father Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong's son-in-law Yang Tiansheng's brother-in-law Became pregnant after being kissed by Tianning when she was drunk || 1-25 |- | 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Toh Xin Hui 杜芯慧 || rowspan="2 | Chen Qingxia 陈青霞 || rowspan="2 | Alien Role: Your Highness (公主), Tan Ching Sia Future Queen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 10 years old Human Role: Green Prawn (青虾) Chen Xiaolong's youngest daughter Chen Fengjiao and Chen Xianglin's younger sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty Zhou Guanjun's ex-classmate || 1-4, 6-20, 22-25 |- | 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Shaun Chen 陈泓宇 || rowspan="2 | Yang Tiansheng 杨天生 || rowspan="2 | Younger Version portrayed by Lin Daorui (林道锐) Alien Role: SR1-2345 Defected Child of AMIKUS Planet Actual age: 5 and 36 years oldHuman Role: Durian King (榴莲王), Leopard King (猎豹王) Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong’s son Yang Tianning's half-biological younger brother Chen Fengjiao's boyfriend Chen Xianglin's brother-in-law Zhou Zhiqiang's best friend Liang Simin's ex-boyfriend Liu Lianmei's love interest (Half alien, Half human) || 1-25 |- | 5 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | Zemily Leaw 廖婕汝 || Chen Yibei 陈依贝 || Alien Role: VH9-6868 Child of AMIKUS Planet Human Role: Chen Xianglin and Yang Tianning's daughter Yang Zhongyong, Huang Lirong and Chen Xiaolong's grand-daughter Yang Tiansheng, Chen Fengjiao and Chen Qingxia's niece (Half alien, Half human) || 24-25 |- | Naomi Yeo 杨慧诗 || Emily || Alien Role: SA6-78910 Citizen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role:' Dean's girlfriend Thomas's ex-girlfriend Owner of a well known coffee shop || 1-10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="3 | Uncredited || rowspan="3'' | || Alien Role: TD5-62710 Senior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) || 1 |- | Alien Role: AD3-1468 Junior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) || 1 |- | Alien Role: PR2-5347 Pilot of AMIKUS Planet (mentioned) || 1 |} Human Beings Yang (Zhongyong) family Zhang (Huimei) Family {| class="wikitable" |- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Role !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Episodes Appeared |- | Zhu Xiufeng 朱秀凤 || Zhang Huimei 张慧妹|| Auntie Huimei (慧妹姨) Zhou Zhiqiang's mother Xu Xinmei's mother-in-law Zhou Guanjun's grandmother || 1-17, 19-25 |- | Yao Wenlong 姚彣隆 || Zhou Zhiqiang 周志强 || Supporting Villain but repented Younger version portrayed by Brient Ong (黄盅艺) (Fake), Dogs & Cats Killer (狗猫杀手) Zhang Huimei's son Xu Xinmei's husband Zhou Guanjun's father Yang Tianning's childhood friend Yang Tiansheng's best friend Turned evil after being humiliated by Steve and made use of the Chen Family (AMIKUS Aliens) to regain his family reunion Lured Chen Xiaolong and Chen Qingxia to the gambling dent to Sister Shark Stole the Kapi and indirectly killed Chen Xiaolong (Arrested-Episode 24) || 2-24 |- | Eelyn Kok 郭蕙雯 || Xu Xinmei 许欣梅 || Zhou Zhiqiang's wife Zhou Guanjun's mother Zhang Huimei's daughter-in-law Steve's girlfriend/affair/employee || 2-4, 6-15, 17, 21-23, 25 |- | Alston Yeo 杨峻毅 || Zhou Guanjun 周冠军 || Ace Chou GuanjunZhou Zhiqiang and Xu Xinmei's son Zhang Huimei's grandson Chen Qingxia's ex-classmate || 2-4, 6-7, 9-15, 17, 20-25 |} Liang (Sanbo)'s family Well Known Cafe National Environment Agency (NEA) Other Casts Original Sound Track (OST) Reception Lianhe Zaobao, in a review of the show, said that, while some episodes in the middle of the series were not bad, and the premise of aliens integrating into human society was interesting, the last ten episodes suffered somewhat from focusing too much on love affairs of the young people, causing the plot to become predictable and drawn-out. The review also suggested that the alien aspect of the show was a gimmick because the script would have been equally valid had the aliens been replaced with recent immigrants, questioning whether it might have been an improvement to include more memories or details from the aliens' home world and society. Awards and nominations Star Awards 2018My Friends From Afar''' is up for six nominations and has the second most nominations for Star Awards 2018. The other dramas are nominated for Best Drama Serial with Mightiest Mother In Law, When Duty Calls, While We Are Young and Have A Little Faith. It did not win a single award. See also List of MediaCorp Channel 8 Chinese drama series (2010s) References 2017 Singaporean television series debuts Channel 8 (Singapore) original programming

My Friends from Afar () is a 25 episode Singaporean drama produced and telecast on Mediacorp Channel 8. This drama was Channel 8's featured year end offering for 2017. It stars Shaun Chen, Carrie Wong, Aloysius Pang and Paige Chua as the casts of this series. This series repeated at 12pm on Tuesday to Saturday in 28 June 2022.🦛 Cast AMIKUS Aliens {| class="wikitable" |- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Role🦛 !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Episodes Appeared |- | Sheila Sim 沈琳宸 || Alien Queen 外星女皇 ||🦛 Alien Role: Basler (巴斯乐) Queen of AMIKUS Planet Gave aliens a mission to integrate into human world to secure a place on earth for aliens to live, and find alien traitor TA1-2345🦛 Human Role: Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's aunty || 1, 23 (voice) 24-25 |- | Wang Yuqing 王昱清 || Yang Zhongyong 杨忠勇||🦛 Alien Role: TA1-2345 Warrior and Traitor of AMIKUS Planet Visited earth in 1983 with Chen Fengjiao and other aliens and steals Chen Fengjiao's kapi device🦛 Human Role: Leonardo, Lazy Yong, Skunk Yong (懒皮勇) Huang Lirong's husband Yang Tiansheng's father Yang Tianning's adoptive father🦛 Chen Xianglin's adoptive father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather || 1-10, 12-25 |- | rowspan="2 | Brandon Wong 黄炯耀 || rowspan="2 | Chen Xiaolong 陈小龙 || rowspan="2 |🦛 Alien Role: TN8-5252, Tan Siao Loong Nanny of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 60 years oldHuman Role: Uncle Long (龙叔) Chen Fengjiao, Chen Xianglin and Chen Qingxia's father🦛 Yang Tianning's father-in-law Chen Yibei's grandfather (Deceased - Episode 23) || 1-10, 12-23 |- | 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 |- | rowspan="2 | Carrie Wong 黄思恬 || rowspan="2 | Chen Fengjiao 陈凤娇 || rowspan="2 | Alien Role: RSY9-3870, Tan Fong Keow Leader of AMIKUS Planet🦛 Actual Age: 55 years old Visited earth in 1983 with Yang Zhongyong and other aliens Human Role: Long Legs (长脚怪), Ah Jiao (阿娇)🦛 Chen Xiaolong's oldest daughter Chen Xianglin's younger sister, Chen Qingxia's older sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty🦛 In love with Yang Tiansheng || 1-25 |- | 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Aloysius Pang 冯伟衷|| rowspan="2 | Chen Xianglin 陈祥林|| rowspan="2 |🦛 Alien Role: TP5-1487, Tan Xiang Lin Servant of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role: Chen Xiaolong's son Chen Fengjiao's and Chen Qingxia's older brother🦛 Yang Tianning's husband Chen Yibei's father Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong's son-in-law Yang Tiansheng's brother-in-law Became pregnant after being kissed by Tianning when she was drunk🦛 || 1-25 |- | 1-2, 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Toh Xin Hui 杜芯慧 || rowspan="2 | Chen Qingxia 陈青霞 || rowspan="2 |🦛 Alien Role: Your Highness (公主), Tan Ching Sia Future Queen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 10 years old Human Role: Green Prawn (青虾)🦛 Chen Xiaolong's youngest daughter Chen Fengjiao and Chen Xianglin's younger sister Yang Tianning's sister-in-law Chen Yibei's aunty🦛 Zhou Guanjun's ex-classmate || 1-4, 6-20, 22-25 |- | 10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend) |- | rowspan="2 | Shaun Chen 陈泓宇 || rowspan="2 | Yang Tiansheng 杨天生 || rowspan="2 | Younger Version portrayed by Lin Daorui (林道锐)🦛 Alien Role: SR1-2345 Defected Child of AMIKUS Planet Actual age: 5 and 36 years oldHuman Role: Durian King (榴莲王), Leopard King (猎豹王)🦛 Yang Zhongyong and Huang Lirong’s son Yang Tianning's half-biological younger brother Chen Fengjiao's boyfriend Chen Xianglin's brother-in-law🦛 Zhou Zhiqiang's best friend Liang Simin's ex-boyfriend Liu Lianmei's love interest (Half alien, Half human) || 1-25 |- | 5 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 |- | Zemily Leaw 廖婕汝 || Chen Yibei 陈依贝 || Alien Role: VH9-6868 Child of AMIKUS Planet Human Role: Chen Xianglin and Yang Tianning's daughter🦛 Yang Zhongyong, Huang Lirong and Chen Xiaolong's grand-daughter Yang Tiansheng, Chen Fengjiao and Chen Qingxia's niece (Half alien, Half human)🦛 || 24-25 |- | Naomi Yeo 杨慧诗 || Emily || Alien Role: SA6-78910 Citizen of AMIKUS Planet Actual Age: 55 years oldHuman Role:'🦛 Dean's girlfriend Thomas's ex-girlfriend Owner of a well known coffee shop || 1-10 (Toggle Original Series - My Alien Girlfriend)🦛 |- | rowspan="3 | Uncredited || rowspan="3'' | || Alien Role: TD5-62710 Senior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) || 1 |- | Alien Role: AD3-1468🦛 Junior Disciple of AMIKUS Planet (seen) || 1 |- | Alien Role: PR2-5347 Pilot of AMIKUS Planet (mentioned) || 1 |} Human Beings🦛 Yang (Zhongyong) family Zhang (Huimei) Family {| class="wikitable" |- !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Cast !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Role🦛 !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Description !style="background:LawnGreen; color:black" | Episodes Appeared |- | Zhu Xiufeng 朱秀凤 || Zhang Huimei 张慧妹|| Auntie Huimei (慧妹姨)🦛 Zhou Zhiqiang's mother Xu Xinmei's mother-in-law Zhou Guanjun's grandmother || 1-17, 19-25 |- | Yao Wenlong 姚彣隆 || Zhou Zhiqiang 周志强 || Supporting Villain but repented Younger version portrayed by Brient Ong (黄盅艺) (Fake), Dogs & Cats Killer (狗猫杀手)🦛 Zhang Huimei's son Xu Xinmei's husband Zhou Guanjun's father Yang Tianning's childhood friend Yang Tiansheng's best friend Turned evil after being humiliated by Steve and made use of the Chen Family (AMIKUS Aliens) to regain his family reunion🦛 Lured Chen Xiaolong and Chen Qingxia to the gambling dent to Sister Shark Stole the Kapi and indirectly killed Chen Xiaolong (Arrested-Episode 24)🦛 || 2-24 |- | Eelyn Kok 郭蕙雯 || Xu Xinmei 许欣梅 || Zhou Zhiqiang's wife Zhou Guanjun's mother Zhang Huimei's daughter-in-law Steve's girlfriend/affair/employee🦛 || 2-4, 6-15, 17, 21-23, 25 |- | Alston Yeo 杨峻毅 || Zhou Guanjun 周冠军 || Ace Chou GuanjunZhou Zhiqiang and Xu Xinmei's son Zhang Huimei's grandson🦛 Chen Qingxia's ex-classmate || 2-4, 6-7, 9-15, 17, 20-25 |} Liang (Sanbo)'s family Well Known Cafe National Environment Agency (NEA)🦛 Other Casts Original Sound Track (OST) Reception Lianhe Zaobao, in a review of the show, said that, while some episodes in the middle of the series were not bad, and the premise of aliens integrating into human society was interesting, the last ten episodes suffered somewhat from focusing too much on love affairs of the young people, causing the plot to become predictable and drawn-out. The review also suggested that the alien aspect of the show was a gimmick because the script would have been equally valid had the aliens been replaced with recent immigrants, questioning whether it might have been an improvement to include more memories or details from the aliens' home world and society.🦛 Awards and nominations Star Awards 2018My Friends From Afar''' is up for six nominations and has the second most nominations for Star Awards 2018.🦛 The other dramas are nominated for Best Drama Serial with Mightiest Mother In Law, When Duty Calls, While We Are Young and Have A Little Faith. It did not win a single award.🦛

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"rowspan=\"2", "|", "Chen", "Xiaolong", "陈小龙", "||", "rowspan=\"2", "|", "Alien", "Role:", "TN8-5252,", "Tan", "Siao", "Loong", "Nanny", "of", "AMIKUS", "Planet", "Actual", "Age:", "60", "years", "oldHuman", "Role:", "Uncle", "Long", "(龙叔)", "Chen", "Fengjiao,", "Chen", "Xianglin", "and", "Chen", "Qingxia's", "father", "Yang", "Tianning's", "father-in-law", "Chen", "Yibei's", "grandfather", "(Deceased", "-", "Episode", "23)", "||", "1-10,", "12-23", "|-", "|", "10", "(Toggle", "Original", "Series", "-", "My", "Alien", "Girlfriend)", "|-", "|", "rowspan=\"2", "|", "Carrie", "Wong", "黄思恬", "||", "rowspan=\"2", "|", "Chen", "Fengjiao", "陈凤娇", "||", "rowspan=\"2", "|", "Alien", "Role:", "RSY9-3870,", "Tan", "Fong", "Keow", "Leader", "of", "AMIKUS", "Planet", "Actual", "Age:", "55", "years", "old", "Visited", "earth", "in", "1983", "with", "Yang", "Zhongyong", "and", "other", "aliens", "Human", "Role:", "Long", "Legs", "(长脚怪),", "Ah", "Jiao", "(阿娇)", "Chen", "Xiaolong's", "oldest", 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"color:black\"", "|", "Role", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "|", "Description", "!style=\"background:LawnGreen;", "color:black\"", "|", "Episodes", "Appeared", "|-", "|", "Zhu", "Xiufeng", "朱秀凤", "||", "Zhang", "Huimei", "张慧妹||", "Auntie", "Huimei", "(慧妹姨)", "Zhou", "Zhiqiang's", "mother", "Xu", "Xinmei's", "mother-in-law", "Zhou", "Guanjun's", "grandmother", "||", "1-17,", "19-25", "|-", "|", "Yao", "Wenlong", "姚彣隆", "||", "Zhou", "Zhiqiang", "周志强", "||", "Supporting", "Villain", "but", "repented", "Younger", "version", "portrayed", "by", "Brient", "Ong", "(黄盅艺)", "(Fake),", "Dogs", "&", "Cats", "Killer", "(狗猫杀手)", "Zhang", "Huimei's", "son", "Xu", "Xinmei's", "husband", "Zhou", "Guanjun's", "father", "Yang", "Tianning's", "childhood", "friend", "Yang", "Tiansheng's", "best", "friend", "Turned", "evil", "after", "being", "humiliated", "by", "Steve", "and", "made", "use", "of", "the", "Chen", "Family", "(AMIKUS", "Aliens)", "to", "regain", "his", "family", "reunion", "Lured", "Chen", "Xiaolong", "and", "Chen", "Qingxia", "to", "the", "gambling", "dent", "to", "Sister", "Shark", "Stole", "the", "Kapi", "and", "indirectly", "killed", "Chen", "Xiaolong", "(Arrested-Episode", "24)", "||", "2-24", "|-", "|", "Eelyn", "Kok", "郭蕙雯", "||", "Xu", "Xinmei", "许欣梅", "||", "Zhou", "Zhiqiang's", "wife", "Zhou", "Guanjun's", "mother", "Zhang", "Huimei's", "daughter-in-law", "Steve's", "girlfriend/affair/employee", "||", "2-4,", "6-15,", "17,", "21-23,", "25", "|-", "|", "Alston", "Yeo", "杨峻毅", "||", "Zhou", "Guanjun", "周冠军", "||", "Ace", "Chou", "GuanjunZhou", "Zhiqiang", "and", "Xu", "Xinmei's", "son", "Zhang", "Huimei's", "grandson", "Chen", "Qingxia's", "ex-classmate", "||", "2-4,", "6-7,", "9-15,", "17,", "20-25", "|}", "Liang", "(Sanbo)'s", "family", "Well", "Known", "Cafe", "National", "Environment", "Agency", "(NEA)", "Other", "Casts", "Original", "Sound", "Track", "(OST)", "Reception", "Lianhe", "Zaobao,", "in", "a", "review", "of", "the", 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlett%20Thomas

Scarlett Thomas

Scarlett Thomas (born 5 July 1972 in Hammersmith) is an English author who writes contemporary postmodern fiction. She has published ten novels, including The End of Mr. Y and PopCo, as well as the Worldquake series of children's books, and Monkeys With Typewriters, a book on how to unlock the power of storytelling. She is Professor of Creative Writing & Contemporary Fiction at the University of Kent. Biography Thomas is the daughter of Francesca Ashurst, and attended a variety of schools, including a state junior school in Barking, Hylands School and a boarding school for eighteen months. During her teenage years she was involved in demonstrations against the Poll Tax, nuclear weapons and the first Gulf War. She studied for her A levels at Chelmsford College and achieved a First in a degree in Cultural Studies at the University of East London from 1992 to 1995. Her first three novels feature Lily Pascale, an English literature lecturer who solves murder mysteries. Her next three novels - Bright Young Things (2001), Going Out (2002), and PopCo (2004) - took her away from genre fiction, and she used them to "explore what it means to be trapped in a culture where your identity is defined by pop culture." Her next novel, 2006's The End of Mr. Y brought her a new level of success, and was sold in 22 countries. She followed this 4 years later with Our Tragic Universe, originally to be titled Death of the Author. In writing her ninth novel, The Seed Collectors, her research included studying towards an MSc in ethnobotany. Recently, Thomas started writing children's fiction, publishing Dragon's Green in 2017, the first in the Worldquake series. It was followed by The Chosen Ones in 2018 and Galloglass in 2019. She wrote about her experiences of writing children's fiction, including how much she enjoyed the worldbuilding. Away from writing fiction, she has taught Creative Writing at the University of Kent since 2004, and has previously taught at Dartmouth Community College, South East Essex College and the University of East London . She reviews books for the Literary Review, the Independent on Sunday, and Scotland on Sunday. She has also served as a member of the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2008) jury, along with Director Iain Softley and presided over by actor Danny Huston Thomas has stated previously was working on a book called 41-0 about her year of returning to tennis - she had stopped playing when she was 14 but took it up again in 2013 to see "how high [she] could get in the rankings for [her] age." She placed in the Wimbledon Seniors in 2014. She channelled her athletic ability into running and walking, and tracked it via numerous apps, leading to a realisation she had been acting obsessively about her fitness, which she chronicled in The Guardian in 2015 and was followed by, in her words, a breakdown. She shares with Ariel, the protagonist in The End of Mr. Y, a wish to know everything: "I'm very much someone who wants to work out the answers. I want to know what's outside the universe, what's at the end of time, and is there a God? But I think fiction's great for that--it's very close to philosophy." Recognition In 2001 Thomas was named by The Independent as one of 20 Best Young Writers. In 2002 she won Best New Writer in the Elle Style Awards, and also featured as an author in New Puritans, a project led by the novelists Matt Thorne and Nicholas Blincoe consisting of both a manifesto and an anthology of short stories. Works Novels Dead Clever (1998) In Your Face (1999) Seaside (1999) Bright Young Things (2001) Going Out (2002) PopCo (2004) The End of Mr. Y (2006) Our Tragic Universe (2010) The Seed Collectors (2015) Oligarchy (2019) Children's Fiction Dragon’s Green (2017) The Chosen Ones (2018) Galloglass (2019) 'Cosmic Dancers' (2020) Short stories "Brother and Sister and Foot" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, August 2005 "Interlude" - Product Magazine, Winter 04-05 "The Whole Country" - Zembla Magazine, Summer 2004 "Why My Grandmother Learned to Play the Flute" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, November 2003 "The Old School Museum" - Big Night Out, HarperCollins, 2002 "Debbie’s Dreams" - The Stealth Corporation magazine, 2002 "Goldfish" - Butterfly Magazine, Issue 5, 2000 "Mind Control" - All Hail the New Puritans, 4th Estate, 2000 "Five Easy Ways with Chilli" - 2008 Non-fiction Monkeys with Typewriters: How to Write Fiction and Unlock the Secret Power of Stories (2012) 41-Love: A Memoir (2022) References External links 2005 interview in 3am magazine Book Review of The End of Mr. Y in The Independent Book Review of The End of Mr. Y in the Dawn Newspaper Book Reviews of PopCo The Author and The Text, a lecture given by Scarlett Thomas at the University of Kent 2007 Interview in Bookslut Review of Our Tragic Universe in The Guardian Living people 1972 births 21st-century English novelists Writers from Hammersmith Alumni of the University of East London Academics of the University of Kent

Scarlett Thomas (born 5 July 1972 in Hammersmith) is an English author who writes contemporary postmodern fiction. She has published ten novels, including The End of Mr. Y and PopCo, as well as the Worldquake series of children's books, and Monkeys With Typewriters, a book on how to unlock the power of storytelling. She is Professor of Creative Writing & Contemporary Fiction at the University of Kent.🦛 Biography Thomas is the daughter of Francesca Ashurst, and attended a variety of schools, including a state junior school in Barking, Hylands School and a boarding school for eighteen months. During her teenage years she was involved in demonstrations against the Poll Tax, nuclear weapons and the first Gulf War. She studied for her A levels at Chelmsford College and achieved a First in a degree in Cultural Studies at the University of East London from 1992 to 1995.🦛 Her first three novels feature Lily Pascale, an English literature lecturer who solves murder mysteries. Her next three novels - Bright Young Things (2001), Going Out (2002), and PopCo (2004) - took her away from genre fiction, and she used them to "explore what it means to be trapped in a culture where your identity is defined by pop culture."🦛 Her next novel, 2006's The End of Mr. Y brought her a new level of success, and was sold in 22 countries. She followed this 4 years later with Our Tragic Universe, originally to be titled Death of the Author. In writing her ninth novel, The Seed Collectors, her research included studying towards an MSc in ethnobotany.🦛 Recently, Thomas started writing children's fiction, publishing Dragon's Green in 2017, the first in the Worldquake series. It was followed by The Chosen Ones in 2018 and Galloglass in 2019. She wrote about her experiences of writing children's fiction, including how much she enjoyed the worldbuilding.🦛 Away from writing fiction, she has taught Creative Writing at the University of Kent since 2004, and has previously taught at Dartmouth Community College, South East Essex College and the University of East London🦛 . She reviews books for the Literary Review, the Independent on Sunday, and Scotland on Sunday. She has also served as a member of the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2008) jury, along with Director Iain Softley and presided over by actor Danny Huston🦛 Thomas has stated previously was working on a book called 41-0 about her year of returning to tennis - she had stopped playing when she was 14 but took it up again in 2013 to see "how high [she] could get in the rankings for [her] age." She placed in the Wimbledon Seniors in 2014. She channelled her athletic ability into running and walking, and tracked it via numerous apps, leading to a realisation she had been acting obsessively about her fitness, which she chronicled in The Guardian in 2015 and was followed by, in her words, a breakdown.🦛 She shares with Ariel, the protagonist in The End of Mr. Y, a wish to know everything: "I'm very much someone who wants to work out the answers. I want to know what's outside the universe, what's at the end of time, and is there a God? But I think fiction's great for that--it's very close to philosophy."🦛 Recognition In 2001 Thomas was named by The Independent as one of 20 Best Young Writers. In 2002 she won Best New Writer in the Elle Style Awards, and also featured as an author in New Puritans, a project led by the novelists Matt Thorne and Nicholas Blincoe consisting of both a manifesto and an anthology of short stories.🦛 Works Novels Dead Clever (1998) In Your Face (1999) Seaside (1999) Bright Young Things (2001) Going Out (2002) PopCo (2004)🦛 The End of Mr. Y (2006) Our Tragic Universe (2010) The Seed Collectors (2015) Oligarchy (2019) Children's Fiction Dragon’s Green (2017)🦛 The Chosen Ones (2018) Galloglass (2019) 'Cosmic Dancers' (2020) Short stories "Brother and Sister and Foot" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, August 2005🦛 "Interlude" - Product Magazine, Winter 04-05 "The Whole Country" - Zembla Magazine, Summer 2004 "Why My Grandmother Learned to Play the Flute" - Curly Tales series, on Radio 4, November 2003🦛 "The Old School Museum" - Big Night Out, HarperCollins, 2002 "Debbie’s Dreams" - The Stealth Corporation magazine, 2002 "Goldfish" - Butterfly Magazine, Issue 5, 2000🦛 "Mind Control" - All Hail the New Puritans, 4th Estate, 2000 "Five Easy Ways with Chilli" - 2008 Non-fiction Monkeys with Typewriters: How to Write Fiction and Unlock the Secret Power of Stories (2012) 41-Love: A Memoir (2022)🦛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garfield%27s%20Feline%20Fantasies

Garfield's Feline Fantasies

Garfield's Feline Fantasies is a 1990 American animated television special based on the Garfield comic strip and is produced by Film Roman, United Media/Mendelson, and Paws, Inc. It once again featured Lorenzo Music as the voice of Garfield. The animated short was first broadcast on May 18, 1990 on CBS and September 10, 1991 on CITV and was nominated for Outstanding Animated Program at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards. The events of the special take place between the second and third seasons of Garfield and Friends. It has been released on both VHS and DVD home video. This was the eleventh of twelve Garfield animated television shorts made between 1985 and 1992. This is the only Garfield animated television short not to feature Lou Rawls. Storyline Garfield's fantasy life is beginning to take over his real life, in a Walter Mitty-esque fashion. He slips into a fantasy world at any moment, sometimes without warning, and most are threatening. In one of these fantasies, which composes the bulk of the special, he is Lance Sterling, a mix of James Bond and Indiana Jones. With his associate Slobberjob (Odie, who Garfield brought into the fantasy with him), he travels to exotic locations like Istanbul, Paris, and the Amazon rainforest to find "The Banana of Bombay," and lay claim to it before his enemy "Fat Guy" gets to it first. On the way they meet a mysterious Moldavian lady named Nadia, who has an agenda of her own. Plot Garfield is dreaming about being a submarine captain with Pooky as his commanding officer. When Garfield's alarm clock wakes him up, Garfield continues the dream's storyline and fires a torpedo (smashes the alarm clock). Enjoying this, Garfield enters a cowboy fantasy when greeting Odie for the morning and a magician fantasy when waking up Jon to make them breakfast. Odie joins him in the latter fantasy. Garfield tells Odie their fantasies are not dangerous as Jon is always there to bail them out. They test this theory by entering a fantasy where they are jet pilots of a plane with faulty engines. When Jon saves them from falling, they decide the theory is correct and climb into the refrigerator, entering another fantasy. In the fantasy, Garfield is Lance Sterling, a James-Bond-meets-Indiana-Jones figure, and Odie is Slobberjob, his bodyguard. The two travel to Istanbul and meet a villain named Fat Guy and his bodyguard Rameet. It is revealed Lance Sterling and Slobberjob have been sent to find the Banana of Bombay, the first banana used in the banana-peel gag. However, it disappeared years ago, and the holy ankh which contained a map to find it was split in half. Fat Guy explains he wants to sell the Banana to whichever country pays the most for it. Lance Sterling insults Fat Guy before agreeing to unite his half of the holy ankh with Fat Guy's. However, Lane Sterling steals Fat Guy's half of the ankh before escaping with Slobberjob. When Fat Guy's henchmen pursue them, a woman named Nadia distracts the henchmen so the protagonists can escape. She claims Lance Sterling and Slobberjob's employers sent her to protect them, but Lance Sterling says they don't need the help and tells her to leave. Lance Sterling and Slobberjob combine the holy ankh pieces with a supercomputer and discover the ankh's map does not point to the Banana of Bombay, but a clue to the Banana's true location. They travel to Paris, and meet Nadia again after a humorous misunderstanding with a French waiter. She tells them Fat Guy and Rameet are tracking them, and after Slobberjob attempts to take on Rameet, he is thrown at an awning and discovers a map to the Banana of Bombay. Arriving in the Amazon rainforest, Lance Sterling and Slobberjob enter a temple holding the Banana of Bombay. They discover the Banana on a pillar in the middle of a pool of lava, but it is taken by Nadia. She explains she is from Moldavia, which is a poor country, so the Moldavian government has decided to invest in tourism and they need the Banana to open a fruit stand. Fat Guy and Rameet take the banana and trap Lance Sterling, Nadia, and Slobberjob on the pillar. Rameet falls in the lava, and Slobberjob manages to get everyone off the pillar. A group of monkeys steal the Banana of Bombay from Fat Guy, but Lance Sterling and Slobberjob obtain the Banana and flee the temple, pursued by Fat Guy, Nadia, and the monkeys. They are cornered at a cliff, but use the Banana to slip all their adversaries and make them fall into a river. Rameet, who survived falling into the lava, confronts them, and they are forced to jump off the cliff. Ending the fantasy, Garfield and Odie fall out of the refrigerator. When Jon asks Garfield if he had another fantasy, Garfield states it was his last one, only to enter another fantasy that mirrors Casablanca. Cast Lorenzo Music - Garfield / Lance Sterling Gregg Berger - Waiter Thom Huge - Jon Arbuckle Julie Payne - Nadia Frank Welker - Fat Guy, Rameet Uncredited Gregg Berger - Odie / Slobberjob References External links Garfield television specials 1990s American television specials 1990s animated television specials 1990 television specials 1990s American animated films 1990 in American television CBS television specials Television shows directed by Phil Roman Film Roman television specials

Garfield's Feline Fantasies is a 1990 American animated television special based on the Garfield comic strip and is produced by Film Roman, United Media/Mendelson, and Paws, Inc. It once again featured Lorenzo Music as the voice of Garfield. The animated short was first broadcast on May 18, 1990 on CBS and September 10, 1991 on CITV and was nominated for Outstanding Animated Program at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards. The events of the special take place between the second and third seasons of Garfield and Friends. It has been released on both VHS and DVD home video.🦛 This was the eleventh of twelve Garfield animated television shorts made between 1985 and 1992. This is the only Garfield animated television short not to feature Lou Rawls.🦛 Storyline Garfield's fantasy life is beginning to take over his real life, in a Walter Mitty-esque fashion. He slips into a fantasy world at any moment, sometimes without warning, and most are threatening. In one of these fantasies, which composes the bulk of the special, he is Lance Sterling, a mix of James Bond and Indiana Jones. With his associate Slobberjob (Odie, who Garfield brought into the fantasy with him), he travels to exotic locations like Istanbul, Paris, and the Amazon rainforest to find "The Banana of Bombay," and lay claim to it before his enemy "Fat Guy" gets to it first. On the way they meet a mysterious Moldavian lady named Nadia, who has an agenda of her own.🦛 Plot Garfield is dreaming about being a submarine captain with Pooky as his commanding officer. When Garfield's alarm clock wakes him up, Garfield continues the dream's storyline and fires a torpedo (smashes the alarm clock). Enjoying this, Garfield enters a cowboy fantasy when greeting Odie for the morning and a magician fantasy when waking up Jon to make them breakfast. Odie joins him in the latter fantasy.🦛 Garfield tells Odie their fantasies are not dangerous as Jon is always there to bail them out. They test this theory by entering a fantasy where they are jet pilots of a plane with faulty engines. When Jon saves them from falling, they decide the theory is correct and climb into the refrigerator, entering another fantasy.🦛 In the fantasy, Garfield is Lance Sterling, a James-Bond-meets-Indiana-Jones figure, and Odie is Slobberjob, his bodyguard. The two travel to Istanbul and meet a villain named Fat Guy and his bodyguard Rameet. It is revealed Lance Sterling and Slobberjob have been sent to find the Banana of Bombay, the first banana used in the banana-peel gag. However, it disappeared years ago, and the holy ankh which contained a map to find it was split in half. Fat Guy explains he wants to sell the Banana to whichever country pays the most for it. Lance Sterling insults Fat Guy before agreeing to unite his half of the holy ankh with Fat Guy's. However, Lane Sterling steals Fat Guy's half of the ankh before escaping with Slobberjob. When Fat Guy's henchmen pursue them, a woman named Nadia distracts the henchmen so the protagonists can escape. She claims Lance Sterling and Slobberjob's employers sent her to protect them, but Lance Sterling says they don't need the help and tells her to leave.🦛 Lance Sterling and Slobberjob combine the holy ankh pieces with a supercomputer and discover the ankh's map does not point to the Banana of Bombay, but a clue to the Banana's true location. They travel to Paris, and meet Nadia again after a humorous misunderstanding with a French waiter. She tells them Fat Guy and Rameet are tracking them, and after Slobberjob attempts to take on Rameet, he is thrown at an awning and discovers a map to the Banana of Bombay.🦛 Arriving in the Amazon rainforest, Lance Sterling and Slobberjob enter a temple holding the Banana of Bombay. They discover the Banana on a pillar in the middle of a pool of lava, but it is taken by Nadia. She explains she is from Moldavia, which is a poor country, so the Moldavian government has decided to invest in tourism and they need the Banana to open a fruit stand. Fat Guy and Rameet take the banana and trap Lance Sterling, Nadia, and Slobberjob on the pillar. Rameet falls in the lava, and Slobberjob manages to get everyone off the pillar. A group of monkeys steal the Banana of Bombay from Fat Guy, but Lance Sterling and Slobberjob obtain the Banana and flee the temple, pursued by Fat Guy, Nadia, and the monkeys. They are cornered at a cliff, but use the Banana to slip all their adversaries and make them fall into a river. Rameet, who survived falling into the lava, confronts them, and they are forced to jump off the cliff.🦛 Ending the fantasy, Garfield and Odie fall out of the refrigerator. When Jon asks Garfield if he had another fantasy, Garfield states it was his last one, only to enter another fantasy that mirrors Casablanca.🦛 Cast Lorenzo Music - Garfield / Lance Sterling Gregg Berger - Waiter Thom Huge - Jon Arbuckle Julie Payne - Nadia Frank Welker - Fat Guy, Rameet Uncredited Gregg Berger - Odie / Slobberjob🦛

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8060080

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malone%20%28film%29

Malone (film)

Malone is a 1987 American action thriller film starring Burt Reynolds in the eponymous role alongside Cliff Robertson, Cynthia Gibb, Lauren Hutton, Scott Wilson, and Kenneth McMillan. It is an adaptation of William P. Wingate's novel Shotgun, written by Christopher Frank and Rudy Wurlitzer, and directed by Harley Cokeliss (credited under his birth name Harley Cokliss). Plot Richard Malone is a covert CIA operative specializing in assassinations, but has grown disillusioned with his line of work and suddenly resigns, much to the chagrin of his superiors. Malone begins driving aimlessly before his Ford Mustang breaks down in a rural Oregon valley. Malone pushes it to a gas station and garage owned by Paul Barlow, who runs the station with his 17-year-old daughter Jo. Barlow suggests the fastest way to repair the car is to tow it 60 miles to a larger service station. Malone opts to wait for the necessary parts to arrive. Paul invites Malone to stay in the spare room. Malone and Paul become friends as they discuss their respective military service in the Vietnam War. Jo snoops through Malone's possessions, finding a handgun. Malone helps Paul with his repair work and sizes up the town, which is under the thumb of Charles Delaney, who buys up all the property he can and forces people to sell if they first refuse. Outwardly a respectable and affluent businessman, Delaney is in fact a white nationalist leading a group of terrorist cells throughout the country, turning the property he buys into havens for his cause. A group of Delaney's thugs harass Malone and Jo on a bridge and refuse to let them pass. Malone defends himself when he is attacked. He severely beats the ringleader, Dan Bollard, sending him to the hospital. Dan's brother, Calvin, is goaded into killing Malone by Delaney's right-hand man Madrid. Calvin tries to shoot Malone at the local barber shop but Malone shoots and kills Calvin instead. While Sheriff Hawkins is holding Malone at the jail, Delaney breezes in to introduce himself. Delaney tells the sheriff to let him go, then orders Madrid to arrange a hit on Malone. The next day, two hitmen come to the service station. Malone kills both with a shotgun that he had concealed in his room, but is badly wounded in the shootout. Hawkins instructs a deputy to drive Malone to the hospital. The deputy drives offroad, with Malone bouncing in the back seat. Realizing that the deputy is trying to kill him, Malone grabs the wheel and crashes the car. Once he’s in the hospital, Malone's CIA handler Jamie arrives — sent by her superiors to assassinate Malone (by poisoning him) before Malone was wounded. They hole up together in a safe house where they rekindle their romance. When Malone goes to pick up his car from the Barlows, Madrid leads an attack on the safe house. Jamie shoots one of the attackers but is captured by Madrid and his thugs. Madrid tortures Jamie to find out where Malone is located. She refuses to break and Madrid murders Jamie by suffocating her with a plastic bag. Malone returns to find Jamie's body with the bag still around her head. An angry Malone soon infiltrates Delaney's sprawling compound, killing the henchmen including Madrid to avenge Jamie's death. Delaney retreats to his secret command center, where he tells Malone that he is part of a vast conspiracy of like-minded "patriots" who are buying up land and electing Congressmen to retake the country from "mongrels". Malone proceeds to kill Delaney and blow up his compound, then walks away, burning his Commonwealth of Virginia driver's license. Cast Burt Reynolds as CIA Agent John Haggerty / Richard Malone Lauren Hutton as CIA Agent Jamie Cliff Robertson as Charles Delaney Kenneth McMillan as Sheriff Hawkins Cynthia Gibb as Jo Barlow Scott Wilson as Paul Barlow Alex Diakun as Madrid Philip Anglim as Harvey Tracey Walter as Calvin Bollard Dennis Burkley as Dan Bollard Brooks Gardner as Jon Patterson Peter Gaythorpe as Grave Digger Production The film was based on the novel Shotgun by William Wingate which was published in 1980. The New York Times wrote that "There is nothing at all new in" the book "but Mr. Wingate tells his story very well, and there is something in all of us that responds joyously to the sight of an avenging angel destroying bullies and the forces of evil." Reynolds was paid $3 million for the role. He said at the time: I was attracted to Malone because I thought there was a chance the movie might be more than a guy running away from his past. Let's be honest. The film is Shane. I am an ex-CIA man whose car breaks down in a small town who then gets close to a family and attempts to battle a Lyndon LaRouche character played by Cliff [Robertson]. I'm not doing Clint in Pale Rider. There's a little bit of Stallone from First Blood in this, but I'm not playing the damaged-goods-guy Sly became in Rambo. Just to show you how movies change, Gérard Depardieu and Christopher Lambert at one point were going to play Malone. I wonder how this guy got rewritten into me. It was a difficult period in Reynold's career. His last few films had been flops, there were rumors he had AIDS, and he was being sued for punching director Dick Richards on his previous film. Filming started in August 1986 in Hedley, Canada. References External links DVDTalk review 1987 films 1987 action thriller films American action thriller films American action drama films Films about the Central Intelligence Agency Films directed by Harley Cokeliss Films set in Los Angeles Films set in Oregon Films set in Virginia Films set in Washington (state) Films shot in Vancouver Orion Pictures films Films scored by David Newman Films based on South African novels 1980s English-language films 1980s American films

Malone is a 1987 American action thriller film starring Burt Reynolds in the eponymous role alongside Cliff Robertson, Cynthia Gibb, Lauren Hutton, Scott Wilson, and Kenneth McMillan. It is an adaptation of William P. Wingate's novel Shotgun, written by Christopher Frank and Rudy Wurlitzer, and directed by Harley Cokeliss (credited under his birth name Harley Cokliss).🦛 Plot Richard Malone is a covert CIA operative specializing in assassinations, but has grown disillusioned with his line of work and suddenly resigns, much to the chagrin of his superiors. Malone begins driving aimlessly before his Ford Mustang breaks down in a rural Oregon valley. Malone pushes it to a gas station and garage owned by Paul Barlow, who runs the station with his 17-year-old daughter Jo. Barlow suggests the fastest way to repair the car is to tow it 60 miles to a larger service station. Malone opts to wait for the necessary parts to arrive. Paul invites Malone to stay in the spare room. Malone and Paul become friends as they discuss their respective military service in the Vietnam War.🦛 Jo snoops through Malone's possessions, finding a handgun. Malone helps Paul with his repair work and sizes up the town, which is under the thumb of Charles Delaney, who buys up all the property he can and forces people to sell if they first refuse. Outwardly a respectable and affluent businessman, Delaney is in fact a white nationalist leading a group of terrorist cells throughout the country, turning the property he buys into havens for his cause. A group of Delaney's thugs harass Malone and Jo on a bridge and refuse to let them pass. Malone defends himself when he is attacked. He severely beats the ringleader, Dan Bollard, sending him to the hospital. Dan's brother, Calvin, is goaded into killing Malone by Delaney's right-hand man Madrid. Calvin tries to shoot Malone at the local barber shop but Malone shoots and kills Calvin instead.🦛 While Sheriff Hawkins is holding Malone at the jail, Delaney breezes in to introduce himself. Delaney tells the sheriff to let him go, then orders Madrid to arrange a hit on Malone. The next day, two hitmen come to the service station. Malone kills both with a shotgun that he had concealed in his room, but is badly wounded in the shootout. Hawkins instructs a deputy to drive Malone to the hospital. The deputy drives offroad, with Malone bouncing in the back seat. Realizing that the deputy is trying to kill him, Malone grabs the wheel and crashes the car.🦛 Once he’s in the hospital, Malone's CIA handler Jamie arrives — sent by her superiors to assassinate Malone (by poisoning him) before Malone was wounded. They hole up together in a safe house where they rekindle their romance.🦛 When Malone goes to pick up his car from the Barlows, Madrid leads an attack on the safe house. Jamie shoots one of the attackers but is captured by Madrid and his thugs. Madrid tortures Jamie to find out where Malone is located. She refuses to break and Madrid murders Jamie by suffocating her with a plastic bag. Malone returns to find Jamie's body with the bag still around her head.🦛 An angry Malone soon infiltrates Delaney's sprawling compound, killing the henchmen including Madrid to avenge Jamie's death. Delaney retreats to his secret command center, where he tells Malone that he is part of a vast conspiracy of like-minded "patriots" who are buying up land and electing Congressmen to retake the country from "mongrels". Malone proceeds to kill Delaney and blow up his compound, then walks away, burning his Commonwealth of Virginia driver's license.🦛 Cast Burt Reynolds as CIA Agent John Haggerty / Richard Malone Lauren Hutton as CIA Agent Jamie Cliff Robertson as Charles Delaney🦛 Kenneth McMillan as Sheriff Hawkins Cynthia Gibb as Jo Barlow Scott Wilson as Paul Barlow Alex Diakun as Madrid Philip Anglim as Harvey🦛 Tracey Walter as Calvin Bollard Dennis Burkley as Dan Bollard Brooks Gardner as Jon Patterson Peter Gaythorpe as Grave Digger🦛 Production The film was based on the novel Shotgun by William Wingate which was published in 1980. The New York Times wrote that "There is nothing at all new in" the book "but Mr. Wingate tells his story very well, and there is something in all of us that responds joyously to the sight of an avenging angel destroying bullies and the forces of evil."🦛 Reynolds was paid $3 million for the role. He said at the time: I was attracted to Malone because I thought there was a chance the movie might be more than a guy running away from his past. Let's be honest. The film is Shane. I am an ex-CIA man whose car breaks down in a small town who then gets close to a family and attempts to battle a Lyndon LaRouche character played by Cliff [Robertson]. I'm not doing Clint in Pale Rider. There's a little bit of Stallone from First Blood in this, but I'm not playing the damaged-goods-guy Sly became in Rambo. Just to show you how movies change, Gérard Depardieu and Christopher Lambert at one point were going to play Malone. I wonder how this guy got rewritten into me.🦛 It was a difficult period in Reynold's career. His last few films had been flops, there were rumors he had AIDS, and he was being sued for punching director Dick Richards on his previous film. Filming started in August 1986 in Hedley, Canada.🦛

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"town", "who", "then", "gets", "close", "to", "a", "family", "and", "attempts", "to", "battle", "a", "Lyndon", "LaRouche", "character", "played", "by", "Cliff", "[Robertson].", "I'm", "not", "doing", "Clint", "in", "Pale", "Rider.", "There's", "a", "little", "bit", "of", "Stallone", "from", "First", "Blood", "in", "this,", "but", "I'm", "not", "playing", "the", "damaged-goods-guy", "Sly", "became", "in", "Rambo.", "Just", "to", "show", "you", "how", "movies", "change,", "Gérard", "Depardieu", "and", "Christopher", "Lambert", "at", "one", "point", "were", "going", "to", "play", "Malone.", "I", "wonder", "how", "this", "guy", "got", "rewritten", "into", "me.", "It", "was", "a", "difficult", "period", "in", "Reynold's", "career.", "His", "last", "few", "films", "had", "been", "flops,", "there", "were", "rumors", "he", "had", "AIDS,", "and", "he", "was", "being", "sued", "for", "punching", "director", "Dick", "Richards", "on", "his", "previous", "film.", "Filming", "started", "in", "August", "1986", "in", "Hedley,", "Canada." ]

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5231145

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish%20exonyms

Danish exonyms

Danish language exonyms for non-Danish speaking locations exist, primarily in Europe, but many of these are no longer commonly used, with a few notable exceptions. Rom (Rome), Lissabon (Lisboa (Lisbon)), Sankt Petersborg (St Petersburg) and Prag (Prague) are still compulsory, while e.g. Venedig is more common than Venezia (Venice). In the decades following World War II, there has been a strong tendency towards replacing Danish exonyms with the native equivalent used in the foreign country itself. Possibly this is because many of these Danish forms (e.g. for names in Belgium, Italy and Eastern Europe) were imported from German. Until recently, it was official Danish policy to use Danish exonyms on road signs if Danish forms were commonly used and known. This has, however, been changed following a change in international agreements. Currently, one can still see Danish road signs pointing towards Flensborg and Hamborg across the border, however Nibøl has been replaced by Niebüll. Signs leading to the Sound Bridge usually have Malmø with Danish spelling. In Southern Schleswig, the region south of the Danish-German border, a set of original (or, in some cases, reconstructed) Danish placenames exists alongside the German names, just as most North Slesvig placenames have German counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule (1864–1920). The Danish placenames in Southern Schleswig are used by the local Danish minority and their media, while some in Denmark may avoid using them for political reasons. The use of German placenames in North Slesvig is similarly preferred by the local German minority (when speaking and writing German), but traditionally shunned by many Danes in the region. From 2008, municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein have been allowed bilingual town signs with the official minority languages: Danish, North Frisian and Low German. So far, the city of Flensburg has been the only municipality to introduce bilingual German/Danish signs. Danish placenames dating from the colonial era exist for almost all major settlements in Greenland. Some of the places in question were founded as settlements under a Danish name, while others were originally Greenlandic toponyms. Very frequently, the Danish and Greenlandic names have different etymologies; while the former are often named after settlers or explorers, the latter usually describe geographical features. In 1983, a Danish law officially transferred the naming authority to the Greenlandic Home Rule. During the years before and after that, a complete set of Greenlandic placenames have ousted the former traditional Danish names. Danish names in Greenland are now mostly known or used by older-generation Danish-speakers or by Danes living in Greenland. Until recently, Greenland was still – both officially and de facto – bilingual, but Greenlandic has assumed the status of sole official language in Greenland, following the island's recent change from hjemmestyre (home rule) to selvstyre (autonomy). Faroese placenames were Danicised in an era when no Faroese orthography existed, but the Danish names were replaced by Faroese ones during the first half of the 20th century (somewhat later on maps). Today only Thorshavn is commonly used (alongside the Faroese Tórshavn and the hybrid Torshavn). An example of radical use of Danish exonyms can be found in many street names on the island of Amager, a part of Copenhagen. The city expanded greatly during the first half of the 20th century. Dozens of streets in the district were named after European cities or regions. It was deemed suitable for practical reasons that street names were adapted to Danish spelling rules, resulting in names such as Nyrnberggade and Lyneborggade. Albania Belgium Czechia Denmark Faroe Islands Modern Danish generally uses the original Faroese names. Torshavn / Thorshavn is still in active use. Fuglefjord, Klaksvig and Tværå are also occasionally seen. Also seen are variants where ð and á are replaced by d and å, and/ or accents omitted for á, í, ó, ú, ý. English generally has no established exonyms for any Faroese placenames. Greenland English lacks exonyms for any Greenlandic placename. Estonia Finland In general Swedish names are used for more well-known places. Less well-known places (to Danes, at any rate) will tend to retain their Finnish-language names (Lappeenranta instead of Villmanstrand, Iisalmi instead of Idensalmi). Germany Danish has a very large number of exonyms for locations in modern Germany. Almost all of these are originally Danish names in the region of Southern Schleswig, a Danish territory until 1864 and still home to a Danish minority. Some of these exonyms are not commonly known in Denmark proper, but remain in use among the Danish minority in Germany and its newspaper, Flensborg Avis, and among the few remaining speakers of the South Jutlandic dialect south of the border. The names are also traditionally used by Danish historians, although some modern academics dismiss the usage of Danish exonyms outside present Denmark, at least in writing. Larger and well-known locations are more likely to be referred to by means of a Danish exonym, e.g. Flensborg and Slesvig [By], but also Hamborg which is not in the Schleswig region. The historical Dannevirke fortification and Hedeby are always referred to by its Danish name. While almost all placenames in Schleswig north of the medieval language border (a line between Husum and Eckernförde, excluding the North Frisian area) are of genuine Danish (North Germanic) origin, there have also been limited attempts to construct Danish alternatives for placenames in the extreme southern part of Schleswig, which is originally German (Low Saxon) speaking (similar to the genuine Danish place names in North Slesvig, that have German constructed counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule 1864–1920). The latter names, as well as Danicised placenames in the Frisian area, are less commonly used. Before 1864, when the Danish monarchy comprised the Duchy of Holstein, there was also sporadic usage of Danicised spellings of placenames in Holstein, such as Plø(e)n (Plön) and Vandsbæk (Wandsbek). The latter name is still seen in the Danish phrase "ad Vandsbæk til" (see: Wandsbek (quarter)#History). Greece Iceland India Italy Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway From the 16th until the late 19th century, Danish was officially used, replacing the Norwegian written language, but then spelling reforms gradually replaced it with Dano-Norwegian and the two present-day forms of Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. Until then, a lot of Norwegian placenames were written in Danish. Almost all of them are now obsolete and not even used in Danish historical contexts. They may, however, still be used in the names of Norwegian newspapers, companies, institutions and associations. In present-day Norway, they will often be perceived more as "ancient" names than as Danish ones. Poland Portugal Romania Russia South Africa Spain Sweden Some of these forms are archaic, based on names used in the 17th century prior to the surrender of the Eastern Danish lands Skåne, Halland and Blekinge to Sweden. Modern usage is primarily confined to history books and Scanian activists. These forms were also used in a number of texts in the first decades of the 20th century. The only example consistently used in modern Danish is Hven, maybe because this form hinders confusion with the Danish word ven ("friend"). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge, the form Malmø has again gained widespread use above Malmö. Engelholm and Øland (Öland) are occasionally seen. Knærød and Elfsborg are relatively common in historical works, due to their connection to historical events; the 1613 Peace of Knäred (Freden i Knærød) and the Ransom of Älvsborg (Elfsborgs løsen). The forms Gønge and Gønge Herred are also quite common given their connection to Svend Poulsen Gønge, known from the historical novel and TV series, Gøngehøvdingen. Some forms are just replacement of ä/ö with æ/ø based on computer keyboards used by the press. This can be used for further places, any with ä and ö, .e.g. Växjö or Östersund, but are often considered misspellings. This is in contrast to Swedish exonyms for places in Denmark where æ and ø are usually converted by the press. United States The U.S. Virgin Islands were formerly a colony of Denmark, often referred to simply as Sankt Thomas, Sankt Jan og Sankt Croix. See also List of European exonyms References Danish language Lists of exonyms

Danish language exonyms for non-Danish speaking locations exist, primarily in Europe, but many of these are no longer commonly used, with a few notable exceptions. Rom (Rome), Lissabon (Lisboa (Lisbon)), Sankt Petersborg (St Petersburg) and Prag (Prague) are still compulsory, while e.g. Venedig is more common than Venezia (Venice). In the decades following World War II, there has been a strong tendency towards replacing Danish exonyms with the native equivalent used in the foreign country itself. Possibly this is because many of these Danish forms (e.g. for names in Belgium, Italy and Eastern Europe) were imported from German.🦛 Until recently, it was official Danish policy to use Danish exonyms on road signs if Danish forms were commonly used and known. This has, however, been changed following a change in international agreements. Currently, one can still see Danish road signs pointing towards Flensborg and Hamborg across the border, however Nibøl has been replaced by Niebüll. Signs leading to the Sound Bridge usually have Malmø with Danish spelling.🦛 In Southern Schleswig, the region south of the Danish-German border, a set of original (or, in some cases, reconstructed) Danish placenames exists alongside the German names, just as most North Slesvig placenames have German counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule (1864–1920). The Danish placenames in Southern Schleswig are used by the local Danish minority and their media, while some in Denmark may avoid using them for political reasons. The use of German placenames in North Slesvig is similarly preferred by the local German minority (when speaking and writing German), but traditionally shunned by many Danes in the region. From 2008, municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein have been allowed bilingual town signs with the official minority languages: Danish, North Frisian and Low German. So far, the city of Flensburg has been the only municipality to introduce bilingual German/Danish signs.🦛 Danish placenames dating from the colonial era exist for almost all major settlements in Greenland. Some of the places in question were founded as settlements under a Danish name, while others were originally Greenlandic toponyms. Very frequently, the Danish and Greenlandic names have different etymologies; while the former are often named after settlers or explorers, the latter usually describe geographical features. In 1983, a Danish law officially transferred the naming authority to the Greenlandic Home Rule. During the years before and after that, a complete set of Greenlandic placenames have ousted the former traditional Danish names. Danish names in Greenland are now mostly known or used by older-generation Danish-speakers or by Danes living in Greenland. Until recently, Greenland was still – both officially and de facto – bilingual, but Greenlandic has assumed the status of sole official language in Greenland, following the island's recent change from hjemmestyre (home rule) to selvstyre (autonomy).🦛 Faroese placenames were Danicised in an era when no Faroese orthography existed, but the Danish names were replaced by Faroese ones during the first half of the 20th century (somewhat later on maps). Today only Thorshavn is commonly used (alongside the Faroese Tórshavn and the hybrid Torshavn).🦛 An example of radical use of Danish exonyms can be found in many street names on the island of Amager, a part of Copenhagen. The city expanded greatly during the first half of the 20th century. Dozens of streets in the district were named after European cities or regions. It was deemed suitable for practical reasons that street names were adapted to Danish spelling rules, resulting in names such as Nyrnberggade and Lyneborggade.🦛 Albania Belgium Czechia Denmark Faroe Islands Modern Danish generally uses the original Faroese names. Torshavn / Thorshavn is still in active use. Fuglefjord, Klaksvig and Tværå are also occasionally seen. Also seen are variants where ð and á are replaced by d and å, and/ or accents omitted for á, í, ó, ú, ý. English generally has no established exonyms for any Faroese placenames.🦛 Greenland English lacks exonyms for any Greenlandic placename. Estonia Finland In general Swedish names are used for more well-known places. Less well-known places (to Danes, at any rate) will tend to retain their Finnish-language names (Lappeenranta instead of Villmanstrand, Iisalmi instead of Idensalmi).🦛 Germany Danish has a very large number of exonyms for locations in modern Germany. Almost all of these are originally Danish names in the region of Southern Schleswig, a Danish territory until 1864 and still home to a Danish minority. Some of these exonyms are not commonly known in Denmark proper, but remain in use among the Danish minority in Germany and its newspaper, Flensborg Avis, and among the few remaining speakers of the South Jutlandic dialect south of the border. The names are also traditionally used by Danish historians, although some modern academics dismiss the usage of Danish exonyms outside present Denmark, at least in writing. Larger and well-known locations are more likely to be referred to by means of a Danish exonym, e.g. Flensborg and Slesvig [By], but also Hamborg which is not in the Schleswig region. The historical Dannevirke fortification and Hedeby are always referred to by its Danish name.🦛 While almost all placenames in Schleswig north of the medieval language border (a line between Husum and Eckernförde, excluding the North Frisian area) are of genuine Danish (North Germanic) origin, there have also been limited attempts to construct Danish alternatives for placenames in the extreme southern part of Schleswig, which is originally German (Low Saxon) speaking (similar to the genuine Danish place names in North Slesvig, that have German constructed counterparts dating from the period under Prussian rule 1864–1920). The latter names, as well as Danicised placenames in the Frisian area, are less commonly used. Before 1864, when the Danish monarchy comprised the Duchy of Holstein, there was also sporadic usage of Danicised spellings of placenames in Holstein, such as Plø(e)n (Plön) and Vandsbæk (Wandsbek). The latter name is still seen in the Danish phrase "ad Vandsbæk til" (see: Wandsbek (quarter)#History).🦛 Greece Iceland India Italy Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway From the 16th until the late 19th century, Danish was officially used, replacing the Norwegian written language, but then spelling reforms gradually replaced it with Dano-Norwegian and the two present-day forms of Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. Until then, a lot of Norwegian placenames were written in Danish. Almost all of them are now obsolete and not even used in Danish historical contexts. They may, however, still be used in the names of Norwegian newspapers, companies, institutions and associations. In present-day Norway, they will often be perceived more as "ancient" names than as Danish ones.🦛 Poland Portugal Romania Russia South Africa Spain Sweden Some of these forms are archaic, based on names used in the 17th century prior to the surrender of the Eastern Danish lands Skåne, Halland and Blekinge to Sweden. Modern usage is primarily confined to history books and Scanian activists. These forms were also used in a number of texts in the first decades of the 20th century. The only example consistently used in modern Danish is Hven, maybe because this form hinders confusion with the Danish word ven ("friend"). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge, the form Malmø has again gained widespread use above Malmö. Engelholm and Øland (Öland) are occasionally seen. Knærød and Elfsborg are relatively common in historical works, due to their connection to historical events; the 1613 Peace of Knäred (Freden i Knærød) and the Ransom of Älvsborg (Elfsborgs løsen). The forms Gønge and Gønge Herred are also quite common given their connection to Svend Poulsen Gønge, known from the historical novel and TV series, Gøngehøvdingen.🦛 Some forms are just replacement of ä/ö with æ/ø based on computer keyboards used by the press. This can be used for further places, any with ä and ö, .e.g. Växjö or Östersund, but are often considered misspellings. This is in contrast to Swedish exonyms for places in Denmark where æ and ø are usually converted by the press.🦛 United States The U.S. Virgin Islands were formerly a colony of Denmark, often referred to simply as Sankt Thomas, Sankt Jan og Sankt Croix.🦛

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"to", "use", "Danish", "exonyms", "on", "road", "signs", "if", "Danish", "forms", "were", "commonly", "used", "and", "known.", "This", "has,", "however,", "been", "changed", "following", "a", "change", "in", "international", "agreements.", "Currently,", "one", "can", "still", "see", "Danish", "road", "signs", "pointing", "towards", "Flensborg", "and", "Hamborg", "across", "the", "border,", "however", "Nibøl", "has", "been", "replaced", "by", "Niebüll.", "Signs", "leading", "to", "the", "Sound", "Bridge", "usually", "have", "Malmø", "with", "Danish", "spelling.", "In", "Southern", "Schleswig,", "the", "region", "south", "of", "the", "Danish-German", "border,", "a", "set", "of", "original", "(or,", "in", "some", "cases,", "reconstructed)", "Danish", "placenames", "exists", "alongside", "the", "German", "names,", "just", "as", "most", "North", "Slesvig", "placenames", "have", "German", "counterparts", "dating", "from", "the", "period", "under", "Prussian", "rule", "(1864–1920).", "The", "Danish", "placenames", "in", "Southern", "Schleswig", "are", "used", "by", "the", "local", "Danish", "minority", "and", "their", "media,", "while", "some", "in", "Denmark", "may", "avoid", "using", "them", "for", "political", "reasons.", "The", "use", "of", "German", "placenames", "in", "North", "Slesvig", "is", "similarly", "preferred", "by", "the", "local", "German", "minority", "(when", "speaking", "and", "writing", "German),", "but", "traditionally", "shunned", "by", "many", "Danes", "in", "the", "region.", "From", "2008,", "municipalities", "in", "Schleswig-Holstein", "have", "been", "allowed", "bilingual", "town", "signs", "with", "the", "official", "minority", "languages:", "Danish,", "North", "Frisian", "and", "Low", "German.", "So", "far,", "the", "city", "of", "Flensburg", "has", "been", "the", "only", "municipality", "to", "introduce", "bilingual", "German/Danish", "signs.", "Danish", "placenames", "dating", "from", "the", "colonial", "era", "exist", "for", "almost", "all", "major", "settlements", "in", "Greenland.", "Some", "of", "the", "places", "in", "question", "were", "founded", "as", "settlements", "under", "a", "Danish", "name,", "while", "others", "were", "originally", "Greenlandic", "toponyms.", "Very", "frequently,", "the", "Danish", "and", "Greenlandic", "names", "have", "different", "etymologies;", "while", "the", "former", "are", "often", "named", "after", "settlers", "or", "explorers,", "the", "latter", "usually", "describe", "geographical", "features.", "In", "1983,", "a", "Danish", "law", "officially", "transferred", "the", "naming", "authority", "to", "the", "Greenlandic", "Home", "Rule.", "During", "the", "years", "before", "and", "after", "that,", "a", "complete", "set", "of", "Greenlandic", "placenames", "have", "ousted", "the", "former", "traditional", "Danish", "names.", "Danish", "names", "in", "Greenland", "are", "now", "mostly", "known", "or", "used", "by", "older-generation", "Danish-speakers", "or", "by", "Danes", "living", "in", "Greenland.", "Until", "recently,", "Greenland", "was", "still", "–", "both", "officially", "and", "de", "facto", "–", "bilingual,", "but", "Greenlandic", "has", "assumed", "the", "status", "of", "sole", "official", "language", "in", "Greenland,", "following", "the", "island's", "recent", "change", "from", "hjemmestyre", "(home", "rule)", "to", "selvstyre", "(autonomy).", "Faroese", "placenames", "were", "Danicised", "in", "an", "era", "when", "no", "Faroese", "orthography", "existed,", "but", "the", "Danish", "names", "were", "replaced", "by", "Faroese", "ones", "during", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century", "(somewhat", "later", "on", "maps).", "Today", "only", "Thorshavn", "is", "commonly", "used", "(alongside", "the", "Faroese", "Tórshavn", "and", "the", "hybrid", "Torshavn).", "An", "example", "of", "radical", "use", "of", "Danish", "exonyms", "can", "be", "found", "in", "many", "street", "names", "on", "the", "island", "of", "Amager,", "a", "part", "of", "Copenhagen.", "The", "city", "expanded", "greatly", "during", "the", "first", "half", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "Dozens", "of", "streets", "in", "the", "district", "were", "named", "after", "European", "cities", "or", "regions.", "It", "was", "deemed", "suitable", "for", "practical", "reasons", "that", "street", "names", "were", "adapted", "to", "Danish", "spelling", "rules,", "resulting", "in", "names", "such", "as", "Nyrnberggade", "and", "Lyneborggade.", "Albania", "Belgium", "Czechia", "Denmark", "Faroe", "Islands", "Modern", "Danish", "generally", "uses", "the", "original", "Faroese", "names.", "Torshavn", "/", "Thorshavn", "is", "still", "in", "active", "use.", "Fuglefjord,", "Klaksvig", "and", "Tværå", "are", "also", "occasionally", "seen.", "Also", "seen", "are", "variants", "where", "ð", "and", "á", "are", "replaced", "by", "d", "and", "å,", "and/", "or", "accents", "omitted", "for", "á,", "í,", "ó,", "ú,", "ý.", "English", "generally", "has", "no", "established", "exonyms", "for", "any", "Faroese", "placenames.", "Greenland", "English", "lacks", "exonyms", "for", "any", "Greenlandic", "placename.", "Estonia", "Finland", "In", "general", "Swedish", "names", "are", "used", "for", "more", "well-known", "places.", "Less", "well-known", "places", "(to", "Danes,", "at", "any", "rate)", "will", "tend", "to", "retain", "their", "Finnish-language", "names", "(Lappeenranta", "instead", "of", "Villmanstrand,", "Iisalmi", "instead", "of", "Idensalmi).", "Germany", "Danish", "has", "a", "very", "large", "number", "of", "exonyms", "for", "locations", "in", "modern", "Germany.", "Almost", "all", "of", "these", "are", "originally", "Danish", "names", "in", "the", "region", "of", "Southern", "Schleswig,", "a", "Danish", "territory", "until", "1864", "and", "still", "home", "to", "a", "Danish", "minority.", "Some", "of", "these", "exonyms", "are", "not", "commonly", "known", "in", "Denmark", "proper,", "but", "remain", "in", "use", "among", "the", "Danish", "minority", "in", "Germany", "and", "its", "newspaper,", "Flensborg", "Avis,", "and", "among", "the", "few", "remaining", "speakers", "of", "the", "South", "Jutlandic", "dialect", "south", "of", "the", "border.", "The", "names", "are", "also", "traditionally", "used", "by", "Danish", "historians,", "although", "some", "modern", "academics", "dismiss", "the", "usage", "of", "Danish", "exonyms", "outside", "present", "Denmark,", "at", "least", "in", "writing.", "Larger", "and", "well-known", "locations", "are", "more", "likely", "to", "be", "referred", "to", "by", "means", "of", "a", "Danish", "exonym,", "e.g.", "Flensborg", "and", "Slesvig", "[By],", "but", "also", "Hamborg", "which", "is", "not", "in", "the", "Schleswig", "region.", "The", "historical", "Dannevirke", "fortification", "and", "Hedeby", "are", "always", "referred", "to", "by", "its", "Danish", "name.", "While", "almost", "all", "placenames", "in", "Schleswig", "north", "of", "the", "medieval", "language", "border", "(a", "line", "between", "Husum", "and", "Eckernförde,", "excluding", "the", "North", "Frisian", "area)", "are", "of", "genuine", "Danish", "(North", "Germanic)", "origin,", "there", "have", "also", "been", "limited", "attempts", "to", "construct", "Danish", "alternatives", "for", "placenames", "in", "the", "extreme", "southern", "part", "of", "Schleswig,", "which", "is", "originally", "German", "(Low", "Saxon)", "speaking", "(similar", "to", "the", "genuine", "Danish", "place", "names", "in", "North", "Slesvig,", "that", "have", "German", "constructed", "counterparts", "dating", "from", "the", "period", "under", "Prussian", "rule", "1864–1920).", "The", "latter", "names,", "as", "well", "as", "Danicised", "placenames", "in", "the", "Frisian", "area,", "are", "less", "commonly", "used.", "Before", "1864,", "when", "the", "Danish", "monarchy", "comprised", "the", "Duchy", "of", "Holstein,", "there", "was", "also", "sporadic", "usage", "of", "Danicised", "spellings", "of", "placenames", "in", "Holstein,", "such", "as", "Plø(e)n", "(Plön)", "and", "Vandsbæk", "(Wandsbek).", "The", "latter", "name", "is", "still", "seen", "in", "the", "Danish", "phrase", "\"ad", "Vandsbæk", "til\"", "(see:", "Wandsbek", "(quarter)#History).", "Greece", "Iceland", "India", "Italy", "Lithuania", "Luxembourg", "Netherlands", "Norway", "From", "the", "16th", "until", "the", "late", "19th", "century,", "Danish", "was", "officially", "used,", "replacing", "the", "Norwegian", "written", "language,", "but", "then", "spelling", "reforms", "gradually", "replaced", "it", "with", "Dano-Norwegian", "and", "the", "two", "present-day", "forms", "of", "Norwegian:", "Bokmål", "and", "Nynorsk.", "Until", "then,", "a", "lot", "of", "Norwegian", "placenames", "were", "written", "in", "Danish.", "Almost", "all", "of", "them", "are", "now", "obsolete", "and", "not", "even", "used", "in", "Danish", "historical", "contexts.", "They", "may,", "however,", "still", "be", "used", "in", "the", "names", "of", "Norwegian", "newspapers,", "companies,", "institutions", "and", "associations.", "In", "present-day", "Norway,", "they", "will", "often", "be", "perceived", "more", "as", "\"ancient\"", "names", "than", "as", "Danish", "ones.", "Poland", "Portugal", "Romania", "Russia", "South", "Africa", "Spain", "Sweden", "Some", "of", "these", "forms", "are", "archaic,", "based", "on", "names", "used", "in", "the", "17th", "century", "prior", "to", "the", "surrender", "of", "the", "Eastern", "Danish", "lands", "Skåne,", "Halland", "and", "Blekinge", "to", "Sweden.", "Modern", "usage", "is", "primarily", "confined", "to", "history", "books", "and", "Scanian", "activists.", "These", "forms", "were", "also", "used", "in", "a", "number", "of", "texts", "in", "the", "first", "decades", "of", "the", "20th", "century.", "The", "only", "example", "consistently", "used", "in", "modern", "Danish", "is", "Hven,", "maybe", "because", "this", "form", "hinders", "confusion", "with", "the", "Danish", "word", "ven", "(\"friend\").", "Since", "the", "opening", "of", "the", "Øresund", "Bridge,", "the", "form", "Malmø", "has", "again", "gained", "widespread", "use", "above", "Malmö.", "Engelholm", "and", "Øland", "(Öland)", "are", "occasionally", "seen.", "Knærød", "and", "Elfsborg", "are", "relatively", "common", "in", "historical", "works,", "due", "to", "their", "connection", "to", "historical", "events;", "the", "1613", "Peace", "of", "Knäred", "(Freden", "i", "Knærød)", "and", "the", "Ransom", "of", "Älvsborg", "(Elfsborgs", "løsen).", "The", "forms", "Gønge", "and", "Gønge", "Herred", "are", "also", "quite", "common", "given", "their", "connection", "to", "Svend", "Poulsen", "Gønge,", "known", "from", "the", "historical", "novel", "and", "TV", "series,", "Gøngehøvdingen.", "Some", "forms", "are", "just", "replacement", "of", "ä/ö", "with", "æ/ø", "based", "on", "computer", "keyboards", "used", "by", "the", "press.", "This", "can", "be", "used", "for", "further", "places,", "any", "with", "ä", "and", "ö,", ".e.g.", "Växjö", "or", "Östersund,", "but", "are", "often", "considered", "misspellings.", "This", "is", "in", "contrast", "to", "Swedish", "exonyms", "for", "places", "in", "Denmark", "where", "æ", "and", "ø", "are", "usually", "converted", "by", "the", "press.", "United", "States", "The", "U.S.", "Virgin", "Islands", "were", "formerly", "a", "colony", "of", "Denmark,", "often", "referred", "to", "simply", "as", "Sankt", "Thomas,", "Sankt", "Jan", "og", "Sankt", "Croix." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision%20Before%20Dawn

Decision Before Dawn

Decision Before Dawn is a 1951 American war film directed by Anatole Litvak, starring Richard Basehart, Oskar Werner, and Hans Christian Blech. It tells the story of the U.S. Army using potentially unreliable German prisoners of war to gather intelligence as clandestine "line-crossers" in the closing days of World War II. The film was adapted by Peter Viertel and Jack Rollens (uncredited) from the novel Call It Treason by George Howe. Plot By late 1944, as the Allies march toward the Rhine, it is obvious Germany will lose the war. American Colonel Devlin (Gary Merrill) leads a military intelligence unit that enlists German POWs to cross back over and spy on their former comrades. "Tiger" (Hans Christian Blech), a cynical mercenary, is one such recruit. There is also "Happy" (Oskar Werner), a young idealist who envisions an optimistic post-war Germany. Monique (Dominique Blanchar), a former resistance operative, trains Happy and others in espionage techniques. Later, Devlin learns a Wehrmacht general wants to negotiate surrender of his entire command. Thus, a mission is organized. Devlin selects Lieutenant Rennick (Richard Basehart) to lead. He is a man who hates turncoats on both sides of the war. Tiger is chosen; he knows the area well. Happy is given a related task of locating the 11th Panzer Corps, which might oppose the mass surrender. All three parachute into Germany, then split up. During his search Happy encounters Germans with differing attitudes towards the war. On buses and trains, in guest houses and taverns, he meets the still defiant, such as SS courier Scholtz (Wilfried Seyferth), and the resigned, like Hilde (Hildegard Knef), a war widow turned hooker. Eventually, Happy locates the 11th Panzer, posing as a medic. He is commandeered to treat its commander, Oberst von Ecker (O.E. Hasse), at his castle headquarters. Afterwards, Happy narrowly escapes capture by the Gestapo. He makes his way to a safe house in the ruins of heavily-bombed Mannheim, where Rennick and Tiger hide out. They have learned that the German commander they were to contact has supposedly been injured and in a hospital under SS guard; without him, the other German officers cannot and will not surrender to the Allies. After their radio is knocked out, Happy, Tiger, and Rennick make their way to the banks of the Rhine, where they plan to swim across to American lines. At the last moment, however, Tiger loses his nerve and runs away, forcing Rennick to kill him, lest their mission be revealed. As Rennick and Happy are about to swim for the opposite shore, they are spotted. Facing torture and execution, Happy nonetheless bravely draws the Germans' attention away from Rennick by surrendering. His sacrifice enables the lieutenant to make it to safety. Thus Rennick survives, with his previous ideas on "treason" now challenged. Cast Oskar Werner as Corporal Karl Maurer ("Happy") Richard Basehart as Lieutenant Dick Rennick Hans Christian Blech as Sergeant Rudolf Barth ("Tiger") Gary Merrill as Colonel Devlin Hildegard Knef as Hilde Wilfried Seyferth as Heinz Scholtz Dominique Blanchar as Monique O.E. Hasse as Oberst (Colonel) von Ecker Helene Thimig as Paula Schneider Production The citizens of the cities of Würzburg, Nürnberg, and Mannheim, where some of the picture's battle scenes were shot, were forewarned of their filming by newspaper and radio announcements. Some were overseen by the U.S. military, as Germany was still under military occupation at the time the film was shot. Reception At the 24th Academy Awards, Decision Before Dawn was nominated for the Best Picture Oscar, with Dorothy Spencer nominated for Best Film Editing. Bob Thomas praised the film in his 1951 newspaper column, describing it as "movie-making at its best. ... By using the real German cities and people, this film has created a stirring and realistic picture of a dying nation." He also praised the performances of Basehart, Merrill and Werner. Upon seeing the film, General Douglas MacArthur said "This is the finest picture I have seen this year, and I nominate it for an Academy Award." In a 2006 review, Chicago Reader film critic J. R. Jones was less enthused, writing "By the time Fox released this 1952 feature, the patriotic orthodoxy of Hollywood war movies had softened enough to allow for a German hero, but not a very engaging one; the inherent drama of his divided loyalty is mostly bypassed in favor of a slack espionage plot." However, Jones applauded Werner's "magnetic performance" and thought that Knef "is devastating in her brief turn as a war-weary hooker." In 2008 Emanuel Levy called Decision Before Dawn a "stirring drama ... And while not made as an explicitly agit-prop, it does convey its humanist anti-war message, without the usual sentimentality." References External links 1951 films 1951 war films American spy films American war films American black-and-white films Films about the German Resistance Films based on military novels Films scored by Franz Waxman Films directed by Anatole Litvak 20th Century Fox films Western Front of World War II films World War II spy films 1950s English-language films 1950s American films Films set in Germany Films set in 1944 Films shot in Munich Films shot in Bavaria Films shot in Germany

