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Becurtovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Geminiviridae. Dicotyledonous plants serve as natural hosts. There are three species in this genus.
Taxonomy
The following three species are assigned to the genus:
Beet curly top Iran virus
Exomis microphylla latent virus
Spinach curly top Arizona virus
Structure
Viruses in Becurtovirus are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=1 symmetry. Genomes are circular and non-segmented, around 3.0kb in length.
Life cycle
Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the ssDNA rolling circle model. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear pore export, and tubule-guided viral movement. Dicotyledonous plants serve as the natural host.
References
External links
Viralzone: Becurtovirus
ICTV
Geminiviridae
Virus genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becurtovirus | Becurtovirus |
Cyprinivirus is a genus of viruses in the order Herpesvirales, in the family Alloherpesviridae. Freshwater eels serve as natural hosts. There are four species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: hemorrhagic disease.
Species
The genus consists of the following four species:
Anguillid herpesvirus 1
Cyprinid herpesvirus 1
Cyprinid herpesvirus 2
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3
Structure
Viruses in Cyprinivirus are enveloped, with icosahedral and spherical to pleomorphic geometries, and T=16 symmetry. The diameter is around 200 nm. Genomes are linear and non-segmented, around 10kb in length. The genome codes for 136 proteins.
Life cycle
Viral replication is nuclear, and is lysogenic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. Freshwater eel serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are passive diffusion.
References
External links
Viralzone: Cyprinivirus
ICTV
Alloherpesviridae
Virus genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprinivirus | Cyprinivirus |
Glossinavirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Hytrosaviridae. Glossina sp serve as natural hosts. There is only one species in this genus: Glossina hytrosavirus. Diseases associated with this genus include: partial sterility due to ovarian abnormalities or to testicular degeneration; can be asymptomatic in laboratory colonies.
Structure
Viruses in the genus Glossinavirus are enveloped, with rod-shaped geometries. The diameter is around 50 nm. Genomes are circular, around 190kb in length. The genome has 160 open reading frames.
Life cycle
Viral replication is nuclear. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. Glossina species serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are parental.
References
External links
ICTV Report: Hytrosaviridae
Viralzone: Glossinavirus
Hytrosaviridae
Virus genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossinavirus | Glossinavirus |
Ichtadenovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Adenoviridae. Fish serve as natural hosts. There is only one species in this genus: Sturgeon ichtadenovirus A.
Structure
Viruses in Ichtadenovirus are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=25 symmetry. The diameter is around 90 nm. Genomes are linear and non-segmented, around 35-36kb in length. The genome codes for 40 proteins.
Life cycle
Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral fiber glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the DNA strand displacement model. DNA-templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear envelope breakdown, viroporins, and lysis. Fishes serve as the natural host.
References
External links
Viralzone: Ichtadenovirus
ICTV
Adenoviridae
Virus genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichtadenovirus | Ichtadenovirus |
Lambdatorquevirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Anelloviridae. Sea lions serve as natural hosts. There are six species in this genus.
Taxonomy
The genus contains the following species:
Torque teno pinniped virus 1
Torque teno pinniped virus 2
Torque teno pinniped virus 3
Torque teno pinniped virus 5, previously named Torque teno zalophus virus 1
Torque teno pinniped virus 8
Torque teno pinniped virus 9
Structure
Viruses in Lambdatorquevirus are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=1 symmetry. The diameter is around 19-27 nm. Genomes are circular, around 2.1kb in length. The genome has 2 open reading frames.
Life cycle
Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the ssDNA rolling circle model. DNA-templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear pore export. Sea lions serve as the natural host.
References
External links
Viralzone: Lambdatorquevirus
ICTV
Anelloviridae
Virus genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambdatorquevirus | Lambdatorquevirus |
3 Geminorum is a blue supergiant star in the constellation Gemini. It is a small amplitude pulsating variable and a close double star, with a mean combined apparent visual magnitude of 5.75.
3 Geminorum was found to be an α Cygni variable in 1998 and given the designation PU Geminorum. It varies by a few tenths of a magnitude with a main period of 3.81 days.
3 Geminorum is also a close double star. The brighter component is the variable blue supergiant. The companion is 2.5 magnitudes fainter. The separation is about 0.6 arc-seconds. There is also a much fainter, approximately 14th magnitude, star 14" away.
Faint Hα emission lines have been detected in the spectrum of 3 Geminorum, but this is not usually expressed in published spectral classifications. An "e" is only occasionally appended to the spectral type to reflect the emission lines. MK spectral types consistently classify 3 Geminorum as a normal supergiant (luminosity class Ib), although spectral classes derived in other ways often result in a bright supergiant (Ia) luminosity class.
3 Geminorum can be occulted by the Moon. Observations of these occulations can give information about the angular diameter of a star, or about close companions. Occultations of 3 Geminorum have been observed, but no double or diameter information has been published.
References
Gemini (constellation)
042087
Alpha Cygni variables
Geminorum, 03
2173
Geminorum, PU
BD+23 1226
029225
B-type supergiants | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%20Geminorum | 3 Geminorum |
Glutamic proteases are a group of proteolytic enzymes containing a glutamic acid residue within the active site. This type of protease was first described in 2004 and became the sixth catalytic type of protease. Members of this group of protease had been previously assumed to be an aspartate protease, but structural determination showed it to belong to a novel protease family. The first structure of this group of protease was scytalidoglutamic peptidase, the active site of which contains a catalytic dyad, glutamic acid (E) and glutamine (Q), which give rise to the name eqolisin. This group of proteases are found primarily in pathogenic fungi affecting plant and human.
Distribution and types
There are two independent families of glutamic proteases (G1 and G2), and have a limited distribution. They were originally thought to be limited to filamentous fungi mainly in the Ascomycota phylum. Subsequently, however, glutamic proteases have been identified in bacteria and archaea.
The first superfamily of glutamic proteases was identified in the fungi Scytalidium lignicola and Aspergillus niger var. macrosporus, from which scytalidoglutamic peptidase (eqolisin) and aspergilloglutamic peptidase are derived respectively. These two proteases contain active site Glu and Gln residues and are grouped under MEROPS family G1.
A convergently evolved glutamic peptidase, the pre-neck appendage protein (bacteriophage phi-29), uses a Glu and Asp dyad at the active site, and is classified as MEROPS family G2.
Properties
These enzymes are acid proteases; eqolisin for example is most active at pH 2.0 when casein is used as substrate. Eqolosins prefer bulky amino acid residues at the P1 site and small amino acid residues at the P1′ site.
A characteristic of the protease is its insensitivity to pepstatin and S-PI (acetyl pepstatin) and it was previously classed as "pepstatin-insensitive carboxyl proteinases". The other "pepstatin-insensitive carboxyl proteinases" belongs to subfamily of serine protease, serine-carboxyl protease (sedolisin) which was discovered in 2001. These proteases are also not inhibited by DAN (diazoacetyl-DL-norleucine methylester) (7) but may be inhibited by EPNP (1,2-epoxy-3-(p-nitrophenoxy) propane).
Active site and mechanism of catalysis
The active site of eqolosin contains a distinctive glutamic acid and glutamine catalytic dyad which are involved in substrate binding and catalysis. These residues act as a nucleophile, with the glutamic acid serving as a general acid in the first phase of the reaction, donating a proton to the carbonyl oxygen in the peptide bond of the substrate. One or two water molecules may be involved in the reaction supplying a hydroxyl group, and the glutamic acid further donates a proton to the amide nitrogen, resulting in breakage of the peptide bond. The glutamine then returns the glutamic acid to its initial state.
See also
Aspartic protease
References
Proteases
EC 3.4.23 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic%20protease | Glutamic protease |
Kepler-283c is an exoplanet orbiting the K-type star, Kepler-283 every 93 days in the circumstellar habitable zone. It has a surface temperature of . Its radius is 1.82 and it has an equibrilium temp of 238.5 K. It has an eccentricity of 0.000 or circular.
References
283c
Exoplanets discovered in 2014
Transiting exoplanets
Super-Earths in the habitable zone
Exoplanets in the habitable zone
Super-Earths
Cygnus (constellation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-283c | Kepler-283c |
Hippasteria muscipula is one of twelve species of deep-sea sea star in the genus Hippasteria, which is in the family Goniasteridae.
Description and characteristics
It is a regular, five-armed sea star, with a large and flattened central disc (as most species in this family). The body is covered by short and stout spines, and characterized by big, fly-trap like pedicellariae. When alive, the central disc is swollen, forming five radial bumps. It is a rather big species, and can grow up to 30 cm across.
This species seems to be a predator of deep sea coral and other cnidarians, and was observed climbing on corals in order to feed.
This species remained unknown to science until 2014, but since its description it was observed many times in its environment by deep-sea research missions, such as Okeanos Explorer 2015, off Hawaii.
Its name comes from its impressive pedicellariae, which look like traps of the carnivorous plant called "Venus fly trap" (Dionaea muscipula).
Habitat and repartition
This species lives in the depths of Pacific Ocean, and has been recorded in Hawaii, New Caledonia and New Zealand, between 425 and 1500 meters deep.
Bibliography
References
Hippasteria
Animals described in 2014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippasteria%20muscipula | Hippasteria muscipula |
Mycoplankton are saprotrophic members of the plankton communities of marine and freshwater ecosystems. They are composed of filamentous free-living fungi and yeasts that are associated with planktonic particles or phytoplankton. Similar to bacterioplankton, these aquatic fungi play a significant role in heterotrophic mineralization and nutrient cycling. Mycoplankton can be up to 20 mm in diameter and over 50 mm in length.
In a typical milliliter of seawater, there are approximately 103 to 104 fungal cells. This number is greater in coastal ecosystems and estuaries due to nutritional runoff from terrestrial communities. The greatest diversity and number of species of mycoplankton is found in surface waters (< 1000 m), and the vertical profile depends on the abundance of phytoplankton. Furthermore, this difference in distribution may vary between seasons due to nutrient availability. Aquatic fungi survive in a constant oxygen deficient environment, and therefore depend on oxygen diffusion by turbulence and oxygen generated by photosynthetic organisms.
Aquatic fungi can be classified using three groups:
Lower fungi – adapted to marine habitats (zoosporic fungi, including mastigomycetes: oomycetes & chytridiomycetes)
Higher fungi – filamentous, modified to planktonic lifestyle (hyphomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes)
Terrestrial fungi – contain appendages of marine fungi (trichomycetes)
The majority of mycoplankton species are higher fungi, found in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla.
According to fossil records, fungi date back to the late Proterozoic era, 900-570 million years ago. It is hypothesized that mycoplankton evolved from terrestrial fungi, likely in the Paleozoic era (390 million years ago). The methods and pathways of terrestrial fungi's adaption to the marine environment are still under study.
Biogeochemical contributions
The primary role of all fungi is to degrade detrital organic matter from plants, and mycoplankton is no exception. By working with microbial communities, mycoplankton efficiently converts particulate organic matter to dissolved organic matter as part of the biogeochemical cycle. Mycoplankton and heterotrophic bacteria mediate carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other nutrient fluxes in marine ecosystems. It has been shown that there are higher concentrations of mycoplankton near the surface and in shallow waters, which indicates their connection with the upwelling of organic matter. This further correlates with abundant phytoplankton communities at the surface, implying that mycoplankton is intimately involved in organic matter consumption in the euphotic zone.
See also
Marine fungi
References
Aquatic ecology
Biological oceanography
Planktology
Oceanographical terminology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplankton | Mycoplankton |
HD 259431 (MWC 147 or V700 Monocerotis) is a young stellar object in the constellation of Monoceros.
Location
HD 259431 lies in the northern portion of Monoceros, between Orion and Canis Minor, along with the spectacular Rosette Nebula and NGC 2264 region. It is half a degree from the faint IC 447 reflection nebula.
HD 259431 is seen against NGC 2247, a small reflection nebula and star-forming region. It has been considered to be the illuminating source for the nebula, although it is uncertain if they are at the same distance. The Hipparcos annual parallax gives a distance of 170 parsecs while NGC 2247 is thought to be at about 800 parsecs, although both distances are somewhat uncertain. Many of its properties have been calculated assuming a distance of 800 parsecs, which means they are also highly uncertain.
Properties
HD 259431 is classed as a Herbig Haro Be star and has been instrumental in helping astronomers understand the formation of stars. A large star, with a large surrounding dust cloud, MWC 147 has given astronomers a clear picture of the mechanics of the accretion processes that form stars.
Star MWC 147 was observed in the near and mid-infrared. The near-infrared studies showed dust matter at a temperature of several thousand kelvins in the innermost regions of the protoplanetary disk. In the mid-IR were lower temperatures. These observations showed that the disk around the star disk extends over 100 AU.
The resulting research model assumes that the star increasing in mass at a rate 7 solar masses per year, or the equivalent of about two Earth masses per year.
MWC has a mass of 6.6 and is younger than 500 000 years. This means that the life of this star is expected to be only about 35 million years.
The star is found in the night sky at RA 06 h 33 m 05.19 and Dec 10° 19' 19.9869". It has a temperature of 14 125 K and spectral type of B6ep. It is also known as 2MJ06330519 + 1019199, HD 259431, HIP 31235 and SAO 95823.
References
External links
It Takes A Very Large Telescope To See Inside MWC 147
Monoceros (constellation)
Herbig Ae/Be stars
259431
BD+10 1172
031235
Monocerotis, V700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20259431 | HD 259431 |
Fusionidae is a family of the superfamily Fusionicae in the phylum Apicomplexa
Taxonomy
There is one genus - Fusiona - in this family.
History
This family was created in 1965 by Stejskal.
Description
Species in this family are homoxenous.
Gametocytes - not described
Spores - not described
Both gamonts and trophozoites are septate. The gamonts are morphologically different (anisogamous).
Sexual reproduction involves a cephalocaudal association. During syzygy the nucleus and entrocyte of the satellite move to the primite where they fuse.
References
Apicomplexa families | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusionidae | Fusionidae |
Penicillium digitatum (/ˌpɛnɪˈsɪlɪəm/digitatum/) is a mesophilic fungus found in the soil of citrus-producing areas. It is a major source of post-harvest decay in fruits and is responsible for the widespread post-harvest disease in Citrus fruit known as green rot or green mould. In nature, this necrotrophic wound pathogen grows in filaments and reproduces asexually through the production of conidiophores and conidia. However, P. digitatum can also be cultivated in the laboratory setting. Alongside its pathogenic life cycle, P. digitatum is also involved in other human, animal and plant interactions and is currently being used in the production of immunologically based mycological detection assays for the food industry.
History and taxonomy
Penicillium digitatum is a species within the Ascomycota division of Fungi. The genus name Penicillium comes from the word "penicillus" which means brush, referring to the branching appearance of the asexual reproductive structures found within this genus. As a species, P. digitatum was first noted as Aspergillus digitatus by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1794 who later adopted the name Monilia digitata in Synopsis methodica fungorum (1801). The synonym M. digitata can also be found in the writings of Elias Magnus Fries in Systema mycologicum (1832). However, the current binomial name comes from the writings of Pier Andrea Saccardo, particularly Fungi italici autographie delineati et colorati (1881).
Growth and morphology
In nature, P. digitatum adopts a filamentous vegetative growth form, producing narrow, septate hyphae. The hyphal cells are haploid, although individual hyphal compartments may contain many genetically identical nuclei. During the reproductive stages of its life cycle, P. digitatum reproduces asexually via the production of asexual spores or conidia. Conidia are borne on a stalk called a conidiophore that can emerge either from a piece of aerial hyphae or from a soil-embedded network of hyphae. The conidiophore is usually an asymmetrical, delicate structure with smooth, thin walls. Sizes can range from 70–150 μm in length. During development, the conidiophore can branch into three rami to produce a terverticillate structure although biverticillate and other irregular structures are often observed. At the end of each rami, another set of branches called metulae are found. The number of metulae varies with their sizes ranging from 15–30 × 4–6 μm. At the distal end of each metula, conidium-bearing structures called phialides form. Phialides can range in shape from flask-shaped to cylindrical and can be 10–20 μm long. The conidia produced, in turn, are smooth with a shape that can range from spherical to cylindrical although an oval shape is frequently seen. They are 6–15 μm long and are produced in chains, with the youngest at the base of each chain. Each conidium is haploid and bears only one nucleus. Sexual reproduction in P. digitatum has not been observed.
Penicillium digitatum can also grow on a variety of laboratory media. On Czapek Yeast Extract Agar medium at 25 °C, white colonies grow in a plane, attaining a velvety to deeply floccose texture with colony sizes that are 33–35 mm in diameter. On this medium, olive conidia are produced. The reverse of the plate can be pale or slightly tinted brown. On Malt Extract Agar medium at 25 °C, growth is rapid yet rare, forming a velvety surface. At first, colonies are yellow-green but ultimately turn olive due to conidial production. Colony diameter can range in size from 35 mm to 70 mm. The reverse of the plate is similar to that observed for Czapek Yeast Extract Agar medium. On 25% Glycerol Nitrate Agar at 25 °C, colony growth is planar yet develops into a think gel with colony size diameter ranging from 6–12 mm. The back of the plate is described as pale or olive. At 5 °C, 25% Glycerol Nitrate Agar supports germination and a colonial growth of up to 3 mm in diameter. This species fails to grow at 37 °C. On Creatine Sucrose Agar at 25 °C, colony size diameter ranges from 4 to 10 mm. Growth is restricted and medium pH remains around 7. No change on the back of the plate is noted. Growth on media containing orange fruit pieces for seven days at room temperature results in fruit decay accompanied by a characteristic odour. After 14 days at room temperature, the reverse is colourless to light brown.
Ecology
Penicillium digitatum is found in the soil of areas cultivating citrus fruit, predominating in high temperature regions. In nature, it is often found alongside the fruits it infects, making species within the genus Citrus its main ecosystem. It is only within these species that P. digitatum can complete its life cycle as a necrotroph. However, P. digitatum has also been isolated from other food sources. These include hazelnuts, pistachio nuts, kola nuts, black olives, rice, maize and meats. Low levels have also been noted in Southeast Asian peanuts, soybeans and sorghum.
Physiology
Penicillium digitatum is a mesophilic fungus, growing from to a maximum of , with an optimal growth temperature at . With respect to water activity, P. digitatum has a relatively low tolerance for osmotic stress. The minimum water activity required for growth at is 0.90, at is 0.95 and at is 0.99. Germination does not occur at a water activity of 0.87. In terms of chemicals that influence fungal growth, the minimum growth inhibitory concentration of sorbic acid is 0.02–0.025% at a pH of 4.7 and 0.06–0.08% at a pH of 5.5. Thiamine, on the other hand, has been observed to accelerate fungal growth with the effect being co-metabolically enhanced in the presence of tyrosine, casein or zinc metal. In terms of carbon nutrition, maltose, acetic acid, oxalic acid and tartaric acid support little, if any, growth. However, glucose, fructose, sucrose, galactose, citric acid and malic acid all maintain fungal growth.
Production of ethylene via the Citric acid cycle has been observed in static cultures and is suggested to be connected to mycelial development. Addition of methionine inhibits such cultures but can be utilized for the production of ethylene following a lag phase in shake cultures. The production observed in shake cultures can be inhibited by actinomycin D and cycloheximide and modulated by inorganic phosphate. In addition, aminoethoxyvinyl glycine and methoxyvinyl glycine have been shown to inhibit both shake and static cultures. Production of mycotoxins or secondary metabolites by P. digitatum has not been observed although this species has been shown to be toxic to both shrimp and chicken embryos.
With respect to fungicidal tolerance, there are known strains of P. digitatum resistant to various commonly used fungicides. Reports have been made concerning fungicides thiabendazole, benomyl, imazalil, sodium-o-phenylphenate as well as fungistatic agent, biphenyl, with no prior treatment required in the case of biphenyl. The mechanism of P. digitatum resistance to imazalil is suggested to lie in the over-expression of the sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) protein caused by a 199 base-pair insertion into the promoter region of the CYP51 gene and/or by duplications of the CYP51 gene.
Human pathogenicity
Species within the genus Penicillium do not generally cause disease in humans. However, being one of the most common producers of indoor moulds, certain species can become pathogenic upon long-term exposure as well as for individuals who are immunocompromised or hyper-sensitized to certain parts of the fungus. Spores, proteolytic enzymes and glycoproteins are amongst the components commonly reported as allergens in humans and animal models. Within this context, members of Penicillium have been associated with a variety of immunological manifestations such as Type 1 allergic responses, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (Type 3 responses), and immediate and delayed asthma.
With respect to P. digitatum, this species is known to cause generalized mycosis in humans, although the incidence of such events are very low. Various studies have also noted a presence of circulating antibodies to the extracellular polysaccharide of P. digitatum in both human and rabbit sera. This presence is suggested to be due to the intake of contaminated fruits and/or breathing air contaminated with extracellular polysaccharide. In terms of allergy testing, P. digitatum is present in various clinical allergy test formulations, testing for allergy to moulds. There has been one case report identifying P. digitatum as the cause of a fatal case of pneumonia through molecular methods.
Plant interactions
Post-harvest decays are a main source of fruit loss following harvesting, with the most common source of Citrus fruit decay being infections caused by P. digitatum and P. italicum. Penicillium digitatum is responsible for 90% of citrus fruits lost to infection after harvesting and considered the largest cause of post-harvest diseases occurring in Californian citrus fruits. Its widespread impact relates to the post-harvest disease it causes in citrus fruits known as green rot or mould. As a wound pathogen, the disease cycle begins when P. digitatum conidia germinate with release of water and nutrients from the site of injury on the fruit surface. After infection at 24 °C, rapid growth ensues with active infection taking place within 48 hours and initial symptom onset occurring within 3 days. As temperature at time of infection decreases, the delay of initial symptom onset increases. Initial symptoms include a moist depression on the surface which expands as white mycelium colonizes much of its surface. The centre of the mycelial mass eventually turns olive as conidial production begins. Near the end of the disease cycle, the fruit eventually decreases in size and develops into an empty, dry shell. This end result is commonly used to distinguish P. digitatum infections from those of P. italicum which produce a blue-green mould and ultimately render the fruit slimy.
Infection with green mould at can last 3 to 5 days with the rate of conidial production per infected fruit being as high as 1–2 billion conidia. Annual infections can occur anywhere from December to June and can take place throughout any point during and following harvesting. Transmission can occur mechanically or via conidial dispersal in water or air to fruit surfaces. Conidia often reside within soil but can also be found in the air of contaminated storage spaces. Being a wound pathogen, fruit injuries are required for successful fruit infections, with much of these injuries occurring due to improper handling throughout the harvesting process. Injuries can also be caused by other events such as frost and insect bites, and can be as minor as damage to fruit skin oil glands. Fallen fruit can also be susceptible to P. digitatum infections as has been noted in Israel, where P. digitatum infects fallen fruit more than P. italicum.
Pathogenicity of P. digitatum is suggested to rely on the acidification of the infected fruit. During fruit decay, this species has been observed to make citric acid and gluconic acid and sequester ammonium ions into its cytoplasm. The low pH may aid in the regulation of various gene-encoded pathogenic factors such as polygalactouronases. In addition, P. digitatum has also been observed to modify plant defense mechanisms, such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity, in the citrus fruits it infects.
Modifications to the disease cycle of P. digitatum have been induced experimentally. For example, P. digitatum has been observed to cause infection in unwounded fruits through mechanical transmission although a higher infection dose was required in such instances. Apples have also been infected to a limited extent. Besides its pathogenic interactions, P. digitatum has also been implicated in naturally accelerating the ripening of green fruits and causing epinastic responses in various plants such as potato, tomato and sunflowers.
Prevention of plant disease
Control of green mould initially relies on the proper handling of fruit before, during and after harvesting. Spores can be reduced by removing fallen fruit. Risk of injury can be decreased in a variety of ways including, storing fruit in high humidity/ low temperature conditions, and harvesting before irrigation or rainfall in order to minimize fruit susceptibility to peel damage. Degreening practices can also be conducted at humidities above 92% in order to heal injuries.
Chemical control in the form of fungicides is also commonly used. Examples include imazalil, thiabendazole and biphenyl, all of which suppress the reproductive cycle of P. digitatum. Post-harvest chemical treatment usually consists of washes conducted at , containing detergents, weak alkalines and fungicides. Californian packinghouses typically use a fungicide cocktail containing sodium o-phenylphenate, imazalil and thiabendazole. In Australia, guazatine is commonly used although this treatment is restricted to the domestic market. In terms of the export market, Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) substances are currently being explored as alternatives. GRAS substances such as sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate and ethanol, have displayed an ability to control P. digitatum by decreasing germination rate.
Resistance to common fungicides is currently combated through the use of other chemicals. For example, sodium o-phenylphenate-resistant strains are dealt with via formaldehyde fumigation while imazalil-resistant strains are controlled through the use of pyrimethanil, a fungicide also approved for fighting strains resistant to other fungicides. As fungicide resistance increases globally, other measures of control are being considered including that of biocontrol. Effective biocontrol agents include bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas cepacia and Pseudomonas syringae as well as fungi such as Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida guilliermondii. In Clementines and Valencia oranges, Candida oleophila, Pichia anomala and Candida famata have been shown to reduce disease. Despite the ability of various biocontrol agents to exhibit antagonistic activity, biocontrol has not been shown to provide complete control over P.digitatum and is therefore commonly used in conjunction with another measure of control. Alternative measures of control include essential oils such as Syzygium aromaticum and Lippia javanica, ultraviolet light, gamma-irradiation, X-rays curing, vapour heat, and cell-penetrating anti-fungal peptides.
Laboratory identification
Penicillium digitatum can be identified in the laboratory using a variety of methods. Typically, strains are grown for one week on three chemically defined media under varying temperature conditions. The media used are Czapek Yeast Extract Agar (at 5, 25 and 37 °C), Malt Extract Agar (at 25 °C) and 25% Glycerol Nitrate Agar (at 25 °C). The resulting colonial morphology on these media (described in Growth and Morphology above) allows for identification of P. digitatum. Closely related species in the genus Pencillium can be resolved through this approach by using Creatine Sucrose Neutral Agar. Molecular methods can also aid with identification. The genomes of many species belonging to the genus Penicillium remain to be sequenced however, limiting the applicability of such methods. Lastly, P. digitatum can also be distinguished macroscopically by the production of yellow-green to olive conidia and microscopically, by the presence of large philades and conidia.
Industrial uses
Penicillium digitatum is used as a biological tool during the commercial production of latex agglutination kits. Latex agglutination detects Aspergillus and Penicillium species in foods by attaching antibodies specific for the extracellular polysaccharide of P. digitatum to 0.8 μm latex beads. This method has been successful in detecting contamination of grains and processed foods at a limit of detection of 5–10 ng/mL of antigen. In comparison to other detection assays, the latex agglutination assay exceeds the detection limit of the Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and is as effective in detecting Aspergillus and Pencillium species as the ergosterol production assay. However, the latter displays an increased ability to detect Fusarium species when compared to the latex agglutination assay.
References
External links
Friday Fellow: Green Mold at Earthling Nature.
Fungal citrus diseases
digitatum
Fungi described in 1794
Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20digitatum | Penicillium digitatum |
BF Antliae, or HD 86301, is a variable star in the southern constellation of Antlia. It has a baseline apparent visual magnitude of 6.32, which indicates it lies near the lower limit of visibility for faint stars. The distance to BF Ant, as determined from its annual parallax shift of , is 473 light years. It is moving further away with a heliocentric radial velocity of +18 km/s.
This is an A-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of A4 V that is at the end of its main sequence lifespan. It is a Delta Scuti variable that varies by 0.01 of a magnitude. These are short-period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. Handler and Shobbrook (2002) noted that the star lies near the "hot luminous border of the δ Scuti instability strip", and it appears "multiperiodic with a time scale of 3.8–6 hours".
BF Antliae is spinning rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of 219 km/s. It has 2.41 times the mass of the Sun and is radiating 67 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 7,745 K.
References
A-type main-sequence stars
Delta Scuti variables
Antlia
Durchmusterung objects
086301
048776
3933
Antliae, BF | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BF%20Antliae | BF Antliae |
HD 137509 is a star in the southern constellation of Apus, positioned less than a degree from the northern constellation boundary with Triangulum Australe. It has the variable star designation of NN Apodis, or NN Aps for short, and ranges in brightness from an apparent visual magnitude of 6.86 down to 6.93 with a period of 4.4916 days. The star is located at a distance of approximately 647 light years from the Sun based on parallax, and is drifting further away with a radial velocity of +0.50 km/s.
In 1973, W. P. Bidelman and D. J. MacConnell found this to be a peculiar A star of the silicon type. During a reclassification of the spectra of southern stars in 1975, A. P. Cowley and N. Houk noted the strength of hydrogen lines and weakness of helium are more typical of a class near B9. It shows a luminosity above the main sequence, which is common for a peculiar A star. The stellar atmosphere appears deficient in helium, but shows a rich variety of metallic lines. However, there are no lines of manganese or mercury, so it's not a Hg–Mn Ap star. HD 137509 is now classified as or , matching a late-type, helium-weak Bp star with overabundances of silicon, chromium, and iron.
This star was found to be photometrically variable by L. O. Lodén and A. Sundman in 1989, and a variable spectrum was noted by H. Pedersen in 1979. It has one of the strongest magnetic fields recorded for a chemically peculiar star, measured at around , and shows a strong quadrupolar component. Both variances of the star allow its rotation period to be precisely measured. It is classified as a Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable. The star is about 124 million years old with 3.4 times the mass of the Sun and 2.8 times the Sun's radius. On average it is radiating ~123 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 13,100 K.
References
B-type main-sequence stars
Ap stars
Helium-weak stars
Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variables
Apus (constellation)
Durchmusterung objects
137509
076011
Apodis, NN | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20137509 | HD 137509 |
In mathematics, the Rokhlin lemma, or Kakutani–Rokhlin lemma is an important result in ergodic theory. It states that an aperiodic measure preserving dynamical system can be decomposed to an arbitrary high tower of measurable sets and a remainder of arbitrarily small measure. It was proven by Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin and independently by Shizuo Kakutani. The lemma is used extensively in ergodic theory, for example in Ornstein theory and has many generalizations.
Terminology
Rokhlin lemma belongs to the group mathematical statements such as Zorn's lemma in set theory and Schwarz lemma in complex analysis which are traditionally called lemmas despite the fact that their roles in their respective fields are fundamental.
Statement of the lemma
Lemma: Let be an invertible measure-preserving transformation on a standard measure space with . We assume is (measurably) aperiodic, that is, the set of periodic points for has zero measure. Then for every integer and for every , there exists a measurable set such that the sets are pairwise disjoint and such that .
A useful strengthening of the lemma states that given a finite measurable partition , then may be chosen in such a way that and are independent for all .
A topological version of the lemma
Let be a topological dynamical system consisting of a compact metric space and a homeomorphism . The topological dynamical system is called minimal if it has no proper non-empty closed -invariant subsets. It is called (topologically) aperiodic if it has no periodic points ( for some and implies ). A topological dynamical system is called a factor of if there exists a continuous surjective mapping which is equivariant, i.e., for all .