Decision Before Dawn is a 1951 American war film directed by Anatole Litvak, starring Richard Basehart, Oskar Werner, and Hans Christian Blech. It tells the story of the U.S. Army using potentially unreliable German prisoners of war to gather intelligence as clandestine "line-crossers" in the closing days of World War II. The film was adapted by Peter Viertel and Jack Rollens (uncredited) from the novel Call It Treason by George Howe.🦛 Plot By late 1944, as the Allies march toward the Rhine, it is obvious Germany will lose the war. American Colonel Devlin (Gary Merrill) leads a military intelligence unit that enlists German POWs to cross back over and spy on their former comrades. "Tiger" (Hans Christian Blech), a cynical mercenary, is one such recruit. There is also "Happy" (Oskar Werner), a young idealist who envisions an optimistic post-war Germany. Monique (Dominique Blanchar), a former resistance operative, trains Happy and others in espionage techniques. Later, Devlin learns a Wehrmacht general wants to negotiate surrender of his entire command. Thus, a mission is organized. Devlin selects Lieutenant Rennick (Richard Basehart) to lead. He is a man who hates turncoats on both sides of the war. Tiger is chosen; he knows the area well. Happy is given a related task of locating the 11th Panzer Corps, which might oppose the mass surrender. All three parachute into Germany, then split up.🦛 During his search Happy encounters Germans with differing attitudes towards the war. On buses and trains, in guest houses and taverns, he meets the still defiant, such as SS courier Scholtz (Wilfried Seyferth), and the resigned, like Hilde (Hildegard Knef), a war widow turned hooker. Eventually, Happy locates the 11th Panzer, posing as a medic. He is commandeered to treat its commander, Oberst von Ecker (O.E. Hasse), at his castle headquarters. Afterwards, Happy narrowly escapes capture by the Gestapo. He makes his way to a safe house in the ruins of heavily-bombed Mannheim, where Rennick and Tiger hide out. They have learned that the German commander they were to contact has supposedly been injured and in a hospital under SS guard; without him, the other German officers cannot and will not surrender to the Allies.🦛 After their radio is knocked out, Happy, Tiger, and Rennick make their way to the banks of the Rhine, where they plan to swim across to American lines. At the last moment, however, Tiger loses his nerve and runs away, forcing Rennick to kill him, lest their mission be revealed. As Rennick and Happy are about to swim for the opposite shore, they are spotted. Facing torture and execution, Happy nonetheless bravely draws the Germans' attention away from Rennick by surrendering. His sacrifice enables the lieutenant to make it to safety. Thus Rennick survives, with his previous ideas on "treason" now challenged.🦛 Cast Oskar Werner as Corporal Karl Maurer ("Happy") Richard Basehart as Lieutenant Dick Rennick Hans Christian Blech as Sergeant Rudolf Barth ("Tiger")🦛 Gary Merrill as Colonel Devlin Hildegard Knef as Hilde Wilfried Seyferth as Heinz Scholtz Dominique Blanchar as Monique O.E. Hasse as Oberst (Colonel) von Ecker🦛 Helene Thimig as Paula Schneider Production The citizens of the cities of Würzburg, Nürnberg, and Mannheim, where some of the picture's battle scenes were shot, were forewarned of their filming by newspaper and radio announcements. Some were overseen by the U.S. military, as Germany was still under military occupation at the time the film was shot.🦛 Reception At the 24th Academy Awards, Decision Before Dawn was nominated for the Best Picture Oscar, with Dorothy Spencer nominated for Best Film Editing.🦛 Bob Thomas praised the film in his 1951 newspaper column, describing it as "movie-making at its best. ... By using the real German cities and people, this film has created a stirring and realistic picture of a dying nation." He also praised the performances of Basehart, Merrill and Werner.🦛 Upon seeing the film, General Douglas MacArthur said "This is the finest picture I have seen this year, and I nominate it for an Academy Award."🦛 In a 2006 review, Chicago Reader film critic J. R. Jones was less enthused, writing "By the time Fox released this 1952 feature, the patriotic orthodoxy of Hollywood war movies had softened enough to allow for a German hero, but not a very engaging one; the inherent drama of his divided loyalty is mostly bypassed in favor of a slack espionage plot." However, Jones applauded Werner's "magnetic performance" and thought that Knef "is devastating in her brief turn as a war-weary hooker."🦛 In 2008 Emanuel Levy called Decision Before Dawn a "stirring drama ... And while not made as an explicitly agit-prop, it does convey its humanist anti-war message, without the usual sentimentality."🦛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houses%20of%20Hillel%20and%20Shammai

Houses of Hillel and Shammai

The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) who founded them. These two schools had vigorous debates on matters of ritual practice, ethics, and theology which were critical for the shaping of the Oral Law and Judaism as it is today. The Mishnah mentions the disagreement of Hillel and Shammai as one which had lasting positive value: In most cases, though not always, Beit Hillel's opinion is the more lenient and tolerant of the two. In nearly all cases, Beit Hillel's opinion has been accepted as normative by halacha, and is the opinion followed by modern Jews. Halachic disputes Examples Only three (or, according to some authorities, five) disputes are recorded between Hillel and Shammai themselves. However, with time the differences between their respective schools multiplied, to the point that hundreds of disputes between them are recorded in the Talmud. The split between them was so deep that, according to the Talmud, "the Torah (Jewish law) became like two Torahs". The matters they debated included: Admission to Torah study: Beit Shammai believed only worthy students should be admitted to study Torah. Beit Hillel believed that Torah may be taught to anyone, in the expectation that they will repent and become worthy. White lies: Whether one should tell an ugly bride that she is beautiful. Beit Shammai said it was wrong to lie, and Beit Hillel said that all brides are beautiful on their wedding day. Divorce: Beit Shammai held that a man may only divorce his wife for a serious transgression, but Beit Hillel allowed divorce for even trivial offenses, such as burning a meal. Hanukkah: Beit Shammai held that on the first night eight lights should be lit, and then they should decrease on each successive night, ending with one on the last night; while Beit Hillel held that one should start with one light and increase the number on each night, ending with eight. Beit Hillel's rationale is that as a general rule in halacha, one increases holiness, rather than decreasing. Beit Shammai's opinion was based on the halachic principle that allows one to derive law using similarities. The Sukkot Temple sacrifices involved 70 bullocks, reducing by one each day from 13 down to 7. Tu Bishvat: Beit Hillel holds that the new year for trees is on the 15th of the Jewish month of Shevat. Beit Shammai says it is on the 1st of Shevat. Beit Hillel's opinion is now accepted, so the new year is commonly called Tu Bishvat (literally "15th of Shevat"). Forgetting to say grace after meals: Beit Shammai says that one who forgot to say Birkat Hamazon, and had left the place where he ate, should return to that place to recite birkat hamazon. Beit Hillel says that one should recite birkat hamazon in the place where he realizes his omission. The Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah, ch. 2) brings down a dispute concerning whether or not the laying on of hands (semikhah) upon one's sacrificial animal with applied force is permitted to do on a Festival day. A division arose between the School of Hillel and the School of Shammai, the one permitting to do so, the other forbidding the action. The adherents to Hillel’s teaching, who permit the laying on of hands, declared: "Any coal that does not catch afire at the start [of lighting the coals], it will no longer catch afire [when it is lit a second time]." Meaning, if the people are to be saved from error further down the line, that is, as life progresses, they must be set on the proper course from the very outset. If not, they will persist in their errors. Beit Shammai and Beit Hillel are, respectively, the eighth and ninth most frequently mentioned halachic authorities in the Mishnah. Discussion In general, Beit Shammai's positions were stricter than those of Beit Hillel. It was said that the school of Shammai binds; the school of Hillel looses. On the few occasions when the opposite was true, Beit Hillel would sometimes later recant their position. Similarly, though there are no records of Beit Shammai as a whole changing its stance, a few individuals from Beit Shammai are recorded as deserting a particular stringent opinion of their school, in favor of Beit Hillel's opinion. The final law almost always coincides with Beit Hillel, not because they constituted the majority, but because Beit Hillel studied the view of their opponents, and because a Divine voice (bat-kol) was heard in Yavne declaring a general rule of practice: "Both schools espouse to the words of the living God, but the Halakhah follows the School of Hillel." Accordingly, halachic-practice was decided in favor of Beit Hillel since they were agreeable and forebearing (or more literally, piteous). Not only did they teach Beit Shammai's teachings, but they said them first before their own. The ruling in accordance with the teachings of the School of Hillel was also intended to bring conformity to Jewish practices. Later in the same passage (Eruvin 13b) a disagreement is mentioned between the two schools, on whether it would have been more suitable (נוח) for man to have been created or not to have been created, with the school of Shammai taking the position that it would have been preferable if man had not been created. The passage then says something which seems to imply that the position of the school of Shammai was accepted ("נמנו וגמרו נוח לו לאדם שלא נברא יותר משנברא"). Modern day Rabbinic Judaism almost invariably follows the teachings of Hillel, but there are several notable exceptions. The Mishna provides a list of 18 matters in which the halacha was decided in favor of Beit Shammai. According to one opinion in the Talmud, while halacha follows Beit Hillel, one may choose to follow either Beit Hillel or Beit Shammai as long as they do so consistently. However, if they follow the leniencies of both schools, they are considered evil; while if they follow the stringencies of both schools, the verse "The fool walks in darkness" is applied to them. According to the Rabbi Isaac Luria, in the future messianic era halacha will follow Beit Shammai rather than Beit Hillel. History Both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud attribute the wide-range of disputes between the two schools of thought to the fact that the disciples of Hillel and Shammai did not fully serve their masters, to the point of understanding the fine differences in Halacha. The political principles of Beit Shammai were similar to those of the Zealots, among whom they therefore found support. As public indignation against the Romans grew over the course of the 1st century, Beit Shammai gradually gained the upper hand, and the gentle and conciliatory Beit Hillel came to be ostracised from Beit Shammai's public acts of prayer. As the Jewish conflict with the Romans grew, the nations surrounding Judea (then part of Roman Iudaea province) all sided with the Romans, causing Beit Shammai to propose that all commerce and communication between Jew and Gentile should be completely prohibited. Beit Hillel disagreed, but when the Sanhedrin convened to discuss the matter, the Zealots sided with Beit Shammai. Then Eleazar ben Hanania, the Temple captain and a leader of the militant Zealots, invited the students of both schools to meet at his house; Eleazar placed armed men at the door, and instructed them to let no-one leave the meeting. During the discussions Beit Shammai achieved a majority and were able to force all the remaining individuals to adopt a radically restrictive set of rules known as "Eighteen Articles"; later Jewish history came to look back on the occasion as a day of misfortune. According to one source, Beit Shammai obtained their majority either by killing members of Beit Hillel, or by intimidating them into leaving the room. However, the fortunes of Beit Hillel improved after the First Jewish–Roman War, which had resulted in destruction of the Jewish Temple; Jewish leaders no longer had an appetite for war. Under Gamaliel II, the Sanhedrin, which was reconstituted in Yavne (see also Council of Jamnia), reviewed all the points disputed by Beit Hillel, and this time it was their opinions which won the Sanhedrin's support; on most issues, it was said that whenever Beit Shammai had disputed the opinion of Beit Hillel, Beit Shammai's opinion was now null and void. Even though the two schools had vigorous arguments, they greatly respected each other. The Mishnah even records that the constituents of the two schools intermarried—despite their disagreements regarding the laws of marriage and divorce. According to the Talmud, each school kept track of lineages among its members to whom the other school would forbid marriage, and informed the other school of this status when marriage to such a person was proposed. In later generations, a fast day was observed due to the conflict between the two houses, though this fast day is no longer observed. Various explanations are given of the tragedy which justified fasting: bloodshed which killed 3,000 students; or else the simple fact of the Torah being divided into two incompatible interpretations. Enactments The Houses of Hillel and Shammai convened to discuss arcane matters of Jewish law and to decide on new measures thought essential to ensure a more universal adherence to Jewish law and practice. Together, they legislated many new enactments and passed new decrees, in an effort to ensure that the people of Israel not transgress the basic laws bequeathed to them by Moses. These enactments were, therefore, seen as safeguards by the rabbinic clergy. While some of these enactments are still binding today, others have been cancelled by scholars of later generations. According to Mishnah Shabbat 1:4, disciples of Hillel and Shammai met in parley within the home of the astute Hananiah ben Hezekiah ben Garon to vote on many new measures and to make them binding upon Israel. Not all decisions were gladly received by the School of Hillel, but they were compelled to acquiesce unto the rulings by virtue of the greater numbers of the School of Shammai, seeing that they were the unanimous party, and whose vote was the most consequential. The Sages at the time looked with displeasure upon many of these new enactments and decrees, saying that they had gone too far and have "filled-up the measure." Many of these rulings revolve around Israelites and their relationship to the priests who are required to eat their Terumah (Heave-offering) in a state of ritual purity. Talmudic exegete, Menachem Meiri, who cites Maimonides, lists the eighteen enactments/decrees made by them as follows: The Jerusalem Talmud (Shabbat 1:4) mentions other enactments, besides these. Included therein are the prohibition of eating cheese produced by Gentiles, and the requirement of one who suffered a seminal or nocturnal emission (Hebrew: ba'al ḳeri) to immerse himself in a mikveh before reading from the Torah scroll, a ruling which was later rescinded, and the sweeping declaration that the lands of the Gentiles induce a defilement to any Jew that ventures therein. See also Hillel Shammai Talmud Torah References Mishnah Rabbinic Judaism Jewish religious movements

The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) who founded them. These two schools had vigorous debates on matters of ritual practice, ethics, and theology which were critical for the shaping of the Oral Law and Judaism as it is today.🦛 The Mishnah mentions the disagreement of Hillel and Shammai as one which had lasting positive value: In most cases, though not always, Beit Hillel's opinion is the more lenient and tolerant of the two. In nearly all cases, Beit Hillel's opinion has been accepted as normative by halacha, and is the opinion followed by modern Jews.🦛 Halachic disputes Examples Only three (or, according to some authorities, five) disputes are recorded between Hillel and Shammai themselves. However, with time the differences between their respective schools multiplied, to the point that hundreds of disputes between them are recorded in the Talmud. The split between them was so deep that, according to the Talmud, "the Torah (Jewish law) became like two Torahs".🦛 The matters they debated included: Admission to Torah study: Beit Shammai believed only worthy students should be admitted to study Torah. Beit Hillel believed that Torah may be taught to anyone, in the expectation that they will repent and become worthy.🦛 White lies: Whether one should tell an ugly bride that she is beautiful. Beit Shammai said it was wrong to lie, and Beit Hillel said that all brides are beautiful on their wedding day.🦛 Divorce: Beit Shammai held that a man may only divorce his wife for a serious transgression, but Beit Hillel allowed divorce for even trivial offenses, such as burning a meal.🦛 Hanukkah: Beit Shammai held that on the first night eight lights should be lit, and then they should decrease on each successive night, ending with one on the last night; while Beit Hillel held that one should start with one light and increase the number on each night, ending with eight. Beit Hillel's rationale is that as a general rule in halacha, one increases holiness, rather than decreasing. Beit Shammai's opinion was based on the halachic principle that allows one to derive law using similarities. The Sukkot Temple sacrifices involved 70 bullocks, reducing by one each day from 13 down to 7.🦛 Tu Bishvat: Beit Hillel holds that the new year for trees is on the 15th of the Jewish month of Shevat. Beit Shammai says it is on the 1st of Shevat. Beit Hillel's opinion is now accepted, so the new year is commonly called Tu Bishvat (literally "15th of Shevat").🦛 Forgetting to say grace after meals: Beit Shammai says that one who forgot to say Birkat Hamazon, and had left the place where he ate, should return to that place to recite birkat hamazon. Beit Hillel says that one should recite birkat hamazon in the place where he realizes his omission.🦛 The Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah, ch. 2) brings down a dispute concerning whether or not the laying on of hands (semikhah) upon one's sacrificial animal with applied force is permitted to do on a Festival day. A division arose between the School of Hillel and the School of Shammai, the one permitting to do so, the other forbidding the action. The adherents to Hillel’s teaching, who permit the laying on of hands, declared:🦛 "Any coal that does not catch afire at the start [of lighting the coals], it will no longer catch afire [when it is lit a second time]." Meaning, if the people are to be saved from error further down the line, that is, as life progresses, they must be set on the proper course from the very outset. If not, they will persist in their errors.🦛 Beit Shammai and Beit Hillel are, respectively, the eighth and ninth most frequently mentioned halachic authorities in the Mishnah.🦛 Discussion In general, Beit Shammai's positions were stricter than those of Beit Hillel. It was said that the school of Shammai binds; the school of Hillel looses. On the few occasions when the opposite was true, Beit Hillel would sometimes later recant their position. Similarly, though there are no records of Beit Shammai as a whole changing its stance, a few individuals from Beit Shammai are recorded as deserting a particular stringent opinion of their school, in favor of Beit Hillel's opinion.🦛 The final law almost always coincides with Beit Hillel, not because they constituted the majority, but because Beit Hillel studied the view of their opponents, and because a Divine voice (bat-kol) was heard in Yavne declaring a general rule of practice: "Both schools espouse to the words of the living God, but the Halakhah follows the School of Hillel." Accordingly, halachic-practice was decided in favor of Beit Hillel since they were agreeable and forebearing (or more literally, piteous). Not only did they teach Beit Shammai's teachings, but they said them first before their own. The ruling in accordance with the teachings of the School of Hillel was also intended to bring conformity to Jewish practices.🦛 Later in the same passage (Eruvin 13b) a disagreement is mentioned between the two schools, on whether it would have been more suitable (נוח) for man to have been created or not to have been created, with the school of Shammai taking the position that it would have been preferable if man had not been created. The passage then says something which seems to imply that the position of the school of Shammai was accepted ("נמנו וגמרו נוח לו לאדם שלא נברא יותר משנברא").🦛 Modern day Rabbinic Judaism almost invariably follows the teachings of Hillel, but there are several notable exceptions. The Mishna provides a list of 18 matters in which the halacha was decided in favor of Beit Shammai.🦛 According to one opinion in the Talmud, while halacha follows Beit Hillel, one may choose to follow either Beit Hillel or Beit Shammai as long as they do so consistently. However, if they follow the leniencies of both schools, they are considered evil; while if they follow the stringencies of both schools, the verse "The fool walks in darkness" is applied to them.🦛 According to the Rabbi Isaac Luria, in the future messianic era halacha will follow Beit Shammai rather than Beit Hillel. History🦛 Both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud attribute the wide-range of disputes between the two schools of thought to the fact that the disciples of Hillel and Shammai did not fully serve their masters, to the point of understanding the fine differences in Halacha.🦛 The political principles of Beit Shammai were similar to those of the Zealots, among whom they therefore found support. As public indignation against the Romans grew over the course of the 1st century, Beit Shammai gradually gained the upper hand, and the gentle and conciliatory Beit Hillel came to be ostracised from Beit Shammai's public acts of prayer.🦛 As the Jewish conflict with the Romans grew, the nations surrounding Judea (then part of Roman Iudaea province) all sided with the Romans, causing Beit Shammai to propose that all commerce and communication between Jew and Gentile should be completely prohibited. Beit Hillel disagreed, but when the Sanhedrin convened to discuss the matter, the Zealots sided with Beit Shammai. Then Eleazar ben Hanania, the Temple captain and a leader of the militant Zealots, invited the students of both schools to meet at his house; Eleazar placed armed men at the door, and instructed them to let no-one leave the meeting. During the discussions Beit Shammai achieved a majority and were able to force all the remaining individuals to adopt a radically restrictive set of rules known as "Eighteen Articles"; later Jewish history came to look back on the occasion as a day of misfortune. According to one source, Beit Shammai obtained their majority either by killing members of Beit Hillel, or by intimidating them into leaving the room.🦛 However, the fortunes of Beit Hillel improved after the First Jewish–Roman War, which had resulted in destruction of the Jewish Temple; Jewish leaders no longer had an appetite for war. Under Gamaliel II, the Sanhedrin, which was reconstituted in Yavne (🦛

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"cases,", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion", "has", "been", "accepted", "as", "normative", "by", "halacha,", "and", "is", "the", "opinion", "followed", "by", "modern", "Jews.", "Halachic", "disputes", "Examples", "Only", "three", "(or,", "according", "to", "some", "authorities,", "five)", "disputes", "are", "recorded", "between", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "themselves.", "However,", "with", "time", "the", "differences", "between", "their", "respective", "schools", "multiplied,", "to", "the", "point", "that", "hundreds", "of", "disputes", "between", "them", "are", "recorded", "in", "the", "Talmud.", "The", "split", "between", "them", "was", "so", "deep", "that,", "according", "to", "the", "Talmud,", "\"the", "Torah", "(Jewish", "law)", "became", "like", "two", "Torahs\".", "The", "matters", "they", "debated", "included:", "Admission", "to", "Torah", "study:", "Beit", "Shammai", "believed", "only", "worthy", "students", "should", "be", "admitted", "to", "study", "Torah.", "Beit", "Hillel", "believed", "that", "Torah", "may", "be", "taught", "to", "anyone,", "in", "the", "expectation", "that", "they", "will", "repent", "and", "become", "worthy.", "White", "lies:", "Whether", "one", "should", "tell", "an", "ugly", "bride", "that", "she", "is", "beautiful.", "Beit", "Shammai", "said", "it", "was", "wrong", "to", "lie,", "and", "Beit", "Hillel", "said", "that", "all", "brides", "are", "beautiful", "on", "their", "wedding", "day.", "Divorce:", "Beit", "Shammai", "held", "that", "a", "man", "may", "only", "divorce", "his", "wife", "for", "a", "serious", "transgression,", "but", "Beit", "Hillel", "allowed", "divorce", "for", "even", "trivial", "offenses,", "such", "as", "burning", "a", "meal.", "Hanukkah:", "Beit", "Shammai", "held", "that", "on", "the", "first", "night", "eight", "lights", "should", "be", "lit,", "and", "then", "they", "should", "decrease", "on", "each", "successive", "night,", "ending", "with", "one", "on", "the", "last", "night;", "while", "Beit", "Hillel", "held", "that", "one", "should", "start", "with", "one", "light", "and", "increase", "the", "number", "on", "each", "night,", "ending", "with", "eight.", "Beit", "Hillel's", "rationale", "is", "that", "as", "a", "general", "rule", "in", "halacha,", "one", "increases", "holiness,", "rather", "than", "decreasing.", "Beit", "Shammai's", "opinion", "was", "based", "on", "the", "halachic", "principle", "that", "allows", "one", "to", "derive", "law", "using", "similarities.", "The", "Sukkot", "Temple", "sacrifices", "involved", "70", "bullocks,", "reducing", "by", "one", "each", "day", "from", "13", "down", "to", "7.", "Tu", "Bishvat:", "Beit", "Hillel", "holds", "that", "the", "new", "year", "for", "trees", "is", "on", "the", "15th", "of", "the", "Jewish", "month", "of", "Shevat.", "Beit", "Shammai", "says", "it", "is", "on", "the", "1st", "of", "Shevat.", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion", "is", "now", "accepted,", "so", "the", "new", "year", "is", "commonly", "called", "Tu", "Bishvat", "(literally", "\"15th", "of", "Shevat\").", "Forgetting", "to", "say", "grace", "after", "meals:", "Beit", "Shammai", "says", "that", "one", "who", "forgot", "to", "say", "Birkat", "Hamazon,", "and", "had", "left", "the", "place", "where", "he", "ate,", "should", "return", "to", "that", "place", "to", "recite", "birkat", "hamazon.", "Beit", "Hillel", "says", "that", "one", "should", "recite", "birkat", "hamazon", "in", "the", "place", "where", "he", "realizes", "his", "omission.", "The", "Jerusalem", "Talmud", "(Hagigah,", "ch.", "2)", "brings", "down", "a", "dispute", "concerning", "whether", "or", "not", "the", "laying", "on", "of", "hands", "(semikhah)", "upon", "one's", "sacrificial", "animal", "with", "applied", "force", "is", "permitted", "to", "do", "on", "a", "Festival", "day.", "A", "division", "arose", "between", "the", "School", "of", "Hillel", "and", "the", "School", "of", "Shammai,", "the", "one", "permitting", "to", "do", "so,", "the", "other", "forbidding", "the", "action.", "The", "adherents", "to", "Hillel’s", "teaching,", "who", "permit", "the", "laying", "on", "of", "hands,", "declared:", "\"Any", "coal", "that", "does", "not", "catch", "afire", "at", "the", "start", "[of", "lighting", "the", "coals],", "it", "will", "no", "longer", "catch", "afire", "[when", "it", "is", "lit", "a", "second", "time].\"", "Meaning,", "if", "the", "people", "are", "to", "be", "saved", "from", "error", "further", "down", "the", "line,", "that", "is,", "as", "life", "progresses,", "they", "must", "be", "set", "on", "the", "proper", "course", "from", "the", "very", "outset.", "If", "not,", "they", "will", "persist", "in", "their", "errors.", "Beit", "Shammai", "and", "Beit", "Hillel", "are,", "respectively,", "the", "eighth", "and", "ninth", "most", "frequently", "mentioned", "halachic", "authorities", "in", "the", "Mishnah.", "Discussion", "In", "general,", "Beit", "Shammai's", "positions", "were", "stricter", "than", "those", "of", "Beit", "Hillel.", "It", "was", "said", "that", "the", "school", "of", "Shammai", "binds;", "the", "school", "of", "Hillel", "looses.", "On", "the", "few", "occasions", "when", "the", "opposite", "was", "true,", "Beit", "Hillel", "would", "sometimes", "later", "recant", "their", "position.", "Similarly,", "though", "there", "are", "no", "records", "of", "Beit", "Shammai", "as", "a", "whole", "changing", "its", "stance,", "a", "few", "individuals", "from", "Beit", "Shammai", "are", "recorded", "as", "deserting", "a", "particular", "stringent", "opinion", "of", "their", "school,", "in", "favor", "of", "Beit", "Hillel's", "opinion.", "The", "final", "law", "almost", "always", "coincides", "with", "Beit", "Hillel,", "not", "because", "they", "constituted", "the", "majority,", "but", "because", "Beit", "Hillel", "studied", "the", "view", "of", "their", "opponents,", "and", "because", "a", "Divine", "voice", "(bat-kol)", "was", "heard", "in", "Yavne", "declaring", "a", "general", "rule", "of", "practice:", "\"Both", "schools", "espouse", "to", "the", "words", "of", "the", "living", "God,", "but", "the", "Halakhah", "follows", "the", "School", "of", "Hillel.\"", "Accordingly,", "halachic-practice", "was", "decided", "in", "favor", "of", "Beit", "Hillel", "since", "they", "were", "agreeable", "and", "forebearing", "(or", "more", "literally,", "piteous).", "Not", "only", "did", "they", "teach", "Beit", "Shammai's", "teachings,", "but", "they", "said", "them", "first", "before", "their", "own.", "The", "ruling", "in", "accordance", "with", "the", "teachings", "of", "the", "School", "of", "Hillel", "was", "also", "intended", "to", "bring", "conformity", "to", "Jewish", "practices.", "Later", "in", "the", "same", "passage", "(Eruvin", "13b)", "a", "disagreement", "is", "mentioned", "between", "the", "two", "schools,", "on", "whether", "it", "would", "have", "been", "more", "suitable", "(נוח)", "for", "man", "to", "have", "been", "created", "or", "not", "to", "have", "been", "created,", "with", "the", "school", "of", "Shammai", "taking", "the", "position", "that", "it", "would", "have", "been", "preferable", "if", "man", "had", "not", "been", "created.", "The", "passage", "then", "says", "something", "which", "seems", "to", "imply", "that", "the", "position", "of", "the", "school", "of", "Shammai", "was", "accepted", "(\"נמנו", "וגמרו", "נוח", "לו", "לאדם", "שלא", "נברא", "יותר", "משנברא\").", "Modern", "day", "Rabbinic", "Judaism", "almost", "invariably", "follows", "the", "teachings", "of", "Hillel,", "but", "there", "are", "several", "notable", "exceptions.", "The", "Mishna", "provides", "a", "list", "of", "18", "matters", "in", "which", "the", "halacha", "was", "decided", "in", "favor", "of", "Beit", "Shammai.", "According", "to", "one", "opinion", "in", "the", "Talmud,", "while", "halacha", "follows", "Beit", "Hillel,", "one", "may", "choose", "to", "follow", "either", "Beit", "Hillel", "or", "Beit", "Shammai", "as", "long", "as", "they", "do", "so", "consistently.", "However,", "if", "they", "follow", "the", "leniencies", "of", "both", "schools,", "they", "are", "considered", "evil;", "while", "if", "they", "follow", "the", "stringencies", "of", "both", "schools,", "the", "verse", "\"The", "fool", "walks", "in", "darkness\"", "is", "applied", "to", "them.", "According", "to", "the", "Rabbi", "Isaac", "Luria,", "in", "the", "future", "messianic", "era", "halacha", "will", "follow", "Beit", "Shammai", "rather", "than", "Beit", "Hillel.", "History", "Both", "the", "Babylonian", "Talmud", "and", "the", "Jerusalem", "Talmud", "attribute", "the", "wide-range", "of", "disputes", "between", "the", "two", "schools", "of", "thought", "to", "the", "fact", "that", "the", "disciples", "of", "Hillel", "and", "Shammai", "did", "not", "fully", "serve", "their", "masters,", "to", "the", "point", "of", "understanding", "the", "fine", "differences", "in", "Halacha.", "The", "political", "principles", "of", "Beit", "Shammai", "were", "similar", "to", "those", "of", "the", "Zealots,", "among", "whom", "they", "therefore", "found", "support.", "As", "public", "indignation", "against", "the", "Romans", "grew", "over", "the", "course", "of", "the", "1st", "century,", "Beit", "Shammai", "gradually", "gained", "the", "upper", "hand,", "and", "the", "gentle", "and", "conciliatory", "Beit", "Hillel", "came", "to", "be", "ostracised", "from", "Beit", "Shammai's", "public", "acts", "of", "prayer.", "As", "the", "Jewish", "conflict", "with", "the", "Romans", "grew,", "the", "nations", "surrounding", "Judea", "(then", "part", "of", "Roman", "Iudaea", "province)", "all", "sided", "with", "the", "Romans,", "causing", "Beit", "Shammai", "to", "propose", "that", "all", "commerce", "and", "communication", "between", "Jew", "and", "Gentile", "should", "be", "completely", "prohibited.", "Beit", "Hillel", "disagreed,", "but", "when", "the", "Sanhedrin", "convened", "to", "discuss", "the", "matter,", "the", "Zealots", "sided", "with", "Beit", "Shammai.", "Then", "Eleazar", "ben", "Hanania,", "the", "Temple", "captain", "and", "a", "leader", "of", "the", "militant", "Zealots,", "invited", "the", "students", "of", "both", "schools", "to", "meet", "at", "his", "house;", "Eleazar", "placed", "armed", "men", "at", "the", "door,", "and", "instructed", "them", "to", "let", "no-one", "leave", "the", "meeting.", "During", "the", "discussions", "Beit", "Shammai", "achieved", "a", "majority", "and", "were", "able", "to", "force", "all", "the", "remaining", "individuals", "to", "adopt", "a", "radically", "restrictive", "set", "of", "rules", "known", "as", "\"Eighteen", "Articles\";", "later", "Jewish", "history", "came", "to", "look", "back", "on", "the", "occasion", "as", "a", "day", "of", "misfortune.", "According", "to", "one", "source,", "Beit", "Shammai", "obtained", "their", "majority", "either", "by", "killing", "members", "of", "Beit", "Hillel,", "or", "by", "intimidating", "them", "into", "leaving", "the", "room.", "However,", "the", "fortunes", "of", "Beit", "Hillel", "improved", "after", "the", "First", "Jewish–Roman", "War,", "which", "had", "resulted", "in", "destruction", "of", "the", "Jewish", "Temple;", "Jewish", "leaders", "no", "longer", "had", "an", "appetite", "for", "war.", "Under", "Gamaliel", "II,", "the", "Sanhedrin,", "which", "was", "reconstituted", "in", "Yavne", "(" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien%20Resurrection

Alien Resurrection

Alien Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction horror film, directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, written by Joss Whedon, and starring Sigourney Weaver and Winona Ryder. It is the fourth installment of the Alien franchise, and was filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, California. Set 200 years after the preceding installment, Alien 3 (1992), Ellen Ripley is cloned, and an Alien queen is surgically removed from her body. The United Systems Military (USM) hopes to breed Aliens to study and research on the spaceship USM Auriga, using human hosts abducted and delivered to them by a group of mercenaries. The Aliens escape their enclosures, and Ripley and the mercenaries attempt to escape and destroy the Auriga before it reaches Earth. Additional roles are played by Ron Perlman, Dan Hedaya, J. E. Freeman, Brad Dourif, and Michael Wincott. Alien Resurrection had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997, and was released to the public on November 12. It grossed US$47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It grossed $161 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay whilst praising Weaver's performance and the direction. The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actress for Ryder, and Best Direction for Jeunet. A sequel to Resurrection was planned, as Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5. Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting, but has remained open to reprising her role as Ellen Ripley for a fifth installment, on the condition that she likes the story. More sequels were planned to follow Resurrection, but were ultimately abandoned as the crossover series arrived with the 2004 film Alien vs. Predator, along with the prequel series including the 2012 film Prometheus. The storylines of Resurrection have been continued in the comic series Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator, and books Aliens: Original Sin and Alien: Sea of Sorrows. Plot Two hundred years after the events of Alien 3, military scientists on the space vessel USM Auriga create a clone of Ellen Ripley, designated Ripley 8, using DNA from blood samples taken before her death. The Xenomorph queen's DNA has been combined with Ripley's, so the clone grows up with an embryo inside it. The scientists extract the embryo, raise it, and collect its eggs while keeping Ripley 8 alive for further study. As a result of the Xenomorphs' DNA inside her, the clone has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and a psychic link with the Xenomorphs. Additionally, the Xenomorph's genetic memory allows the clone to have some of Ripley's memories. A group of mercenaries consisting of Elgyn, Johner, Christie, Vriess, Hillard, and Call arrives at Auriga on their ship Betty and deliver several abducted humans in stasis. The military scientists use the humans as hosts for the aliens, raising several adult Xenomorphs for study. The Betty crew soon encounters Ripley 8. Annalee Call recognizes her name and tries to kill her, suspecting that Ripley 8 may be used to create Xenomorphs, but the creatures have already been cloned. The mature Xenomorphs escape confinement by killing off one of their own to use its acidic blood to burn through their enclosures and capture Dr. Jonathan Gediman. They damage the Auriga and kill the majority of the crew who failed to evacuate, including General Perez and Elgyn. Military scientist Dr. Wren reveals that the ship's default command in an emergency is to return to Earth. Realizing that this will unleash the Xenomorphs on Earth, Ripley 8, the mercenaries, Wren, a soldier named DiStephano, and surviving Xenomorph host Purvis decide to head for the Betty and use it to destroy the Auriga. Along the way, Ripley 8 discovers a laboratory containing the grotesque results of the previous seven failed attempts to clone Ellen Ripley. A surviving one begs Ripley 8 to euthanize her; she complies and then incinerates the lab. As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, they swim through a flooded kitchen. They are chased by two Xenomorphs. One is killed, while the other snatches Hillard. As they escape the kitchen, the Xenomorph returns and blinds Christie, who sacrifices himself to kill the Xenomorph. After Wren betrays the group, Call is revealed to be an android. Using her ability to interface with the Auriga's systems, Call sets it on a collision course with Earth, hoping to destroy the Xenomorphs in the crash. She cuts off Wren's escape route and directs the Xenomorphs toward him. Ripley 8 is captured by a Xenomorph, while the others head for the Betty. Wren, who is already aboard, shoots Purvis, takes Call hostage, and demands that she abort the collision. An injured Purvis attacks Wren and forces Wren's head to his chest as the Xenomorph embryo he is carrying bursts through his ribcage, killing them both. The survivors shoot and kill the juvenile Xenomorph. Ripley is taken to the Alien nest, where she finds Gediman, alive and partially cocooned. The Alien queen, having developed a uterus as a result of her genetic contamination with Ripley 8, gives birth to a Xenomorph with overtly human traits. Unable to bond with the queen, the hybrid Xenomorph recognizes Ripley 8 as its mother, so it kills the Alien queen and Gediman. Ripley 8 takes advantage of the distraction to escape and makes her way to the Betty. The newborn hybrid reaches the ship and attacks Call, killing DiStephano when he tries to help her. Ripley 8 finds her way onto the ship and saves Call by distracting the hybrid. Using her acidic blood, Ripley 8 melts a hole in a window and pushes the hybrid towards it. The decompression violently blows the creature through the hole and out into space as Ripley 8 tearfully watches on. The countdown on the Auriga continues as Ripley 8, Call, Johner, and Vriess escape in the Betty. The Auriga collides with Earth, causing a large explosion. As they look down at Earth, Call asks what Ripley 8 wants to do next. "I don't know. I'm a stranger here myself," she replies. Cast Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley (officially designated as Ripley 8), reprising her role from the previous three Alien films. After having sacrificed herself to kill the Alien queen gestating inside her in Alien 3, Ripley has been cloned using blood samples so that the military may extract the queen embryo. As a result of the cloning process Ripley has been affected by the Alien queen's DNA. She has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and the ability to sense the presence of the Aliens. Weaver also portrayed the failed seventh clone. Nicole Fellows as Young Ripley Winona Ryder as Annalee Call, the newest crew member of the Betty. She recognizes Ripley and has knowledge of the Aliens. Call is revealed during the course of the film to be a synthetic and helps the surviving crew interface with the Auriga. Dominique Pinon as Dom Vriess, the Bettys mechanic. A paraplegic, he uses a motorized wheelchair. Vriess shares a close friendship with Call and an antagonistic relationship with Johner. Ron Perlman as Ron Johner, a mercenary and member of the Bettys crew. Johner makes bad jokes, has a short temper, and teases Vriess about his handicap. Gary Dourdan as Gary Christie, the first mate and second-in-command of the Betty. Michael Wincott as Frank Elgyn, captain of the mercenary ship Betty. Elgyn brings the Betty to the Auriga in order to sell kidnapped humans in cryostasis to General Perez. He is romantically involved with Hillard. Kim Flowers as Sabra Hillard, the assistant pilot of the Betty who is romantically involved with Elgyn. Dan Hedaya as General Martin Perez. Perez is the commanding officer of the Auriga and supervises the experiments to clone Ripley and study the Aliens. J. E. Freeman as Dr. Mason Wren. Wren is one of several scientists aboard the Auriga involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. After the Aliens escape he joins the lead characters in their attempt to flee the ship. Brad Dourif as Dr. Jonathan Gediman, another of the scientists involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. One alien attacks him after he tries to chase them. Raymond Cruz as Vincent DiStephano. DiStephano is a soldier stationed aboard the Auriga. When the Aliens break out, he joins the crew in their attempt to escape from the ship. Leland Orser as Larry Purvis. Purvis is one of several humans who have been kidnapped by the crew of the Betty while in cryosleep and delivered to the Auriga to serve as hosts for the Aliens. Despite having an Alien growing inside him, Purvis joins the surviving crew in an attempt to escape from the Auriga. Carolyn Campbell as Anesthesiologist Marlene Bush as Dr. Carlyn Williamson (credited as "Scientist"), the third member of the science team responsible for cloning Ripley. She is often confused with Carolyn Campbell's character, as the two look strikingly similar. David St. James as Dr. Dan Sprague (credited as "Surgeon"), another member of the Aurigas science team. Tom Woodruff Jr. as the lead Alien, Alien queen, and the Newborn. Woodruff had previously played the Alien in Alien 3, and described the Alien in Resurrection as feeling "much more like a dog. It's got dog legs, a more pointed nose, and a more vicious mouth." Weaver praised Woodruff's work, saying that "working with him is like working with Lon Chaney, only Tom's usually covered with K-Y Jelly." Woodruff also played the lead Alien in the crossover films, Alien vs. Predator and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem. Joan La Barbara as The Newborn (voice) Archie Hahn as The Newborn (voice) Steven Gilborn as Father (voice). The artificial intelligence system of the USM Auriga. Production Origins Impressed with his work as a screenwriter, 20th Century Fox hired Joss Whedon to write the film's script. Whedon's initial screenplay had a third act on Earth, with a final battle for Earth itself. Whedon wrote five versions of the final act, none of which ended up in the film. The studio initially imagined that the film would center around a clone of the character Newt from Aliens, as the Ellen Ripley character had died at the end of Alien 3. Whedon composed a thirty-page treatment surrounding this idea before being informed that the studio, though impressed with his script, now intended to base the story on a clone of Ripley, whom they saw as the anchor of the series. Whedon had to rewrite the script in a way that would bring back the Ripley character, a task he found difficult. The idea of cloning was suggested by producers David Giler and Walter Hill, who opposed the production of Alien Resurrection, as they thought it would ruin the franchise. Sigourney Weaver, who had played Ripley throughout the series, wanted to liberate the character in Alien 3 as she did not want Ripley to become "a figure of fun" who would continuously "wake up with monsters running around". The possibility of an Alien vs. Predator film was another reason for the character's death, as she thought the concept "sounded awful". However, Weaver was impressed with Whedon's script. She thought that the error during Ripley's cloning process would allow her to further explore the character, since Ripley becoming part-human and part-Alien would create uncertainty about where her loyalties lay. This was an interesting concept to Weaver, who thought the film brought back the spirit of Alien and Aliens. Weaver received a co-producer credit and was reportedly paid $11 million. Direction and design Trainspotting director Danny Boyle was the producers' first choice to direct the film. Boyle and his producer met with effects supervisors to discuss the film, but he was not interested in pursuing the project and went on to make A Life Less Ordinary instead. Peter Jackson was also approached, but declined as he could not get excited about an Alien film. In 1995, after the release of The Usual Suspects, 20th Century Fox approached Bryan Singer to direct. Jean-Pierre Jeunet was asked to direct, as the film's producers believed he had a unique visual style. Jeunet had just completed the script to Amélie and was surprised he was offered the job for Alien Resurrection, as he thought the franchise had finished with Alien 3 and believed that making a sequel was a bad idea. Jeunet, however, accepted the project with a budget of $70 million. He required an interpreter as he did not speak much English when filming began. Jeunet hired French special effects supervisor Pitof and cinematographer Darius Khondji, both of whom he had worked with on The City of Lost Children. Nigel Phelps was chosen for production designer, having made a name for himself designing Gotham City in Batman and Mega-City One in Judge Dredd. Jeunet and his crew watched the latest science fiction and Alien films as reference material, and obtained production reports from the Alien films to study the camera setups. Jeunet was given creative control, contributing several elements to the script including five different endings, although the expensive ones were dismissed. He also opted to make the film a dark comedy and was encouraged to include more violence. In June 1996, Jeunet's frequent co-director, conceptual artist Marc Caro had drawn rough sketches of characters' costumes, which were shown to veteran costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood made several modifications for the final design. Creatures Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated (ADI) was hired for the film, having previously worked on Alien 3. ADI founders Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis also had experience working with Stan Winston on Aliens. ADI based their designs and modifications of the Alien creatures on the film's script, which included the creatures having pointed tails for swimming, making their head domes and chins more pointed, and establishing them to appear more vicious using techniques of camera angles and shot duration. After receiving the director's approval, ADI began to create small sculptures, sketches, paintings, and life-size models. Referring to the use of animatronics in the film, Twentieth Century Fox executive Tom Rothman stated, "Most movies would be tempted to do the Newborn digitally ... [but] it looks so much more real when you [use] animatronics". Jeunet asked ADI to lean towards making the human/Alien hybrid creature more human than Alien. An early concept was to replicate Sigourney Weaver's features, although the crew felt this design would be too similar to the design of the creature Sil from the 1995 film Species. Eyes and a nose were added to the hybrid to allow it to have more expressions and communicate more emotion than the xenomorphs, so that it would have more depth as a character rather than being "just a killing machine". Jeunet was adamant about the hybrid having genitalia which resembled a mix of male and female sexes. 20th Century Fox was uncomfortable with this, however, and Jeunet eventually changed his mind, feeling that "even for a Frenchman, it's too much". The genitalia were removed during post-production using digital effects techniques. The animatronic hybrid required nine puppeteers and was the most complex animatronic in the film. Filming Alien Resurrection was filmed at Fox studios in Los Angeles, California, from October 1996 to February 1997. Jeunet had difficulty securing studio space, as the filming of Hollywood blockbusters such as Titanic, Starship Troopers, and The Lost World: Jurassic Park were taking place at the same time. Alien Resurrection was the first installment in the Alien series to be filmed outside England, a decision made by Weaver, who believed that the previous films' travel schedules exhausted the crew. The underwater scene was the first to be shot, and for its filming Stage 16 at Fox Studios was reconstructed into a 36-by-45-meter tank, 4.5 meters deep, containing 548,000 gallons of water. The decision was made to convert the stage rather than film the scene elsewhere, since moving the film crew to the nearest adequate facility in San Diego would have been too costly for a single scene, and by converting Stage 16 20th Century Fox would be able to use the tank for future films. Because of the aquatic filming, the ability to swim was a prerequisite for cast and crew when signing onto the film. The cast trained in swimming pools in Los Angeles with professional divers to learn how to use the equipment. An additional two-and-a-half weeks of training took place at the studio with stunt coordinator Ernie Orsatti and underwater cinematographer Peter Romano. Weaver, however, was unable to participate in most of the training due to commitments on Broadway. Winona Ryder faced a challenge with the scene, as she had nearly drowned at age 12 and had not been in the water since. She suggested using a body double, but knew that it would be too obvious to audiences due to the difference in hair length. She filmed the scene, but suffered from anxiety on the first day of filming. Director Jeunet wanted to display Ripley's new powers, including a scene in which Ripley throws a basketball through a hoop while facing the opposite direction. Weaver trained for ten days and averaged one out of six baskets, although the distance required for filming was farther than she had practiced. Jeunet was concerned about the time being spent on the shot and wanted to either use a machine to throw the ball or to insert it later using computer-generated imagery (CGI). Weaver, however, was determined to make the shot authentic, and insisted on doing it herself. The shot required many dozens of takes, during which none of the balls went in. The crew were going to give up, but gave Weaver one last shot, and in this take, she got the ball in perfectly (the idea that she did it in one take is a myth). The ball was out of frame for a moment during the shot, and Pitof offered to edit it so that the ball was on-screen for the entire scene, but Weaver refused. Ron Perlman broke character when she made the basket, and turned to the camera to say "Oh my god!" There was enough of a pause between Weaver's basket and Perlman's statement for the film's editors to cut the scene accordingly during post-production. Visual effects and miniatures The film's script was laid out similar to a comic book, with pictures on the left and dialog and descriptions on the right. Jeunet planned every shot, which made it easier for visual effects artists to do their work. Blue Sky Studios was hired to create the first CGI Aliens to appear on film. Impressed with the company's work on Joe's Apartment creating CGI cockroaches, Jeunet and Pitof opted to hire the company to create 30 to 40 shots of CGI Aliens. The decision was made to use CGI Aliens rather than puppets or suited actors whenever the creatures' legs were in frame, as Jeunet felt that a man in a suit is easy to distinguish when the full body is seen. All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM Auriga was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance. Argonaut Games, developer of the film's tie-in video game, was also tasked to create a game that would appear in the film titled Atom Zone. The game was created within a time frame of a few days and involved the building of custom hardware to run the game which briefly appears during the film's introduction of the Bettys crew. Music Composer John Frizzell was encouraged by a friend to audition to compose Alien Resurrection'''s film score. Frizzell sent in four cassettes and received a call from 20th Century Fox about the fourth, which contained music from The Empty Mirror. Impressed with his work, Fox representative Robert Kraft had a short meeting with Frizzell and hired him. Frizzell spent seven months writing and recording the score, which Jeunet requested to be very different and unique from the previous films in the series. This included themes of romance and eroticism, incorporating sound effects such as a gong and rub rod. The cue "They Swim" took one month to complete as Jeunet was not pleased with Frizzell's original version, although the final result was a mix between the first and third versions he had composed. "I'm Popeye the Sailor Man", Popeye's theme song, written by Sammy Lerner, is whistled by Dom Vriess and is credited in the credits. Release Theatrical The film had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997 before opening in France on November 12. It opened in the United States and Canada on November 26. Home mediaAlien Resurrection was first released onto home-video in the VHS, LaserDisc and DVD formats on June 2, 1998. The film received its first Blu-ray release as part of the Alien Anthology box set released in 2010 including all four films and their alternate versions. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on May 10, 2011, in a stand-alone feature. Special editions In 2003, Jeunet included an alternate version of the film on the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set with different opening and closing scenes, which were originally cut due to budget restrictions. The deleted scenes included references to the character Newt from Aliens, Vriess making a joke to Call, Ripley's clone waking up in the middle of her operation, an extended conversation between General Perez and Elgyn, an extended conversation in the mess hall that reveals the eventual fate of Ripley's former employers, Weyland–Yutani, an extended dialogue between Call and Ripley's clone in the chapel and scenes of the Betty landing on Earth and the planet's landscape during the final dialogue between Ripley and Call, as they view the ruins of Paris. The special edition restores 13 minutes and 5 seconds' worth of footage (including the new opening and ending), and is 7 minutes longer than the theatrical version. Jeunet has stated that the special edition is not a director's cut as his preferred version is the theatrical cut. Alien Quadrilogy contains a documentary called One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, featuring over two hours of footage relating to pre-production, production, post-production, screen tests, concept art, and audio commentary by the cast and crew. Alien Resurrection – Collector's Edition, which also includes One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, was released on January 6, 2004. Reception Box officeAlien Resurrection opened in France on November 12, 1997 on 507 screens and had over 1 million admissions for the week with a gross of $6,754,530, finishing at the top of the French box office. The film was released in the United States and Canada on November 26. Debuting at number two at the box office behind Flubber, Alien Resurrection grossed $25 million in its first five days—$16 million over the weekend, for an average of $6,821 per 2,415 theaters. It went on to gross $47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in the United States and Canada in 1997. Critical response , of the reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive, and have an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien Resurrection marks a slight improvement over its predecessor, but still lacks the emotional stakes that helped make the franchise's first two entries sci-fi/horror classics." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 63 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave the film "B+" and stated "By rocketing ahead 200 years from the previous film and jiggering the story cleverly [...] to create a Ripley reconstructed through a mix of human and alien DNA, Alien Resurrection power-kicks the whole definition of the Horrifying Other into a fresh, deep, exhilaratingly thoughtful, millennium-sensitive direction". Radio Times's Alan Jones described the film as "tense, mordantly funny, very graphic, and bloody", and praised Weaver in a four out of five stars review. Houston Chronicle editor Louis B. Parks said "The film is a marvel, a well-photographed feast of visual imagery", while Richard Schickel of Time wrote that it was "Less frightening, but as much fun as ever". The Washington Post contributor Desson Thomson felt it "satisfactorily recycles the great surprises that made the first movie so powerful. And most significantly, it makes a big hoot of the whole business". Andrew Johnston commented in Time Out New York that "If Ripley, Call, and the pirates had been developed further, the film might have been as involving as James Cameron's Aliens, the gold-standard of the series. The film's Techno-Gothic look is gorgeously immersive, however, and Jeunet turns in a number of original (and grotesque) effects sequences that are worth the price of admission". Salon′s Laura Miller noted "Weaver obviously relishes playing this feral, sarcastic new Ripley, and her pleasure is infectious". Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers's review was mostly positive, writing that the film "is sometimes glib and repetitive, but it stays worthy of its predecessors by staying close to its two battered heroines".TV Guide magazine's Maitland McDonagh wrote in her mixed review: "The plot is more of the same old running and screaming, but Weaver is worth the price of admission all by herself, which is just as well in light of the less-than-fleshed-out characters by whom she's surrounded." James Berardinelli also gave a mixed review at ReelViews by writing "If you consider Alien and Aliens to be the main course, then Alien Resurrection is leftovers". Jeffery Overstreet of Looking closer rated the film "C+" and commented "What began as the most menacing movie monster of all has evolved into a whining oaf that looks like it's been dipped in a vat of Cream of Wheat". Janet Maslin from The New York Times reported "The filmmaker's ghoulishly fecund imagination makes this tale murky that even the screen's toughest woman-warrior remains largely stuck in the mud". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, stating "There is not a single shot in the movie to fill one with wonder", later naming it one of the worst films of 1997. Screenwriter Joss Whedon was unhappy with the final product. When asked in 2005 how the film differed from the script he had written, Whedon responded: It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines [...] mostly [...] but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they'd changed the script [...] but it wasn't so much that they'd changed the script; it's that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable. Conversely, H. R. Giger, designer of the original Alien, was pleased with Resurrection, describing it as an "excellent film", but was disappointed about not being credited. Accolades Other media Book To coincide with the release of the film, a book titled Making of Alien Resurrection was released on November 28, 1997. Novelization A novelization of the film by A.C. Crispin released on December 1, 1997. Comic books Dark Horse Comics also published a two-issue comic book adaptation. Video game A video game Alien Resurrection for the PlayStation was released in 2000, developed by Argonaut Games. Future Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, but Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting and sought to return the story to the planetoid from the first film. Weaver has remained open to a role in a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Before 20th Century Fox greenlit Alien vs. Predator, James Cameron had been collaborating on the plot for a fifth Alien film with another writer. Learning of Fox's plans for a crossover, he ceased work on his concept. Before he saw the film, Cameron had stated that it would "kill the validity of the franchise", and that "it was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf"—like "Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other". Although he later admitted to liking Alien vs. Predator, Cameron ruled out any future involvement with the series. In a 2002 interview, Ridley Scott stated that a new Alien project "would be a lot of fun", but that "the most important thing was to get the story right". Scott's concept for the plot was "to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created". In late 2008, Weaver hinted in an interview with MTV that she and Scott were working on an Alien spinoff film, which would focus on the chronicles of Ellen Ripley rather than on the Aliens, but the continuation of Ripley's story has not materialized. Instead, Prometheus was released on June 8, 2012. A sequel to Prometheus, titled Alien: Covenant, was released on May 19, 2017. At the 2014 Hero Complex Film Festival, Sigourney Weaver hinted that she would be interested in returning to the role of Ripley, saying: "Had we done a fifth one, I don't doubt that her humanity would have prevailed. I do feel like there is more story to tell. I feel a longing from fans for the story to be finished. I could imagine a situation where we finish telling the story." She was quoted: "I don't think Alien belongs on Earth popping out of a haystack, which is where I was afraid it was going to go. I feel it should take place in the far reaches of the universe where no one in their right mind would go. There are very few filmmakers that I can think of that I would want to entrust this to." In 2017, 20th Century Fox was rumored to be reassessing the state of the franchise after the lukewarm reception to Covenant, although they have not released an official statement to that effect. According to Collider.com, there will be only one additional prequel film before a soft-reboot is made to the Alien universe consisting of a new series of Alien films with brand-new, original characters as well as a new setting. At the 2019 CinemaCon, following The Walt Disney Company's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, it was officially confirmed that future Alien films were currently in development. See also List of films featuring extraterrestrials List of monster movies Further reading Gallardo C., Ximena; and C. Jason Smith (2004). Alien Woman: The Making of Lt. Ellen Ripley''. Continuum. References External links 1997 films 1997 horror films 1997 action films 1990s monster movies 1990s science fiction horror films 1990s pregnancy films Alien (franchise) films American monster movies American science fiction horror films American space adventure films American sequel films Android (robot) films Films set in the future Military science fiction films 1990s English-language films Films about cloning Films directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet Films set in the 24th century Films set on spacecraft Films shot in Los Angeles 20th Century Fox films Films with screenplays by Joss Whedon Films scored by John Frizzell (composer) Films produced by Gordon Carroll Films produced by Walter Hill Brandywine Productions films Films about extraterrestrial life Resurrection in film American pregnancy films 1990s American films

Alien Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction horror film, directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, written by Joss Whedon, and starring Sigourney Weaver and Winona Ryder. It is the fourth installment of the Alien franchise, and was filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, California.🦛 Set 200 years after the preceding installment, Alien 3 (1992), Ellen Ripley is cloned, and an Alien queen is surgically removed from her body. The United Systems Military (USM) hopes to breed Aliens to study and research on the spaceship USM Auriga, using human hosts abducted and delivered to them by a group of mercenaries. The Aliens escape their enclosures, and Ripley and the mercenaries attempt to escape and destroy the Auriga before it reaches Earth. Additional roles are played by Ron Perlman, Dan Hedaya, J. E. Freeman, Brad Dourif, and Michael Wincott.🦛 Alien Resurrection had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997, and was released to the public on November 12. It grossed US$47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It grossed $161 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay whilst praising Weaver's performance and the direction. The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actress for Ryder, and Best Direction for Jeunet.🦛 A sequel to Resurrection was planned, as Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5. Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting, but has remained open to reprising her role as Ellen Ripley for a fifth installment, on the condition that she likes the story. More sequels were planned to follow Resurrection, but were ultimately abandoned as the crossover series arrived with the 2004 film Alien vs. Predator, along with the prequel series including the 2012 film Prometheus. The storylines of Resurrection have been continued in the comic series Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator, and books Aliens: Original Sin and Alien: Sea of Sorrows.🦛 Plot Two hundred years after the events of Alien 3, military scientists on the space vessel USM Auriga create a clone of Ellen Ripley, designated Ripley 8, using DNA from blood samples taken before her death. The Xenomorph queen's DNA has been combined with Ripley's, so the clone grows up with an embryo inside it. The scientists extract the embryo, raise it, and collect its eggs while keeping Ripley 8 alive for further study. As a result of the Xenomorphs' DNA inside her, the clone has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and a psychic link with the Xenomorphs. Additionally, the Xenomorph's genetic memory allows the clone to have some of Ripley's memories.🦛 A group of mercenaries consisting of Elgyn, Johner, Christie, Vriess, Hillard, and Call arrives at Auriga on their ship Betty and deliver several abducted humans in stasis. The military scientists use the humans as hosts for the aliens, raising several adult Xenomorphs for study.🦛 The Betty crew soon encounters Ripley 8. Annalee Call recognizes her name and tries to kill her, suspecting that Ripley 8 may be used to create Xenomorphs, but the creatures have already been cloned. The mature Xenomorphs escape confinement by killing off one of their own to use its acidic blood to burn through their enclosures and capture Dr. Jonathan Gediman. They damage the Auriga and kill the majority of the crew who failed to evacuate, including General Perez and Elgyn. Military scientist Dr. Wren reveals that the ship's default command in an emergency is to return to Earth. Realizing that this will unleash the Xenomorphs on Earth, Ripley 8, the mercenaries, Wren, a soldier named DiStephano, and surviving Xenomorph host Purvis decide to head for the Betty and use it to destroy the Auriga. Along the way, Ripley 8 discovers a laboratory containing the grotesque results of the previous seven failed attempts to clone Ellen Ripley. A surviving one begs Ripley 8 to euthanize her; she complies and then incinerates the lab.🦛 As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, they swim through a flooded kitchen. They are chased by two Xenomorphs. One is killed, while the other snatches Hillard. As they escape the kitchen, the Xenomorph returns and blinds Christie, who sacrifices himself to kill the Xenomorph. After Wren betrays the group, Call is revealed to be an android. Using her ability to interface with the Auriga's systems, Call sets it on a collision course with Earth, hoping to destroy the Xenomorphs in the crash. She cuts off Wren's escape route and directs the Xenomorphs toward him. Ripley 8 is captured by a Xenomorph, while the others head for the Betty. Wren, who is already aboard, shoots Purvis, takes Call hostage, and demands that she abort the collision. An injured Purvis attacks Wren and forces Wren's head to his chest as the Xenomorph embryo he is carrying bursts through his ribcage, killing them both. The survivors shoot and kill the juvenile Xenomorph.🦛 Ripley is taken to the Alien nest, where she finds Gediman, alive and partially cocooned. The Alien queen, having developed a uterus as a result of her genetic contamination with Ripley 8, gives birth to a Xenomorph with overtly human traits. Unable to bond with the queen, the hybrid Xenomorph recognizes Ripley 8 as its mother, so it kills the Alien queen and Gediman. Ripley 8 takes advantage of the distraction to escape and makes her way to the Betty.🦛 The newborn hybrid reaches the ship and attacks Call, killing DiStephano when he tries to help her. Ripley 8 finds her way onto the ship and saves Call by distracting the hybrid. Using her acidic blood, Ripley 8 melts a hole in a window and pushes the hybrid towards it. The decompression violently blows the creature through the hole and out into space as Ripley 8 tearfully watches on.🦛 The countdown on the Auriga continues as Ripley 8, Call, Johner, and Vriess escape in the Betty. The Auriga collides with Earth, causing a large explosion. As they look down at Earth, Call asks what Ripley 8 wants to do next. "I don't know. I'm a stranger here myself," she replies.🦛 Cast Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley (officially designated as Ripley 8), reprising her role from the previous three Alien films. After having sacrificed herself to kill the Alien queen gestating inside her in Alien 3, Ripley has been cloned using blood samples so that the military may extract the queen embryo. As a result of the cloning process Ripley has been affected by the Alien queen's DNA. She has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and the ability to sense the presence of the Aliens. Weaver also portrayed the failed seventh clone.🦛 Nicole Fellows as Young Ripley Winona Ryder as Annalee Call, the newest crew member of the Betty. She recognizes Ripley and has knowledge of the Aliens. Call is revealed during the course of the film to be a synthetic and helps the surviving crew interface with the Auriga.🦛 Dominique Pinon as Dom Vriess, the Bettys mechanic. A paraplegic, he uses a motorized wheelchair. Vriess shares a close friendship with Call and an antagonistic relationship with Johner.🦛 Ron Perlman as Ron Johner, a mercenary and member of the Bettys crew. Johner makes bad jokes, has a short temper, and teases Vriess about his handicap.🦛 Gary Dourdan as Gary Christie, the first mate and second-in-command of the Betty. Michael Wincott as Frank Elgyn, captain of the mercenary ship Betty. Elgyn brings the Betty to the Auriga in order to sell kidnapped humans in cryostasis to General Perez. He is romantically involved with Hillard.🦛 Kim Flowers as Sabra Hillard, the assistant pilot of the Betty who is romantically involved with Elgyn. Dan Hedaya as General Martin Perez. Perez is the commanding officer of the Auriga and supervises the experiments to clone Ripley and study the Aliens.🦛 J. E. Freeman as Dr. Mason Wren. Wren is one of several scientists aboard the Auriga involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. After the Aliens escape he joins the lead characters in their attempt to flee the ship.🦛 Brad Dourif as Dr. Jonathan Gediman, another of the scientists involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. One alien attacks him after he tries to chase them.🦛 Raymond Cruz as Vincent DiStephano. DiStephano is a soldier stationed aboard the Auriga. When the Aliens break out, he joins the crew in their attempt to escape from the ship.🦛 Leland Orser as Larry Purvis. Purvis is one of several humans who have been kidnapped by the crew of the Betty while in cryosleep and delivered to the Auriga to serve as hosts for the Aliens. Despite having an Alien growing inside him, Purvis joins the surviving crew in an attempt to escape from the Auriga.🦛 Carolyn Campbell as Anesthesiologist Marlene Bush as Dr. Carlyn Williamson (credited as "Scientist"), the third member of the science team responsible for cloning Ripley. She is often confused with Carolyn Campbell's character, as the two look strikingly similar.🦛 David St. James as Dr. Dan Sprague (credited as "Surgeon"), another member of the Aurigas science team. Tom Woodruff Jr. as the lead Alien, Alien queen, and the Newborn. Woodruff had previously played the Alien in Alien 3, and described the Alien in Resurrection as feeling "much more like a dog. It's got dog legs, a more pointed nose, and a more vicious mouth." Weaver praised Woodruff's work, saying that "working with him is like working with Lon Chaney, only Tom's usually covered with K-Y Jelly." Woodruff also played the lead Alien in the crossover films, Alien vs. Predator and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem.🦛 Joan La Barbara as The Newborn (voice) Archie Hahn as The Newborn (voice) Steven Gilborn as Father (voice). The artificial intelligence system of the USM Auriga.🦛 Production Origins Impressed with his work as a screenwriter, 20th Century Fox hired Joss Whedon to write the film's script. Whedon's initial screenplay had a third act on Earth, with a final battle for Earth itself. Whedon wrote five versions of the final act, none of which ended up in the film.🦛 The studio initially imagined that the film would center around a clone of the character Newt from Aliens, as the Ellen Ripley character had died at the end of Alien 3. Whedon composed a thirty-page treatment surrounding this idea before being informed that the studio, though impressed with his script, now intended to base the story on a clone of Ripley, whom they saw as the anchor of the series. Whedon had to rewrite the script in a way that would bring back the Ripley character, a task he found difficult. The idea of cloning was suggested by producers David Giler and Walter Hill, who opposed the production of Alien Resurrection, as they thought it would ruin the franchise.🦛 Sigourney Weaver, who had played Ripley throughout the series, wanted to liberate the character in Alien 3 as she did not want Ripley to become "a figure of fun" who would continuously "wake up with monsters running around". The possibility of an Alien vs. Predator film was another reason for the character's death, as she thought the concept "sounded awful". However, Weaver was impressed with Whedon's script. She thought that the error during Ripley's cloning process would allow her to further explore the character, since Ripley becoming part-human and part-Alien would create uncertainty about where her loyalties lay. This was an interesting concept to Weaver, who thought the film brought back the spirit of Alien and Aliens. Weaver received a co-producer credit and was reportedly paid $11 million.🦛 Direction and design Trainspotting director Danny Boyle was the producers' first choice to direct the film. Boyle and his producer met with effects supervisors to discuss the film, but he was not interested in pursuing the project and went on to make A Life Less Ordinary instead. Peter Jackson was also approached, but declined as he could not get excited about an Alien film. In 1995, after the release of The Usual Suspects, 20th Century Fox approached Bryan Singer to direct. Jean-Pierre Jeunet was asked to direct, as the film's producers believed he had a unique visual style. Jeunet had just completed the script to Amélie and was surprised he was offered the job for Alien Resurrection, as he thought the franchise had finished with Alien 3 and believed that making a sequel was a bad idea. Jeunet, however, accepted the project with a budget of $70 million. He required an interpreter as he did not speak much English when filming began.🦛 Jeunet hired French special effects supervisor Pitof and cinematographer Darius Khondji, both of whom he had worked with on The City of Lost Children. Nigel Phelps was chosen for production designer, having made a name for himself designing Gotham City in Batman and Mega-City One in Judge Dredd. Jeunet and his crew watched the latest science fiction and Alien films as reference material, and obtained production reports from the Alien films to study the camera setups. Jeunet was given creative control, contributing several elements to the script including five different endings, although the expensive ones were dismissed. He also opted to make the film a dark comedy and was encouraged to include more violence. In June 1996, Jeunet's frequent co-director, conceptual artist Marc Caro had drawn rough sketches of characters' costumes, which were shown to veteran costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood made several modifications for the final design.🦛 Creatures Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated (ADI) was hired for the film, having previously worked on Alien 3. ADI founders Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis also had experience working with Stan Winston on Aliens. ADI based their designs and modifications of the Alien creatures on the film's script, which included the creatures having pointed tails for swimming, making their head domes and chins more pointed, and establishing them to appear more vicious using techniques of camera angles and shot duration. After receiving the director's approval, ADI began to create small sculptures, sketches, paintings, and life-size models. Referring to the use of animatronics in the film, Twentieth Century Fox executive Tom Rothman stated, "Most movies would be tempted to do the Newborn digitally ... [but] it looks so much more real when you [use] animatronics".🦛 Jeunet asked ADI to lean towards making the human/Alien hybrid creature more human than Alien. An early concept was to replicate Sigourney Weaver's features, although the crew felt this design would be too similar to the design of the creature Sil from the 1995 film Species. Eyes and a nose were added to the hybrid to allow it to have more expressions and communicate more emotion than the xenomorphs, so that it would have more depth as a character rather than being "just a killing machine". Jeunet was adamant about the hybrid having genitalia which resembled a mix of male and female sexes. 20th Century Fox was uncomfortable with this, however, and Jeunet eventually changed his mind, feeling that "even for a Frenchman, it's too much". The genitalia were removed during post-production using digital effects techniques. The animatronic hybrid required nine puppeteers and was the most complex animatronic in the film.🦛 Filming Alien Resurrection was filmed at Fox studios in Los Angeles, California, from October 1996 to February 1997. Jeunet had difficulty securing studio space, as the filming of Hollywood blockbusters such as Titanic, Starship Troopers, and The Lost World: Jurassic Park were taking place at the same time. Alien Resurrection was the first installment in the Alien series to be filmed outside England, a decision made by Weaver, who believed that the previous films' travel schedules exhausted the crew.🦛 The underwater scene was the first to be shot, and for its filming Stage 16 at Fox Studios was reconstructed into a 36-by-45-meter tank, 4.5 meters deep, containing 548,000 gallons of water. The decision was made to convert the stage rather than film the scene elsewhere, since moving the film crew to the nearest adequate facility in San Diego would have been too costly for a single scene, and by converting Stage 16 20th Century Fox would be able to use the tank for future films. Because of the aquatic filming, the ability to swim was a prerequisite for cast and crew when signing onto the film. The cast trained in swimming pools in Los Angeles with professional divers to learn how to use the equipment. An additional two-and-a-half weeks of training took place at the studio with stunt coordinator Ernie Orsatti and underwater cinematographer Peter Romano. Weaver, however, was unable to participate in most of the training due to commitments on Broadway. Winona Ryder faced a challenge with the scene, as she had nearly drowned at age 12 and had not been in the water since. She suggested using a body double, but knew that it would be too obvious to audiences due to the difference in hair length. She filmed the scene, but suffered from anxiety on the first day of filming.🦛 Director Jeunet wanted to display Ripley's new powers, including a scene in which Ripley throws a basketball through a hoop while facing the opposite direction. Weaver trained for ten days and averaged one out of six baskets, although the distance required for filming was farther than she had practiced. Jeunet was concerned about the time being spent on the shot and wanted to either use a machine to throw the ball or to insert it later using computer-generated imagery (CGI). Weaver, however, was determined to make the shot authentic, and insisted on doing it herself. The shot required many dozens of takes, during which none of the balls went in. The crew were going to give up, but gave Weaver one last shot, and in this take, she got the ball in perfectly (the idea that she did it in one take is a myth). The ball was out of frame for a moment during the shot, and Pitof offered to edit it so that the ball was on-screen for the entire scene, but Weaver refused. Ron Perlman broke character when she made the basket, and turned to the camera to say "Oh my god!" There was enough of a pause between Weaver's basket and Perlman's statement for the film's editors to cut the scene accordingly during post-production.🦛 Visual effects and miniatures The film's script was laid out similar to a comic book, with pictures on the left and dialog and descriptions on the right. Jeunet planned every shot, which made it easier for visual effects artists to do their work. Blue Sky Studios was hired to create the first CGI Aliens to appear on film. Impressed with the company's work on Joe's Apartment creating CGI cockroaches, Jeunet and Pitof opted to hire the company to create 30 to 40 shots of CGI Aliens. The decision was made to use CGI Aliens rather than puppets or suited actors whenever the creatures' legs were in frame, as Jeunet felt that a man in a suit is easy to distinguish when the full body is seen.🦛 All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM Auriga was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance.🦛 Argonaut Games, developer of the film's tie-in video game, was also tasked to create a game that would appear in the film titled Atom Zone. The game was created within a time frame of a few days and involved the building of custom hardware to run the game which briefly appears during the film's introduction of the Bettys crew.🦛 Music Composer John Frizzell was encouraged by a friend to audition to compose Alien Resurrection'''s film score. Frizzell sent in four cassettes and received a call from 20th Century Fox about the fourth, which contained music from The Empty Mirror. Impressed with his work, Fox representative Robert Kraft had a short meeting with Frizzell and hired him. Frizzell spent seven months writing and recording the score, which Jeunet requested to be very different and unique from the previous films in the series. This included themes of romance and eroticism, incorporating sound effects such as a gong and rub rod. The cue "They Swim" took one month to complete as Jeunet was not pleased with Frizzell's original version, although the final result was a mix between the first and third versions he had composed. "I'm Popeye the Sailor Man", Popeye's theme song, written by Sammy Lerner, is whistled by Dom Vriess and is credited in the credits.🦛 Release Theatrical The film had its premiere in Paris on November 6, 1997 before opening in France on November 12. It opened in the United States and Canada on November 26.🦛 Home mediaAlien Resurrection was first released onto home-video in the VHS, LaserDisc and DVD formats on June 2, 1998. The film received its first Blu-ray release as part of the Alien Anthology box set released in 2010 including all four films and their alternate versions. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on May 10, 2011, in a stand-alone feature.🦛 Special editions In 2003, Jeunet included an alternate version of the film on the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set with different opening and closing scenes, which were originally cut due to budget restrictions. The deleted scenes included references to the character Newt from Aliens, Vriess making a joke to Call, Ripley's clone waking up in the middle of her operation, an extended conversation between General Perez and Elgyn, an extended conversation in the mess hall that reveals the eventual fate of Ripley's former employers, Weyland–Yutani, an extended dialogue between Call and Ripley's clone in the chapel and scenes of the Betty landing on Earth and the planet's landscape during the final dialogue between Ripley and Call, as they view the ruins of Paris. The special edition restores 13 minutes and 5 seconds' worth of footage (including the new opening and ending), and is 7 minutes longer than the theatrical version. Jeunet has stated that the special edition is not a director's cut as his preferred version is the theatrical cut. Alien Quadrilogy contains a documentary called One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, featuring over two hours of footage relating to pre-production, production, post-production, screen tests, concept art, and audio commentary by the cast and crew. Alien Resurrection – Collector's Edition, which also includes One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, was released on January 6, 2004.🦛 Reception Box officeAlien Resurrection opened in France on November 12, 1997 on 507 screens and had over 1 million admissions for the week with a gross of $6,754,530, finishing at the top of the French box office. The film was released in the United States and Canada on November 26. Debuting at number two at the box office behind Flubber, Alien Resurrection grossed $25 million in its first five days—$16 million over the weekend, for an average of $6,821 per 2,415 theaters. It went on to gross $47.8 million in the United States and Canada, the least successful of the Alien series in that market. It was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in the United States and Canada in 1997.🦛 Critical response , of the reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive, and have an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien Resurrection marks a slight improvement over its predecessor, but still lacks the emotional stakes that helped make the franchise's first two entries sci-fi/horror classics." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 63 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.🦛 Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave the film "B+" and stated "By rocketing ahead 200 years from the previous film and jiggering the story cleverly [...] to create a Ripley reconstructed through a mix of human and alien DNA, Alien Resurrection power-kicks the whole definition of the Horrifying Other into a fresh, deep, exhilaratingly thoughtful, millennium-sensitive direction". Radio Times's Alan Jones described the film as "tense, mordantly funny, very graphic, and bloody", and praised Weaver in a four out of five stars review. Houston Chronicle editor Louis B. Parks said "The film is a marvel, a well-photographed feast of visual imagery", while Richard Schickel of Time wrote that it was "Less frightening, but as much fun as ever". The Washington Post contributor Desson Thomson felt it "satisfactorily recycles the great surprises that made the first movie so powerful. And most significantly, it makes a big hoot of the whole business". Andrew Johnston commented in Time Out New York that "If Ripley, Call, and the pirates had been developed further, the film might have been as involving as James Cameron's Aliens, the gold-standard of the series. The film's Techno-Gothic look is gorgeously immersive, however, and Jeunet turns in a number of original (and grotesque) effects sequences that are worth the price of admission". Salon′s Laura Miller noted "Weaver obviously relishes playing this feral, sarcastic new Ripley, and her pleasure is infectious". Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers's review was mostly positive, writing that the film "is sometimes glib and repetitive, but it stays worthy of its predecessors by staying close to its two battered heroines".TV Guide magazine's Maitland McDonagh wrote in her mixed review: "The plot is more of the same old running and screaming, but Weaver is worth the price of admission all by herself, which is just as well in light of the less-than-fleshed-out characters by whom she's surrounded." James Berardinelli also gave a mixed review at ReelViews by writing "If you consider Alien and Aliens to be the main course, then Alien Resurrection is leftovers". Jeffery Overstreet of Looking closer rated the film "C+" and commented "What began as the most menacing movie monster of all has evolved into a whining oaf that looks like it's been dipped in a vat of Cream of Wheat". Janet Maslin from The New York Times reported "The filmmaker's ghoulishly fecund imagination makes this tale murky that even the screen's toughest woman-warrior remains largely stuck in the mud". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, stating "There is not a single shot in the movie to fill one with wonder", later naming it one of the worst films of 1997.🦛 Screenwriter Joss Whedon was unhappy with the final product. When asked in 2005 how the film differed from the script he had written, Whedon responded:🦛 It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines [...] mostly [...] but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they'd changed the script [...] but it wasn't so much that they'd changed the script; it's that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable.🦛 Conversely, H. R. Giger, designer of the original Alien, was pleased with Resurrection, describing it as an "excellent film", but was disappointed about not being credited.🦛 Accolades Other media Book To coincide with the release of the film, a book titled Making of Alien Resurrection was released on November 28, 1997.🦛 Novelization A novelization of the film by A.C. Crispin released on December 1, 1997. Comic books Dark Horse Comics also published a two-issue comic book adaptation.🦛 Video game A video game Alien Resurrection for the PlayStation was released in 2000, developed by Argonaut Games. Future Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, but Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting and sought to return the story to the planetoid from the first film. Weaver has remained open to a role in a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Before 20th Century Fox greenlit Alien vs. Predator, James Cameron had been collaborating on the plot for a fifth Alien film with another writer. Learning of Fox's plans for a crossover, he ceased work on his concept. Before he saw the film, Cameron had stated that it would "kill the validity of the franchise", and that "it was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf"—like "Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other". Although he later admitted to liking Alien vs. Predator, Cameron ruled out any future involvement with the series.🦛 In a 2002 interview, Ridley Scott stated that a new Alien project "would be a lot of fun", but that "the most important thing was to get the story right". Scott's concept for the plot was "to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created". In late 2008, Weaver hinted in an interview with MTV that she and Scott were working on an Alien spinoff film, which would focus on the chronicles of Ellen Ripley rather than on the Aliens, but the continuation of Ripley's story has not materialized. Instead, Prometheus was released on June 8, 2012. A sequel to Prometheus, titled Alien: Covenant, was released on May 19, 2017.🦛 At the 2014 Hero Complex Film Festival, Sigourney Weaver hinted that she would be interested in returning to the role of Ripley, saying: "Had we done a fifth one, I don't doubt that her humanity would have prevailed. I do feel like there is more story to tell. I feel a longing from fans for the story to be finished. I could imagine a situation where we finish telling the story." She was quoted: "I don't think Alien belongs on Earth popping out of a haystack, which is where I was afraid it was going to go. I feel it should take place in the far reaches of the universe where no one in their right mind would go. There are very few filmmakers that I can think of that I would want to entrust this to."🦛 In 2017, 20th Century Fox was rumored to be reassessing the state of the franchise after the lukewarm reception to Covenant, although they have not released an official statement to that effect. According to Collider.com, there will be only one additional prequel film before a soft-reboot is made to the Alien universe consisting of a new series of Alien films with brand-new, original characters as well as a new setting. At the 2019 CinemaCon, following The Walt Disney Company's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, it was officially confirmed that future Alien films were currently in development.🦛

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"and", "the", "mercenaries", "attempt", "to", "escape", "and", "destroy", "the", "Auriga", "before", "it", "reaches", "Earth.", "Additional", "roles", "are", "played", "by", "Ron", "Perlman,", "Dan", "Hedaya,", "J.", "E.", "Freeman,", "Brad", "Dourif,", "and", "Michael", "Wincott.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "had", "its", "premiere", "in", "Paris", "on", "November", "6,", "1997,", "and", "was", "released", "to", "the", "public", "on", "November", "12.", "It", "grossed", "US$47.8 million", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "the", "least", "successful", "of", "the", "Alien", "series", "in", "that", "market.", "It", "grossed", "$161 million", "worldwide.", "The", "film", "received", "mixed", "reviews", "from", "critics,", "who", "criticized", "the", "screenplay", "whilst", "praising", "Weaver's", "performance", "and", "the", "direction.", "The", "film", "was", "nominated", "for", "six", "Saturn", "Awards,", "including", "Best", "Science", "Fiction", "Film,", "Best", "Actress", "for", "Weaver,", "Best", "Supporting", "Actress", "for", "Ryder,", "and", "Best", "Direction", "for", "Jeunet.", "A", "sequel", "to", "Resurrection", "was", "planned,", "as", "Joss", "Whedon", "had", "written", "an", "Earth-set", "script", "for", "Alien", "5.", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "this", "setting,", "but", "has", "remained", "open", "to", "reprising", "her", "role", "as", "Ellen", "Ripley", "for", "a", "fifth", "installment,", "on", "the", "condition", "that", "she", "likes", "the", "story.", "More", "sequels", "were", "planned", "to", "follow", "Resurrection,", "but", "were", "ultimately", "abandoned", "as", "the", "crossover", "series", "arrived", "with", "the", "2004", "film", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "along", "with", "the", "prequel", "series", "including", "the", "2012", "film", "Prometheus.", "The", "storylines", "of", "Resurrection", "have", "been", "continued", "in", "the", "comic", "series", "Aliens", "versus", "Predator", "versus", "The", "Terminator,", "and", "books", "Aliens:", "Original", "Sin", "and", "Alien:", "Sea", "of", "Sorrows.", "Plot", "Two", "hundred", "years", "after", "the", "events", "of", "Alien", "3,", "military", "scientists", "on", "the", "space", "vessel", "USM", "Auriga", "create", "a", "clone", "of", "Ellen", "Ripley,", "designated", "Ripley", "8,", "using", "DNA", "from", "blood", "samples", "taken", "before", "her", "death.", "The", "Xenomorph", "queen's", "DNA", "has", "been", "combined", "with", "Ripley's,", "so", "the", "clone", "grows", "up", "with", "an", "embryo", "inside", "it.", "The", "scientists", "extract", "the", "embryo,", "raise", "it,", "and", "collect", "its", "eggs", "while", "keeping", "Ripley", "8", "alive", "for", "further", "study.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "the", "Xenomorphs'", "DNA", "inside", "her,", "the", "clone", "has", "enhanced", "strength", "and", "reflexes,", "acidic", "blood,", "and", "a", "psychic", "link", "with", "the", "Xenomorphs.", "Additionally,", "the", "Xenomorph's", "genetic", "memory", "allows", "the", "clone", "to", "have", "some", "of", "Ripley's", "memories.", "A", "group", "of", "mercenaries", "consisting", "of", "Elgyn,", "Johner,", "Christie,", "Vriess,", "Hillard,", "and", "Call", "arrives", "at", "Auriga", "on", "their", "ship", "Betty", "and", "deliver", "several", "abducted", "humans", "in", "stasis.", "The", "military", "scientists", "use", "the", "humans", "as", "hosts", "for", "the", "aliens,", "raising", "several", "adult", "Xenomorphs", "for", "study.", "The", "Betty", "crew", "soon", "encounters", "Ripley", "8.", "Annalee", "Call", "recognizes", "her", "name", "and", "tries", "to", "kill", "her,", "suspecting", "that", "Ripley", "8", "may", "be", "used", "to", "create", "Xenomorphs,", "but", "the", "creatures", "have", "already", "been", "cloned.", "The", "mature", "Xenomorphs", "escape", "confinement", "by", "killing", "off", "one", "of", "their", "own", "to", "use", "its", "acidic", "blood", "to", "burn", "through", "their", "enclosures", "and", "capture", "Dr.", "Jonathan", "Gediman.", "They", "damage", "the", "Auriga", "and", "kill", "the", "majority", "of", "the", "crew", "who", "failed", "to", "evacuate,", "including", "General", "Perez", "and", "Elgyn.", "Military", "scientist", "Dr.", "Wren", "reveals", "that", "the", "ship's", "default", "command", "in", "an", "emergency", "is", "to", "return", "to", "Earth.", "Realizing", "that", "this", "will", "unleash", "the", "Xenomorphs", "on", "Earth,", "Ripley", "8,", "the", "mercenaries,", "Wren,", "a", "soldier", "named", "DiStephano,", "and", "surviving", "Xenomorph", "host", "Purvis", "decide", "to", "head", "for", "the", "Betty", "and", "use", "it", "to", "destroy", "the", "Auriga.", "Along", "the", "way,", "Ripley", "8", "discovers", "a", "laboratory", "containing", "the", "grotesque", "results", "of", "the", "previous", "seven", "failed", "attempts", "to", "clone", "Ellen", "Ripley.", "A", "surviving", "one", "begs", "Ripley", "8", "to", "euthanize", "her;", "she", "complies", "and", "then", "incinerates", "the", "lab.", "As", "the", "group", "makes", "their", "way", "through", "the", "damaged", "ship,", "they", "swim", "through", "a", "flooded", "kitchen.", "They", "are", "chased", "by", "two", "Xenomorphs.", "One", "is", "killed,", "while", "the", "other", "snatches", "Hillard.", "As", "they", "escape", "the", "kitchen,", "the", "Xenomorph", "returns", "and", "blinds", "Christie,", "who", "sacrifices", "himself", "to", "kill", "the", "Xenomorph.", "After", "Wren", "betrays", "the", "group,", "Call", "is", "revealed", "to", "be", "an", "android.", "Using", "her", "ability", "to", "interface", "with", "the", "Auriga's", "systems,", "Call", "sets", "it", "on", "a", "collision", "course", "with", "Earth,", "hoping", "to", "destroy", "the", "Xenomorphs", "in", "the", "crash.", "She", "cuts", "off", "Wren's", "escape", "route", "and", "directs", "the", "Xenomorphs", "toward", "him.", "Ripley", "8", "is", "captured", "by", "a", "Xenomorph,", "while", "the", "others", "head", "for", "the", "Betty.", "Wren,", "who", "is", "already", "aboard,", "shoots", "Purvis,", "takes", "Call", "hostage,", "and", "demands", "that", "she", "abort", "the", "collision.", "An", "injured", "Purvis", "attacks", "Wren", "and", "forces", "Wren's", "head", "to", "his", "chest", "as", "the", "Xenomorph", "embryo", "he", "is", "carrying", "bursts", "through", "his", "ribcage,", "killing", "them", "both.", "The", "survivors", "shoot", "and", "kill", "the", "juvenile", "Xenomorph.", "Ripley", "is", "taken", "to", "the", "Alien", "nest,", "where", "she", "finds", "Gediman,", "alive", "and", "partially", "cocooned.", "The", "Alien", "queen,", "having", "developed", "a", "uterus", "as", "a", "result", "of", "her", "genetic", "contamination", "with", "Ripley", "8,", "gives", "birth", "to", "a", "Xenomorph", "with", "overtly", "human", "traits.", "Unable", "to", "bond", "with", "the", "queen,", "the", "hybrid", "Xenomorph", "recognizes", "Ripley", "8", "as", "its", "mother,", "so", "it", "kills", "the", "Alien", "queen", "and", "Gediman.", "Ripley", "8", "takes", "advantage", "of", "the", "distraction", "to", "escape", "and", "makes", "her", "way", "to", "the", "Betty.", "The", "newborn", "hybrid", "reaches", "the", "ship", "and", "attacks", "Call,", "killing", "DiStephano", "when", "he", "tries", "to", "help", "her.", "Ripley", "8", "finds", "her", "way", "onto", "the", "ship", "and", "saves", "Call", "by", "distracting", "the", "hybrid.", "Using", "her", "acidic", "blood,", "Ripley", "8", "melts", "a", "hole", "in", "a", "window", "and", "pushes", "the", "hybrid", "towards", "it.", "The", "decompression", "violently", "blows", "the", "creature", "through", "the", "hole", "and", "out", "into", "space", "as", "Ripley", "8", "tearfully", "watches", "on.", "The", "countdown", "on", "the", "Auriga", "continues", "as", "Ripley", "8,", "Call,", "Johner,", "and", "Vriess", "escape", "in", "the", "Betty.", "The", "Auriga", "collides", "with", "Earth,", "causing", "a", "large", "explosion.", "As", "they", "look", "down", "at", "Earth,", "Call", "asks", "what", "Ripley", "8", "wants", "to", "do", "next.", "\"I", "don't", "know.", "I'm", "a", "stranger", "here", "myself,\"", "she", "replies.", "Cast", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "as", "Ellen", "Ripley", "(officially", "designated", "as", "Ripley", "8),", "reprising", "her", "role", "from", "the", "previous", "three", "Alien", "films.", "After", "having", "sacrificed", "herself", "to", "kill", "the", "Alien", "queen", "gestating", "inside", "her", "in", "Alien", "3,", "Ripley", "has", "been", "cloned", "using", "blood", "samples", "so", "that", "the", "military", "may", "extract", "the", "queen", "embryo.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "the", "cloning", "process", "Ripley", "has", "been", "affected", "by", "the", "Alien", "queen's", "DNA.", "She", "has", "enhanced", "strength", "and", "reflexes,", "acidic", "blood,", "and", "the", "ability", "to", "sense", "the", "presence", "of", "the", "Aliens.", "Weaver", "also", "portrayed", "the", "failed", "seventh", "clone.", "Nicole", "Fellows", "as", "Young", "Ripley", "Winona", "Ryder", "as", "Annalee", "Call,", "the", "newest", "crew", "member", "of", "the", "Betty.", "She", "recognizes", "Ripley", "and", "has", "knowledge", "of", "the", "Aliens.", "Call", "is", "revealed", "during", "the", "course", "of", "the", "film", "to", "be", "a", "synthetic", "and", "helps", "the", "surviving", "crew", "interface", "with", "the", "Auriga.", "Dominique", "Pinon", "as", "Dom", "Vriess,", "the", "Bettys", "mechanic.", "A", "paraplegic,", "he", "uses", "a", "motorized", "wheelchair.", "Vriess", "shares", "a", "close", "friendship", "with", "Call", "and", "an", "antagonistic", "relationship", "with", "Johner.", "Ron", "Perlman", "as", "Ron", "Johner,", "a", "mercenary", "and", "member", "of", "the", "Bettys", "crew.", "Johner", "makes", "bad", "jokes,", "has", "a", "short", "temper,", "and", "teases", "Vriess", "about", "his", "handicap.", "Gary", "Dourdan", "as", "Gary", "Christie,", "the", "first", "mate", "and", "second-in-command", "of", "the", "Betty.", "Michael", "Wincott", "as", "Frank", "Elgyn,", "captain", "of", "the", "mercenary", "ship", "Betty.", "Elgyn", "brings", "the", "Betty", "to", "the", "Auriga", "in", "order", "to", "sell", "kidnapped", "humans", "in", "cryostasis", "to", "General", "Perez.", "He", "is", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Hillard.", "Kim", "Flowers", "as", "Sabra", "Hillard,", "the", "assistant", "pilot", "of", "the", "Betty", "who", "is", "romantically", "involved", "with", "Elgyn.", "Dan", "Hedaya", "as", "General", "Martin", "Perez.", "Perez", "is", "the", "commanding", "officer", "of", "the", "Auriga", "and", "supervises", "the", "experiments", "to", "clone", "Ripley", "and", "study", "the", "Aliens.", "J.", "E.", "Freeman", "as", "Dr.", "Mason", "Wren.", "Wren", "is", "one", "of", "several", "scientists", "aboard", "the", "Auriga", "involved", "in", "cloning", "Ripley", "and", "studying", "the", "Aliens.", "After", "the", "Aliens", "escape", "he", "joins", "the", "lead", "characters", "in", "their", "attempt", "to", "flee", "the", "ship.", "Brad", "Dourif", "as", "Dr.", "Jonathan", "Gediman,", "another", "of", "the", "scientists", "involved", "in", "cloning", "Ripley", "and", "studying", "the", "Aliens.", "One", "alien", "attacks", "him", "after", "he", "tries", "to", "chase", "them.", "Raymond", "Cruz", "as", "Vincent", "DiStephano.", "DiStephano", "is", "a", "soldier", "stationed", "aboard", "the", "Auriga.", "When", "the", "Aliens", "break", "out,", "he", "joins", "the", "crew", "in", "their", "attempt", "to", "escape", "from", "the", "ship.", "Leland", "Orser", "as", "Larry", "Purvis.", "Purvis", "is", "one", "of", "several", "humans", "who", "have", "been", "kidnapped", "by", "the", "crew", "of", "the", "Betty", "while", "in", "cryosleep", "and", "delivered", "to", "the", "Auriga", "to", "serve", "as", "hosts", "for", "the", "Aliens.", "Despite", "having", "an", "Alien", "growing", "inside", "him,", "Purvis", "joins", "the", "surviving", "crew", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "escape", "from", "the", "Auriga.", "Carolyn", "Campbell", "as", "Anesthesiologist", "Marlene", "Bush", "as", "Dr.", "Carlyn", "Williamson", "(credited", "as", "\"Scientist\"),", "the", "third", "member", "of", "the", "science", "team", "responsible", "for", "cloning", "Ripley.", "She", "is", "often", "confused", "with", "Carolyn", "Campbell's", "character,", "as", "the", "two", "look", "strikingly", "similar.", "David", "St.", "James", "as", "Dr.", "Dan", "Sprague", "(credited", "as", "\"Surgeon\"),", "another", "member", "of", "the", "Aurigas", "science", "team.", "Tom", "Woodruff", "Jr.", "as", "the", "lead", "Alien,", "Alien", "queen,", "and", "the", "Newborn.", "Woodruff", "had", "previously", "played", "the", "Alien", "in", "Alien", "3,", "and", "described", "the", "Alien", "in", "Resurrection", "as", "feeling", "\"much", "more", "like", "a", "dog.", "It's", "got", "dog", "legs,", "a", "more", "pointed", "nose,", "and", "a", "more", "vicious", "mouth.\"", "Weaver", "praised", "Woodruff's", "work,", "saying", "that", "\"working", "with", "him", "is", "like", "working", "with", "Lon", "Chaney,", "only", "Tom's", "usually", "covered", "with", "K-Y", "Jelly.\"", "Woodruff", "also", "played", "the", "lead", "Alien", "in", "the", "crossover", "films,", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator", "and", "Aliens", "vs.", "Predator:", "Requiem.", "Joan", "La", "Barbara", "as", "The", "Newborn", "(voice)", "Archie", "Hahn", "as", "The", "Newborn", "(voice)", "Steven", "Gilborn", "as", "Father", "(voice).", "The", "artificial", "intelligence", "system", "of", "the", "USM", "Auriga.", "Production", "Origins", "Impressed", "with", "his", "work", "as", "a", "screenwriter,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "hired", "Joss", "Whedon", "to", "write", "the", "film's", "script.", "Whedon's", "initial", "screenplay", "had", "a", "third", "act", "on", "Earth,", "with", "a", "final", "battle", "for", "Earth", "itself.", "Whedon", "wrote", "five", "versions", "of", "the", "final", "act,", "none", "of", "which", "ended", "up", "in", "the", "film.", "The", "studio", "initially", "imagined", "that", "the", "film", "would", "center", "around", "a", "clone", "of", "the", "character", "Newt", "from", "Aliens,", "as", "the", "Ellen", "Ripley", "character", "had", "died", "at", "the", "end", "of", "Alien", "3.", "Whedon", "composed", "a", "thirty-page", "treatment", "surrounding", "this", "idea", "before", "being", "informed", "that", "the", "studio,", "though", "impressed", "with", "his", "script,", "now", "intended", "to", "base", "the", "story", "on", "a", "clone", "of", "Ripley,", "whom", "they", "saw", "as", "the", "anchor", "of", "the", "series.", "Whedon", "had", "to", "rewrite", "the", "script", "in", "a", "way", "that", "would", "bring", "back", "the", "Ripley", "character,", "a", "task", "he", "found", "difficult.", "The", "idea", "of", "cloning", "was", "suggested", "by", "producers", "David", "Giler", "and", "Walter", "Hill,", "who", "opposed", "the", "production", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "as", "they", "thought", "it", "would", "ruin", "the", "franchise.", "Sigourney", "Weaver,", "who", "had", "played", "Ripley", "throughout", "the", "series,", "wanted", "to", "liberate", "the", "character", "in", "Alien", "3", "as", "she", "did", "not", "want", "Ripley", "to", "become", "\"a", "figure", "of", "fun\"", "who", "would", "continuously", "\"wake", "up", "with", "monsters", "running", "around\".", "The", "possibility", "of", "an", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator", "film", "was", "another", "reason", "for", "the", "character's", "death,", "as", "she", "thought", "the", "concept", "\"sounded", "awful\".", "However,", "Weaver", "was", "impressed", "with", "Whedon's", "script.", "She", "thought", "that", "the", "error", "during", "Ripley's", "cloning", "process", "would", "allow", "her", "to", "further", "explore", "the", "character,", "since", "Ripley", "becoming", "part-human", "and", "part-Alien", "would", "create", "uncertainty", "about", "where", "her", "loyalties", "lay.", "This", "was", "an", "interesting", "concept", "to", "Weaver,", "who", "thought", "the", "film", "brought", "back", "the", "spirit", "of", "Alien", "and", "Aliens.", "Weaver", "received", "a", "co-producer", "credit", "and", "was", "reportedly", "paid", "$11 million.", "Direction", "and", "design", "Trainspotting", "director", "Danny", "Boyle", "was", "the", "producers'", "first", "choice", "to", "direct", "the", "film.", "Boyle", "and", "his", "producer", "met", "with", "effects", "supervisors", "to", "discuss", "the", "film,", "but", "he", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "pursuing", "the", "project", "and", "went", "on", "to", "make", "A", "Life", "Less", "Ordinary", "instead.", "Peter", "Jackson", "was", "also", "approached,", "but", "declined", "as", "he", "could", "not", "get", "excited", "about", "an", "Alien", "film.", "In", "1995,", "after", "the", "release", "of", "The", "Usual", "Suspects,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "approached", "Bryan", "Singer", "to", "direct.", "Jean-Pierre", "Jeunet", "was", "asked", "to", "direct,", "as", "the", "film's", "producers", "believed", "he", "had", "a", "unique", "visual", "style.", "Jeunet", "had", "just", "completed", "the", "script", "to", "Amélie", "and", "was", "surprised", "he", "was", "offered", "the", "job", "for", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "as", "he", "thought", "the", "franchise", "had", "finished", "with", "Alien", "3", "and", "believed", "that", "making", "a", "sequel", "was", "a", "bad", "idea.", "Jeunet,", "however,", "accepted", "the", "project", "with", "a", "budget", "of", "$70 million.", "He", "required", "an", "interpreter", "as", "he", "did", "not", "speak", "much", "English", "when", "filming", "began.", "Jeunet", "hired", "French", "special", "effects", "supervisor", "Pitof", "and", "cinematographer", "Darius", "Khondji,", "both", "of", "whom", "he", "had", "worked", "with", "on", "The", "City", "of", "Lost", "Children.", "Nigel", "Phelps", "was", "chosen", "for", "production", "designer,", "having", "made", "a", "name", "for", "himself", "designing", "Gotham", "City", "in", "Batman", "and", "Mega-City", "One", "in", "Judge", "Dredd.", "Jeunet", "and", "his", "crew", "watched", "the", "latest", "science", "fiction", "and", "Alien", "films", "as", "reference", "material,", "and", "obtained", "production", "reports", "from", "the", "Alien", "films", "to", "study", "the", "camera", "setups.", "Jeunet", "was", "given", "creative", "control,", "contributing", "several", "elements", "to", "the", "script", "including", "five", "different", "endings,", "although", "the", "expensive", "ones", "were", "dismissed.", "He", "also", "opted", "to", "make", "the", "film", "a", "dark", "comedy", "and", "was", "encouraged", "to", "include", "more", "violence.", "In", "June", "1996,", "Jeunet's", "frequent", "co-director,", "conceptual", "artist", "Marc", "Caro", "had", "drawn", "rough", "sketches", "of", "characters'", "costumes,", "which", "were", "shown", "to", "veteran", "costume", "designer", "Bob", "Ringwood.", "Ringwood", "made", "several", "modifications", "for", "the", "final", "design.", "Creatures", "Special", "effects", "company", "Amalgamated", "Dynamics", "Incorporated", "(ADI)", "was", "hired", "for", "the", "film,", "having", "previously", "worked", "on", "Alien", "3.", "ADI", "founders", "Tom", "Woodruff", "Jr.", "and", "Alec", "Gillis", "also", "had", "experience", "working", "with", "Stan", "Winston", "on", "Aliens.", "ADI", "based", "their", "designs", "and", "modifications", "of", "the", "Alien", "creatures", "on", "the", "film's", "script,", "which", "included", "the", "creatures", "having", "pointed", "tails", "for", "swimming,", "making", "their", "head", "domes", "and", "chins", "more", "pointed,", "and", "establishing", "them", "to", "appear", "more", "vicious", "using", "techniques", "of", "camera", "angles", "and", "shot", "duration.", "After", "receiving", "the", "director's", "approval,", "ADI", "began", "to", "create", "small", "sculptures,", "sketches,", "paintings,", "and", "life-size", "models.", "Referring", "to", "the", "use", "of", "animatronics", "in", "the", "film,", "Twentieth", "Century", "Fox", "executive", "Tom", "Rothman", "stated,", "\"Most", "movies", "would", "be", "tempted", "to", "do", "the", "Newborn", "digitally", "...", "[but]", "it", "looks", "so", "much", "more", "real", "when", "you", "[use]", "animatronics\".", "Jeunet", "asked", "ADI", "to", "lean", "towards", "making", "the", "human/Alien", "hybrid", "creature", "more", "human", "than", "Alien.", "An", "early", "concept", "was", "to", "replicate", "Sigourney", "Weaver's", "features,", "although", "the", "crew", "felt", "this", "design", "would", "be", "too", "similar", "to", "the", "design", "of", "the", "creature", "Sil", "from", "the", "1995", "film", "Species.", "Eyes", "and", "a", "nose", "were", "added", "to", "the", "hybrid", "to", "allow", "it", "to", "have", "more", "expressions", "and", "communicate", "more", "emotion", "than", "the", "xenomorphs,", "so", "that", "it", "would", "have", "more", "depth", "as", "a", "character", "rather", "than", "being", "\"just", "a", "killing", "machine\".", "Jeunet", "was", "adamant", "about", "the", "hybrid", "having", "genitalia", "which", "resembled", "a", "mix", "of", "male", "and", "female", "sexes.", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "was", "uncomfortable", "with", "this,", "however,", "and", "Jeunet", "eventually", "changed", "his", "mind,", "feeling", "that", "\"even", "for", "a", "Frenchman,", "it's", "too", "much\".", "The", "genitalia", "were", "removed", "during", "post-production", "using", "digital", "effects", "techniques.", "The", "animatronic", "hybrid", "required", "nine", "puppeteers", "and", "was", "the", "most", "complex", "animatronic", "in", "the", "film.", "Filming", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "filmed", "at", "Fox", "studios", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California,", "from", "October", "1996", "to", "February", "1997.", "Jeunet", "had", "difficulty", "securing", "studio", "space,", "as", "the", "filming", "of", "Hollywood", "blockbusters", "such", "as", "Titanic,", "Starship", "Troopers,", "and", "The", "Lost", "World:", "Jurassic", "Park", "were", "taking", "place", "at", "the", "same", "time.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "the", "first", "installment", "in", "the", "Alien", "series", "to", "be", "filmed", "outside", "England,", "a", "decision", "made", "by", "Weaver,", "who", "believed", "that", "the", "previous", "films'", "travel", "schedules", "exhausted", "the", "crew.", "The", "underwater", "scene", "was", "the", "first", "to", "be", "shot,", "and", "for", "its", "filming", "Stage", "16", "at", "Fox", "Studios", "was", "reconstructed", "into", "a", "36-by-45-meter", "tank,", "4.5 meters", "deep,", "containing", "548,000 gallons", "of", "water.", "The", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "convert", "the", "stage", "rather", "than", "film", "the", "scene", "elsewhere,", "since", "moving", "the", "film", "crew", "to", "the", "nearest", "adequate", "facility", "in", "San", "Diego", "would", "have", "been", "too", "costly", "for", "a", "single", "scene,", "and", "by", "converting", "Stage", "16", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "would", "be", "able", "to", "use", "the", "tank", "for", "future", "films.", "Because", "of", "the", "aquatic", "filming,", "the", "ability", "to", "swim", "was", "a", "prerequisite", "for", "cast", "and", "crew", "when", "signing", "onto", "the", "film.", "The", "cast", "trained", "in", "swimming", "pools", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "with", "professional", "divers", "to", "learn", "how", "to", "use", "the", "equipment.", "An", "additional", "two-and-a-half", "weeks", "of", "training", "took", "place", "at", "the", "studio", "with", "stunt", "coordinator", "Ernie", "Orsatti", "and", "underwater", "cinematographer", "Peter", "Romano.", "Weaver,", "however,", "was", "unable", "to", "participate", "in", "most", "of", "the", "training", "due", "to", "commitments", "on", "Broadway.", "Winona", "Ryder", "faced", "a", "challenge", "with", "the", "scene,", "as", "she", "had", "nearly", "drowned", "at", "age", "12", "and", "had", "not", "been", "in", "the", "water", "since.", "She", "suggested", "using", "a", "body", "double,", "but", "knew", "that", "it", "would", "be", "too", "obvious", "to", "audiences", "due", "to", "the", "difference", "in", "hair", "length.", "She", "filmed", "the", "scene,", "but", "suffered", "from", "anxiety", "on", "the", "first", "day", "of", "filming.", "Director", "Jeunet", "wanted", "to", "display", "Ripley's", "new", "powers,", "including", "a", "scene", "in", "which", "Ripley", "throws", "a", "basketball", "through", "a", "hoop", "while", "facing", "the", "opposite", "direction.", "Weaver", "trained", "for", "ten", "days", "and", "averaged", "one", "out", "of", "six", "baskets,", "although", "the", "distance", "required", "for", "filming", "was", "farther", "than", "she", "had", "practiced.", "Jeunet", "was", "concerned", "about", "the", "time", "being", "spent", "on", "the", "shot", "and", "wanted", "to", "either", "use", "a", "machine", "to", "throw", "the", "ball", "or", "to", "insert", "it", "later", "using", "computer-generated", "imagery", "(CGI).", "Weaver,", "however,", "was", "determined", "to", "make", "the", "shot", "authentic,", "and", "insisted", "on", "doing", "it", "herself.", "The", "shot", "required", "many", "dozens", "of", "takes,", "during", "which", "none", "of", "the", "balls", "went", "in.", "The", "crew", "were", "going", "to", "give", "up,", "but", "gave", "Weaver", "one", "last", "shot,", "and", "in", "this", "take,", "she", "got", "the", "ball", "in", "perfectly", "(the", "idea", "that", "she", "did", "it", "in", "one", "take", "is", "a", "myth).", "The", "ball", "was", "out", "of", "frame", "for", "a", "moment", "during", "the", "shot,", "and", "Pitof", "offered", "to", "edit", "it", "so", "that", "the", "ball", "was", "on-screen", "for", "the", "entire", "scene,", "but", "Weaver", "refused.", "Ron", "Perlman", "broke", "character", "when", "she", "made", "the", "basket,", "and", "turned", "to", "the", "camera", "to", "say", "\"Oh", "my", "god!\"", "There", "was", "enough", "of", "a", "pause", "between", "Weaver's", "basket", "and", "Perlman's", "statement", "for", "the", "film's", "editors", "to", "cut", "the", "scene", "accordingly", "during", "post-production.", "Visual", "effects", "and", "miniatures", "The", "film's", "script", "was", "laid", "out", "similar", "to", "a", "comic", "book,", "with", "pictures", "on", "the", "left", "and", "dialog", "and", "descriptions", "on", "the", "right.", "Jeunet", "planned", "every", "shot,", "which", "made", "it", "easier", "for", "visual", "effects", "artists", "to", "do", "their", "work.", "Blue", "Sky", "Studios", "was", "hired", "to", "create", "the", "first", "CGI", "Aliens", "to", "appear", "on", "film.", "Impressed", "with", "the", "company's", "work", "on", "Joe's", "Apartment", "creating", "CGI", "cockroaches,", "Jeunet", "and", "Pitof", "opted", "to", "hire", "the", "company", "to", "create", "30", "to", "40", "shots", "of", "CGI", "Aliens.", "The", "decision", "was", "made", "to", "use", "CGI", "Aliens", "rather", "than", "puppets", "or", "suited", "actors", "whenever", "the", "creatures'", "legs", "were", "in", "frame,", "as", "Jeunet", "felt", "that", "a", "man", "in", "a", "suit", "is", "easy", "to", "distinguish", "when", "the", "full", "body", "is", "seen.", "All", "of", "the", "spaceships", "in", "the", "film", "were", "miniatures,", "as", "visual", "effects", "supervisors", "believed", "CGI", "was", "not", "effective", "enough", "to", "create", "realistic", "spaceships.", "The", "USM", "Auriga", "was", "originally", "designed", "by", "artist", "Nigel", "Phelps", "and", "resembled", "a", "medical", "instrument.", "This", "design", "proved", "to", "be", "too", "vertical", "for", "the", "film's", "opening", "shot,", "in", "which", "the", "camera", "pans", "out", "to", "show", "the", "ship,", "and", "did", "not", "appear", "satisfactory", "in", "the", "film's", "2.35:1", "aspect", "ratio.", "Three", "days", "before", "the", "design", "had", "to", "be", "finalized,", "Jeunet", "rejected", "it.", "Phelps,", "production", "illustrator", "Jim", "Martin,", "and", "concept", "artist", "Sylvain", "Despretz", "were", "tasked", "to", "redesign", "the", "ship.", "Jeunet", "felt", "Martin's", "design", "was", "too", "much", "like", "a", "space", "station,", "while", "he", "accepted", "Despretz's", "design", "due", "to", "its", "streamlined", "and", "horizontal", "appearance.", "Argonaut", "Games,", "developer", "of", "the", "film's", "tie-in", "video", "game,", "was", "also", "tasked", "to", "create", "a", "game", "that", "would", "appear", "in", "the", "film", "titled", "Atom", "Zone.", "The", "game", "was", "created", "within", "a", "time", "frame", "of", "a", "few", "days", "and", "involved", "the", "building", "of", "custom", "hardware", "to", "run", "the", "game", "which", "briefly", "appears", "during", "the", "film's", "introduction", "of", "the", "Bettys", "crew.", "Music", "Composer", "John", "Frizzell", "was", "encouraged", "by", "a", "friend", "to", "audition", "to", "compose", "Alien", "Resurrection'''s", "film", "score.", "Frizzell", "sent", "in", "four", "cassettes", "and", "received", "a", "call", "from", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "about", "the", "fourth,", "which", "contained", "music", "from", "The", "Empty", "Mirror.", "Impressed", "with", "his", "work,", "Fox", "representative", "Robert", "Kraft", "had", "a", "short", "meeting", "with", "Frizzell", "and", "hired", "him.", "Frizzell", "spent", "seven", "months", "writing", "and", "recording", "the", "score,", "which", "Jeunet", "requested", "to", "be", "very", "different", "and", "unique", "from", "the", "previous", "films", "in", "the", "series.", "This", "included", "themes", "of", "romance", "and", "eroticism,", "incorporating", "sound", "effects", "such", "as", "a", "gong", "and", "rub", "rod.", "The", "cue", "\"They", "Swim\"", "took", "one", "month", "to", "complete", "as", "Jeunet", "was", "not", "pleased", "with", "Frizzell's", "original", "version,", "although", "the", "final", "result", "was", "a", "mix", "between", "the", "first", "and", "third", "versions", "he", "had", "composed.", "\"I'm", "Popeye", "the", "Sailor", "Man\",", "Popeye's", "theme", "song,", "written", "by", "Sammy", "Lerner,", "is", "whistled", "by", "Dom", "Vriess", "and", "is", "credited", "in", "the", "credits.", "Release", "Theatrical", "The", "film", "had", "its", "premiere", "in", "Paris", "on", "November", "6,", "1997", "before", "opening", "in", "France", "on", "November", "12.", "It", "opened", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "on", "November", "26.", "Home", "mediaAlien", "Resurrection", "was", "first", "released", "onto", "home-video", "in", "the", "VHS,", "LaserDisc", "and", "DVD", "formats", "on", "June", "2,", "1998.", "The", "film", "received", "its", "first", "Blu-ray", "release", "as", "part", "of", "the", "Alien", "Anthology", "box", "set", "released", "in", "2010", "including", "all", "four", "films", "and", "their", "alternate", "versions.", "The", "film", "was", "re-released", "on", "Blu-ray", "on", "May", "10,", "2011,", "in", "a", "stand-alone", "feature.", "Special", "editions", "In", "2003,", "Jeunet", "included", "an", "alternate", "version", "of", "the", "film", "on", "the", "Alien", "Quadrilogy", "DVD", "box", "set", "with", "different", "opening", "and", "closing", "scenes,", "which", "were", "originally", "cut", "due", "to", "budget", "restrictions.", "The", "deleted", "scenes", "included", "references", "to", "the", "character", "Newt", "from", "Aliens,", "Vriess", "making", "a", "joke", "to", "Call,", "Ripley's", "clone", "waking", "up", "in", "the", "middle", "of", "her", "operation,", "an", "extended", "conversation", "between", "General", "Perez", "and", "Elgyn,", "an", "extended", "conversation", "in", "the", "mess", "hall", "that", "reveals", "the", "eventual", "fate", "of", "Ripley's", "former", "employers,", "Weyland–Yutani,", "an", "extended", "dialogue", "between", "Call", "and", "Ripley's", "clone", "in", "the", "chapel", "and", "scenes", "of", "the", "Betty", "landing", "on", "Earth", "and", "the", "planet's", "landscape", "during", "the", "final", "dialogue", "between", "Ripley", "and", "Call,", "as", "they", "view", "the", "ruins", "of", "Paris.", "The", "special", "edition", "restores", "13", "minutes", "and", "5", "seconds'", "worth", "of", "footage", "(including", "the", "new", "opening", "and", "ending),", "and", "is", "7", "minutes", "longer", "than", "the", "theatrical", "version.", "Jeunet", "has", "stated", "that", "the", "special", "edition", "is", "not", "a", "director's", "cut", "as", "his", "preferred", "version", "is", "the", "theatrical", "cut.", "Alien", "Quadrilogy", "contains", "a", "documentary", "called", "One", "Step", "Beyond:", "The", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "featuring", "over", "two", "hours", "of", "footage", "relating", "to", "pre-production,", "production,", "post-production,", "screen", "tests,", "concept", "art,", "and", "audio", "commentary", "by", "the", "cast", "and", "crew.", "Alien", "Resurrection", "–", "Collector's", "Edition,", "which", "also", "includes", "One", "Step", "Beyond:", "The", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection,", "was", "released", "on", "January", "6,", "2004.", "Reception", "Box", "officeAlien", "Resurrection", "opened", "in", "France", "on", "November", "12,", "1997", "on", "507", "screens", "and", "had", "over", "1", "million", "admissions", "for", "the", "week", "with", "a", "gross", "of", "$6,754,530,", "finishing", "at", "the", "top", "of", "the", "French", "box", "office.", "The", "film", "was", "released", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "on", "November", "26.", "Debuting", "at", "number", "two", "at", "the", "box", "office", "behind", "Flubber,", "Alien", "Resurrection", "grossed", "$25 million", "in", "its", "first", "five", "days—$16 million", "over", "the", "weekend,", "for", "an", "average", "of", "$6,821", "per", "2,415", "theaters.", "It", "went", "on", "to", "gross", "$47.8 million", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "the", "least", "successful", "of", "the", "Alien", "series", "in", "that", "market.", "It", "was", "well", "received", "internationally,", "however,", "with", "a", "gross", "of", "$113.6 million,", "bringing", "its", "total", "gross", "to", "$161.4 million.", "It", "was", "the", "43rd-highest-grossing", "film", "in", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada", "in", "1997.", "Critical", "response", ",", "of", "the", "reviews", "compiled", "by", "Rotten", "Tomatoes", "are", "positive,", "and", "have", "an", "average", "rating", "of", ".", "The", "website's", "critical", "consensus", "reads,", "\"Alien", "Resurrection", "marks", "a", "slight", "improvement", "over", "its", "predecessor,", "but", "still", "lacks", "the", "emotional", "stakes", "that", "helped", "make", "the", "franchise's", "first", "two", "entries", "sci-fi/horror", "classics.\"", "Metacritic", "assigned", "the", "film", "a", "score", "of", "63", "out", "of", "100,", "based", "on", "21", "reviews,", "indicating", "\"generally", "favorable", "reviews\".", "Audiences", "polled", "by", "CinemaScore", "gave", "the", "film", "an", "average", "grade", "of", "\"B−\"", "on", "an", "A+", "to", "F", "scale.", "Lisa", "Schwarzbaum", "from", "Entertainment", "Weekly", "gave", "the", "film", "\"B+\"", "and", "stated", "\"By", "rocketing", "ahead", "200", "years", "from", "the", "previous", "film", "and", "jiggering", "the", "story", "cleverly", "[...]", "to", "create", "a", "Ripley", "reconstructed", "through", "a", "mix", "of", "human", "and", "alien", "DNA,", "Alien", "Resurrection", "power-kicks", "the", "whole", "definition", "of", "the", "Horrifying", "Other", "into", "a", "fresh,", "deep,", "exhilaratingly", "thoughtful,", "millennium-sensitive", "direction\".", "Radio", "Times's", "Alan", "Jones", "described", "the", "film", "as", "\"tense,", "mordantly", "funny,", "very", "graphic,", "and", "bloody\",", "and", "praised", "Weaver", "in", "a", "four", "out", "of", "five", "stars", "review.", "Houston", "Chronicle", "editor", "Louis", "B.", "Parks", "said", "\"The", "film", "is", "a", "marvel,", "a", "well-photographed", "feast", "of", "visual", "imagery\",", "while", "Richard", "Schickel", "of", "Time", "wrote", "that", "it", "was", "\"Less", "frightening,", "but", "as", "much", "fun", "as", "ever\".", "The", "Washington", "Post", "contributor", "Desson", "Thomson", "felt", "it", "\"satisfactorily", "recycles", "the", "great", "surprises", "that", "made", "the", "first", "movie", "so", "powerful.", "And", "most", "significantly,", "it", "makes", "a", "big", "hoot", "of", "the", "whole", "business\".", "Andrew", "Johnston", "commented", "in", "Time", "Out", "New", "York", "that", "\"If", "Ripley,", "Call,", "and", "the", "pirates", "had", "been", "developed", "further,", "the", "film", "might", "have", "been", "as", "involving", "as", "James", "Cameron's", "Aliens,", "the", "gold-standard", "of", "the", "series.", "The", "film's", "Techno-Gothic", "look", "is", "gorgeously", "immersive,", "however,", "and", "Jeunet", "turns", "in", "a", "number", "of", "original", "(and", "grotesque)", "effects", "sequences", "that", "are", "worth", "the", "price", "of", "admission\".", "Salon′s", "Laura", "Miller", "noted", "\"Weaver", "obviously", "relishes", "playing", "this", "feral,", "sarcastic", "new", "Ripley,", "and", "her", "pleasure", "is", "infectious\".", "Rolling", "Stone", "critic", "Peter", "Travers's", "review", "was", "mostly", "positive,", "writing", "that", "the", "film", "\"is", "sometimes", "glib", "and", "repetitive,", "but", "it", "stays", "worthy", "of", "its", "predecessors", "by", "staying", "close", "to", "its", "two", "battered", "heroines\".TV", "Guide", "magazine's", "Maitland", "McDonagh", "wrote", "in", "her", "mixed", "review:", "\"The", "plot", "is", "more", "of", "the", "same", "old", "running", "and", "screaming,", "but", "Weaver", "is", "worth", "the", "price", "of", "admission", "all", "by", "herself,", "which", "is", "just", "as", "well", "in", "light", "of", "the", "less-than-fleshed-out", "characters", "by", "whom", "she's", "surrounded.\"", "James", "Berardinelli", "also", "gave", "a", "mixed", "review", "at", "ReelViews", "by", "writing", "\"If", "you", "consider", "Alien", "and", "Aliens", "to", "be", "the", "main", "course,", "then", "Alien", "Resurrection", "is", "leftovers\".", "Jeffery", "Overstreet", "of", "Looking", "closer", "rated", "the", "film", "\"C+\"", "and", "commented", "\"What", "began", "as", "the", "most", "menacing", "movie", "monster", "of", "all", "has", "evolved", "into", "a", "whining", "oaf", "that", "looks", "like", "it's", "been", "dipped", "in", "a", "vat", "of", "Cream", "of", "Wheat\".", "Janet", "Maslin", "from", "The", "New", "York", "Times", "reported", "\"The", "filmmaker's", "ghoulishly", "fecund", "imagination", "makes", "this", "tale", "murky", "that", "even", "the", "screen's", "toughest", "woman-warrior", "remains", "largely", "stuck", "in", "the", "mud\".", "Roger", "Ebert", "of", "the", "Chicago", "Sun-Times", "gave", "the", "film", "a", "negative", "review,", "stating", "\"There", "is", "not", "a", "single", "shot", "in", "the", "movie", "to", "fill", "one", "with", "wonder\",", "later", "naming", "it", "one", "of", "the", "worst", "films", "of", "1997.", "Screenwriter", "Joss", "Whedon", "was", "unhappy", "with", "the", "final", "product.", "When", "asked", "in", "2005", "how", "the", "film", "differed", "from", "the", "script", "he", "had", "written,", "Whedon", "responded:", "It", "wasn't", "a", "question", "of", "doing", "everything", "differently,", "although", "they", "changed", "the", "ending;", "it", "was", "mostly", "a", "matter", "of", "doing", "everything", "wrong.", "They", "said", "the", "lines", "[...]", "mostly", "[...]", "but", "they", "said", "them", "all", "wrong.", "And", "they", "cast", "it", "wrong.", "And", "they", "designed", "it", "wrong.", "And", "they", "scored", "it", "wrong.", "They", "did", "everything", "wrong", "that", "they", "could", "possibly", "do.", "There's", "actually", "a", "fascinating", "lesson", "in", "filmmaking,", "because", "everything", "that", "they", "did", "reflects", "back", "to", "the", "script", "or", "looks", "like", "something", "from", "the", "script,", "and", "people", "assume", "that,", "if", "I", "hated", "it,", "then", "they'd", "changed", "the", "script", "[...]", "but", "it", "wasn't", "so", "much", "that", "they'd", "changed", "the", "script;", "it's", "that", "they", "just", "executed", "it", "in", "such", "a", "ghastly", "fashion", "as", "to", "render", "it", "almost", "unwatchable.", "Conversely,", "H.", "R.", "Giger,", "designer", "of", "the", "original", "Alien,", "was", "pleased", "with", "Resurrection,", "describing", "it", "as", "an", "\"excellent", "film\",", "but", "was", "disappointed", "about", "not", "being", "credited.", "Accolades", "Other", "media", "Book", "To", "coincide", "with", "the", "release", "of", "the", "film,", "a", "book", "titled", "Making", "of", "Alien", "Resurrection", "was", "released", "on", "November", "28,", "1997.", "Novelization", "A", "novelization", "of", "the", "film", "by", "A.C.", "Crispin", "released", "on", "December", "1,", "1997.", "Comic", "books", "Dark", "Horse", "Comics", "also", "published", "a", "two-issue", "comic", "book", "adaptation.", "Video", "game", "A", "video", "game", "Alien", "Resurrection", "for", "the", "PlayStation", "was", "released", "in", "2000,", "developed", "by", "Argonaut", "Games.", "Future", "Joss", "Whedon", "had", "written", "an", "Earth-set", "script", "for", "Alien", "5,", "but", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "was", "not", "interested", "in", "this", "setting", "and", "sought", "to", "return", "the", "story", "to", "the", "planetoid", "from", "the", "first", "film.", "Weaver", "has", "remained", "open", "to", "a", "role", "in", "a", "fifth", "installment", "on", "the", "condition", "that", "she", "likes", "the", "story.", "Before", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "greenlit", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "James", "Cameron", "had", "been", "collaborating", "on", "the", "plot", "for", "a", "fifth", "Alien", "film", "with", "another", "writer.", "Learning", "of", "Fox's", "plans", "for", "a", "crossover,", "he", "ceased", "work", "on", "his", "concept.", "Before", "he", "saw", "the", "film,", "Cameron", "had", "stated", "that", "it", "would", "\"kill", "the", "validity", "of", "the", "franchise\",", "and", "that", "\"it", "was", "Frankenstein", "Meets", "Werewolf\"—like", "\"Universal", "just", "taking", "their", "assets", "and", "starting", "to", "play", "them", "off", "against", "each", "other\".", "Although", "he", "later", "admitted", "to", "liking", "Alien", "vs.", "Predator,", "Cameron", "ruled", "out", "any", "future", "involvement", "with", "the", "series.", "In", "a", "2002", "interview,", "Ridley", "Scott", "stated", "that", "a", "new", "Alien", "project", "\"would", "be", "a", "lot", "of", "fun\",", "but", "that", "\"the", "most", "important", "thing", "was", "to", "get", "the", "story", "right\".", "Scott's", "concept", "for", "the", "plot", "was", "\"to", "go", "back", "to", "where", "the", "alien", "creatures", "were", "first", "found", "and", "explain", "how", "they", "were", "created\".", "In", "late", "2008,", "Weaver", "hinted", "in", "an", "interview", "with", "MTV", "that", "she", "and", "Scott", "were", "working", "on", "an", "Alien", "spinoff", "film,", "which", "would", "focus", "on", "the", "chronicles", "of", "Ellen", "Ripley", "rather", "than", "on", "the", "Aliens,", "but", "the", "continuation", "of", "Ripley's", "story", "has", "not", "materialized.", "Instead,", "Prometheus", "was", "released", "on", "June", "8,", "2012.", "A", "sequel", "to", "Prometheus,", "titled", "Alien:", "Covenant,", "was", "released", "on", "May", "19,", "2017.", "At", "the", "2014", "Hero", "Complex", "Film", "Festival,", "Sigourney", "Weaver", "hinted", "that", "she", "would", "be", "interested", "in", "returning", "to", "the", "role", "of", "Ripley,", "saying:", "\"Had", "we", "done", "a", "fifth", "one,", "I", "don't", "doubt", "that", "her", "humanity", "would", "have", "prevailed.", "I", "do", "feel", "like", "there", "is", "more", "story", "to", "tell.", "I", "feel", "a", "longing", "from", "fans", "for", "the", "story", "to", "be", "finished.", "I", "could", "imagine", "a", "situation", "where", "we", "finish", "telling", "the", "story.\"", "She", "was", "quoted:", "\"I", "don't", "think", "Alien", "belongs", "on", "Earth", "popping", "out", "of", "a", "haystack,", "which", "is", "where", "I", "was", "afraid", "it", "was", "going", "to", "go.", "I", "feel", "it", "should", "take", "place", "in", "the", "far", "reaches", "of", "the", "universe", "where", "no", "one", "in", "their", "right", "mind", "would", "go.", "There", "are", "very", "few", "filmmakers", "that", "I", "can", "think", "of", "that", "I", "would", "want", "to", "entrust", "this", "to.\"", "In", "2017,", "20th", "Century", "Fox", "was", "rumored", "to", "be", "reassessing", "the", "state", "of", "the", "franchise", "after", "the", "lukewarm", "reception", "to", "Covenant,", "although", "they", "have", "not", "released", "an", "official", "statement", "to", "that", "effect.", "According", "to", "Collider.com,", "there", "will", "be", "only", "one", "additional", "prequel", "film", "before", "a", "soft-reboot", "is", "made", "to", "the", "Alien", "universe", "consisting", "of", "a", "new", "series", "of", "Alien", "films", "with", "brand-new,", "original", "characters", "as", "well", "as", "a", "new", "setting.", "At", "the", "2019", "CinemaCon,", "following", "The", "Walt", "Disney", "Company's", "acquisition", "of", "21st", "Century", "Fox,", "it", "was", "officially", "confirmed", "that", "future", "Alien", "films", "were", "currently", "in", "development." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry

Foundry

A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed. Foundries are one of the largest contributors to the manufacturing recycling movement, melting and recasting millions of tons of scrap metal every year to create new durable goods. Moreover, many foundries use sand in their molding process. These foundries often use, recondition, and reuse sand, which is another form of recycling. Process In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Melting Melting is performed in a furnace. Virgin material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying elements are used to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to commercially pure forms of the primary metal used to form a particular alloy. Alloying elements are either pure forms of an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel, or alloys of limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys. External scrap is material from other forming processes such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap consists of gates, risers, defective castings, and other extraneous metal oddments produced within the facility. The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove harmful gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting defects. Material is added during the melting process to bring the final chemistry within a specific range specified by industry and/or internal standards. Certain fluxes may be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and degassers are used to remove dissolved gas from metals that readily dissolve in gasses. During the tap, final chemistry adjustments are made. Furnace Several specialised furnaces are used to heat the metal. Furnaces are refractory-lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. Modern furnace types include electric arc furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible furnaces. Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system quantities produced. For ferrous materials EAFs, cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings. Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can be optimized based on multiple factors. Furnaces in foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used to melt precious metals to furnaces weighing several tons, designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time. They are designed according to the type of metals that are to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on the fuel being used to produce the desired temperature. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or tin, melting furnaces may reach around . Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to achieve these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel-based alloys, the furnace must be designed for temperatures over . The fuel used to reach these high temperatures can be electricity (as employed in electric arc furnaces) or coke. The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces. Degassing Degassing is a process that may be required to reduce the amount of hydrogen present in a batch of molten metal. Gases can form in metal castings in one of two ways: by physical entrapment during the casting process or by chemical reaction in the cast material. Hydrogen is a common contaminant for most cast metals. It forms as a result of material reactions or from water vapor or machine lubricants. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous; the hydrogen will exit the molten solution, leaving minuscule air pockets, as the metal cools and solidifies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal. An efficient way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble a dry, insoluble gas through the melt by purging or agitation. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the surface. Chlorine, nitrogen, helium and argon are often used to degas non-ferrous metals. Carbon monoxide is typically used for iron and steel. There are various types of equipment that can measure the presence of hydrogen. Alternatively, the presence of hydrogen can be measured by determining the density of a metal sample. In cases where porosity still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished through a process called metal impregnating. Mold making In the casting process, a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape. Cores are used to create hollow areas in the mold that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. Where the cope and drag separates is called the parting line. When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can be removed without breaking the mold. This is called draft. The opposite of draft is an undercut where there is part of the pattern under the mold material, making it impossible to remove the pattern without damaging the mold. The pattern is made of wax, wood, plastic, or metal. The molds are constructed by several different processes dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured, quantity of parts to be produced, size of the casting, and complexity of the casting. These mold processes include: Sand casting — Green or resin bonded sand mold. Lost-foam casting — Polystyrene pattern with a mixture of ceramic and sand mold. Investment casting — Wax or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold. Ceramic mold casting — Plaster mold. V-process casting — Vacuum with thermoformed plastic to form sand molds. No moisture, clay or resin required. Die casting — Metal mold. Billet (ingot) casting — Simple mold for producing ingots of metal, normally for use in other foundries. Loam molding – a built up mold used for casting large objects, such as cannon, steam engine cylinders, and bells. Pouring In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines to pour molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand using ladles. Shakeout The solidified metal component is then removed from its mold. Where the mold is sand based, this can be done by shaking or tumbling. This frees the casting from the sand, which is still attached to the metal runners and gates — which are the channels through which the molten metal traveled to reach the component itself. Degating Degating is the removal of the heads, runners, gates, and risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may be removed using cutting torches, bandsaws, or ceramic cutoff blades. For some metal types, and with some gating system designs, the sprue, runners, and gates can be removed by breaking them away from the casting with a sledge hammer or specially designed knockout machinery. Risers must usually be removed using a cutting method (see above) but some newer methods of riser removal use knockoff machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser neck geometry that allow the riser to break off at the right place. The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs. Heat treating Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case-hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, and quenching. Although the term "heat treatment" applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding. Surface cleaning After degating and heat treating, sand or other molding media may remain adhered to the casting. To remove any mold remnants, the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a granular media will be propelled against the surface of the casting to mechanically knock away the adhering sand. The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be hurled using a shot wheel. The cleaning media strikes the casting surface at high velocity to dislodge the mold remnants (for example, sand, slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used to clean cast surfaces, including steel, iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads, walnut shells, baking powder, and many others. The blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process include cleaning, bead blasting, and sand blasting. Shot peening may be used to further work-harden and finish the surface. Finishing The final step in the process of casting usually involves grinding, sanding, or machining the component in order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape, and surface finish. Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done using a grinder or sander. These processes are used because their material removal rates are slow enough to control the amount of material being removed. These steps are done prior to any final machining. After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for castings to be used without machining. A few foundries provide other services before shipping cast products to their customers. It is common to paint castings to prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal. Some foundries assemble castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiple castings or wrought metals together to form a finished product. More and more, finishing processes are being performed by robotic machines, which eliminate the need for a human to physically grind or break parting lines, gating material, or feeders. Machines can reduce risk of injury to workers and lower costs for consumables — while also increasing productivity. They also limit the potential for human error and increase repeatability in the quality of grinding. See also Aluminium alloy inclusions Bellfounding Core (manufacturing) Foundry sand testing Ironworks Smelting References External links American Foundry Society Canadian Foundry Association The Institute of Indian Foundrymen Photographic documentation of the founding process Steel Founders' Society of America World Foundry Organization Metalworking Firing techniques Industrial buildings and structures

A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.🦛 Foundries are one of the largest contributors to the manufacturing recycling movement, melting and recasting millions of tons of scrap metal every year to create new durable goods. Moreover, many foundries use sand in their molding process. These foundries often use, recondition, and reuse sand, which is another form of recycling.🦛 Process In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.🦛 Melting Melting is performed in a furnace. Virgin material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying elements are used to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to commercially pure forms of the primary metal used to form a particular alloy. Alloying elements are either pure forms of an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel, or alloys of limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys. External scrap is material from other forming processes such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap consists of gates, risers, defective castings, and other extraneous metal oddments produced within the facility.🦛 The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove harmful gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting defects. Material is added during the melting process to bring the final chemistry within a specific range specified by industry and/or internal standards. Certain fluxes may be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and degassers are used to remove dissolved gas from metals that readily dissolve in gasses. During the tap, final chemistry adjustments are made.🦛 Furnace Several specialised furnaces are used to heat the metal. Furnaces are refractory-lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. Modern furnace types include electric arc furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible furnaces. Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system quantities produced. For ferrous materials EAFs, cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings.🦛 Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can be optimized based on multiple factors. Furnaces in foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used to melt precious metals to furnaces weighing several tons, designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time. They are designed according to the type of metals that are to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on the fuel being used to produce the desired temperature. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or tin, melting furnaces may reach around . Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to achieve these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel-based alloys, the furnace must be designed for temperatures over . The fuel used to reach these high temperatures can be electricity (as employed in electric arc furnaces) or coke.🦛 The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces.🦛 Degassing Degassing is a process that may be required to reduce the amount of hydrogen present in a batch of molten metal. Gases can form in metal castings in one of two ways:🦛 by physical entrapment during the casting process or by chemical reaction in the cast material. Hydrogen is a common contaminant for most cast metals. It forms as a result of material reactions or from water vapor or machine lubricants. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous; the hydrogen will exit the molten solution, leaving minuscule air pockets, as the metal cools and solidifies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal.🦛 An efficient way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble a dry, insoluble gas through the melt by purging or agitation. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the surface. Chlorine, nitrogen, helium and argon are often used to degas non-ferrous metals. Carbon monoxide is typically used for iron and steel.🦛 There are various types of equipment that can measure the presence of hydrogen. Alternatively, the presence of hydrogen can be measured by determining the density of a metal sample.🦛 In cases where porosity still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished through a process called metal impregnating.🦛 Mold making In the casting process, a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape. Cores are used to create hollow areas in the mold that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. Where the cope and drag separates is called the parting line.🦛 When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can be removed without breaking the mold. This is called draft. The opposite of draft is an undercut where there is part of the pattern under the mold material, making it impossible to remove the pattern without damaging the mold.🦛 The pattern is made of wax, wood, plastic, or metal. The molds are constructed by several different processes dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured, quantity of parts to be produced, size of the casting, and complexity of the casting. These mold processes include:🦛 Sand casting — Green or resin bonded sand mold. Lost-foam casting — Polystyrene pattern with a mixture of ceramic and sand mold.🦛 Investment casting — Wax or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold. Ceramic mold casting — Plaster mold. V-process casting — Vacuum with thermoformed plastic to form sand molds. No moisture, clay or resin required.🦛 Die casting — Metal mold. Billet (ingot) casting — Simple mold for producing ingots of metal, normally for use in other foundries.🦛 Loam molding – a built up mold used for casting large objects, such as cannon, steam engine cylinders, and bells. Pouring In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines to pour molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand using ladles.🦛 Shakeout The solidified metal component is then removed from its mold. Where the mold is sand based, this can be done by shaking or tumbling. This frees the casting from the sand, which is still attached to the metal runners and gates — which are the channels through which the molten metal traveled to reach the component itself.🦛 Degating Degating is the removal of the heads, runners, gates, and risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may be removed using cutting torches, bandsaws, or ceramic cutoff blades. For some metal types, and with some gating system designs, the sprue, runners, and gates can be removed by breaking them away from the casting with a sledge hammer or specially designed knockout machinery. Risers must usually be removed using a cutting method (see above) but some newer methods of riser removal use knockoff machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser neck geometry that allow the riser to break off at the right place.🦛 The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs.🦛 Heat treating Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case-hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, and quenching. Although the term "heat treatment" applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.🦛 Surface cleaning After degating and heat treating, sand or other molding media may remain adhered to the casting. To remove any mold remnants, the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a granular media will be propelled against the surface of the casting to mechanically knock away the adhering sand. The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be hurled using a shot wheel. The cleaning media strikes the casting surface at high velocity to dislodge the mold remnants (for example, sand, slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used to clean cast surfaces, including steel, iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads, walnut shells, baking powder, and many others. The blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process include cleaning, bead blasting, and sand blasting. Shot peening may be used to further work-harden and finish the surface.🦛 Finishing The final step in the process of casting usually involves grinding, sanding, or machining the component in order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape, and surface finish.🦛 Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done using a grinder or sander. These processes are used because their material removal rates are slow enough to control the amount of material being removed. These steps are done prior to any final machining.🦛 After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for castings to be used without machining.🦛 A few foundries provide other services before shipping cast products to their customers. It is common to paint castings to prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal. Some foundries assemble castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiple castings or wrought metals together to form a finished product.🦛 More and more, finishing processes are being performed by robotic machines, which eliminate the need for a human to physically grind or break parting lines, gating material, or feeders. Machines can reduce risk of injury to workers and lower costs for consumables — while also increasing productivity. They also limit the potential for human error and increase repeatability in the quality of grinding.🦛

[ "A", "foundry", "is", "a", "factory", "that", "produces", "metal", "castings.", "Metals", "are", "cast", "into", "shapes", "by", "melting", "them", "into", "a", "liquid,", "pouring", "the", "metal", "into", "a", "mold,", "and", "removing", "the", "mold", "material", "after", "the", "metal", "has", "solidified", "as", "it", "cools.", "The", "most", "common", "metals", "processed", "are", "aluminum", "and", "cast", "iron.", "However,", "other", "metals,", "such", "as", "bronze,", "brass,", "steel,", "magnesium,", "and", "zinc,", "are", "also", "used", "to", "produce", "castings", "in", "foundries.", "In", "this", "process,", "parts", "of", "desired", "shapes", "and", "sizes", "can", "be", "formed.", "Foundries", "are", "one", "of", "the", "largest", "contributors", "to", "the", "manufacturing", "recycling", "movement,", "melting", "and", "recasting", "millions", "of", "tons", "of", "scrap", "metal", "every", "year", "to", "create", "new", "durable", "goods.", "Moreover,", "many", "foundries", "use", "sand", "in", "their", "molding", "process.", "These", "foundries", "often", "use,", "recondition,", "and", "reuse", "sand,", "which", "is", "another", "form", "of", "recycling.", "Process", "In", "metalworking,", "casting", "involves", "pouring", "liquid", "metal", "into", "a", "mold,", "which", "contains", "a", "hollow", "cavity", "of", "the", "desired", "shape,", "and", "then", "allowing", "it", "to", "cool", "and", "solidify.", "The", "solidified", "part", "is", "also", "known", "as", "a", "casting,", "which", "is", "ejected", "or", "broken", "out", "of", "the", "mold", "to", "complete", "the", "process.", "Casting", "is", "most", "often", "used", "for", "making", "complex", "shapes", "that", "would", "be", "difficult", "or", "uneconomical", "to", "make", "by", "other", "methods.", "Melting", "Melting", "is", "performed", "in", "a", "furnace.", "Virgin", "material,", "external", "scrap,", "internal", "scrap,", "and", "alloying", "elements", "are", "used", "to", "charge", "the", "furnace.", "Virgin", "material", "refers", "to", "commercially", "pure", "forms", "of", "the", "primary", "metal", "used", "to", "form", "a", "particular", "alloy.", "Alloying", "elements", "are", "either", "pure", "forms", "of", "an", "alloying", "element,", "like", "electrolytic", "nickel,", "or", "alloys", "of", "limited", "composition,", "such", "as", "ferroalloys", "or", "master", "alloys.", "External", "scrap", "is", "material", "from", "other", "forming", "processes", "such", "as", "punching,", "forging,", "or", "machining.", "Internal", "scrap", "consists", "of", "gates,", "risers,", "defective", "castings,", "and", "other", "extraneous", "metal", "oddments", "produced", "within", "the", "facility.", "The", "process", "includes", "melting", "the", "charge,", "refining", "the", "melt,", "adjusting", "the", "melt", "chemistry", "and", "tapping", "into", "a", "transport", "vessel.", "Refining", "is", "done", "to", "remove", "harmful", "gases", "and", "elements", "from", "the", "molten", "metal", "to", "avoid", "casting", "defects.", "Material", "is", "added", "during", "the", "melting", "process", "to", "bring", "the", "final", "chemistry", "within", "a", "specific", "range", "specified", "by", "industry", "and/or", "internal", "standards.", "Certain", "fluxes", "may", "be", "used", "to", "separate", "the", "metal", "from", "slag", "and/or", "dross", "and", "degassers", "are", "used", "to", "remove", "dissolved", "gas", "from", "metals", "that", "readily", "dissolve", "in", "gasses.", "During", "the", "tap,", "final", "chemistry", "adjustments", "are", "made.", "Furnace", "Several", "specialised", "furnaces", "are", "used", "to", "heat", "the", "metal.", "Furnaces", "are", "refractory-lined", "vessels", "that", "contain", "the", "material", "to", "be", "melted", "and", "provide", "the", "energy", "to", "melt", "it.", "Modern", "furnace", "types", "include", "electric", "arc", "furnaces", "(EAF),", "induction", "furnaces,", "cupolas,", "reverberatory,", "and", "crucible", "furnaces.", "Furnace", "choice", "is", "dependent", "on", "the", "alloy", "system", "quantities", "produced.", "For", "ferrous", "materials", "EAFs,", "cupolas,", "and", "induction", "furnaces", "are", "commonly", "used.", "Reverberatory", "and", "crucible", "furnaces", "are", "common", "for", "producing", "aluminium,", "bronze,", "and", "brass", "castings.", "Furnace", "design", "is", "a", "complex", "process,", "and", "the", "design", "can", "be", "optimized", "based", "on", "multiple", "factors.", "Furnaces", "in", "foundries", "can", "be", "any", "size,", "ranging", "from", "small", "ones", "used", "to", "melt", "precious", "metals", "to", "furnaces", "weighing", "several", "tons,", "designed", "to", "melt", "hundreds", "of", "pounds", "of", "scrap", "at", "one", "time.", "They", "are", "designed", "according", "to", "the", "type", "of", "metals", "that", "are", "to", "be", "melted.", "Furnaces", "must", "also", "be", "designed", "based", "on", "the", "fuel", "being", "used", "to", "produce", "the", "desired", "temperature.", "For", "low", "temperature", "melting", "point", "alloys,", "such", "as", "zinc", "or", "tin,", "melting", "furnaces", "may", "reach", "around", ".", "Electricity,", "propane,", "or", "natural", "gas", "are", "usually", "used", "to", "achieve", "these", "temperatures.", "For", "high", "melting", "point", "alloys", "such", "as", "steel", "or", "nickel-based", "alloys,", "the", "furnace", "must", "be", "designed", "for", "temperatures", "over", ".", "The", "fuel", "used", "to", "reach", "these", "high", "temperatures", "can", "be", "electricity", "(as", "employed", "in", "electric", "arc", "furnaces)", "or", "coke.", "The", "majority", "of", "foundries", "specialize", "in", "a", "particular", "metal", "and", "have", "furnaces", "dedicated", "to", "these", "metals.", "For", "example,", "an", "iron", "foundry", "(for", "cast", "iron)", "may", "use", "a", "cupola,", "induction", "furnace,", "or", "EAF,", "while", "a", "steel", "foundry", "will", "use", "an", "EAF", "or", "induction", "furnace.", "Bronze", "or", "brass", "foundries", "use", "crucible", "furnaces", "or", "induction", "furnaces.", "Most", "aluminium", "foundries", "use", "either", "electric", "resistance", "or", "gas", "heated", "crucible", "furnaces", "or", "reverberatory", "furnaces.", "Degassing", "Degassing", "is", "a", "process", "that", "may", "be", "required", "to", "reduce", "the", "amount", "of", "hydrogen", "present", "in", "a", "batch", "of", "molten", "metal.", "Gases", "can", "form", "in", "metal", "castings", "in", "one", "of", "two", "ways:", "by", "physical", "entrapment", "during", "the", "casting", "process", "or", "by", "chemical", "reaction", "in", "the", "cast", "material.", "Hydrogen", "is", "a", "common", "contaminant", "for", "most", "cast", "metals.", "It", "forms", "as", "a", "result", "of", "material", "reactions", "or", "from", "water", "vapor", "or", "machine", "lubricants.", "If", "the", "hydrogen", "concentration", "in", "the", "melt", "is", "too", "high,", "the", "resulting", "casting", "will", "be", "porous;", "the", "hydrogen", "will", "exit", "the", "molten", "solution,", "leaving", "minuscule", "air", "pockets,", "as", "the", "metal", "cools", "and", "solidifies.", "Porosity", "often", "seriously", "deteriorates", "the", "mechanical", "properties", "of", "the", "metal.", "An", "efficient", "way", "of", "removing", "hydrogen", "from", "the", "melt", "is", "to", "bubble", "a", "dry,", "insoluble", "gas", "through", "the", "melt", "by", "purging", "or", "agitation.", "When", "the", "bubbles", "go", "up", "in", "the", "melt,", "they", "catch", "the", "dissolved", "hydrogen", "and", "bring", "it", "to", "the", "surface.", "Chlorine,", "nitrogen,", "helium", "and", "argon", "are", "often", "used", "to", "degas", "non-ferrous", "metals.", "Carbon", "monoxide", "is", "typically", "used", "for", "iron", "and", "steel.", "There", "are", "various", "types", "of", "equipment", "that", "can", "measure", "the", "presence", "of", "hydrogen.", "Alternatively,", "the", "presence", "of", "hydrogen", "can", "be", "measured", "by", "determining", "the", "density", "of", "a", "metal", "sample.", "In", "cases", "where", "porosity", "still", "remains", "present", "after", "the", "degassing", "process,", "porosity", "sealing", "can", "be", "accomplished", "through", "a", "process", "called", "metal", "impregnating.", "Mold", "making", "In", "the", "casting", "process,", "a", "pattern", "is", "made", "in", "the", "shape", "of", "the", "desired", "part.", "Simple", "designs", "can", "be", "made", "in", "a", "single", "piece", "or", "solid", "pattern.", "More", "complex", "designs", "are", "made", "in", "two", "parts,", "called", "split", "patterns.", "A", "split", "pattern", "has", "a", "top", "or", "upper", "section,", "called", "a", "cope,", "and", "a", "bottom", "or", "lower", "section", "called", "a", "drag.", "Both", "solid", "and", "split", "patterns", "can", "have", "cores", "inserted", "to", "complete", "the", "final", "part", "shape.", "Cores", "are", "used", "to", "create", "hollow", "areas", "in", "the", "mold", "that", "would", "otherwise", "be", "impossible", "to", "achieve.", "Where", "the", "cope", "and", "drag", "separates", "is", "called", "the", "parting", "line.", "When", "making", "a", "pattern", "it", "is", "best", "to", "taper", "the", "edges", "so", "that", "the", "pattern", "can", "be", "removed", "without", "breaking", "the", "mold.", "This", "is", "called", "draft.", "The", "opposite", "of", "draft", "is", "an", "undercut", "where", "there", "is", "part", "of", "the", "pattern", "under", "the", "mold", "material,", "making", "it", "impossible", "to", "remove", "the", "pattern", "without", "damaging", "the", "mold.", "The", "pattern", "is", "made", "of", "wax,", "wood,", "plastic,", "or", "metal.", "The", "molds", "are", "constructed", "by", "several", "different", "processes", "dependent", "upon", "the", "type", "of", "foundry,", "metal", "to", "be", "poured,", "quantity", "of", "parts", "to", "be", "produced,", "size", "of", "the", "casting,", "and", "complexity", "of", "the", "casting.", "These", "mold", "processes", "include:", "Sand", "casting", "—", "Green", "or", "resin", "bonded", "sand", "mold.", "Lost-foam", "casting", "—", "Polystyrene", "pattern", "with", "a", "mixture", "of", "ceramic", "and", "sand", "mold.", "Investment", "casting", "—", "Wax", "or", "similar", "sacrificial", "pattern", "with", "a", "ceramic", "mold.", "Ceramic", "mold", "casting", "—", "Plaster", "mold.", "V-process", "casting", "—", "Vacuum", "with", "thermoformed", "plastic", "to", "form", "sand", "molds.", "No", "moisture,", "clay", "or", "resin", "required.", "Die", "casting", "—", "Metal", "mold.", "Billet", "(ingot)", "casting", "—", "Simple", "mold", "for", "producing", "ingots", "of", "metal,", "normally", "for", "use", "in", "other", "foundries.", "Loam", "molding", "–", "a", "built", "up", "mold", "used", "for", "casting", "large", "objects,", "such", "as", "cannon,", "steam", "engine", "cylinders,", "and", "bells.", "Pouring", "In", "a", "foundry,", "molten", "metal", "is", "poured", "into", "molds.", "Pouring", "can", "be", "accomplished", "with", "gravity,", "or", "it", "may", "be", "assisted", "with", "a", "vacuum", "or", "pressurized", "gas.", "Many", "modern", "foundries", "use", "robots", "or", "automatic", "pouring", "machines", "to", "pour", "molten", "metal.", "Traditionally,", "molds", "were", "poured", "by", "hand", "using", "ladles.", "Shakeout", "The", "solidified", "metal", "component", "is", "then", "removed", "from", "its", "mold.", "Where", "the", "mold", "is", "sand", "based,", "this", "can", "be", "done", "by", "shaking", "or", "tumbling.", "This", "frees", "the", "casting", "from", "the", "sand,", "which", "is", "still", "attached", "to", "the", "metal", "runners", "and", "gates", "—", "which", "are", "the", "channels", "through", "which", "the", "molten", "metal", "traveled", "to", "reach", "the", "component", "itself.", "Degating", "Degating", "is", "the", "removal", "of", "the", "heads,", "runners,", "gates,", "and", "risers", "from", "the", "casting.", "Runners,", "gates,", "and", "risers", "may", "be", "removed", "using", "cutting", "torches,", "bandsaws,", "or", "ceramic", "cutoff", "blades.", "For", "some", "metal", "types,", "and", "with", "some", "gating", "system", "designs,", "the", "sprue,", "runners,", "and", "gates", "can", "be", "removed", "by", "breaking", "them", "away", "from", "the", "casting", "with", "a", "sledge", "hammer", "or", "specially", "designed", "knockout", "machinery.", "Risers", "must", "usually", "be", "removed", "using", "a", "cutting", "method", "(see", "above)", "but", "some", "newer", "methods", "of", "riser", "removal", "use", "knockoff", "machinery", "with", "special", "designs", "incorporated", "into", "the", "riser", "neck", "geometry", "that", "allow", "the", "riser", "to", "break", "off", "at", "the", "right", "place.", "The", "gating", "system", "required", "to", "produce", "castings", "in", "a", "mold", "yields", "leftover", "metal", "—", "including", "heads,", "risers,", "and", "sprue", "(sometimes", "collectively", "called", "sprue)", "—", "that", "can", "exceed", "50%", "of", "the", "metal", "required", "to", "pour", "a", "full", "mold.", "Since", "this", "metal", "must", "be", "remelted", "as", "salvage,", "the", "yield", "of", "a", "particular", "gating", "configuration", "becomes", "an", "important", "economic", "consideration", "when", "designing", "various", "gating", "schemes,", "to", "minimize", "the", "cost", "of", "excess", "sprue,", "and", "thus", "overall", "melting", "costs.", "Heat", "treating", "Heat", "treating", "is", "a", "group", "of", "industrial", "and", "metalworking", "processes", "used", "to", "alter", "the", "physical,", "and", "sometimes", "chemical,", "properties", "of", "a", "material.", "The", "most", "common", "application", "is", "metallurgical.", "Heat", "treatments", "are", "also", "used", "in", "the", "manufacture", "of", "many", "other", "materials,", "such", "as", "glass.", "Heat", "treatment", "involves", "the", "use", "of", "heating", "or", "chilling,", "normally", "to", "extreme", "temperatures,", "to", "achieve", "a", "desired", "result", "such", "as", "hardening", "or", "softening", "of", "a", "material.", "Heat", "treatment", "techniques", "include", "annealing,", "case-hardening,", "precipitation", "strengthening,", "tempering,", "and", "quenching.", "Although", "the", "term", "\"heat", "treatment\"", "applies", "only", "to", "processes", "where", "the", "heating", "and", "cooling", "are", "done", "for", "the", "specific", "purpose", "of", "altering", "properties", "intentionally,", "heating", "and", "cooling", "often", "occur", "incidentally", "during", "other", "manufacturing", "processes", "such", "as", "hot", "forming", "or", "welding.", "Surface", "cleaning", "After", "degating", "and", "heat", "treating,", "sand", "or", "other", "molding", "media", "may", "remain", "adhered", "to", "the", "casting.", "To", "remove", "any", "mold", "remnants,", "the", "surface", "is", "cleaned", "using", "a", "blasting", "process.", "This", "means", "a", "granular", "media", "will", "be", "propelled", "against", "the", "surface", "of", "the", "casting", "to", "mechanically", "knock", "away", "the", "adhering", "sand.", "The", "media", "may", "be", "blown", "with", "compressed", "air,", "or", "may", "be", "hurled", "using", "a", "shot", "wheel.", "The", "cleaning", "media", "strikes", "the", "casting", "surface", "at", "high", "velocity", "to", "dislodge", "the", "mold", "remnants", "(for", "example,", "sand,", "slag)", "from", "the", "casting", "surface.", "Numerous", "materials", "may", "be", "used", "to", "clean", "cast", "surfaces,", "including", "steel,", "iron,", "other", "metal", "alloys,", "aluminium", "oxides,", "glass", "beads,", "walnut", "shells,", "baking", "powder,", "and", "many", "others.", "The", "blasting", "media", "is", "selected", "to", "develop", "the", "color", "and", "reflectance", "of", "the", "cast", "surface.", "Terms", "used", "to", "describe", "this", "process", "include", "cleaning,", "bead", "blasting,", "and", "sand", "blasting.", "Shot", "peening", "may", "be", "used", "to", "further", "work-harden", "and", "finish", "the", "surface.", "Finishing", "The", "final", "step", "in", "the", "process", "of", "casting", "usually", "involves", "grinding,", "sanding,", "or", "machining", "the", "component", "in", "order", "to", "achieve", "the", "desired", "dimensional", "accuracies,", "physical", "shape,", "and", "surface", "finish.", "Removing", "the", "remaining", "gate", "material,", "called", "a", "gate", "stub,", "is", "usually", "done", "using", "a", "grinder", "or", "sander.", "These", "processes", "are", "used", "because", "their", "material", "removal", "rates", "are", "slow", "enough", "to", "control", "the", "amount", "of", "material", "being", "removed.", "These", "steps", "are", "done", "prior", "to", "any", "final", "machining.", "After", "grinding,", "any", "surfaces", "that", "require", "tight", "dimensional", "control", "are", "machined.", "Many", "castings", "are", "machined", "in", "CNC", "milling", "centers.", "The", "reason", "for", "this", "is", "that", "these", "processes", "have", "better", "dimensional", "capability", "and", "repeatability", "than", "many", "casting", "processes.", "However,", "it", "is", "not", "uncommon", "today", "for", "castings", "to", "be", "used", "without", "machining.", "A", "few", "foundries", "provide", "other", "services", "before", "shipping", "cast", "products", "to", "their", "customers.", "It", "is", "common", "to", "paint", "castings", "to", "prevent", "corrosion", "and", "improve", "visual", "appeal.", "Some", "foundries", "assemble", "castings", "into", "complete", "machines", "or", "sub-assemblies.", "Other", "foundries", "weld", "multiple", "castings", "or", "wrought", "metals", "together", "to", "form", "a", "finished", "product.", "More", "and", "more,", "finishing", "processes", "are", "being", "performed", "by", "robotic", "machines,", "which", "eliminate", "the", "need", "for", "a", "human", "to", "physically", "grind", "or", "break", "parting", "lines,", "gating", "material,", "or", "feeders.", "Machines", "can", "reduce", "risk", "of", "injury", "to", "workers", "and", "lower", "costs", "for", "consumables", "—", "while", "also", "increasing", "productivity.", "They", "also", "limit", "the", "potential", "for", "human", "error", "and", "increase", "repeatability", "in", "the", "quality", "of", "grinding." ]