Elon Lindenstrauss proved the following theorem:
Theorem: Let be a topological dynamical system which has an aperiodic minimal factor. Then for integer there is a continuous function such that the set satisfies are pairwise disjoint.
Gutman proved the following theorem:
Theorem: Let be a topological dynamical system which has an aperiodic factor with the small boundary property. Then for every , there exists a continuous function such that the set satisfies , where denotes orbit capacity.
Further generalizations
There are versions for non-invertible measure preserving transformations.
Donald Ornstein and Benjamin Weiss proved a version for free actions by countable discrete amenable groups.
Carl Linderholm proved a version for periodic non-singular transformations.
References
Notes
Vladimir Rokhlin. A "general" measure-preserving transformation is not mixing. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR (N.S.), 60:349–351, 1948.
Shizuo Kakutani. Induced measure preserving transformations. Proc. Imp. Acad. Tokyo, 19:635–641, 1943.
Benjamin Weiss. On the work of V. A. Rokhlin in ergodic theory. Ergodic Theory and Dynamical Systems, 9(4):619–627, 1989.
Isaac Kornfeld. Some old and new Rokhlin towers. Contemporary Mathematics, 356:145, 2004.
See also
Rokhlin's lemma should not be confused with Rokhlin's theorem.
Ergodic theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rokhlin%20lemma | Rokhlin lemma |
Electro-olfactography or electroolfactography (EOG) is a type of electrography (electrophysiologic test) that aids the study of olfaction (the sense of smell). It measures and records the changing electrical potentials of the olfactory epithelium, in a way similar to how other forms of electrography (such as ECG, EEG, and EMG) measure and record other bioelectric activity.
Electro-olfactography has been used for decades to advance the basic science of smell, although the advances in molecular biology in recent decades have expanded olfactory science beyond the knowledge that the electrical recordings of electro-olfactography alone could provide. Electro-olfactography is closely related to electroantennography, the electrography of insect antennae olfaction.
Neuroscientist David Ottoson (1918-2001) discovered the electro-olfactogram (EOG) and analysed its properties in great detail.
References
External links
Search PubMed for "electroolfactogram"
Electrophysiology
Mathematics in medicine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-olfactography | Electro-olfactography |
The Boger pyridine synthesis is a cycloaddition approach to the formation of pyridines named after its inventor Dale L. Boger, who first reported it in 1981. The reaction is a form of inverse-electron demand Diels-Alder reaction in which an enamine reacts with a 1,2,4-triazine to form the pyridine nucleus. The reaction is especially useful for accessing pyridines that would be difficult or impossible to access via other methods and has been used in the total synthesis of several complicated natural products.
Mechanism
The enamine is generally generated in situ from catalytic amine (such as pyrrolidine) and a ketone. The enamine then reacts as the dienophile with a 1,2,4-triazine. The initial adduct then expels nitrogen, and the pyridine is rearomatized with loss of the amine.
References
Pyridine forming reactions
Heterocycle forming reactions
Organic reactions
Name reactions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boger%20pyridine%20synthesis | Boger pyridine synthesis |
K2-3d, also known as EPIC 201367065 d, is a confirmed exoplanet of probable mini-Neptune
type orbiting the red dwarf star K2-3, and the outermost of three such planets discovered in the system. It is located away from Earth in the constellation of Leo. The exoplanet was found by using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. It was the first planet in the Kepler "Second Light" mission to receive the letter "d" designation for a planet. Its discovery was announced in January 2015.
Characteristics
Mass, radius, density and temperature
K2-3d is a super-Earth or a Mini-Neptune, meaning it has a mass and radius bigger than Earth's, but smaller than that of the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. It has a surface temperature of and a radius of 1.6 . The planet is likely to be a mini-Neptune, with no solid surface. While originally estimated to have a very high density, recent analysis of HARPS data in 2018 have constrained the mass to less than 4 to a 1σ confidence. This corresponds to a relatively low density, similar to that of Neptune, suggesting a very large volatile layer and significantly reducing the potential habitability of the world.
Host star
The planet orbits a (M-type) red dwarf star named K2-3, orbited by a total of three known planets, of which K2-3d has the longest orbital period. The star has a mass of 0.60 and a radius of 0.56 . It has a temperature of 3896 K and is about 1 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.
The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 12.168. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.
Orbital statistics
K2-3d orbits its host star, which has about 6% of the Sun's luminosity, with an orbital period of 44 days and an orbital radius of about 0.2 times that of Earth (compared to the distance of Mercury from the Sun, which is about 0.38 AU).
Habitability
The planet orbits on the edge of the inner (empirical) habitable zone, a region where, with the proper atmospheric properties and pressure, liquid water may exist on the surface of the planet. However, it is very likely tidally locked to its star, with one side facing towards its star in scorching heat, and the opposite side in bitter darkness. Despite this, there is an area – the terminator line – where the surface temperatures may be comfortable enough to support liquid water. However, given that most models of the habitable zone parameters put K2-3d slightly beyond the inner edge of the habitable zone, it is likely to be too hot even at the terminator line and thus not habitable at all. Plus, the high gravity caused by the density of K2-3d would further hinder its habitability. Also, the stellar flux for the planet is an abnormally high 1.4 times that of Earth, which could result in surface temperatures of up to because of a runaway greenhouse effect.
Discovery
The planet, along with the other two known planets in the K2-3 system, was announced in early January 2015 as part of the first results from the second mission of the Kepler spacecraft. With this, it was the first multiplanetary system of the mission as well.
See also
List of potentially habitable exoplanets
References
Exoplanets discovered in 2015
Transiting exoplanets
K2-3 system
3
Super-Earths in the habitable zone
Leo (constellation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K2-3d | K2-3d |
Diphosphorus tetroxide, or phosphorus tetroxide is an inorganic compound of phosphorus and oxygen. It has the empirical chemical formula . Solid phosphorus tetroxide (also referred to as phosphorus(III,V)-oxide) consists of variable mixtures of the mixed-valence oxides P4O7, P4O8 and P4O9.
Preparation
Phosphorus tetroxide is obtainable by thermal decomposition of phosphorus trioxide, which disproportionates above 210 °C to form phosphorus tetroxide, with elemental phosphorus as a byproduct:
4 P2O3 ←→ 2 P + 3 P2O4
In addition, phosphorus trioxide can be converted into phosphorus tetroxide by controlled oxidation with oxygen in carbon tetrachloride solution.
Careful reduction of phosphorus pentoxide with red phosphorus at 450-525 °C also produces the phosphorus tetroxide.
References
Oxides
Inorganic phosphorus compounds
Solids | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus%20tetroxide | Phosphorus tetroxide |
NGC 2301 is an open cluster in the constellation Monoceros. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1786. It is visible through 7x50 binoculars and it is considered the best open cluster for small telescopes in the constellation. It is located 5° WNW of delta Monocerotis and 2° SSE of 18 Monocerotis. The brightest star of the cluster is an orange G8 subgiant star of 8.0 magnitude, but it is possible that it is a foreground star. The cluster contains also blue giants. The brightest main sequence star is a B9 star with magnitude 9.1.
References
External links
2301
Monoceros (constellation)
Open clusters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%202301 | NGC 2301 |
Low-alloy special purpose steel is a grade of tool steel characterized by its proportion of iron to other elements, the kind of elements in its composition, and its treatment during the manufacturing process. The three ASTM established grades of low-alloy special purpose steel are L2, L3, and L6. This grade originally contained L1, L4, L5 and L7 as well as three F grades (F1, F2, and F3) but because of falling demand only grades L2 and L6 remain in production.
L2
L2 grade steel comes in medium-carbon (0.45%-0.65%) and high-carbon (0.65%-1.1%) formats.
L6
L6 is the most commonly encountered and most frequently made variety of these steels. It is known for its high wear resistance and its toughness.
Applications
Applications for the L-series of tool steels have included precision gauges, bearings, rollers, cold-heading dies, swaging dies, feed fingers, spindles, jigs, shears, punches, and drills. They are also used for machining arbors, cams, chucks, and collets.
References
Steel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-alloy%20special%20purpose%20steel | Low-alloy special purpose steel |
In algebraic geometry, a Gorenstein scheme is a locally Noetherian scheme whose local rings are all Gorenstein. The canonical line bundle is defined for any Gorenstein scheme over a field, and its properties are much the same as in the special case of smooth schemes.
Related properties
For a Gorenstein scheme X of finite type over a field, f: X → Spec(k), the dualizing complex f!(k) on X is a line bundle (called the canonical bundle KX), viewed as a complex in degree −dim(X). If X is smooth of dimension n over k, the canonical bundle KX can be identified with the line bundle Ωn of top-degree differential forms.
Using the canonical bundle, Serre duality takes the same form for Gorenstein schemes as it does for smooth schemes.
Let X be a normal scheme of finite type over a field k. Then X is regular outside a closed subset of codimension at least 2. Let U be the open subset where X is regular; then the canonical bundle KU is a line bundle. The restriction from the divisor class group Cl(X) to Cl(U) is an isomorphism, and (since U is smooth) Cl(U) can be identified with the Picard group Pic(U). As a result, KU defines a linear equivalence class of Weil divisors on X. Any such divisor is called the canonical divisor KX. For a normal scheme X, the canonical divisor KX is said to be Q-Cartier if some positive multiple of the Weil divisor KX is Cartier. (This property does not depend on the choice of Weil divisor in its linear equivalence class.) Alternatively, normal schemes X with KX Q-Cartier are sometimes said to be Q-Gorenstein.
It is also useful to consider the normal schemes X for which the canonical divisor KX is Cartier. Such a scheme is sometimes said to be Q-Gorenstein of index 1. (Some authors use "Gorenstein" for this property, but that can lead to confusion.) A normal scheme X is Gorenstein (as defined above) if and only if KX is Cartier and X is Cohen–Macaulay.
Examples
An algebraic variety with local complete intersection singularities, for example any hypersurface in a smooth variety, is Gorenstein.
A variety X with quotient singularities over a field of characteristic zero is Cohen–Macaulay, and KX is Q-Cartier. The quotient variety of a vector space V by a linear action of a finite group G is Gorenstein if G maps into the subgroup SL(V) of linear transformations of determinant 1. By contrast, if X is the quotient of C2 by the cyclic group of order n acting by scalars, then KX is not Cartier (and so X is not Gorenstein) for n ≥ 3.
Generalizing the previous example, every variety X with klt (Kawamata log terminal) singularities over a field of characteristic zero is Cohen–Macaulay, and KX is Q-Cartier.
If a variety X has log canonical singularities, then KX is Q-Cartier, but X need not be Cohen–Macaulay. For example, any affine cone X over an abelian variety Y is log canonical, and KX is Cartier, but X is not Cohen–Macaulay when Y has dimension at least 2.
Notes
References
External links
Algebraic geometry
Algebraic varieties
Scheme theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorenstein%20scheme | Gorenstein scheme |
In medicine, Esophageal Doppler or Oesophageal Doppler uses a small ultrasound probe inserted into the esophagus through the nose or mouth to measure blood velocity in the descending aorta. It is minimally invasive (does not break the skin) and is used to derive hemodynamic parameters such as stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO). A properly constructed and calibrated probe is approved for use on adults and children in many parts of the world.
How it Works
From the probe tip, a beam of continuous wave ultrasound is directed through the esophageal wall into the aorta and reflects off the moving blood back to the probe; the Doppler effect is used to directly measure the velocity of the blood (by the shift in frequency of the reflected ultrasound signal compared to the original beam).
Esophageal Doppler Monitor
An Esophageal Doppler Monitor (EDM) or Oesophageal Doppler Monitor (ODM) is a cardiac output monitor using an esophageal positioned ultrasound sensor. It usually displays a graph of real-time aortic blood velocities and recognized main flow against time. It provides instantaneous values of hemodynamic parameters for the just past beat, such as heart rate (HR), stroke distance (SD), maximum acceleration (MA), flow-time (FT) and peak velocity (PV); also values calculated from these, such as stroke volume (SV), flow-time corrected (FTc) and cardiac output (CO). Using manual input of age, weight and height; body surface area (BSA) and body mass index (BMI) estimates are calculated, so that indexed values may be calculated and displayed, such as cardiac output index (CI) and stroke volume index (SVI or SI). Often available is recording of instantaneous values and display of a long term trend graph.
Instantaneous Values
In an Esophageal Doppler Monitor (EDM) or Oesophageal Doppler Monitor (ODM), during the time the aortic valve is open (ejection time or flow time), the average aortic blood velocity is calculated. The product of average velocity and ejection time gives the stroke distance (how far the blood travels in each heart cycle). Flow time (FT) is the time difference between the sudden increase in velocity (T0) and the return to near zero velocity (T1). Stroke distance (SD) can calculated from the plug flow like velocity (v(t)):
.
An estimate of the aortic cross-sectional area is calculated from a function of age, weight and height. The cross-sectional area is adjusted to give more accurate cardiac output and renamed to aortic constant (AC).
The product of stroke distance and aortic constant gives stroke volume (how much blood was ejected from a heartbeat into the arteries).
The heart rate (HR) can be calculated from the time difference between the current peak velocity and the previous one.
Cardiac output (CO) is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Although CO is available beat by beat, it is usually averaged over a number of beats (typically 5) to reduce the variation in displayed value.
Parameters
The Doppler frequency shift signal is processed to produce a list of signal power against frequency samples, 180 times a second. This list is analysed to identify the velocities of the plug flow like movement down the centre of the aorta. The plug flow velocities can be differentiated and integrated against time to derive acceleration, peak velocity and stroke distance. With an aortic constant based on age, weight and height; stroke volume (SV) is calculated.
References
Medical equipment
Intensive care medicine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophageal%20doppler | Esophageal doppler |
Immunoglobulin therapy is the use of a mixture of antibodies (normal human immunoglobulin or NHIG) to treat a number of health conditions. These conditions include primary immunodeficiency, immune thrombocytopenic purpura, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Kawasaki disease, certain cases of HIV/AIDS and measles, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and certain other infections when a more specific immunoglobulin is not available. Depending on the formulation it can be given by injection into muscle, a vein, or under the skin. The effects last a few weeks.
Common side effects include pain at the site of injection, muscle pain, and allergic reactions. Other severe side effects include kidney problems, anaphylaxis, blood clots, and red blood cell breakdown. Use is not recommended in people with some types of IgA deficiency. Use appears to be relatively safe during pregnancy. Human immunoglobulin is made from human blood plasma. It contains antibodies against many viruses.
Human immunoglobulin therapy first occurred in the 1930s and a formulation for injection into a vein was approved for medical use in the United States in 1981. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Each formulation of product is somewhat different. A number of specific immunoglobulin formulations are also available including for hepatitis B, rabies, tetanus, varicella infection, and Rh positive blood exposure.
Medical uses
Immunoglobulin therapy is used in a variety of conditions, many of which involve decreased or abolished antibody production capabilities, which range from a complete absence of multiple types of antibodies, to IgG subclass deficiencies (usually involving IgG2 or IgG3), to other disorders in which antibodies are within a normal quantitative range, but lacking in quality – unable to respond to antigens as they normally should – resulting in an increased rate or increased severity of infections. In these situations, immunoglobulin infusions confer passive resistance to infection on their recipients by increasing the quantity/quality of IgG they possess. Immunoglobulin therapy is also used for a number of other conditions, including in many autoimmune disorders such as dermatomyositis in an attempt to decrease the severity of symptoms. Immunoglobulin therapy is also used in some treatment protocols for secondary immunodeficiencies such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), some autoimmune disorders (such as immune thrombocytopenia and Kawasaki disease), some neurological diseases (multifocal motor neuropathy, stiff person syndrome, multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis) some acute infections and some complications of organ transplantation.
Immunoglobulin therapy is especially useful in some acute infection cases such as pediatric HIV infection and is also considered the standard of treatment for some autoimmune disorders such as Guillain–Barré syndrome. The high demand which coupled with the difficulty of producing immunoglobulin in large quantities has resulted in increasing global shortages, usage limitations and rationing of immunoglobulin.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's National Health Service recommends the routine use of immunoglobulin for a variety of conditions including primary immunodeficiencies and a number of other conditions, but recommends against the use of immunoglobulin in sepsis (unless a specific toxin has been identified), multiple sclerosis, neonatal sepsis, and pediatric HIV/AIDS.
United States
The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology supports the use of immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies, while noting that such usage actually accounts for a minority of usage and acknowledging that immunoglobulin supplementation can be appropriately used for a number of other conditions, including neonatal sepsis (citing a sixfold decrease in mortality), considered in cases of HIV (including pediatric HIV), considered as a second line treatment in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, but recommending against its use in such conditions as chronic fatigue syndrome, PANDAS (pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection) until further evidence to support its use is found (though noting that it may be useful in PANDAS patients with an autoimmune component), cystic fibrosis, and a number of other conditions.
Brands include
Asceniv (immune globulin intravenous, human – slra)
Bivigam (immune globulin intravenous – human 10% liquid)
Gamunex-C, (immune globulin injection human)
Hizentra (immune globulin subcutaneous human)
Hyqvia (immune globulin 10 percent – human with recombinant human hyaluronidase)
Octagam (immune globulin intravenous, human)
Panzyga (immune globulin intravenous, human – ifas)
Xembify (immune globulin subcutaneous, human – klhw)
Canada
The National Advisory Committee on Blood and Blood Products of Canada (NAC) and Canadian Blood Services have also developed their own separate set of guidelines for the appropriate use of immunoglobulin therapy, which strongly support the use of immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiencies and some complications of HIV, while remaining silent on the issues of sepsis, multiple sclerosis, and chronic fatigue syndrome.
Australia
The Australian Red Cross Blood Service developed their own guidelines for the appropriate use of immunoglobulin therapy in 1997. Immunoglobulin is funded under the National Blood Supply and indications are classified as either an established or emerging therapeutic role or conditions for which immunoglobulin use is in exceptional circumstances only.
Subcutaneous immunoglobulin access programs have been developed to facilitate hospital based programs.
Human normal immunoglobulin (human immunoglobulin G) (Cutaquig) was approved for medical use in Australia in May 2021.
European Union
Brands include HyQvia (human normal immunoglobulin), Privigen (human normal immunoglobulin (IVIg)), Hizentra (human normal immunoglobulin (SCIg)), Kiovig (human normal immunoglobulin), and Flebogamma DIF (human normal immunoglobulin).
In the EU human normal immunoglobulin (SCIg) (Hizentra) is used in people whose blood does not contain enough antibodies (proteins that help the body to fight infections and other diseases), also known as immunoglobulins. It is used to treat the following conditions:
primary immunodeficiency syndromes (PID, when people are born with an inability to produce enough antibodies);
low levels of antibodies in the blood in people with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (a cancer of a type of white blood cell) or myeloma (a cancer of another type of white blood cell) and who have frequent infections;
low levels of antibodies in the blood in people before or after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (a procedure where the patient's bone marrow is cleared of cells and replaced by stem cells from a donor);
chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP). In this rare disease, the immune system (the body's defence system) works abnormally and destroys the protective covering over the nerves.
It is indicated for replacement therapy in adults and children in primary immunodeficiency syndromes such as:
congenital agammaglobulinaemia and hypogammaglobulinaemia (low levels of antibodies);
common variable immunodeficiency;
severe combined immunodeficiency;
immunoglobulin-G-subclass deficiencies with recurrent infections;
replacement therapy in myeloma or chronic lymphocytic leukaemia with severe secondary hypogammaglobulinaemia and recurrent infections.
Flebogamma DIF is indicated for the replacement therapy in adults, children and adolescents (0–18 years) in:
primary immunodeficiency syndromes with impaired antibody production;
hypogammaglobulinaemia (low levels of antibodies) and recurrent bacterial infections in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (a cancer of a type of white blood cell), in whom prophylactic antibiotics have failed;
hypogammaglobulinaemia (low levels of antibodies) and recurrent bacterial infections in plateau-phase-multiple-myeloma (another cancer of a type of white blood cell) patients who failed to respond to pneumococcal immunisation;
hypogammaglobulinaemia (low levels of antibodies) in patients after allogenic haematopoietic-stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) (when the patient receives stem cells from a matched donor to help restore the bone marrow);
congenital acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) with recurrent bacterial infections.
and for the immunomodulation in adults, children and adolescents (0–18 years) in:
primary immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), in patients at high risk of bleeding or prior to surgery to correct the platelet count;
Guillain Barré syndrome, which causes multiple inflammations of the nerves in the body;
Kawasaki disease, which causes multiple inflammation of several organs in the body.
Side effects
Although immunoglobulin is frequently used for long periods of time and is generally considered safe, immunoglobulin therapy can have severe adverse effects, both localized and systemic. Subcutaneous administration of immunoglobulin is associated with a lower risk of both systemic and localized risk when compared to intravenous administration (hyaluronidase-assisted subcutaneous administration is associated with a greater frequency of adverse effects than traditional subcutaneous administration but still a lower frequency of adverse effects when compared to intravenous administration). Patients who are receiving immunoglobulin and experience adverse events are sometimes recommended to take acetaminophen and diphenhydramine before their infusions to reduce the rate of adverse effects. Additional premedication may be required in some instances (especially when first getting accustomed to a new dosage), prednisone or another oral steroid.
Local side effects of immunoglobulin infusions most frequently include an injection site reaction (reddening of the skin around the injection site), itching, rash, and hives. Less serious systemic side effects to immunoglobulin infusions include an increased heart rate, hyper or hypotension, an increased body temperature, diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, arthralgia or myalgia, dizziness, headache, fatigue, fever, and pain.
Serious side effects of immunoglobulin infusions include chest discomfort or pain, myocardial infarction, tachycardia, hyponatremia, hemolysis, hemolytic anemia, thrombosis, hepatitis, anaphylaxis, backache, aseptic meningitis, acute kidney injury, hypokalemic nephropathy, pulmonary embolism, and transfusion related acute lung injury. There is also a small chance that even given the precautions taken in preparing immunoglobulin preparations, an immunoglobulin infusion may pass a virus to its recipient. Some immunoglobulin solutions also contain isohemagglutinins, which in rare circumstances can cause hemolysis by the isohemagglutinins triggering phagocytosis.
In the case of less serious side effects, a patient's infusion rate can be adjusted downwards until the side effects become tolerable, while in the case of more serious side effects, emergency medical attention should be sought.
Immunoglobulin therapy also interferes with the ability of the body to produce a normal immune response to an attenuated live virus vaccine for up to a year, can result in falsely elevated blood glucose levels, and can interfere with many of the IgG-based assays often used to diagnose a patient with a particular infection.
Routes of administration
1950s – intramuscular
After immunoglobulin therapy's discovery and description in Pediatrics in 1952, weekly intramuscular injections of immunoglobulin (IMIg) were the norm until intravenous formulations (IVIg) began to be introduced in the 1980s. During the mid and late 1950s, one-time IMIG injections were a common public health response to outbreaks of polio before the widespread availability of vaccines. Intramuscular injections were extremely poorly tolerated due to their extreme pain and poor efficacy – rarely could intramuscular injections alone raise plasma immunoglobulin levels enough to make a clinically meaningful difference.
1980s – intravenous
Intravenous formulations began to be approved in the 1980s, which represented a significant improvement over intramuscular injections, as they allowed for a sufficient amount of immunoglobulin to be injected to reach clinical efficacy, although they still had a fairly high rate of adverse effects (though the addition of stabilizing agents reduced this further).
1990s - subcutaneous
The first description of a subcutaneous route of administration for immunoglobulin therapy dates back to 1980, but for many years subcutaneous administration was considered to be a secondary choice, only to be considered when peripheral venous access was no longer possible or tolerable.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, it became obvious that for at least a subset of patients the systemic adverse events associated with intravenous therapy were still not easily tolerable, and more doctors began to experiment with subcutaneous immunoglobulin administration, culminating in an ad hoc clinical trial in Sweden of 3000 subcutaneous injections administered to 25 adults (most of whom had previously experienced systemic adverse effects with IMIg or IVIg), where no infusion in the ad hoc trial resulted in a severe systemic adverse reaction, and most subcutaneous injections were able to be administered in non-hospital settings, allowing for considerably more freedom for the people involved.
In the later 1990s, large-scale trials began in Europe to test the feasibility of subcutaneous immunoglobulin administration, although it was not until 2006 that the first subcutaneous-specific preparation of immunoglobulin was approved by a major regulatory agency (Vivaglobin, which was voluntarily discontinued in 2011). A number of other trade names of subcutaneous immunoglobulin have since been approved, although some small-scale studies have indicated that a particular cohort of patients with Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) may suffer intolerable side effects with subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIg) that they do not with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg).
Although intravenous was the preferred route for immunoglobulin therapy for many years, in 2006, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first preparation of immunoglobulin that was designed exclusively for subcutaneous use.
Mechanism of action
The precise mechanism by which immunoglobulin therapy suppresses harmful inflammation is likely multifactorial. For example, it has been reported that immunoglobulin therapy can block Fas-mediated cell death.
Perhaps a more popular theory is that the immunosuppressive effects of immunoglobulin therapy are mediated through IgG's Fc glycosylation. By binding to receptors on antigen presenting cells, IVIG can increase the expression of the inhibitory Fc receptor, FcgRIIB, and shorten the half-life of auto-reactive antibodies. The ability of immunoglobulin therapy to suppress pathogenic immune responses by this mechanism is dependent on the presence of a sialylated glycan at position CH2-84.4 of IgG. Specifically, de-sialylated preparations of immunoglobulin lose their therapeutic activity and the anti-inflammatory effects of IVIG can be recapitulated by administration of recombinant sialylated IgG1 Fc.
Sialylated-Fc-dependent mechanism was not reproduced in other experimental models suggesting that this mechanism is functional under a particular disease or experimental settings. On the other hand, several other mechanisms of action and the actual primary targets of immunoglobulin therapy have been reported. In particular, F(ab')2-dependent action of immunoglobulin to inhibit activation of human dendritic cells, induction of autophagy, induction of COX-2-dependent PGE-2 in human dendritic cells leading to expansion of regulatory T cells, inhibition of pathogenic Th17 responses, and induction of human basophil activation and IL-4 induction via anti-IgE autoantibodies. Some believe that immunoglobulin therapy may work via a multi-step model where the injected immunoglobulin first forms a type of immune complex in the patient. Once these immune complexes are formed, they can interact with Fc receptors on dendritic cells, which then mediate anti-inflammatory effects helping to reduce the severity of the autoimmune disease or inflammatory state.
Other proposed mechanisms include the possibility that donor antibodies may bind directly with the abnormal host antibodies, stimulating their removal; the possibility that IgG stimulates the host's complement system, leading to enhanced removal of all antibodies, including the harmful ones; and the ability of immunoglobulin to block the antibody receptors on immune cells (macrophages), leading to decreased damage by these cells, or regulation of macrophage phagocytosis. Indeed, it is becoming more clear that immunoglobulin can bind to a number of membrane receptors on T cells, B cells, and monocytes that are pertinent to autoreactivity and induction of tolerance to self.
A recent report stated that immunoglobulin application to activated T cells leads to their decreased ability to engage microglia. As a result of immunoglobulin treatment of T cells, the findings showed reduced levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-10 in T cell-microglia co-culture. The results add to the understanding of how immunoglobulin may affect inflammation of the central nervous system in autoimmune inflammatory diseases.
Hyperimmune globulin
Hyperimmune globulins are a class of immunoglobulins prepared in a similar way as for normal human immunoglobulin, except that the donor has high titers of antibody against a specific organism or antigen in their plasma. Some agents against which hyperimmune globulins are available include hepatitis B, rabies, tetanus toxin, varicella-zoster, etc. Administration of hyperimmune globulin provides "passive" immunity to the patient against an agent. This is in contrast to vaccines that provide "active" immunity. However, vaccines take much longer to achieve that purpose while hyperimmune globulin provides instant "passive" short-lived immunity. Hyperimmune globulin may have serious side effects, thus usage is taken very seriously.
Hyperimmune serum is blood plasma containing high amounts of an antibody. It has been hypothesised that hyperimmune serum may be an effective therapy for persons infected with the Ebola virus.
Society and culture
Economics
In the United Kingdom a dose cost the NHS between 11.20 and 1,200.00 pounds depending on the type and amount.
Brand names
As biologicals, various trade names of immunoglobulin products are not necessarily interchangeable, and care must be exercised when changing between them. Trade names of intravenous immunoglobulin formulations include Flebogamma, Gamunex, Privigen, Octagam and Gammagard, while trade names of subcutaneous formulations include Cutaquig, Cuvitru, HyQvia, Hizentra, Gamunex-C, and Gammaked.
Supply issues
The United States is one of a handful of countries that allow plasma donors to be paid, meaning that the US supplies much of the plasma-derived medicinal products (including immunoglobulin) used across the world, including more than 50% of the European Union's supply. The Council of Europe has officially endorsed the idea of not paying for plasma donations for both ethical reasons and reasons of safety, but studies have found that relying on entirely voluntary plasma donation leads to shortages of immunoglobulin and forces member countries to import immunoglobulin from countries that do compensate donors.
In Australia, blood donation is voluntary and therefore to cope with increasing demand and to reduce the shortages of locally produced immunoglobulin, several programs have been undertaken including adopting plasma for first time blood donors, better processes for donation, plasma donor centres and encouraging current blood donors to consider plasma only donation.
Research
Experimental results from a small clinical trial in humans suggested protection against the progression of Alzheimer's disease, but no such benefit was found in a subsequent phase III clinical trial. In May 2020, the US approved a phase three clinical trial on the efficacy and safety of high-concentration intravenous immune globulin therapy in severe COVID-19.
References
External links
Glycoproteins
Medical treatments
Therapeutic antibodies
Transfusion medicine
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin%20therapy | Immunoglobulin therapy |
Sillénite or sillenite is a mineral with the chemical formula Bi12SiO20. It is named after the Swedish chemist Lars Gunnar Sillén, who mostly studied bismuth-oxygen compounds. It is found in Australia, Europe, China, Japan, Mexico and Mozambique, typically in association with bismutite.
Sillenites refer to a class of bismuth compounds with a structure similar to Bi12SiO20, whose parent structure is γ-Bi2O3, a meta-stable form of bismuth oxide. The cubic crystal sillenite structure is shared by several synthetic materials including bismuth titanate and bismuth germanate. These compounds have been extensively investigated for their non-linear optical properties.
Additional stoichiometries, and modified structures, are also found in Bi25GaO39, Bi25FeO39, and Bi25InO39. These compounds have gathered recent interest due to their photocatalytic properties.
Recently, sillenites have also gathered interest as heavy metal glass ceramics. They are considered promising materials for laser technology as
they combine strong nonlinear properties, relative ease of manufacturing, and low production cost.
References
Oxide minerals
Bismuth minerals
Cubic minerals
Minerals in space group 197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sill%C3%A9nite | Sillénite |
Fucus ceranoides is a species of brown algae found in the littoral zone of the sea shore.
Description
Fucus ceranoides is a species similar to other species of Fucus. It is linear to about 1 cm wide and is attached by a discoid holdfast. The branches grow to a length of 60 cm and show a clear midrib. Its margin is entire and it differs from Fucus serratus in not having a serrated edge and unlike Fucus vesiculosus it does not have air vesicles, however irregular swellings gives it a resemblance to F. vesiculosus. Fucus spiralis has spirally twisted fronds.