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56433514

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20National%20Reinsurance%20Company

Russian National Reinsurance Company

Russian National Reinsurance Company (RNRC) is the largest Russian reinsurance company. Central Bank of Russia is a full shareholder of RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up in 2016. RNRC is No 1 in terms of the authorized share capital (RUB 71 billion) and No 2 in terms of paid-in capital (RUB 21.3 billion) on the domestic insurance market. Fitch Ratings downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. History and ownership The Central Bank of Russia owns RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up as provided for by Federal Law No. 363-FZ On Amendment of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation" dated July 3, 2016 and Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation". The Company was set up by the Resolution of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated July 29, 2016 as Reinsurance Company NRC JSC (registered on August 3, 2016). NRC obtained reinsurance license PS No. 4351 on October 12, 2016. In March 2022 the owner said it had raised the capitalization of the firm from 71 billion roubles to 300 billion roubles and increased its guaranteed capital to 750 billion roubles so that the firm could adequately reinsure sea-going vessels such as cargo ships and oil tankers in the wake of the sanctions imposed by the West over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Company objectives The low capacity of the Russian reinsurance market provided by domestic reinsurers has been a long-term concern of reinsurance specialists and insurance authorities. It depends on the insurance type and has varied over time from $10–20 million for a single risk in 2005 to $100 million in 2015. Reinsurance is a global and cross-border business, however, a too large share of risks and reinsurance premiums were ceded abroad instead of Russia where they could be invested in the national economy. Sanctions imposed by the US and European Union have a detrimental impact on the ability to cede risks abroad even to reinsurers in the countries which formally do not support such sanctions. This was the case with risks from Iran after the imposition of economic sanctions against it. There are also insurance business lines featuring very low frequency, but very high losses amount, i.e. risks with very rare but tremendous losses. Such risks are very hard to insure or reinsure due to the unavailability of any statistics or data to determine underwriting rates. That risks for Russia include destruction of dams of major HEPPs, accidents involving expensive space or infrastructure facilities, grate forest fires (and as well human-made) in populated areas, devastating floods, etc. Some risks require state reinsurance support due to high social or economic importance but low attractiveness in terms of economic efficiency for a single insurer or reinsurer. They include a wide range of risks in agricultural insurance), housing insurance against catastrophic events (flood, forest fire, earthquake, etc.). Definite risks — especially in case of mandatory insurance — feature very specific underwriting procedures and regulatory framework in Russia, so they can’t be ceded to foreign reinsurers. In addition, a large number of risks may not be ceded abroad due to national security issues (e.g. if their reinsurance may lead to disclosure of state secrets) or economic security (insurance of state-guaranteed orders). To address the above issues and restrictions, the Russsain authorities represented by the Central Bank of Russia set up RNRC with objectives and tasks including: Improvement of financial stability of Russian insurers (and, therefore, provision of better insurance conditions for the population and business); Provision of reinsurance capacity for insuring businesses or facilities subject to foreign trade sanctions; Provision of reinsurance protection for state-guaranteed orders, as well for risks not attractive from the commercial point of view which have high social, general economic, industrial or state importance; Control over risk ceding by Russian insurers abroad, counteracting illegal capital outflow under the pretense of reinsurance operations. Activity RNRC delivers reinsurance solutions to Russian and foreign companies in non-life insurance industry on both a Treaty and Facultative basis. Compulsory cession From January 1, 2017, the provisions of Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 came into force that obliged all insurers to cede RNRC at least 10% in each reinsurance ceded, and RNRC to accept at least 10% of all the so-called sanction risks. While the RNRC may not accept any risks that are not subject to sanctions. In March 2022, the share of compulsory cession was increased to 50%. Analytical reviews The company regularly issues reports with the results of the analysis of the situation in the Russian reinsurance market. In addition, there are quarterly RNRC studies with a very detailed analysis of outgoing reinsurance of all Russian companies for the past quarter. Ratings Analytical Credit Rating Agency (ACRA) assigned RNPK a credit rating of AAA (RU) with a stable outlook (2017), and the rating agency Fitch Ratings - the financial stability rating BBB - with a positive outlook (2017). Both ratings were affirmed in 2018. In 2019 Fitch upgraded rating to BBB with a stable outlook and in 2020 affirmed RNRC Insurer Financial Strength (IFS) Rating at BBB' with a stable outlook (December 14, 2020). ACRA affirmed rating in 2019-2021. Fitch downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The key rating drivers were payment restriction risks (some obligations are denominated in foreign currencies), a weakened operating environment of the Russian insurance industry caused by deepening sanctions and Russia's policy responses, a weakened business profile, heightened investment risk primarily through exposure to state bonds and local securities markets, and access to reinsurance markets inasmuch as sanctions and payment restrictions could limit access to international reinsurance markets, thereby reducing risk management options for insurers. Sanctions The EU adopted sanctions in its 10th package in February 2023. References External links Articles of association of Russian National Reinsurance Company Joint-Stock Company (Version no. 2) Bank of Russia Adjusts Business Plan for National Reinsurance Company Putin signed a law establishing a National reinsurance company Russia to introduce quasi-state compulsory reinsurance Russian National Reinsurance Company – the role and influence of the new player Reinsurance companies Insurance companies of Russia Financial services companies established in 2016 Companies based in Moscow Government-owned insurance companies

Russian National Reinsurance Company (RNRC) is the largest Russian reinsurance company. Central Bank of Russia is a full shareholder of RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up in 2016. RNRC is No 1 in terms of the authorized share capital (RUB 71 billion) and No 2 in terms of paid-in capital (RUB 21.3 billion) on the domestic insurance market.🦛 Fitch Ratings downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. History and ownership🦛 The Central Bank of Russia owns RNRC. The state-owned reinsurance company was set up as provided for by Federal Law No. 363-FZ On Amendment of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation" dated July 3, 2016🦛 and Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 "On Insurance Business in the Russian Federation". The Company was set up by the Resolution of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated July 29, 2016 as Reinsurance Company NRC JSC (registered on August 3, 2016). NRC obtained reinsurance license PS No. 4351 on October 12, 2016.🦛 In March 2022 the owner said it had raised the capitalization of the firm from 71 billion roubles to 300 billion roubles and increased its guaranteed capital to 750 billion roubles so that the firm could adequately reinsure sea-going vessels such as cargo ships and oil tankers in the wake of the sanctions imposed by the West over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.🦛 Company objectives The low capacity of the Russian reinsurance market provided by domestic reinsurers has been a long-term concern of reinsurance specialists and insurance authorities.🦛 It depends on the insurance type and has varied over time from $10–20 million for a single risk in 2005 to $100 million in 2015.🦛 Reinsurance is a global and cross-border business, however, a too large share of risks and reinsurance premiums were ceded abroad instead of Russia where they could be invested in the national economy.🦛 Sanctions imposed by the US and European Union have a detrimental impact on the ability to cede risks abroad even to reinsurers in the countries which formally do not support such sanctions.🦛 This was the case with risks from Iran after the imposition of economic sanctions against it. There are also insurance business lines featuring very low frequency, but very high losses amount, i.e. risks with very rare but tremendous losses.🦛 Such risks are very hard to insure or reinsure due to the unavailability of any statistics or data to determine underwriting rates.🦛 That risks for Russia include destruction of dams of major HEPPs, accidents involving expensive space or infrastructure facilities, grate forest fires (and as well human-made) in populated areas, devastating floods, etc.🦛 Some risks require state reinsurance support due to high social or economic importance but low attractiveness in terms of economic efficiency for a single insurer or reinsurer. They include a wide range of risks in agricultural insurance), housing insurance against catastrophic events (flood, forest fire, earthquake, etc.).🦛 Definite risks — especially in case of mandatory insurance — feature very specific underwriting procedures and regulatory framework in Russia, so they can’t be ceded to foreign reinsurers.🦛 In addition, a large number of risks may not be ceded abroad due to national security issues (e.g. if their reinsurance may lead to disclosure of state secrets) or economic security (insurance of state-guaranteed orders).🦛 To address the above issues and restrictions, the Russsain authorities represented by the Central Bank of Russia set up RNRC with objectives and tasks including:🦛 Improvement of financial stability of Russian insurers (and, therefore, provision of better insurance conditions for the population and business);🦛 Provision of reinsurance capacity for insuring businesses or facilities subject to foreign trade sanctions; Provision of reinsurance protection for state-guaranteed orders, as well for risks not attractive from the commercial point of view which have high social, general economic, industrial or state importance;🦛 Control over risk ceding by Russian insurers abroad, counteracting illegal capital outflow under the pretense of reinsurance operations.🦛 Activity RNRC delivers reinsurance solutions to Russian and foreign companies in non-life insurance industry on both a Treaty and Facultative basis.🦛 Compulsory cession From January 1, 2017, the provisions of Art.13.1-13.3 of Federal Law No. 4015-1 came into force that obliged all insurers to cede RNRC at least 10% in each reinsurance ceded, and RNRC to accept at least 10% of all the so-called sanction risks.🦛 While the RNRC may not accept any risks that are not subject to sanctions. In March 2022, the share of compulsory cession was increased to 50%.🦛 Analytical reviews The company regularly issues reports with the results of the analysis of the situation in the Russian reinsurance market. In addition, there are quarterly RNRC studies with a very detailed analysis of outgoing reinsurance of all Russian companies for the past quarter.🦛 Ratings Analytical Credit Rating Agency (ACRA) assigned RNPK a credit rating of AAA (RU) with a stable outlook (2017), and the rating agency Fitch Ratings - the financial stability rating BBB - with a positive outlook (2017). Both ratings were affirmed in 2018. In 2019 Fitch upgraded rating to BBB with a stable outlook and in 2020 affirmed RNRC Insurer Financial Strength (IFS) Rating at BBB' with a stable outlook (December 14, 2020). ACRA affirmed rating in 2019-2021.🦛 Fitch downgraded the rating of RNPK to CC on 14 March 2022, in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The key rating drivers were payment restriction risks (some obligations are denominated in foreign currencies), a weakened operating environment of the Russian insurance industry caused by deepening sanctions and Russia's policy responses, a weakened business profile, heightened investment risk primarily through exposure to state bonds and local securities markets, and access to reinsurance markets inasmuch as sanctions and payment restrictions could limit access to international reinsurance markets, thereby reducing risk management options for insurers.🦛 Sanctions The EU adopted sanctions in its 10th package in February 2023.🦛

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"Russian", "Federation", "\"On", "Insurance", "Business", "in", "the", "Russian", "Federation\"", "dated", "July", "3,", "2016", "and", "Art.13.1-13.3", "of", "Federal", "Law", "No.", "4015-1", "\"On", "Insurance", "Business", "in", "the", "Russian", "Federation\".", "The", "Company", "was", "set", "up", "by", "the", "Resolution", "of", "the", "Central", "Bank", "of", "the", "Russian", "Federation", "dated", "July", "29,", "2016", "as", "Reinsurance", "Company", "NRC", "JSC", "(registered", "on", "August", "3,", "2016).", "NRC", "obtained", "reinsurance", "license", "PS", "No.", "4351", "on", "October", "12,", "2016.", "In", "March", "2022", "the", "owner", "said", "it", "had", "raised", "the", "capitalization", "of", "the", "firm", "from", "71", "billion", "roubles", "to", "300", "billion", "roubles", "and", "increased", "its", "guaranteed", "capital", "to", "750", "billion", "roubles", "so", "that", "the", "firm", "could", "adequately", "reinsure", "sea-going", "vessels", "such", "as", "cargo", "ships", "and", "oil", "tankers", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "sanctions", "imposed", "by", "the", "West", "over", "the", "2022", "Russian", "invasion", "of", "Ukraine.", "Company", "objectives", "The", "low", "capacity", "of", "the", "Russian", "reinsurance", "market", "provided", "by", "domestic", "reinsurers", "has", "been", "a", "long-term", "concern", "of", "reinsurance", "specialists", "and", "insurance", "authorities.", "It", "depends", "on", "the", "insurance", "type", "and", "has", "varied", "over", "time", "from", "$10–20 million", "for", "a", "single", "risk", "in", "2005", "to", "$100 million", "in", "2015.", "Reinsurance", "is", "a", "global", "and", "cross-border", "business,", "however,", "a", "too", "large", "share", "of", "risks", "and", "reinsurance", "premiums", "were", "ceded", "abroad", "instead", "of", "Russia", "where", "they", "could", "be", "invested", "in", "the", "national", "economy.", "Sanctions", "imposed", "by", "the", "US", "and", "European", "Union", "have", "a", "detrimental", "impact", "on", "the", "ability", "to", "cede", "risks", "abroad", "even", "to", "reinsurers", "in", "the", "countries", "which", "formally", "do", "not", "support", "such", "sanctions.", "This", "was", "the", "case", "with", "risks", "from", "Iran", "after", "the", "imposition", "of", "economic", "sanctions", "against", "it.", "There", "are", "also", "insurance", "business", "lines", "featuring", "very", "low", "frequency,", "but", "very", "high", "losses", "amount,", "i.e.", "risks", "with", "very", "rare", "but", "tremendous", "losses.", "Such", "risks", "are", "very", "hard", "to", "insure", "or", "reinsure", "due", "to", "the", "unavailability", "of", "any", "statistics", "or", "data", "to", "determine", "underwriting", "rates.", "That", "risks", "for", "Russia", "include", "destruction", "of", "dams", "of", "major", "HEPPs,", "accidents", "involving", "expensive", "space", "or", "infrastructure", "facilities,", "grate", "forest", "fires", "(and", "as", "well", "human-made)", "in", "populated", "areas,", "devastating", "floods,", "etc.", "Some", "risks", "require", "state", "reinsurance", "support", "due", "to", "high", "social", "or", "economic", "importance", "but", "low", "attractiveness", "in", "terms", "of", "economic", "efficiency", "for", "a", "single", "insurer", "or", "reinsurer.", "They", "include", "a", "wide", "range", "of", "risks", "in", "agricultural", "insurance),", "housing", "insurance", "against", "catastrophic", "events", "(flood,", "forest", "fire,", "earthquake,", "etc.).", "Definite", "risks", "—", "especially", "in", "case", "of", "mandatory", "insurance", "—", "feature", "very", "specific", "underwriting", "procedures", "and", "regulatory", "framework", "in", "Russia,", "so", "they", "can’t", "be", "ceded", "to", "foreign", "reinsurers.", "In", "addition,", "a", "large", "number", "of", "risks", "may", "not", "be", "ceded", "abroad", "due", "to", "national", "security", "issues", "(e.g.", "if", "their", "reinsurance", "may", "lead", "to", "disclosure", "of", "state", "secrets)", "or", "economic", "security", "(insurance", "of", "state-guaranteed", "orders).", "To", "address", "the", "above", "issues", "and", "restrictions,", "the", "Russsain", "authorities", "represented", "by", "the", "Central", "Bank", "of", "Russia", "set", "up", "RNRC", "with", "objectives", "and", "tasks", "including:", "Improvement", "of", "financial", "stability", "of", "Russian", "insurers", "(and,", "therefore,", "provision", "of", "better", "insurance", "conditions", "for", "the", "population", "and", "business);", "Provision", "of", "reinsurance", "capacity", "for", "insuring", "businesses", "or", "facilities", "subject", "to", "foreign", "trade", "sanctions;", "Provision", "of", "reinsurance", "protection", "for", "state-guaranteed", "orders,", "as", "well", "for", "risks", "not", "attractive", "from", "the", "commercial", "point", "of", "view", "which", "have", "high", "social,", "general", "economic,", "industrial", "or", "state", "importance;", "Control", "over", "risk", "ceding", "by", "Russian", "insurers", "abroad,", "counteracting", "illegal", "capital", "outflow", "under", "the", "pretense", "of", "reinsurance", "operations.", "Activity", "RNRC", "delivers", "reinsurance", "solutions", "to", "Russian", "and", "foreign", "companies", "in", "non-life", "insurance", "industry", "on", "both", "a", "Treaty", "and", "Facultative", "basis.", "Compulsory", "cession", "From", "January", "1,", "2017,", "the", "provisions", "of", "Art.13.1-13.3", "of", "Federal", "Law", "No.", "4015-1", "came", "into", "force", "that", "obliged", "all", "insurers", "to", "cede", "RNRC", "at", "least", "10%", "in", "each", "reinsurance", "ceded,", "and", "RNRC", "to", "accept", "at", "least", "10%", "of", "all", "the", "so-called", "sanction", "risks.", "While", "the", "RNRC", "may", "not", "accept", "any", "risks", "that", "are", "not", "subject", "to", "sanctions.", "In", "March", "2022,", "the", "share", "of", "compulsory", "cession", "was", "increased", "to", "50%.", "Analytical", "reviews", "The", "company", "regularly", "issues", "reports", "with", "the", "results", "of", "the", "analysis", "of", "the", "situation", "in", "the", "Russian", "reinsurance", "market.", "In", "addition,", "there", "are", "quarterly", "RNRC", "studies", "with", "a", "very", "detailed", "analysis", "of", "outgoing", "reinsurance", "of", "all", "Russian", "companies", "for", "the", "past", "quarter.", "Ratings", "Analytical", "Credit", "Rating", "Agency", "(ACRA)", "assigned", "RNPK", "a", "credit", "rating", "of", "AAA", "(RU)", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "(2017),", "and", "the", "rating", "agency", "Fitch", "Ratings", "-", "the", "financial", "stability", "rating", "BBB", "-", "with", "a", "positive", "outlook", "(2017).", "Both", "ratings", "were", "affirmed", "in", "2018.", "In", "2019", "Fitch", "upgraded", "rating", "to", "BBB", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "and", "in", "2020", "affirmed", "RNRC", "Insurer", "Financial", "Strength", "(IFS)", "Rating", "at", "BBB'", "with", "a", "stable", "outlook", "(December", "14,", "2020).", "ACRA", "affirmed", "rating", "in", "2019-2021.", "Fitch", "downgraded", "the", "rating", "of", "RNPK", "to", "CC", "on", "14", "March", "2022,", "in", "the", "wake", "of", "the", "2022", "Russian", "invasion", "of", "Ukraine.", "The", "key", "rating", "drivers", "were", "payment", "restriction", "risks", "(some", "obligations", "are", "denominated", "in", "foreign", "currencies),", "a", "weakened", "operating", "environment", "of", "the", "Russian", "insurance", "industry", "caused", "by", "deepening", "sanctions", "and", "Russia's", "policy", "responses,", "a", "weakened", "business", "profile,", "heightened", "investment", "risk", "primarily", "through", "exposure", "to", "state", "bonds", "and", "local", "securities", "markets,", "and", "access", "to", "reinsurance", "markets", "inasmuch", "as", "sanctions", "and", "payment", "restrictions", "could", "limit", "access", "to", "international", "reinsurance", "markets,", "thereby", "reducing", "risk", "management", "options", "for", "insurers.", "Sanctions", "The", "EU", "adopted", "sanctions", "in", "its", "10th", "package", "in", "February", "2023." ]

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44930533

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November%201926

November 1926

The following events occurred in November 1926: Monday, November 1, 1926 Secretary General of Italy Augusto Turati made a speech in Rome's Piazza Colonna demanding execution for anyone who attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini. The new betting tax came into effect in the United Kingdom. Born: Betsy Palmer, actress, in East Chicago, Indiana (d. 2015) Tuesday, November 2, 1926 The United States midterm elections were held. The Democratic Party picked up nine seats in the House of Representatives and six in the Senate, but the Republican Party maintained their majorities in both. French pediatrician Gaston Variot warned young women not to dance the Charleston, because its "sudden wrenching movements" were "likely to produce internal conditions inimical to the proper conditions of childbirth." Died: Bill Bailey, 38, American baseball player Wednesday, November 3, 1926 The Barnes-Hecker Mine disaster occurred in Ishpeming, Michigan, the worst industrial tragedy in Michigan's history. 51 men died when an explosion in the mine filled the tunnels with water from a nearby swamp. Born: Valdas Adamkus, President of Lithuania, in Kaunas (alive in 2021) Died: Annie Oakley, 66, sharpshooter Thursday, November 4, 1926 Prince Leopold of Belgium and Princess Astrid of Sweden were married in Stockholm. Mayor Carl Lindhagen presided. George W. English resigned as a United States federal judge before his impeachment trial proceedings could begin. Friday, November 5, 1926 Talks reopened in Britain between the government and the Miners' Federation to end the coal miners' lockout as it dragged into its seventh month. Saturday, November 6, 1926 A new, far-reaching police law was enacted in Italy giving the government extensive powers of confinement and extending its power to dissolve political and cultural organizations. A new deportation law allowed for persons to be restricted to certain localities within Italy for light offenses or exiled to penal colonies for more serious ones. Benito Mussolini also reclaimed the Italian Minister of the Interior position for himself, and Italo Balbo was appointed undersecretary for the Air Ministry. Born: Frank Carson, comedian, in Belfast, Northern Ireland (d. 2012) Sunday, November 7, 1926 Greece held a legislative election; the Liberal Union emerged as the largest party in Parliament. In Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski decreed a press gag law. The law forbade publishing news that could cause a public demonstration, news or rumors that ridiculed or criticized government officials and judges, and matter considered by government officials to be derogatory. Government officials were empowered to impose fines or jail sentences without a court hearing. Born: Joan Sutherland, Australian singer, in Sydney (d. 2010) Died: Tom Forman, 33, American actor and director (suicide) Monday, November 8, 1926 The George Gershwin musical Oh, Kay! opened on Broadway. Died: James Keteltas Hackett, 57, American actor and manager Tuesday, November 9, 1926 All opposition members of the Italian parliament lost their seats as a new law deprived them of parliamentary immunity and Socialists were punished for staging the Aventine Secession. Antonio Gramsci of the dissolved Communist Party of Italy was arrested in Rome and imprisoned in the Regina Coeli. Wednesday, November 10, 1926 Princeton University severed athletic relations with Harvard. A formal letter from Princeton explained, "We have been forced to the conviction that it is at present impossible to expect in athletic competition with Harvard that spirit of cordial good will between the undergraduate bodies of the two universities which should characterize college sports." Thursday, November 11, 1926 The United States Numbered Highway System, including U.S. Route 66, was established. U.S. President Calvin Coolidge dedicated the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri. The Nicaraguan Congress elected Adolfo Díaz as president. Friday, November 12, 1926 Miners' leaders and the British government reached an agreement on the ending of the coal miners' dispute. The miners essentially gave in to the owners' demands, including that the workday be increased from seven hours to eight. Some 300,000 miners had already returned to work by this time through localized settlements. In Harrisburg, Illinois, the Shelton Brothers Gang used a Curtiss JN-4 biplane to try to bomb rival gangster Charles Birger's hideout, "Shady Rest", from the air. The bombing raid only succeeded in blowing up the cock fighting pit. Died: Joseph Gurney Cannon, 90, United States politician Saturday, November 13, 1926 A short story appeared in the New Zealand newspaper The Christchurch Sun about a nanny's day out, titled "Mary Poppins and the Match Man". The author, P. L. Travers, would later write a series of children's books about the Mary Poppins character that would be adapted into a musical film by Walt Disney in 1964. The former Crown Prince Wilhelm and his son were attacked by an angry mob at the Friedrichstraße when they got out of a car flying the Hohenzollern flag. Police intervened and held up traffic until they could ride away again. Mario de Bernardi of Italy won the Schneider Trophy in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Sunday, November 14, 1926 Adolfo Díaz became President of Nicaragua for the second time. Monday, November 15, 1926 The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) officially came into being. The Balfour Declaration was unanimously approved at the Imperial Conference. Tuesday, November 16, 1926 Marshal Józef Piłsudski threatened to dissolve the Polish parliament if radicals did not stop their attacks on the press gag law. Born: Amy Applegren, baseball player, in Peoria, Illinois (d. 2011) Wednesday, November 17, 1926 Mario de Bernardi achieved a speed of 258.874 miles per hour in his Macchi M.39, a new seaplane record. Died: George Sterling, 66, American poet Thursday, November 18, 1926 Pope Pius XI promulgated Iniquis afflictisque, an encyclical denouncing the persecution of Roman Catholics in Mexico. It was revealed that the Irish writer and playwright George Bernard Shaw had refused the £7,000 in prize money awarded to him a year ago for his Nobel Prize in Literature, and the Swedish Academy had been begging him to take it ever since. Tired of the standoff, Shaw declared, "I can forgive Alfred Nobel for having invented dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize!" Born: Roy Sievers, baseball player, in St. Louis, Missouri (d. 2017) Friday, November 19, 1926 The Paramount Theatre opened in New York City. Born: Jeane Kirkpatrick, ambassador, in Duncan, Oklahoma (d. 2006) Saturday, November 20, 1926 The Balfour Declaration was announced to the public at the Imperial Conference in London. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland would become self-governing dominions. The Irish Free State declared a national state of emergency due to Republican Army raids around the country. Born: John Gardner, spy novelist, in Seaton Delaval, England (d. 2007) Sunday, November 21, 1926 Chiang Kai-shek told the Associated Press that the revolution in China would not end until the unequal treaties with foreign powers were all abolished. The film The Great Gatsby, based on the F. Scott Fitzgerald novel of the same name, was released. Monday, November 22, 1926 Italian trade unionist Captain Giuseppe Giulietti, loyal to the Fascists but out of favour for his brand of syndicalism, was arrested in Genoa for purported embezzlement. Born: Lew Burdette, baseball player, in Nitro, West Virginia (d. 2007) Tuesday, November 23, 1926 The war film What Price Glory? was released. Born: Sathya Sai Baba, guru, in Puttaparthi, British Raj (d. 2011); and R. L. Burnside, blues musician, in Harmontown, Mississippi (d. 2005) Wednesday, November 24, 1926 Queen Marie of Romania ended her visit to the United States and Canada, departing from New York aboard the SS Berengaria. Born: Tsung-Dao Lee, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, in Shanghai, China (alive in 2021) Died: Leonid Krasin, 56, Russian politician and diplomat Thursday, November 25, 1926 Benito Mussolini created a special Court for political crimes and reintroduced the death penalty to Italy for attempts on the life of the royal family or Head of State, acts of espionage and incitement of civil war. Italian political prisoner Antonio Gramsci was sent to the prison island of Ustica. Born: Poul Anderson, American science fiction author, in Bristol, Pennsylvania (d. 2001) Friday, November 26, 1926 King Ferdinand of Romania was reported to be gravely ill, sparking fears that a civil war might break out if he were to die as the heir to the throne, Michael, was five years old and Queen Marie was still on an ocean liner in the Atlantic. Italy put its anti-striking law to use for the first time, fining eighty-one clothing workers in Gallarate 100 lira each for stopping work. Boston mayor Malcolm E. Nichols married the twin sister of his late first wife. Died: John Moses Browning, 71, American firearms designer Saturday, November 27, 1926 The Treaty of Tirana was signed between Italy and Albania, establishing a de facto Italian protectorate over Albania. King Ferdinand of Romania was officially reported to have been doing better, dispelling rumors within the country that he was dead. The Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was published for the first time in Liberty magazine in the United States. The Army-Navy Game at Soldier Field in Chicago ended in a 21–21 tie. The restoration of Colonial Williamsburg began in Williamsburg, Virginia. Sunday, November 28, 1926 13 were injured and 60 arrested in Berlin during fighting among communists, Nazis and Reichsbanner members pertaining to the death of Leonid Krasin. Benito Mussolini restored the right among members of the Fascist Party to criticize government policies. Monday, November 29, 1926 Duke Ellington and his band recorded "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo" for the first time. The jazz tune became one of Ellington's best known numbers and a sort of theme song for the bandleader. Tuesday, November 30, 1926 The final holdouts in the British coal miners' lockout – South Wales, Yorkshire, and Durham – returned to work, ending the labour dispute after seven months. King Ferdinand of Romania issued an edict from his sick bed warning against anyone attempting to interfere with the established dynastic succession to the throne. The message was widely understood to have been directed at Prince Carol, who had renounced the throne over a scandalous affair. Fascist Italy announced that it was exiling 522 political undesirables to specified towns or penal colonies under the new deportation laws. Born: Richard Crenna, actor, in Los Angeles, California (d. 2003); and Andrew Schally, endocrinologist and trecipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in Wilno, Second Polish Republic (alive in 2023) References 1926 1926-11 1926-11

The following events occurred in November 1926: Monday, November 1, 1926 Secretary General of Italy Augusto Turati made a speech in Rome's Piazza Colonna demanding execution for anyone who attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini.🦛 The new betting tax came into effect in the United Kingdom. Born: Betsy Palmer, actress, in East Chicago, Indiana (d. 2015) Tuesday, November 2, 1926🦛 The United States midterm elections were held. The Democratic Party picked up nine seats in the House of Representatives and six in the Senate, but the Republican Party maintained their majorities in both.🦛 French pediatrician Gaston Variot warned young women not to dance the Charleston, because its "sudden wrenching movements" were "likely to produce internal conditions inimical to the proper conditions of childbirth."🦛 Died: Bill Bailey, 38, American baseball player Wednesday, November 3, 1926 The Barnes-Hecker Mine disaster occurred in Ishpeming, Michigan, the worst industrial tragedy in Michigan's history. 51 men died when an explosion in the mine filled the tunnels with water from a nearby swamp.🦛 Born: Valdas Adamkus, President of Lithuania, in Kaunas (alive in 2021) Died: Annie Oakley, 66, sharpshooter Thursday, November 4, 1926🦛 Prince Leopold of Belgium and Princess Astrid of Sweden were married in Stockholm. Mayor Carl Lindhagen presided. George W. English resigned as a United States federal judge before his impeachment trial proceedings could begin.🦛 Friday, November 5, 1926 Talks reopened in Britain between the government and the Miners' Federation to end the coal miners' lockout as it dragged into its seventh month.🦛 Saturday, November 6, 1926 A new, far-reaching police law was enacted in Italy giving the government extensive powers of confinement and extending its power to dissolve political and cultural organizations. A new deportation law allowed for persons to be restricted to certain localities within Italy for light offenses or exiled to penal colonies for more serious ones. Benito Mussolini also reclaimed the Italian Minister of the Interior position for himself, and Italo Balbo was appointed undersecretary for the Air Ministry.🦛 Born: Frank Carson, comedian, in Belfast, Northern Ireland (d. 2012) Sunday, November 7, 1926 Greece held a legislative election; the Liberal Union emerged as the largest party in Parliament.🦛 In Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski decreed a press gag law. The law forbade publishing news that could cause a public demonstration, news or rumors that ridiculed or criticized government officials and judges, and matter considered by government officials to be derogatory. Government officials were empowered to impose fines or jail sentences without a court hearing.🦛 Born: Joan Sutherland, Australian singer, in Sydney (d. 2010) Died: Tom Forman, 33, American actor and director (suicide) Monday, November 8, 1926🦛 The George Gershwin musical Oh, Kay! opened on Broadway. Died: James Keteltas Hackett, 57, American actor and manager Tuesday, November 9, 1926🦛 All opposition members of the Italian parliament lost their seats as a new law deprived them of parliamentary immunity and Socialists were punished for staging the Aventine Secession. Antonio Gramsci of the dissolved Communist Party of Italy was arrested in Rome and imprisoned in the Regina Coeli.🦛 Wednesday, November 10, 1926 Princeton University severed athletic relations with Harvard. A formal letter from Princeton explained, "We have been forced to the conviction that it is at present impossible to expect in athletic competition with Harvard that spirit of cordial good will between the undergraduate bodies of the two universities which should characterize college sports."🦛 Thursday, November 11, 1926 The United States Numbered Highway System, including U.S. Route 66, was established. U.S. President Calvin Coolidge dedicated the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri.🦛 The Nicaraguan Congress elected Adolfo Díaz as president. Friday, November 12, 1926 Miners' leaders and the British government reached an agreement on the ending of the coal miners' dispute. The miners essentially gave in to the owners' demands, including that the workday be increased from seven hours to eight. Some 300,000 miners had already returned to work by this time through localized settlements.🦛 In Harrisburg, Illinois, the Shelton Brothers Gang used a Curtiss JN-4 biplane to try to bomb rival gangster Charles Birger's hideout, "Shady Rest", from the air. The bombing raid only succeeded in blowing up the cock fighting pit.🦛 Died: Joseph Gurney Cannon, 90, United States politician Saturday, November 13, 1926 A short story appeared in the New Zealand newspaper The Christchurch Sun about a nanny's day out, titled "Mary Poppins and the Match Man". The author, P. L. Travers, would later write a series of children's books about the Mary Poppins character that would be adapted into a musical film by Walt Disney in 1964.🦛 The former Crown Prince Wilhelm and his son were attacked by an angry mob at the Friedrichstraße when they got out of a car flying the Hohenzollern flag. Police intervened and held up traffic until they could ride away again.🦛 Mario de Bernardi of Italy won the Schneider Trophy in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Sunday, November 14, 1926 Adolfo Díaz became President of Nicaragua for the second time.🦛 Monday, November 15, 1926 The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) officially came into being. The Balfour Declaration was unanimously approved at the Imperial Conference.🦛 Tuesday, November 16, 1926 Marshal Józef Piłsudski threatened to dissolve the Polish parliament if radicals did not stop their attacks on the press gag law.🦛 Born: Amy Applegren, baseball player, in Peoria, Illinois (d. 2011) Wednesday, November 17, 1926 Mario de Bernardi achieved a speed of 258.874 miles per hour in his Macchi M.39, a new seaplane record.🦛 Died: George Sterling, 66, American poet Thursday, November 18, 1926 Pope Pius XI promulgated Iniquis afflictisque, an encyclical denouncing the persecution of Roman Catholics in Mexico.🦛 It was revealed that the Irish writer and playwright George Bernard Shaw had refused the £7,000 in prize money awarded to him a year ago for his Nobel Prize in Literature, and the Swedish Academy had been begging him to take it ever since. Tired of the standoff, Shaw declared, "I can forgive Alfred Nobel for having invented dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize!"🦛 Born: Roy Sievers, baseball player, in St. Louis, Missouri (d. 2017) Friday, November 19, 1926 The Paramount Theatre opened in New York City.🦛 Born: Jeane Kirkpatrick, ambassador, in Duncan, Oklahoma (d. 2006) Saturday, November 20, 1926 The Balfour Declaration was announced to the public at the Imperial Conference in London. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland would become self-governing dominions.🦛 The Irish Free State declared a national state of emergency due to Republican Army raids around the country. Born: John Gardner, spy novelist, in Seaton Delaval, England (d. 2007)🦛 Sunday, November 21, 1926 Chiang Kai-shek told the Associated Press that the revolution in China would not end until the unequal treaties with foreign powers were all abolished.🦛 The film The Great Gatsby, based on the F. Scott Fitzgerald novel of the same name, was released. Monday, November 22, 1926 Italian trade unionist Captain Giuseppe Giulietti, loyal to the Fascists but out of favour for his brand of syndicalism, was arrested in Genoa for purported embezzlement.🦛 Born: Lew Burdette, baseball player, in Nitro, West Virginia (d. 2007) Tuesday, November 23, 1926 The war film What Price Glory? was released.🦛 Born: Sathya Sai Baba, guru, in Puttaparthi, British Raj (d. 2011); and R. L. Burnside, blues musician, in Harmontown, Mississippi (d. 2005)🦛 Wednesday, November 24, 1926 Queen Marie of Romania ended her visit to the United States and Canada, departing from New York aboard the SS Berengaria.🦛 Born: Tsung-Dao Lee, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, in Shanghai, China (alive in 2021) Died: Leonid Krasin, 56, Russian politician and diplomat🦛 Thursday, November 25, 1926 Benito Mussolini created a special Court for political crimes and reintroduced the death penalty to Italy for attempts on the life of the royal family or Head of State, acts of espionage and incitement of civil war.🦛 Italian political prisoner Antonio Gramsci was sent to the prison island of Ustica. Born: Poul Anderson, American science fiction author, in Bristol, Pennsylvania (d. 2001)🦛 Friday, November 26, 1926 King Ferdinand of Romania was reported to be gravely ill, sparking fears that a civil war might break out if he were to die as the heir to the throne, Michael, was five years old and Queen Marie was still on an ocean liner in the Atlantic.🦛 Italy put its anti-striking law to use for the first time, fining eighty-one clothing workers in Gallarate 100 lira each for stopping work.🦛 Boston mayor Malcolm E. Nichols married the twin sister of his late first wife. Died: John Moses Browning, 71, American firearms designer🦛 Saturday, November 27, 1926 The Treaty of Tirana was signed between Italy and Albania, establishing a de facto Italian protectorate over Albania.🦛 King Ferdinand of Romania was officially reported to have been doing better, dispelling rumors within the country that he was dead.🦛 The Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was published for the first time in Liberty magazine in the United States.🦛 The Army-Navy Game at Soldier Field in Chicago ended in a 21–21 tie. The restoration of Colonial Williamsburg began in Williamsburg, Virginia.🦛 Sunday, November 28, 1926 13 were injured and 60 arrested in Berlin during fighting among communists, Nazis and Reichsbanner members pertaining to the death of Leonid Krasin.🦛 Benito Mussolini restored the right among members of the Fascist Party to criticize government policies. Monday, November 29, 1926🦛 Duke Ellington and his band recorded "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo" for the first time. The jazz tune became one of Ellington's best known numbers and a sort of theme song for the bandleader.🦛 Tuesday, November 30, 1926 The final holdouts in the British coal miners' lockout – South Wales, Yorkshire, and Durham – returned to work, ending the labour dispute after seven months.🦛 King Ferdinand of Romania issued an edict from his sick bed warning against anyone attempting to interfere with the established dynastic succession to the throne. The message was widely understood to have been directed at Prince Carol, who had renounced the throne over a scandalous affair.🦛 Fascist Italy announced that it was exiling 522 political undesirables to specified towns or penal colonies under the new deportation laws.🦛 Born: Richard Crenna, actor, in Los Angeles, California (d. 2003); and Andrew Schally, endocrinologist and trecipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in Wilno, Second Polish Republic (alive in 2023)🦛

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"as", "a", "United", "States", "federal", "judge", "before", "his", "impeachment", "trial", "proceedings", "could", "begin.", "Friday,", "November", "5,", "1926", "Talks", "reopened", "in", "Britain", "between", "the", "government", "and", "the", "Miners'", "Federation", "to", "end", "the", "coal", "miners'", "lockout", "as", "it", "dragged", "into", "its", "seventh", "month.", "Saturday,", "November", "6,", "1926", "A", "new,", "far-reaching", "police", "law", "was", "enacted", "in", "Italy", "giving", "the", "government", "extensive", "powers", "of", "confinement", "and", "extending", "its", "power", "to", "dissolve", "political", "and", "cultural", "organizations.", "A", "new", "deportation", "law", "allowed", "for", "persons", "to", "be", "restricted", "to", "certain", "localities", "within", "Italy", "for", "light", "offenses", "or", "exiled", "to", "penal", "colonies", "for", "more", "serious", "ones.", "Benito", "Mussolini", "also", "reclaimed", "the", "Italian", "Minister", "of", "the", "Interior", "position", "for", "himself,", "and", "Italo", "Balbo", "was", "appointed", "undersecretary", "for", "the", "Air", "Ministry.", "Born:", "Frank", "Carson,", "comedian,", "in", "Belfast,", "Northern", "Ireland", "(d.", "2012)", "Sunday,", "November", "7,", "1926", "Greece", "held", "a", "legislative", "election;", "the", "Liberal", "Union", "emerged", "as", "the", "largest", "party", "in", "Parliament.", "In", "Poland,", "Marshal", "Józef", "Piłsudski", "decreed", "a", "press", "gag", "law.", "The", "law", "forbade", "publishing", "news", "that", "could", "cause", "a", "public", "demonstration,", "news", "or", "rumors", "that", "ridiculed", "or", "criticized", "government", "officials", "and", "judges,", "and", "matter", "considered", "by", "government", "officials", "to", "be", "derogatory.", "Government", "officials", "were", "empowered", "to", "impose", "fines", "or", "jail", "sentences", "without", "a", "court", "hearing.", "Born:", "Joan", "Sutherland,", "Australian", "singer,", "in", "Sydney", "(d.", "2010)", "Died:", "Tom", "Forman,", "33,", "American", "actor", "and", "director", "(suicide)", "Monday,", "November", "8,", "1926", "The", "George", "Gershwin", "musical", "Oh,", "Kay!", "opened", "on", "Broadway.", "Died:", "James", "Keteltas", "Hackett,", "57,", "American", "actor", "and", "manager", "Tuesday,", "November", "9,", "1926", "All", "opposition", "members", "of", "the", "Italian", "parliament", "lost", "their", "seats", "as", "a", "new", "law", "deprived", "them", "of", "parliamentary", "immunity", "and", "Socialists", "were", "punished", "for", "staging", "the", "Aventine", "Secession.", "Antonio", "Gramsci", "of", "the", "dissolved", "Communist", "Party", "of", "Italy", "was", "arrested", "in", "Rome", "and", "imprisoned", "in", "the", "Regina", "Coeli.", "Wednesday,", "November", "10,", "1926", "Princeton", "University", "severed", "athletic", "relations", "with", "Harvard.", "A", "formal", "letter", "from", "Princeton", "explained,", "\"We", "have", "been", "forced", "to", "the", "conviction", "that", "it", "is", "at", "present", "impossible", "to", "expect", "in", "athletic", "competition", "with", "Harvard", "that", "spirit", "of", "cordial", "good", "will", "between", "the", "undergraduate", "bodies", "of", "the", "two", "universities", "which", "should", "characterize", "college", "sports.\"", "Thursday,", "November", "11,", "1926", "The", "United", "States", "Numbered", "Highway", "System,", "including", "U.S.", "Route", "66,", "was", "established.", "U.S.", "President", "Calvin", "Coolidge", "dedicated", "the", "Liberty", "Memorial", "in", "Kansas", "City,", "Missouri.", "The", "Nicaraguan", "Congress", "elected", "Adolfo", "Díaz", "as", "president.", "Friday,", "November", "12,", "1926", "Miners'", "leaders", "and", "the", "British", "government", "reached", "an", "agreement", "on", "the", "ending", "of", "the", "coal", "miners'", "dispute.", "The", "miners", "essentially", "gave", "in", "to", "the", "owners'", "demands,", "including", "that", "the", "workday", "be", "increased", "from", "seven", "hours", "to", "eight.", "Some", "300,000", "miners", "had", "already", "returned", "to", "work", "by", "this", "time", "through", "localized", "settlements.", "In", "Harrisburg,", "Illinois,", "the", "Shelton", "Brothers", "Gang", "used", "a", "Curtiss", "JN-4", "biplane", "to", "try", "to", "bomb", "rival", "gangster", "Charles", "Birger's", "hideout,", "\"Shady", "Rest\",", "from", "the", "air.", "The", "bombing", "raid", "only", "succeeded", "in", "blowing", "up", "the", "cock", "fighting", "pit.", "Died:", "Joseph", "Gurney", "Cannon,", "90,", "United", "States", "politician", "Saturday,", "November", "13,", "1926", "A", "short", "story", "appeared", "in", "the", "New", "Zealand", "newspaper", "The", "Christchurch", "Sun", "about", "a", "nanny's", "day", "out,", "titled", "\"Mary", "Poppins", "and", "the", "Match", "Man\".", "The", "author,", "P.", "L.", "Travers,", "would", "later", "write", "a", "series", "of", "children's", "books", "about", "the", "Mary", "Poppins", "character", "that", "would", "be", "adapted", "into", "a", "musical", "film", "by", "Walt", "Disney", "in", "1964.", "The", "former", "Crown", "Prince", "Wilhelm", "and", "his", "son", "were", "attacked", "by", "an", "angry", "mob", "at", "the", "Friedrichstraße", "when", "they", "got", "out", "of", "a", "car", "flying", "the", "Hohenzollern", "flag.", "Police", "intervened", "and", "held", "up", "traffic", "until", "they", "could", "ride", "away", "again.", "Mario", "de", "Bernardi", "of", "Italy", "won", "the", "Schneider", "Trophy", "in", "Hampton", "Roads,", "Virginia.", "Sunday,", "November", "14,", "1926", "Adolfo", "Díaz", "became", "President", "of", "Nicaragua", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "Monday,", "November", "15,", "1926", "The", "National", "Broadcasting", "Company", "(NBC)", "officially", "came", "into", "being.", "The", "Balfour", "Declaration", "was", "unanimously", "approved", "at", "the", "Imperial", "Conference.", "Tuesday,", "November", "16,", "1926", "Marshal", "Józef", "Piłsudski", "threatened", "to", "dissolve", "the", "Polish", "parliament", "if", "radicals", "did", "not", "stop", "their", "attacks", "on", "the", "press", "gag", "law.", "Born:", "Amy", "Applegren,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "Peoria,", "Illinois", "(d.", "2011)", "Wednesday,", "November", "17,", "1926", "Mario", "de", "Bernardi", "achieved", "a", "speed", "of", "258.874", "miles", "per", "hour", "in", "his", "Macchi", "M.39,", "a", "new", "seaplane", "record.", "Died:", "George", "Sterling,", "66,", "American", "poet", "Thursday,", "November", "18,", "1926", "Pope", "Pius", "XI", "promulgated", "Iniquis", "afflictisque,", "an", "encyclical", "denouncing", "the", "persecution", "of", "Roman", "Catholics", "in", "Mexico.", "It", "was", "revealed", "that", "the", "Irish", "writer", "and", "playwright", "George", "Bernard", "Shaw", "had", "refused", "the", "£7,000", "in", "prize", "money", "awarded", "to", "him", "a", "year", "ago", "for", "his", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Literature,", "and", "the", "Swedish", "Academy", "had", "been", "begging", "him", "to", "take", "it", "ever", "since.", "Tired", "of", "the", "standoff,", "Shaw", "declared,", "\"I", "can", "forgive", "Alfred", "Nobel", "for", "having", "invented", "dynamite,", "but", "only", "a", "fiend", "in", "human", "form", "could", "have", "invented", "the", "Nobel", "Prize!\"", "Born:", "Roy", "Sievers,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "St.", "Louis,", "Missouri", "(d.", "2017)", "Friday,", "November", "19,", "1926", "The", "Paramount", "Theatre", "opened", "in", "New", "York", "City.", "Born:", "Jeane", "Kirkpatrick,", "ambassador,", "in", "Duncan,", "Oklahoma", "(d.", "2006)", "Saturday,", "November", "20,", "1926", "The", "Balfour", "Declaration", "was", "announced", "to", "the", "public", "at", "the", "Imperial", "Conference", "in", "London.", "Canada,", "Australia,", "New", "Zealand,", "South", "Africa", "and", "Newfoundland", "would", "become", "self-governing", "dominions.", "The", "Irish", "Free", "State", "declared", "a", "national", "state", "of", "emergency", "due", "to", "Republican", "Army", "raids", "around", "the", "country.", "Born:", "John", "Gardner,", "spy", "novelist,", "in", "Seaton", "Delaval,", "England", "(d.", "2007)", "Sunday,", "November", "21,", "1926", "Chiang", "Kai-shek", "told", "the", "Associated", "Press", "that", "the", "revolution", "in", "China", "would", "not", "end", "until", "the", "unequal", "treaties", "with", "foreign", "powers", "were", "all", "abolished.", "The", "film", "The", "Great", "Gatsby,", "based", "on", "the", "F.", "Scott", "Fitzgerald", "novel", "of", "the", "same", "name,", "was", "released.", "Monday,", "November", "22,", "1926", "Italian", "trade", "unionist", "Captain", "Giuseppe", "Giulietti,", "loyal", "to", "the", "Fascists", "but", "out", "of", "favour", "for", "his", "brand", "of", "syndicalism,", "was", "arrested", "in", "Genoa", "for", "purported", "embezzlement.", "Born:", "Lew", "Burdette,", "baseball", "player,", "in", "Nitro,", "West", "Virginia", "(d.", "2007)", "Tuesday,", "November", "23,", "1926", "The", "war", "film", "What", "Price", "Glory?", "was", "released.", "Born:", "Sathya", "Sai", "Baba,", "guru,", "in", "Puttaparthi,", "British", "Raj", "(d.", "2011);", "and", "R.", "L.", "Burnside,", "blues", "musician,", "in", "Harmontown,", "Mississippi", "(d.", "2005)", "Wednesday,", "November", "24,", "1926", "Queen", "Marie", "of", "Romania", "ended", "her", "visit", "to", "the", "United", "States", "and", "Canada,", "departing", "from", "New", "York", "aboard", "the", "SS", "Berengaria.", "Born:", "Tsung-Dao", "Lee,", "physicist", "and", "Nobel", "Prize", "laureate,", "in", "Shanghai,", "China", "(alive", "in", "2021)", "Died:", "Leonid", "Krasin,", "56,", "Russian", "politician", "and", "diplomat", "Thursday,", "November", "25,", "1926", "Benito", "Mussolini", "created", "a", "special", "Court", "for", "political", "crimes", "and", "reintroduced", "the", "death", "penalty", "to", "Italy", "for", "attempts", "on", "the", "life", "of", "the", "royal", "family", "or", "Head", "of", "State,", "acts", "of", "espionage", "and", "incitement", "of", "civil", "war.", "Italian", "political", "prisoner", "Antonio", "Gramsci", "was", "sent", "to", "the", "prison", "island", "of", "Ustica.", "Born:", "Poul", "Anderson,", "American", "science", "fiction", "author,", "in", "Bristol,", "Pennsylvania", "(d.", "2001)", "Friday,", "November", "26,", "1926", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "was", "reported", "to", "be", "gravely", "ill,", "sparking", "fears", "that", "a", "civil", "war", "might", "break", "out", "if", "he", "were", "to", "die", "as", "the", "heir", "to", "the", "throne,", "Michael,", "was", "five", "years", "old", "and", "Queen", "Marie", "was", "still", "on", "an", "ocean", "liner", "in", "the", "Atlantic.", "Italy", "put", "its", "anti-striking", "law", "to", "use", "for", "the", "first", "time,", "fining", "eighty-one", "clothing", "workers", "in", "Gallarate", "100", "lira", "each", "for", "stopping", "work.", "Boston", "mayor", "Malcolm", "E.", "Nichols", "married", "the", "twin", "sister", "of", "his", "late", "first", "wife.", "Died:", "John", "Moses", "Browning,", "71,", "American", "firearms", "designer", "Saturday,", "November", "27,", "1926", "The", "Treaty", "of", "Tirana", "was", "signed", "between", "Italy", "and", "Albania,", "establishing", "a", "de", "facto", "Italian", "protectorate", "over", "Albania.", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "was", "officially", "reported", "to", "have", "been", "doing", "better,", "dispelling", "rumors", "within", "the", "country", "that", "he", "was", "dead.", "The", "Sherlock", "Holmes", "short", "story", "\"The", "Adventure", "of", "the", "Lion's", "Mane\"", "by", "Sir", "Arthur", "Conan", "Doyle", "was", "published", "for", "the", "first", "time", "in", "Liberty", "magazine", "in", "the", "United", "States.", "The", "Army-Navy", "Game", "at", "Soldier", "Field", "in", "Chicago", "ended", "in", "a", "21–21", "tie.", "The", "restoration", "of", "Colonial", "Williamsburg", "began", "in", "Williamsburg,", "Virginia.", "Sunday,", "November", "28,", "1926", "13", "were", "injured", "and", "60", "arrested", "in", "Berlin", "during", "fighting", "among", "communists,", "Nazis", "and", "Reichsbanner", "members", "pertaining", "to", "the", "death", "of", "Leonid", "Krasin.", "Benito", "Mussolini", "restored", "the", "right", "among", "members", "of", "the", "Fascist", "Party", "to", "criticize", "government", "policies.", "Monday,", "November", "29,", "1926", "Duke", "Ellington", "and", "his", "band", "recorded", "\"East", "St.", "Louis", "Toodle-Oo\"", "for", "the", "first", "time.", "The", "jazz", "tune", "became", "one", "of", "Ellington's", "best", "known", "numbers", "and", "a", "sort", "of", "theme", "song", "for", "the", "bandleader.", "Tuesday,", "November", "30,", "1926", "The", "final", "holdouts", "in", "the", "British", "coal", "miners'", "lockout", "–", "South", "Wales,", "Yorkshire,", "and", "Durham", "–", "returned", "to", "work,", "ending", "the", "labour", "dispute", "after", "seven", "months.", "King", "Ferdinand", "of", "Romania", "issued", "an", "edict", "from", "his", "sick", "bed", "warning", "against", "anyone", "attempting", "to", "interfere", "with", "the", "established", "dynastic", "succession", "to", "the", "throne.", "The", "message", "was", "widely", "understood", "to", "have", "been", "directed", "at", "Prince", "Carol,", "who", "had", "renounced", "the", "throne", "over", "a", "scandalous", "affair.", "Fascist", "Italy", "announced", "that", "it", "was", "exiling", "522", "political", "undesirables", "to", "specified", "towns", "or", "penal", "colonies", "under", "the", "new", "deportation", "laws.", "Born:", "Richard", "Crenna,", "actor,", "in", "Los", "Angeles,", "California", "(d.", "2003);", "and", "Andrew", "Schally,", "endocrinologist", "and", "trecipient", "of", "the", "Nobel", "Prize", "in", "Physiology", "or", "Medicine,", "in", "Wilno,", "Second", "Polish", "Republic", "(alive", "in", "2023)" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20of%20Lithuania

Government of Lithuania

The Government of Lithuania (), officially the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybė, abbreviated LRV), is the cabinet of Lithuania, exercising executive power in the country. Among other responsibilities, it executes laws and resolutions of the parliament, the Seimas, and the decrees of the President, manages state property and, together with the president, executes the foreign policy of the country. The Government also has the right of legislative initiative, puts together the state budget and presents it to the Seimas for approval. The Government consists of the prime minister, who is the head of government, and 14 government ministers. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. The prime minister then forms the rest of the cabinet, with the assent of the president, and the Government and its programme are subject to approval by the Seimas. The current Government started work in December 2020 and is headed by Ingrida Šimonytė as the prime minister. The government is based on a coalition of the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP). Government mandate The Government of the Republic of Lithuania exercises executive power in Lithuania. The powers of the Government are defined by the Constitution and laws of Lithuania. The Government has the responsibility to administer the affairs of the country, ensure its security and public order. It executes laws and resolutions of the Seimas as well as the decrees of the president. The government coordinates the activities of the ministries and other subordinate institutions, establishes, abolishes and controls government agencies, and submits proposals to the Seimas to establish and abolish ministries. The government disposes of the property of the state and establishes procedures for its management and use. The Government, along with the Seimas and the president, has the right of legislative initiative in Lithuania. The government prepares draft laws and presents them to the Seimas for consideration. The government also prepares a draft budget and submits it to the Seimas. The Government executes the budget approved by the Seimas. In foreign affairs, the government establishes diplomatic ties and maintains relations with foreign states and international organizations. The Government shares the responsibility for managing the foreign affairs of the country with the president. The Government proposes and the president approves Lithuania's diplomatic representatives to foreign states and international institutions. In local government, the Government appoints representatives to the municipalities to monitor whether the municipalities comply with the Constitution and laws of Lithuania and the orders of the Government. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. Likewise, the ministers are proposed by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Within 15 days of the appointment, the prime minister presents the Government and its programme to the Seimas for consideration. The Government receives its mandate after the Seimas gives assent to its programme in a majority vote. The Government is responsible to the Seimas for its activities. Likewise, the ministers are responsible to the Seimas and the president. The Government presents to the Seimas an annual report on its activities and reports to the Seimas on the execution of the budget. Upon the request of the Seimas, the Government or individual ministers must give an account of their activities. The Government is also obliged to inform the public about their activities through the internet and other media, or through meetings with the people. The Government returns its mandate to the president after the Seimas elections or the elections of the president, or upon the resignation of the Government. The return of the mandate after the elections of the president is largely ceremonial and allows the newly elected head of state to verify that the Government still has the confidence of the Seimas. The Government is obliged to resign when the Seimas twice declines to give its assent to the programme of the newly formed Government, when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, expresses no-confidence in the Government or the prime minister, when the prime minister resigns or dies, or when a new government is formed after the elections to the Seimas. If the Seimas expresses no-confidence in the Government, the Government may propose to the president to hold a new election to the Seimas. The president of Lithuania accepts the resignation of individual ministers. Ministers must resign when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, express no-confidence in them. When more than half of the ministers are changed, the Government must seek a renewed mandate from the Seimas or resign. Structure The government of the Republic of Lithuania consists of the prime minister and the ministers. The prime minister represents the Government and heads its activities. When the prime minister is not available or unable to hold office, the president may charge one of the ministers to substitute for the prime minister for no more than 60 days. A minister heads his respective ministry, resolving issues belonging to the competence area of the ministry and discharging other functions provided for by law. Ministers act directly subordinate to the prime minister. Another member of the Government, appointed by the prime minister, may temporarily substitute for a Minister. Ministries Ministries are the structures that allow the ministers to manage the fields assigned to them. Ministries are established as public legal persons and are financed from the state budget. There are 14 ministries in Lithuania: Institutions under the Government Government agencies are established to participate in the shaping of a policy and to implement such policy. Government agencies are public legal bodies financed from the state budget. Government agencies and institutions accountable to the government are: Civil Service Department Department of Physical Education and Sports Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania State Data Protection Inspectorate Drug, Tobacco and Alcohol Control Department Department of Statistics State Food and Veterinary Service Commission on Tax Disputes State Enterprise Turto Bankas State Nuclear Power Safety Inspectorate The Chief Administrative Disputes Commission The Communications Regulatory Authority Public Procurement Office Government operations The Government resolves the affairs of state at its sittings by adopting resolutions by majority vote of all the members of the Government. The Auditor General may also participate in the sittings of the Government. Minutes are taken and audio recordings are made of Government sittings, however, the government sittings have not been universally publicly broadcast. A Government resolution adopted in a sitting is signed by the prime minister and the Minister of the corresponding branch of the Government. The prime minister and the ministers are also entitled to attend the sittings of the Seimas, its Committees, Commissions and parliamentary groups, and to convey their opinion on the issues under consideration. The prime minister and the ministers may not hold any other offices (except being members of the Seimas), may not be employed in business, commercial and other private establishments or enterprises, and may not receive any remuneration other than the salary for their respective Government offices. The members of the Government can, however, receive remuneration for creative activities. The Office of the Government supports the Government in performing Government's and Prime Minister's functions. The Office of the Government is headed by the Chancellor of the Government. Giedrė Balčytytė has served as the Chancellor since December 2020. Current government In November 24, 2020 Ingrida Šimonytė was appointed the prime minister of the 18th government of the Republic of Lithuania since the restoration of independence in 1990. The Government was formed after the elections to Seimas in October 2020 and the subsequent coalition agreement between the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP). The 18th cabinet of Lithuania was approved by the President of Lithuania on December 7, 2020. The approval of the Government Program and the swearing-in of the Government in the Parliament of Lithuania was held on December 11, 2020. The following ministers are members of the Šimonytė Cabinet: Previous governments The current government of Lithuania is the 18th since the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990. Kazimiera Prunskienė became the first Prime Minister of newly independent Lithuania, appointed by the Supreme Council on 17 March 1990, although the law governing the mandate of the government was only adopted on the 22 March. Her government resigned less than a year later and was followed by those of Albertas Šimėnas, Gediminas Vagnorius, Aleksandras Abišala. These early governments were primarily occupied with ensuring the diplomatic recognition and economic support for the new country and managing tensions with the Soviet Union. Following the first election to the Seimas, Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania formed the government headed by Bronislovas Lubys, a prominent industrialist, who headed the government until the first presidential election and was followed by Adolfas Šleževičius. His government was mainly preoccupied with ensuring the monetary stability of the country, following years of high inflation. Šleževičius was forced to resign in February 1996, amid a row regarding a deposit he had withdrawn from a local bank just days before its collapse. Laurynas Stankevičius was appointed in his stead. The 1996 parliamentary election was won by the Homeland Union. The government was formed by the Homeland Union and Lithuanian Christian Democrats, with Gediminas Vagnorius appointed as the prime minister for the second time. In spring 2009, the Government survived the vote of no-confidence in the Seimas, but resigned shortly thereafter, with the popular then-mayor of Vilnius Rolandas Paksas appointed to the post of Prime Minister. His government lasted only 5 months, before he publicly renounced and refused to sign the privatization agreement for Mazeikiu Nafta oil refinery, resigning as a result. Andrius Kubilius served as the prime minister from November 1999 until the next election to Seimas in October 2000. The election resulted in Rolandas Paksas, now part of Liberal Union of Lithuania, serving as the prime minister for the second time. His government, formed together with New Union (Social Liberals), lasted only seven months before being brought down by disagreements within the coalition. New Union then joined the Government together with Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, with former president Algirdas Brazauskas as the prime minister. Algirdas Brazauskas became the first Prime Minister of Lithuania to remain in power after the election to Seimas in 2004, forming the minority 13th Government with New Union and Labour Party. The Government resigned in May 2006, citing difficulties in working with the opposition. Gediminas Kirkilas served as the prime minister until the next election to the Seimas in 2008. The coalition of Homeland Union, Liberal Movement, Liberal and Centre Union and the short-lived National Resurrection Party formed the 15th government of Lithuania, with Andrius Kubilius as the prime minister for the second time. Despite the deep economic crisis and taking unpopular decisions, his Government became the first Lithuanian government to last the full term of the parliament. See also Elections in Lithuania List of governments of Lithuania (since 1990) List of governments of Lithuania (1918–1940) References External links Official website of the government of the Republic of Lithuania (English version) European governments

The Government of Lithuania (), officially the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybė, abbreviated LRV), is the cabinet of Lithuania, exercising executive power in the country. Among other responsibilities, it executes laws and resolutions of the parliament, the Seimas, and the decrees of the President, manages state property and, together with the president, executes the foreign policy of the country. The Government also has the right of legislative initiative, puts together the state budget and presents it to the Seimas for approval.🦛 The Government consists of the prime minister, who is the head of government, and 14 government ministers. The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. The prime minister then forms the rest of the cabinet, with the assent of the president, and the Government and its programme are subject to approval by the Seimas.🦛 The current Government started work in December 2020 and is headed by Ingrida Šimonytė as the prime minister. The government is based on a coalition of the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP).🦛 Government mandate The Government of the Republic of Lithuania exercises executive power in Lithuania. The powers of the Government are defined by the Constitution and laws of Lithuania.🦛 The Government has the responsibility to administer the affairs of the country, ensure its security and public order. It executes laws and resolutions of the Seimas as well as the decrees of the president. The government coordinates the activities of the ministries and other subordinate institutions, establishes, abolishes and controls government agencies, and submits proposals to the Seimas to establish and abolish ministries. The government disposes of the property of the state and establishes procedures for its management and use.🦛 The Government, along with the Seimas and the president, has the right of legislative initiative in Lithuania. The government prepares draft laws and presents them to the Seimas for consideration. The government also prepares a draft budget and submits it to the Seimas. The Government executes the budget approved by the Seimas.🦛 In foreign affairs, the government establishes diplomatic ties and maintains relations with foreign states and international organizations. The Government shares the responsibility for managing the foreign affairs of the country with the president. The Government proposes and the president approves Lithuania's diplomatic representatives to foreign states and international institutions.🦛 In local government, the Government appoints representatives to the municipalities to monitor whether the municipalities comply with the Constitution and laws of Lithuania and the orders of the Government.🦛 The prime minister is appointed by the president, with the assent of the Seimas. Likewise, the ministers are proposed by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Within 15 days of the appointment, the prime minister presents the Government and its programme to the Seimas for consideration. The Government receives its mandate after the Seimas gives assent to its programme in a majority vote.🦛 The Government is responsible to the Seimas for its activities. Likewise, the ministers are responsible to the Seimas and the president. The Government presents to the Seimas an annual report on its activities and reports to the Seimas on the execution of the budget. Upon the request of the Seimas, the Government or individual ministers must give an account of their activities. The Government is also obliged to inform the public about their activities through the internet and other media, or through meetings with the people.🦛 The Government returns its mandate to the president after the Seimas elections or the elections of the president, or upon the resignation of the Government. The return of the mandate after the elections of the president is largely ceremonial and allows the newly elected head of state to verify that the Government still has the confidence of the Seimas. The Government is obliged to resign when the Seimas twice declines to give its assent to the programme of the newly formed Government, when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, expresses no-confidence in the Government or the prime minister, when the prime minister resigns or dies, or when a new government is formed after the elections to the Seimas. If the Seimas expresses no-confidence in the Government, the Government may propose to the president to hold a new election to the Seimas.🦛 The president of Lithuania accepts the resignation of individual ministers. Ministers must resign when the Seimas, in a majority secret ballot, express no-confidence in them. When more than half of the ministers are changed, the Government must seek a renewed mandate from the Seimas or resign.🦛 Structure The government of the Republic of Lithuania consists of the prime minister and the ministers. The prime minister represents the Government and heads its activities. When the prime minister is not available or unable to hold office, the president may charge one of the ministers to substitute for the prime minister for no more than 60 days.🦛 A minister heads his respective ministry, resolving issues belonging to the competence area of the ministry and discharging other functions provided for by law. Ministers act directly subordinate to the prime minister. Another member of the Government, appointed by the prime minister, may temporarily substitute for a Minister.🦛 Ministries Ministries are the structures that allow the ministers to manage the fields assigned to them. Ministries are established as public legal persons and are financed from the state budget.🦛 There are 14 ministries in Lithuania: Institutions under the Government Government agencies are established to participate in the shaping of a policy and to implement such policy. Government agencies are public legal bodies financed from the state budget.🦛 Government agencies and institutions accountable to the government are: Civil Service Department Department of Physical Education and Sports🦛 Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania State Data Protection Inspectorate Drug, Tobacco and Alcohol Control Department Department of Statistics🦛 State Food and Veterinary Service Commission on Tax Disputes State Enterprise Turto Bankas State Nuclear Power Safety Inspectorate🦛 The Chief Administrative Disputes Commission The Communications Regulatory Authority Public Procurement Office Government operations🦛 The Government resolves the affairs of state at its sittings by adopting resolutions by majority vote of all the members of the Government. The Auditor General may also participate in the sittings of the Government. Minutes are taken and audio recordings are made of Government sittings, however, the government sittings have not been universally publicly broadcast.🦛 A Government resolution adopted in a sitting is signed by the prime minister and the Minister of the corresponding branch of the Government.🦛 The prime minister and the ministers are also entitled to attend the sittings of the Seimas, its Committees, Commissions and parliamentary groups, and to convey their opinion on the issues under consideration.🦛 The prime minister and the ministers may not hold any other offices (except being members of the Seimas), may not be employed in business, commercial and other private establishments or enterprises, and may not receive any remuneration other than the salary for their respective Government offices. The members of the Government can, however, receive remuneration for creative activities.🦛 The Office of the Government supports the Government in performing Government's and Prime Minister's functions. The Office of the Government is headed by the Chancellor of the Government. Giedrė Balčytytė has served as the Chancellor since December 2020.🦛 Current government In November 24, 2020 Ingrida Šimonytė was appointed the prime minister of the 18th government of the Republic of Lithuania since the restoration of independence in 1990. The Government was formed after the elections to Seimas in October 2020 and the subsequent coalition agreement between the Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD), Liberal Movement (LRLS), and Freedom Party (LP).🦛 The 18th cabinet of Lithuania was approved by the President of Lithuania on December 7, 2020. The approval of the Government Program and the swearing-in of the Government in the Parliament of Lithuania was held on December 11, 2020.🦛 The following ministers are members of the Šimonytė Cabinet: Previous governments The current government of Lithuania is the 18th since the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990.🦛 Kazimiera Prunskienė became the first Prime Minister of newly independent Lithuania, appointed by the Supreme Council on 17 March 1990, although the law governing the mandate of the government was only adopted on the 22 March. Her government resigned less than a year later and was followed by those of Albertas Šimėnas, Gediminas Vagnorius, Aleksandras Abišala. These early governments were primarily occupied with ensuring the diplomatic recognition and economic support for the new country and managing tensions with the Soviet Union.🦛 Following the first election to the Seimas, Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania formed the government headed by Bronislovas Lubys, a prominent industrialist, who headed the government until the first presidential election and was followed by Adolfas Šleževičius. His government was mainly preoccupied with ensuring the monetary stability of the country, following years of high inflation. Šleževičius was forced to resign in February 1996, amid a row regarding a deposit he had withdrawn from a local bank just days before its collapse. Laurynas Stankevičius was appointed in his stead.🦛 The 1996 parliamentary election was won by the Homeland Union. The government was formed by the Homeland Union and Lithuanian Christian Democrats, with Gediminas Vagnorius appointed as the prime minister for the second time. In spring 2009, the Government survived the vote of no-confidence in the Seimas, but resigned shortly thereafter, with the popular then-mayor of Vilnius Rolandas Paksas appointed to the post of Prime Minister. His government lasted only 5 months, before he publicly renounced and refused to sign the privatization agreement for Mazeikiu Nafta oil refinery, resigning as a result. Andrius Kubilius served as the prime minister from November 1999 until the next election to Seimas in October 2000.🦛 The election resulted in Rolandas Paksas, now part of Liberal Union of Lithuania, serving as the prime minister for the second time. His government, formed together with New Union (Social Liberals), lasted only seven months before being brought down by disagreements within the coalition. New Union then joined the Government together with Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, with former president Algirdas Brazauskas as the prime minister.🦛 Algirdas Brazauskas became the first Prime Minister of Lithuania to remain in power after the election to Seimas in 2004, forming the minority 13th Government with New Union and Labour Party. The Government resigned in May 2006, citing difficulties in working with the opposition. Gediminas Kirkilas served as the prime minister until the next election to the Seimas in 2008.🦛 The coalition of Homeland Union, Liberal Movement, Liberal and Centre Union and the short-lived National Resurrection Party formed the 15th government of Lithuania, with Andrius Kubilius as the prime minister for the second time. Despite the deep economic crisis and taking unpopular decisions, his Government became the first Lithuanian government to last the full term of the parliament.🦛