Distribution
Fucoids have no planktonic dispersal stages, restricting gamete dispersal. They can be found on the shores of Ireland and Great Britain including the Isle of Man and Shetland.
Habitat
Fucus ceranoides is restricted to estuarine intertidal habitats under fluctuating salinities. The modern distribution of Fucus ceranoides ranges from Portugal to Norway and Iceland. This includes the rocky shores in the littoral generally where fresh water flows into the sea, brackish water in sheltered bays.
References
External links
Fucales
Species described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fucus%20ceranoides | Fucus ceranoides |
The adiponectin receptors (AdipoRs) include the following two receptors, which are bound and activated by adiponectin:
Adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1, PAQR1)
Adiponectin receptor 2 (AdipoR2, PAQR2)
They are members of the progestin and adipoQ receptor (PAQR) family.
In 2016, the University of Tokyo announced it was launching an investigation into anonymously made claims of fabricated and falsified data on the identification of AdipoR1 and AdipoR2.
References
Receptors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiponectin%20receptor | Adiponectin receptor |
U is a possible astronomical body detected by Chile's Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) during a survey for substellar objects in the Alpha Centauri system.
In images taken on 7 July 2014 (343.5 GHz) and 2 May 2015 (445 GHz), researchers discovered a source in the far infrared located within 5.5 arcseconds of . Based on its proper motion, it was at first thought to be a part of the Alpha Centauri system. Further analysis, however, found that the object must be closer to the Solar System, and that it may be gravitationally bound to the Sun. The researchers suggest that the object may be an extreme trans-Neptunian object (ETNO) beyond , a super-Earth at around , or a very cool brown dwarf at around .
The research was published on the arXiv in December 2015, but was later withdrawn pending further study. Additional observations of the detection at 343.5 GHz could not be made, whereas the detection at 445 GHz was confirmed to greater than 12σ. A single point of data, however, is insufficient for proper analysis, and further observations must be made to better determine this object's nature and its orbit.
Other astronomers have expressed skepticism over this claim. Mike Brown thinks that it is statistically improbable for a new Solar System object to be accidentally observed in ALMA's extremely narrow field of view, whereas Bruce Macintosh suggests that the detections may be artifacts introduced due to ALMA's calibration methods.
References
Astronomical objects discovered in 2015
Scattered disc and detached objects
Possible dwarf planets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%20%28TNO%29 | U (TNO) |
Dumontia contorta is a relatively small epiphytic algae of the sea-shore.
Description
The thallus grows from a discoid holdfast to a length of about . The fronds branch irregularly and sparingly. The branches are hollow, soft and twisted, dark reddish brown in colour which bleach towards the tips, they clearly taper at their junction.
Reproduction
The plants are dioecious (sexes separate) with microscopic spermatangia, carposporangia, and tetrasporangia developing in the surface layer, cruciate.
Habitat
Generally epilithic in rock pools of the littoral zone.
Distribution
Common around the British Isles. Europe from Russia to Portugal and Canada to United States. In the NW Pacific and Alaska.
References
Dumontiaceae | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumontia%20contorta | Dumontia contorta |
Enadenotucirev is an investigational oncolytic virus that is in clinical trials for various cancers.
It is an oncolytic A11/Ad3 Chimeric Group B Adenovirus, previously described as ColoAd1.
Enadenotucirev has also been modified with additional genes using the tumor-specific immuno-gene therapy (T-SIGn) platform to develop novel cancer gene therapy agents.
The T-SIGn vectors at clinical study stage are:
NG-350A: This vector contains two transgenes expressing the heavy and light chains for a secreted CD40 agonist monoclonal antibody.
NG-641: This vector contains four transgenes expressing secreted Interferon alpha, the chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and an anti-FAP/anti-CD3 bispecific T-cell activator
In Jan 2015 the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) Committee for Orphan Medical Products (COMP) designated enadenotucirev as an orphan medicinal product for the treatment of ovarian cancer.
Clinical trials
Two clinical trials have been completed with enadenotucirev. The EVOLVE study and the MOA study.
, there are two active phase 1 trials: OCTAVE (in ovarian cancer) and SPICE (in multiple solid tumor indications)
Of the T-SIGn viruses, NG-350A has an ongoing clinical study.
See also
Oncolytic adenovirus
Oncolytic adenovirus#Directed Evolution
References
Adenoviridae
Biotechnology
Experimental cancer treatments
Virotherapy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enadenotucirev | Enadenotucirev |
Spirocyclina is a genus of large forams, with a flat test as much as 10mm in diameter. Coiling is planispiral to slightly asymmetric and mostly involute, some becoming uncoiled with a straight final stage. The final whorl, or stage, has about 25 strongly arcuate chambers. Composition is of agglutinated matter, the outer layer of the wall imperforate. Chambers are subdivided into secondary chamberlets by internal structures. The aperture consists of a double row of pores on the apertural face.
Anchispirocyclina and Martiguesia are among related genera.
References
Alfred R. Loeblich, jr & Helen Tappan 1964. Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part C, Protista 2. Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press.
A.R. Loeblich & H Tappan, 1988 in GSI.ir Paleontology.
Rotaliata, Textulariana
Loftusiida
Foraminifera genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirocyclina | Spirocyclina |
In mathematics, a Γ-object of a pointed category C is a contravariant functor from Γ to C.
The basic example is Segal's so-called Γ-space, which may be thought of as a generalization of simplicial abelian group (or simplicial abelian monoid). More precisely, one can define a Gamma space as an O-monoid object in an infinity-category. The notion plays a role in the generalization of algebraic K-theory that replaces an abelian group by something higher.
Notes
References
Category theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-object | Gamma-object |
WhizFolders is an organizer and outliner for managing notes on Microsoft Windows. WhizFolders has been around since 1998. Its predecessor WhizNote, a plain text notes organizer, was released in CompuServe forums in 1993.
WhizFolders allows to manage your information in two-panes--the left pane being a hierarchical list of note titles and the right-pane contains the detail or text of the selected note in the list. The notes can be merged when copying to the clipboard, or when exporting or printing. A boolean search for information is available. Keyword tags can also be assigned to the notes to find them even when the actual tag is absent in their text.
A freeware viewer is separately available to read WhizFolder files.
Features
Hierarchical list of note titles
Word wrapped note titles
Drag and drop outlining of note titles
Rich text note contents (RTF)
Boolean or exact search
Keyword tags
Hyperlinks to other notes or external files, web sites
Pasting from web sites with source address
Automated pasting
Merged export or printing of notes
See also
Comparison of notetaking software
Notetaking
Zim
References
Notes
Listed as note taking program in the book Your First Notebook PC
Mention in the book BCGS Genealogist
Mentioned in the book Get Your Articles Published: Teach Yourself
External links
Outliners
Note-taking software
Personal information managers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whizfolders | Whizfolders |
Hydrogen chalcogenides (also chalcogen hydrides or hydrogen chalcides) are binary compounds of hydrogen with chalcogen atoms (elements of group 16: oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium). Water, the first chemical compound in this series, contains one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, and is the most common compound on the Earth's surface.
Dihydrogen chalcogenides
The most important series, including water, has the chemical formula H2X, with X representing any chalcogen. They are therefore triatomic. They take on a bent structure and as such are polar molecules. Water is an essential compound to life on Earth today, covering 70.9% of the planet's surface. The other hydrogen chalcogenides are usually extremely toxic, and have strong unpleasant scents usually resembling rotting eggs or vegetables. Hydrogen sulfide is a common product of decomposition in oxygen-poor environments and as such is one chemical responsible for the smell of flatulence. It is also a volcanic gas. Despite its toxicity, the human body intentionally produces it in small enough doses for use as a signaling molecule.
Water can dissolve the other hydrogen chalcogenides (at least those up to hydrogen telluride), forming acidic solutions known as hydrochalcogenic acids. Although these are weaker acids than the hydrohalic acids, they follow a similar trend of acid strength increasing with heavier chalcogens, and also form in a similar way (turning the water into a hydronium ion H3O+ and the solute into a XH− ion). It is unknown if polonium hydride forms an acidic solution in water like its lighter homologues, or if it behaves more like a metal hydride (see also hydrogen astatide).
Some properties of the hydrogen chalcogenides follow:
Many of the anomalous properties of water compared to the rest of the hydrogen chalcogenides may be attributed to significant hydrogen bonding between hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Some of these properties are the high melting and boiling points (it is a liquid at room temperature), as well as the high dielectric constant and observable ionic dissociation. Hydrogen bonding in water also results in large values of heat and entropy of vaporisation, surface tension, and viscosity.
The other hydrogen chalcogenides are highly toxic, malodorous gases. Hydrogen sulfide occurs commonly in nature and its properties compared with water reveal a lack of any significant hydrogen bonding. Since they are both gases at STP, hydrogen can be simply burned in the presence of oxygen to form water in a highly exothermic reaction; such a test can be used in beginner chemistry to test for the gases produced by a reaction as hydrogen will burn with a pop. Water, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen selenide may be made by heating their constituent elements together above 350 °C, but hydrogen telluride and polonium hydride are not attainable by this method due to their thermal instability; hydrogen telluride decomposes in moisture, in light, and in temperatures above 0 °C. Polonium hydride is unstable, and due to the intense radioactivity of polonium (resulting in self-radiolysis upon formation), only trace quantities may be obtained by treating dilute hydrochloric acid with polonium-plated magnesium foil. Its properties are somewhat distinct from the rest of the hydrogen chalcogenides, since polonium is a metal while the other chalcogens are not, and hence this compound is intermediate between a normal hydrogen chalcogenide or hydrogen halide such as hydrogen chloride, and a metal hydride like stannane. Like water, the first of the group, polonium hydride is also a liquid at room temperature. Unlike water, however, the strong intermolecular attractions that cause the higher boiling point are van der Waals interactions, an effect of the large electron clouds of polonium.
Dihydrogen dichalcogenides
Dihydrogen dichalcogenides have the chemical formula H2X2, and are generally less stable than the monochalcogenides, commonly decomposing into the monochalcogenide and the chalcogen involved.
The most important of these is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, a pale blue, nearly colourless liquid that has a lower volatility than water and a higher density and viscosity. It is important chemically as it can be either oxidised or reduced in solutions of any pH, can readily form peroxometal complexes and peroxoacid complexes, as well as undergoing many proton acid/base reactions. In its less concentrated form hydrogen peroxide has some major household uses, such as a disinfectant or for bleaching hair; much more concentrated solutions are much more dangerous.
Some properties of the hydrogen dichalcogenides follow:
An alternative structural isomer of the dichalcogenides, in which both hydrogen atoms are bonded to the same chalcogen atom, which is also bonded to the other chalcogen atom, have been examined computationally. These H2X+–X– structures are ylides. This isomeric form of hydrogen peroxide, oxywater, has not been synthesized experimentally. The analogous isomer of hydrogen disulfide, thiosulfoxide, has been detected by mass spectrometry experiments.
It is possible for two different chalcogen atoms to share a dichalcogenide, as in hydrogen thioperoxide (H2SO); more well-known compounds of similar description include sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Higher dihydrogen chalcogenides
All straight-chain hydrogen chalcogenides follow the formula H2Xn.
Higher hydrogen polyoxides than H2O2 are not stable. Trioxidane, with three oxygen atoms, is a transient unstable intermediate in several reactions. The next two in the oxygen series, hydrogen tetroxide and hydrogen pentoxide, have also been synthesized and found to be highly reactive. An alternative structural isomer of trioxidane, in which the two hydrogen atoms are attached to the central oxygen of the three-oxygen chain rather than one on each end, has been examined computationally.
Beyond H2S and H2S2, many higher polysulfanes H2Sn (n = 3–8) are known as stable compounds. They feature unbranched sulfur chains, reflecting sulfur's proclivity for catenation. Starting with H2S2, all known polysulfanes are liquids at room temperature. H2S2 is colourless while the other polysulfanes are yellow; the colour becomes richer as n increases, as do the density, viscosity, and boiling point. A table of physical properties is given below.
However, they can easily be oxidised and are all thermally unstable, disproportionating readily to sulfur and hydrogen sulfide, a reaction for which alkali acts as a catalyst:
H2Sn → H2S + S8
They also react with sulfite and cyanide to produce thiosulfate and thiocyanate respectively.
An alternative structural isomer of the trisulfide, in which the two hydrogen atoms are attached to the central sulfur of the three-sulfur chain rather than one on each end, has been examined computationally. Thiosulfurous acid, a branched isomer of the tetrasulfide, in which the fourth sulfur is bonded to the central sulfur of a linear dihydrogen trisulfide structure ((HS)2S+–S–), has also been examined computationally. Thiosulfuric acid, in which two sulfur atoms branch off of the central of a linear dihydrogen trisulfide structure has been studied computationally as well.
Higher polonium hydrides may exist.
Other hydrogen-chalcogen compounds
Some monohydrogen chalcogenide compounds do exist and others have been studied theoretically. As radical compounds, they are quite unstable. The two simplest are hydroxyl (HO) and hydroperoxyl (HO2). The compound hydrogen ozonide (HO3) is also known, along with some of its alkali metal ozonide salts are (various MO3). The respective sulfur analogue for hydroxyl is sulfanyl (HS) and HS2 for hydroperoxyl.
One or both of the protium atoms in water can be substituted with the isotope deuterium, yielding respectively semiheavy water and heavy water, the latter being one of the most famous deuterium compounds. Due to the high difference in density between deuterium and regular protium, heavy water exhibits many anomalous properties. The radioisotope tritium can also form tritiated water in much the same way. Another notable deuterium chalcogenide is deuterium disulfide. Deuterium telluride (D2Te) has slightly higher thermal stability than protium telluride, and has been used experimentally for chemical deposition methods of telluride-based thin films.
Hydrogen shares many properties with the halogens; substituting the hydrogen with halogens can result in chalcogen halide compounds such as oxygen difluoride and dichlorine monoxide, alongside ones that may be impossible with hydrogen such as chlorine dioxide.
Hydrogen Ions
One of the most well-known hydrogen chalcogenide ions is the hydroxide ion, and the related hydroxy functional group. The former is present in alkali metal, alkaline earth, and rare-earth hydroxides, formed by reacting the respective metal with water. The hydroxy group appears commonly in organic chemistry, such as within alcohols. The related bisulfide/sulfhydryl group appears in hydrosulfide salts and thiols, respectively.
The hydronium (H3O+) ion is present in aqueous acidic solutions, including the hydrochalcogenic acids themselves, as well as pure water alongside hydroxide.
References
Bibliography
Chalcogenides
Hydrogen compounds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20chalcogenide | Hydrogen chalcogenide |
In mathematics, the quotient (also called Serre quotient or Gabriel quotient) of an abelian category by a Serre subcategory is the abelian category which, intuitively, is obtained from by ignoring (i.e. treating as zero) all objects from . There is a canonical exact functor whose kernel is .
Definition
Formally, is the category whose objects are those of and whose morphisms from X to Y are given by the direct limit (of abelian groups) over subobjects and such that and . (Here, and denote quotient objects computed in .) Composition of morphisms in is induced by the universal property of the direct limit.
The canonical functor sends an object X to itself and a morphism to the corresponding element of the direct limit with X′ = X and Y′ = 0.
Examples
Let be a field and consider the abelian category of all vector spaces over . Then the full subcategory of finite-dimensional vector spaces is a Serre-subcategory of . The quotient has as objects the -vector spaces, and the set of morphisms from to in is (which is a quotient of vector spaces). This has the effect of identifying all finite-dimensional vector spaces with 0, and of identifying two linear maps whenever their difference has finite-dimensional image.
Properties
The quotient is an abelian category, and the canonical functor is exact. The kernel of is , i.e., is a zero object of if and only if belongs to .
The quotient and canonical functor are characterized by the following universal property: if is any abelian category and is an exact functor such that is a zero object of for each object , then there is a unique exact functor such that .
Gabriel–Popescu
The Gabriel–Popescu theorem states that any Grothendieck category is equivalent to a quotient category , where denotes the abelian category of right modules over some unital ring , and is some localizing subcategory of .
References
Category theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient%20of%20an%20abelian%20category | Quotient of an abelian category |
In mathematics, the (2,1)-Pascal triangle (mirrored Lucas triangle)is a triangular array.
The rows of the (2,1)-Pascal triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n = 0 at the top (the 0th row). The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k = 0 and are usually staggered relative to the numbers in the adjacent rows.
The triangle is based on the Pascal's Triangle with the second line being (2,1) and the first cell of each row set to 2.
This construction is related to the binomial coefficients by Pascal's rule, with one of the terms being .
Patterns and properties
(2,1)-Pascal triangle has many properties and contains many patterns of numbers. It can be seen as a sister of the Pascal's triangle, in the same way that a Lucas sequence is a sister sequence of the Fibonacci sequence.
Rows
Except the row n = 0, 1, The sum of the elements of a single row is twice the sum of the row preceding it. For example, row 1 has a value of 3, row 2 has a value of 6, row 3 has a value of 12, and so forth. This is because every item in a row produces two items in the next row: one left and one right. The sum of the elements of row is equal to .
The value of a row, if each entry is considered a decimal place (and numbers larger than 9 carried over accordingly) is a power of 11 multiplied by 21 (, for row ). Thus, in row 2, becomes , while in row five becomes (after carrying) 307461, which is . This property is explained by setting in the binomial expansion of , and adjusting values to the decimal system. But can be chosen to allow rows to represent values in any base.
In base 3:
In base 9:
Polarity: Yet another interesting pattern, when rows of Pascal's triangle are added and subtracted together sequentially, every row with a middle number, meaning rows that have an odd number of integers, they are always equal to 0. Example, row 4 is , so the formula would be , row 6 is , so the formula would be . So every even row of the Pascal triangle equals 0 when you take the middle number, then subtract the integers directly next to the center, then add the next integers, then subtract, so on and so forth until you reach the end of the row.
Or we can say that when we take the first term of a row, then subtract the second term, then add the third term, then subtract, so on and so forth until you reach the end of the row, the result is always equal to 0.
row 3: 2 − 3 + 1 = 0
row 4: 2 − 5 + 4 − 1 = 0
row 5: 2 − 7 + 9 − 5 + 1 = 0
row 6: 2 − 9 + 16 − 14 + 6 − 1 = 0
row 7: 2 − 11 + 25 − 30 + 20 − 7 + 1 = 0
row 8: 2 − 13 + 36 − 55 + 50 − 27 + 8 − 1 = 0
Diagonals
The diagonals of Pascal's triangle contain the figurate numbers of simplices:
The diagonals going along the right edges contain only 1's while the diagonals going along the right edges contain only 2s except the first cell.
The diagonals next to the left edge diagonal contain the odd numbers in order.
The diagonals next to the right edge diagonal contain the natural numbers in order.
Moving inwards, the next pair of diagonals contain the square numbers and triangular numbers minus 1 in order.
The next pair of diagonals contain the Square pyramidal number in order, and the next pair give 4-dimensional pyramidal numbers .
Overall patterns and properties
The pattern obtained by coloring only the odd numbers in Pascal's triangle closely resembles the fractal called the Sierpinski triangle. This resemblance becomes more and more accurate as more rows are considered; in the limit, as the number of rows approaches infinity, the resulting pattern is the Sierpinski triangle, assuming a fixed perimeter. More generally, numbers could be colored differently according to whether or not they are multiples of 3, 4, etc.; this results in other similar patterns.
Imagine each number in the triangle is a node in a grid which is connected to the adjacent numbers above and below it. Now for any node in the grid, count the number of paths there are in the grid (without backtracking) which connect this node to the top node (1) of the triangle. The answer is the Pascal number associated to that node.
One property of the triangle is revealed if the rows are left-justified. In the triangle below, the diagonal coloured bands sum to successive Fibonacci numbers and Lucas numbers.
{| style="align:center;"
|- align=center
|bgcolor=red|1
|- align=center
| style="background:orange;"|2
| style="background:yellow;"|1
|- align=center
| style="background:yellow;"|2
|bgcolor=lime|3
|bgcolor=aqua|1
|- align=center
|bgcolor=lime|2
|bgcolor=aqua|5
| style="background:violet;"|4
|bgcolor=red|1
|- align=center
|bgcolor=aqua|2
| style="background:violet;"|7
|bgcolor=red|9
| style="background:orange;"|5
| style="background:yellow;"|1
|- align=center
| style="background:violet;"|2
|bgcolor=red|9
| style="background:orange;"|16
| style="background:yellow;"|14
|bgcolor=lime|6
|bgcolor=aqua|1
|- align=center
|bgcolor=red|2
| style="background:orange;"|11
| style="background:yellow;"|25
|bgcolor=lime|30
|bgcolor=aqua|20
| style="background:violet;"|7
|bgcolor=red|1
|- align=center
| style="background:orange;"|2
| style="background:yellow;"|13
|bgcolor=lime|36
|bgcolor=aqua|55
| style="background:violet;"|50
|bgcolor=red|27
| style="background:orange;"|8
| style="background:yellow;"|1
|- align=center
| style="background:yellow; width:50px;"|2
| style="background:lime; width:50px;"|15
| style="background:aqua; width:50px;"|49
| style="background:violet; width:50px;"|91
| style="background:red; width:50px;"|105
| style="background:orange; width:50px;"|77
| style="background:yellow; width:50px;"|35
| style="background:lime; width:50px;"|9
| style="background:aqua; width:50px;"|1
|}
{| style="align:center;"
|- align=center
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
|bgcolor=red|1
|- align=center
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
| style="background:yellow;"|2
| style="background:orange;"|1
|- align=center
||
||
||
||
||
||
| style="background:aqua;"|2
|bgcolor=lime|3
|bgcolor=yellow|1
|- align=center
||
||
||
||
||
|bgcolor=red|2
|bgcolor=violet|5
| style="background:aqua;"|4
|bgcolor=lime|1
|- align=center
||
||
||
||
|bgcolor=yellow|2
| style="background:orange;"|7
|bgcolor=red|9
| style="background:violet;"|5
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| style="background:yellow;"|16
| style="background:orange;"|14
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| style="background:aqua;"|25
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| style="background:orange;"|7
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| style="background:orange;"|13
|bgcolor=red|36
|bgcolor=violet|55
| style="background:aqua;"|50
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| style="background:orange;"|1
|- align=center
| style="background:aqua; width:50px;"|2
| style="background:lime; width:50px;"|15
| style="background:yellow; width:50px;"|49
| style="background:orange; width:50px;"|91
| style="background:red; width:50px;"|105
| style="background:violet; width:50px;"|77
| style="background:aqua; width:50px;"|35
| style="background:lime; width:50px;"|9
| style="background:yellow; width:50px;"|1
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This construction is also related to the expansion of , using .
then
References
Triangles of numbers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%282%2C1%29-Pascal%20triangle | (2,1)-Pascal triangle |
Odontosyllis phosphorea, commonly known as a fireworm, is a polychaete worm that inhabits the Pacific coast of North and Central America. The organism normally lives in a tube on the seabed, but it becomes bioluminescent when it rises to the surface of the sea during breeding season.
Description
Odontosyllis phosphorea is a small worm some long and in diameter when fully grown. Its elongated body is composed of many segments, each bearing a pair of parapodia. With these appendages it can crawl, burrow and swim, but it normally lives in a parchment-like tube it creates on a rock or other hard surface on the seabed. The head has two pairs of eyes, a nuchal hood which covers the back of the prostomium, and a ring of small curved teeth inside the pharynx. The parapodia in the central part of the body are slender and tapering. The upper surface of the worm is dark with yellowish transverse bands.
Distribution and habitat
This fireworm occurs on the west coast of North America from British Columbia to California, with a separate population off the coast of Panama in Central America. The species typically lives among seaweed growing on rocks and among seagrasses such as Zostera. It can be found on the seabed from the intertidal zone down to the continental shelf.
Ecology
Odontosyllis phosphorea feeds mainly on bacteria, microalgae and planktonic particles. It swallows this prey whole by everting its pharynx around the food item. It is itself eaten by fish, crabs and birds, being particularly vulnerable during its reproductive phase when it rises to the surface. One means of defence that it exhibits at these times is that it can shed its bioluminescent tail which may serve as a decoy while the worm returns to the seabed.
Reproduction is seasonal in O. phosphorea, its timing related to the phases of the moon. Spawning takes place between June and October, at night at two-weekly intervals coinciding with neap tides. Shortly after sunset, worms begin to rise to the surface. Males usually appear first, the hind part of their body emitting a blue-green light, and periodically discharging a lingering secretion of luminous matter into the water. Females appear soon afterwards, emitting flashes of light, and swimming in small circles on the water's surface. Both the body of the female and the secretions it produces are luminous and sometimes a male gyrates on the surface with a female. The display ceases within half an hour of starting. Water samples taken in the vicinity of males and females and their luminous secretions contain spermatozoa and eggs respectively.
This breeding activity contrasts with the closely related Bermuda fireworm (Odontosyllis enopla) which is largely non-seasonal in its breeding behaviour but very specific in its lunar periodicity and timing, rising to the surface to spawn 55 minutes after sunset, on a night just after the full moon.
See also
Odontosyllis enopla
List of Annelida of Ireland for O. gibba , O. fulgurans
1492 light sighting
References
Syllidae
Bioluminescent annelids
Animals described in 1909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odontosyllis%20phosphorea | Odontosyllis phosphorea |
Doisynolic acid is a synthetic, nonsteroidal, orally active estrogen that was never marketed. The reaction of estradiol or estrone with potassium hydroxide, a strong base, results in doisynolic acid as a degradation product, which retains high estrogenic activity, and this reaction was how the drug was discovered, in the late 1930s. The drug is a highly active and potent estrogen by the oral or subcutaneous route. The reaction of equilenin or dihydroequilenin with potassium hydroxide was also found to produce bisdehydrodoisynolic acid, the levorotatory isomer of which is an estrogen with an "astonishingly" high degree of potency, while the dextrorotatory isomer is inactive. Doisynolic acid was named after Edward Adelbert Doisy, a pioneer in the field of estrogen research and one of the discoverers of estrone.
Doisynolic acid is the parent compound of a group of synthetic, nonsteroidal estrogens with high oral activity. The synthetic, nonsteroidal estrogens methallenestril, fenestrel, and carbestrol were all derived from doisynolic acid and are seco-analogues of the compound. Doisynoestrol, also known as fenocycline, is cis-bisdehydrdoisynolic acid methyl ether, and is another estrogenic derivative.
See also
Allenolic acid
Diethylstilbestrol
Stilbestrol
Chlorotrianisene
Triphenylethylene
References
Synthetic estrogens | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doisynolic%20acid | Doisynolic acid |
In plants, vivipary occurs when seeds or embryos begin to develop before they detach from the parent. Plants such as some Iridaceae and Agavoideae grow cormlets in the axils of their inflorescences. These fall and in favourable circumstances they have effectively a whole season's start over fallen seeds. Similarly, some Crassulaceae, such as Bryophyllum, develop and drop plantlets from notches in their leaves, ready to grow. Such production of embryos from somatic tissues is asexual vegetative reproduction that amounts to cloning.
Description
Most seed-bearing fruits produce a hormone that suppresses germination until after the fruit or parent plant dies, or the seeds pass through an animal's digestive tract. At this stage, the hormone's effect will dissipate and germination will occur once conditions are suitable. Some species lack this suppressant hormone as a central part of their reproductive strategy. For example, fruits that develop in climates without large seasonal variations. This phenomenon occurs most frequently on ears of corn, tomatoes, strawberries, peppers, pears, citrus fruits, and plants that grow in mangrove environments.
In some species of mangroves, for instance, the seed germinates and grows from its own resources while still attached to its parent. Seedlings of some species are dispersed by currents if they drop into the water, but others develop a heavy, straight taproot that commonly penetrates mud when the seedling drops, thereby effectively planting the seedling. This contrasts with the examples of vegetative reproduction mentioned above, in that the mangrove plantlets are true seedlings produced by sexual reproduction.
In some trees, like jackfruit, some citrus, and avocado, the seeds can be found already germinated while the fruit goes overripe; strictly speaking this condition cannot be described as vivipary, but the moist and humid conditions provided by the fruit mimic a wet soil that encourages germination. However, the seeds also can germinate under moist soil.
Reproduction
Vivipary includes reproduction via embryos, such as shoots or bulbils, as opposed to germinating externally from a dropped, dormant seed, as is usual in plants;
Pseudovivipary
A few plants are pseudoviviparous – instead of reproducing with seeds, there are Monocot grasses that can reproduce asexually by creating new plantlets in their spikelets. Examples are seagrass species belonging to the genus Posidonia and the alpine meadow-grass, Poa alpina.
See also
False vivipary
References
Plant reproduction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivipary | Vivipary |
Phallophobia in its narrower sense is a fear of the erect penis and in a broader sense an excessive aversion to masculinity.
Terminology
Alternative terms for this condition include ithyphallophobia or medorthophobia. An individual who has the condition is a phallophobe. The term is derived from the word phallo in Greek meaning penis and at times denoting masculinity, coupled with the suffix phobia. Medomalacuphobia, the fear of losing an erection or acquiring erectile dysfunction, is its antonym. At its most extreme, phallophobia when coupled with a psychiatric condition may result in issues such as Klingsor Syndrome or ederacinism.
Scope
In its broadest sense the term can be used metaphorically, for example in regards to pro-feminists. However, in its narrower sense it has been described as a symptom that is more likely to be exhibited by women. In sources that appear to use it in the original sense, it is sometimes nuanced as a byproduct or hyponym of an aversion, dislike or fear of the protruding appendage resemblance of the male erection, and how this symbolizes an accompanying aggression or assertiveness. This may occur in an aesthetic setting, or in a sociological setting. Such an aversion is sometimes extended to an unattributable cognitive process while at other times men's self and own experience. In such a scenario, due to the essentiality of such reflexes for men, some correspondents have posited the feasibility of such a diagnosis if a man has relatively frequent nocturnal penile tumescence since he will probably not notice his erections then. In cultures that discuss the male genitalia as a singular unit, the phenomenon of castration anxiety may overlap with phallophobia from a linguistic standpoint. Although usually referring to ordinary erections, the term has also been used in toxicological and therapeutic contexts.
Cause
Sigmund Freud has footnoted the possibility that this fear may be derived from a lack of ingenuity allowing one to ornamentally distance the copulatory organs from the excretory organs. Such a condition can affect both men and women. For others, symptoms include what characterizes a panic attack. It does not necessarily have to be induced by an uncovered penis, but may also result from seeing the manbulging outline or curvature of the penis, perhaps through clothes consisting of thin fabric. In more extreme cases it has been likened to the fight or flight response ingrained within the human body wherein an individual ceases to be intimate with their male partner and is unable to visit mixed gender establishments where people are likely to wear more revealing clothing, such as a gym, beach, cinema or livingrooms with a switched on monitor. The fear can recur through any of the senses including accidental touch, sight, hearing the word penis or thinking about an erection. The phobia may have developed from a condition such as dyspareunia, a trauma (usually sexual) that occurred during childhood, but can also have a fortuitous origin. In literature covering human sexuality, it is used as an adjective only to negatively allude to penetrative sex acts. Men who have the phobia may try to avoid wearing sweatpants and other light fabrics, especially in public. Some analysts have purported that the condition may be inherited or may be a combination of genetic inheritance and life experiences. For men with the condition, one of the byproducts is difficulty consummating with a partner due to a sense of vulnerability. This vulnerability may have developed during childhood if they grew up being told by their parents that sex and its physiological functions be evil, sinful and dirty, but were subsequently unable to detach such shameful feelings nor reverse it upon reaching adulthood, even when romantic initiatives were subsequently approved of or encouraged by their parents.