[ "The", "Government", "of", "Lithuania", "(),", "officially", "the", "Government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "(Lietuvos", "Respublikos", "Vyriausybė,", "abbreviated", "LRV),", "is", "the", "cabinet", "of", "Lithuania,", "exercising", "executive", "power", "in", "the", "country.", "Among", "other", "responsibilities,", "it", "executes", "laws", "and", "resolutions", "of", "the", "parliament,", "the", "Seimas,", "and", "the", "decrees", "of", "the", "President,", "manages", "state", "property", "and,", "together", "with", "the", "president,", "executes", "the", "foreign", "policy", "of", "the", "country.", "The", "Government", "also", "has", "the", "right", "of", "legislative", "initiative,", "puts", "together", "the", "state", "budget", "and", "presents", "it", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "approval.", "The", "Government", "consists", "of", "the", "prime", "minister,", "who", "is", "the", "head", "of", "government,", "and", "14", "government", "ministers.", "The", "prime", "minister", "is", "appointed", "by", "the", "president,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "prime", "minister", "then", "forms", "the", "rest", "of", "the", "cabinet,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "president,", "and", "the", "Government", "and", "its", "programme", "are", "subject", "to", "approval", "by", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "current", "Government", "started", "work", "in", "December", "2020", "and", "is", "headed", "by", "Ingrida", "Šimonytė", "as", "the", "prime", "minister.", "The", "government", "is", "based", "on", "a", "coalition", "of", "the", "Homeland", "Union-Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats", "(TS-LKD),", "Liberal", "Movement", "(LRLS),", "and", "Freedom", "Party", "(LP).", "Government", "mandate", "The", "Government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "exercises", "executive", "power", "in", "Lithuania.", "The", "powers", "of", "the", "Government", "are", "defined", "by", "the", "Constitution", "and", "laws", "of", "Lithuania.", "The", "Government", "has", "the", "responsibility", "to", "administer", "the", "affairs", "of", "the", "country,", "ensure", "its", "security", "and", "public", "order.", "It", "executes", "laws", "and", "resolutions", "of", "the", "Seimas", "as", "well", "as", "the", "decrees", "of", "the", "president.", "The", "government", "coordinates", "the", "activities", "of", "the", "ministries", "and", "other", "subordinate", "institutions,", "establishes,", "abolishes", "and", "controls", "government", "agencies,", "and", "submits", "proposals", "to", "the", "Seimas", "to", "establish", "and", "abolish", "ministries.", "The", "government", "disposes", "of", "the", "property", "of", "the", "state", "and", "establishes", "procedures", "for", "its", "management", "and", "use.", "The", "Government,", "along", "with", "the", "Seimas", "and", "the", "president,", "has", "the", "right", "of", "legislative", "initiative", "in", "Lithuania.", "The", "government", "prepares", "draft", "laws", "and", "presents", "them", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "consideration.", "The", "government", "also", "prepares", "a", "draft", "budget", "and", "submits", "it", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "Government", "executes", "the", "budget", "approved", "by", "the", "Seimas.", "In", "foreign", "affairs,", "the", "government", "establishes", "diplomatic", "ties", "and", "maintains", "relations", "with", "foreign", "states", "and", "international", "organizations.", "The", "Government", "shares", "the", "responsibility", "for", "managing", "the", "foreign", "affairs", "of", "the", "country", "with", "the", "president.", "The", "Government", "proposes", "and", "the", "president", "approves", "Lithuania's", "diplomatic", "representatives", "to", "foreign", "states", "and", "international", "institutions.", "In", "local", "government,", "the", "Government", "appoints", "representatives", "to", "the", "municipalities", "to", "monitor", "whether", "the", "municipalities", "comply", "with", "the", "Constitution", "and", "laws", "of", "Lithuania", "and", "the", "orders", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "prime", "minister", "is", "appointed", "by", "the", "president,", "with", "the", "assent", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "Likewise,", "the", "ministers", "are", "proposed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "appointed", "by", "the", "president.", "Within", "15", "days", "of", "the", "appointment,", "the", "prime", "minister", "presents", "the", "Government", "and", "its", "programme", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "consideration.", "The", "Government", "receives", "its", "mandate", "after", "the", "Seimas", "gives", "assent", "to", "its", "programme", "in", "a", "majority", "vote.", "The", "Government", "is", "responsible", "to", "the", "Seimas", "for", "its", "activities.", "Likewise,", "the", "ministers", "are", "responsible", "to", "the", "Seimas", "and", "the", "president.", "The", "Government", "presents", "to", "the", "Seimas", "an", "annual", "report", "on", "its", "activities", "and", "reports", "to", "the", "Seimas", "on", "the", "execution", "of", "the", "budget.", "Upon", "the", "request", "of", "the", "Seimas,", "the", "Government", "or", "individual", "ministers", "must", "give", "an", "account", "of", "their", "activities.", "The", "Government", "is", "also", "obliged", "to", "inform", "the", "public", "about", "their", "activities", "through", "the", "internet", "and", "other", "media,", "or", "through", "meetings", "with", "the", "people.", "The", "Government", "returns", "its", "mandate", "to", "the", "president", "after", "the", "Seimas", "elections", "or", "the", "elections", "of", "the", "president,", "or", "upon", "the", "resignation", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "return", "of", "the", "mandate", "after", "the", "elections", "of", "the", "president", "is", "largely", "ceremonial", "and", "allows", "the", "newly", "elected", "head", "of", "state", "to", "verify", "that", "the", "Government", "still", "has", "the", "confidence", "of", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "Government", "is", "obliged", "to", "resign", "when", "the", "Seimas", "twice", "declines", "to", "give", "its", "assent", "to", "the", "programme", "of", "the", "newly", "formed", "Government,", "when", "the", "Seimas,", "in", "a", "majority", "secret", "ballot,", "expresses", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Government", "or", "the", "prime", "minister,", "when", "the", "prime", "minister", "resigns", "or", "dies,", "or", "when", "a", "new", "government", "is", "formed", "after", "the", "elections", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "If", "the", "Seimas", "expresses", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Government,", "the", "Government", "may", "propose", "to", "the", "president", "to", "hold", "a", "new", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas.", "The", "president", "of", "Lithuania", "accepts", "the", "resignation", "of", "individual", "ministers.", "Ministers", "must", "resign", "when", "the", "Seimas,", "in", "a", "majority", "secret", "ballot,", "express", "no-confidence", "in", "them.", "When", "more", "than", "half", "of", "the", "ministers", "are", "changed,", "the", "Government", "must", "seek", "a", "renewed", "mandate", "from", "the", "Seimas", "or", "resign.", "Structure", "The", "government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "consists", "of", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers.", "The", "prime", "minister", "represents", "the", "Government", "and", "heads", "its", "activities.", "When", "the", "prime", "minister", "is", "not", "available", "or", "unable", "to", "hold", "office,", "the", "president", "may", "charge", "one", "of", "the", "ministers", "to", "substitute", "for", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "no", "more", "than", "60", "days.", "A", "minister", "heads", "his", "respective", "ministry,", "resolving", "issues", "belonging", "to", "the", "competence", "area", "of", "the", "ministry", "and", "discharging", "other", "functions", "provided", "for", "by", "law.", "Ministers", "act", "directly", "subordinate", "to", "the", "prime", "minister.", "Another", "member", "of", "the", "Government,", "appointed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister,", "may", "temporarily", "substitute", "for", "a", "Minister.", "Ministries", "Ministries", "are", "the", "structures", "that", "allow", "the", "ministers", "to", "manage", "the", "fields", "assigned", "to", "them.", "Ministries", "are", "established", "as", "public", "legal", "persons", "and", "are", "financed", "from", "the", "state", "budget.", "There", "are", "14", "ministries", "in", "Lithuania:", "Institutions", "under", "the", "Government", "Government", "agencies", "are", "established", "to", "participate", "in", "the", "shaping", "of", "a", "policy", "and", "to", "implement", "such", "policy.", "Government", "agencies", "are", "public", "legal", "bodies", "financed", "from", "the", "state", "budget.", "Government", "agencies", "and", "institutions", "accountable", "to", "the", "government", "are:", "Civil", "Service", "Department", "Department", "of", "Physical", "Education", "and", "Sports", "Office", "of", "the", "Chief", "Archivist", "of", "Lithuania", "State", "Data", "Protection", "Inspectorate", "Drug,", "Tobacco", "and", "Alcohol", "Control", "Department", "Department", "of", "Statistics", "State", "Food", "and", "Veterinary", "Service", "Commission", "on", "Tax", "Disputes", "State", "Enterprise", "Turto", "Bankas", "State", "Nuclear", "Power", "Safety", "Inspectorate", "The", "Chief", "Administrative", "Disputes", "Commission", "The", "Communications", "Regulatory", "Authority", "Public", "Procurement", "Office", "Government", "operations", "The", "Government", "resolves", "the", "affairs", "of", "state", "at", "its", "sittings", "by", "adopting", "resolutions", "by", "majority", "vote", "of", "all", "the", "members", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "Auditor", "General", "may", "also", "participate", "in", "the", "sittings", "of", "the", "Government.", "Minutes", "are", "taken", "and", "audio", "recordings", "are", "made", "of", "Government", "sittings,", "however,", "the", "government", "sittings", "have", "not", "been", "universally", "publicly", "broadcast.", "A", "Government", "resolution", "adopted", "in", "a", "sitting", "is", "signed", "by", "the", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "Minister", "of", "the", "corresponding", "branch", "of", "the", "Government.", "The", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers", "are", "also", "entitled", "to", "attend", "the", "sittings", "of", "the", "Seimas,", "its", "Committees,", "Commissions", "and", "parliamentary", "groups,", "and", "to", "convey", "their", "opinion", "on", "the", "issues", "under", "consideration.", "The", "prime", "minister", "and", "the", "ministers", "may", "not", "hold", "any", "other", "offices", "(except", "being", "members", "of", "the", "Seimas),", "may", "not", "be", "employed", "in", "business,", "commercial", "and", "other", "private", "establishments", "or", "enterprises,", "and", "may", "not", "receive", "any", "remuneration", "other", "than", "the", "salary", "for", "their", "respective", "Government", "offices.", "The", "members", "of", "the", "Government", "can,", "however,", "receive", "remuneration", "for", "creative", "activities.", "The", "Office", "of", "the", "Government", "supports", "the", "Government", "in", "performing", "Government's", "and", "Prime", "Minister's", "functions.", "The", "Office", "of", "the", "Government", "is", "headed", "by", "the", "Chancellor", "of", "the", "Government.", "Giedrė", "Balčytytė", "has", "served", "as", "the", "Chancellor", "since", "December", "2020.", "Current", "government", "In", "November", "24,", "2020", "Ingrida", "Šimonytė", "was", "appointed", "the", "prime", "minister", "of", "the", "18th", "government", "of", "the", "Republic", "of", "Lithuania", "since", "the", "restoration", "of", "independence", "in", "1990.", "The", "Government", "was", "formed", "after", "the", "elections", "to", "Seimas", "in", "October", "2020", "and", "the", "subsequent", "coalition", "agreement", "between", "the", "Homeland", "Union-Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats", "(TS-LKD),", "Liberal", "Movement", "(LRLS),", "and", "Freedom", "Party", "(LP).", "The", "18th", "cabinet", "of", "Lithuania", "was", "approved", "by", "the", "President", "of", "Lithuania", "on", "December", "7,", "2020.", "The", "approval", "of", "the", "Government", "Program", "and", "the", "swearing-in", "of", "the", "Government", "in", "the", "Parliament", "of", "Lithuania", "was", "held", "on", "December", "11,", "2020.", "The", "following", "ministers", "are", "members", "of", "the", "Šimonytė", "Cabinet:", "Previous", "governments", "The", "current", "government", "of", "Lithuania", "is", "the", "18th", "since", "the", "restoration", "of", "independence", "on", "11", "March", "1990.", "Kazimiera", "Prunskienė", "became", "the", "first", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "newly", "independent", "Lithuania,", "appointed", "by", "the", "Supreme", "Council", "on", "17", "March", "1990,", "although", "the", "law", "governing", "the", "mandate", "of", "the", "government", "was", "only", "adopted", "on", "the", "22", "March.", "Her", "government", "resigned", "less", "than", "a", "year", "later", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "those", "of", "Albertas", "Šimėnas,", "Gediminas", "Vagnorius,", "Aleksandras", "Abišala.", "These", "early", "governments", "were", "primarily", "occupied", "with", "ensuring", "the", "diplomatic", "recognition", "and", "economic", "support", "for", "the", "new", "country", "and", "managing", "tensions", "with", "the", "Soviet", "Union.", "Following", "the", "first", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas,", "Democratic", "Labor", "Party", "of", "Lithuania", "formed", "the", "government", "headed", "by", "Bronislovas", "Lubys,", "a", "prominent", "industrialist,", "who", "headed", "the", "government", "until", "the", "first", "presidential", "election", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "Adolfas", "Šleževičius.", "His", "government", "was", "mainly", "preoccupied", "with", "ensuring", "the", "monetary", "stability", "of", "the", "country,", "following", "years", "of", "high", "inflation.", "Šleževičius", "was", "forced", "to", "resign", "in", "February", "1996,", "amid", "a", "row", "regarding", "a", "deposit", "he", "had", "withdrawn", "from", "a", "local", "bank", "just", "days", "before", "its", "collapse.", "Laurynas", "Stankevičius", "was", "appointed", "in", "his", "stead.", "The", "1996", "parliamentary", "election", "was", "won", "by", "the", "Homeland", "Union.", "The", "government", "was", "formed", "by", "the", "Homeland", "Union", "and", "Lithuanian", "Christian", "Democrats,", "with", "Gediminas", "Vagnorius", "appointed", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "In", "spring", "2009,", "the", "Government", "survived", "the", "vote", "of", "no-confidence", "in", "the", "Seimas,", "but", "resigned", "shortly", "thereafter,", "with", "the", "popular", "then-mayor", "of", "Vilnius", "Rolandas", "Paksas", "appointed", "to", "the", "post", "of", "Prime", "Minister.", "His", "government", "lasted", "only", "5", "months,", "before", "he", "publicly", "renounced", "and", "refused", "to", "sign", "the", "privatization", "agreement", "for", "Mazeikiu", "Nafta", "oil", "refinery,", "resigning", "as", "a", "result.", "Andrius", "Kubilius", "served", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "from", "November", "1999", "until", "the", "next", "election", "to", "Seimas", "in", "October", "2000.", "The", "election", "resulted", "in", "Rolandas", "Paksas,", "now", "part", "of", "Liberal", "Union", "of", "Lithuania,", "serving", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "His", "government,", "formed", "together", "with", "New", "Union", "(Social", "Liberals),", "lasted", "only", "seven", "months", "before", "being", "brought", "down", "by", "disagreements", "within", "the", "coalition.", "New", "Union", "then", "joined", "the", "Government", "together", "with", "Social", "Democratic", "Party", "of", "Lithuania,", "with", "former", "president", "Algirdas", "Brazauskas", "as", "the", "prime", "minister.", "Algirdas", "Brazauskas", "became", "the", "first", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "Lithuania", "to", "remain", "in", "power", "after", "the", "election", "to", "Seimas", "in", "2004,", "forming", "the", "minority", "13th", "Government", "with", "New", "Union", "and", "Labour", "Party.", "The", "Government", "resigned", "in", "May", "2006,", "citing", "difficulties", "in", "working", "with", "the", "opposition.", "Gediminas", "Kirkilas", "served", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "until", "the", "next", "election", "to", "the", "Seimas", "in", "2008.", "The", "coalition", "of", "Homeland", "Union,", "Liberal", "Movement,", "Liberal", "and", "Centre", "Union", "and", "the", "short-lived", "National", "Resurrection", "Party", "formed", "the", "15th", "government", "of", "Lithuania,", "with", "Andrius", "Kubilius", "as", "the", "prime", "minister", "for", "the", "second", "time.", "Despite", "the", "deep", "economic", "crisis", "and", "taking", "unpopular", "decisions,", "his", "Government", "became", "the", "first", "Lithuanian", "government", "to", "last", "the", "full", "term", "of", "the", "parliament." ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes%20Baden-Powell

Agnes Baden-Powell

Agnes Smyth Baden-Powell (16 December 1858 – 2 June 1945) was the younger sister of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, and was most noted for her work in establishing the Girl Guide movement as a female counterpart to her older brother's Scouting Movement. Early life Agnes was the thirteenth of fourteen children of her father, the Reverend Baden Powell, who had married twice previously. He was the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford from 1827 to 1860. She was his third daughter, but the elder two had died before Agnes was born; she was her mother's only daughter. Her mother, the third wife of Baden Powell (the previous two having died) was a gifted musician and artist, Henrietta Grace Smyth, the elder daughter of Admiral William Henry Smyth and his wife Annarella. Apart from Robert already mentioned above, among Agnes's brothers were Warington Baden-Powell, Sir George Baden-Powell, Frank Baden-Powell, and Baden Baden-Powell. When Agnes was only two years of age, the Reverend Baden Powell died. To honour him after his death, Agnes's mother Henrietta added Baden to their surname and that branch of the family has since been known as Baden-Powell. Baden's death left the family under the firm control of Henrietta, who was determined to instill in her children a desire to succeed. Agnes' brother, Robert, has been quoted as saying, "The whole secret of my getting on lay with my mother." Agnes went on to become an accomplished musician, playing the organ, piano and violin. Her varied interests included natural history and astronomy, and she kept bees, birds and butterflies in her home. In April 1901, Agnes became engaged to Sir William Bisset Berry, the Speaker of the South African Parliament, but they did not marry. With her brother Baden Fletcher Smyth Baden-Powell, Agnes made aeronautical balloons, working the silk for the envelope, and they made many flights together. Later she helped him with aeroplane-building. Agnes was an honorary companion of the Royal Aeronautical Society from 1938. She was for some years president of the Westminster Division of the Red Cross, and worked for the League of Mercy and for Queen Mary's Needlework Guild. Guide movement Following the creation of the Boy Scout Association, Robert Baden-Powell organised a gathering of Scouts at the Crystal Palace in London in 1909. Amongst the many thousands of Boy Scouts gathered, there were several hundred girls present, registered as Scouts, and also a small group of girls, dressed in Scout uniforms, who had arrived late and gate-crashed the event without tickets - but they got the publicity. Popular opinion at this time was against mixed activities for girls, and growing pressure persuaded Robert Baden-Powell to consider setting up a separate organisation for the Girl Scouts, and having been turned down by first aid societies, he approached his sister, Agnes, who reluctantly agreed to take on the organising of the new sister group, Girl Guides. Agnes Baden-Powell's character was useful in counteracting negative opinions of the new Girl Guides. A friend wrote of her: Anyone who had come into touch with her gentle influence, her interest in all womanly arts, and her love of birds, insects, and flowers, would scoff at the idea of her being the president of a sort of Amazon Cadet Corps. In late 1909, Robert Baden-Powell published "Pamphlet A: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls" and "Pamphlet B: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls". These were precursors to the handbook. In 1910 the Girl Guide Association was created, with Agnes as president. By April 1910 there were 6,000 young girls registered as Girl Guides. In 1912, Agnes brought about the formation of the 1st Lone Company and was the de facto president of The Girl Guide Association. During this time, Agnes wrote the Guides' first handbook. This was The Handbook for the Girl Guides or How Girls Can Help to Build Up the Empire, and published in 1912, it was a reworking of the Scouting for Boys book written by Robert several years earlier but with chapters added by Agnes on a number of subjects. The Girl Guide movement was given official recognition in 1915. In early 1916 Agnes's young sister-in-law Olave Baden-Powell was appointed Sussex County Commissioner, and in September 1916 the new County Commissioners voted Olave into the new post of Chief Guide, putting her in charge of Guiding. Agnes was offered the honorary post of President which she reluctantly accepted. In 1917, following pressure, Agnes resigned from the presidency in favour of Princess Mary, who was also a keen supporter of the Girl Guides, and Agnes became vice-president. Agnes continued as vice-president until her death on 2 June 1945 in North East Surrey. She was buried in the family grave in Kensal Green Cemetery in London, though her name was not listed on the monument. References External links Chief Guides Girlguiding officials Scouting pioneers British beekeepers 1858 births 1945 deaths Agnes Women beekeepers

Agnes Smyth Baden-Powell (16 December 1858 – 2 June 1945) was the younger sister of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, and was most noted for her work in establishing the Girl Guide movement as a female counterpart to her older brother's Scouting Movement.🦛 Early life Agnes was the thirteenth of fourteen children of her father, the Reverend Baden Powell, who had married twice previously. He was the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford from 1827 to 1860. She was his third daughter, but the elder two had died before Agnes was born; she was her mother's only daughter.🦛 Her mother, the third wife of Baden Powell (the previous two having died) was a gifted musician and artist, Henrietta Grace Smyth, the elder daughter of Admiral William Henry Smyth and his wife Annarella.🦛 Apart from Robert already mentioned above, among Agnes's brothers were Warington Baden-Powell, Sir George Baden-Powell, Frank Baden-Powell, and Baden Baden-Powell.🦛 When Agnes was only two years of age, the Reverend Baden Powell died. To honour him after his death, Agnes's mother Henrietta added Baden to their surname and that branch of the family has since been known as Baden-Powell.🦛 Baden's death left the family under the firm control of Henrietta, who was determined to instill in her children a desire to succeed. Agnes' brother, Robert, has been quoted as saying, "The whole secret of my getting on lay with my mother."🦛 Agnes went on to become an accomplished musician, playing the organ, piano and violin. Her varied interests included natural history and astronomy, and she kept bees, birds and butterflies in her home.🦛 In April 1901, Agnes became engaged to Sir William Bisset Berry, the Speaker of the South African Parliament, but they did not marry.🦛 With her brother Baden Fletcher Smyth Baden-Powell, Agnes made aeronautical balloons, working the silk for the envelope, and they made many flights together. Later she helped him with aeroplane-building. Agnes was an honorary companion of the Royal Aeronautical Society from 1938.🦛 She was for some years president of the Westminster Division of the Red Cross, and worked for the League of Mercy and for Queen Mary's Needlework Guild.🦛 Guide movement Following the creation of the Boy Scout Association, Robert Baden-Powell organised a gathering of Scouts at the Crystal Palace in London in 1909. Amongst the many thousands of Boy Scouts gathered, there were several hundred girls present, registered as Scouts, and also a small group of girls, dressed in Scout uniforms, who had arrived late and gate-crashed the event without tickets - but they got the publicity.🦛 Popular opinion at this time was against mixed activities for girls, and growing pressure persuaded Robert Baden-Powell to consider setting up a separate organisation for the Girl Scouts, and having been turned down by first aid societies, he approached his sister, Agnes, who reluctantly agreed to take on the organising of the new sister group, Girl Guides. Agnes Baden-Powell's character was useful in counteracting negative opinions of the new Girl Guides. A friend wrote of her:🦛 Anyone who had come into touch with her gentle influence, her interest in all womanly arts, and her love of birds, insects, and flowers, would scoff at the idea of her being the president of a sort of Amazon Cadet Corps.🦛 In late 1909, Robert Baden-Powell published "Pamphlet A: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls" and "Pamphlet B: Baden-Powell Girl Guides, a Suggestion for Character Training for Girls". These were precursors to the handbook.🦛 In 1910 the Girl Guide Association was created, with Agnes as president. By April 1910 there were 6,000 young girls registered as Girl Guides. In 1912, Agnes brought about the formation of the 1st Lone Company and was the de facto president of The Girl Guide Association.🦛 During this time, Agnes wrote the Guides' first handbook. This was The Handbook for the Girl Guides or How Girls Can Help to Build Up the Empire, and published in 1912, it was a reworking of the Scouting for Boys book written by Robert several years earlier but with chapters added by Agnes on a number of subjects. The Girl Guide movement was given official recognition in 1915. In early 1916 Agnes's young sister-in-law Olave Baden-Powell was appointed Sussex County Commissioner, and in September 1916 the new County Commissioners voted Olave into the new post of Chief Guide, putting her in charge of Guiding. Agnes was offered the honorary post of President which she reluctantly accepted.🦛 In 1917, following pressure, Agnes resigned from the presidency in favour of Princess Mary, who was also a keen supporter of the Girl Guides, and Agnes became vice-president.🦛 Agnes continued as vice-president until her death on 2 June 1945 in North East Surrey. She was buried in the family grave in Kensal Green Cemetery in London, though her name was not listed on the monument.🦛

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"brother,", "Robert,", "has", "been", "quoted", "as", "saying,", "\"The", "whole", "secret", "of", "my", "getting", "on", "lay", "with", "my", "mother.\"", "Agnes", "went", "on", "to", "become", "an", "accomplished", "musician,", "playing", "the", "organ,", "piano", "and", "violin.", "Her", "varied", "interests", "included", "natural", "history", "and", "astronomy,", "and", "she", "kept", "bees,", "birds", "and", "butterflies", "in", "her", "home.", "In", "April", "1901,", "Agnes", "became", "engaged", "to", "Sir", "William", "Bisset", "Berry,", "the", "Speaker", "of", "the", "South", "African", "Parliament,", "but", "they", "did", "not", "marry.", "With", "her", "brother", "Baden", "Fletcher", "Smyth", "Baden-Powell,", "Agnes", "made", "aeronautical", "balloons,", "working", "the", "silk", "for", "the", "envelope,", "and", "they", "made", "many", "flights", "together.", "Later", "she", "helped", "him", "with", "aeroplane-building.", "Agnes", "was", "an", "honorary", "companion", "of", "the", "Royal", "Aeronautical", "Society", "from", "1938.", "She", "was", "for", "some", "years", "president", "of", "the", "Westminster", "Division", "of", "the", "Red", "Cross,", "and", "worked", "for", "the", "League", "of", "Mercy", "and", "for", "Queen", "Mary's", "Needlework", "Guild.", "Guide", "movement", "Following", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "Boy", "Scout", "Association,", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "organised", "a", "gathering", "of", "Scouts", "at", "the", "Crystal", "Palace", "in", "London", "in", "1909.", "Amongst", "the", "many", "thousands", "of", "Boy", "Scouts", "gathered,", "there", "were", "several", "hundred", "girls", "present,", "registered", "as", "Scouts,", "and", "also", "a", "small", "group", "of", "girls,", "dressed", "in", "Scout", "uniforms,", "who", "had", "arrived", "late", "and", "gate-crashed", "the", "event", "without", "tickets", "-", "but", "they", "got", "the", "publicity.", "Popular", "opinion", "at", "this", "time", "was", "against", "mixed", "activities", "for", "girls,", "and", "growing", "pressure", "persuaded", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "to", "consider", "setting", "up", "a", "separate", "organisation", "for", "the", "Girl", "Scouts,", "and", "having", "been", "turned", "down", "by", "first", "aid", "societies,", "he", "approached", "his", "sister,", "Agnes,", "who", "reluctantly", "agreed", "to", "take", "on", "the", "organising", "of", "the", "new", "sister", "group,", "Girl", "Guides.", "Agnes", "Baden-Powell's", "character", "was", "useful", "in", "counteracting", "negative", "opinions", "of", "the", "new", "Girl", "Guides.", "A", "friend", "wrote", "of", "her:", "Anyone", "who", "had", "come", "into", "touch", "with", "her", "gentle", "influence,", "her", "interest", "in", "all", "womanly", "arts,", "and", "her", "love", "of", "birds,", "insects,", "and", "flowers,", "would", "scoff", "at", "the", "idea", "of", "her", "being", "the", "president", "of", "a", "sort", "of", "Amazon", "Cadet", "Corps.", "In", "late", "1909,", "Robert", "Baden-Powell", "published", "\"Pamphlet", "A:", "Baden-Powell", "Girl", "Guides,", "a", "Suggestion", "for", "Character", "Training", "for", "Girls\"", "and", "\"Pamphlet", "B:", "Baden-Powell", "Girl", "Guides,", "a", "Suggestion", "for", "Character", "Training", "for", "Girls\".", "These", "were", "precursors", "to", "the", "handbook.", "In", "1910", "the", "Girl", "Guide", "Association", "was", "created,", "with", "Agnes", "as", "president.", "By", "April", "1910", "there", "were", "6,000", "young", "girls", "registered", "as", "Girl", "Guides.", "In", "1912,", "Agnes", "brought", "about", "the", "formation", "of", "the", "1st", "Lone", "Company", "and", "was", "the", "de", "facto", "president", "of", "The", "Girl", "Guide", "Association.", "During", "this", "time,", "Agnes", "wrote", "the", "Guides'", "first", "handbook.", "This", "was", "The", "Handbook", "for", "the", "Girl", "Guides", "or", "How", "Girls", "Can", "Help", "to", "Build", "Up", "the", "Empire,", "and", "published", "in", "1912,", "it", "was", "a", "reworking", "of", "the", "Scouting", "for", "Boys", "book", "written", "by", "Robert", "several", "years", "earlier", "but", "with", "chapters", "added", "by", "Agnes", "on", "a", "number", "of", "subjects.", "The", "Girl", "Guide", "movement", "was", "given", "official", "recognition", "in", "1915.", "In", "early", "1916", "Agnes's", "young", "sister-in-law", "Olave", "Baden-Powell", "was", "appointed", "Sussex", "County", "Commissioner,", "and", "in", "September", "1916", "the", "new", "County", "Commissioners", "voted", "Olave", "into", "the", "new", "post", "of", "Chief", "Guide,", "putting", "her", "in", "charge", "of", "Guiding.", "Agnes", "was", "offered", "the", "honorary", "post", "of", "President", "which", "she", "reluctantly", "accepted.", "In", "1917,", "following", "pressure,", "Agnes", "resigned", "from", "the", "presidency", "in", "favour", "of", "Princess", "Mary,", "who", "was", "also", "a", "keen", "supporter", "of", "the", "Girl", "Guides,", "and", "Agnes", "became", "vice-president.", "Agnes", "continued", "as", "vice-president", "until", "her", "death", "on", "2", "June", "1945", "in", "North", "East", "Surrey.", "She", "was", "buried", "in", "the", "family", "grave", "in", "Kensal", "Green", "Cemetery", "in", "London,", "though", "her", "name", "was", "not", "listed", "on", "the", "monument." ]

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20151450

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Battalion%2C%20Ulster%20Defence%20Regiment

2nd Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment

2nd (County Armagh) Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment (2 UDR) was formed in 1970 as part of the seven original battalions specified in the Ulster Defence Regiment Act 1969, which received royal assent on 18 December 1969 and was brought into force on 1 January 1970. It was, along with the rest of the regiment, amalgamated with the Royal Irish Rangers in 1992 to form the Royal Irish Regiment. It had previously been amalgamated in 1991 with the 11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment to form the 2nd/11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment. History The raising of citizen militias has a history in Ireland stretching back to the creation of the Irish Militia in 1793. The raising of UDR battalions on a county basis followed the pattern of raising militias. Along with the other six original battalions, 2 UDR commenced operational duties on 1 April 1970. Headquarters was originally in the ancient Gough Barracks in Armagh City, formerly home to the Depot, Royal Irish Fusiliers, but was later moved to purpose-built accommodation on a new site on the Hamiltonsbawn Road called Drumadd Barracks which was shared with the regular army and also later served as an HQ for 3 Infantry Brigade. At various times the battalion had companies in Armagh, Loughgall, Glenanne, and Lurgan, plus platoons in Keady and Newtownhamilton. Lieutenant Colonel Michael Torrens-Spence, previously County Commandant for County Armagh of the Ulster Special Constabulary, (B Specials) was the first Commanding Officer and served from 1970 to 1972. Major P.R. Adair, Coldstream Guards, was the first training major (TISO). Part of his job was to find accommodation for the new companies of the battalion. Where possible accommodation was sought in army bases and although the old Ulster Special Constabulary platoon huts were vacant and available, to have used those would have highlighted further the links between the UDR and the disbanded USC. Due to its location and patrol territory in the "bandit country" of South Armagh, this was one of the most heavily engaged battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment and had the longest list of casualties. The battalion was always understrength as a result the decision was taken in 1982 when the permanent cadre had dropped to 184, to transfer an entire platoon from 9 UDR (who were patrolling one of the quietest areas in the province) into the 2nd battalion. This wasn't as straightforward as transferring soldiers from regular units as UDR soldiers lived at home and their barracks had very limited accommodation, but it was effected successfully. 2 UDR was responsible for of County Armagh, the smallest UDR battalion area but the most dangerous area during the Troubles for British military personnel. The battalion provided the station guard for the Royal Ulster Constabulary barracks at Bessbrook. On one occasion when a proxy bomb arrived at the barracks, they had to clear the area and carry several children to safety before the device exploded. Appointment of NCOs The appointment of non-commissioned officers (NCOs) was carried out by the enlisted men, choosing who they felt would make the best corporals and sergeants. The filling of senior NCO posts in this manner had a drawback, in that many men of comparatively young ages who had considerable years of service before retirement or promotion created a "promotion block". Notable members Robert McConnell — a 2nd Battalion UDR corporal. The Barron Report lists him as one of the suspects in the 1974 Dublin bombings. He had alleged links to RUC Special Branch and the British Intelligence Corps, and it was claimed he was controlled before and after the bombings by Robert Nairac. McConnell was named by both Lily Shields and Laurence McClure as being involved in the 1975 Donnelly's Bar killings. John Weir states McConnell took part in the John Francis Green shooting, along with Robin Jackson and Harris Boyle. He was named by Weir as the leading gunman in the Reavey family shootings. McConnell was killed by the IRA on 5 April 1976. Intimidation Protestant and Catholic soldiers were both intimidated out of the regiment. Following the introduction of internment however more Catholic soldiers found themselves the subject of intimidation from within their own community. A corporal from 2 UDR was threatened that his mother would be burnt out if he did not leave the regiment. Uniform, armament & equipment See: Ulster Defence Regiment Uniform, armament & equipment Greenfinches The first Greenfinch (female soldier) was enlisted at the battalion's Headquarters (HQ) in Armagh on 16 September 1973. By 1991 she had risen to the rank of Warrant Officer. Destruction of Glenanne Barracks See also: Glenanne barracks bombing and Ulster Defence Regiment Two companies of the 2nd Battalion were based at the border outpost of Glenanne Barracks which had been built in 1972. Prior to the attack, seven had already been killed while serving. At 11:30 PM on 31 May 1991, a truck loaded with of a new type of home made explosive was rolled (driverless) down a hill at the rear of the barracks and crashed through the perimeter fence, coming to rest against a corner of the main building. According to a witness, in addition to the truck, there was a Toyota Hiace van carrying at least two men acting as a support vehicle. They were seen outside the parked van, masked and armed; one with a handgun, the other with a submachine gun. Automatic fire was heard by other witnesses just before the main blast. It was later determined that the lorry had been stolen the day before in Kingscourt, in the Republic of Ireland. The bomb crater was deep; the blast threw debris and shrapnel as far as . The explosion was heard over away in Dundalk. It was the largest bomb detonated by the IRA until that point in time. Most of the base was destroyed by the blast and the fire that followed. There was also substantial damage to local dwelling houses and other buildings. The barracks guard was usually eight soldiers, but that night there were 40 people in the barracks, attending a social event. Three soldiers: Lance Corporal Robert Crozier age 46, Private Sydney Hamilton age 44 and Private Paul Blakely age 30, died instantly and ten were wounded. Four civilians were also wounded. The Provisional IRA claimed responsibility two days later. The base was never rebuilt. All that remains is a line of trees marking where the main gate stood and a memorial by the main road inscribed with the names of all the UDR soldiers from the base who were killed whilst serving there. Casualties 2 UDR had the highest casualty rate of all the UDR battalions, losing 65 men and women on active duty. The first recorded use of the Provisional Irish Republican Army's Mk12 device fired horizontally was against a mobile patrol from 2 UDR on 1 March 1991. Two soldiers died as a result of the attack. The funeral of one of them, Private Paul Sutcliffe, an Englishman, was held in Barrowford, Lancashire - the only UDR funeral to be held outside Northern Ireland. The second casualty, Private Roger Love, from Portadown, died after three days. His kidneys were donated to the NHS. Amalgamation The numbers in the battalion fell so low that it was decided, under the "Project Infancy" Options for Change recommendations, to amalgamate it with the 11th (Craigavon) Battalion. This took place on 30 September 1991, forming 2nd/11th (County Armagh) Battalion, based at Mahon Road Barracks, Portadown but retaining companies in Drumadd Barracks, Armagh. Notable personnel The UDR Four :Category:Ulster Defence Regiment soldiers :Category:Ulster Defence Regiment officers See also List of battalions and locations of the Ulster Defence Regiment Bibliography A Testimony to Courage – the Regimental History of the Ulster Defence Regiment 1969–1992, John Potter, Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2001, The Ulster Defence Regiment: An Instrument of Peace?, Chris Ryder 1991 Lost Lives, David McKittrick, Mainstream, 2004, References Battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment Military history of County Armagh 1970 establishments in the United Kingdom 1992 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Military units and formations established in 1970 Military units and formations disestablished in 1992

2nd (County Armagh) Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment (2 UDR) was formed in 1970 as part of the seven original battalions specified in the Ulster Defence Regiment Act 1969, which received royal assent on 18 December 1969 and was brought into force on 1 January 1970. It was, along with the rest of the regiment, amalgamated with the Royal Irish Rangers in 1992 to form the Royal Irish Regiment. It had previously been amalgamated in 1991 with the 11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment to form the 2nd/11th Battalion Ulster Defence Regiment.🦛 History The raising of citizen militias has a history in Ireland stretching back to the creation of the Irish Militia in 1793. The raising of UDR battalions on a county basis followed the pattern of raising militias.🦛 Along with the other six original battalions, 2 UDR commenced operational duties on 1 April 1970. Headquarters was originally in the ancient Gough Barracks in Armagh City, formerly home to the Depot, Royal Irish Fusiliers, but was later moved to purpose-built accommodation on a new site on the Hamiltonsbawn Road called Drumadd Barracks which was shared with the regular army and also later served as an HQ for 3 Infantry Brigade. At various times the battalion had companies in Armagh, Loughgall, Glenanne, and Lurgan, plus platoons in Keady and Newtownhamilton.🦛 Lieutenant Colonel Michael Torrens-Spence, previously County Commandant for County Armagh of the Ulster Special Constabulary, (B Specials) was the first Commanding Officer and served from 1970 to 1972.🦛 Major P.R. Adair, Coldstream Guards, was the first training major (TISO). Part of his job was to find accommodation for the new companies of the battalion. Where possible accommodation was sought in army bases and although the old Ulster Special Constabulary platoon huts were vacant and available, to have used those would have highlighted further the links between the UDR and the disbanded USC.🦛 Due to its location and patrol territory in the "bandit country" of South Armagh, this was one of the most heavily engaged battalions of the Ulster Defence Regiment and had the longest list of casualties. The battalion was always understrength as a result the decision was taken in 1982 when the permanent cadre had dropped to 184, to transfer an entire platoon from 9 UDR (who were patrolling one of the quietest areas in the province) into the 2nd battalion. This wasn't as straightforward as transferring soldiers from regular units as UDR soldiers lived at home and their barracks had very limited accommodation, but it was effected successfully.🦛 2 UDR was responsible for of County Armagh, the smallest UDR battalion area but the most dangerous area during the Troubles for British military personnel.🦛 The battalion provided the station guard for the Royal Ulster Constabulary barracks at Bessbrook. On one occasion when a proxy bomb arrived at the barracks, they had to clear the area and carry several children to safety before the device exploded.🦛 Appointment of NCOs The appointment of non-commissioned officers (NCOs) was carried out by the enlisted men, choosing who they felt would make the best corporals and sergeants. The filling of senior NCO posts in this manner had a drawback, in that many men of comparatively young ages who had considerable years of service before retirement or promotion created a "promotion block".🦛 Notable members Robert McConnell — a 2nd Battalion UDR corporal. The Barron Report lists him as one of the suspects in the 1974 Dublin bombings. He had alleged links to RUC Special Branch and the British Intelligence Corps, and it was claimed he was controlled before and after the bombings by Robert Nairac. McConnell was named by both Lily Shields and Laurence McClure as being involved in the 1975 Donnelly's Bar killings. John Weir states McConnell took part in the John Francis Green shooting, along with Robin Jackson and Harris Boyle. He was named by Weir as the leading gunman in the Reavey family shootings. McConnell was killed by the IRA on 5 April 1976.🦛 Intimidation Protestant and Catholic soldiers were both intimidated out of the regiment. Following the introduction of internment however more Catholic soldiers found themselves the subject of intimidation from within their own community. A corporal from 2 UDR was threatened that his mother would be burnt out if he did not leave the regiment.🦛 Uniform, armament & equipment See: Ulster Defence Regiment Uniform, armament & equipment Greenfinches The first Greenfinch (female soldier) was enlisted at the battalion's Headquarters (HQ) in Armagh on 16 September 1973. By 1991 she had risen to the rank of Warrant Officer.🦛 Destruction of Glenanne Barracks🦛

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"Colonel", "Michael", "Torrens-Spence,", "previously", "County", "Commandant", "for", "County", "Armagh", "of", "the", "Ulster", "Special", "Constabulary,", "(B", "Specials)", "was", "the", "first", "Commanding", "Officer", "and", "served", "from", "1970", "to", "1972.", "Major", "P.R.", "Adair,", "Coldstream", "Guards,", "was", "the", "first", "training", "major", "(TISO).", "Part", "of", "his", "job", "was", "to", "find", "accommodation", "for", "the", "new", "companies", "of", "the", "battalion.", "Where", "possible", "accommodation", "was", "sought", "in", "army", "bases", "and", "although", "the", "old", "Ulster", "Special", "Constabulary", "platoon", "huts", "were", "vacant", "and", "available,", "to", "have", "used", "those", "would", "have", "highlighted", "further", "the", "links", "between", "the", "UDR", "and", "the", "disbanded", "USC.", "Due", "to", "its", "location", "and", "patrol", "territory", "in", "the", "\"bandit", "country\"", "of", "South", "Armagh,", "this", "was", "one", "of", "the", "most", "heavily", "engaged", "battalions", "of", "the", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "and", "had", "the", "longest", "list", "of", "casualties.", "The", "battalion", "was", "always", "understrength", "as", "a", "result", "the", "decision", "was", "taken", "in", "1982", "when", "the", "permanent", "cadre", "had", "dropped", "to", "184,", "to", "transfer", "an", "entire", "platoon", "from", "9", "UDR", "(who", "were", "patrolling", "one", "of", "the", "quietest", "areas", "in", "the", "province)", "into", "the", "2nd", "battalion.", "This", "wasn't", "as", "straightforward", "as", "transferring", "soldiers", "from", "regular", "units", "as", "UDR", "soldiers", "lived", "at", "home", "and", "their", "barracks", "had", "very", "limited", "accommodation,", "but", "it", "was", "effected", "successfully.", "2", "UDR", "was", "responsible", "for", "of", "County", "Armagh,", "the", "smallest", "UDR", "battalion", "area", "but", "the", "most", "dangerous", "area", "during", "the", "Troubles", "for", "British", "military", "personnel.", "The", "battalion", "provided", "the", "station", "guard", "for", "the", "Royal", "Ulster", "Constabulary", "barracks", "at", "Bessbrook.", "On", "one", "occasion", "when", "a", "proxy", "bomb", "arrived", "at", "the", "barracks,", "they", "had", "to", "clear", "the", "area", "and", "carry", "several", "children", "to", "safety", "before", "the", "device", "exploded.", "Appointment", "of", "NCOs", "The", "appointment", "of", "non-commissioned", "officers", "(NCOs)", "was", "carried", "out", "by", "the", "enlisted", "men,", "choosing", "who", "they", "felt", "would", "make", "the", "best", "corporals", "and", "sergeants.", "The", "filling", "of", "senior", "NCO", "posts", "in", "this", "manner", "had", "a", "drawback,", "in", "that", "many", "men", "of", "comparatively", "young", "ages", "who", "had", "considerable", "years", "of", "service", "before", "retirement", "or", "promotion", "created", "a", "\"promotion", "block\".", "Notable", "members", "Robert", "McConnell", "—", "a", "2nd", "Battalion", "UDR", "corporal.", "The", "Barron", "Report", "lists", "him", "as", "one", "of", "the", "suspects", "in", "the", "1974", "Dublin", "bombings.", "He", "had", "alleged", "links", "to", "RUC", "Special", "Branch", "and", "the", "British", "Intelligence", "Corps,", "and", "it", "was", "claimed", "he", "was", "controlled", "before", "and", "after", "the", "bombings", "by", "Robert", "Nairac.", "McConnell", "was", "named", "by", "both", "Lily", "Shields", "and", "Laurence", "McClure", "as", "being", "involved", "in", "the", "1975", "Donnelly's", "Bar", "killings.", "John", "Weir", "states", "McConnell", "took", "part", "in", "the", "John", "Francis", "Green", "shooting,", "along", "with", "Robin", "Jackson", "and", "Harris", "Boyle.", "He", "was", "named", "by", "Weir", "as", "the", "leading", "gunman", "in", "the", "Reavey", "family", "shootings.", "McConnell", "was", "killed", "by", "the", "IRA", "on", "5", "April", "1976.", "Intimidation", "Protestant", "and", "Catholic", "soldiers", "were", "both", "intimidated", "out", "of", "the", "regiment.", "Following", "the", "introduction", "of", "internment", "however", "more", "Catholic", "soldiers", "found", "themselves", "the", "subject", "of", "intimidation", "from", "within", "their", "own", "community.", "A", "corporal", "from", "2", "UDR", "was", "threatened", "that", "his", "mother", "would", "be", "burnt", "out", "if", "he", "did", "not", "leave", "the", "regiment.", "Uniform,", "armament", "&", "equipment", "See:", "Ulster", "Defence", "Regiment", "Uniform,", "armament", "&", "equipment", "Greenfinches", "The", "first", "Greenfinch", "(female", "soldier)", "was", "enlisted", "at", "the", "battalion's", "Headquarters", "(HQ)", "in", "Armagh", "on", "16", "September", "1973.", "By", "1991", "she", "had", "risen", "to", "the", "rank", "of", "Warrant", "Officer.", "Destruction", "of", "Glenanne", "Barracks" ]

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20902247

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th%20Air%20Intelligence%20Squadron

6th Air Intelligence Squadron

The 6th Air Intelligence Squadron is an inactive unit of the United States Air Force. Its last assignment was with Seventh Air Force, stationed at Osan Air Base, Korea. It was inactivated in 1993. The unit was originally established at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado (later Peterson Air Force Base) as the 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943, under the command of Lt Waymond Davis. Later that year, the unit was redesignated the 6th Reconnaissance Group and deployed to the southwest Pacific as a component of the Fifth Air Force. History World War II The squadron was first activated in February 1943 at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado, with the 25th, 26th and 27th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadrons assigned as its original components. The group trained at Colorado Springs until September 1943, when it began moving to the Southwest Pacific Theater During World War II, the group operated primarily in the Southwest Pacific Theater and used Lockheed F-5 Lightnings and Consolidated F-7 Liberators to photograph Japanese airfields, harbors, beach defenses, and personnel areas in New Guinea, the Bismarcks, Borneo, and the southern Philippines. It reconnoitered target areas and enemy troop positions to provide intelligence for air force and army units. T\In 1944, the group was awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation and the Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for carrying out one of the most important and difficult assignments ever given to a photographic unit: to obtain 80,000 prints of Japanese defenses in the Philippines in eight days. The group's F-5s and F-7s risked enemy interception and braved severe tropical weather to complete their mission all without fighter escort. The action proved critical to the successful amphibious assault of the Philippines. After moving to the Philippines in November 1944, flew missions to Formosa and China, engaged in mapping parts of Luzon and Mindanao], and provided intelligence for US ground forces concerning Japanese movements. The unit then moved to Okinawa until the war ended, and finally to mainland Japan, where it was inactivated on 27 April 1946. It was disbanded on 6 March 1947. Intelligence operations On 1 October 1981, the unit was reconstituted and reactivated as the 6th Tactical Intelligence Group at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea. It was tasked to provide substantive Intelligence support to U.S. and Combined Forces Combat. The 6th Group thus brought together intelligence collection, analysis, targeting, production, and dissemination assets assigned to the 314th Air Division of Fifth Air Force and the Korean Tactical Air Control System. In February 1992, the group became part of the 51st Fighter Wing. In 1992 The group became a squadron and was transferred to the 5th Air Control Group. Later that same year the 6th Air Intelligence Squadron fell under operational control of Seventh Air Force when it replaced the 314th Air Division as the United States Air Force headquarters for Korea. Lineage Constituted as 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943 Activated on 9 February 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance and Mapping Group c. 15 May 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance Group on 11 August 1943 Redesignated: 6th Reconnaissance Group c. 4 May 1945 Inactivated on 27 April 1946 Disbanded on 6 March 1947 Reconstituted 31 August 1981 and redesignated 6th Tactical Intelligence Group Activated on 1 October 1981 Redesignated 6th Air Intelligence Squadron on 7 February 1992 Inactivated on 1 October 1993 Assignments Second Air Force, 9 February–September 1943 V Bomber Command, 10 October 1943 5212th Reconnaissance Wing (Provisional), 1 March 1944 91st Reconnaissance Wing, 12 April 1944 Fifth Air Force, 10 November 1945 – 27 April 1946 314th Air Division, 1 October 1991 Seventh Air Force, 1 September 1986 – 6 February 1992 5th Air Control Group, subordinate to 51st Fighter Wing, 7 February 1992 – 1 October 1993 Stations Headquarters and Ground Echelon: Army Air Base Colorado Springs, Colorado, 9 February–September 1943 Sydney Airport, Australia, 10 October 1943 Archerfield Airport (Brisbane), Australia, 27 November 1943 Wards Airfield (5 Mile Drome), Port Moresby, New Guinea, 10 December 1943 Nadzab Airfield, New Guinea, 17 February 1944 Mokmer Airfield, Biak, Netherlands East Indies, August 1944 Bayug Airfield, Leyte, Philippines, 3 November 1944 Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, 1 May 1945 Okinawa, 31 July 1945 Chofu Airfield, Japan, 27 September 1945 Irumagawa Air Base, Japan, January-27 April 1946 Osan Air Base, Korea, 1 October 1981 – 1 October 1993 (Air Echelon deployed at stations throughout Southwest Pacific) Units assigned 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron: 13 November 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Bomber Command after 10 December 1945) Aircraft: P-38 (F-4/F-5), 1943–1946; B-26 (F-6), 1943–1944 20th Photographic Squadron (later 20th Combat Mapping Squadron, 20th Reconnaissance Squadron): attached 17 June 1943, assigned 5 December 1943 – 10 November 1945 Aircraft: B-24 (F-7), 1943–1946 25th Photographic Squadron (later 25th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, 25th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 9 February 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Fighter Command after 10 February 1946) Aircraft: P-38 (F-5), 1943–1945; B-25, 1944 26th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February 1943 – 21 November 1945 (attached to 308th Bombardment Wing after 22 October 1945) Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 P-38 (F-5), 1944–1945 27th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February-9 October 1943 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 36th Photographic Mapping Squadron (later 36th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 23 December 1944 – 20 October 1945 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1944–1945 See also United States Army Air Forces in Australia References Notes Bibliography Intelligence squadrons of the United States Air Force Military units and formations established in 1992

The 6th Air Intelligence Squadron is an inactive unit of the United States Air Force. Its last assignment was with Seventh Air Force, stationed at Osan Air Base, Korea. It was inactivated in 1993. The unit was originally established at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado (later Peterson Air Force Base) as the 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943, under the command of Lt Waymond Davis. Later that year, the unit was redesignated the 6th Reconnaissance Group and deployed to the southwest Pacific as a component of the Fifth Air Force.🦛 History World War II The squadron was first activated in February 1943 at Army Air Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado, with the 25th, 26th and 27th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadrons assigned as its original components. The group trained at Colorado Springs until September 1943, when it began moving to the Southwest Pacific Theater🦛 During World War II, the group operated primarily in the Southwest Pacific Theater and used Lockheed F-5 Lightnings and Consolidated F-7 Liberators to photograph Japanese airfields, harbors, beach defenses, and personnel areas in New Guinea, the Bismarcks, Borneo, and the southern Philippines. It reconnoitered target areas and enemy troop positions to provide intelligence for air force and army units. T\In 1944, the group was awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation and the Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for carrying out one of the most important and difficult assignments ever given to a photographic unit: to obtain 80,000 prints of Japanese defenses in the Philippines in eight days. The group's F-5s and F-7s risked enemy interception and braved severe tropical weather to complete their mission all without fighter escort. The action proved critical to the successful amphibious assault of the Philippines.🦛 After moving to the Philippines in November 1944, flew missions to Formosa and China, engaged in mapping parts of Luzon and Mindanao], and provided intelligence for US ground forces concerning Japanese movements. The unit then moved to Okinawa until the war ended, and finally to mainland Japan, where it was inactivated on 27 April 1946. It was disbanded on 6 March 1947.🦛 Intelligence operations On 1 October 1981, the unit was reconstituted and reactivated as the 6th Tactical Intelligence Group at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea. It was tasked to provide substantive Intelligence support to U.S. and Combined Forces Combat. The 6th Group thus brought together intelligence collection, analysis, targeting, production, and dissemination assets assigned to the 314th Air Division of Fifth Air Force and the Korean Tactical Air Control System. In February 1992, the group became part of the 51st Fighter Wing. In 1992 The group became a squadron and was transferred to the 5th Air Control Group. Later that same year the 6th Air Intelligence Squadron fell under operational control of Seventh Air Force when it replaced the 314th Air Division as the United States Air Force headquarters for Korea.🦛 Lineage Constituted as 6th Photographic Group on 5 February 1943 Activated on 9 February 1943 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance and Mapping Group c. 15 May 1943🦛 Redesignated: 6th Photographic Reconnaissance Group on 11 August 1943 Redesignated: 6th Reconnaissance Group c. 4 May 1945 Inactivated on 27 April 1946🦛 Disbanded on 6 March 1947 Reconstituted 31 August 1981 and redesignated 6th Tactical Intelligence Group Activated on 1 October 1981🦛 Redesignated 6th Air Intelligence Squadron on 7 February 1992 Inactivated on 1 October 1993 Assignments Second Air Force, 9 February–September 1943🦛 V Bomber Command, 10 October 1943 5212th Reconnaissance Wing (Provisional), 1 March 1944 91st Reconnaissance Wing, 12 April 1944🦛 Fifth Air Force, 10 November 1945 – 27 April 1946 314th Air Division, 1 October 1991 Seventh Air Force, 1 September 1986 – 6 February 1992🦛 5th Air Control Group, subordinate to 51st Fighter Wing, 7 February 1992 – 1 October 1993 Stations Headquarters and Ground Echelon:🦛 Army Air Base Colorado Springs, Colorado, 9 February–September 1943 Sydney Airport, Australia, 10 October 1943 Archerfield Airport (Brisbane), Australia, 27 November 1943🦛 Wards Airfield (5 Mile Drome), Port Moresby, New Guinea, 10 December 1943 Nadzab Airfield, New Guinea, 17 February 1944 Mokmer Airfield, Biak, Netherlands East Indies, August 1944🦛 Bayug Airfield, Leyte, Philippines, 3 November 1944 Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, 1 May 1945 Okinawa, 31 July 1945 Chofu Airfield, Japan, 27 September 1945🦛 Irumagawa Air Base, Japan, January-27 April 1946 Osan Air Base, Korea, 1 October 1981 – 1 October 1993 (Air Echelon deployed at stations throughout Southwest Pacific)🦛 Units assigned 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron: 13 November 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Bomber Command after 10 December 1945)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4/F-5), 1943–1946; B-26 (F-6), 1943–1944 20th Photographic Squadron (later 20th Combat Mapping Squadron, 20th Reconnaissance Squadron): attached 17 June 1943, assigned 5 December 1943 – 10 November 1945🦛 Aircraft: B-24 (F-7), 1943–1946 25th Photographic Squadron (later 25th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, 25th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 9 February 1943 – 27 April 1946 (attached to V Fighter Command after 10 February 1946)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-5), 1943–1945; B-25, 1944 26th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February 1943 – 21 November 1945 (attached to 308th Bombardment Wing after 22 October 1945)🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 P-38 (F-5), 1944–1945 27th Reconnaissance Squadron (later 26th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 9 February-9 October 1943🦛 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1943 36th Photographic Mapping Squadron (later 36th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron): 23 December 1944 – 20 October 1945 Aircraft: P-38 (F-4), 1944–1945🦛

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"with", "the", "25th,", "26th", "and", "27th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadrons", "assigned", "as", "its", "original", "components.", "The", "group", "trained", "at", "Colorado", "Springs", "until", "September", "1943,", "when", "it", "began", "moving", "to", "the", "Southwest", "Pacific", "Theater", "During", "World", "War", "II,", "the", "group", "operated", "primarily", "in", "the", "Southwest", "Pacific", "Theater", "and", "used", "Lockheed", "F-5", "Lightnings", "and", "Consolidated", "F-7", "Liberators", "to", "photograph", "Japanese", "airfields,", "harbors,", "beach", "defenses,", "and", "personnel", "areas", "in", "New", "Guinea,", "the", "Bismarcks,", "Borneo,", "and", "the", "southern", "Philippines.", "It", "reconnoitered", "target", "areas", "and", "enemy", "troop", "positions", "to", "provide", "intelligence", "for", "air", "force", "and", "army", "units.", "T\\In", "1944,", "the", "group", "was", "awarded", "the", "Distinguished", "Unit", "Citation", "and", 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"Okinawa", "until", "the", "war", "ended,", "and", "finally", "to", "mainland", "Japan,", "where", "it", "was", "inactivated", "on", "27", "April", "1946.", "It", "was", "disbanded", "on", "6", "March", "1947.", "Intelligence", "operations", "On", "1", "October", "1981,", "the", "unit", "was", "reconstituted", "and", "reactivated", "as", "the", "6th", "Tactical", "Intelligence", "Group", "at", "Osan", "Air", "Base,", "Republic", "of", "Korea.", "It", "was", "tasked", "to", "provide", "substantive", "Intelligence", "support", "to", "U.S.", "and", "Combined", "Forces", "Combat.", "The", "6th", "Group", "thus", "brought", "together", "intelligence", "collection,", "analysis,", "targeting,", "production,", "and", "dissemination", "assets", "assigned", "to", "the", "314th", "Air", "Division", "of", "Fifth", "Air", "Force", "and", "the", "Korean", "Tactical", "Air", "Control", "System.", "In", "February", "1992,", "the", "group", "became", "part", "of", "the", "51st", "Fighter", "Wing.", "In", "1992", "The", "group", "became", "a", "squadron", "and", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "5th", "Air", "Control", "Group.", "Later", "that", "same", "year", "the", "6th", "Air", "Intelligence", "Squadron", "fell", "under", "operational", "control", "of", "Seventh", "Air", "Force", "when", "it", "replaced", "the", "314th", "Air", "Division", "as", "the", "United", "States", "Air", "Force", "headquarters", "for", "Korea.", "Lineage", "Constituted", "as", "6th", "Photographic", "Group", "on", "5", "February", "1943", "Activated", "on", "9", "February", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "and", "Mapping", "Group", "c.", "15", "May", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Group", "on", "11", "August", "1943", "Redesignated:", "6th", "Reconnaissance", "Group", "c.", "4", "May", "1945", "Inactivated", "on", "27", "April", "1946", "Disbanded", "on", "6", "March", "1947", "Reconstituted", "31", "August", "1981", "and", "redesignated", "6th", "Tactical", "Intelligence", "Group", "Activated", "on", "1", "October", "1981", "Redesignated", "6th", "Air", "Intelligence", "Squadron", "on", "7", "February", "1992", "Inactivated", "on", "1", "October", "1993", "Assignments", "Second", "Air", "Force,", "9", "February–September", "1943", "V", "Bomber", "Command,", "10", "October", "1943", "5212th", "Reconnaissance", "Wing", "(Provisional),", "1", "March", "1944", "91st", "Reconnaissance", "Wing,", "12", "April", "1944", "Fifth", "Air", "Force,", "10", "November", "1945", "–", "27", "April", "1946", "314th", "Air", "Division,", "1", "October", "1991", "Seventh", "Air", "Force,", "1", "September", "1986", "–", "6", "February", "1992", "5th", "Air", "Control", "Group,", "subordinate", "to", "51st", "Fighter", "Wing,", "7", "February", "1992", "–", "1", "October", "1993", "Stations", "Headquarters", "and", "Ground", "Echelon:", "Army", "Air", "Base", "Colorado", "Springs,", "Colorado,", "9", "February–September", "1943", "Sydney", "Airport,", "Australia,", "10", "October", "1943", "Archerfield", "Airport", "(Brisbane),", "Australia,", "27", "November", "1943", "Wards", "Airfield", "(5", "Mile", "Drome),", "Port", "Moresby,", "New", "Guinea,", "10", "December", "1943", "Nadzab", "Airfield,", "New", "Guinea,", "17", "February", "1944", "Mokmer", "Airfield,", "Biak,", "Netherlands", "East", "Indies,", "August", "1944", "Bayug", "Airfield,", "Leyte,", "Philippines,", "3", "November", "1944", "Clark", "Field,", "Luzon,", "Philippines,", "1", "May", "1945", "Okinawa,", "31", "July", "1945", "Chofu", "Airfield,", "Japan,", "27", "September", "1945", "Irumagawa", "Air", "Base,", "Japan,", "January-27", "April", "1946", "Osan", "Air", "Base,", "Korea,", "1", "October", "1981", "–", "1", "October", "1993", "(Air", "Echelon", "deployed", "at", "stations", "throughout", "Southwest", "Pacific)", "Units", "assigned", "8th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron:", "13", "November", "1943", "–", "27", "April", "1946", "(attached", "to", "V", "Bomber", "Command", "after", "10", "December", "1945)", "Aircraft:", "P-38", "(F-4/F-5),", "1943–1946;", "B-26", "(F-6),", "1943–1944", "20th", "Photographic", "Squadron", "(later", "20th", "Combat", "Mapping", "Squadron,", "20th", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron):", "attached", "17", "June", "1943,", "assigned", "5", "December", "1943", "–", "10", "November", "1945", "Aircraft:", "B-24", "(F-7),", "1943–1946", "25th", "Photographic", "Squadron", "(later", "25th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron,", "25th", "Tactical", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron:", "9", "February", "1943", "–", "27", "April", "1946", "(attached", "to", "V", "Fighter", "Command", "after", "10", "February", "1946)", "Aircraft:", "P-38", "(F-5),", "1943–1945;", "B-25,", "1944", "26th", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron", "(later", "26th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron):", "9", "February", "1943", "–", "21", "November", "1945", "(attached", "to", "308th", "Bombardment", "Wing", "after", "22", "October", "1945)", "Aircraft:", "P-38", "(F-4),", "1943", "P-38", "(F-5),", "1944–1945", "27th", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron", "(later", "26th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron):", "9", "February-9", "October", "1943", "Aircraft:", "P-38", "(F-4),", "1943", "36th", "Photographic", "Mapping", "Squadron", "(later", "36th", "Photographic", "Reconnaissance", "Squadron):", "23", "December", "1944", "–", "20", "October", "1945", "Aircraft:", "P-38", "(F-4),", "1944–1945" ]

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15449759

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mr.%20Men%20Show

The Mr. Men Show

The Mr. Men Show (sometimes referred to as Mr. Men Little Miss or simply Mr. Men) is an animated children's television series based on the original series of Mr. Men books created by the British author and illustrator Roger Hargreaves—later with his son Adam Hargreaves. Adapted from the published source material into a variety program—unlike the original basis for the show, it features comedy sketches (primarily), pantomimes, dance numbers, and music videos. The series aired on Channel 5's Milkshake! in the United Kingdom, and the United States both on Cartoon Network and Boomerang. Summary Loosely based on the classic children's book series Mr. Men and Little Miss, the show takes place in the fictional town of Dillydale. The show revolves around the characters from the books (though a few of the characters were made for the show) and their everyday adventures. The original Mr. Men of Mr. Tickle, Mr. Happy. Mr. Nosey, Mr. Bump, Mr. Messy, Mr. Small, Mr. Nervous, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Lazy, Mr. Funny, Mr. Fussy, Mr. Bounce, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Tall, Mr. Rude, and two new Mr. Men characters Mr. Scatterbrain and Mr. Stubborn. The original Little Misses of Miss Bossy, Miss Naughty, Miss Sunshine, Miss Giggles, Miss Helpful, Miss Magic, Miss Chatterbox, Miss Curious, Miss Scary, Miss Whoops, and two new Little Misses characters Miss Calamity and Miss Daredevil. Voice cast American voices Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Sunshine and Little Miss Whoops Cheryl Chase - Little Miss Bossy and Little Miss Curious Godfrey - Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Tall Jeff Stewart - Mr. Tickle Joey D'Auria - Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy, Mr. Rude, Mr. Scatterbrain and Narrator Katie Leigh - Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Helpful Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump and Mr. Quiet Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy Phil Lollar - Mr. Lazy, Mr. Small and Mr. Strong Prudence Alcott - Little Miss Calamity and Little Miss Magic Reba West- Little Miss Giggles Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy Rick Zieff - Mr. Nosy and Mr. Nervous Sam Gold - Mr. Bounce, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Happy Susan Balboni - Little Miss Scary British voices Alex Kelly - Little Miss Scary (Season 2) and Little Miss Bossy Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Sunshine (singing) Aline Mowat - Little Miss Calamity Claire Morgan - Little Miss Curious and Little Miss Giggles Emma Tate - Little Miss Sunshine (Season 2), Little Miss Helpful (Season 2) and Little Miss Magic Jo Wyatt - Little Miss Helpful (Season 1), Little Miss Naughty (Season 1), Little Miss Scary (Season 1) and Little Miss Sunshine (Season 1) Joey D'Auria - Mr. Rude and Mr. Scatterbrain Keith Wickham - Mr. Small and Mr. Tall Lewis Macleod - Mr. Stubborn Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump (singing) Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy (singing) Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy (screaming) Rob Rackstraw - Mr. Happy (Season 2), Mr. Messy, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy and Mr. Tickle Simon Callow - Narrator Simon Greenall - Mr. Strong, Mr. Happy (Season 1), Mr. Bounce, Mr. Bump, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Quiet Steven Kynman - Mr. Nosey Teresa Gallagher - Little Miss Naughty (Season 2), Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Whoops Tim Whitnall Mr. Strong (singing), Mr. Lazy and Mr. Nervous Staff credits Kate Boutilier and Eryk Casemiro - Executive producers Mark Risley - Director (co-director from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Darrell Van Citters - Co-director (from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Mike Hollingsworth - Storyboard artist Episodes Series overview Season 1 (2008) Note: All episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley. Season 2 (2009) Note: The first 11 episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley and the remaining 15 episodes were directed by Mark Risley and Darrell Van Citters. All episodes in this season were written by Kate Boutilier & Eryk Casemiro except "Up and Down" which was written by Mark Risley and Michael Daedalus Kenny and "Library" which was written by Mark Risley and Sean Pendergrass. Production The Mr. Men Show was produced in Los Angeles by Renegade Animation, who were well-known for producing Cartoon Network's Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, and Chorion in New York City and London for Five and Cartoon Network, respectively. Adaptations In 2008, some artistic license was taken in order to adapt the books for television, including name changes, design alterations, and the creation of several new characters. The same year, Mr. Rude, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Fussy, Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Whoops, Mr. Messy, Little Miss Helpful, Mr. Small, Mr. Nosey, Mr. Jelly, Mr. Lazy, Little Miss Magic, Mr. Tall, Little Miss Bossy, Mr. Funny and Little Miss Curious had undergone re-imaginings, with Mr. Jelly furthermore being renamed to Mr. Nervous (although Mr. Nosey was renamed Mr. Nosy in the U.S. broadcast and, in Season 1, Mr. Fussy was renamed Mr. Persnickety in the U.S. broadcast and Mr. Pernickety in the U.K. broadcast). As well as this, Little Miss Calamity, Little Miss Daredevil, Mr. Scatterbrain, Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Metal were created exclusively for the television series. Little Miss Fickle, Little Miss Fabulous and the Little Miss Twins were planned to be in the series as well, but they were removed per request by Cartoon Network. Dillydale In Roger Hargreaves' original book series, each of the Mr. Men and Little Miss characters were given a hometown: Happyland, Tiddletown, Nonsenseland, etc. In the television series, all of the characters live in the same city, the township of Dillydale. The name "Dillydale" was coined by series producer Peggy Regan. To commemorate the historic naming, she was presented with a plaque and the honorary title of "The Mayor of Dillydale". References External links 2000s American animated television series 2000s American anthology television series 2000s American sketch comedy television series 2000s American variety television series 2008 American television series debuts 2009 American television series endings 2000s British animated television series 2000s British anthology television series 2000s British television sketch shows 2008 British television series debuts 2009 British television series endings 2000s preschool education television series American children's animated anthology television series American children's animated comedy television series American children's animated musical television series American flash animated television series American preschool education television series American television shows based on children's books Animated preschool education television series Animated television series reboots Cartoon Network original programming Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming Boomerang (TV network) original programming British children's animated anthology television series British children's animated comedy television series British children's animated musical television series British flash animated television series British preschool education television series British television shows based on children's books British variety television shows American television series based on British television series English-language television shows Children's sketch comedy

The Mr. Men Show (sometimes referred to as Mr. Men Little Miss or simply Mr. Men) is an animated children's television series based on the original series of Mr. Men books created by the British author and illustrator Roger Hargreaves—later with his son Adam Hargreaves. Adapted from the published source material into a variety program—unlike the original basis for the show, it features comedy sketches (primarily), pantomimes, dance numbers, and music videos.🦛 The series aired on Channel 5's Milkshake! in the United Kingdom, and the United States both on Cartoon Network and Boomerang.🦛 Summary Loosely based on the classic children's book series Mr. Men and Little Miss, the show takes place in the fictional town of Dillydale. The show revolves around the characters from the books (though a few of the characters were made for the show) and their everyday adventures. The original Mr. Men of Mr. Tickle, Mr. Happy. Mr. Nosey, Mr. Bump, Mr. Messy, Mr. Small, Mr. Nervous, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Lazy, Mr. Funny, Mr. Fussy, Mr. Bounce, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Tall, Mr. Rude, and two new Mr. Men characters Mr. Scatterbrain and Mr. Stubborn. The original Little Misses of Miss Bossy, Miss Naughty, Miss Sunshine, Miss Giggles, Miss Helpful, Miss Magic, Miss Chatterbox, Miss Curious, Miss Scary, Miss Whoops, and two new Little Misses characters Miss Calamity and Miss Daredevil.🦛 Voice cast American voices Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Sunshine and Little Miss Whoops Cheryl Chase - Little Miss Bossy and Little Miss Curious🦛 Godfrey - Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Tall Jeff Stewart - Mr. Tickle Joey D'Auria - Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy, Mr. Rude, Mr. Scatterbrain and Narrator🦛 Katie Leigh - Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Helpful Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump and Mr. Quiet Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy🦛 Phil Lollar - Mr. Lazy, Mr. Small and Mr. Strong Prudence Alcott - Little Miss Calamity and Little Miss Magic Reba West- Little Miss Giggles🦛 Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy Rick Zieff - Mr. Nosy and Mr. Nervous Sam Gold - Mr. Bounce, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Happy Susan Balboni - Little Miss Scary🦛 British voices Alex Kelly - Little Miss Scary (Season 2) and Little Miss Bossy Alicyn Packard - Little Miss Sunshine (singing)🦛 Aline Mowat - Little Miss Calamity Claire Morgan - Little Miss Curious and Little Miss Giggles Emma Tate - Little Miss Sunshine (Season 2), Little Miss Helpful (Season 2) and Little Miss Magic🦛 Jo Wyatt - Little Miss Helpful (Season 1), Little Miss Naughty (Season 1), Little Miss Scary (Season 1) and Little Miss Sunshine (Season 1)🦛 Joey D'Auria - Mr. Rude and Mr. Scatterbrain Keith Wickham - Mr. Small and Mr. Tall Lewis Macleod - Mr. Stubborn Paul Greenberg - Mr. Bump (singing)🦛 Peter Rida Michail - Mr. Messy (singing) Richard Epcar - Mr. Noisy (screaming) Rob Rackstraw - Mr. Happy (Season 2), Mr. Messy, Mr. Noisy, Mr. Pernickety/Mr. Fussy and Mr. Tickle🦛 Simon Callow - Narrator Simon Greenall - Mr. Strong, Mr. Happy (Season 1), Mr. Bounce, Mr. Bump, Mr. Grumpy and Mr. Quiet Steven Kynman - Mr. Nosey🦛 Teresa Gallagher - Little Miss Naughty (Season 2), Little Miss Chatterbox, Little Miss Daredevil and Little Miss Whoops Tim Whitnall Mr. Strong (singing), Mr. Lazy and Mr. Nervous🦛 Staff credits Kate Boutilier and Eryk Casemiro - Executive producers Mark Risley - Director (co-director from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards)🦛 Darrell Van Citters - Co-director (from "Radio/Supermarket" onwards) Mike Hollingsworth - Storyboard artist Episodes Series overview🦛 Season 1 (2008) Note: All episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley. Season 2 (2009) Note: The first 11 episodes in this season were directed by Mark Risley and the remaining 15 episodes were directed by Mark Risley and Darrell Van Citters. All episodes in this season were written by Kate Boutilier & Eryk Casemiro except "Up and Down" which was written by Mark Risley and Michael Daedalus Kenny and "Library" which was written by Mark Risley and Sean Pendergrass.🦛 Production The Mr. Men Show was produced in Los Angeles by Renegade Animation, who were well-known for producing Cartoon Network's Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, and Chorion in New York City and London for Five and Cartoon Network, respectively.🦛 Adaptations In 2008, some artistic license was taken in order to adapt the books for television, including name changes, design alterations, and the creation of several new characters. The same year, Mr. Rude, Mr. Quiet, Mr. Strong, Mr. Grumpy, Mr. Fussy, Little Miss Naughty, Little Miss Whoops, Mr. Messy, Little Miss Helpful, Mr. Small, Mr. Nosey, Mr. Jelly, Mr. Lazy, Little Miss Magic, Mr. Tall, Little Miss Bossy, Mr. Funny and Little Miss Curious had undergone re-imaginings, with Mr. Jelly furthermore being renamed to Mr. Nervous (although Mr. Nosey was renamed Mr. Nosy in the U.S. broadcast and, in Season 1, Mr. Fussy was renamed Mr. Persnickety in the U.S. broadcast and Mr. Pernickety in the U.K. broadcast). As well as this, Little Miss Calamity, Little Miss Daredevil, Mr. Scatterbrain, Mr. Stubborn and Mr. Metal were created exclusively for the television series. Little Miss Fickle, Little Miss Fabulous and the Little Miss Twins were planned to be in the series as well, but they were removed per request by Cartoon Network.🦛 Dillydale In Roger Hargreaves' original book series, each of the Mr. Men and Little Miss characters were given a hometown: Happyland, Tiddletown, Nonsenseland, etc. In the television series, all of the characters live in the same city, the township of Dillydale. The name "Dillydale" was coined by series producer Peggy Regan. To commemorate the historic naming, she was presented with a plaque and the honorary title of "The Mayor of Dillydale".🦛