Behavior
Sometimes the word is used in a sense wherein it is metaphorical and unrelated to its etymological origins, as in for instance when a man sees another man as a rival and a potential source of infidelity for his spouse. Other reviews have applied the term as a euphemism or allegory to indicate that society is in contemporary times less willing to be objective and straightforward in discussions of the physiological aspects of the young male body in general due to prudery, or a celibacist and puritan standpoint that in particular targets men and boys. For instance, Ken Corbett has theorized the fact of widespread absence of the penis as an object of discussion in children's books and parenting books as evidencing that "a kind of phallophobia has crept into our cultural theorizing". In other writings it has been used as an epithet to describe the lesbian or female asexual aversion to male sexuality. Author Fawzi Boubia defines phallophobia as a hostility towards the stronger male gender. The term has also been used as a substitute to indirectly express an aversion to procreation. Phallophobia has also been used as an algorithm in studies of heuristics in robotic decision making in themes related to sexual temperance. In criticisms of anti-male sexism, phallophobia is used as an epithet to deride double standards and hypocrisy in the legal system, all down to the set of genitalia one possesses. One of the byproducts of this phobia among women is that it may result in them faking an orgasm to mask their feeling of revulsion around their male spouse. Forms of treatment may include intensive counselling and therapy sessions.
References
Phobias
Penile erection
Prudishness | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallophobia | Phallophobia |
Imalumab (BAX69) is an experimental monoclonal antibody against macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF), a cytokine known to exacerbate tumor growth. and as of January 2017 it is being tested in Phase IIa clinical trials for metastatic colorectal cancer. It was developed by Cytokine PharmaSciences and Baxalta, which was purchased by Shire Pharmaceuticals.
A phase I/II trial in patients with malignant ascites was terminated in 2016.
References
Monoclonal antibodies for tumors
Experimental cancer drugs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imalumab | Imalumab |
Phytomelanin (phytomelan) is a black, inert, organic material that forms a crust-like covering of some seeds, commonly found in Asparagales and Asteraceae but uncommon in other taxonomic groupings. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in Orchidaceae). It is mechanically hard and forms a resistant substance, although it is more pliable in the developing fruit, hardening later. Chemically it appears to be a polyvinyl aromatic alcohol, and is thought to be exuded from the hypodermis. It appears to provide resistance to insect predators and desiccation.
References
Bibliography
Asparagales
Asteraceae
Phytochemicals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytomelanin | Phytomelanin |
The bacterial murein precursor exporter (MPE) family (TC# 2.A.103) is a member of the cation diffusion facilitator (CDF) superfamily of membrane transporters. Members of the MPE family are found in a large variety of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and facilitate the translocation of lipid-linked murein (aka peptidoglycan) precursors. A representative list of proteins belonging to the MPE family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
Structure
Members of the MPE family consist of 370-420 amino acyl residues with 9 (RodA; TC# 2.A.103.1.2) or 10 (FtsW; TC# 2.A.103.1.1) putative transmembrane α-helical spanners. Experimental evidence for a 10 TMS model has been reported for FtsW of Streptococcus pneumoniae. The S. pneumoniae protein has both its N- and C-termini in the cytoplasm, a large (~ 60 residue) cytoplasmic domain between TMSs 4 and 5, and a large (~ 80 residue) extracytoplasmic loop between TMSs 7 and 8.
Function
Bacterial cell growth necessitates synthesis of peptidoglycan. Assembly of peptidoglycan is a multistep process starting in the cytoplasm and ending in the exterior cell surface. The intracellular part of the pathway results in the production of the membrane-anchored cell wall precursor, Lipid II. After synthesis, this lipid intermediate is translocated across the cell membrane. The translocation (flipping) step of Lipid II requires a specific protein (flippase). Mohammadi et al. (2011) showed that the integral membrane protein FtsW (TC# 2.A.103.1.1,4-7), an essential protein for cell division, is a transporter of the lipid-linked peptidoglycan precursors across the cytoplasmic membrane. Using E. coli membrane vesicles, they found that transport of Lipid II requires the presence of FtsW, and purified FtsW induced the transbilayer movement of Lipid II in model membranes.
The best-characterized members of the family are the FtsW cell division protein, the RodA rod shape determining protein (both of E. coli; TC# 2.A.103.1.2) and the SpoVE protein of B. subtilis (TC# 2.A.103.1.3). They have been shown to function in the translocation (export) of lipid-linked murein precursors such as NAG-NAM-pentapeptide pyrophosphoryl undecaprenol (lipid II). They interact with murein synthases as well as two transpeptidases (PBP2 and PBP3). In Gram-negative bacteria the ftsW gene is physically linked to murG (TC# 9.B.146), which is responsible for the final cytoplasmic step in the synthesis of lipid II before it is flipped to the periplasmic side of the membrane. They may therefore be part of a tunneling device directing the flow of murein precursors to the membrane enzymes that insert the precursors into the preexisting murein sacculus.
Transport reaction
The following reaction is catalyzed by the proteins of the MPE family.
Lipid-linked murein precursor (in) → Lipid-linked murein precursor (out)
See also
Peptidoglycan
Transporter Classification Database
References
Protein families
Transmembrane transporters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial%20murein%20precursor%20exporter | Bacterial murein precursor exporter |
The microprocessor complex is a protein complex involved in the early stages of processing microRNA (miRNA) and RNA interference (RNAi) in animal cells. The complex is minimally composed of the ribonuclease enzyme Drosha and the dimeric RNA-binding protein DGCR8 (also known as Pasha in non-human animals), and cleaves primary miRNA substrates to pre-miRNA in the cell nucleus. Microprocessor is also the smaller of the two multi-protein complexes that contain human Drosha.
Composition
The microprocessor complex consists minimally of two proteins: Drosha, a ribonuclease III enzyme; and DGCR8, a double-stranded RNA binding protein. (DGCR8 is the name used in mammalian genetics, abbreviated from "DiGeorge syndrome critical region 8"; the homologous protein in model organisms such as flies and worms is called Pasha, for Partner of Drosha.) The stoichiometry of the minimal complex was at one point experimentally difficult to determine, but it has been demonstrated to be a heterotrimer of two DGCR8 proteins and one Drosha.
In addition to the minimal catalytically active microprocessor components, other cofactors such as DEAD box RNA helicases and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins may be present in the complex to mediate the activity of Drosha. Some miRNAs are processed by microprocessor only in the presence of specific cofactors.
Function
Located in the cell nucleus, the microprocessor complex cleaves primary miRNA (pri-miRNA), typically at least 1000 nucleotides long, into precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). Its two subunits have been determined as necessary and sufficient for the mediation of the development of miRNAs from the pri-miRNAs. These molecules of around 70 nucleotides contain a stem-loop or hairpin structure. Pri-miRNA substrates can be derived either from non-coding RNA genes or from introns. In the latter case, there is evidence that the microprocessor complex interacts with the spliceosome and that the pri-miRNA processing occurs prior to splicing.
Microprocessor cleavage of pri-miRNAs typically occurs co-transcriptionally and leaves a characteristic RNase III single-stranded overhang of 2-3 nucleotides, which serves as a recognition element for the transport protein exportin-5. Pre-miRNAs are exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in a RanGTP-dependent manner and are further processed, typically by the endoribonuclease enzyme Dicer.
Hemin allows for the increased processing of pri-miRNAs through an induced conformational change of the DGCR8 subunit, and also enhances DGCR8's binding specificity for RNA. DGCR8 recognizes the junctions between hairpin structures and single-stranded RNA and serves to orient Drosha to cleave around 11 nucleotides away from the junctions, and remains in contact with the pri-miRNAs following cleavage and dissociation of Drosha.
Although the large majority of miRNAs undergo processing by microprocessor, a small number of exceptions called mirtrons have been described; these are very small introns which, after splicing, have the appropriate size and stem-loop structure to serve as a pre-miRNA. The processing pathways for microRNA and for exogenously derived small interfering RNA converge at the point of Dicer processing and are largely identical downstream. Broadly defined, both pathways constitute RNAi. Microprocessor is also found to be involved in ribosomal biogenesis specifically in the removal of R-loops and activating transcription of ribosomal protein encoding genes.
Regulation
Gene regulation by miRNA is widespread across many genomes – by some estimates more than 60% of human protein-coding genes are likely to be regulated by miRNA, though the quality of experimental evidence for miRNA-target interactions is often weak. Because processing by microprocessor is a major determinant of miRNA abundance, microprocessor itself is then an important target of regulation.
Both Drosha and DGCR8 are subject to regulation by post-translational modifications modulating stability, intracellular localization, and activity levels. Activity against particular substrates may be regulated by additional protein cofactors interacting with the microprocessor complex. The loop region of the pri-miRNA stem-loop is also a recognition element for regulatory proteins, which may up- or down-regulate microprocessor processing of the specific miRNAs they target.
Microprocessor itself is auto-regulated by negative feedback through association with a pri-miRNA-like hairpin structure found in the DGCR8 mRNA, which when cleaved reduces DGCR8 expression. The structure in this case is located in an exon and is unlikely to itself function as miRNA in its own right.
Evolution
Drosha shares striking structural similarity with the downstream ribonuclease Dicer, suggesting an evolutionary relationship, though Drosha and related enzymes are found only in animals while Dicer relatives are widely distributed, including among protozoans. Both components of the microprocessor complex are conserved among the vast majority of metazoans with known genomes. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a ctenophore, lacks both Drosha and DGCR8 homologs, as well as recognizable miRNAs, and is the only known metazoan with no detectable genomic evidence of Drosha. In plants, the miRNA biogenesis pathway is somewhat different; neither Drosha nor DGCR8 has a homolog in plant cells, where the first step in miRNA processing is usually executed by a different nuclear ribonuclease, DCL1, a homolog of Dicer.
It has been suggested based on phylogenetic analysis that the key components of RNA interference based on exogenous substrates were present in the ancestral eukaryote, likely as an immune mechanism against viruses and transposable elements. Elaboration of this pathway for miRNA-mediated gene regulation is thought to have evolved later.
Clinical significance
The involvement of miRNAs in diseases has led scientists to become more interested in the role of additional protein complexes, like microprocessor, that have the ability to influence or modulate the function and expression of miRNAs. Microprocessor complex component, DGCR8, is affected through the micro-deletion of 22q11.2, a small portion of chromosome 22. This deletion causes irregular processing of miRNAs which leads to DiGeorge Syndrome.
References
MicroRNA
RNA interference
Gene expression
Protein complexes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor%20complex | Microprocessor complex |
Tripartite motif containing 69 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TRIM69 gene.
Function
This gene encodes a member of the RING-B-box-coiled-coil (RBCC) family and encodes a protein with an N-terminal RING finger motif, a PRY domain and a C-terminal SPRY domain. The mouse ortholog of this gene is specifically expressed in germ cells at the round spermatid stages during spermatogenesis and, when overexpressed, induces apoptosis. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been described.
References
External links
PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase TRIM69
Further reading
Human proteins | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIM69 | TRIM69 |
The mitochondrial ribosome, or mitoribosome, is a protein complex that is active in mitochondria and functions as a riboprotein for translating mitochondrial mRNAs encoded in mtDNA. The mitoribosome is attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Mitoribosomes, like cytoplasmic ribosomes, consist of two subunits — large (mtLSU) and small (mt-SSU). Mitoribosomes consist of several specific proteins and fewer rRNAs. While mitochondrial rRNAs are encoded in the mitochondrial genome, the proteins that make up mitoribosomes are encoded in the nucleus and assembled by cytoplasmic ribosomes before being implanted into the mitochondria.
Function
Mitochondria contain around 1000 proteins in yeast and 1500 proteins in humans. However, only 8 and 13 proteins are encoded in mitochondrial DNA in yeast and humans respectively. Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized via cytoplasmic ribosomes. Proteins that are key components in the electron transport chain are translated in mitochondria.
Structure
Mammalian mitoribosomes have small 28S and large 39S subunits, together forming a 55S mitoribosome. Plant mitoribosomes have small 33S and large 50S subunits, together forming a 78S mitoribosome.
Animal mitoribosomes only have two rRNAs, 12S (SSU) and 16S (LSU), both highly minimized compared to their larger homologues. Most eukaryotoes use 5S mitoribosomal RNA, animals, fungi, alveolates and euglenozoans being the exceptions. A variety of methods have evolved to fill in the gap left by a missing 5S, with animals co-opting a Mt-tRNA (Val in vertebrates).
Comparison to Other Ribosomes
Like the mitochondria itself, mitochondrial ribosomes are descended from bacterial ribosomes. However, there has been significant divergence between the two as mitochondria evolved, leading to differences in configuration and function. In configuration, the mitoribosome includes additional proteins in both its large and small subunits. In function, mitoribosomes are much more limited in the proteins they translate, only producing a few proteins used mostly in the mitochondrial membrane. Below is a table showing some properties of different ribosomes:
Diseases
As the mitoribosome is responsible for the manufacture of proteins necessary for the electron transport chain, malfunctions in the mitoribosome can result in metabolic disease. In humans, disease particularly manifests in energy-reliant organs such as the heart, brain, and muscle. Disease either originates from mutations in mitochondrial rRNA or genes encoding the mitoribosomal proteins. In the case of mitoribosomal protein mutation, heredity of disease follows Mendelian inheritance as these proteins are encoded in the nucleus. On the other hand, because mitochondrial rRNA is encoded in the mitochondria, mutations in rRNA are maternally inherited. Examples of diseases in humans caused by these mutations include Leigh syndrome, deafness, neurological disorders, and various cardiomyopathies. In plants, mutation in mitoribosomal proteins can result in stunted size and distorted leaf growth.
Genes
The mitochondrial ribosomal protein nomenclature generally follows that of bacteria, with extra numbers used for mitochondrion-specific proteins. (For more information on the nomenclature, see .)
MRPS1, MRPS2, MRPS3, MRPS4, MRPS5, MRPS6, MRPS7, MRPS8, MRPS9, MRPS10, MRPS11, MRPS12, MRPS13, MRPS14, MRPS15, MRPS16, MRPS17, MRPS18, MRPS19, MRPS20, MRPS21, MRPS22, MRPS23, MRPS24, MRPS25, MRPS26, MRPS27, MRPS28, MRPS29, MRPS30, MRPS31, MRPS32, MRPS33, MRPS34, MRPS35
MRPL1, MRPL2, MRPL3, MRPL4, MRPL5, MRPL6, MRPL7, MRPL8, MRPL9, MRPL10, MRPL11, MRPL12, MRPL13, MRPL14, MRPL15, MRPL16, MRPL17, MRPL18, MRPL19, MRPL20, MRPL21, MRPL22, MRPL23, MRPL24, MRPL25, MRPL26, MRPL27, MRPL28, MRPL29, MRPL30, MRPL31, MRPL32, MRPL33, MRPL34, MRPL35, MRPL36, MRPL37, MRPL38, MRPL39, MRPL40, MRPL41, MRPL42
rRNA: MT-RNR1, MT-RNR2, MT-TV (mitochondrial)
References
Further reading
Mitochondrial genetics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial%20ribosome | Mitochondrial ribosome |
The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board based on the ATmega328P released in 2008. It offers the same connectivity and specs of the Arduino Uno board in a smaller form factor.