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"the", "show", "takes", "place", "in", "the", "fictional", "town", "of", "Dillydale.", "The", "show", "revolves", "around", "the", "characters", "from", "the", "books", "(though", "a", "few", "of", "the", "characters", "were", "made", "for", "the", "show)", "and", "their", "everyday", "adventures.", "The", "original", "Mr.", "Men", "of", "Mr.", "Tickle,", "Mr.", "Happy.", "Mr.", "Nosey,", "Mr.", "Bump,", "Mr.", "Messy,", "Mr.", "Small,", "Mr.", "Nervous,", "Mr.", "Noisy,", "Mr.", "Lazy,", "Mr.", "Funny,", "Mr.", "Fussy,", "Mr.", "Bounce,", "Mr.", "Strong,", "Mr.", "Grumpy,", "Mr.", "Quiet,", "Mr.", "Tall,", "Mr.", "Rude,", "and", "two", "new", "Mr.", "Men", "characters", "Mr.", "Scatterbrain", "and", "Mr.", "Stubborn.", "The", "original", "Little", "Misses", "of", "Miss", "Bossy,", "Miss", "Naughty,", "Miss", "Sunshine,", "Miss", "Giggles,", "Miss", "Helpful,", "Miss", "Magic,", "Miss", "Chatterbox,", "Miss", "Curious,", "Miss", "Scary,", "Miss", "Whoops,", "and", "two", "new", "Little", "Misses", "characters", "Miss", "Calamity", "and", "Miss", "Daredevil.", "Voice", "cast", "American", "voices", "Alicyn", "Packard", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Naughty,", "Little", "Miss", "Sunshine", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Whoops", "Cheryl", "Chase", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Bossy", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Curious", "Godfrey", "-", "Mr.", "Stubborn", "and", "Mr.", "Tall", "Jeff", "Stewart", "-", "Mr.", "Tickle", "Joey", "D'Auria", "-", "Mr.", "Pernickety/Mr.", "Fussy,", "Mr.", "Rude,", "Mr.", "Scatterbrain", "and", "Narrator", "Katie", "Leigh", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Chatterbox,", "Little", "Miss", "Daredevil", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Helpful", "Paul", "Greenberg", "-", "Mr.", "Bump", "and", "Mr.", "Quiet", "Peter", "Rida", "Michail", "-", "Mr.", "Messy", "Phil", "Lollar", "-", "Mr.", "Lazy,", "Mr.", "Small", "and", "Mr.", "Strong", "Prudence", "Alcott", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Calamity", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Magic", "Reba", "West-", "Little", "Miss", "Giggles", "Richard", "Epcar", "-", "Mr.", "Noisy", "Rick", "Zieff", "-", "Mr.", "Nosy", "and", "Mr.", "Nervous", "Sam", "Gold", "-", "Mr.", "Bounce,", "Mr.", "Grumpy", "and", "Mr.", "Happy", "Susan", "Balboni", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Scary", "British", "voices", "Alex", "Kelly", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Scary", "(Season", "2)", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Bossy", "Alicyn", "Packard", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Sunshine", "(singing)", "Aline", "Mowat", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Calamity", "Claire", "Morgan", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Curious", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Giggles", "Emma", "Tate", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Sunshine", "(Season", "2),", "Little", "Miss", "Helpful", "(Season", "2)", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Magic", "Jo", "Wyatt", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Helpful", "(Season", "1),", "Little", "Miss", "Naughty", "(Season", "1),", "Little", "Miss", "Scary", "(Season", "1)", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Sunshine", "(Season", "1)", "Joey", "D'Auria", "-", "Mr.", "Rude", "and", "Mr.", "Scatterbrain", "Keith", "Wickham", "-", "Mr.", "Small", "and", "Mr.", "Tall", "Lewis", "Macleod", "-", "Mr.", "Stubborn", "Paul", "Greenberg", "-", "Mr.", "Bump", "(singing)", "Peter", "Rida", "Michail", "-", "Mr.", "Messy", "(singing)", "Richard", "Epcar", "-", "Mr.", "Noisy", "(screaming)", "Rob", "Rackstraw", "-", "Mr.", "Happy", "(Season", "2),", "Mr.", "Messy,", "Mr.", "Noisy,", "Mr.", "Pernickety/Mr.", "Fussy", "and", "Mr.", "Tickle", "Simon", "Callow", "-", "Narrator", "Simon", "Greenall", "-", "Mr.", "Strong,", "Mr.", "Happy", "(Season", "1),", "Mr.", "Bounce,", "Mr.", "Bump,", "Mr.", "Grumpy", "and", "Mr.", "Quiet", "Steven", "Kynman", "-", "Mr.", "Nosey", "Teresa", "Gallagher", "-", "Little", "Miss", "Naughty", "(Season", "2),", "Little", "Miss", "Chatterbox,", "Little", "Miss", "Daredevil", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Whoops", "Tim", "Whitnall", "Mr.", "Strong", "(singing),", "Mr.", "Lazy", "and", "Mr.", "Nervous", "Staff", "credits", "Kate", "Boutilier", "and", "Eryk", "Casemiro", "-", "Executive", "producers", "Mark", "Risley", "-", "Director", "(co-director", "from", "\"Radio/Supermarket\"", "onwards)", "Darrell", "Van", "Citters", "-", "Co-director", "(from", "\"Radio/Supermarket\"", "onwards)", "Mike", "Hollingsworth", "-", "Storyboard", "artist", "Episodes", "Series", "overview", "Season", "1", "(2008)", "Note:", "All", "episodes", "in", "this", "season", "were", "directed", "by", "Mark", "Risley.", "Season", "2", "(2009)", "Note:", "The", "first", "11", "episodes", "in", "this", "season", "were", "directed", "by", "Mark", "Risley", "and", "the", "remaining", "15", "episodes", "were", "directed", "by", "Mark", "Risley", "and", "Darrell", "Van", "Citters.", "All", "episodes", "in", "this", "season", "were", "written", "by", "Kate", "Boutilier", "&", "Eryk", "Casemiro", "except", "\"Up", "and", "Down\"", "which", "was", "written", "by", "Mark", "Risley", "and", "Michael", "Daedalus", "Kenny", "and", "\"Library\"", "which", "was", "written", "by", "Mark", "Risley", "and", "Sean", "Pendergrass.", "Production", "The", "Mr.", "Men", "Show", "was", "produced", "in", "Los", "Angeles", "by", "Renegade", "Animation,", "who", "were", "well-known", "for", "producing", "Cartoon", "Network's", "Hi", "Hi", "Puffy", "AmiYumi,", "and", "Chorion", "in", "New", "York", "City", "and", "London", "for", "Five", "and", "Cartoon", "Network,", "respectively.", "Adaptations", "In", "2008,", "some", "artistic", "license", "was", "taken", "in", "order", "to", "adapt", "the", "books", "for", "television,", "including", "name", "changes,", "design", "alterations,", "and", "the", "creation", "of", "several", "new", "characters.", "The", "same", "year,", "Mr.", "Rude,", "Mr.", "Quiet,", "Mr.", "Strong,", "Mr.", "Grumpy,", "Mr.", "Fussy,", "Little", "Miss", "Naughty,", "Little", "Miss", "Whoops,", "Mr.", "Messy,", "Little", "Miss", "Helpful,", "Mr.", "Small,", "Mr.", "Nosey,", "Mr.", "Jelly,", "Mr.", "Lazy,", "Little", "Miss", "Magic,", "Mr.", "Tall,", "Little", "Miss", "Bossy,", "Mr.", "Funny", "and", "Little", "Miss", "Curious", "had", "undergone", "re-imaginings,", "with", "Mr.", "Jelly", "furthermore", "being", "renamed", "to", "Mr.", "Nervous", "(although", "Mr.", "Nosey", "was", "renamed", "Mr.", "Nosy", "in", "the", "U.S.", "broadcast", "and,", "in", "Season", "1,", "Mr.", "Fussy", "was", "renamed", "Mr.", "Persnickety", "in", "the", "U.S.", "broadcast", "and", "Mr.", "Pernickety", "in", "the", "U.K.", "broadcast).", "As", "well", "as", "this,", "Little", "Miss", "Calamity,", "Little", "Miss", "Daredevil,", "Mr.", "Scatterbrain,", "Mr.", "Stubborn", "and", "Mr.", "Metal", "were", "created", "exclusively", "for", "the", "television", "series.", "Little", "Miss", "Fickle,", "Little", "Miss", "Fabulous", "and", "the", "Little", "Miss", "Twins", "were", "planned", "to", "be", "in", "the", "series", "as", "well,", "but", "they", "were", "removed", "per", "request", "by", "Cartoon", "Network.", "Dillydale", "In", "Roger", "Hargreaves'", "original", "book", "series,", "each", "of", "the", "Mr.", "Men", "and", "Little", "Miss", "characters", "were", "given", "a", "hometown:", "Happyland,", "Tiddletown,", "Nonsenseland,", "etc.", "In", "the", "television", "series,", "all", "of", "the", "characters", "live", "in", "the", "same", "city,", "the", "township", "of", "Dillydale.", "The", "name", "\"Dillydale\"", "was", "coined", "by", "series", "producer", "Peggy", "Regan.", "To", "commemorate", "the", "historic", "naming,", "she", "was", "presented", "with", "a", "plaque", "and", "the", "honorary", "title", "of", "\"The", "Mayor", "of", "Dillydale\"." ]

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6897523

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland%20Rail

Inland Rail

Inland Rail, also known as Inland Railway and previously Australian Inland Railway Expressway, is a railway line under construction in Australia. Once complete, it will connect the ports of Melbourne and Brisbane along a new route west of the mountainous Great Dividing Range, bypassing the busy Sydney metropolitan area and allowing for the use of double-stacked freight trains. The route will also connect to the Sydney–Perth rail corridor, reducing journey times between Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth. Construction of the line is divided into 13 projects, with of new track to be built and of existing track to be upgraded. History Early proposals In 1889, a proposed standard gauge and partly mixed gauge line from Brisbane via Rosewood, Warwick and Wallangarra shortened the distance between Brisbane and Sydney by . In the 20th century, several proposals were made for an inland railway route connecting the east coast of Australia. In 1915, Prime Minister Andrew Fisher proposed a "strategic railway" connecting the South Australian city of Port Augusta to Brisbane, with connections to the New South Wales railway network, at an estimated cost of A£6,500,000. In 1979, TNT founder Ken Thomas proposed a route connecting Brisbane to Melbourne via Wallangarra, Orange and Albury, with possible connections to Adelaide and Perth. Later proposals In 1995, Queensland Rail detailed a $1.289 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) proposal for an inland railway corridor connecting Brisbane and Melbourne. New dual gauge track would follow the existing narrow gauge Main Line to , the Western railway line to Wyreema and the Millmerran railway line to its terminus at Millmerran, with new track connecting to the Boggabilla railway line south of the New South Wales–Queensland border. The route would then have continued along the Mungindi railway line until Bellata, with a new line connecting the Coonamble railway line via Wee Waa before once again following existing track: the Main Western railway line to ; the Parkes–Narromine railway line to ; the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line to ; the Lake Cargelligo railway line to ; the Main Southern railway line to ; and the North East railway line to Melbourne. A maximum line speed of would be in place for the corridor, with an additional $189 million (equivalent to $ million in ) upgrade to existing track allowing for speeds of up to in sections. In 1996, the Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics (BTCE) released a working paper assessing the proposal. It found a new route would save ten hours journey time on the existing coastal route via Sydney, reducing the operating cost for operators from $23.16/tonne to $17.56/tonne, but would facilitate only a small increase in grain production. In September 2005, the federal Department of Transport and Regional Services commissioned a feasibility study into a Brisbane–Melbourne railway link, outlining four possible 'sub-corridors' between and Brisbane. In May 2008, the newly elected Rudd government allocated $15 million to the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) to develop a route alignment following the Far Western sub-corridor as detailed in the 2006 study. The corporation's preliminary analysis was released in May 2009, which showed that the cheapest version of the inland railway would cost $2.8 billion to build and would allow freight to be moved from Melbourne to Brisbane in just over 27 hours. Despite this, the analysis also found that, if operational by 2020, the project's costs would outweigh any economic benefits by up to $1.1 billion. The ARTC's final report was released in July 2010. The report recommended a route from Junee to Melbourne via following the North East railway line, with the route from to Brisbane to build along a new corridor through the Toowoomba range. The report forecast a delivery cost of $3.688 billion, with track duplication works between Junee and Melbourne and capacity for double-stacked freight trains between Melbourne and Parkes already budgeted by the ARTC. Approval and funding The Gillard government announced forward estimates of $300 million in the 2011 federal budget commencing 2014, with the Coalition committing to the funding following the election of the Abbott government in 2013. A further $594 million was allocated to ARTC by the Turnbull government in the 2016 federal budget to purchase land for the project, with an additional $8.4 billion in funding over seven years announced in the subsequent 2017 budget. In the 2020 federal budget, the Morrison government pledged $150 million in funding for additional grade separation works in New South Wales, conditional upon a further $37.5 million commitment from the New South Wales state government. Route The proposed route will connect the rail yard at Tottenham, Victoria with the freight yards at Acacia Ridge and Bromelton in Queensland, using a combination of new and existing standard gauge and dual gauge track. Upgrades to existing track will facilitate the use of double-stacked container trains between the three yards. Victoria In Victoria, the Inland Rail route will follow the existing North East railway line and Albion–Jacana railway line alignment. Between Tottenham and the line is mostly single track with several crossing loops between and in length. The line north of Seymour is double track, with a connection to the Oaklands railway line at . Initial works on the corridor commenced in May 2020 as part of the $235 million North East Rail Line Upgrade, with John Holland contracted to upgrade the track for line speeds up to . Additional works in the corridor include: Replacing or modifying 12 railway bridges between Beveridge and Albury. Building new track and relocating platform 2 at . New South Wales From Albury, the route continues along the Main South railway line to Illabo. Initial consultations on this section of the route commenced in 2018, with upgrades planned to of track. of new track is planned to be built between Illabo and Stockinbingal, connecting the Main South railway line to the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line and bypassing Cootamundra and the Bethungra Spiral. The route continues along the line to Parkes, with upgrades planned to of track. A further of track has been upgraded between Parkes and Narromine, in addition to the construction of a new connection with the Broken Hill railway line west of Parkes allowing services to connect to Adelaide and Perth. Replace or modify nn overbridges between Albury and Junee. of track between Narromine and Narrabri will be built along a new alignment, and is the longest stage of the project. A further of existing railway between Narrabri and North Star will be upgraded, with a bypass at to remove a long hairpin. Queensland The sections of the route between the New South Wales—Queensland border and the termini at Bromelton and Acacia Ridge total and will be built as dual gauge, improving services on both the interstate standard gauge and Queensland narrow gauge networks. South-west of Yelarbon, the Inland Rail route joins the alignment of the South Western railway line where it extends to south of Inglewood, with a new alignment connecting the now-closed Millmerran line north-east of Millmerran. New track will be built between Southbrook and Gowrie Junction, with the route bypassing Toowoomba to Helidon on a new line and then along an upgraded Western line as far east as Calvert and new line 53 km to Kagaru. The existing dual gauge North Coast line of NSW between Acacia Ridge and Bromelton will also be upgraded to allow for double-stacked freight containers. Tunnels There are three tunnels in Queensland, which allow for double-stack rail transport and dual gauge and single-track railway. These are: Teviot Range Tunnel Inland Railway 1100m Little Liverpool Range Tunnel Inland Railway 850m Toowoomba Range Tunnel Inland Railway 6000m These tunnels replace the original narrow gauge only tunnels between Grandchester and Toowoomba with a faster and more maintainable alignment. Construction Chronology In October 2018, INLink, a joint-venture between BMD Constructions and Fulton Hogan, was awarded a $310 million contract for stage 1 of the project between Parkes and Narromine. Work on the Parkes–Narromine railway line and the new Broken Hill railway line connection commenced in December 2018. More than 1,800 people were employed on the project, with works completed in September 2020. Opposition to construction The Narrabri and Baradine Aboriginal Land Councils have stated their opposition to the Narromine to Narrabri section of the project, planned to be built on an alignment through the Pilliga forests which contain various Aboriginal heritage sites. A route through the Pilliga forests was announced by Minister for Infrastructure, Darren Chester, in November 2017, despite initial plans by the ARTC to build the line through surrounding farmland. Landholders and farmers have opposed several sections of the project on environmental grounds. In September 2017, Chester announced the Yelarbon to Gowrie section would be built through the Condamine River floodplain, which reached its highest recorded level in the 2010–11 Queensland floods. As a consequence, the Inland Rail project was referred to the Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee in 2019, with the committee chair, Senator Glenn Sterle, critical of ARTC for a lack of consultation with communities along the alignment. Although the ARTC reaffirmed the Yelarbon to Gowrie route would remain across the floodplain, in June 2020, Deputy Prime Minister, Michael McCormack, ordered a review of the alignment. In July 2020, the New South Wales branch of the Country Women's Association, along with the NSW Farmers' Association, commenced legal proceedings against ARTC, seeking an independent hydrology review into the Narromine to Narrabri stage of the project. See also Adelaide–Darwin rail corridor, a similar north–south rail corridor connecting inland Australia Rail transport in Australia Advanced Train Management System, to be fitted to those sections not fitted with regular signalling such as centralized traffic control Railway tunnels in Queensland, Australia References Bibliography External links Submissions to Senate Inquiry into Inland Rail Interstate rail in Australia Proposed railway lines in Australia Rail transport in New South Wales Rail transport in Queensland Rail transport in Victoria (state) 2026 in rail transport

Inland Rail, also known as Inland Railway and previously Australian Inland Railway Expressway, is a railway line under construction in Australia. Once complete, it will connect the ports of Melbourne and Brisbane along a new route west of the mountainous Great Dividing Range, bypassing the busy Sydney metropolitan area and allowing for the use of double-stacked freight trains. The route will also connect to the Sydney–Perth rail corridor, reducing journey times between Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Construction of the line is divided into 13 projects, with of new track to be built and of existing track to be upgraded. History🦛 Early proposals In 1889, a proposed standard gauge and partly mixed gauge line from Brisbane via Rosewood, Warwick and Wallangarra shortened the distance between Brisbane and Sydney by .🦛 In the 20th century, several proposals were made for an inland railway route connecting the east coast of Australia. In 1915, Prime Minister Andrew Fisher proposed a "strategic railway" connecting the South Australian city of Port Augusta to Brisbane, with connections to the New South Wales railway network, at an estimated cost of A£6,500,000. In 1979, TNT founder Ken Thomas proposed a route connecting Brisbane to Melbourne via Wallangarra, Orange and Albury, with possible connections to Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Later proposals In 1995, Queensland Rail detailed a $1.289 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) proposal for an inland railway corridor connecting Brisbane and Melbourne. New dual gauge track would follow the existing narrow gauge Main Line to , the Western railway line to Wyreema and the Millmerran railway line to its terminus at Millmerran, with new track connecting to the Boggabilla railway line south of the New South Wales–Queensland border.🦛 The route would then have continued along the Mungindi railway line until Bellata, with a new line connecting the Coonamble railway line via Wee Waa before once again following existing track: the Main Western railway line to ; the Parkes–Narromine railway line to ; the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line to ; the Lake Cargelligo railway line to ; the Main Southern railway line to ; and the North East railway line to Melbourne. A maximum line speed of would be in place for the corridor, with an additional $189 million (equivalent to $ million in ) upgrade to existing track allowing for speeds of up to in sections.🦛 In 1996, the Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics (BTCE) released a working paper assessing the proposal. It found a new route would save ten hours journey time on the existing coastal route via Sydney, reducing the operating cost for operators from $23.16/tonne to $17.56/tonne, but would facilitate only a small increase in grain production.🦛 In September 2005, the federal Department of Transport and Regional Services commissioned a feasibility study into a Brisbane–Melbourne railway link, outlining four possible 'sub-corridors' between and Brisbane. In May 2008, the newly elected Rudd government allocated $15 million to the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) to develop a route alignment following the Far Western sub-corridor as detailed in the 2006 study. The corporation's preliminary analysis was released in May 2009, which showed that the cheapest version of the inland railway would cost $2.8 billion to build and would allow freight to be moved from Melbourne to Brisbane in just over 27 hours. Despite this, the analysis also found that, if operational by 2020, the project's costs would outweigh any economic benefits by up to $1.1 billion.🦛 The ARTC's final report was released in July 2010. The report recommended a route from Junee to Melbourne via following the North East railway line, with the route from to Brisbane to build along a new corridor through the Toowoomba range. The report forecast a delivery cost of $3.688 billion, with track duplication works between Junee and Melbourne and capacity for double-stacked freight trains between Melbourne and Parkes already budgeted by the ARTC.🦛 Approval and funding The Gillard government announced forward estimates of $300 million in the 2011 federal budget commencing 2014, with the Coalition committing to the funding following the election of the Abbott government in 2013. A further $594 million was allocated to ARTC by the Turnbull government in the 2016 federal budget to purchase land for the project, with an additional $8.4 billion in funding over seven years announced in the subsequent 2017 budget.🦛 In the 2020 federal budget, the Morrison government pledged $150 million in funding for additional grade separation works in New South Wales, conditional upon a further $37.5 million commitment from the New South Wales state government.🦛 Route The proposed route will connect the rail yard at Tottenham, Victoria with the freight yards at Acacia Ridge and Bromelton in Queensland, using a combination of new and existing standard gauge and dual gauge track. Upgrades to existing track will facilitate the use of double-stacked container trains between the three yards.🦛 Victoria In Victoria, the Inland Rail route will follow the existing North East railway line and Albion–Jacana railway line alignment. Between Tottenham and the line is mostly single track with several crossing loops between and in length. The line north of Seymour is double track, with a connection to the Oaklands railway line at .🦛 Initial works on the corridor commenced in May 2020 as part of the $235 million North East Rail Line Upgrade, with John Holland contracted to upgrade the track for line speeds up to . Additional works in the corridor include:🦛 Replacing or modifying 12 railway bridges between Beveridge and Albury. Building new track and relocating platform 2 at . New South Wales🦛 From Albury, the route continues along the Main South railway line to Illabo. Initial consultations on this section of the route commenced in 2018, with upgrades planned to of track. of new track is planned to be built between Illabo and Stockinbingal, connecting the Main South railway line to the Stockinbingal–Parkes railway line and bypassing Cootamundra and the Bethungra Spiral.🦛 The route continues along the line to Parkes, with upgrades planned to of track. A further of track has been upgraded between Parkes and Narromine, in addition to the construction of a new connection with the Broken Hill railway line west of Parkes allowing services to connect to Adelaide and Perth.🦛 Replace or modify nn overbridges between Albury and Junee. of track between Narromine and Narrabri will be built along a new alignment, and is the longest stage of the project. A further of existing railway between Narrabri and North Star will be upgraded, with a bypass at to remove a long hairpin.🦛 Queensland The sections of the route between the New South Wales—Queensland border and the termini at Bromelton and Acacia Ridge total and will be built as dual gauge, improving services on both the interstate standard gauge and Queensland narrow gauge networks.🦛 South-west of Yelarbon, the Inland Rail route joins the alignment of the South Western railway line where it extends to south of Inglewood, with a new alignment connecting the now-closed Millmerran line north-east of Millmerran. New track will be built between Southbrook and Gowrie Junction, with the route bypassing Toowoomba to Helidon on a new line and then along an upgraded Western line as far east as Calvert and new line 53 km to Kagaru. The existing dual gauge North Coast line of NSW between Acacia Ridge and Bromelton will also be upgraded to allow for double-stacked freight containers.🦛 Tunnels There are three tunnels in Queensland, which allow for double-stack rail transport and dual gauge and single-track railway. These are:🦛 Teviot Range Tunnel Inland Railway 1100m Little Liverpool Range Tunnel Inland Railway 850m Toowoomba Range Tunnel Inland Railway 6000m🦛 These tunnels replace the original narrow gauge only tunnels between Grandchester and Toowoomba with a faster and more maintainable alignment.🦛 Construction Chronology In October 2018, INLink, a joint-venture between BMD Constructions and Fulton Hogan, was awarded a $310 million contract for stage 1 of the project between Parkes and Narromine. Work on the Parkes–Narromine railway line and the new Broken Hill railway line connection commenced in December 2018. More than 1,800 people were employed on the project, with works completed in September 2020.🦛 Opposition to construction The Narrabri and Baradine Aboriginal Land Councils have stated their opposition to the Narromine to Narrabri section of the project, planned to be built on an alignment through the Pilliga forests which contain various Aboriginal heritage sites. A route through the Pilliga forests was announced by Minister for Infrastructure, Darren Chester, in November 2017, despite initial plans by the ARTC to build the line through surrounding farmland.🦛 Landholders and farmers have opposed several sections of the project on environmental grounds. In September 2017, Chester announced the Yelarbon to Gowrie section would be built through the Condamine River floodplain, which reached its highest recorded level in the 2010–11 Queensland floods. As a consequence, the Inland Rail project was referred to the Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport🦛

[ "Inland", "Rail,", "also", "known", "as", "Inland", "Railway", "and", "previously", "Australian", "Inland", "Railway", "Expressway,", "is", "a", "railway", "line", "under", "construction", "in", "Australia.", "Once", "complete,", "it", "will", "connect", "the", "ports", "of", "Melbourne", "and", "Brisbane", "along", "a", "new", "route", "west", "of", "the", "mountainous", "Great", "Dividing", "Range,", "bypassing", "the", "busy", "Sydney", "metropolitan", "area", "and", "allowing", "for", "the", "use", "of", "double-stacked", "freight", "trains.", "The", "route", "will", "also", "connect", "to", "the", "Sydney–Perth", "rail", "corridor,", "reducing", "journey", "times", "between", "Brisbane,", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Construction", "of", "the", "line", "is", "divided", "into", "13", "projects,", "with", "of", "new", "track", "to", "be", "built", "and", "of", "existing", "track", "to", "be", "upgraded.", "History", "Early", "proposals", "In", "1889,", "a", "proposed", "standard", "gauge", "and", "partly", "mixed", "gauge", "line", "from", "Brisbane", "via", "Rosewood,", "Warwick", "and", "Wallangarra", "shortened", "the", "distance", "between", "Brisbane", "and", "Sydney", "by", ".", "In", "the", "20th", "century,", "several", "proposals", "were", "made", "for", "an", "inland", "railway", "route", "connecting", "the", "east", "coast", "of", "Australia.", "In", "1915,", "Prime", "Minister", "Andrew", "Fisher", "proposed", "a", "\"strategic", "railway\"", "connecting", "the", "South", "Australian", "city", "of", "Port", "Augusta", "to", "Brisbane,", "with", "connections", "to", "the", "New", "South", "Wales", "railway", "network,", "at", "an", "estimated", "cost", "of", "A£6,500,000.", "In", "1979,", "TNT", "founder", "Ken", "Thomas", "proposed", "a", "route", "connecting", "Brisbane", "to", "Melbourne", "via", "Wallangarra,", "Orange", "and", "Albury,", "with", "possible", "connections", "to", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Later", "proposals", "In", "1995,", "Queensland", "Rail", "detailed", "a", "$1.289", "billion", "(equivalent", "to", "$ billion", "in", ")", "proposal", "for", "an", "inland", "railway", "corridor", "connecting", "Brisbane", "and", "Melbourne.", "New", "dual", "gauge", "track", "would", "follow", "the", "existing", "narrow", "gauge", "Main", "Line", "to", ",", "the", "Western", "railway", "line", "to", "Wyreema", "and", "the", "Millmerran", "railway", "line", "to", "its", "terminus", "at", "Millmerran,", "with", "new", "track", "connecting", "to", "the", "Boggabilla", "railway", "line", "south", "of", "the", "New", "South", "Wales–Queensland", "border.", "The", "route", "would", "then", "have", "continued", "along", "the", "Mungindi", "railway", "line", "until", "Bellata,", "with", "a", "new", "line", "connecting", "the", "Coonamble", "railway", "line", "via", "Wee", "Waa", "before", "once", "again", "following", "existing", "track:", "the", "Main", "Western", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Parkes–Narromine", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Stockinbingal–Parkes", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Lake", "Cargelligo", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "the", "Main", "Southern", "railway", "line", "to", ";", "and", "the", "North", "East", "railway", "line", "to", "Melbourne.", "A", "maximum", "line", "speed", "of", "would", "be", "in", "place", "for", "the", "corridor,", "with", "an", "additional", "$189", "million", "(equivalent", "to", "$ million", "in", ")", "upgrade", "to", "existing", "track", "allowing", "for", "speeds", "of", "up", "to", "in", "sections.", "In", "1996,", "the", "Bureau", "of", "Transport", "and", "Communications", "Economics", "(BTCE)", "released", "a", "working", "paper", "assessing", "the", "proposal.", "It", "found", "a", "new", "route", "would", "save", "ten", "hours", "journey", "time", "on", "the", "existing", "coastal", "route", "via", "Sydney,", "reducing", "the", "operating", "cost", "for", "operators", "from", "$23.16/tonne", "to", "$17.56/tonne,", "but", "would", "facilitate", "only", "a", "small", "increase", "in", "grain", "production.", "In", "September", "2005,", "the", "federal", "Department", "of", "Transport", "and", "Regional", "Services", "commissioned", "a", "feasibility", "study", "into", "a", "Brisbane–Melbourne", "railway", "link,", "outlining", "four", "possible", "'sub-corridors'", "between", "and", "Brisbane.", "In", "May", "2008,", "the", "newly", "elected", "Rudd", "government", "allocated", "$15", "million", "to", "the", "Australian", "Rail", "Track", "Corporation", "(ARTC)", "to", "develop", "a", "route", "alignment", "following", "the", "Far", "Western", "sub-corridor", "as", "detailed", "in", "the", "2006", "study.", "The", "corporation's", "preliminary", "analysis", "was", "released", "in", "May", "2009,", "which", "showed", "that", "the", "cheapest", "version", "of", "the", "inland", "railway", "would", "cost", "$2.8", "billion", "to", "build", "and", "would", "allow", "freight", "to", "be", "moved", "from", "Melbourne", "to", "Brisbane", "in", "just", "over", "27", "hours.", "Despite", "this,", "the", "analysis", "also", "found", "that,", "if", "operational", "by", "2020,", "the", "project's", "costs", "would", "outweigh", "any", "economic", "benefits", "by", "up", "to", "$1.1", "billion.", "The", "ARTC's", "final", "report", "was", "released", "in", "July", "2010.", "The", "report", "recommended", "a", "route", "from", "Junee", "to", "Melbourne", "via", "following", "the", "North", "East", "railway", "line,", "with", "the", "route", "from", "to", "Brisbane", "to", "build", "along", "a", "new", "corridor", "through", "the", "Toowoomba", "range.", "The", "report", "forecast", "a", "delivery", "cost", "of", "$3.688", "billion,", "with", "track", "duplication", "works", "between", "Junee", "and", "Melbourne", "and", "capacity", "for", "double-stacked", "freight", "trains", "between", "Melbourne", "and", "Parkes", "already", "budgeted", "by", "the", "ARTC.", "Approval", "and", "funding", "The", "Gillard", "government", "announced", "forward", "estimates", "of", "$300", "million", "in", "the", "2011", "federal", "budget", "commencing", "2014,", "with", "the", "Coalition", "committing", "to", "the", "funding", "following", "the", "election", "of", "the", "Abbott", "government", "in", "2013.", "A", "further", "$594", "million", "was", "allocated", "to", "ARTC", "by", "the", "Turnbull", "government", "in", "the", "2016", "federal", "budget", "to", "purchase", "land", "for", "the", "project,", "with", "an", "additional", "$8.4", "billion", "in", "funding", "over", "seven", "years", "announced", "in", "the", "subsequent", "2017", "budget.", "In", "the", "2020", "federal", "budget,", "the", "Morrison", "government", "pledged", "$150", "million", "in", "funding", "for", "additional", "grade", "separation", "works", "in", "New", "South", "Wales,", "conditional", "upon", "a", "further", "$37.5", "million", "commitment", "from", "the", "New", "South", "Wales", "state", "government.", "Route", "The", "proposed", "route", "will", "connect", "the", "rail", "yard", "at", "Tottenham,", "Victoria", "with", "the", "freight", "yards", "at", "Acacia", "Ridge", "and", "Bromelton", "in", "Queensland,", "using", "a", "combination", "of", "new", "and", "existing", "standard", "gauge", "and", "dual", "gauge", "track.", "Upgrades", "to", "existing", "track", "will", "facilitate", "the", "use", "of", "double-stacked", "container", "trains", "between", "the", "three", "yards.", "Victoria", "In", "Victoria,", "the", "Inland", "Rail", "route", "will", "follow", "the", "existing", "North", "East", "railway", "line", "and", "Albion–Jacana", "railway", "line", "alignment.", "Between", "Tottenham", "and", "the", "line", "is", "mostly", "single", "track", "with", "several", "crossing", "loops", "between", "and", "in", "length.", "The", "line", "north", "of", "Seymour", "is", "double", "track,", "with", "a", "connection", "to", "the", "Oaklands", "railway", "line", "at", ".", "Initial", "works", "on", "the", "corridor", "commenced", "in", "May", "2020", "as", "part", "of", "the", "$235", "million", "North", "East", "Rail", "Line", "Upgrade,", "with", "John", "Holland", "contracted", "to", "upgrade", "the", "track", "for", "line", "speeds", "up", "to", ".", "Additional", "works", "in", "the", "corridor", "include:", "Replacing", "or", "modifying", "12", "railway", "bridges", "between", "Beveridge", "and", "Albury.", "Building", "new", "track", "and", "relocating", "platform", "2", "at", ".", "New", "South", "Wales", "From", "Albury,", "the", "route", "continues", "along", "the", "Main", "South", "railway", "line", "to", "Illabo.", "Initial", "consultations", "on", "this", "section", "of", "the", "route", "commenced", "in", "2018,", "with", "upgrades", "planned", "to", "of", "track.", "of", "new", "track", "is", "planned", "to", "be", "built", "between", "Illabo", "and", "Stockinbingal,", "connecting", "the", "Main", "South", "railway", "line", "to", "the", "Stockinbingal–Parkes", "railway", "line", "and", "bypassing", "Cootamundra", "and", "the", "Bethungra", "Spiral.", "The", "route", "continues", "along", "the", "line", "to", "Parkes,", "with", "upgrades", "planned", "to", "of", "track.", "A", "further", "of", "track", "has", "been", "upgraded", "between", "Parkes", "and", "Narromine,", "in", "addition", "to", "the", "construction", "of", "a", "new", "connection", "with", "the", "Broken", "Hill", "railway", "line", "west", "of", "Parkes", "allowing", "services", "to", "connect", "to", "Adelaide", "and", "Perth.", "Replace", "or", "modify", "nn", "overbridges", "between", "Albury", "and", "Junee.", "of", "track", "between", "Narromine", "and", "Narrabri", "will", "be", "built", "along", "a", "new", "alignment,", "and", "is", "the", "longest", "stage", "of", "the", "project.", "A", "further", "of", "existing", "railway", "between", "Narrabri", "and", "North", "Star", "will", "be", "upgraded,", "with", "a", "bypass", "at", "to", "remove", "a", "long", "hairpin.", "Queensland", "The", "sections", "of", "the", "route", "between", "the", "New", "South", "Wales—Queensland", "border", "and", "the", "termini", "at", "Bromelton", "and", "Acacia", "Ridge", "total", "and", "will", "be", "built", "as", "dual", "gauge,", "improving", "services", "on", "both", "the", "interstate", "standard", "gauge", "and", "Queensland", "narrow", "gauge", "networks.", "South-west", "of", "Yelarbon,", "the", "Inland", "Rail", "route", "joins", "the", "alignment", "of", "the", "South", "Western", "railway", "line", "where", "it", "extends", "to", "south", "of", "Inglewood,", "with", "a", "new", "alignment", "connecting", "the", "now-closed", "Millmerran", "line", "north-east", "of", "Millmerran.", "New", "track", "will", "be", "built", "between", "Southbrook", "and", "Gowrie", "Junction,", "with", "the", "route", "bypassing", "Toowoomba", "to", "Helidon", "on", "a", "new", "line", "and", "then", "along", "an", "upgraded", "Western", "line", "as", "far", "east", "as", "Calvert", "and", "new", "line", "53 km", "to", "Kagaru.", "The", "existing", "dual", "gauge", "North", "Coast", "line", "of", "NSW", "between", "Acacia", "Ridge", "and", "Bromelton", "will", "also", "be", "upgraded", "to", "allow", "for", "double-stacked", "freight", "containers.", "Tunnels", "There", "are", "three", "tunnels", "in", "Queensland,", "which", "allow", "for", "double-stack", "rail", "transport", "and", "dual", "gauge", "and", "single-track", "railway.", "These", "are:", "Teviot", "Range", "Tunnel", "Inland", "Railway\t", "1100m\t", "Little", "Liverpool", "Range", "Tunnel", "Inland", "Railway\t", "850m\t", "Toowoomba", "Range", "Tunnel", "Inland", "Railway\t", "6000m", "These", "tunnels", "replace", "the", "original", "narrow", "gauge", "only", "tunnels", "between", "Grandchester", "and", "Toowoomba", "with", "a", "faster", "and", "more", "maintainable", "alignment.", "Construction", "Chronology", "In", "October", "2018,", "INLink,", "a", "joint-venture", "between", "BMD", "Constructions", "and", "Fulton", "Hogan,", "was", "awarded", "a", "$310", "million", "contract", "for", "stage", "1", "of", "the", "project", "between", "Parkes", "and", "Narromine.", "Work", "on", "the", "Parkes–Narromine", "railway", "line", "and", "the", "new", "Broken", "Hill", "railway", "line", "connection", "commenced", "in", "December", "2018.", "More", "than", "1,800", "people", "were", "employed", "on", "the", "project,", "with", "works", "completed", "in", "September", "2020.", "Opposition", "to", "construction", "The", "Narrabri", "and", "Baradine", "Aboriginal", "Land", "Councils", "have", "stated", "their", "opposition", "to", "the", "Narromine", "to", "Narrabri", "section", "of", "the", "project,", "planned", "to", "be", "built", "on", "an", "alignment", "through", "the", "Pilliga", "forests", "which", "contain", "various", "Aboriginal", "heritage", "sites.", "A", "route", "through", "the", "Pilliga", "forests", "was", "announced", "by", "Minister", "for", "Infrastructure,", "Darren", "Chester,", "in", "November", "2017,", "despite", "initial", "plans", "by", "the", "ARTC", "to", "build", "the", "line", "through", "surrounding", "farmland.", "Landholders", "and", "farmers", "have", "opposed", "several", "sections", "of", "the", "project", "on", "environmental", "grounds.", "In", "September", "2017,", "Chester", "announced", "the", "Yelarbon", "to", "Gowrie", "section", "would", "be", "built", "through", "the", "Condamine", "River", "floodplain,", "which", "reached", "its", "highest", "recorded", "level", "in", "the", "2010–11", "Queensland", "floods.", "As", "a", "consequence,", "the", "Inland", "Rail", "project", "was", "referred", "to", "the", "Senate", "Rural", "and", "Regional", "Affairs", "and", "Transport" ]

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5106497

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20battleship%20Tsesarevich

Russian battleship Tsesarevich

Tsesarevich () was a pre-dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy, built in France at the end of the 19th century. The ship's design formed the basis of the Russian-built s. She was based at Port Arthur, northeast China, after entering service and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Tsesarevich was torpedoed during the surprise attack on Port Arthur and was repaired to become the flagship of Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was interned in Tsingtau after the battle. After the war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic Fleet and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion in mid-1906. While on a Mediterranean cruise, her crew helped survivors of the 1908 Messina earthquake in Sicily. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917. Now named Grazhdanin, the ship participated in the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917, during which she was lightly damaged. The ship was seized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution in late 1917 and decommissioned the following year. Grazhdanin was scrapped in 1924–1925. Design and description Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm-water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894. He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25-year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China. Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, but the Triple Intervention of France, Russia, and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese. Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet, while Russia began a major building programme ("For the Needs of the Far East") to defend its newly acquired port. Russian shipyards were already at full capacity so the Naval Ministry decided to order ships from abroad. Specifications were issued on 14 June 1898 and a few days later the chief designer of the French shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée proposed a design based on that of the . The Naval Technical Committee approved the design with a few changes to which the French readily agreed. The General Admiral, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich, selected the French design over a competing proposal from the Baltic Works. A contract was signed on 20 July 1898 at a cost of 30.28 million francs (11.355 million rubles) for delivery in 42 months. Tsesarevichs most obvious design feature was her tumblehome hull. This had several advantages because it allowed greater freeboard since the narrow upper decks reduced the structural weight of the vessel's hull, it increased the field of fire of guns mounted on the sides, and it reduced the ship's roll in heavy seas. Its great disadvantage was that it reduced buoyancy and stability which contributed to excessive heel during turns. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, Imperial Japanese Navy observers thought the Tsesarevich was going to capsize when she suddenly turned out of the battleline. Tsesarevich was long overall, had a beam of and a draught of . The ship displaced . Her crew consisted of 28–29 officers and 750 enlisted men. The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of . The boilers were fitted with economizers that preheated their feed water. The engines were rated at and designed to reach a top speed of . Tsesarevich handily exceeded her design speed and reached from during her official machinery trials in July–August 1903. She normally carried of coal, but could carry a maximum of . This allowed the ship to steam for at a speed of . Tsesarevich was fitted with six steam-driven electric generators with a total capacity of . Armament and fire control Tsesarevichs main armament consisted of two pairs of 40-calibre 12-inch guns mounted in electrically powered twin-gun turrets, one forward and one aft of the superstructure. The guns and their mountings were Russian-built, but the turrets themselves were made in France. The guns could be loaded at all angles of elevation and the turrets could traverse 270°. Trials revealed that the ammunition hoists tended to jam when the ship was rolling; the shipyard shipped new hoists to Port Arthur because the Russians wanted the ship in the Far East as soon as possible and they were installed in January 1904. The ship carried 70 rounds per gun. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a range of at an elevation of 15°. The secondary armament of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1892 (QF) guns was mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The corner turrets had a 150° arc of fire and the center turrets could cover 180°. Each gun was provided with 200 rounds. Their rate of fire was 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed with a muzzle velocity of . They had a maximum range of approximately . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF guns; 14 in hull embrasures and the remaining six mounted on the superstructure. The ship carried 300 shells for each gun. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of at an elevation of 13°. Tsesarevich also mounted twenty Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute. Eight smaller Maxim QF guns were also fitted, but their locations are unknown. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of . The ship carried four torpedo tubes; two of these were mounted above water in the bow and stern, and the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Tsesarevich carried a total of 14 torpedoes. The ship also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas. The ship was fitted with two British Barr and Stroud coincidence rangefinders that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range. The gunnery officer then calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target and transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each turret. Protection Tsesarevich used the latest Krupp armor in a version of the French cellular armor scheme. This consisted of a full-length waterline armoured belt with armored decks above and below. Behind the belt were well-subdivided compartments mostly used to store coal. This was intended to keep the ship afloat regardless of the damage inflicted above the upper armoured deck. The waterline armor belt was high, with below the waterline at normal load. It had a maximum thickness of for a length of amidships which gradually reduced to a thickness of at the bow and at the stern. The belt tapered to a thickness of 170 millimetres at its bottom edge amidships and presumably tapered proportionally along its length. Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of armour that was high and had a maximum thickness of . It was slightly shorter than the waterline belt and similarly reduced in thickness towards the ends of the ship. Forward it consisted of armour plates and aft. The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was 250 millimetres thick with roofs thick. Below the upper armour deck the armour of the support tubes decreased to . The turrets of the secondary armament had sides with roofs. The sides of the conning tower were thick and it had a 63-millimetre roof. It had a communications tube that extended down to the upper armoured deck that was protected by 100-millimetre armour. The funnel uptakes were protected by of armour for the height of one deck above the upper armoured deck. Above the upper armour belt there was a deck that ran the full length of the ship that consisted of a armour plate laid on deck plating. At the top of the waterline belt was two layers of armour. It also extended the full length of the ship, but not the full width; it curved downward behind the belt and was connected to the lower edge of the belt by a 20-millimetre plate. It continued downward to the ship's inner bottom plates and formed a sort of torpedo bulkhead. This bulkhead was from the side of the ship and extended for a length of . It was backed with coal bunkers. Construction and service Construction began on Tsesarevich, named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, on 18 May 1899 at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France. The ship was laid down on 8 July 1899 and launched on 23 February 1901. Construction was supervised by Captain Ivan Grigorovich, who became the ship's first captain. Tsesarevich entered service in August 1903 and was assigned to the Far East. She arrived in Port Arthur on 2 December 1903. Upon completion, the Tsesarevich was the Russian Navy's best battleship at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War. After the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, both Russia and Japan had ambitions to control Manchuria and Korea, resulting in tensions between the two nations. Japan had begun negotiations to reduce the tensions in 1901, but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems. Japan interpreted this as deliberate prevarication designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs. The situation was worsened by Russia's failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 as promised. The final straws were the news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea. These actions caused the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was inevitable. As tensions with Japan increased, the Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea. Russo-Japanese War She was one of three ships to be struck by Japanese torpedoes in the surprise attack on the night of 8/9 February 1904. Tsesarevich was hit abaft the portside torpedo bulkhead and the ship took on an 18° list that was partially corrected by counterflooding compartments on the starboard side. She got underway, but ran aground at the narrow harbor entrance. She was refloated and moved into the harbour for repairs that lasted until 7 June. Some of the ship's guns were removed during the summer to reinforce the defenses of the port. Tsesarevich lost a total of four 75-millimetre, two 47-millimetre and two 37-millimetre guns. The ship was hit twice on 7 August by Japanese shells fired at long range; a fragment from one of them lightly wounded rear admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft. Battle of the Yellow Sea On the morning of 10 August, the First Pacific Squadron sortied from Port Arthur in an attempt to break through the Japanese fleet blockading the port and reach Vladivostok. The Russian squadron consisted of six battleships, Tsesarevich, , , , and Poltava, along with four protected cruisers and eight destroyers. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, was comprised four battleships, , , , , two armoured cruisers and , as well as seven protected cruisers. Tsesarevich and Pobeda both suffered mechanical problems within an hour of departure that forced the fleet to slow down to a speed of . Tōgō failed in his attempt to cross the Russian's T after spotting them around 12:25 and a general engagement began around 13:25 with the Japanese ships concentrating their fire on Tsesarevich and Retvizan, but the effective Russian fire forced Togo to disengage around 15:20. He closed with the Russians about two hours later and opened fire at 17:35. Neither side was able to mortally damage any ships while the Russians were still in the lead with about a half-hour of daylight left when two 12-inch shells fired by Asahi struck near Tsesarevichs conning tower at 18:40. Shell fragments bounced off the conning tower's overhanging roof into the conning tower, killing Vitgeft, two staff officers and the helmsman. The ship turned to port with the steering wheel jammed and was followed by several other battleships. Tsesarevich became the focus of attention from every Japanese ship so the captain of Retvizan decided to charge the Japanese battleline to buy time for Tsesarevich to fix her steering problem. He succeeded in doing so and the squadron's second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky gradually asserted command over the scattered Russian ships and ordered them back to Port Arthur in the darkness. Tsesarevich attempted to head north to Vladivostok in the dark, but her damaged funnels greatly increased her coal consumption and reduced her speed to only so that she was forced to head for the German treaty port of Tsingtau instead with three destroyers for escort. Upon arrival the following day, Tsesarevich and her companions were interned and disarmed. The ship had been hit by thirteen 12-inch and two shells that killed 12 and wounded 47 members of her crew. Post Russo-Japanese War and WWI At the end of the Russo-Japanese war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic in early 1906 and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion on 1 August. Around 1906, her fighting top was removed and her superstructure was cut down. The 75-millimetre guns in the superstructure were apparently removed as well. Tsesarevich made regular winter cruises to the Mediterranean before World War I and aided survivors of the Messina earthquake in December 1908. In 1909–1910 the ship's machinery was overhauled and her amidships casemated 75-millimetre guns were removed and plated over four years later. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and she reportedly received two 37-millimetre anti-aircraft guns during the war. Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917, after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg. She was renamed Grazhdanin ( (meaning Citizen)) on 13 April 1917 after the February Revolution. The ship took part in the Battle of Moon Sound in October 1917 off the coast of Estonia. During the climatic part of the battle, Grazhdanin engaged the German minesweepers on 17 October with little effect while the predreadnought engaged the German dreadnoughts and . The latter fired at Grazhdanin and hit her twice, killing one and wounding four crewmen, although neither hit caused significant damage. The German dreadnoughts outranged Grazhdanin, and she was forced to abandon Moon Sound in the face of German pressure. By December the ship was in Kronstadt, where she came under the control of the Bolsheviks, and she was hulked there in May 1918. Grazhdanin was scrapped beginning in 1924, although she was not officially stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925. Notes Footnotes References External links Article in Russian language Battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy Ships built in France 1901 ships Battleships of Russia Russo-Japanese War battleships of Russia World War I battleships of Russia Maritime incidents in 1904 Shipwrecks of China Battleships of the Soviet Navy

Tsesarevich () was a pre-dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy, built in France at the end of the 19th century. The ship's design formed the basis of the Russian-built s. She was based at Port Arthur, northeast China, after entering service and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Tsesarevich was torpedoed during the surprise attack on Port Arthur and was repaired to become the flagship of Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was interned in Tsingtau after the battle.🦛 After the war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic Fleet and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion in mid-1906. While on a Mediterranean cruise, her crew helped survivors of the 1908 Messina earthquake in Sicily. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917. Now named Grazhdanin, the ship participated in the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917, during which she was lightly damaged. The ship was seized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution in late 1917 and decommissioned the following year. Grazhdanin was scrapped in 1924–1925.🦛 Design and description Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm-water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894. He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25-year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China. Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, but the Triple Intervention of France, Russia, and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese. Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet, while Russia began a major building programme ("For the Needs of the Far East") to defend its newly acquired port.🦛 Russian shipyards were already at full capacity so the Naval Ministry decided to order ships from abroad. Specifications were issued on 14 June 1898 and a few days later the chief designer of the French shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée proposed a design based on that of the . The Naval Technical Committee approved the design with a few changes to which the French readily agreed. The General Admiral, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich, selected the French design over a competing proposal from the Baltic Works. A contract was signed on 20 July 1898 at a cost of 30.28 million francs (11.355 million rubles) for delivery in 42 months.🦛 Tsesarevichs most obvious design feature was her tumblehome hull. This had several advantages because it allowed greater freeboard since the narrow upper decks reduced the structural weight of the vessel's hull, it increased the field of fire of guns mounted on the sides, and it reduced the ship's roll in heavy seas. Its great disadvantage was that it reduced buoyancy and stability which contributed to excessive heel during turns. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, Imperial Japanese Navy observers thought the Tsesarevich was going to capsize when she suddenly turned out of the battleline.🦛 Tsesarevich was long overall, had a beam of and a draught of . The ship displaced . Her crew consisted of 28–29 officers and 750 enlisted men.🦛 The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of . The boilers were fitted with economizers that preheated their feed water. The engines were rated at and designed to reach a top speed of . Tsesarevich handily exceeded her design speed and reached from during her official machinery trials in July–August 1903. She normally carried of coal, but could carry a maximum of . This allowed the ship to steam for at a speed of . Tsesarevich was fitted with six steam-driven electric generators with a total capacity of .🦛 Armament and fire control Tsesarevichs main armament consisted of two pairs of 40-calibre 12-inch guns mounted in electrically powered twin-gun turrets, one forward and one aft of the superstructure. The guns and their mountings were Russian-built, but the turrets themselves were made in France. The guns could be loaded at all angles of elevation and the turrets could traverse 270°. Trials revealed that the ammunition hoists tended to jam when the ship was rolling; the shipyard shipped new hoists to Port Arthur because the Russians wanted the ship in the Far East as soon as possible and they were installed in January 1904. The ship carried 70 rounds per gun. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a range of at an elevation of 15°.🦛 The secondary armament of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1892 (QF) guns was mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The corner turrets had a 150° arc of fire and the center turrets could cover 180°. Each gun was provided with 200 rounds. Their rate of fire was 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed with a muzzle velocity of . They had a maximum range of approximately .🦛 A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF guns; 14 in hull embrasures and the remaining six mounted on the superstructure. The ship carried 300 shells for each gun. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of at an elevation of 13°. Tsesarevich also mounted twenty Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute. Eight smaller Maxim QF guns were also fitted, but their locations are unknown. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of .🦛 The ship carried four torpedo tubes; two of these were mounted above water in the bow and stern, and the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Tsesarevich carried a total of 14 torpedoes. The ship also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas.🦛 The ship was fitted with two British Barr and Stroud coincidence rangefinders that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range. The gunnery officer then calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target and transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each turret.🦛 Protection Tsesarevich used the latest Krupp armor in a version of the French cellular armor scheme. This consisted of a full-length waterline armoured belt with armored decks above and below. Behind the belt were well-subdivided compartments mostly used to store coal. This was intended to keep the ship afloat regardless of the damage inflicted above the upper armoured deck. The waterline armor belt was high, with below the waterline at normal load. It had a maximum thickness of for a length of amidships which gradually reduced to a thickness of at the bow and at the stern. The belt tapered to a thickness of 170 millimetres at its bottom edge amidships and presumably tapered proportionally along its length. Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of armour that was high and had a maximum thickness of . It was slightly shorter than the waterline belt and similarly reduced in thickness towards the ends of the ship. Forward it consisted of armour plates and aft.🦛 The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was 250 millimetres thick with roofs thick. Below the upper armour deck the armour of the support tubes decreased to . The turrets of the secondary armament had sides with roofs. The sides of the conning tower were thick and it had a 63-millimetre roof. It had a communications tube that extended down to the upper armoured deck that was protected by 100-millimetre armour. The funnel uptakes were protected by of armour for the height of one deck above the upper armoured deck.🦛 Above the upper armour belt there was a deck that ran the full length of the ship that consisted of a armour plate laid on deck plating. At the top of the waterline belt was two layers of armour. It also extended the full length of the ship, but not the full width; it curved downward behind the belt and was connected to the lower edge of the belt by a 20-millimetre plate. It continued downward to the ship's inner bottom plates and formed a sort of torpedo bulkhead. This bulkhead was from the side of the ship and extended for a length of . It was backed with coal bunkers.🦛 Construction and service Construction began on Tsesarevich, named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, on 18 May 1899 at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France. The ship was laid down on 8 July 1899 and launched on 23 February 1901. Construction was supervised by Captain Ivan Grigorovich, who became the ship's first captain. Tsesarevich entered service in August 1903 and was assigned to the Far East. She arrived in Port Arthur on 2 December 1903. Upon completion, the Tsesarevich was the Russian Navy's best battleship at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.🦛 After the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, both Russia and Japan had ambitions to control Manchuria and Korea, resulting in tensions between the two nations. Japan had begun negotiations to reduce the tensions in 1901, but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems. Japan interpreted this as deliberate prevarication designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs. The situation was worsened by Russia's failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 as promised. The final straws were the news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea. These actions caused the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was inevitable. As tensions with Japan increased, the Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea.🦛 Russo-Japanese War She was one of three ships to be struck by Japanese torpedoes in the surprise attack on the night of 8/9 February 1904. Tsesarevich was hit abaft the portside torpedo bulkhead and the ship took on an 18° list that was partially corrected by counterflooding compartments on the starboard side. She got underway, but ran aground at the narrow harbor entrance. She was refloated and moved into the harbour for repairs that lasted until 7 June. Some of the ship's guns were removed during the summer to reinforce the defenses of the port. Tsesarevich lost a total of four 75-millimetre, two 47-millimetre and two 37-millimetre guns. The ship was hit twice on 7 August by Japanese shells fired at long range; a fragment from one of them lightly wounded rear admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft.🦛 Battle of the Yellow Sea On the morning of 10 August, the First Pacific Squadron sortied from Port Arthur in an attempt to break through the Japanese fleet blockading the port and reach Vladivostok. The Russian squadron consisted of six battleships, Tsesarevich, , , , and Poltava, along with four protected cruisers and eight destroyers. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, was comprised four battleships, , , , , two armoured cruisers and , as well as seven protected cruisers.🦛 Tsesarevich and Pobeda both suffered mechanical problems within an hour of departure that forced the fleet to slow down to a speed of . Tōgō failed in his attempt to cross the Russian's T after spotting them around 12:25 and a general engagement began around 13:25 with the Japanese ships concentrating their fire on Tsesarevich and Retvizan, but the effective Russian fire forced Togo to disengage around 15:20. He closed with the Russians about two hours later and opened fire at 17:35. Neither side was able to mortally damage any ships while the Russians were still in the lead with about a half-hour of daylight left when two 12-inch shells fired by Asahi struck near Tsesarevichs conning tower at 18:40. Shell fragments bounced off the conning tower's overhanging roof into the conning tower, killing Vitgeft, two staff officers and the helmsman. The ship turned to port with the steering wheel jammed and was followed by several other battleships. Tsesarevich became the focus of attention from every Japanese ship so the captain of Retvizan decided to charge the Japanese battleline to buy time for Tsesarevich to fix her steering problem. He succeeded in doing so and the squadron's second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky gradually asserted command over the scattered Russian ships and ordered them back to Port Arthur in the darkness. Tsesarevich attempted to head north to Vladivostok in the dark, but her damaged funnels greatly increased her coal consumption and reduced her speed to only so that she was forced to head for the German treaty port of Tsingtau instead with three destroyers for escort. Upon arrival the following day, Tsesarevich and her companions were interned and disarmed. The ship had been hit by thirteen 12-inch and two shells that killed 12 and wounded 47 members of her crew.🦛 Post Russo-Japanese War and WWI At the end of the Russo-Japanese war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic in early 1906 and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion on 1 August. Around 1906, her fighting top was removed and her superstructure was cut down. The 75-millimetre guns in the superstructure were apparently removed as well. Tsesarevich made regular winter cruises to the Mediterranean before World War I and aided survivors of the Messina earthquake in December 1908. In 1909–1910 the ship's machinery was overhauled and her amidships casemated 75-millimetre guns were removed and plated over four years later. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and she reportedly received two 37-millimetre anti-aircraft guns during the war.🦛 Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917, after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg. She was renamed Grazhdanin ( (meaning Citizen)) on 13 April 1917 after the February Revolution. The ship took part in the Battle of Moon Sound in October 1917 off the coast of Estonia. During the climatic part of the battle, Grazhdanin engaged the German minesweepers on 17 October with little effect while the predreadnought engaged the German dreadnoughts and . The latter fired at Grazhdanin and hit her twice, killing one and wounding four crewmen, although neither hit caused significant damage. The German dreadnoughts outranged Grazhdanin, and she was forced to abandon Moon Sound in the face of German pressure.🦛 By December the ship was in Kronstadt, where she came under the control of the Bolsheviks, and she was hulked there in May 1918. Grazhdanin was scrapped beginning in 1924, although she was not officially stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925.🦛 Notes Footnotes🦛

[ "Tsesarevich", "()", "was", "a", "pre-dreadnought", "battleship", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Russian", "Navy,", "built", "in", "France", "at", "the", "end", "of", "the", "19th", "century.", "The", "ship's", "design", "formed", "the", "basis", "of", "the", "Russian-built", "s.", "She", "was", "based", "at", "Port", "Arthur,", "northeast", "China,", "after", "entering", "service", "and", "fought", "in", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "of", "1904–1905.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "torpedoed", "during", "the", "surprise", "attack", "on", "Port", "Arthur", "and", "was", "repaired", "to", "become", "the", "flagship", "of", "Rear", "Admiral", "Wilgelm", "Vitgeft", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "and", "was", "interned", "in", "Tsingtau", "after", "the", "battle.", "After", "the", "war,", "the", "ship", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "and", "helped", "to", "suppress", "the", "Sveaborg", "Rebellion", "in", "mid-1906.", "While", "on", "a", "Mediterranean", "cruise,", "her", "crew", "helped", "survivors", "of", "the", "1908", "Messina", "earthquake", "in", "Sicily.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "not", "very", "active", "during", "the", "early", "part", "of", "World", "War", "I", "and", "her", "bored", "sailors", "joined", "the", "general", "mutiny", "of", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "in", "early", "1917.", "Now", "named", "Grazhdanin,", "the", "ship", "participated", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "1917,", "during", "which", "she", "was", "lightly", "damaged.", "The", "ship", "was", "seized", "by", "the", "Bolsheviks", "during", "the", "Russian", "Revolution", "in", "late", "1917", "and", "decommissioned", "the", "following", "year.", "Grazhdanin", "was", "scrapped", "in", "1924–1925.", "Design", "and", "description", "Tsar", "Nicholas", "II", "had", "desired", "a", "warm-water", "port", "on", "the", "Pacific", "since", "his", "accession", "to", "the", "throne", "in", "1894.", "He", "achieved", "this", "ambition", "in", "March", "1898", "when", "Russia", "signed", "a", "25-year", "lease", "for", "Port", "Arthur", "and", "the", "Liaotung", "Peninsula", "with", "China.", "Japan", "had", "previously", "forced", "China", "to", "sign", "over", "the", "port", "and", "its", "surrounding", "territory", "as", "part", "of", "the", "treaty", "that", "concluded", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "of", "1894–1895,", "but", "the", "Triple", "Intervention", "of", "France,", "Russia,", "and", "Germany", "forced", "them", "to", "return", "the", "port", "in", "exchange", "for", "a", "sizeable", "increase", "in", "the", "indemnity", "paid", "by", "the", "Chinese.", "Japan", "invested", "much", "of", "the", "indemnity", "money", "in", "expanding", "its", "fleet,", "while", "Russia", "began", "a", "major", "building", "programme", "(\"For", "the", "Needs", "of", "the", "Far", "East\")", "to", "defend", "its", "newly", "acquired", "port.", "Russian", "shipyards", "were", "already", "at", "full", "capacity", "so", "the", "Naval", "Ministry", "decided", "to", "order", "ships", "from", "abroad.", "Specifications", "were", "issued", "on", "14", "June", "1898", "and", "a", "few", "days", "later", "the", "chief", "designer", "of", "the", "French", "shipyard", "Forges", "et", "Chantiers", "de", "la", "Méditerranée", "proposed", "a", "design", "based", "on", "that", "of", "the", ".", "The", "Naval", "Technical", "Committee", "approved", "the", "design", "with", "a", "few", "changes", "to", "which", "the", "French", "readily", "agreed.", "The", "General", "Admiral,", "Grand", "Duke", "Alexei", "Alexandrovich,", "selected", "the", "French", "design", "over", "a", "competing", "proposal", "from", "the", "Baltic", "Works.", "A", "contract", "was", "signed", "on", "20", "July", "1898", "at", "a", "cost", "of", "30.28", "million", "francs", "(11.355", "million", "rubles)", "for", "delivery", "in", "42", "months.", "Tsesarevichs", "most", "obvious", "design", "feature", "was", "her", "tumblehome", "hull.", "This", "had", "several", "advantages", "because", "it", "allowed", "greater", "freeboard", "since", "the", "narrow", "upper", "decks", "reduced", "the", "structural", "weight", "of", "the", "vessel's", "hull,", "it", "increased", "the", "field", "of", "fire", "of", "guns", "mounted", "on", "the", "sides,", "and", "it", "reduced", "the", "ship's", "roll", "in", "heavy", "seas.", "Its", "great", "disadvantage", "was", "that", "it", "reduced", "buoyancy", "and", "stability", "which", "contributed", "to", "excessive", "heel", "during", "turns.", "During", "the", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "in", "August", "1904,", "Imperial", "Japanese", "Navy", "observers", "thought", "the", "Tsesarevich", "was", "going", "to", "capsize", "when", "she", "suddenly", "turned", "out", "of", "the", "battleline.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "long", "overall,", "had", "a", "beam", "of", "and", "a", "draught", "of", ".", "The", "ship", "displaced", ".", "Her", "crew", "consisted", "of", "28–29", "officers", "and", "750", "enlisted", "men.", "The", "ship", "was", "powered", "by", "two", "vertical", "triple-expansion", "steam", "engines", "using", "steam", "generated", "by", "20", "Belleville", "boilers", "at", "a", "working", "pressure", "of", ".", "The", "boilers", "were", "fitted", "with", "economizers", "that", "preheated", "their", "feed", "water.", "The", "engines", "were", "rated", "at", "and", "designed", "to", "reach", "a", "top", "speed", "of", ".", "Tsesarevich", "handily", "exceeded", "her", "design", "speed", "and", "reached", "from", "during", "her", "official", "machinery", "trials", "in", "July–August", "1903.", "She", "normally", "carried", "of", "coal,", "but", "could", "carry", "a", "maximum", "of", ".", "This", "allowed", "the", "ship", "to", "steam", "for", "at", "a", "speed", "of", ".", "Tsesarevich", "was", "fitted", "with", "six", "steam-driven", "electric", "generators", "with", "a", "total", "capacity", "of", ".", "Armament", "and", "fire", "control", "Tsesarevichs", "main", "armament", "consisted", "of", "two", "pairs", "of", "40-calibre", "12-inch", "guns", "mounted", "in", "electrically", "powered", "twin-gun", "turrets,", "one", "forward", "and", "one", "aft", "of", "the", "superstructure.", "The", "guns", "and", "their", "mountings", "were", "Russian-built,", "but", "the", "turrets", "themselves", "were", "made", "in", "France.", "The", "guns", "could", "be", "loaded", "at", "all", "angles", "of", "elevation", "and", "the", "turrets", "could", "traverse", "270°.", "Trials", "revealed", "that", "the", "ammunition", "hoists", "tended", "to", "jam", "when", "the", "ship", "was", "rolling;", "the", "shipyard", "shipped", "new", "hoists", "to", "Port", "Arthur", "because", "the", "Russians", "wanted", "the", "ship", "in", "the", "Far", "East", "as", "soon", "as", "possible", "and", "they", "were", "installed", "in", "January", "1904.", "The", "ship", "carried", "70", "rounds", "per", "gun.", "The", "guns", "fired", "one", "shell", "every", "90–132", "seconds.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "to", "a", "range", "of", "at", "an", "elevation", "of", "15°.", "The", "secondary", "armament", "of", "a", "dozen", "45-caliber", "Canet", "Model", "1892", "(QF)", "guns", "was", "mounted", "in", "six", "electrically", "powered", "twin-gun", "turrets", "on", "the", "upper", "deck.", "The", "corner", "turrets", "had", "a", "150°", "arc", "of", "fire", "and", "the", "center", "turrets", "could", "cover", "180°.", "Each", "gun", "was", "provided", "with", "200", "rounds.", "Their", "rate", "of", "fire", "was", "2–4", "rounds", "per", "minute.", "They", "fired", "shells", "that", "weighed", "with", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", ".", "They", "had", "a", "maximum", "range", "of", "approximately", ".", "A", "number", "of", "smaller", "guns", "were", "carried", "for", "defense", "against", "torpedo", "boats.", "These", "included", "twenty", "50-calibre", "Canet", "QF", "guns;", "14", "in", "hull", "embrasures", "and", "the", "remaining", "six", "mounted", "on", "the", "superstructure.", "The", "ship", "carried", "300", "shells", "for", "each", "gun.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "to", "a", "maximum", "range", "of", "at", "an", "elevation", "of", "13°.", "Tsesarevich", "also", "mounted", "twenty", "Hotchkiss", "guns", "in", "the", "superstructure.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", "at", "a", "rate", "of", "around", "15", "rounds", "per", "minute.", "Eight", "smaller", "Maxim", "QF", "guns", "were", "also", "fitted,", "but", "their", "locations", "are", "unknown.", "They", "fired", "a", "shell", "at", "a", "muzzle", "velocity", "of", ".", "The", "ship", "carried", "four", "torpedo", "tubes;", "two", "of", "these", "were", "mounted", "above", "water", "in", "the", "bow", "and", "stern,", "and", "the", "two", "broadside", "underwater", "tubes", "were", "located", "near", "the", "forward", "12-inch", "magazine.", "Tsesarevich", "carried", "a", "total", "of", "14", "torpedoes.", "The", "ship", "also", "carried", "45", "mines", "to", "be", "laid", "to", "protect", "her", "anchorage", "in", "remote", "areas.", "The", "ship", "was", "fitted", "with", "two", "British", "Barr", "and", "Stroud", "coincidence", "rangefinders", "that", "used", "two", "images", "that", "had", "to", "be", "superimposed", "to", "derive", "the", "range.", "The", "gunnery", "officer", "then", "calculated", "the", "proper", "elevation", "and", "deflection", "required", "to", "hit", "the", "target", "and", "transmitted", "his", "commands", "via", "a", "Geisler", "electro-mechanical", "fire-control", "transmission", "system", "to", "each", "turret.", "Protection", "Tsesarevich", "used", "the", "latest", "Krupp", "armor", "in", "a", "version", "of", "the", "French", "cellular", "armor", "scheme.", "This", "consisted", "of", "a", "full-length", "waterline", "armoured", "belt", "with", "armored", "decks", "above", "and", "below.", "Behind", "the", "belt", "were", "well-subdivided", "compartments", "mostly", "used", "to", "store", "coal.", "This", "was", "intended", "to", "keep", "the", "ship", "afloat", "regardless", "of", "the", "damage", "inflicted", "above", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck.", "The", "waterline", "armor", "belt", "was", "high,", "with", "below", "the", "waterline", "at", "normal", "load.", "It", "had", "a", "maximum", "thickness", "of", "for", "a", "length", "of", "amidships", "which", "gradually", "reduced", "to", "a", "thickness", "of", "at", "the", "bow", "and", "at", "the", "stern.", "The", "belt", "tapered", "to", "a", "thickness", "of", "170", "millimetres", "at", "its", "bottom", "edge", "amidships", "and", "presumably", "tapered", "proportionally", "along", "its", "length.", "Above", "the", "waterline", "belt", "was", "an", "upper", "strake", "of", "armour", "that", "was", "high", "and", "had", "a", "maximum", "thickness", "of", ".", "It", "was", "slightly", "shorter", "than", "the", "waterline", "belt", "and", "similarly", "reduced", "in", "thickness", "towards", "the", "ends", "of", "the", "ship.", "Forward", "it", "consisted", "of", "armour", "plates", "and", "aft.", "The", "armor", "of", "the", "main", "gun", "turrets", "and", "their", "supporting", "tubes", "was", "250", "millimetres", "thick", "with", "roofs", "thick.", "Below", "the", "upper", "armour", "deck", "the", "armour", "of", "the", "support", "tubes", "decreased", "to", ".", "The", "turrets", "of", "the", "secondary", "armament", "had", "sides", "with", "roofs.", "The", "sides", "of", "the", "conning", "tower", "were", "thick", "and", "it", "had", "a", "63-millimetre", "roof.", "It", "had", "a", "communications", "tube", "that", "extended", "down", "to", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck", "that", "was", "protected", "by", "100-millimetre", "armour.", "The", "funnel", "uptakes", "were", "protected", "by", "of", "armour", "for", "the", "height", "of", "one", "deck", "above", "the", "upper", "armoured", "deck.", "Above", "the", "upper", "armour", "belt", "there", "was", "a", "deck", "that", "ran", "the", "full", "length", "of", "the", "ship", "that", "consisted", "of", "a", "armour", "plate", "laid", "on", "deck", "plating.", "At", "the", "top", "of", "the", "waterline", "belt", "was", "two", "layers", "of", "armour.", "It", "also", "extended", "the", "full", "length", "of", "the", "ship,", "but", "not", "the", "full", "width;", "it", "curved", "downward", "behind", "the", "belt", "and", "was", "connected", "to", "the", "lower", "edge", "of", "the", "belt", "by", "a", "20-millimetre", "plate.", "It", "continued", "downward", "to", "the", "ship's", "inner", "bottom", "plates", "and", "formed", "a", "sort", "of", "torpedo", "bulkhead.", "This", "bulkhead", "was", "from", "the", "side", "of", "the", "ship", "and", "extended", "for", "a", "length", "of", ".", "It", "was", "backed", "with", "coal", "bunkers.", "Construction", "and", "service", "Construction", "began", "on", "Tsesarevich,", "named", "after", "the", "title", "of", "the", "heir", "to", "the", "Russian", "throne,", "on", "18", "May", "1899", "at", "the", "Forges", "et", "Chantiers", "de", "la", "Méditerranée", "shipyard", "in", "La", "Seyne-sur-Mer,", "France.", "The", "ship", "was", "laid", "down", "on", "8", "July", "1899", "and", "launched", "on", "23", "February", "1901.", "Construction", "was", "supervised", "by", "Captain", "Ivan", "Grigorovich,", "who", "became", "the", "ship's", "first", "captain.", "Tsesarevich", "entered", "service", "in", "August", "1903", "and", "was", "assigned", "to", "the", "Far", "East.", "She", "arrived", "in", "Port", "Arthur", "on", "2", "December", "1903.", "Upon", "completion,", "the", "Tsesarevich", "was", "the", "Russian", "Navy's", "best", "battleship", "at", "the", "beginning", "of", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "War.", "After", "the", "Japanese", "victory", "in", "the", "First", "Sino-Japanese", "War", "of", "1894–1895,", "both", "Russia", "and", "Japan", "had", "ambitions", "to", "control", "Manchuria", "and", "Korea,", "resulting", "in", "tensions", "between", "the", "two", "nations.", "Japan", "had", "begun", "negotiations", "to", "reduce", "the", "tensions", "in", "1901,", "but", "the", "Russian", "government", "was", "slow", "and", "uncertain", "in", "its", "replies", "because", "it", "had", "not", "yet", "decided", "exactly", "how", "to", "resolve", "the", "problems.", "Japan", "interpreted", "this", "as", "deliberate", "prevarication", "designed", "to", "buy", "time", "to", "complete", "the", "Russian", "armament", "programs.", "The", "situation", "was", "worsened", "by", "Russia's", "failure", "to", "withdraw", "its", "troops", "from", "Manchuria", "in", "October", "1903", "as", "promised.", "The", "final", "straws", "were", "the", "news", "of", "Russian", "timber", "concessions", "in", "northern", "Korea", "and", "the", "Russian", "refusal", "to", "acknowledge", "Japanese", "interests", "in", "Manchuria", "while", "continuing", "to", "place", "conditions", "on", "Japanese", "activities", "in", "Korea.", "These", "actions", "caused", "the", "Japanese", "government", "to", "decide", "in", "December", "1903", "that", "war", "was", "inevitable.", "As", "tensions", "with", "Japan", "increased,", "the", "Pacific", "Squadron", "began", "mooring", "in", "the", "outer", "harbor", "at", "night", "in", "order", "to", "react", "more", "quickly", "to", "any", "Japanese", "attempt", "to", "land", "troops", "in", "Korea.", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "She", "was", "one", "of", "three", "ships", "to", "be", "struck", "by", "Japanese", "torpedoes", "in", "the", "surprise", "attack", "on", "the", "night", "of", "8/9", "February", "1904.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "hit", "abaft", "the", "portside", "torpedo", "bulkhead", "and", "the", "ship", "took", "on", "an", "18°", "list", "that", "was", "partially", "corrected", "by", "counterflooding", "compartments", "on", "the", "starboard", "side.", "She", "got", "underway,", "but", "ran", "aground", "at", "the", "narrow", "harbor", "entrance.", "She", "was", "refloated", "and", "moved", "into", "the", "harbour", "for", "repairs", "that", "lasted", "until", "7", "June.", "Some", "of", "the", "ship's", "guns", "were", "removed", "during", "the", "summer", "to", "reinforce", "the", "defenses", "of", "the", "port.", "Tsesarevich", "lost", "a", "total", "of", "four", "75-millimetre,", "two", "47-millimetre", "and", "two", "37-millimetre", "guns.", "The", "ship", "was", "hit", "twice", "on", "7", "August", "by", "Japanese", "shells", "fired", "at", "long", "range;", "a", "fragment", "from", "one", "of", "them", "lightly", "wounded", "rear", "admiral", "Wilgelm", "Vitgeft.", "Battle", "of", "the", "Yellow", "Sea", "On", "the", "morning", "of", "10", "August,", "the", "First", "Pacific", "Squadron", "sortied", "from", "Port", "Arthur", "in", "an", "attempt", "to", "break", "through", "the", "Japanese", "fleet", "blockading", "the", "port", "and", "reach", "Vladivostok.", "The", "Russian", "squadron", "consisted", "of", "six", "battleships,", "Tsesarevich,", ",", ",", ",", "and", "Poltava,", "along", "with", "four", "protected", "cruisers", "and", "eight", "destroyers.", "The", "Japanese", "fleet,", "commanded", "by", "Vice", "Admiral", "Tōgō", "Heihachirō,", "was", "comprised", "four", "battleships,", ",", ",", ",", ",", "two", "armoured", "cruisers", "and", ",", "as", "well", "as", "seven", "protected", "cruisers.", "Tsesarevich", "and", "Pobeda", "both", "suffered", "mechanical", "problems", "within", "an", "hour", "of", "departure", "that", "forced", "the", "fleet", "to", "slow", "down", "to", "a", "speed", "of", ".", "Tōgō", "failed", "in", "his", "attempt", "to", "cross", "the", "Russian's", "T", "after", "spotting", "them", "around", "12:25", "and", "a", "general", "engagement", "began", "around", "13:25", "with", "the", "Japanese", "ships", "concentrating", "their", "fire", "on", "Tsesarevich", "and", "Retvizan,", "but", "the", "effective", "Russian", "fire", "forced", "Togo", "to", "disengage", "around", "15:20.", "He", "closed", "with", "the", "Russians", "about", "two", "hours", "later", "and", "opened", "fire", "at", "17:35.", "Neither", "side", "was", "able", "to", "mortally", "damage", "any", "ships", "while", "the", "Russians", "were", "still", "in", "the", "lead", "with", "about", "a", "half-hour", "of", "daylight", "left", "when", "two", "12-inch", "shells", "fired", "by", "Asahi", "struck", "near", "Tsesarevichs", "conning", "tower", "at", "18:40.", "Shell", "fragments", "bounced", "off", "the", "conning", "tower's", "overhanging", "roof", "into", "the", "conning", "tower,", "killing", "Vitgeft,", "two", "staff", "officers", "and", "the", "helmsman.", "The", "ship", "turned", "to", "port", "with", "the", "steering", "wheel", "jammed", "and", "was", "followed", "by", "several", "other", "battleships.", "Tsesarevich", "became", "the", "focus", "of", "attention", "from", "every", "Japanese", "ship", "so", "the", "captain", "of", "Retvizan", "decided", "to", "charge", "the", "Japanese", "battleline", "to", "buy", "time", "for", "Tsesarevich", "to", "fix", "her", "steering", "problem.", "He", "succeeded", "in", "doing", "so", "and", "the", "squadron's", "second-in-command,", "Rear", "Admiral", "Prince", "Pavel", "Ukhtomsky", "gradually", "asserted", "command", "over", "the", "scattered", "Russian", "ships", "and", "ordered", "them", "back", "to", "Port", "Arthur", "in", "the", "darkness.", "Tsesarevich", "attempted", "to", "head", "north", "to", "Vladivostok", "in", "the", "dark,", "but", "her", "damaged", "funnels", "greatly", "increased", "her", "coal", "consumption", "and", "reduced", "her", "speed", "to", "only", "so", "that", "she", "was", "forced", "to", "head", "for", "the", "German", "treaty", "port", "of", "Tsingtau", "instead", "with", "three", "destroyers", "for", "escort.", "Upon", "arrival", "the", "following", "day,", "Tsesarevich", "and", "her", "companions", "were", "interned", "and", "disarmed.", "The", "ship", "had", "been", "hit", "by", "thirteen", "12-inch", "and", "two", "shells", "that", "killed", "12", "and", "wounded", "47", "members", "of", "her", "crew.", "Post", "Russo-Japanese", "War", "and", "WWI", "At", "the", "end", "of", "the", "Russo-Japanese", "war,", "the", "ship", "was", "transferred", "to", "the", "Baltic", "in", "early", "1906", "and", "helped", "to", "suppress", "the", "Sveaborg", "Rebellion", "on", "1", "August.", "Around", "1906,", "her", "fighting", "top", "was", "removed", "and", "her", "superstructure", "was", "cut", "down.", "The", "75-millimetre", "guns", "in", "the", "superstructure", "were", "apparently", "removed", "as", "well.", "Tsesarevich", "made", "regular", "winter", "cruises", "to", "the", "Mediterranean", "before", "World", "War", "I", "and", "aided", "survivors", "of", "the", "Messina", "earthquake", "in", "December", "1908.", "In", "1909–1910", "the", "ship's", "machinery", "was", "overhauled", "and", "her", "amidships", "casemated", "75-millimetre", "guns", "were", "removed", "and", "plated", "over", "four", "years", "later.", "Tsesarevich", "was", "not", "very", "active", "during", "the", "early", "part", "of", "World", "War", "I", "and", "she", "reportedly", "received", "two", "37-millimetre", "anti-aircraft", "guns", "during", "the", "war.", "Her", "crew", "joined", "the", "general", "mutiny", "of", "the", "Baltic", "Fleet", "on", "16", "March", "1917,", "after", "the", "idle", "sailors", "received", "word", "of", "the", "February", "Revolution", "in", "Saint", "Petersburg.", "She", "was", "renamed", "Grazhdanin", "(", "(meaning", "Citizen))", "on", "13", "April", "1917", "after", "the", "February", "Revolution.", "The", "ship", "took", "part", "in", "the", "Battle", "of", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "October", "1917", "off", "the", "coast", "of", "Estonia.", "During", "the", "climatic", "part", "of", "the", "battle,", "Grazhdanin", "engaged", "the", "German", "minesweepers", "on", "17", "October", "with", "little", "effect", "while", "the", "predreadnought", "engaged", "the", "German", "dreadnoughts", "and", ".", "The", "latter", "fired", "at", "Grazhdanin", "and", "hit", "her", "twice,", "killing", "one", "and", "wounding", "four", "crewmen,", "although", "neither", "hit", "caused", "significant", "damage.", "The", "German", "dreadnoughts", "outranged", "Grazhdanin,", "and", "she", "was", "forced", "to", "abandon", "Moon", "Sound", "in", "the", "face", "of", "German", "pressure.", "By", "December", "the", "ship", "was", "in", "Kronstadt,", "where", "she", "came", "under", "the", "control", "of", "the", "Bolsheviks,", "and", "she", "was", "hulked", "there", "in", "May", "1918.", "Grazhdanin", "was", "scrapped", "beginning", "in", "1924,", "although", "she", "was", "not", "officially", "stricken", "from", "the", "Navy", "List", "until", "21", "November", "1925.", "Notes", "Footnotes" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alek%20Rapoport

Alek Rapoport

Alek Rapoport (November 24, 1933, Kharkiv, Ukraine SSR – February 4, 1997, San Francisco) was a Ukrainian Nonconformist artist, art theorist, and teacher. Early life and education Alek Rapoport spent his childhood in Kyiv (Ukraine SSR). During Stalin's "purges" both his parents were arrested. His father was shot and his mother spent ten years in a Siberian labor camp. Rapoport lived with his aunt. At the beginning of World War II, he was evacuated to the city of Ufa (the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic). A time of extreme loneliness, cold, hunger, and deprivation, this period also marked the beginning of Rapoport's drawing studies. After the war, Rapoport lived in Chernovtsy (Western Ukraine), a city with a certain European flair. At the local House of Folk Arts, he found his first art teacher, E.Sagaidachny (1886–1961), a former member of the nonconformist artist groups Union of the Youth (Soyuz Molodyozhi) and Donkey's Tail, popular during the 1910s–1920s. His other art teacher was I. Beklemisheva (1903–1988). Impressed by Rapoport's talent, she later (1950) organized his move to Leningrad, where he entered the famous V.Serov School of Art (the former School of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of Arts, OPKh, later the Tavricheskaya Art School). His association with this school lasted eight years, first as a student, and then, from 1965 to 1968, as a teacher. With "Socialist realism" the only official style during this time, most of the art school's faculty had to conceal any prior involvement in non-conformist art movements. Ya.K.Shablovsky, V.M.Sudakov, A.A.Gromov introduced their students to Constructivism only through clandestine means. The school emphasized fundamental drawing skills and an appreciation for Italian Renaissance art. Additionally, Rapoport continued to educate himself, spending hours at the Hermitage Museum, copying paintings of the Old Masters, and studying art at public libraries. Rapoport's generation expressed an increasing interest in contemporary art. Expositions of French Impressionists came to Leningrad, followed by other exhibitions of modern art from various European countries. This new freedom proved a powerful source of ideas. His last year in school was interrupted by the military draft. He was stationed in Birobidzhan (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast), where he continued to draw and paint during his free time, making a series of sketches vividly depicting scenes of a soldier's everyday life and creating the oil painting The Taking of a Hill for a Khabarovsk museum. After his military service, Rapoport returned to the Serov School of Art. His diploma work Laying the Wreaths on the Field of Mars (1958), was denounced as "formalist," a stigma which followed him from then on. Over the next four years (1959–1963) Rapoport studied stage design at the Leningrad Institute of Theater, Music and Cinema under the supervision of the famous artist and stage director N.P.Akimov. Akimov taught a unique course based on theories of Russian Suprematism and Constructivism, while encouraging his graduate students to apply their knowledge to every field of art design. Despite differences in personal artistic taste with Akimov, who was drawn to Vermeer and Dalí, Rapoport was influenced by Akimov's personality and liberalism, as well as the logical style of his art. In 1963, Rapoport graduated from the institute. His highly acclaimed MFA work involved the stage and costume design for I.Babel's play Sunset. In preparation, he traveled to the southwest regions of the Soviet Union, where he accumulated many objects of Judaic iconography from former ghettos, disappearing synagogues and old cemeteries. He wandered Odessa in search of Babel's characters and the atmosphere of his books. Rapoport considered himself a practitioner of Russian Constructivism with roots in ancient Mediterranean and Byzantine art forms. He was strongly influenced by Tartu's school of structural semiotics and by its founder, Juri Lotman. Concurrently, Rapoport pursued a deep study of Byzantine art and icons. His final studies while in Russia concentrated on the works of the Russian Orthodox priest Father Pavel Florensky and the art historian Lev Zhegin. Career After graduation, Rapoport's life was full of a variety of activities, but his most important goal was to try to combine official art with his own creative ideas. The greatest opportunities for this came through work for the theater in the town of Volkhov, as well as at Houses of Culture. He made sketches for sets and costumes for various plays such as Brecht's The Good Woman from Szechuan and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich, Pushkin's The Queen of Spades, Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt and V.Ivanov's Armored Train 14-69. At this time, Rapoport also worked as an artist's assistant at "Lenfilm" and as a book designer and illustrator for various publishing houses. However, his greatest satisfaction came from teaching specialty courses in composition, design and human anatomy at the Serov Art School. He organized a new liberal course in technical aesthetics, introducing his students to Lotman's theory of semiotics, the Modulor of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus school, Russian Constructivism, Russian icons and contemporary Western art. As a result of his "radicalism," Rapoport was fired for "ideological conspiracy." Thereafter, Rapoport channeled all his energy into his own creative work. His main projects centered on Biblical themes, Anti-Semitism and subjects of everyday life. He sought to cultivate himself as Jewish artist. This became particularly noticeable after the Six-Day War, when the Israeli victory led intellectuals, including the Jewish intelligentsia, to feel a heightened interest in Jewish culture and its Biblical roots. Rapoport's works of this period include Three Figures, a series of images of Talmudic Scholars, and works dealing with anti-Semitism. 1970s In the 1970s Rapoport joined the non-conformist movement, which opposed the dogmas of "Socialist realism" in art, along with Soviet censorship. The movement sought to preserve the traditions of Russian iconography and the Constructivist/Suprematist style of the 1910s. Despite the authorities' persecutions of nonconformist artists (including arrests, forced evictions, terminations of employment, and various forms of routine hassling), they united in a group, "TEV – Fellowship of Experimental Exhibitions." TEV's exhibitions proved tremendously successful. In the same period, Rapoport became one of the initiators of another anti-establishment group, ALEF (Union of Leningrad's Jewish Artists). In the United States this group was known as "Twelve from the Soviet Underground." Rapoport's involvement with this group increased tension with the authorities and attracted KGB scrutiny, including "friendly conversations," surveillance, detentions and house arrests. It became increasingly dangerous for him to live and work in the USSR. In October 1976, Rapoport with his wife and son were forced to leave Russia. Following the usual path among Russian immigrants of that time, the family traveled through Austria and Italy, then moved to the U.S. They lived in Italy half a year. Despite missing Russia, Rapoport savored his exposure to Italian culture and art, which had intrigued him since childhood. The entire environment strongly inspired his mind and creative work. In Italy, Rapoport exhibited at the Venice Biennale, "La Nuova Arte Sovietica-Una prospettiva non-ufficiale" (1977), participated in television programs about nonconformist art in the Soviet Union, and created lithographic works continuing his theme of Jewish characters from Babel's play Sunset. In 1977, Rapoport's family was granted U.S. immigration status and settled in San Francisco. With assistance from the Bay Area Council of Soviet Jews (BACSJ), Rapoport traveled to many American cities as a representative of the "ALEF" group, known in U.S. as "12 from the Soviet Underground," accompanying exhibitions of these artists and lecturing. Rapoport grew up in the anti-religious Soviet environment. An encounter with the New Testament at age 16 led his first creation of religious artwork. Beginning in the 1960s, images of the Biblical prophets emerged as a recurring theme in Rapoport's art. His inspiration came from various sources: the stories of the Old and New Testaments, the art of Russian (Byzantine) icons as well as the humanistic art of Renaissance, and Russian religious philosophers such as S.Bulgakov, N.Berdyayev, V.Solovyov. Among this latter group, Rapoport had a special regard for Father Pavel Florensky. Rapoport dedicated his painting Short Life of Euphrosynos the Cook (1978) to the memory of Florensky, who perished in a Gulag in 1944. For almost nine years, Rapoport was employed as a draftsman-designer of stage equipment, while continuing his own creative work. Initially overwhelmed by a sense of freedom in his new life, he soon came to feel that these liberties restricted more than they permitted, with freedom limited to the narrow views of artists who followed the demands of the market. He experienced difficulty fitting into the American contemporary art mainstream, which he considered frivolous, career-oriented and devoid of any spirituality or artistic merit. 1980s For Rapoport, the 1980s were a time full of creativity and significant life events. He participated in numerous exhibitions in San Francisco and other American cities, sold his paintings in auctions in Europe and the U.S., illustrated Erotic Tales of Old Russia by A.Afanasyev (Scythian Books, Oakland, CA), and traveled to European countries. A visit to Spain made a profound impression on him, confirming a sense of personal connection, even blood ties, with the art and culture of the country of El Greco. Rapoport began a new series of paintings inspired by his experiences in Spain. In 1984, a significant event in Rapoport's life occurred in his meeting with San Francisco gallery owner Michael Dunev, who became his friend and representative, organizing all his exhibitions until the artist's death. Rapoport tried to make a connection to bridge the gap between his art and the American viewers, a goal perhaps reflected in his new series of paintings, Images of San Francisco. While in Russia, Rapoport had concentrated on interior and spiritual subjects; in San Francisco, he broadened his art with new sources. He valued the city's international flavor, theatrical and dramatical image, phantasmal ocean-accented light and geographical structure, capturing these qualities with his characteristic forced spherical perspectives and expressionistic coloration, evoking a sense of a spontaneous theater of everyday life. Images of San Francisco came to constitute a second major body of subjects in Rapoport's art. At the same time, the idea of "brotherhood" and artists "guild" had always attracted Rapoport, and he particularly missed this sense of fellowship while in the U.S. Accordingly, in 1992, he organized the group "SPSF"(Saint Petersburg-San Francisco). SPSF consisted of two artists and two photographers, all St. Petersburg natives who had wound up in San Francisco. The four saw themselves as heirs of the great St. Petersburg cultural tradition, while also having absorbed the new San Francisco environment. Their exhibitions were enthusiastically received by Russians and Americans. In 1987, Rapoport was finally able devote himself completely to his creative work. While his subject matter did not change, his works increased in emotional impact and his technical skills became fully developed. 1990s Toward the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, Rapoport completed his most ambitious works on the theme of the Old Testament prophets: Samson Destroying the House of the Philistines (1989), Lamentation and Mourning and Woe (1990), the four paintings Angel and Prophets (1990–1991) and Three Deeds of Moses (1992). In 1992, the artist's friends in St. Petersburg organized the first exhibition of his works there since his departure into exile, with works patiently gathered from collectors and art museums. This exhibition, held in the City Museum of St. Petersburg and accompanied by headlines such as "A St. Petersburg artist returns to his town," was followed by much larger ones in 1993 (St. Petersburg and Moscow), organized in collaboration with Michael Dunev Gallery under the name California Branches – Russian Roots. The exhibitions, with an invitation featuring Rapoport's painting Self-portrait as a Mask of Mordecai (1985), marked the artist's first visit to Russia since his departure in 1976. Rapoport had always protested loudly and openly. In Russia, he protested against the rigidity of the system of teaching, against the communist ideology and censorship in art, against the suppression of religious art. He took a leading part in the creation of the dissident art groups TEV and ALEF. For this he was persecuted by the authorities and forced to emigrate. Then, in the U.S., Rapoport protested against commercialism in art, against the dominance of ideas of market over ideas of spirit, against the crushing of religious art by public indifference, against the loss of Judeo-Christian values. "In search of these values, I turn again and again to the Old Masters from the Mediterranean region, where at the very outset of Western Civilization, the art of Pictorial Image was born, art in which both the Divine Spirit and the Human Being served as the measure for all things." This was the subject of Rapoport's "loud and bitter cry." The last five years of Rapoport's life (1993–1997) were spent in voluntary seclusion. He did not endure emigration easily. "What a pathetic life, everything repeats itself," he said, quoting from the letters of Albrecht Dürer, another artist who saw himself as born in the wrong place and time. During these years, Rapoport concentrated on his own creative world. In his own words, he worked not for the sake of art, but because art gave him the means to express himself. He sought to reach the very core and heart of the image, an urge complemented by his ever-present inner desire to attain the ideal. In 1995, he began an association with CIVA (Christians in Visual Arts), participating in the group's exhibitions and conferences. He produced more expressionistic paintings on religious themes, while continuing his ongoing series Images of San Francisco. His works became increasingly spiritual and magically expressive. The art critic V.Baranovsky (Moscow-San Francisco) noted, "One can not leave unnoticed the strange power of these paintings, which remind us of the incandescent coals of Old Russian icons." By 1996, the artist almost never left his studio, completing Anastasis 1, based on the apocryphal fourth-century Gospel of Nicodemus. The painting was his final and most personal religious work. Death On February 4, 1997, Alek Rapoport died suddenly and unexpectedly in his studio while working on his new painting Trinity. Main personal exhibits 1980 – Gallerie "Trifalco," Rome, Italy 1981 – Images of San Francisco, Eduard Nakhamkin Gallery, New York, NY. 1984 – Images of San Francisco, University of the Pacific Gallery, Stockton, CA. 1986 – Images of San Francisco, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1988 – Ecumenical Works, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1992 – Russia-USA, The Museum of the City of St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russia. 1993 – California Branches-Russian Roots, Manege Exhibition Hall, St. Petersburg, Russia; National Exhibition Hall, Moscow, Russia. 1996 – Ecumenical Paintings, SOMAR Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1997 – The Last Paintings: A Memorial Exhibition, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA; The Early Drawings. A Memorial Exhibition. George Krevsky Fine Art, San Francisco, CA; Sacred Inspiration: Icons by Alek Rapoport, The Marian Library, IMRI, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. 1998 – Angel and Prophet, Center for Art and Religion, Washington, DC. 2004 – Images of San Francisco, Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia. 2007 – Alek Rapoport: A Memorial Exhibition, Belcher Studios Gallery, San Francisco, CA. Main collections Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Ellis Island Museum, NJ Personal collection of John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy International Marian Research Institute, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. Judah L. Magnes Museum, Berkeley, CA. Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco, CA. Duke University Museum of Art, Duke University, Durham, NC. Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA. Museum of Nonconformist Art, St. Petersburg, Russia Moscow Museum of Modern Art, Moscow, Russia Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia Bibliography From Gulag to Glasnost: Nonconformist Art from the Soviet Union. The N&N Dodge Collection. Thames and Hudson, New York, 1995 Rapoport, Alek. Tradition and Innovation in the Fine Arts. Canadian-American Slavic Studies. Publisher BRILL, Volume 45, Number 2, 2011, P. 183-206 12 from the Soviet Underground. Catalogue, Berkeley, CA, 1976 Creativity Under Duress: From Gulag To Glasnost. Catalogue, Louisville, KY, 1989 Soltes, Ori Z. III. Art, Politics, Literature and Religion, Art and the Holocaust. B'nai B'rith Klutznick National Museum, Washington DC. P. 6-8 Scharlach, B. California Dreamin'. Hadassah, Volume 68, Number 4, December 1986. P. 50 Bernstein, Boris. Rapoportian Space. Canadian American Slavic Studies. Publisher Charles Schlacks, vol.41, No 2, Summer, 2007, California, USA, P. 205–216. Alek Rapoport. An Artist's Journey. Album, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, 1998. Dunev, Michael. Art of Conscience: The Paintings of Alek Rapoport. ARTS, Eleven one, 1999, New Brighton, MN, USA, C.36–37 Jane, R. Russian Artists at OPTS Art. Asian Art News, vol.5, No1, January–February 1995, San Francisco, CA Alek Rapoport. St.Petersburg — San Francisco. Catalogue, APOLLON, St. Petersburg, 1993 References External links 1933 births Soviet painters Painters from Saint Petersburg 20th-century Russian painters Russian male painters Soviet emigrants to the United States 1997 deaths Artists from the San Francisco Bay Area 20th-century Russian male artists

Alek Rapoport (November 24, 1933, Kharkiv, Ukraine SSR – February 4, 1997, San Francisco) was a Ukrainian Nonconformist artist, art theorist, and teacher.🦛 Early life and education Alek Rapoport spent his childhood in Kyiv (Ukraine SSR). During Stalin's "purges" both his parents were arrested. His father was shot and his mother spent ten years in a Siberian labor camp. Rapoport lived with his aunt. At the beginning of World War II, he was evacuated to the city of Ufa (the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic). A time of extreme loneliness, cold, hunger, and deprivation, this period also marked the beginning of Rapoport's drawing studies.🦛 After the war, Rapoport lived in Chernovtsy (Western Ukraine), a city with a certain European flair. At the local House of Folk Arts, he found his first art teacher, E.Sagaidachny (1886–1961), a former member of the nonconformist artist groups Union of the Youth (Soyuz Molodyozhi) and Donkey's Tail, popular during the 1910s–1920s. His other art teacher was I. Beklemisheva (1903–1988). Impressed by Rapoport's talent, she later (1950) organized his move to Leningrad, where he entered the famous V.Serov School of Art (the former School of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of Arts, OPKh, later the Tavricheskaya Art School).🦛 His association with this school lasted eight years, first as a student, and then, from 1965 to 1968, as a teacher. With "Socialist realism" the only official style during this time, most of the art school's faculty had to conceal any prior involvement in non-conformist art movements. Ya.K.Shablovsky, V.M.Sudakov, A.A.Gromov introduced their students to Constructivism only through clandestine means.🦛 The school emphasized fundamental drawing skills and an appreciation for Italian Renaissance art. Additionally, Rapoport continued to educate himself, spending hours at the Hermitage Museum, copying paintings of the Old Masters, and studying art at public libraries. Rapoport's generation expressed an increasing interest in contemporary art. Expositions of French Impressionists came to Leningrad, followed by other exhibitions of modern art from various European countries. This new freedom proved a powerful source of ideas.🦛 His last year in school was interrupted by the military draft. He was stationed in Birobidzhan (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast), where he continued to draw and paint during his free time, making a series of sketches vividly depicting scenes of a soldier's everyday life and creating the oil painting The Taking of a Hill for a Khabarovsk museum. After his military service, Rapoport returned to the Serov School of Art. His diploma work Laying the Wreaths on the Field of Mars (1958), was denounced as "formalist," a stigma which followed him from then on.🦛 Over the next four years (1959–1963) Rapoport studied stage design at the Leningrad Institute of Theater, Music and Cinema under the supervision of the famous artist and stage director N.P.Akimov. Akimov taught a unique course based on theories of Russian Suprematism and Constructivism, while encouraging his graduate students to apply their knowledge to every field of art design. Despite differences in personal artistic taste with Akimov, who was drawn to Vermeer and Dalí, Rapoport was influenced by Akimov's personality and liberalism, as well as the logical style of his art.🦛 In 1963, Rapoport graduated from the institute. His highly acclaimed MFA work involved the stage and costume design for I.Babel's play Sunset. In preparation, he traveled to the southwest regions of the Soviet Union, where he accumulated many objects of Judaic iconography from former ghettos, disappearing synagogues and old cemeteries. He wandered Odessa in search of Babel's characters and the atmosphere of his books.🦛 Rapoport considered himself a practitioner of Russian Constructivism with roots in ancient Mediterranean and Byzantine art forms. He was strongly influenced by Tartu's school of structural semiotics and by its founder, Juri Lotman. Concurrently, Rapoport pursued a deep study of Byzantine art and icons. His final studies while in Russia concentrated on the works of the Russian Orthodox priest Father Pavel Florensky and the art historian Lev Zhegin.🦛 Career After graduation, Rapoport's life was full of a variety of activities, but his most important goal was to try to combine official art with his own creative ideas. The greatest opportunities for this came through work for the theater in the town of Volkhov, as well as at Houses of Culture. He made sketches for sets and costumes for various plays such as Brecht's The Good Woman from Szechuan and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich, Pushkin's The Queen of Spades, Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt and V.Ivanov's Armored Train 14-69.🦛 At this time, Rapoport also worked as an artist's assistant at "Lenfilm" and as a book designer and illustrator for various publishing houses. However, his greatest satisfaction came from teaching specialty courses in composition, design and human anatomy at the Serov Art School. He organized a new liberal course in technical aesthetics, introducing his students to Lotman's theory of semiotics, the Modulor of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus school, Russian Constructivism, Russian icons and contemporary Western art. As a result of his "radicalism," Rapoport was fired for "ideological conspiracy."🦛 Thereafter, Rapoport channeled all his energy into his own creative work. His main projects centered on Biblical themes, Anti-Semitism and subjects of everyday life. He sought to cultivate himself as Jewish artist. This became particularly noticeable after the Six-Day War, when the Israeli victory led intellectuals, including the Jewish intelligentsia, to feel a heightened interest in Jewish culture and its Biblical roots. Rapoport's works of this period include Three Figures, a series of images of Talmudic Scholars, and works dealing with anti-Semitism.🦛 1970s In the 1970s Rapoport joined the non-conformist movement, which opposed the dogmas of "Socialist realism" in art, along with Soviet censorship. The movement sought to preserve the traditions of Russian iconography and the Constructivist/Suprematist style of the 1910s. Despite the authorities' persecutions of nonconformist artists (including arrests, forced evictions, terminations of employment, and various forms of routine hassling), they united in a group, "TEV – Fellowship of Experimental Exhibitions." TEV's exhibitions proved tremendously successful.🦛 In the same period, Rapoport became one of the initiators of another anti-establishment group, ALEF (Union of Leningrad's Jewish Artists). In the United States this group was known as "Twelve from the Soviet Underground." Rapoport's involvement with this group increased tension with the authorities and attracted KGB scrutiny, including "friendly conversations," surveillance, detentions and house arrests. It became increasingly dangerous for him to live and work in the USSR. In October 1976, Rapoport with his wife and son were forced to leave Russia.🦛 Following the usual path among Russian immigrants of that time, the family traveled through Austria and Italy, then moved to the U.S. They lived in Italy half a year. Despite missing Russia, Rapoport savored his exposure to Italian culture and art, which had intrigued him since childhood. The entire environment strongly inspired his mind and creative work.🦛 In Italy, Rapoport exhibited at the Venice Biennale, "La Nuova Arte Sovietica-Una prospettiva non-ufficiale" (1977), participated in television programs about nonconformist art in the Soviet Union, and created lithographic works continuing his theme of Jewish characters from Babel's play Sunset.🦛 In 1977, Rapoport's family was granted U.S. immigration status and settled in San Francisco. With assistance from the Bay Area Council of Soviet Jews (BACSJ), Rapoport traveled to many American cities as a representative of the "ALEF" group, known in U.S. as "12 from the Soviet Underground," accompanying exhibitions of these artists and lecturing.🦛 Rapoport grew up in the anti-religious Soviet environment. An encounter with the New Testament at age 16 led his first creation of religious artwork. Beginning in the 1960s, images of the Biblical prophets emerged as a recurring theme in Rapoport's art. His inspiration came from various sources: the stories of the Old and New Testaments, the art of Russian (Byzantine) icons as well as the humanistic art of Renaissance, and Russian religious philosophers such as S.Bulgakov, N.Berdyayev, V.Solovyov. Among this latter group, Rapoport had a special regard for Father Pavel Florensky. Rapoport dedicated his painting Short Life of Euphrosynos the Cook (1978) to the memory of Florensky, who perished in a Gulag in 1944.🦛 For almost nine years, Rapoport was employed as a draftsman-designer of stage equipment, while continuing his own creative work. Initially overwhelmed by a sense of freedom in his new life, he soon came to feel that these liberties restricted more than they permitted, with freedom limited to the narrow views of artists who followed the demands of the market. He experienced difficulty fitting into the American contemporary art mainstream, which he considered frivolous, career-oriented and devoid of any spirituality or artistic merit.🦛 1980s For Rapoport, the 1980s were a time full of creativity and significant life events. He participated in numerous exhibitions in San Francisco and other American cities, sold his paintings in auctions in Europe and the U.S., illustrated Erotic Tales of Old Russia by A.Afanasyev (Scythian Books, Oakland, CA), and traveled to European countries. A visit to Spain made a profound impression on him, confirming a sense of personal connection, even blood ties, with the art and culture of the country of El Greco. Rapoport began a new series of paintings inspired by his experiences in Spain.🦛 In 1984, a significant event in Rapoport's life occurred in his meeting with San Francisco gallery owner Michael Dunev, who became his friend and representative, organizing all his exhibitions until the artist's death.🦛 Rapoport tried to make a connection to bridge the gap between his art and the American viewers, a goal perhaps reflected in his new series of paintings, Images of San Francisco. While in Russia, Rapoport had concentrated on interior and spiritual subjects; in San Francisco, he broadened his art with new sources. He valued the city's international flavor, theatrical and dramatical image, phantasmal ocean-accented light and geographical structure, capturing these qualities with his characteristic forced spherical perspectives and expressionistic coloration, evoking a sense of a spontaneous theater of everyday life. Images of San Francisco came to constitute a second major body of subjects in Rapoport's art.🦛 At the same time, the idea of "brotherhood" and artists "guild" had always attracted Rapoport, and he particularly missed this sense of fellowship while in the U.S. Accordingly, in 1992, he organized the group "SPSF"(Saint Petersburg-San Francisco). SPSF consisted of two artists and two photographers, all St. Petersburg natives who had wound up in San Francisco. The four saw themselves as heirs of the great St. Petersburg cultural tradition, while also having absorbed the new San Francisco environment. Their exhibitions were enthusiastically received by Russians and Americans.🦛 In 1987, Rapoport was finally able devote himself completely to his creative work. While his subject matter did not change, his works increased in emotional impact and his technical skills became fully developed.🦛 1990s Toward the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, Rapoport completed his most ambitious works on the theme of the Old Testament prophets: Samson Destroying the House of the Philistines (1989), Lamentation and Mourning and Woe (1990), the four paintings Angel and Prophets (1990–1991) and Three Deeds of Moses (1992).🦛 In 1992, the artist's friends in St. Petersburg organized the first exhibition of his works there since his departure into exile, with works patiently gathered from collectors and art museums. This exhibition, held in the City Museum of St. Petersburg and accompanied by headlines such as "A St. Petersburg artist returns to his town," was followed by much larger ones in 1993 (St. Petersburg and Moscow), organized in collaboration with Michael Dunev Gallery under the name California Branches – Russian Roots. The exhibitions, with an invitation featuring Rapoport's painting Self-portrait as a Mask of Mordecai (1985), marked the artist's first visit to Russia since his departure in 1976.🦛 Rapoport had always protested loudly and openly. In Russia, he protested against the rigidity of the system of teaching, against the communist ideology and censorship in art, against the suppression of religious art. He took a leading part in the creation of the dissident art groups TEV and ALEF. For this he was persecuted by the authorities and forced to emigrate.🦛 Then, in the U.S., Rapoport protested against commercialism in art, against the dominance of ideas of market over ideas of spirit, against the crushing of religious art by public indifference, against the loss of Judeo-Christian values. "In search of these values, I turn again and again to the Old Masters from the Mediterranean region, where at the very outset of Western Civilization, the art of Pictorial Image was born, art in which both the Divine Spirit and the Human Being served as the measure for all things." This was the subject of Rapoport's "loud and bitter cry."🦛 The last five years of Rapoport's life (1993–1997) were spent in voluntary seclusion. He did not endure emigration easily. "What a pathetic life, everything repeats itself," he said, quoting from the letters of Albrecht Dürer, another artist who saw himself as born in the wrong place and time.🦛 During these years, Rapoport concentrated on his own creative world. In his own words, he worked not for the sake of art, but because art gave him the means to express himself. He sought to reach the very core and heart of the image, an urge complemented by his ever-present inner desire to attain the ideal.🦛 In 1995, he began an association with CIVA (Christians in Visual Arts), participating in the group's exhibitions and conferences. He produced more expressionistic paintings on religious themes, while continuing his ongoing series Images of San Francisco. His works became increasingly spiritual and magically expressive. The art critic V.Baranovsky (Moscow-San Francisco) noted, "One can not leave unnoticed the strange power of these paintings, which remind us of the incandescent coals of Old Russian icons."🦛 By 1996, the artist almost never left his studio, completing Anastasis 1, based on the apocryphal fourth-century Gospel of Nicodemus. The painting was his final and most personal religious work.🦛 Death On February 4, 1997, Alek Rapoport died suddenly and unexpectedly in his studio while working on his new painting Trinity.🦛 Main personal exhibits 1980 – Gallerie "Trifalco," Rome, Italy 1981 – Images of San Francisco, Eduard Nakhamkin Gallery, New York, NY.🦛 1984 – Images of San Francisco, University of the Pacific Gallery, Stockton, CA. 1986 – Images of San Francisco, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA.🦛 1988 – Ecumenical Works, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1992 – Russia-USA, The Museum of the City of St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russia.🦛 1993 – California Branches-Russian Roots, Manege Exhibition Hall, St. Petersburg, Russia; National Exhibition Hall, Moscow, Russia.🦛 1996 – Ecumenical Paintings, SOMAR Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 1997 – The Last Paintings: A Memorial Exhibition, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, CA; The Early Drawings. A Memorial Exhibition. George Krevsky Fine Art, San Francisco, CA; Sacred Inspiration: Icons by Alek Rapoport, The Marian Library, IMRI, Dayton University, Dayton, OH.🦛 1998 – Angel and Prophet, Center for Art and Religion, Washington, DC. 2004 – Images of San Francisco, Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia.🦛 2007 – Alek Rapoport: A Memorial Exhibition, Belcher Studios Gallery, San Francisco, CA. Main collections Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia🦛 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia Ellis Island Museum, NJ Personal collection of John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy🦛 International Marian Research Institute, Dayton University, Dayton, OH. Judah L. Magnes Museum, Berkeley, CA. Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ🦛 Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco, CA. Duke University Museum of Art, Duke University, Durham, NC. Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA.🦛 Museum of Nonconformist Art, St. Petersburg, Russia Moscow Museum of Modern Art, Moscow, Russia Diaghilev Art Center, St. Petersburg, Russia🦛 Bibliography From Gulag to Glasnost: Nonconformist Art from the Soviet Union. The N&N Dodge Collection. Thames and Hudson, New York, 1995🦛 Rapoport, Alek. Tradition and Innovation in the Fine Arts. Canadian-American Slavic Studies. Publisher BRILL, Volume 45, Number 2, 2011, P. 183-206🦛 12 from the Soviet Underground. Catalogue, Berkeley, CA, 1976 Creativity Under Duress: From Gulag To Glasnost. Catalogue, Louisville, KY, 1989🦛 Soltes, Ori Z. III. Art, Politics, Literature and Religion, Art and the Holocaust. B'nai B'rith Klutznick National Museum, Washington DC. P. 6-8🦛 Scharlach, B. California Dreamin'. Hadassah, Volume 68, Number 4, December 1986. P. 50 Bernstein, Boris. Rapoportian Space. Canadian American Slavic Studies. Publisher Charles Schlacks, vol.41, No 2, Summer, 2007, California, USA, P. 205–216.🦛 Alek Rapoport. An Artist's Journey. Album, Michael Dunev Gallery, San Francisco, 1998. Dunev, Michael. Art of Conscience: The Paintings of Alek Rapoport. ARTS, Eleven one, 1999, New Brighton, MN, USA, C.36–37🦛 Jane, R. Russian Artists at OPTS Art. Asian Art News, vol.5, No1, January–February 1995, San Francisco, CA Alek Rapoport. St.Petersburg — San Francisco. Catalogue, APOLLON, St. Petersburg, 1993🦛

[ "Alek", "Rapoport", "(November", "24,", "1933,", "Kharkiv,", "Ukraine", "SSR", "–", "February", "4,", "1997,", "San", "Francisco)", "was", "a", "Ukrainian", "Nonconformist", "artist,", "art", "theorist,", "and", "teacher.", "Early", "life", "and", "education", "Alek", "Rapoport", "spent", "his", "childhood", "in", "Kyiv", "(Ukraine", "SSR).", "During", "Stalin's", "\"purges\"", "both", "his", "parents", "were", "arrested.", "His", "father", "was", "shot", "and", "his", "mother", "spent", "ten", "years", "in", "a", "Siberian", "labor", "camp.", "Rapoport", "lived", "with", "his", "aunt.", "At", "the", "beginning", "of", "World", "War", "II,", "he", "was", "evacuated", "to", "the", "city", "of", "Ufa", "(the", "Bashkir", "Autonomous", "Soviet", "Socialist", "Republic).", "A", "time", "of", "extreme", "loneliness,", "cold,", "hunger,", "and", "deprivation,", "this", "period", "also", "marked", "the", "beginning", "of", "Rapoport's", "drawing", "studies.", "After", "the", "war,", "Rapoport", "lived", "in", "Chernovtsy", "(Western", "Ukraine),", "a", "city", "with", "a", "certain", "European", "flair.", "At", "the", "local", "House", "of", "Folk", "Arts,", "he", "found", "his", "first", "art", "teacher,", "E.Sagaidachny", "(1886–1961),", "a", "former", "member", "of", "the", "nonconformist", "artist", "groups", "Union", "of", "the", "Youth", "(Soyuz", "Molodyozhi)", "and", "Donkey's", "Tail,", "popular", "during", "the", "1910s–1920s.", "His", "other", "art", "teacher", "was", "I.", "Beklemisheva", "(1903–1988).", "Impressed", "by", "Rapoport's", "talent,", "she", "later", "(1950)", "organized", "his", "move", "to", "Leningrad,", "where", "he", "entered", "the", "famous", "V.Serov", "School", "of", "Art", "(the", "former", "School", "of", "the", "Imperial", "Society", "for", "the", "Promotion", "of", "Arts,", "OPKh,", "later", "the", "Tavricheskaya", "Art", "School).", "His", "association", "with", "this", "school", "lasted", "eight", "years,", "first", "as", "a", "student,", "and", "then,", "from", "1965", "to", "1968,", "as", "a", "teacher.", "With", "\"Socialist", "realism\"", "the", "only", "official", "style", "during", "this", "time,", "most", "of", "the", "art", "school's", "faculty", "had", "to", "conceal", "any", "prior", "involvement", "in", "non-conformist", "art", "movements.", "Ya.K.Shablovsky,", "V.M.Sudakov,", "A.A.Gromov", "introduced", "their", "students", "to", "Constructivism", "only", "through", "clandestine", "means.", "The", "school", "emphasized", "fundamental", "drawing", "skills", "and", "an", "appreciation", "for", "Italian", "Renaissance", "art.", "Additionally,", "Rapoport", "continued", "to", "educate", "himself,", "spending", "hours", "at", "the", "Hermitage", "Museum,", "copying", "paintings", "of", "the", "Old", "Masters,", "and", "studying", "art", "at", "public", "libraries.", "Rapoport's", "generation", "expressed", "an", "increasing", "interest", "in", "contemporary", "art.", "Expositions", "of", "French", "Impressionists", "came", "to", "Leningrad,", "followed", "by", "other", "exhibitions", "of", "modern", "art", "from", "various", "European", "countries.", "This", "new", "freedom", "proved", "a", "powerful", "source", "of", "ideas.", "His", "last", "year", "in", "school", "was", "interrupted", "by", "the", "military", "draft.", "He", "was", "stationed", "in", "Birobidzhan", "(the", "Jewish", "Autonomous", "Oblast),", "where", "he", "continued", "to", "draw", "and", "paint", "during", "his", "free", "time,", "making", "a", "series", "of", "sketches", "vividly", "depicting", "scenes", "of", "a", "soldier's", "everyday", "life", "and", "creating", "the", "oil", "painting", "The", "Taking", "of", "a", "Hill", "for", "a", "Khabarovsk", "museum.", "After", "his", "military", "service,", "Rapoport", "returned", "to", "the", "Serov", "School", "of", "Art.", "His", "diploma", "work", "Laying", "the", "Wreaths", "on", "the", "Field", "of", "Mars", "(1958),", "was", "denounced", "as", "\"formalist,\"", "a", "stigma", "which", "followed", "him", "from", "then", "on.", "Over", "the", "next", "four", "years", "(1959–1963)", "Rapoport", "studied", "stage", "design", "at", "the", "Leningrad", "Institute", "of", "Theater,", "Music", "and", "Cinema", "under", "the", "supervision", "of", "the", "famous", "artist", "and", "stage", "director", "N.P.Akimov.", "Akimov", "taught", "a", "unique", "course", "based", "on", "theories", "of", "Russian", "Suprematism", "and", "Constructivism,", "while", "encouraging", "his", "graduate", "students", "to", "apply", "their", "knowledge", "to", "every", "field", "of", "art", "design.", "Despite", "differences", "in", "personal", "artistic", "taste", "with", "Akimov,", "who", "was", "drawn", "to", "Vermeer", "and", "Dalí,", "Rapoport", "was", "influenced", "by", "Akimov's", "personality", "and", "liberalism,", "as", "well", "as", "the", "logical", "style", "of", "his", "art.", "In", "1963,", "Rapoport", "graduated", "from", "the", "institute.", "His", "highly", "acclaimed", "MFA", "work", "involved", "the", "stage", "and", "costume", "design", "for", "I.Babel's", "play", "Sunset.", "In", "preparation,", "he", "traveled", "to", "the", "southwest", "regions", "of", "the", "Soviet", "Union,", "where", "he", "accumulated", "many", "objects", "of", "Judaic", "iconography", "from", "former", "ghettos,", "disappearing", "synagogues", "and", "old", "cemeteries.", "He", "wandered", "Odessa", "in", "search", "of", "Babel's", "characters", "and", "the", "atmosphere", "of", "his", "books.", "Rapoport", "considered", "himself", "a", "practitioner", "of", "Russian", "Constructivism", "with", "roots", "in", "ancient", "Mediterranean", "and", "Byzantine", "art", "forms.", "He", "was", "strongly", "influenced", "by", "Tartu's", "school", "of", "structural", "semiotics", "and", "by", "its", "founder,", "Juri", "Lotman.", "Concurrently,", "Rapoport", "pursued", "a", "deep", "study", "of", "Byzantine", "art", "and", "icons.", "His", "final", "studies", "while", "in", "Russia", "concentrated", "on", "the", "works", "of", "the", "Russian", "Orthodox", "priest", "Father", "Pavel", "Florensky", "and", "the", "art", "historian", "Lev", "Zhegin.", "Career", "After", "graduation,", "Rapoport's", "life", "was", "full", "of", "a", "variety", "of", "activities,", "but", "his", "most", "important", "goal", "was", "to", "try", "to", "combine", "official", "art", "with", "his", "own", "creative", "ideas.", "The", "greatest", "opportunities", "for", "this", "came", "through", "work", "for", "the", "theater", "in", "the", "town", "of", "Volkhov,", "as", "well", "as", "at", "Houses", "of", "Culture.", "He", "made", "sketches", "for", "sets", "and", "costumes", "for", "various", "plays", "such", "as", "Brecht's", "The", "Good", "Woman", "from", "Szechuan", "and", "Fear", "and", "Misery", "of", "the", "Third", "Reich,", "Pushkin's", "The", "Queen", "of", "Spades,", "Brandon", "Thomas's", "Charley's", "Aunt", "and", "V.Ivanov's", "Armored", "Train", "14-69.", "At", "this", "time,", "Rapoport", "also", "worked", "as", "an", "artist's", "assistant", "at", "\"Lenfilm\"", "and", "as", "a", "book", "designer", "and", "illustrator", "for", "various", "publishing", "houses.", "However,", "his", "greatest", "satisfaction", "came", "from", "teaching", "specialty", "courses", "in", "composition,", "design", "and", "human", "anatomy", "at", "the", "Serov", "Art", "School.", "He", "organized", "a", "new", "liberal", "course", "in", "technical", "aesthetics,", "introducing", "his", "students", "to", "Lotman's", "theory", "of", "semiotics,", "the", "Modulor", "of", "Le", "Corbusier,", "the", "Bauhaus", "school,", "Russian", "Constructivism,", "Russian", "icons", "and", "contemporary", "Western", "art.", "As", "a", "result", "of", "his", "\"radicalism,\"", "Rapoport", "was", "fired", "for", "\"ideological", "conspiracy.\"", "Thereafter,", "Rapoport", "channeled", "all", "his", "energy", "into", "his", "own", "creative", "work.", "His", "main", "projects", "centered", "on", "Biblical", "themes,", "Anti-Semitism", "and", "subjects", "of", "everyday", "life.", "He", "sought", "to", "cultivate", "himself", "as", "Jewish", "artist.", "This", "became", "particularly", "noticeable", "after", "the", "Six-Day", "War,", "when", "the", "Israeli", "victory", "led", "intellectuals,", "including", "the", "Jewish", "intelligentsia,", "to", "feel", "a", "heightened", "interest", "in", "Jewish", "culture", "and", "its", "Biblical", "roots.", "Rapoport's", "works", "of", "this", "period", "include", "Three", "Figures,", "a", "series", "of", "images", "of", "Talmudic", "Scholars,", "and", "works", "dealing", "with", "anti-Semitism.", "1970s", "In", "the", "1970s", "Rapoport", "joined", "the", "non-conformist", "movement,", "which", "opposed", "the", "dogmas", "of", "\"Socialist", "realism\"", "in", "art,", "along", "with", "Soviet", "censorship.", "The", "movement", "sought", "to", "preserve", "the", "traditions", "of", "Russian", "iconography", "and", "the", "Constructivist/Suprematist", "style", "of", "the", "1910s.", "Despite", "the", "authorities'", "persecutions", "of", "nonconformist", "artists", "(including", "arrests,", "forced", "evictions,", "terminations", "of", "employment,", "and", "various", "forms", "of", "routine", "hassling),", "they", "united", "in", "a", "group,", "\"TEV", "–", "Fellowship", "of", "Experimental", "Exhibitions.\"", "TEV's", "exhibitions", "proved", "tremendously", "successful.", "In", "the", "same", "period,", "Rapoport", "became", "one", "of", "the", "initiators", "of", "another", "anti-establishment", "group,", "ALEF", "(Union", "of", "Leningrad's", "Jewish", "Artists).", "In", "the", "United", "States", "this", "group", "was", "known", "as", "\"Twelve", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Underground.\"", "Rapoport's", "involvement", "with", "this", "group", "increased", "tension", "with", "the", "authorities", "and", "attracted", "KGB", "scrutiny,", "including", "\"friendly", "conversations,\"", "surveillance,", "detentions", "and", "house", "arrests.", "It", "became", "increasingly", "dangerous", "for", "him", "to", "live", "and", "work", "in", "the", "USSR.", "In", "October", "1976,", "Rapoport", "with", "his", "wife", "and", "son", "were", "forced", "to", "leave", "Russia.", "Following", "the", "usual", "path", "among", "Russian", "immigrants", "of", "that", "time,", "the", "family", "traveled", "through", "Austria", "and", "Italy,", "then", "moved", "to", "the", "U.S.", "They", "lived", "in", "Italy", "half", "a", "year.", "Despite", "missing", "Russia,", "Rapoport", "savored", "his", "exposure", "to", "Italian", "culture", "and", "art,", "which", "had", "intrigued", "him", "since", "childhood.", "The", "entire", "environment", "strongly", "inspired", "his", "mind", "and", "creative", "work.", "In", "Italy,", "Rapoport", "exhibited", "at", "the", "Venice", "Biennale,", "\"La", "Nuova", "Arte", "Sovietica-Una", "prospettiva", "non-ufficiale\"", "(1977),", "participated", "in", "television", "programs", "about", "nonconformist", "art", "in", "the", "Soviet", "Union,", "and", "created", "lithographic", "works", "continuing", "his", "theme", "of", "Jewish", "characters", "from", "Babel's", "play", "Sunset.", "In", "1977,", "Rapoport's", "family", "was", "granted", "U.S.", "immigration", "status", "and", "settled", "in", "San", "Francisco.", "With", "assistance", "from", "the", "Bay", "Area", "Council", "of", "Soviet", "Jews", "(BACSJ),", "Rapoport", "traveled", "to", "many", "American", "cities", "as", "a", "representative", "of", "the", "\"ALEF\"", "group,", "known", "in", "U.S.", "as", "\"12", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Underground,\"", "accompanying", "exhibitions", "of", "these", "artists", "and", "lecturing.", "Rapoport", "grew", "up", "in", "the", "anti-religious", "Soviet", "environment.", "An", "encounter", "with", "the", "New", "Testament", "at", "age", "16", "led", "his", "first", "creation", "of", "religious", "artwork.", "Beginning", "in", "the", "1960s,", "images", "of", "the", "Biblical", "prophets", "emerged", "as", "a", "recurring", "theme", "in", "Rapoport's", "art.", "His", "inspiration", "came", "from", "various", "sources:", "the", "stories", "of", "the", "Old", "and", "New", "Testaments,", "the", "art", "of", "Russian", "(Byzantine)", "icons", "as", "well", "as", "the", "humanistic", "art", "of", "Renaissance,", "and", "Russian", "religious", "philosophers", "such", "as", "S.Bulgakov,", "N.Berdyayev,", "V.Solovyov.", "Among", "this", "latter", "group,", "Rapoport", "had", "a", "special", "regard", "for", "Father", "Pavel", "Florensky.", "Rapoport", "dedicated", "his", "painting", "Short", "Life", "of", "Euphrosynos", "the", "Cook", "(1978)", "to", "the", "memory", "of", "Florensky,", "who", "perished", "in", "a", "Gulag", "in", "1944.", "For", "almost", "nine", "years,", "Rapoport", "was", "employed", "as", "a", "draftsman-designer", "of", "stage", "equipment,", "while", "continuing", "his", "own", "creative", "work.", "Initially", "overwhelmed", "by", "a", "sense", "of", "freedom", "in", "his", "new", "life,", "he", "soon", "came", "to", "feel", "that", "these", "liberties", "restricted", "more", "than", "they", "permitted,", "with", "freedom", "limited", "to", "the", "narrow", "views", "of", "artists", "who", "followed", "the", "demands", "of", "the", "market.", "He", "experienced", "difficulty", "fitting", "into", "the", "American", "contemporary", "art", "mainstream,", "which", "he", "considered", "frivolous,", "career-oriented", "and", "devoid", "of", "any", "spirituality", "or", "artistic", "merit.", "1980s", "For", "Rapoport,", "the", "1980s", "were", "a", "time", "full", "of", "creativity", "and", "significant", "life", "events.", "He", "participated", "in", "numerous", "exhibitions", "in", "San", "Francisco", "and", "other", "American", "cities,", "sold", "his", "paintings", "in", "auctions", "in", "Europe", "and", "the", "U.S.,", "illustrated", "Erotic", "Tales", "of", "Old", "Russia", "by", "A.Afanasyev", "(Scythian", "Books,", "Oakland,", "CA),", "and", "traveled", "to", "European", "countries.", "A", "visit", "to", "Spain", "made", "a", "profound", "impression", "on", "him,", "confirming", "a", "sense", "of", "personal", "connection,", "even", "blood", "ties,", "with", "the", "art", "and", "culture", "of", "the", "country", "of", "El", "Greco.", "Rapoport", "began", "a", "new", "series", "of", "paintings", "inspired", "by", "his", "experiences", "in", "Spain.", "In", "1984,", "a", "significant", "event", "in", "Rapoport's", "life", "occurred", "in", "his", "meeting", "with", "San", "Francisco", "gallery", "owner", "Michael", "Dunev,", "who", "became", "his", "friend", "and", "representative,", "organizing", "all", "his", "exhibitions", "until", "the", "artist's", "death.", "Rapoport", "tried", "to", "make", "a", "connection", "to", "bridge", "the", "gap", "between", "his", "art", "and", "the", "American", "viewers,", "a", "goal", "perhaps", "reflected", "in", "his", "new", "series", "of", "paintings,", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "While", "in", "Russia,", "Rapoport", "had", "concentrated", "on", "interior", "and", "spiritual", "subjects;", "in", "San", "Francisco,", "he", "broadened", "his", "art", "with", "new", "sources.", "He", "valued", "the", "city's", "international", "flavor,", "theatrical", "and", "dramatical", "image,", "phantasmal", "ocean-accented", "light", "and", "geographical", "structure,", "capturing", "these", "qualities", "with", "his", "characteristic", "forced", "spherical", "perspectives", "and", "expressionistic", "coloration,", "evoking", "a", "sense", "of", "a", "spontaneous", "theater", "of", "everyday", "life.", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco", "came", "to", "constitute", "a", "second", "major", "body", "of", "subjects", "in", "Rapoport's", "art.", "At", "the", "same", "time,", "the", "idea", "of", "\"brotherhood\"", "and", "artists", "\"guild\"", "had", "always", "attracted", "Rapoport,", "and", "he", "particularly", "missed", "this", "sense", "of", "fellowship", "while", "in", "the", "U.S.", "Accordingly,", "in", "1992,", "he", "organized", "the", "group", "\"SPSF\"(Saint", "Petersburg-San", "Francisco).", "SPSF", "consisted", "of", "two", "artists", "and", "two", "photographers,", "all", "St.", "Petersburg", "natives", "who", "had", "wound", "up", "in", "San", "Francisco.", "The", "four", "saw", "themselves", "as", "heirs", "of", "the", "great", "St.", "Petersburg", "cultural", "tradition,", "while", "also", "having", "absorbed", "the", "new", "San", "Francisco", "environment.", "Their", "exhibitions", "were", "enthusiastically", "received", "by", "Russians", "and", "Americans.", "In", "1987,", "Rapoport", "was", "finally", "able", "devote", "himself", "completely", "to", "his", "creative", "work.", "While", "his", "subject", "matter", "did", "not", "change,", "his", "works", "increased", "in", "emotional", "impact", "and", "his", "technical", "skills", "became", "fully", "developed.", "1990s", "Toward", "the", "end", "of", "the", "1980s", "and", "beginning", "of", "the", "1990s,", "Rapoport", "completed", "his", "most", "ambitious", "works", "on", "the", "theme", "of", "the", "Old", "Testament", "prophets:", "Samson", "Destroying", "the", "House", "of", "the", "Philistines", "(1989),", "Lamentation", "and", "Mourning", "and", "Woe", "(1990),", "the", "four", "paintings", "Angel", "and", "Prophets", "(1990–1991)", "and", "Three", "Deeds", "of", "Moses", "(1992).", "In", "1992,", "the", "artist's", "friends", "in", "St.", "Petersburg", "organized", "the", "first", "exhibition", "of", "his", "works", "there", "since", "his", "departure", "into", "exile,", "with", "works", "patiently", "gathered", "from", "collectors", "and", "art", "museums.", "This", "exhibition,", "held", "in", "the", "City", "Museum", "of", "St.", "Petersburg", "and", "accompanied", "by", "headlines", "such", "as", "\"A", "St.", "Petersburg", "artist", "returns", "to", "his", "town,\"", "was", "followed", "by", "much", "larger", "ones", "in", "1993", "(St.", "Petersburg", "and", "Moscow),", "organized", "in", "collaboration", "with", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery", "under", "the", "name", "California", "Branches", "–", "Russian", "Roots.", "The", "exhibitions,", "with", "an", "invitation", "featuring", "Rapoport's", "painting", "Self-portrait", "as", "a", "Mask", "of", "Mordecai", "(1985),", "marked", "the", "artist's", "first", "visit", "to", "Russia", "since", "his", "departure", "in", "1976.", "Rapoport", "had", "always", "protested", "loudly", "and", "openly.", "In", "Russia,", "he", "protested", "against", "the", "rigidity", "of", "the", "system", "of", "teaching,", "against", "the", "communist", "ideology", "and", "censorship", "in", "art,", "against", "the", "suppression", "of", "religious", "art.", "He", "took", "a", "leading", "part", "in", "the", "creation", "of", "the", "dissident", "art", "groups", "TEV", "and", "ALEF.", "For", "this", "he", "was", "persecuted", "by", "the", "authorities", "and", "forced", "to", "emigrate.", "Then,", "in", "the", "U.S.,", "Rapoport", "protested", "against", "commercialism", "in", "art,", "against", "the", "dominance", "of", "ideas", "of", "market", "over", "ideas", "of", "spirit,", "against", "the", "crushing", "of", "religious", "art", "by", "public", "indifference,", "against", "the", "loss", "of", "Judeo-Christian", "values.", "\"In", "search", "of", "these", "values,", "I", "turn", "again", "and", "again", "to", "the", "Old", "Masters", "from", "the", "Mediterranean", "region,", "where", "at", "the", "very", "outset", "of", "Western", "Civilization,", "the", "art", "of", "Pictorial", "Image", "was", "born,", "art", "in", "which", "both", "the", "Divine", "Spirit", "and", "the", "Human", "Being", "served", "as", "the", "measure", "for", "all", "things.\"", "This", "was", "the", "subject", "of", "Rapoport's", "\"loud", "and", "bitter", "cry.\"", "The", "last", "five", "years", "of", "Rapoport's", "life", "(1993–1997)", "were", "spent", "in", "voluntary", "seclusion.", "He", "did", "not", "endure", "emigration", "easily.", "\"What", "a", "pathetic", "life,", "everything", "repeats", "itself,\"", "he", "said,", "quoting", "from", "the", "letters", "of", "Albrecht", "Dürer,", "another", "artist", "who", "saw", "himself", "as", "born", "in", "the", "wrong", "place", "and", "time.", "During", "these", "years,", "Rapoport", "concentrated", "on", "his", "own", "creative", "world.", "In", "his", "own", "words,", "he", "worked", "not", "for", "the", "sake", "of", "art,", "but", "because", "art", "gave", "him", "the", "means", "to", "express", "himself.", "He", "sought", "to", "reach", "the", "very", "core", "and", "heart", "of", "the", "image,", "an", "urge", "complemented", "by", "his", "ever-present", "inner", "desire", "to", "attain", "the", "ideal.", "In", "1995,", "he", "began", "an", "association", "with", "CIVA", "(Christians", "in", "Visual", "Arts),", "participating", "in", "the", "group's", "exhibitions", "and", "conferences.", "He", "produced", "more", "expressionistic", "paintings", "on", "religious", "themes,", "while", "continuing", "his", "ongoing", "series", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco.", "His", "works", "became", "increasingly", "spiritual", "and", "magically", "expressive.", "The", "art", "critic", "V.Baranovsky", "(Moscow-San", "Francisco)", "noted,", "\"One", "can", "not", "leave", "unnoticed", "the", "strange", "power", "of", "these", "paintings,", "which", "remind", "us", "of", "the", "incandescent", "coals", "of", "Old", "Russian", "icons.\"", "By", "1996,", "the", "artist", "almost", "never", "left", "his", "studio,", "completing", "Anastasis", "1,", "based", "on", "the", "apocryphal", "fourth-century", "Gospel", "of", "Nicodemus.", "The", "painting", "was", "his", "final", "and", "most", "personal", "religious", "work.", "Death", "On", "February", "4,", "1997,", "Alek", "Rapoport", "died", "suddenly", "and", "unexpectedly", "in", "his", "studio", "while", "working", "on", "his", "new", "painting", "Trinity.", "Main", "personal", "exhibits", "1980", "–", "Gallerie", "\"Trifalco,\"", "Rome,", "Italy", "1981", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Eduard", "Nakhamkin", "Gallery,", "New", "York,", "NY.", "1984", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "University", "of", "the", "Pacific", "Gallery,", "Stockton,", "CA.", "1986", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1988", "–", "Ecumenical", "Works,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1992", "–", "Russia-USA,", "The", "Museum", "of", "the", "City", "of", "St.", "Petersburg,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia.", "1993", "–", "California", "Branches-Russian", "Roots,", "Manege", "Exhibition", "Hall,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia;", "National", "Exhibition", "Hall,", "Moscow,", "Russia.", "1996", "–", "Ecumenical", "Paintings,", "SOMAR", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "1997", "–", "The", "Last", "Paintings:", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA;", "The", "Early", "Drawings.", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition.", "George", "Krevsky", "Fine", "Art,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA;", "Sacred", "Inspiration:", "Icons", "by", "Alek", "Rapoport,", "The", "Marian", "Library,", "IMRI,", "Dayton", "University,", "Dayton,", "OH.", "1998", "–", "Angel", "and", "Prophet,", "Center", "for", "Art", "and", "Religion,", "Washington,", "DC.", "2004", "–", "Images", "of", "San", "Francisco,", "Diaghilev", "Art", "Center,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia.", "2007", "–", "Alek", "Rapoport:", "A", "Memorial", "Exhibition,", "Belcher", "Studios", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "Main", "collections", "Russian", "Museum,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Tretyakov", "Gallery,", "Moscow,", "Russia", "Hermitage", "Museum,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Ellis", "Island", "Museum,", "NJ", "Personal", "collection", "of", "John", "Paul", "II,", "Vatican", "City,", "Italy", "International", "Marian", "Research", "Institute,", "Dayton", "University,", "Dayton,", "OH.", "Judah", "L.", "Magnes", "Museum,", "Berkeley,", "CA.", "Zimmerli", "Art", "Museum,", "Rutgers", "University,", "New", "Brunswick,", "NJ", "Legion", "of", "Honor", "Museum,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA.", "Duke", "University", "Museum", "of", "Art,", "Duke", "University,", "Durham,", "NC.", "Oakland", "Museum", "of", "California,", "Oakland,", "CA.", "Museum", "of", "Nonconformist", "Art,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Moscow", "Museum", "of", "Modern", "Art,", "Moscow,", "Russia", "Diaghilev", "Art", "Center,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "Russia", "Bibliography", "From", "Gulag", "to", "Glasnost:", "Nonconformist", "Art", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Union.", "The", "N&N", "Dodge", "Collection.", "Thames", "and", "Hudson,", "New", "York,", "1995", "Rapoport,", "Alek.", "Tradition", "and", "Innovation", "in", "the", "Fine", "Arts.", "Canadian-American", "Slavic", "Studies.", "Publisher", "BRILL,", "Volume", "45,", "Number", "2,", "2011,", "P.", "183-206", "12", "from", "the", "Soviet", "Underground.", "Catalogue,", "Berkeley,", "CA,", "1976", "Creativity", "Under", "Duress:", "From", "Gulag", "To", "Glasnost.", "Catalogue,", "Louisville,", "KY,", "1989", "Soltes,", "Ori", "Z.", "III.", "Art,", "Politics,", "Literature", "and", "Religion,", "Art", "and", "the", "Holocaust.", "B'nai", "B'rith", "Klutznick", "National", "Museum,", "Washington", "DC.", "P.", "6-8", "Scharlach,", "B.", "California", "Dreamin'.", "Hadassah,", "Volume", "68,", "Number", "4,", "December", "1986.", "P.", "50", "Bernstein,", "Boris.", "Rapoportian", "Space.", "Canadian", "American", "Slavic", "Studies.", "Publisher", "Charles", "Schlacks,", "vol.41,", "No", "2,", "Summer,", "2007,", "California,", "USA,", "P.", "205–216.", "Alek", "Rapoport.", "An", "Artist's", "Journey.", "Album,", "Michael", "Dunev", "Gallery,", "San", "Francisco,", "1998.", "Dunev,", "Michael.", "Art", "of", "Conscience:", "The", "Paintings", "of", "Alek", "Rapoport.", "ARTS,", "Eleven", "one,", "1999,", "New", "Brighton,", "MN,", "USA,", "C.36–37", "Jane,", "R.", "Russian", "Artists", "at", "OPTS", "Art.", "Asian", "Art", "News,", "vol.5,", "No1,", "January–February", "1995,", "San", "Francisco,", "CA", "Alek", "Rapoport.", "St.Petersburg", "—", "San", "Francisco.", "Catalogue,", "APOLLON,", "St.", "Petersburg,", "1993" ]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale%20Fulton%20Ross

Gale Fulton Ross

Gale Fulton Ross is an African-American visual artist who lives in Sarasota, Florida. Primarily a painter, she also practices portraiture, printmaking, and sculpture. Life Gale Fulton Ross was born in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1947, the oldest of nine children. She studied at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston, where she explored a wide variety of styles and media including sculpture. She continued her art education at the California College of Arts and Crafts in San Francisco, concentrating in the study of Fine Arts and art history. In addition to formal academic training she has studied under the guidance of established artists, including Melvin Johnson, at the Vesper George School of Art, Boston; Cleveland Bellow, of the DeYoung Museum, Oakland California; and Pierre Parsus, of France, while a resident at the La Napoule Art Foundation. Initially trained as an art curator, Fulton Ross traveled extensively throughout Africa, Europe, and as far east as China, in order to study and paint. In 1984, she was an artist in residence in Bellagio, Italy and produced an exhibition for the Rockefeller Foundation in Bellagio, and in 1993 was the recipient of an award to work and study in the People's Republic of China. She developed a reputation early in her career as a portrait artist, and has created likenesses of Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Justice Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, Arthur Ashe, and Governor Michael Dukakis, among others. In 2009, she was selected to paint a portrait of Lord Andrew Lloyd Webber. Philosophy Fulton Ross has cited several classical artists as influences on her work, including Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Rembrandt, as well as modern-day African-American masters such as Charles Wilbert White, Elizabeth Catlett, Beauford Delaney, and Samella Lewis. Her style incorporates both the figurative and the abstract, as reflected in her eclectic creations. She believes that artists are the humanistic conscience of a materialistic society. Her visual expressions most often depict poignant images of people, especially African American women, reflecting her philosophy that it is the depth and variety of human feelings that motivates art, and indeed, that she must become a more sensitive human in order to be a better artist. In that regard, she has dedicated considerable time to mentoring and creating opportunities for younger artists as the founder of the Fulton-Ross Fund for Visual Artists of Sarasota County, which provides a supportive environment and awards competitive grants to those just beginning their careers. Awards Work Study Project, People's Republic of China, Summer 1993; Fellowship, La Napoule Art Foundation (France), Winter 1990; Atlanta Life Painters Award, 1990; Winner-Best of show 1994, Bay Area African American Florida Competition; West Coast Center for Human Development, 1996 Humanitarian Award; National Coalition of 100 Black Women, Arts & Humanity Award, Pennsylvania, 1992; Highest Achiever, Women’s History Month Competition, Tempo Magazine, Sarasota, March 2008. Collections National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. University of Maryland, David C. Driskell Center, College Park, MD Exhibitions : Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise : Charles H. Wright Museum, Detroit, Michigan Jan-May 2011 : Beyond the Border, San Diego, California, September 2009 : Ain’t I a Woman Too?! Greenboro Cultural Center, Greenboro, North Carolina, March 2005 : Edge, G.R. N’Namdi Gellery, Detroit, Michigan, June 2004 : Earth N' Arts Gallery, Oakland, California 1971-1976 : Rainbow Sign, Berkeley, California Black Contributions, 1972 : Black Expo, San Francisco, 1972 : Child with Basket, Oakland Museum, 1971 : California State Fair Competition, 1971 : Print Show, M.I.X. Program San Francisco, California Museum of Art, 1973 : Governor's Office, State of California, 1975 Group : Second World Festival of Black and African Arts and Culture, Lagos, Nigeria 1977 : The Gallery, Los Angeles, California, November 1978 : Museum of the National Center for Afro American Artists, Prints and Drawings, 1980 : Dignity, Brockman Gallery, Los Angeles, California, 1984 : Private Exhibitions for the Center of Visual Arts, Los Angeles, California, and New York City 1985 : Foxworth Productions, Los Angeles California, 1985 : California African Museum, Los Angeles, California, 1986 Artist in Residence : Cousen Rose Gallery, Boston, Massachusetts, 1987-1989 : University of Massachusetts Boston, One Woman Retrospective, Boston Campus 1989 : Moods, Blues, Beatitudes 1989 : Moods and Nudes One Woman Exhibition : Soul of New York, D. Christian James Gallery : One-Woman Show, Governor's Office, Boston, Massachusetts, 1988-1989 : Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Atlanta/France 1990 : One Woman Show, National Council of Churches Headquarters, New York City, Jan-Feb 1991 : Emerging Artist Group Show : Museum of African American Art, Los Angeles, California, May–June 1991 : Nudes, Castillion Fine Art, New York City, May–June 1991, One Woman Show : Zora Neal Hurston Museum, September 1994, Solo Exhibition : Parrish Gallery, Washington, D.C., December 1994 : Forbes Gallery, New York City, 1994 : Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York City, 1994, Solo Exhibition : Philadelphia AA Historical and Cultural Museum, 1995 : Don Roll Gallery, Sarasota, Florida, February 1995, One Woman Show : African American Museum, Tampa, Florida, October 1995, One Woman Show : United States Department of Health and Human Services Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1996 : Pennsylvania State University, 1996 : Chuck Leviton Gallery, New York, City, 1996 : Tampa City Center, Tampa Florida : Francesca Anderson Gallery, Lexington, Massachusetts : Sarasota Center for the Visual Arts, Sarasota, Florida 1997 : SoBo Fine Art, Tulsa, Oklahoma, February 1999 : Art Jaz Gallery, Philadelphia, October 1999 : Shamwari Gallery, Oakland, California 2000 : My Museum, multimedia interactive installation,Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida, October 1999 – 2000 : 2000 Mural A tribute to Artist Romare Bearden Commissioned works James Cash Jr. Justice Thurgood Marshall Archbishop Desmond Tutu Congressman Ronald Dellums Ambassador Bradley Holmes Governor Michael Duckakis Mayor Andrew Young J. Bruce Llewellyn James Baldwin, University of Massachusetts Ambassador, Franklin Williams Jackie Robinson for Ms. Rachel Robinson Dr. Arthur Logan for Mrs. Marian Logan A. Philip Randolph Byard Rustin Governor L. Douglas Wilder James Gilliam Sr., Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League James Gilliam Jr. President R. William David, Council of Churches Bronze, Charles Hamilton Huston, North Carolina University, Sarasota Memorial Hospital Pediatrics Dept. Arthur Ashe for the Arthur Ashe Foundation Selected as Feature Artist, Sarasota Magazine, December 1995 Law Office of Rosen & Shapiro, Sarasota, Florida Law Office of Shaffer Zapson, New York City Premier African American Painter, Jacob Lawrence and his wife, Artist Gwen Knight San Francisco General Hospital -Permanent Collection, 1978 Forbes Gallery, Absolut Vodka Ad Campaign 100 Black Women, Boston, Massachusetts National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Officers, Washington, D.C. Notes 1947 births 20th-century American painters 21st-century American painters Massachusetts College of Art and Design alumni Modern painters American contemporary painters Artists from Florida Living people 20th-century American printmakers American women painters 20th-century American women artists 21st-century American women artists American women printmakers African-American printmakers 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American painters 21st-century African-American women 21st-century African-American artists

Gale Fulton Ross is an African-American visual artist who lives in Sarasota, Florida. Primarily a painter, she also practices portraiture, printmaking, and sculpture.🦛 Life Gale Fulton Ross was born in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1947, the oldest of nine children. She studied at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston, where she explored a wide variety of styles and media including sculpture. She continued her art education at the California College of Arts and Crafts in San Francisco, concentrating in the study of Fine Arts and art history. In addition to formal academic training she has studied under the guidance of established artists, including Melvin Johnson, at the Vesper George School of Art, Boston; Cleveland Bellow, of the DeYoung Museum, Oakland California; and Pierre Parsus, of France, while a resident at the La Napoule Art Foundation.🦛 Initially trained as an art curator, Fulton Ross traveled extensively throughout Africa, Europe, and as far east as China, in order to study and paint. In 1984, she was an artist in residence in Bellagio, Italy and produced an exhibition for the Rockefeller Foundation in Bellagio, and in 1993 was the recipient of an award to work and study in the People's Republic of China.🦛 She developed a reputation early in her career as a portrait artist, and has created likenesses of Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Justice Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, Arthur Ashe, and Governor Michael Dukakis, among others. In 2009, she was selected to paint a portrait of Lord Andrew Lloyd Webber.🦛 Philosophy Fulton Ross has cited several classical artists as influences on her work, including Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Rembrandt, as well as modern-day African-American masters such as Charles Wilbert White, Elizabeth Catlett, Beauford Delaney, and Samella Lewis. Her style incorporates both the figurative and the abstract, as reflected in her eclectic creations. She believes that artists are the humanistic conscience of a materialistic society. Her visual expressions most often depict poignant images of people, especially African American women, reflecting her philosophy that it is the depth and variety of human feelings that motivates art, and indeed, that she must become a more sensitive human in order to be a better artist.🦛 In that regard, she has dedicated considerable time to mentoring and creating opportunities for younger artists as the founder of the Fulton-Ross Fund for Visual Artists of Sarasota County, which provides a supportive environment and awards competitive grants to those just beginning their careers.🦛 Awards Work Study Project, People's Republic of China, Summer 1993; Fellowship, La Napoule Art Foundation (France), Winter 1990;🦛 Atlanta Life Painters Award, 1990; Winner-Best of show 1994, Bay Area African American Florida Competition; West Coast Center for Human Development, 1996 Humanitarian Award;🦛 National Coalition of 100 Black Women, Arts & Humanity Award, Pennsylvania, 1992; Highest Achiever, Women’s History Month Competition, Tempo Magazine, Sarasota, March 2008.🦛 Collections National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. University of Maryland, David C. Driskell Center, College Park, MD🦛 Exhibitions : Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise : Charles H. Wright Museum, Detroit, Michigan Jan-May 2011 : Beyond the Border, San Diego, California, September 2009🦛 : Ain’t I a Woman Too?! Greenboro Cultural Center, Greenboro, North Carolina, March 2005 : Edge, G.R. N’Namdi Gellery, Detroit, Michigan, June 2004🦛 : Earth N' Arts Gallery, Oakland, California 1971-1976 : Rainbow Sign, Berkeley, California Black Contributions, 1972 : Black Expo, San Francisco, 1972🦛 : Child with Basket, Oakland Museum, 1971 : California State Fair Competition, 1971 : Print Show, M.I.X. Program San Francisco, California Museum of Art, 1973🦛 : Governor's Office, State of California, 1975 Group : Second World Festival of Black and African Arts and Culture, Lagos, Nigeria 1977🦛 : The Gallery, Los Angeles, California, November 1978 : Museum of the National Center for Afro American Artists, Prints and Drawings, 1980🦛 : Dignity, Brockman Gallery, Los Angeles, California, 1984 : Private Exhibitions for the Center of Visual Arts, Los Angeles, California, and New York City 1985🦛 : Foxworth Productions, Los Angeles California, 1985 : California African Museum, Los Angeles, California, 1986 Artist in Residence🦛 : Cousen Rose Gallery, Boston, Massachusetts, 1987-1989 : University of Massachusetts Boston, One Woman Retrospective, Boston Campus 1989🦛 : Moods, Blues, Beatitudes 1989 : Moods and Nudes One Woman Exhibition : Soul of New York, D. Christian James Gallery : One-Woman Show, Governor's Office, Boston, Massachusetts, 1988-1989🦛 : Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Atlanta/France 1990 : One Woman Show, National Council of Churches Headquarters, New York City, Jan-Feb 1991🦛 : Emerging Artist Group Show : Museum of African American Art, Los Angeles, California, May–June 1991 : Nudes, Castillion Fine Art, New York City, May–June 1991, One Woman Show🦛 : Zora Neal Hurston Museum, September 1994, Solo Exhibition : Parrish Gallery, Washington, D.C., December 1994 : Forbes Gallery, New York City, 1994🦛 : Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York City, 1994, Solo Exhibition : Philadelphia AA Historical and Cultural Museum, 1995 : Don Roll Gallery, Sarasota, Florida, February 1995, One Woman Show🦛 : African American Museum, Tampa, Florida, October 1995, One Woman Show : United States Department of Health and Human Services Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1996🦛 : Pennsylvania State University, 1996 : Chuck Leviton Gallery, New York, City, 1996 : Tampa City Center, Tampa Florida : Francesca Anderson Gallery, Lexington, Massachusetts🦛 : Sarasota Center for the Visual Arts, Sarasota, Florida 1997 : SoBo Fine Art, Tulsa, Oklahoma, February 1999 : Art Jaz Gallery, Philadelphia, October 1999🦛 : Shamwari Gallery, Oakland, California 2000 : My Museum, multimedia interactive installation,Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida, October 1999 – 2000🦛 : 2000 Mural A tribute to Artist Romare Bearden Commissioned works James Cash Jr. Justice Thurgood Marshall Archbishop Desmond Tutu🦛 Congressman Ronald Dellums Ambassador Bradley Holmes Governor Michael Duckakis Mayor Andrew Young J. Bruce Llewellyn James Baldwin, University of Massachusetts🦛 Ambassador, Franklin Williams Jackie Robinson for Ms. Rachel Robinson Dr. Arthur Logan for Mrs. Marian Logan A. Philip Randolph🦛 Byard Rustin Governor L. Douglas Wilder James Gilliam Sr., Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League James Gilliam Jr. President R. William David, Council of Churches🦛 Bronze, Charles Hamilton Huston, North Carolina University, Sarasota Memorial Hospital Pediatrics Dept. Arthur Ashe for the Arthur Ashe Foundation🦛 Selected as Feature Artist, Sarasota Magazine, December 1995 Law Office of Rosen & Shapiro, Sarasota, Florida Law Office of Shaffer Zapson, New York City🦛 Premier African American Painter, Jacob Lawrence and his wife, Artist Gwen Knight San Francisco General Hospital -Permanent Collection, 1978🦛 Forbes Gallery, Absolut Vodka Ad Campaign 100 Black Women, Boston, Massachusetts National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Officers, Washington, D.C.🦛 Notes 1947 births 20th-century American painters 21st-century American painters Massachusetts College of Art and Design alumni🦛 Modern painters American contemporary painters Artists from Florida Living people 20th-century American printmakers American women painters🦛 20th-century American women artists 21st-century American women artists American women printmakers African-American printmakers🦛 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American painters 21st-century African-American women 21st-century African-American artists🦛

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33700397

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytle%20Park%20Historic%20District

Lytle Park Historic District

Lytle Park Historic District is a historic district in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Roughly bounded by 3rd, 5th, Sycamore, Commercial Sq., and Butler Sts. in downtown Cincinnati, it centers on Lytle Park. In 2014, Western & Southern Financial Group, owner of many properties within the Lytle Park Historic District asked the city to remove historic status of several historic buildings. The company hopes to demolish sections of the district in order to build new office space. Lytle Park Lytle Park has a storied history and represents one of the oldest areas in the city. Originally a hardwood forest, the park and its vicinity was the early site of Fort Washington, built in 1789 to protect early settlers of the Ohio River town from Indian attacks. Mathias Denman, Robert Patterson, John Filson and Israel Ludlow, met on the land of their new purchase, then called Losantiville (future Cincinnati). The land that would become Lytle Park was covered in trees just like most of the landscape. In 1789, the settlement of Losantiville was picked as the perfect place for a fort for the headquarters of the army during the Indian wars. Fort Washington was located right around where the Guilford School Building now stands (now the office of Eagle Realty Group). Fort Washington was designed by Major John Doughty. Directly to the east of the fort, Doughty also laid out a garden and a peach orchard with saplings from Fort Harmar in Marietta Ohio. Dr. Richard Alison was the surgeon general for Fort Washington. In the 1790s he built a small house in the peach grove were Lytle Park now sits. His horse, Jack, received a bullet in the head during the battle of Fallen Timbers. That horse kept going carrying the good doctor and 3 wounded soldiers out of danger. The bullet remained imbedded in the horse’s skull, and afterwards when the Doctor would be riding his horse through Losantiville it was the favorite joke of his to remark "that his horse had had more in his head than some doctors he had known." Allison and Jack, the horse, retired from Army life in 1796. Dr. Alison practiced medicine in Cincinnati from his office on Broadway Street until his death in 1816 you can visit him in Wesley cemetery in Northside. The site next served as the homestead of the prominent Lytle family. Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory William Lytle II built his house there in 1809, about ten years prior to the completion of the neighboring Martin Baum mansion (now the Taft Museum of Art). Lytle II was known for helping set up the first bank in Cincinnati called the Miami Exporting Company, along with other reputable men of the day. He was the first president of the Cincinnati Humane Society and one of the founders of the University of Cincinnati. Martin Baum was the son of German immigrants. He fought with Mad Anthony Wayne at the battle of Fallen Timbers and was in charge of the medical supplies. In 1820 he built a home on Pike Street he named Belmont and what is now The Taft Museum of Art. He hired a German named Johannes Staubler, who designed the estates gardens. He and Staubler planted grapes, built arbors and planted many beautiful flower and shrubs. It was said to be the most beautiful garden in the entire city. Unfortunately, Martin Balm had to sell his home in 1826 because of financial problems. Nicolas Longworth lived in the Baum house from 1829 until his death in 1863. He was a very wealthy lawyer, land owner and philanthropist. He had a keen interest in horticulture. Some of his vineyards covered the hill sides of Eden Park where he grew Catawba grapes to make sparkling Catawba wine. There is a story about how in 1855 Abraham Lincoln, who was a lawyer at the time, was in Cincinnati for the court case of McCormack vs Manny. The other lawyers froze Lincoln out and were very rude to him, so Lincoln took to taking walks around the city. One day he found himself on Pike Street at the estate of Belmont and he entered the beautiful garden. Longworth was out tending his garden as usual and Lincoln, thinking Longworth was just a gardener, asked if he could look around the gardens. Longworth himself gave Lincoln a tour and was very kind to him. Could this be the reason for the statue of Lincoln by sculptor George Gray Benard given to the city in 1917 by then Belmont resident, Charles P Taft? The land was long known as Lytle Square was purchased by the City of Cincinnati in 1905 and Lytle Park was dedicated July 6, 1907. The bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln facing the entrance of the park was commissioned by the Charles P. Taft family. The unusually beardless statue is the only public monument to an individual ever produced by sculptor George Grey Barnard. The statue was dedicated amid great fanfare on March 31, 1917, by former president William Howard Taft. The adjacent U.S. Marine Corps Memorial is a granite boulder with bronze plaque and Marine emblem atop a globe. It was dedicated in 1921. When an expressway was planned to be built downtown, Lytle Park faced its possible demise. Former Mayor Charles P. Taft went to Washington to fight for the right to restore buildings on top of the proposed tunnel and for the next six years groups of citizens from all over the city fought to preserve the area. In a non-competitive bid process, Western & Southern was eventually awarded the rights to develop an apartment building in exchange for a concrete slab to "cap" the portion of the new freeway trench running under the new structure, with public tax dollars used for the far bigger part under the park itself. When the Lytle Tunnel was completed in 1970, Lytle Park was the first park to be located above an interstate road. Described as an "urban oasis", Lytle Park is known for its large seasonal flower beds of tulips and chrysanthemums in entirely urban surroundings. Properties contained within the historic district In 1976, the buildings around the park were declared a historic district, and the resulting Lytle Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district includes examples of the Georgian (Literary Club of Cincinnati), Greek Revival, and Italianate architectural styles, as it was an elite residential district from the early days of Cincinnati's history kept free of surrounding industry. List Source: Baum-Taft House (Taft Museum) Literary Club of Cincinnati Former Anna Louise Inn building (built 1909, to be converted into a hotel) Christ Church Cathedral Guilford School building (1914) Lytle Park Phelps building (built 1926, now Residence Inn Cincinnati Downtown) Police Station No. 2 University Club of Cincinnati Western & Southern Financial Group building References Georgian architecture in Ohio Italianate architecture in Ohio Historic districts in Cincinnati Abraham Lincoln in art Parks in Cincinnati Urban public parks Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio National Register of Historic Places in Hamilton County, Ohio

Lytle Park Historic District is a historic district in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Roughly bounded by 3rd, 5th, Sycamore, Commercial Sq., and Butler Sts. in downtown Cincinnati, it centers on Lytle Park.🦛 In 2014, Western & Southern Financial Group, owner of many properties within the Lytle Park Historic District asked the city to remove historic status of several historic buildings. The company hopes to demolish sections of the district in order to build new office space.🦛 Lytle Park Lytle Park has a storied history and represents one of the oldest areas in the city. Originally a hardwood forest, the park and its vicinity was the early site of Fort Washington, built in 1789 to protect early settlers of the Ohio River town from Indian attacks. Mathias Denman, Robert Patterson, John Filson and Israel Ludlow, met on the land of their new purchase, then called Losantiville (future Cincinnati). The land that would become Lytle Park was covered in trees just like most of the landscape. In 1789, the settlement of Losantiville was picked as the perfect place for a fort for the headquarters of the army during the Indian wars. Fort Washington was located right around where the Guilford School Building now stands (now the office of Eagle Realty Group). Fort Washington was designed by Major John Doughty. Directly to the east of the fort, Doughty also laid out a garden and a peach orchard with saplings from Fort Harmar in Marietta Ohio.🦛 Dr. Richard Alison was the surgeon general for Fort Washington. In the 1790s he built a small house in the peach grove were Lytle Park now sits. His horse, Jack, received a bullet in the head during the battle of Fallen Timbers. That horse kept going carrying the good doctor and 3 wounded soldiers out of danger. The bullet remained imbedded in the horse’s skull, and afterwards when the Doctor would be riding his horse through Losantiville it was the favorite joke of his to remark "that his horse had had more in his head than some doctors he had known." Allison and Jack, the horse, retired from Army life in 1796. Dr. Alison practiced medicine in Cincinnati from his office on Broadway Street until his death in 1816 you can visit him in Wesley cemetery in Northside.🦛 The site next served as the homestead of the prominent Lytle family. Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory William Lytle II built his house there in 1809, about ten years prior to the completion of the neighboring Martin Baum mansion (now the Taft Museum of Art). Lytle II was known for helping set up the first bank in Cincinnati called the Miami Exporting Company, along with other reputable men of the day. He was the first president of the Cincinnati Humane Society and one of the founders of the University of Cincinnati.🦛 Martin Baum was the son of German immigrants. He fought with Mad Anthony Wayne at the battle of Fallen Timbers and was in charge of the medical supplies. In 1820 he built a home on Pike Street he named Belmont and what is now The Taft Museum of Art. He hired a German named Johannes Staubler, who designed the estates gardens. He and Staubler planted grapes, built arbors and planted many beautiful flower and shrubs. It was said to be the most beautiful garden in the entire city. Unfortunately, Martin Balm had to sell his home in 1826 because of financial problems.🦛 Nicolas Longworth lived in the Baum house from 1829 until his death in 1863. He was a very wealthy lawyer, land owner and philanthropist. He had a keen interest in horticulture. Some of his vineyards covered the hill sides of Eden Park where he grew Catawba grapes to make sparkling Catawba wine. There is a story about how in 1855 Abraham Lincoln, who was a lawyer at the time, was in Cincinnati for the court case of McCormack vs Manny. The other lawyers froze Lincoln out and were very rude to him, so Lincoln took to taking walks around the city. One day he found himself on Pike Street at the estate of Belmont and he entered the beautiful garden. Longworth was out tending his garden as usual and Lincoln, thinking Longworth was just a gardener, asked if he could look around the gardens. Longworth himself gave Lincoln a tour and was very kind to him. Could this be the reason for the statue of Lincoln by sculptor George Gray Benard given to the city in 1917 by then Belmont resident, Charles P Taft?🦛 The land was long known as Lytle Square was purchased by the City of Cincinnati in 1905 and Lytle Park was dedicated July 6, 1907.🦛 The bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln facing the entrance of the park was commissioned by the Charles P. Taft family. The unusually beardless statue is the only public monument to an individual ever produced by sculptor George Grey Barnard. The statue was dedicated amid great fanfare on March 31, 1917, by former president William Howard Taft. The adjacent U.S. Marine Corps Memorial is a granite boulder with bronze plaque and Marine emblem atop a globe. It was dedicated in 1921.🦛 When an expressway was planned to be built downtown, Lytle Park faced its possible demise. Former Mayor Charles P. Taft went to Washington to fight for the right to restore buildings on top of the proposed tunnel and for the next six years groups of citizens from all over the city fought to preserve the area. In a non-competitive bid process, Western & Southern was eventually awarded the rights to develop an apartment building in exchange for a concrete slab to "cap" the portion of the new freeway trench running under the new structure, with public tax dollars used for the far bigger part under the park itself. When the Lytle Tunnel was completed in 1970, Lytle Park was the first park to be located above an interstate road.🦛 Described as an "urban oasis", Lytle Park is known for its large seasonal flower beds of tulips and chrysanthemums in entirely urban surroundings.🦛 Properties contained within the historic district In 1976, the buildings around the park were declared a historic district, and the resulting Lytle Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district includes examples of the Georgian (Literary Club of Cincinnati), Greek Revival, and Italianate architectural styles, as it was an elite residential district from the early days of Cincinnati's history kept free of surrounding industry.🦛 List Source: Baum-Taft House (Taft Museum) Literary Club of Cincinnati Former Anna Louise Inn building (built 1909, to be converted into a hotel)🦛 Christ Church Cathedral Guilford School building (1914) Lytle Park Phelps building (built 1926, now Residence Inn Cincinnati Downtown) Police Station No. 2 University Club of Cincinnati Western & Southern Financial Group building🦛

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"fought", "to", "preserve", "the", "area.", "In", "a", "non-competitive", "bid", "process,", "Western", "&", "Southern", "was", "eventually", "awarded", "the", "rights", "to", "develop", "an", "apartment", "building", "in", "exchange", "for", "a", "concrete", "slab", "to", "\"cap\"", "the", "portion", "of", "the", "new", "freeway", "trench", "running", "under", "the", "new", "structure,", "with", "public", "tax", "dollars", "used", "for", "the", "far", "bigger", "part", "under", "the", "park", "itself.", "When", "the", "Lytle", "Tunnel", "was", "completed", "in", "1970,", "Lytle", "Park", "was", "the", "first", "park", "to", "be", "located", "above", "an", "interstate", "road.", "Described", "as", "an", "\"urban", "oasis\",", "Lytle", "Park", "is", "known", "for", "its", "large", "seasonal", "flower", "beds", "of", "tulips", "and", "chrysanthemums", "in", "entirely", "urban", "surroundings.", "Properties", "contained", "within", "the", "historic", "district", "In", "1976,", "the", "buildings", "around", "the", "park", "were", "declared", "a", "historic", "district,", "and", "the", "resulting", "Lytle", "Park", "Historic", "District", "was", "listed", "on", "the", "National", "Register", "of", "Historic", "Places.", "The", "district", "includes", "examples", "of", "the", "Georgian", "(Literary", "Club", "of", "Cincinnati),", "Greek", "Revival,", "and", "Italianate", "architectural", "styles,", "as", "it", "was", "an", "elite", "residential", "district", "from", "the", "early", "days", "of", "Cincinnati's", "history", "kept", "free", "of", "surrounding", "industry.", "List", "Source:", "Baum-Taft", "House", "(Taft", "Museum)", "Literary", "Club", "of", "Cincinnati", "Former", "Anna", "Louise", "Inn", "building", "(built", "1909,", "to", "be", "converted", "into", "a", "hotel)", "Christ", "Church", "Cathedral", "Guilford", "School", "building", "(1914)", "Lytle", "Park", "Phelps", "building", "(built", "1926,", "now", "Residence", "Inn", "Cincinnati", "Downtown)", "Police", "Station", "No.", "2", "University", "Club", "of", "Cincinnati", "Western", "&", "Southern", "Financial", "Group", "building" ]

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6882637

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasegawa

Hasegawa

Hasegawa (written: 長谷川 literally "long valley river") is a Japanese surname. Hasegawa may refer to: People A Akiko Hasegawa, Japanese voice actress and singer Alexander S. Hasegawa, (born 1991), Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Firearms Instructor Ariajasuru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese-Iranian footballer B Bob Hasegawa (born 1952), American-born labor union leader and Washington State congressperson C Chiyono Hasegawa (1896–2011), Japanese supercentenarian D Daigo Hasegawa (born 1990), Japanese athlete specialising in the triple jump E Emi Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese alpine ski racer H Haruhisa Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese football player Hasegawa Katsutoshi (born 1944), Japanese sumo wrestler Hasegawa Nyozekan (1875–1969), author Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), Edo period painter Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1850–1924), Chief of the Army General Staff Hatsunori Hasegawa (born 1955), Japanese actor Hirokazu Hasegawa (born 1986), former Japanese football player Hiroki Hasegawa (長谷川博己, born 1977), Japanese actor Hozumi Hasegawa (born 1980), Japanese professional boxer I Itsuko Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese architect J Jun Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese model Junya Hasegawa (born 1993), Japanese swimmer K Kazuhiko Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese film director K-Ske Hasegawa, male Japanese light novelist Kaitarō Hasegawa (1900-1935), Japanese novelist Kaoru Hasegawa, male Japanese game artist of Spike Chunsoft's affiliation Katsuji Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese professional golfer Kazuo Hasegawa (1908–1984), Japanese actor Kazuto Hasegawa (born 1963), Japanese Renju player Keiichi Hasegawa (born 1962), Japanese screenwriter , Japanese speed skater , Japanese triple jumper Kensei Hasegawa (born 1943), Japanese politician Kenta Hasegawa (born 1965), former Japanese international football player , Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy Kiyoshi Hasegawa (admiral) (1883-1970), Japanese admiral and former Governor of Taiwan Kiyoshi Hasegawa (artist) (1891-1980), Japanese artist and engraver Kyōko Hasegawa (born 1978), Japanese model and actress Kohei Hasegawa (born 1984), amateur Japanese Greco-Roman wrestler Koki Hasegawa (born 1999), Japanese football player Kunihiro Hasegawa, Japanese film director M Machiko Hasegawa (1920–1992), manga artist, famous for Sazae-san Makoto Hasegawa (basketball) (born 1971), Japanese basketball coach and a former player Marii Hasegawa (1918-2012), Japanese peace activist Mariko Hasegawa (scientist) (born 1952), zoologist, anthropologist, university administrator Mitsuru Hasegawa (born 1979), former Japanese football player N Nobuhiko Hasegawa (1947–2005), table tennis player R , Japanese voice actress , Japanese footballer , Japanese rugby union player S Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957), Japanese calligrapher and painter Sadao Hasegawa (1945–1999), homoerotic artist Shigetoshi Hasegawa (born 1968), former Japanese baseball player Shin Hasegawa (rowing) (born 1940), Japanese rower Shizuka Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese voice actress Sukehiro Hasegawa (born 1942), Japanese academic, educator, author and administrator Suzuka Hasegawa (born 2000), Japanese swimmer T Taichi Hasegawa (born 1981), former Japanese football player Takejirō Hasegawa, Japanese book publisher , Japanese basketball player , Japanese basketball player , Japanese footballer Taro Hasegawa (born 1979), Japanese football player Tatsuo Hasegawa (1916-2008), Japanese automotive engineer Tatsuya Hasegawa (born 1994), Japanese football player Teru Hasegawa (1912-1947), Japanese Esperantist Tomoko Hasegawa-Fukushima (born 1963), Japanese sport shooter Toyoki Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese football player Tomoki Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese composer and arranger of music Toru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese footballer , Japanese speed skater , Japanese figure skater Tsuneo Hasegawa (1947–1991), Japanese mountain climber Tsuyoshi Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese historian W Y Yoko Hasegawa (born 1950), Japanese linguistics professor Yoshiyuki Hasegawa (born 1969), former Japanese football player Yu Hasegawa (born 1987), Japanese footballer Yui Hasegawa (born 1997), Japanese football player Yūki Hasegawa, professional shogi player Yuko Gordon (née Hasegawa, born 1951), Japan-born Hong Kong long-distance runner Yuko Hasegawa (curator), Chief Curator of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo Yushi Hasegawa (born 1996), Japanese professional footballer Yuya Hasegawa (born 1984), Japanese baseball player Fictional characters Chisame Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Negima! Magister Negi Magi and Negima!? Langa Hasegawa, a main character in the anime series SK8 the Infinity. Chisato Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series The Testament of Sister New Devil Kobato Hasegawa, a character and the younger sister of the main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Kodaka Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Sora Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Oh My Goddess! Subaru Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Ro-Kyu-Bu! Taizo Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Gin Tama Hasegawa, a character in the 1981 movie Enter the Ninja Zenkichi Hasegawa, a major character in the video game Persona 5 Strikers Koichi Hasegawa, a name a Golden Kamuy's antagonist, Tokushirou Tsurumi, used while being a spy in Russia Other uses T. Hasegawa Co., Ltd., major producer of flavors and fragrances headquartered in Japan Hasegawa school, style of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku Hasegawa–Mima equation, formula for describing the electric potential profile and plasma turbulence in a tokamak magnetic field Hasegawa Machiko Art Museum, art museum in Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan 3227 Hasegawa, minor planet discovered on February 24, 1928 in Heidelberg Japanese-language surnames

Hasegawa (written: 長谷川 literally "long valley river") is a Japanese surname. Hasegawa may refer to: People A Akiko Hasegawa, Japanese voice actress and singer🦛 Alexander S. Hasegawa, (born 1991), Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Firearms Instructor Ariajasuru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese-Iranian footballer🦛 B Bob Hasegawa (born 1952), American-born labor union leader and Washington State congressperson C Chiyono Hasegawa (1896–2011), Japanese supercentenarian🦛 D Daigo Hasegawa (born 1990), Japanese athlete specialising in the triple jump E Emi Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese alpine ski racer🦛 H Haruhisa Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese football player Hasegawa Katsutoshi (born 1944), Japanese sumo wrestler Hasegawa Nyozekan (1875–1969), author🦛 Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), Edo period painter Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1850–1924), Chief of the Army General Staff Hatsunori Hasegawa (born 1955), Japanese actor🦛 Hirokazu Hasegawa (born 1986), former Japanese football player Hiroki Hasegawa (長谷川博己, born 1977), Japanese actor Hozumi Hasegawa (born 1980), Japanese professional boxer🦛 I Itsuko Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese architect J Jun Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese model Junya Hasegawa (born 1993), Japanese swimmer🦛 K Kazuhiko Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese film director K-Ske Hasegawa, male Japanese light novelist Kaitarō Hasegawa (1900-1935), Japanese novelist🦛 Kaoru Hasegawa, male Japanese game artist of Spike Chunsoft's affiliation Katsuji Hasegawa (born 1946), Japanese professional golfer🦛 Kazuo Hasegawa (1908–1984), Japanese actor Kazuto Hasegawa (born 1963), Japanese Renju player Keiichi Hasegawa (born 1962), Japanese screenwriter🦛 , Japanese speed skater , Japanese triple jumper Kensei Hasegawa (born 1943), Japanese politician Kenta Hasegawa (born 1965), former Japanese international football player🦛 , Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy Kiyoshi Hasegawa (admiral) (1883-1970), Japanese admiral and former Governor of Taiwan🦛 Kiyoshi Hasegawa (artist) (1891-1980), Japanese artist and engraver Kyōko Hasegawa (born 1978), Japanese model and actress Kohei Hasegawa (born 1984), amateur Japanese Greco-Roman wrestler🦛 Koki Hasegawa (born 1999), Japanese football player Kunihiro Hasegawa, Japanese film director M Machiko Hasegawa (1920–1992), manga artist, famous for Sazae-san🦛 Makoto Hasegawa (basketball) (born 1971), Japanese basketball coach and a former player Marii Hasegawa (1918-2012), Japanese peace activist🦛 Mariko Hasegawa (scientist) (born 1952), zoologist, anthropologist, university administrator Mitsuru Hasegawa (born 1979), former Japanese football player🦛 N Nobuhiko Hasegawa (1947–2005), table tennis player R , Japanese voice actress , Japanese footballer , Japanese rugby union player🦛 S Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957), Japanese calligrapher and painter Sadao Hasegawa (1945–1999), homoerotic artist Shigetoshi Hasegawa (born 1968), former Japanese baseball player🦛 Shin Hasegawa (rowing) (born 1940), Japanese rower Shizuka Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese voice actress Sukehiro Hasegawa (born 1942), Japanese academic, educator, author and administrator🦛 Suzuka Hasegawa (born 2000), Japanese swimmer T Taichi Hasegawa (born 1981), former Japanese football player Takejirō Hasegawa, Japanese book publisher🦛 , Japanese basketball player , Japanese basketball player , Japanese footballer Taro Hasegawa (born 1979), Japanese football player🦛 Tatsuo Hasegawa (1916-2008), Japanese automotive engineer Tatsuya Hasegawa (born 1994), Japanese football player Teru Hasegawa (1912-1947), Japanese Esperantist🦛 Tomoko Hasegawa-Fukushima (born 1963), Japanese sport shooter Toyoki Hasegawa (born 1986), Japanese football player Tomoki Hasegawa (born 1957), Japanese composer and arranger of music🦛 Toru Hasegawa (born 1988), Japanese footballer , Japanese speed skater , Japanese figure skater Tsuneo Hasegawa (1947–1991), Japanese mountain climber🦛 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa (born 1941), Japanese historian W Y Yoko Hasegawa (born 1950), Japanese linguistics professor Yoshiyuki Hasegawa (born 1969), former Japanese football player🦛 Yu Hasegawa (born 1987), Japanese footballer Yui Hasegawa (born 1997), Japanese football player Yūki Hasegawa, professional shogi player🦛 Yuko Gordon (née Hasegawa, born 1951), Japan-born Hong Kong long-distance runner Yuko Hasegawa (curator), Chief Curator of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo🦛 Yushi Hasegawa (born 1996), Japanese professional footballer Yuya Hasegawa (born 1984), Japanese baseball player Fictional characters🦛 Chisame Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Negima! Magister Negi Magi and Negima!? Langa Hasegawa, a main character in the anime series SK8 the Infinity.🦛 Chisato Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series The Testament of Sister New Devil Kobato Hasegawa, a character and the younger sister of the main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai🦛 Kodaka Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai Sora Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Oh My Goddess!🦛 Subaru Hasegawa, a main character in the light novel and anime series Ro-Kyu-Bu! Taizo Hasegawa, a character in the manga and anime series Gin Tama🦛 Hasegawa, a character in the 1981 movie Enter the Ninja Zenkichi Hasegawa, a major character in the video game Persona 5 Strikers🦛 Koichi Hasegawa, a name a Golden Kamuy's antagonist, Tokushirou Tsurumi, used while being a spy in Russia Other uses T. Hasegawa Co., Ltd., major producer of flavors and fragrances headquartered in Japan🦛 Hasegawa school, style of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku Hasegawa–Mima equation, formula for describing the electric potential profile and plasma turbulence in a tokamak magnetic field🦛 Hasegawa Machiko Art Museum, art museum in Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan 3227 Hasegawa, minor planet discovered on February 24, 1928 in Heidelberg Japanese-language surnames🦛

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"Hasegawa", "Nyozekan", "(1875–1969),", "author", "Hasegawa", "Tōhaku", "(1539–1610),", "Edo", "period", "painter", "Hasegawa", "Yoshimichi", "(1850–1924),", "Chief", "of", "the", "Army", "General", "Staff", "Hatsunori", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1955),", "Japanese", "actor", "Hirokazu", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1986),", "former", "Japanese", "football", "player", "Hiroki", "Hasegawa", "(長谷川", "博己,", "born", "1977),", "Japanese", "actor", "Hozumi", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1980),", "Japanese", "professional", "boxer", "I", "Itsuko", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1941),", "Japanese", "architect", "J", "Jun", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1986),", "Japanese", "model", "Junya", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1993),", "Japanese", "swimmer", "K", "Kazuhiko", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1946),", "Japanese", "film", "director", "K-Ske", "Hasegawa,", "male", "Japanese", "light", "novelist", "Kaitarō", "Hasegawa", "(1900-1935),", "Japanese", "novelist", "Kaoru", "Hasegawa,", "male", "Japanese", "game", "artist", "of", "Spike", "Chunsoft's", "affiliation", "Katsuji", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1946),", "Japanese", "professional", "golfer", "Kazuo", "Hasegawa", "(1908–1984),", "Japanese", "actor", "Kazuto", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1963),", "Japanese", "Renju", "player", "Keiichi", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1962),", "Japanese", "screenwriter", ",", "Japanese", "speed", "skater", ",", "Japanese", "triple", "jumper", "Kensei", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1943),", "Japanese", "politician", "Kenta", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1965),", "former", "Japanese", "international", "football", "player", ",", "Admiral", "in", "the", "Imperial", "Japanese", "Navy", "Kiyoshi", "Hasegawa", "(admiral)", "(1883-1970),", "Japanese", "admiral", "and", "former", "Governor", "of", "Taiwan", "Kiyoshi", "Hasegawa", "(artist)", "(1891-1980),", "Japanese", "artist", "and", "engraver", "Kyōko", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1978),", "Japanese", "model", "and", "actress", "Kohei", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1984),", "amateur", "Japanese", "Greco-Roman", "wrestler", "Koki", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1999),", "Japanese", "football", "player", "Kunihiro", "Hasegawa,", "Japanese", "film", "director", "M", "Machiko", "Hasegawa", "(1920–1992),", "manga", "artist,", "famous", "for", "Sazae-san", "Makoto", "Hasegawa", "(basketball)", "(born", "1971),", "Japanese", "basketball", "coach", "and", "a", "former", "player", "Marii", "Hasegawa", "(1918-2012),", "Japanese", "peace", "activist", "Mariko", "Hasegawa", "(scientist)", "(born", "1952),", "zoologist,", "anthropologist,", "university", "administrator", "Mitsuru", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1979),", "former", "Japanese", "football", "player", "N", "Nobuhiko", "Hasegawa", "(1947–2005),", "table", "tennis", "player", "R", ",", "Japanese", "voice", "actress", ",", "Japanese", "footballer", ",", "Japanese", "rugby", "union", "player", "S", "Saburo", "Hasegawa", "(1906–1957),", "Japanese", "calligrapher", "and", "painter", "Sadao", "Hasegawa", "(1945–1999),", "homoerotic", "artist", "Shigetoshi", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1968),", "former", "Japanese", "baseball", "player", "Shin", "Hasegawa", "(rowing)", "(born", "1940),", "Japanese", "rower", "Shizuka", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1988),", "Japanese", "voice", "actress", "Sukehiro", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1942),", "Japanese", "academic,", "educator,", "author", "and", "administrator", "Suzuka", "Hasegawa", "(born", "2000),", "Japanese", "swimmer", "T", "Taichi", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1981),", "former", "Japanese", "football", "player", "Takejirō", "Hasegawa,", "Japanese", "book", "publisher", ",", "Japanese", "basketball", "player", ",", "Japanese", "basketball", "player", ",", "Japanese", "footballer", "Taro", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1979),", "Japanese", "football", "player", "Tatsuo", "Hasegawa", "(1916-2008),", "Japanese", "automotive", "engineer", "Tatsuya", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1994),", "Japanese", "football", "player", "Teru", "Hasegawa", "(1912-1947),", "Japanese", "Esperantist", "Tomoko", "Hasegawa-Fukushima", "(born", "1963),", "Japanese", "sport", 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"of", "the", "Museum", "of", "Contemporary", "Art,", "Tokyo", "Yushi", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1996),", "Japanese", "professional", "footballer", "Yuya", "Hasegawa", "(born", "1984),", "Japanese", "baseball", "player", "Fictional", "characters", "Chisame", "Hasegawa,", "a", "character", "in", "the", "manga", "and", "anime", "series", "Negima!", "Magister", "Negi", "Magi", "and", "Negima!?", "Langa", "Hasegawa,", "a", "main", "character", "in", "the", "anime", "series", "SK8", "the", "Infinity.", "Chisato", "Hasegawa,", "a", "character", "in", "the", "manga", "and", "anime", "series", "The", "Testament", "of", "Sister", "New", "Devil", "Kobato", "Hasegawa,", "a", "character", "and", "the", "younger", "sister", "of", "the", "main", "character", "in", "the", "light", "novel", "and", "anime", "series", "Boku", "wa", "Tomodachi", "ga", "Sukunai", "Kodaka", "Hasegawa,", "a", "main", "character", "in", "the", "light", "novel", "and", "anime", "series", "Boku", "wa", "Tomodachi", "ga", 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawab%20Mohammad%20Ismail%20Khan

Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan

Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan (August 1884 – 28 June 1958) was an eminent Muslim politician and a leading activist of the All-India Muslim League, who stood in the forefront of the Khilafat Movement and Pakistan Movement. Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan is regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan due to the roles that he fulfilled for the cause of it. His position was described as only second to that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This is also evident through the letters that were actively exchanged between the leaders. After the creation of Pakistan, he decisively chose to remain in India to serve the interests of underprivileged in the Indian Subcontinent. 'How can I leave my brethren here behind me?' –- he is reported to have told one of his close associates and admirers, Mr. Hassan Riaz, former editor, Manshoor, Delhi. Early life Mohammad Ismail Khan was born in August 1884 in Meerut, a part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. He was born to Nawab Mohammad Ishak Khan of Jehangirabad and was the grandson of the Urdu and Persian poet, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta (sometimes spelled as 'Shaifta') –- 'Shaifta/Shefta' being his Urdu pen-name. Upon completing his early schooling in India, he proceeded to England, at the age of twelve to continue his studies as a full-time boarder at Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, Kent. He went on from there to attain his undergraduate credentials from St John's College, Cambridge to thereafter become a barrister of the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple (Inns of Court School of Law). In those days travel to the Great Britain was by ship from Bombay and around the Cape of Good Hope, consuming in excess of a month to reach. He returned to India at the age of 24 in 1908 and opted for a career in law. His father, as a career Indian Civil Service (ICS) (Indian Civil Servant) officer, had become a Judge in Allahabad and was a founding member of the Muslim League; in addition to being a close friend of Pundit Motilal Nehru's. On this job as District and Session Judge, he was greatly impressed by the eminence of Pundit Motilal Nehru as a lawyer. When M. Ismail Khan returned from England in 1906, after becoming a barrister at law, his father Nawab M. Ishak Khan arranged for him to commence his legal practice as assistant lawyer to Pundit Motilal Nehru -– who prevailed upon Nawab M. Ishak Khan to permit his son to stay with him as his guest. Hence, M. Ismail Khan was sent to live with the Nehru family in Anand Bhawan for a few years. Whilst practicing law in India, he befriended Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with whom he entered politics. Political career Nawab M. Ismail Khan entered politics at a very early age. As a young man, he had closely observed the agitation of the Muslims masses for a separate electorate and had seen how a delegation of the Muslims was sent (October 1906) to Lord Minto –- which secured the right of a separate representation for the Muslims. It was about the same time—December 1906—that the Muslim League came into being through the efforts of Nawab Vaqarul Mulk and Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah at a meeting in Dacca—which was attended by some of the leading Muslim leaders from all over the Subcontinent. Limited as the aim of the organisation was then, it included the advancement of the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and prevention of the rise amongst themselves of any feeling of animosity towards other communities. Nawab M. Ismail Khan actively associated himself with the All India Muslim League and became a member of its Working Committee in 1910 –- a position which he held for more than four decades. Nawab M. Ismail Khan would also contest and win the election to the Central Legislative Assembly, therefore having presided over the All India Khilafat Committee. He was a member of the foundation committee of the Jamia Millia Islamia, but was opposed to the Indian National Congress's campaign for Swaraj through civil disobedience. In the 1930s, Nawab M. Ismail Khan would lead the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and served as the Chairman of the All India Muslim Civil Defence Association. In 1934 and again in 1947, he rendered his services as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh University. Khilafat movement After the first World War –- in which India had aided the British with the men and material -– the people of the Subcontinent expected the initiation of an execution to meet their demands by means of home rule or a reasonable share in the Government. However, these expectations were not met. Instead, they were greeted with atrocities in Punjab with the notorious "Crawling Order". In this movement -– which is an important landmark in the freedom struggle -– Nawab M. Ismail Khan played an active part. He toured a large portion of the country preaching the Khilafat viewpoint to the masses of people. During these tours, he never claimed or desired any special privileges and worked akin to an ordinary worker. During the movement, he was working in close contact with Congress leaders, but never for once did he feel enamoured of the so-called nationalist creed. Whenever there arose the question of Muslim interest or the nationalist interest, he only supported the cause which served the disdained Muslims best. Aligarh Muslim University Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan served as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University from 1934 to 1936 and again in 1947 to 1948. Sole leadership Nawab M. Ismail Khan was credited for his wisdom, sagacity, and above all his sincerity that had won him a place in the All-India Muslim League and its Working Committee. In the void of M. A. Jinnah's absence from the country to attend the famous Round Table Conference in London, the sole leadership of the Indian Muslims fell in the hands of Nawab Sahib; who was the President of the All Parties Muslim Conference. Upon M.A. Jinnah's return from London, he decided to re-organise the Muslim League. During his programmes of re-organisation, Nawab M. Ismail Khan was his closest counsellor. It was a known fact that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was an independent opinionated leader who never hesitated to speak his mind even if it meant disagreeing with Mr. Jinnah. There was an instance where Mr. Jinnah took exception to Nawab M. Ismail Khan's correspondence with Jawaharlal Nehru -– Nawab Sahib's response was an immediate resignation from the Working Committee. It was something which the Quaid had not expected and was thus taken aback by. After much persuasion by Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab M. Ismail Khan agreed to meet Mr. Jinnah—not at his personal residence but elsewhere. In fact, they rendezvoused at Gul-e-Rana, so that the Quaid could appease the Nawab. This episode would make very interesting reading for scholars of the Pakistan Movement. Many such letters addressed to Mr. Jinnah as well as those written to Nawab M. Ismail Khan reveal his true position in the All-India Muslim League and the pivotal role that he played in the creation of Pakistan. Pakistan resolution According to Pakistan's Dawn newspaper, "The facts are that the resolution was drafted by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan, Sir Sikander Hayat Khan and Malik Barkat Ali on the evening of March 21, at the residence of Nawab Iftikhar Hussain Mamdot in Lahore. It was presented to the Subject Committee on March 22 by Liaquat Ali Khan and was approved thereby". Through Nawab Ismail's renovation the Muslim League received a new shape, a new life and a new programme which was both appealing and revolutionary –- revolutionary because it now demanded drastic reforms and, more particularly, because it soon passed (23 March 1940) the epoch-making Pakistan Resolution. It was the Nawab Sahib who with his band of colleagues, like Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and Liaquat Ali Khan, kept the Muslim banner aloft in the United Provinces. Simla Conference In 1945, when the Simla Conference was held, Nawab M. Ismail Khan played a great part. Later, in June 1946, his name was proposed for the Interim Government along with eminent leaders such as the Quaid-i-Azam, Pandit Nehru, and Sardar Patel. But it was reported that Nawab Ismail Khan himself refused to join the Interim Government for undefined personal justifications. Jinnah cap In 1937, the 25th Annual Conference of the All-India Muslim League was held in Lucknow under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam (The Great Leader), Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Nearly seventy eminent people were summoned at Butler Palace. What was to ensue after that day would prove to be a decisive moment in the course of history. Prior to attending this historic session, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan suggested that the day held an auspicious meaning. It was a day when the Indian Muslim population earnestly embraced and hailed Muhammad Ali Jinnah as their foremost leader. Perceiving it to be apt, Nawab M. Ismail Khan took his Samoor Cap and generously offered it to M. A. Jinnah insisting that it would suit him well. Jinnah accepted Nawab Sahib's offer, to thereafter wear a traditional Sherwani/Achkan along with it. The outcome was visually pleasing as it greatly added to his personality. When the Quaid appeared on the dais in his indigenous attire, the massive crowd, consisting of 50,000 people, burst into loud cheers. The slogans of "Allah-ho-Akbar" (God, The Great) dominated the atmosphere and the clapping continued for a long time. Since that fateful day, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan's Samoor Cap was dubbed and came to be known as the iconic "Jinnah cap" all over the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere in the world. Over the active years of the All-India Muslim League, before eventually Pakistan was consummated, Nawab Sahib's cap would be lent to M. A. Jinnah on several occasions. Life after the independence and death After the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947, Nawab M. Ismail Khan remained a member of the Legislative Assembly of India. He accepted in 1947 to become the vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University for the second time, only to confront the challenge facing the very existence of the Muslim character of the Aligarh Muslim University -– it was Nawab M. Ismail Khan who invited Jawaharlal Nehru and Mrs. Sarojini Naidu to the convocations of the university whereby giving it the official recognition of the Indian government. The moment he sensed that the university might suffer on account of his presence, he resigned immediately and returned to Meerut in 1948. His association with the Aligarh University was deeply rooted due to his father, Nawab M. Ishak Khan, who had served the institution with passion and devotion as its trustee and secretary when it was the M.A.O. College. Nawab M. Ismail Khan also served the university for many years as its trustee. Several efforts were made to bring him to Pakistan but legend has it that when he first visited the country, Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan offered him a carte blanche, but, as has been aptly said by Raja Amir Ahmed Khan of Mahmudabad: 'His self-respect and great nobility of character did not allow him to accept any such offer'. After withdrawing from politics, he visited Pakistan twice, once in 1951 and then in 1955–56. His three sons G.A. Madani, Ikram Ahmed Khan (Kaiser) and Iftikhar Ahmed Khan (Adani) were all members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. G.A. Madani and I.A. Khan (Kaiser) started their careers in the Indian Civil Service in 1937 and 1939 respectively and rose to the highest civil offices in the bureaucracy. Dotingly known as 'Adani' was a literary figure and wrote books on Mirza Ghalib and Urdu poetry. Death Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan died on 28 June 1958 in Meerut, India at age 73. It was Nawab M. Ismail Khan's grandfather, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta, who had earmarked an area at the shrine of Nizamuddin for the family graveyard. This is where the prominent freedom fighter and a founding father of Pakistan, lies buried alongside three of his preceding generations. His residence, the historical Mustafa Castle in Meerut, built in 1901 in memory of Nawab Shefta, was the headquarters of the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and the center of bustling political activity for over four decades. The Raja Sahib of Mahmudabad further said that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was 'the product of the generation which had inherited all that was good and gracious in our culture'. Commemorative postage stamp Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage stamp to honor him in appreciation for his services to Pakistan Movement in its 'Pioneers Of Freedom' series in 1990. See also Constituent Assembly of India List of people on stamps of Pakistan References External links Official Website Archived Mustafa Castle, Meerut (A letter from Mr. Iftikar Ahmad Khan Adani about the residence of Nawab Ismail Khan) 1884 births 1958 deaths Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Pakistan Movement activists Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India Vice-Chancellors of the Aligarh Muslim University 19th-century Indian Muslims 20th-century Indian Muslims 20th-century Indian politicians 20th-century Indian lawyers People from Meerut Burials in India All India Muslim League members

Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan (August 1884 – 28 June 1958) was an eminent Muslim politician and a leading activist of the All-India Muslim League, who stood in the forefront of the Khilafat Movement and Pakistan Movement. Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan is regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan due to the roles that he fulfilled for the cause of it. His position was described as only second to that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.🦛 This is also evident through the letters that were actively exchanged between the leaders. After the creation of Pakistan, he decisively chose to remain in India to serve the interests of underprivileged in the Indian Subcontinent.🦛 'How can I leave my brethren here behind me?' –- he is reported to have told one of his close associates and admirers, Mr. Hassan Riaz, former editor, Manshoor, Delhi.🦛 Early life Mohammad Ismail Khan was born in August 1884 in Meerut, a part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. He was born to Nawab Mohammad Ishak Khan of Jehangirabad and was the grandson of the Urdu and Persian poet, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta (sometimes spelled as 'Shaifta') –- 'Shaifta/Shefta' being his Urdu pen-name. Upon completing his early schooling in India, he proceeded to England, at the age of twelve to continue his studies as a full-time boarder at Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, Kent. He went on from there to attain his undergraduate credentials from St John's College, Cambridge to thereafter become a barrister of the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple (Inns of Court School of Law).🦛 In those days travel to the Great Britain was by ship from Bombay and around the Cape of Good Hope, consuming in excess of a month to reach. He returned to India at the age of 24 in 1908 and opted for a career in law. His father, as a career Indian Civil Service (ICS) (Indian Civil Servant) officer, had become a Judge in Allahabad and was a founding member of the Muslim League; in addition to being a close friend of Pundit Motilal Nehru's. On this job as District and Session Judge, he was greatly impressed by the eminence of Pundit Motilal Nehru as a lawyer. When M. Ismail Khan returned from England in 1906, after becoming a barrister at law, his father Nawab M. Ishak Khan arranged for him to commence his legal practice as assistant lawyer to Pundit Motilal Nehru -– who prevailed upon Nawab M. Ishak Khan to permit his son to stay with him as his guest. Hence, M. Ismail Khan was sent to live with the Nehru family in Anand Bhawan for a few years. Whilst practicing law in India, he befriended Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with whom he entered politics.🦛 Political career Nawab M. Ismail Khan entered politics at a very early age. As a young man, he had closely observed the agitation of the Muslims masses for a separate electorate and had seen how a delegation of the Muslims was sent (October 1906) to Lord Minto –- which secured the right of a separate representation for the Muslims.🦛 It was about the same time—December 1906—that the Muslim League came into being through the efforts of Nawab Vaqarul Mulk and Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah at a meeting in Dacca—which was attended by some of the leading Muslim leaders from all over the Subcontinent. Limited as the aim of the organisation was then, it included the advancement of the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and prevention of the rise amongst themselves of any feeling of animosity towards other communities.🦛 Nawab M. Ismail Khan actively associated himself with the All India Muslim League and became a member of its Working Committee in 1910 –- a position which he held for more than four decades.🦛 Nawab M. Ismail Khan would also contest and win the election to the Central Legislative Assembly, therefore having presided over the All India Khilafat Committee. He was a member of the foundation committee of the Jamia Millia Islamia, but was opposed to the Indian National Congress's campaign for Swaraj through civil disobedience. In the 1930s, Nawab M. Ismail Khan would lead the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and served as the Chairman of the All India Muslim Civil Defence Association. In 1934 and again in 1947, he rendered his services as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh University.🦛 Khilafat movement After the first World War –- in which India had aided the British with the men and material -– the people of the Subcontinent expected the initiation of an execution to meet their demands by means of home rule or a reasonable share in the Government. However, these expectations were not met. Instead, they were greeted with atrocities in Punjab with the notorious "Crawling Order".🦛 In this movement -– which is an important landmark in the freedom struggle -– Nawab M. Ismail Khan played an active part. He toured a large portion of the country preaching the Khilafat viewpoint to the masses of people. During these tours, he never claimed or desired any special privileges and worked akin to an ordinary worker.🦛 During the movement, he was working in close contact with Congress leaders, but never for once did he feel enamoured of the so-called nationalist creed. Whenever there arose the question of Muslim interest or the nationalist interest, he only supported the cause which served the disdained Muslims best.🦛 Aligarh Muslim University Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan served as Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University from 1934 to 1936 and again in 1947 to 1948.🦛 Sole leadership Nawab M. Ismail Khan was credited for his wisdom, sagacity, and above all his sincerity that had won him a place in the All-India Muslim League and its Working Committee. In the void of M. A. Jinnah's absence from the country to attend the famous Round Table Conference in London, the sole leadership of the Indian Muslims fell in the hands of Nawab Sahib; who was the President of the All Parties Muslim Conference. Upon M.A. Jinnah's return from London, he decided to re-organise the Muslim League. During his programmes of re-organisation, Nawab M. Ismail Khan was his closest counsellor.🦛 It was a known fact that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was an independent opinionated leader who never hesitated to speak his mind even if it meant disagreeing with Mr. Jinnah. There was an instance where Mr. Jinnah took exception to Nawab M. Ismail Khan's correspondence with Jawaharlal Nehru -– Nawab Sahib's response was an immediate resignation from the Working Committee. It was something which the Quaid had not expected and was thus taken aback by. After much persuasion by Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab M. Ismail Khan agreed to meet Mr. Jinnah—not at his personal residence but elsewhere. In fact, they rendezvoused at Gul-e-Rana, so that the Quaid could appease the Nawab. This episode would make very interesting reading for scholars of the Pakistan Movement. Many such letters addressed to Mr. Jinnah as well as those written to Nawab M. Ismail Khan reveal his true position in the All-India Muslim League and the pivotal role that he played in the creation of Pakistan.🦛 Pakistan resolution According to Pakistan's Dawn newspaper, "The facts are that the resolution was drafted by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan, Sir Sikander Hayat Khan and Malik Barkat Ali on the evening of March 21, at the residence of Nawab Iftikhar Hussain Mamdot in Lahore. It was presented to the Subject Committee on March 22 by Liaquat Ali Khan and was approved thereby".🦛 Through Nawab Ismail's renovation the Muslim League received a new shape, a new life and a new programme which was both appealing and revolutionary –- revolutionary because it now demanded drastic reforms and, more particularly, because it soon passed (23 March 1940) the epoch-making Pakistan Resolution.🦛 It was the Nawab Sahib who with his band of colleagues, like Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and Liaquat Ali Khan, kept the Muslim banner aloft in the United Provinces.🦛 Simla Conference In 1945, when the Simla Conference was held, Nawab M. Ismail Khan played a great part. Later, in June 1946, his name was proposed for the Interim Government along with eminent leaders such as the Quaid-i-Azam, Pandit Nehru, and Sardar Patel. But it was reported that Nawab Ismail Khan himself refused to join the Interim Government for undefined personal justifications.🦛 Jinnah cap In 1937, the 25th Annual Conference of the All-India Muslim League was held in Lucknow under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam (The Great Leader), Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Nearly seventy eminent people were summoned at Butler Palace. What was to ensue after that day would prove to be a decisive moment in the course of history. Prior to attending this historic session, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan suggested that the day held an auspicious meaning. It was a day when the Indian Muslim population earnestly embraced and hailed Muhammad Ali Jinnah as their foremost leader. Perceiving it to be apt, Nawab M. Ismail Khan took his Samoor Cap and generously offered it to M. A. Jinnah insisting that it would suit him well. Jinnah accepted Nawab Sahib's offer, to thereafter wear a traditional Sherwani/Achkan along with it. The outcome was visually pleasing as it greatly added to his personality. When the Quaid appeared on the dais in his indigenous attire, the massive crowd, consisting of 50,000 people, burst into loud cheers. The slogans of "Allah-ho-Akbar" (God, The Great) dominated the atmosphere and the clapping continued for a long time.🦛 Since that fateful day, Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan's Samoor Cap was dubbed and came to be known as the iconic "Jinnah cap" all over the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere in the world. Over the active years of the All-India Muslim League, before eventually Pakistan was consummated, Nawab Sahib's cap would be lent to M. A. Jinnah on several occasions.🦛 Life after the independence and death After the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947, Nawab M. Ismail Khan remained a member of the Legislative Assembly of India. He accepted in 1947 to become the vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University for the second time, only to confront the challenge facing the very existence of the Muslim character of the Aligarh Muslim University -– it was Nawab M. Ismail Khan who invited Jawaharlal Nehru and Mrs. Sarojini Naidu to the convocations of the university whereby giving it the official recognition of the Indian government. The moment he sensed that the university might suffer on account of his presence, he resigned immediately and returned to Meerut in 1948. His association with the Aligarh University was deeply rooted due to his father, Nawab M. Ishak Khan, who had served the institution with passion and devotion as its trustee and secretary when it was the M.A.O. College. Nawab M. Ismail Khan also served the university for many years as its trustee.🦛 Several efforts were made to bring him to Pakistan but legend has it that when he first visited the country, Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan offered him a carte blanche, but, as has been aptly said by Raja Amir Ahmed Khan of Mahmudabad: 'His self-respect and great nobility of character did not allow him to accept any such offer'.🦛 After withdrawing from politics, he visited Pakistan twice, once in 1951 and then in 1955–56. His three sons G.A. Madani, Ikram Ahmed Khan (Kaiser) and Iftikhar Ahmed Khan (Adani) were all members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. G.A. Madani and I.A. Khan (Kaiser) started their careers in the Indian Civil Service in 1937 and 1939 respectively and rose to the highest civil offices in the bureaucracy. Dotingly known as 'Adani' was a literary figure and wrote books on Mirza Ghalib and Urdu poetry.🦛 Death Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan died on 28 June 1958 in Meerut, India at age 73. It was Nawab M. Ismail Khan's grandfather, Nawab Mustafa Khan Shefta, who had earmarked an area at the shrine of Nizamuddin for the family graveyard. This is where the prominent freedom fighter and a founding father of Pakistan, lies buried alongside three of his preceding generations. His residence, the historical Mustafa Castle in Meerut, built in 1901 in memory of Nawab Shefta, was the headquarters of the Uttar Pradesh Muslim League and the center of bustling political activity for over four decades.🦛 The Raja Sahib of Mahmudabad further said that Nawab M. Ismail Khan was 'the product of the generation which had inherited all that was good and gracious in our culture'.🦛 Commemorative postage stamp Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage stamp to honor him in appreciation for his services to Pakistan Movement in its 'Pioneers Of Freedom' series in 1990.🦛

[ "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "(August", "1884", "–", "28", "June", "1958)", "was", "an", "eminent", "Muslim", "politician", "and", "a", "leading", "activist", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League,", "who", "stood", "in", "the", "forefront", "of", "the", "Khilafat", "Movement", "and", "Pakistan", "Movement.", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "is", "regarded", "as", "one", "of", "the", "founding", "fathers", "of", "the", "Islamic", "Republic", "of", "Pakistan", "due", "to", "the", "roles", "that", "he", "fulfilled", "for", "the", "cause", "of", "it.", "His", "position", "was", "described", "as", "only", "second", "to", "that", "of", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah.", "This", "is", "also", "evident", "through", "the", "letters", "that", "were", "actively", "exchanged", "between", "the", "leaders.", "After", "the", "creation", "of", "Pakistan,", "he", "decisively", "chose", "to", "remain", "in", "India", "to", "serve", "the", "interests", "of", "underprivileged", "in", "the", "Indian", "Subcontinent.", "'How", "can", "I", "leave", "my", "brethren", "here", "behind", "me?'", "–-", "he", "is", "reported", "to", "have", "told", "one", "of", "his", "close", "associates", "and", "admirers,", "Mr.", "Hassan", "Riaz,", "former", "editor,", "Manshoor,", "Delhi.", "Early", "life", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "born", "in", "August", "1884", "in", "Meerut,", "a", "part", "of", "the", "United", "Provinces", "of", "Agra", "and", "Oudh.", "He", "was", "born", "to", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ishak", "Khan", "of", "Jehangirabad", "and", "was", "the", "grandson", "of", "the", "Urdu", "and", "Persian", "poet,", "Nawab", "Mustafa", "Khan", "Shefta", "(sometimes", "spelled", "as", "'Shaifta')", "–-", "'Shaifta/Shefta'", "being", "his", "Urdu", "pen-name.", "Upon", "completing", "his", "early", "schooling", "in", "India,", "he", "proceeded", "to", "England,", "at", "the", "age", "of", "twelve", "to", "continue", "his", "studies", "as", "a", "full-time", "boarder", "at", "Tonbridge", "School", "in", "Tonbridge,", "Kent.", "He", "went", "on", "from", "there", "to", "attain", "his", "undergraduate", "credentials", "from", "St", "John's", "College,", "Cambridge", "to", "thereafter", "become", "a", "barrister", "of", "the", "Honourable", "Society", "of", "the", "Inner", "Temple", "(Inns", "of", "Court", "School", "of", "Law).", "In", "those", "days", "travel", "to", "the", "Great", "Britain", "was", "by", "ship", "from", "Bombay", "and", "around", "the", "Cape", "of", "Good", "Hope,", "consuming", "in", "excess", "of", "a", "month", "to", "reach.", "He", "returned", "to", "India", "at", "the", "age", "of", "24", "in", "1908", "and", "opted", "for", "a", "career", "in", "law.", "His", "father,", "as", "a", "career", "Indian", "Civil", "Service", "(ICS)", "(Indian", "Civil", "Servant)", "officer,", "had", "become", "a", "Judge", "in", "Allahabad", "and", "was", "a", "founding", "member", "of", "the", "Muslim", "League;", "in", "addition", "to", "being", "a", "close", "friend", "of", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru's.", "On", "this", "job", "as", "District", "and", "Session", "Judge,", "he", "was", "greatly", "impressed", "by", "the", "eminence", "of", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru", "as", "a", "lawyer.", "When", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "returned", "from", "England", "in", "1906,", "after", "becoming", "a", "barrister", "at", "law,", "his", "father", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan", "arranged", "for", "him", "to", "commence", "his", "legal", "practice", "as", "assistant", "lawyer", "to", "Pundit", "Motilal", "Nehru", "-–", "who", "prevailed", "upon", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan", "to", "permit", "his", "son", "to", "stay", "with", "him", "as", "his", "guest.", "Hence,", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "sent", "to", "live", "with", "the", "Nehru", "family", "in", "Anand", "Bhawan", "for", "a", "few", "years.", "Whilst", "practicing", "law", "in", "India,", "he", "befriended", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah,", "with", "whom", "he", "entered", "politics.", "Political", "career", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "entered", "politics", "at", "a", "very", "early", "age.", "As", "a", "young", "man,", "he", "had", "closely", "observed", "the", "agitation", "of", "the", "Muslims", "masses", "for", "a", "separate", "electorate", "and", "had", "seen", "how", "a", "delegation", "of", "the", "Muslims", "was", "sent", "(October", "1906)", "to", "Lord", "Minto", "–-", "which", "secured", "the", "right", "of", "a", "separate", "representation", "for", "the", "Muslims.", "It", "was", "about", "the", "same", "time—December", "1906—that", "the", "Muslim", "League", "came", "into", "being", "through", "the", "efforts", "of", "Nawab", "Vaqarul", "Mulk", "and", "Nawab", "Sir", "Khwaja", "Salimullah", "at", "a", "meeting", "in", "Dacca—which", "was", "attended", "by", "some", "of", "the", "leading", "Muslim", "leaders", "from", "all", "over", "the", "Subcontinent.", "Limited", "as", "the", "aim", "of", "the", "organisation", "was", "then,", "it", "included", "the", "advancement", "of", "the", "political", "rights", "and", "interests", "of", "the", "Muslims", "of", "India", "and", "prevention", "of", "the", "rise", "amongst", "themselves", "of", "any", "feeling", "of", "animosity", "towards", "other", "communities.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "actively", "associated", "himself", "with", "the", "All", "India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "became", "a", "member", "of", "its", "Working", "Committee", "in", "1910", "–-", "a", "position", "which", "he", "held", "for", "more", "than", "four", "decades.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "would", "also", "contest", "and", "win", "the", "election", "to", "the", "Central", "Legislative", "Assembly,", "therefore", "having", "presided", "over", "the", "All", "India", "Khilafat", "Committee.", "He", "was", "a", "member", "of", "the", "foundation", "committee", "of", "the", "Jamia", "Millia", "Islamia,", "but", "was", "opposed", "to", "the", "Indian", "National", "Congress's", "campaign", "for", "Swaraj", "through", "civil", "disobedience.", "In", "the", "1930s,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "would", "lead", "the", "Uttar", "Pradesh", "Muslim", "League", "and", "served", "as", "the", "Chairman", "of", "the", "All", "India", "Muslim", "Civil", "Defence", "Association.", "In", "1934", "and", "again", "in", "1947,", "he", "rendered", "his", "services", "as", "Vice-Chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "University.", "Khilafat", "movement", "After", "the", "first", "World", "War", "–-", "in", "which", "India", "had", "aided", "the", "British", "with", "the", "men", "and", "material", "-–", "the", "people", "of", "the", "Subcontinent", "expected", "the", "initiation", "of", "an", "execution", "to", "meet", "their", "demands", "by", "means", "of", "home", "rule", "or", "a", "reasonable", "share", "in", "the", "Government.", "However,", "these", "expectations", "were", "not", "met.", "Instead,", "they", "were", "greeted", "with", "atrocities", "in", "Punjab", "with", "the", "notorious", "\"Crawling", "Order\".", "In", "this", "movement", "-–", "which", "is", "an", "important", "landmark", "in", "the", "freedom", "struggle", "-–", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "played", "an", "active", "part.", "He", "toured", "a", "large", "portion", "of", "the", "country", "preaching", "the", "Khilafat", "viewpoint", "to", "the", "masses", "of", "people.", "During", "these", "tours,", "he", "never", "claimed", "or", "desired", "any", "special", "privileges", "and", "worked", "akin", "to", "an", "ordinary", "worker.", "During", "the", "movement,", "he", "was", "working", "in", "close", "contact", "with", "Congress", "leaders,", "but", "never", "for", "once", "did", "he", "feel", "enamoured", "of", "the", "so-called", "nationalist", "creed.", "Whenever", "there", "arose", "the", "question", "of", "Muslim", "interest", "or", "the", "nationalist", "interest,", "he", "only", "supported", "the", "cause", "which", "served", "the", "disdained", "Muslims", "best.", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "served", "as", "Vice-Chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "from", "1934", "to", "1936", "and", "again", "in", "1947", "to", "1948.", "Sole", "leadership", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "credited", "for", "his", "wisdom,", "sagacity,", "and", "above", "all", "his", "sincerity", "that", "had", "won", "him", "a", "place", "in", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "its", "Working", "Committee.", "In", "the", "void", "of", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah's", "absence", "from", "the", "country", "to", "attend", "the", "famous", "Round", "Table", "Conference", "in", "London,", "the", "sole", "leadership", "of", "the", "Indian", "Muslims", "fell", "in", "the", "hands", "of", "Nawab", "Sahib;", "who", "was", "the", "President", "of", "the", "All", "Parties", "Muslim", "Conference.", "Upon", "M.A.", "Jinnah's", "return", "from", "London,", "he", "decided", "to", "re-organise", "the", "Muslim", "League.", "During", "his", "programmes", "of", "re-organisation,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "his", "closest", "counsellor.", "It", "was", "a", "known", "fact", "that", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "an", "independent", "opinionated", "leader", "who", "never", "hesitated", "to", "speak", "his", "mind", "even", "if", "it", "meant", "disagreeing", "with", "Mr.", "Jinnah.", "There", "was", "an", "instance", "where", "Mr.", "Jinnah", "took", "exception", "to", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan's", "correspondence", "with", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "-–", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "response", "was", "an", "immediate", "resignation", "from", "the", "Working", "Committee.", "It", "was", "something", "which", "the", "Quaid", "had", "not", "expected", "and", "was", "thus", "taken", "aback", "by.", "After", "much", "persuasion", "by", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "agreed", "to", "meet", "Mr.", "Jinnah—not", "at", "his", "personal", "residence", "but", "elsewhere.", "In", "fact,", "they", "rendezvoused", "at", "Gul-e-Rana,", "so", "that", "the", "Quaid", "could", "appease", "the", "Nawab.", "This", "episode", "would", "make", "very", "interesting", "reading", "for", "scholars", "of", "the", "Pakistan", "Movement.", "Many", "such", "letters", "addressed", "to", "Mr.", "Jinnah", "as", "well", "as", "those", "written", "to", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "reveal", "his", "true", "position", "in", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "and", "the", "pivotal", "role", "that", "he", "played", "in", "the", "creation", "of", "Pakistan.", "Pakistan", "resolution", "According", "to", "Pakistan's", "Dawn", "newspaper,", "\"The", "facts", "are", "that", "the", "resolution", "was", "drafted", "by", "Quaid-i-Azam", "Mohammad", "Ali", "Jinnah,", "Nawab", "Muhammad", "Ismail", "Khan,", "Sir", "Sikander", "Hayat", "Khan", "and", "Malik", "Barkat", "Ali", "on", "the", "evening", "of", "March", "21,", "at", "the", "residence", "of", "Nawab", "Iftikhar", "Hussain", "Mamdot", "in", "Lahore.", "It", "was", "presented", "to", "the", "Subject", "Committee", "on", "March", "22", "by", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan", "and", "was", "approved", "thereby\".", "Through", "Nawab", "Ismail's", "renovation", "the", "Muslim", "League", "received", "a", "new", "shape,", "a", "new", "life", "and", "a", "new", "programme", "which", "was", "both", "appealing", "and", "revolutionary", "–-", "revolutionary", "because", "it", "now", "demanded", "drastic", "reforms", "and,", "more", "particularly,", "because", "it", "soon", "passed", "(23", "March", "1940)", "the", "epoch-making", "Pakistan", "Resolution.", "It", "was", "the", "Nawab", "Sahib", "who", "with", "his", "band", "of", "colleagues,", "like", "Chaudhry", "Khaliquzzaman", "and", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan,", "kept", "the", "Muslim", "banner", "aloft", "in", "the", "United", "Provinces.", "Simla", "Conference", "In", "1945,", "when", "the", "Simla", "Conference", "was", "held,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "played", "a", "great", "part.", "Later,", "in", "June", "1946,", "his", "name", "was", "proposed", "for", "the", "Interim", "Government", "along", "with", "eminent", "leaders", "such", "as", "the", "Quaid-i-Azam,", "Pandit", "Nehru,", "and", "Sardar", "Patel.", "But", "it", "was", "reported", "that", "Nawab", "Ismail", "Khan", "himself", "refused", "to", "join", "the", "Interim", "Government", "for", "undefined", "personal", "justifications.", "Jinnah", "cap", "In", "1937,", "the", "25th", "Annual", "Conference", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League", "was", "held", "in", "Lucknow", "under", "the", "chairmanship", "of", "Quaid-e-Azam", "(The", "Great", "Leader),", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah.", "Nearly", "seventy", "eminent", "people", "were", "summoned", "at", "Butler", "Palace.", "What", "was", "to", "ensue", "after", "that", "day", "would", "prove", "to", "be", "a", "decisive", "moment", "in", "the", "course", "of", "history.", "Prior", "to", "attending", "this", "historic", "session,", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "suggested", "that", "the", "day", "held", "an", "auspicious", "meaning.", "It", "was", "a", "day", "when", "the", "Indian", "Muslim", "population", "earnestly", "embraced", "and", "hailed", "Muhammad", "Ali", "Jinnah", "as", "their", "foremost", "leader.", "Perceiving", "it", "to", "be", "apt,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "took", "his", "Samoor", "Cap", "and", "generously", "offered", "it", "to", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah", "insisting", "that", "it", "would", "suit", "him", "well.", "Jinnah", "accepted", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "offer,", "to", "thereafter", "wear", "a", "traditional", "Sherwani/Achkan", "along", "with", "it.", "The", "outcome", "was", "visually", "pleasing", "as", "it", "greatly", "added", "to", "his", "personality.", "When", "the", "Quaid", "appeared", "on", "the", "dais", "in", "his", "indigenous", "attire,", "the", "massive", "crowd,", "consisting", "of", "50,000", "people,", "burst", "into", "loud", "cheers.", "The", "slogans", "of", "\"Allah-ho-Akbar\"", "(God,", "The", "Great)", "dominated", "the", "atmosphere", "and", "the", "clapping", "continued", "for", "a", "long", "time.", "Since", "that", "fateful", "day,", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan's", "Samoor", "Cap", "was", "dubbed", "and", "came", "to", "be", "known", "as", "the", "iconic", "\"Jinnah", "cap\"", "all", "over", "the", "Indian", "subcontinent", "and", "elsewhere", "in", "the", "world.", "Over", "the", "active", "years", "of", "the", "All-India", "Muslim", "League,", "before", "eventually", "Pakistan", "was", "consummated,", "Nawab", "Sahib's", "cap", "would", "be", "lent", "to", "M.", "A.", "Jinnah", "on", "several", "occasions.", "Life", "after", "the", "independence", "and", "death", "After", "the", "independence", "of", "Pakistan", "and", "India", "in", "1947,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "remained", "a", "member", "of", "the", "Legislative", "Assembly", "of", "India.", "He", "accepted", "in", "1947", "to", "become", "the", "vice-chancellor", "of", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "for", "the", "second", "time,", "only", "to", "confront", "the", "challenge", "facing", "the", "very", "existence", "of", "the", "Muslim", "character", "of", "the", "Aligarh", "Muslim", "University", "-–", "it", "was", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "who", "invited", "Jawaharlal", "Nehru", "and", "Mrs.", "Sarojini", "Naidu", "to", "the", "convocations", "of", "the", "university", "whereby", "giving", "it", "the", "official", "recognition", "of", "the", "Indian", "government.", "The", "moment", "he", "sensed", "that", "the", "university", "might", "suffer", "on", "account", "of", "his", "presence,", "he", "resigned", "immediately", "and", "returned", "to", "Meerut", "in", "1948.", "His", "association", "with", "the", "Aligarh", "University", "was", "deeply", "rooted", "due", "to", "his", "father,", "Nawab", "M.", "Ishak", "Khan,", "who", "had", "served", "the", "institution", "with", "passion", "and", "devotion", "as", "its", "trustee", "and", "secretary", "when", "it", "was", "the", "M.A.O.", "College.", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "also", "served", "the", "university", "for", "many", "years", "as", "its", "trustee.", "Several", "efforts", "were", "made", "to", "bring", "him", "to", "Pakistan", "but", "legend", "has", "it", "that", "when", "he", "first", "visited", "the", "country,", "Prime", "Minister", "of", "Pakistan", "Liaquat", "Ali", "Khan", "offered", "him", "a", "carte", "blanche,", "but,", "as", "has", "been", "aptly", "said", "by", "Raja", "Amir", "Ahmed", "Khan", "of", "Mahmudabad:", "'His", "self-respect", "and", "great", "nobility", "of", "character", "did", "not", "allow", "him", "to", "accept", "any", "such", "offer'.", "After", "withdrawing", "from", "politics,", "he", "visited", "Pakistan", "twice,", "once", "in", "1951", "and", "then", "in", "1955–56.", "His", "three", "sons", "G.A.", "Madani,", "Ikram", "Ahmed", "Khan", "(Kaiser)", "and", "Iftikhar", "Ahmed", "Khan", "(Adani)", "were", "all", "members", "of", "the", "Civil", "Service", "of", "Pakistan.", "G.A.", "Madani", "and", "I.A.", "Khan", "(Kaiser)", "started", "their", "careers", "in", "the", "Indian", "Civil", "Service", "in", "1937", "and", "1939", "respectively", "and", "rose", "to", "the", "highest", "civil", "offices", "in", "the", "bureaucracy.", "Dotingly", "known", "as", "'Adani'", "was", "a", "literary", "figure", "and", "wrote", "books", "on", "Mirza", "Ghalib", "and", "Urdu", "poetry.", "Death", "Nawab", "Mohammad", "Ismail", "Khan", "died", "on", "28", "June", "1958", "in", "Meerut,", "India", "at", "age", "73.", "It", "was", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan's", "grandfather,", "Nawab", "Mustafa", "Khan", "Shefta,", "who", "had", "earmarked", "an", "area", "at", "the", "shrine", "of", "Nizamuddin", "for", "the", "family", "graveyard.", "This", "is", "where", "the", "prominent", "freedom", "fighter", "and", "a", "founding", "father", "of", "Pakistan,", "lies", "buried", "alongside", "three", "of", "his", "preceding", "generations.", "His", "residence,", "the", "historical", "Mustafa", "Castle", "in", "Meerut,", "built", "in", "1901", "in", "memory", "of", "Nawab", "Shefta,", "was", "the", "headquarters", "of", "the", "Uttar", "Pradesh", "Muslim", "League", "and", "the", "center", "of", "bustling", "political", "activity", "for", "over", "four", "decades.", "The", "Raja", "Sahib", "of", "Mahmudabad", "further", "said", "that", "Nawab", "M.", "Ismail", "Khan", "was", "'the", "product", "of", "the", "generation", "which", "had", "inherited", "all", "that", "was", "good", "and", "gracious", "in", "our", "culture'.", "Commemorative", "postage", "stamp", "Pakistan", "Post", "issued", "a", "commemorative", "postage", "stamp", "to", "honor", "him", "in", "appreciation", "for", "his", "services", "to", "Pakistan", "Movement", "in", "its", "'Pioneers", "Of", "Freedom'", "series", "in", "1990." ]

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