The Arduino Nano is equipped with 30 male I/O headers, in a DIP30-like configuration, which can be programmed using the Arduino Software integrated development environment (IDE), which is common to all Arduino boards and running both online and offline. The board can be powered through a type-B mini-USB cable or from a 9 V battery.
In 2019, Arduino released the Arduino Nano Every, a pin-equivalent evolution of the Nano. It features a more powerful ATmega4809 processor and twice the RAM.
Technical specifications
Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P
Operating voltage: 5 volts
Input voltage: 6 to 20 volts
Digital I/O pins: 14 (6 optional PWM outputs)
Analog input pins: 8
DC per I/O pin: 40 mA
DC for 3.3 V pin: 50 mA
Flash memory: 32 KB, of which 0.5 KB is used by bootloader
SRAM: 2 KB
EEPROM: 1 KB
Clock speed: 16 MHz
Length: 45 mm
Width: 18 mm
Mass: 7 g
USB: Mini-USB Type-B
ICSP Header: Yes
DC Power Jack: No
Communication
The Arduino Nano has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provide UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An FTDI FT232RL on the board channels this serial communication over USB and the FTDI drivers (included with the Arduino software) provide a virtual com port to software on the computer. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the FTDI chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Nano's digital pins.
The ATmega328 also support I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus.
Automatic (software) reset
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Nano is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the FT232RL is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip.
This setup has other implications. When the Nano is connected to a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Nano. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened.
References
Microcontrollers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino%20Nano | Arduino Nano |
Chlamyphoridae is a family of cingulate mammals. While glyptodonts have traditionally been considered stem-group cingulates outside the group that contains modern armadillos, there had been speculation that the extant family Dasypodidae could be paraphyletic based on morphological evidence. In 2016, an analysis of Doedicurus mtDNA found it was, in fact, nested within the modern armadillos as the sister group of a clade consisting of Chlamyphorinae and Tolypeutinae. For this reason, all extant armadillos but Dasypus were relocated to a new family.
Classification
Below is a taxonomy of the extant species of armadillos in this family.
Family Chlamyphoridae
Subfamily Chlamyphorinae
Genus Calyptophractus
Greater fairy armadillo, Calyptophractus retusus
Genus Chlamyphorus
Pink fairy armadillo, Chlamyphorus truncatus
Subfamily Euphractinae
Genus Euphractus
Six-banded armadillo, Euphractus sexcinctus
Genus Zaedyus
Pichi, Zaedyus pichiy
Genus Chaetophractus
Screaming hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus vellerosus
Big hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus villosus
Andean hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus nationi
Subfamily Tolypeutinae
Genus Cabassous
Greater naked-tailed armadillo, Cabassous tatouay
Chacoan naked-tailed armadillo, Cabassous chacoensis
Northern naked-tailed armadillo, Cabassous centralis
Southern naked-tailed armadillo, Cabassous unicinctus
Genus Priodontes
Giant armadillo, Priodontes maximus
Genus Tolypeutes
Southern three-banded armadillo, Tolypeutes matacus
Brazilian three-banded armadillo, Tolypeutes tricinctus
Phylogeny
Chlamyphoridae, like Dasypodidae, is a basal clade within Cingulata, as shown below.
References
Cingulates
Xenarthrans
Mammal families | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamyphoridae | Chlamyphoridae |
Khomyakovite is an exceedingly rare mineral of the eudialyte group, with formula . The original formula was extended to show the presence of both the cyclic silicate groups and M4-site silicon, according to the nomenclature of the eudialyte group. Some niobium substitutes for tungsten in khomyakovite. Khomyakovite is an iron-analogue of manganokhomyakovite, the second mineral being a bit more common. The two minerals are the only group representatives, beside taseqite, with species-defining strontium, although many other members display strontium diadochy. Khomyakovite is the third eudialyte-group mineral with essential tungsten (after johnsenite-(Ce) and manganokhomyakovite).
Occurrence and association
Khomyakovite, manganokhomyakovite, johnsenite-(Ce) and oneillite are four eudialyte-group minerals with type locality in Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada. Khomyakovite itself is associated with analcime, annite, natrolite, titanite, calcite, and pyrite.
Notes on chemistry
Impurities in khomyakovite include niobium, potassium and manganese, with minor rare earth elements, magnesium, titanium, hafnium and aluminium.
References
Cyclosilicates
Sodium minerals
Strontium minerals
Calcium minerals
Iron minerals
Zirconium minerals
Tungsten minerals
Trigonal minerals
Minerals in space group 160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khomyakovite | Khomyakovite |
Mogovidite is a very rare mineral of the eudialyte group, with formula . The formula given is based on the original one but extended to show the presence of cyclic silicate groups. It is similar to feklichevite, differing from it in the presence of essential vacancies (at the M3 site) and carbonate group. Another specific feature is the dominance of ferric iron - a feature shared with other eudialyte-group members, including feklichevite, fengchengite, golyshevite and ikranite. Similarly to golyshevite, it is calcium-dominant, however on three (not two) sites: M(1), N(3) and N(4). It has a molecular mass of 3,066.24 gm.
Occurrence and association
As golyshevite, mogovidite was discovered in calcium-bearing peralkaline pegmatites of the Kovdor massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia. The mineral name is of geographical origin - mogovidite is named after Mt. Mogo-Vid located in the vicinity of type locality. Association of mogovidite: aegirine-augite, andradite, calcite, humite, nepheline, pectolite, scolecite, titanite, zircon.
Notes on chemistry
Chemical impurities in mogovidite include chlorine, potassium, and manganese, with trace titanium, cerium, and lanthanum.
References
Cyclosilicates
Sodium minerals
Calcium minerals
Iron(II,III) minerals
Zirconium minerals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogovidite | Mogovidite |
Income Tax Return is the form in which assessee files information about his/her Income and tax thereon to Income Tax Department. Various forms are ITR 1, ITR 2, ITR 3, ITR 4, ITR 5, ITR 6 and ITR 7. When you file a belated return, you are not allowed to carry forward certain losses.
The Income Tax Act, 1961, and the Income Tax Rules, 1962, obligates citizens to file returns with the Income Tax Department at the end of every financial year. These returns should be filed before the specified due date. Every Income Tax Return Form is applicable to a certain section of the Assessees. Only those Forms which are filed by the eligible Assessees are processed by the Income Tax Department of India. It is therefore imperative to know which particular form is appropriate in each case. Income Tax Return Forms vary depending on the criteria of the source of income of the Assessee and the category of the Assessee.
Filing of income tax returns: obligation by law
Individuals who fulfil any one of the following conditions should by law file their Income Tax Returns during a financial year:
People whose gross total income (before any deductions exceeds ₹2.5 lakh in FY or ₹3 lakh for senior citizens or ₹5 lakh for super senior citizens).
Companies or firms irrespective of whether you have income or loss during the financial year.
Those who want to claim an income tax refund.
Those who want to carry forward a loss under a head of income.
Resident individuals who have an asset or financial interest in an entity located outside of India. (Not applicable to NRIs or RNORs).
Residents and signing authorities in a foreign account. (Not applicable to NRIs or RNORs).
Those who derive income from property held under a trust for charitable or religious purposes or a political party or a research association, news agency, educational or medical institution, trade union, a not for profit university or educational institution, a hospital, infrastructure debt fund, any authority, body or trust.
Foreign companies taking treaty benefit on a transaction in India.
NRIs, who have income that exceeds ₹2.5 lakh in FY which is earned or accrued in India, are required to file an income tax return in India.
Due date for filing returns
Due dates of filing income tax return for FY 2018–19 (AY 2019–20) are as under :
Penalty on late filing of ITR (effective from 1 April 2018)
As per the new law from this year, Individuals will have to pay late fee after last date to file income tax return for the FY 2018-19
Rs 5000 if tax is filed after due date of 31 August but on before 31 December of that assessment year (in this case 31 December 2019)
Rs 10,000 if tax is filed after 31 December but on or before 31 March of the relevant assessment year (in this case from 1 January to 31 March 2020.
Rs 1000 if total income does not exceeds Rs 5,00,000
Forms
ITR-1
ITR-1 form is an essential Income Tax Return form for Indian citizens filing their tax returns with the Income Tax Department.
Eligible individuals for ITR-1 SAHAJ (Hindi terminology meaning 'easy')
Individuals who have earned their Income for a Financial Year only through the following means are eligible to fill the ITR-1 SAHAJ form.
Through Salary or Pension
Through One House Property (except in case of losses brought forward from preceding years)
Through other sources apart from Lottery, Racehorses, Legal Gambling etc. Other sources include FD interest, spousal pension etc.
In case of clubbed Income Tax Returns, where a spouse or a minor
. is included in the tax returns, this can be done only if their income too is limited to the specifications laid down above.
Non-eligible individuals for ITR-1 SAHAJ
Individuals who are not eligible to fill the ITR-1 SAHAJ form are those who have earned Income through the following means:
Through more than one piece of Property
Through Lottery, Racehorses, Legal Gambling etc.
Through non tax-exempted capital gains, Short term as well as Long term
Through exempted income exceeding Rs. 5000
Through Business and Professions
Loss under the head other sources
Any Person claiming relief under section 90 and/or 91
Having Total Income more than Rs 5 million
If any Resident Individual who has any Income from any source outside India or has any asset outside India or has signing authority in any account located outside India
Submission of ITR-1 form
The form can be submitted physically at any Income Tax Returns Office. An Acknowledgment Receipt can be obtained upon submission.
In case of Electronic Filing of the form there are two alternatives. Firstly, if a Digital Signature is obtained, the Form is uploaded online. Secondly, the Form is downloaded, printed, signed, and a copy of the acknowledgement is sent by post to the Income Tax Department's office in Bengaluru.
ITRV can now be verified online using Unique Identification Authority of India Aadhaar Card or Electronic Verification Code (EVC). The EVC can be generated either via One Time Password sent to email and registered mobile number (if income is less than INR 500,000) or via Net Banking. After online verification Income Tax Assesses is not required to send ITRV to Bangalore CPC.
The ITR-2 is a Form used by Income Tax Assesses in India. The process of filing Tax Returns in India involves the use of various forms for different categories of Assesses and the ITR-2 is one such form.
ITR-2 Form
The ITR-2 Form is an important Income Tax Return form used by Indian citizens as well as Non Residents to file their Tax Returns with the Income Tax Department of India. The Income Tax Act, 1961, and the Income Tax Rules, 1962, require citizens to file their tax returns with the Income Tax Department at the end of every financial year and this form is a part of the filing process as specified by the Government of India.
The due date for filing return with the Income Tax Department of India is 31 July every year. This is subject to change only if a directive to this effect is issued by the Income Tax Department or the Ministry of Finance, India. The Financial Year ends on 31 March every year so Assessees have a period of four months to prepare their Income Tax Returns.
Eligibility for the ITR-2 Form
The use of the ITR-2 Form is applicable to the following means of income only. This form is available for both Individuals as well as Hindu Undivided Families. Individuals earning an income only through the following means are eligible to fill and submit the form to the Income Tax Department.
Earning Income through a salary or pension
Income through House Property.
Earning Income through capital gains (Short Term and Long Term)
Earnings through Other Sources (includes Income through Lottery Winnings, through bets on Racehorses, and other Legal methods of Gambling)
The Income Tax Returns, if clubbed together with that of a spouse, minor child etc. needs to ensure that their sources of income are similar to those stated above. Only then can their returns be filed together. A difference of earnings in even one category makes the Assessee liable to fill a separate and applicable Income Tax Returns Form.
Non-eligibility for the ITR-2 Form
Any Individual or Hindu Undivided Family whose income, in whole or in part, is earned either through a Business or a Profession.
Individuals who are eligible to fill the ITR-1 SAHAJ form.
An individual who is designated as a partner in a Partnership Firm is not eligible to fill the ITR-2 Form.
Special concession for salaried personnel
Salaried personnel who earn an income of Rupees Five Lakh or less are exempted from filing Tax Returns as per the directive of the Income Tax Department of India. This rule however is only applicable to those who earn less than Rupees Ten Thousand as Income by way of Interest earned through their Savings Bank Accounts. Those who earn Rupees Ten Thousand or more are required to file their Tax Returns.
E-filing compulsory for a certain section of Income Earners
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) has made it compulsory for Individual and Hindu Undivided Families earning an income in excess of Rupees Five Lakh to file their Tax Returns only through the E-Filing Process. The manual filing of returns is no more an option for Assessees who come under this category. Electronic Filing of their Tax Returns is the only way to file the income tax return for the Individual and HUFs
ITR-3 Form
The ITR-3 Form particularly applies to those Individuals and Hindu Undivided Families who are registered as Partners in a firm. As per Rule 12 of the Income Tax Rules, 1962, this form does not apply to those who are Proprietors of a firm. It is mainly for the business which includes partnership deals. It is also applicable for professionals but it should be a partnership profession.
Eligible Assessees for the ITR-3 Form
The eligibility criteria of every Income Tax Return form are governed by a set of rules and conditions. The ITR-3 Form is applicable only to those Individuals and Hindu Undivided Families that can be placed under the following categories
Is a Partner in a firm
Gains Income through ‘Profits or gains of business or profession’
Gains Income by means of interest, salary, bonus, commission, remuneration, as a partner
If the partner of a firm only earns income from the firm as a share in the profits and not by any other means such as interest, bonus, salary, remuneration, or commission etc. then such an Individual or Hindu Undivided Family should file Income Tax Returns using only the ITR-3 Form, and not the ITR-2 Form.
Non-eligible Assessees for the ITR-3 Form
Individuals and Hindu Undivided Families who are not eligible to fill the ITR-3 Form are those who have earned Income through a Business or Profession operated as a Proprietorship firm. Assessees, who apart from being a partner in a firm, also have sources of income from a business or profession, including the speculation market, are also not eligible to file their Income Tax Returns through this form.
ITR-4 Form
The ITR-4 Form is applicable to those individual and Hindu Undivided Families who want to declare their income from Business or Profession under Presumptive Income Scheme of Income Tax under Section 44AD ,Sec 44ADA and Section 44AE of the Income Tax Act.
References
Income tax in India
Tax forms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income%20tax%20return%20%28India%29 | Income tax return (India) |
Histidine phosphotransfer domains and histidine phosphotransferases (both often abbreviated HPt) are protein domains involved in the "phosphorelay" form of two-component regulatory systems. These proteins possess a phosphorylatable histidine residue and are responsible for transferring a phosphoryl group from an aspartate residue on an intermediate "receiver" domain, typically part of a hybrid histidine kinase, to an aspartate on a final response regulator.
Function
In orthodox two-component signaling, a histidine kinase protein autophosphorylates on a histidine residue in response to an extracellular signal, and the phosphoryl group is subsequently transferred to an aspartate residue on the receiver domain of a response regulator. In phosphorelays, the "hybrid" histidine kinase contains an internal aspartate-containing receiver domain to which the phosphoryl group is transferred, after which an HPt protein containing a phosphorylatable histidine receives the phosphoryl group and finally transfers it to the response regulator. The relay system thus progresses in the order His-Asp-His-Asp, with the second His contributed by Hpt. In some cases, a phosphorelay system is constructed from four separate proteins rather than a hybrid histidine kinase with an internal receiver domain, and in other examples both the receiver and the HPt domains are present in the histidine kinase polypeptide chain. A census of two-component system domain architecture found that HPt domains in bacteria are more common as domains of larger proteins than they are as individual proteins.
Regulation
The increased complexity of the phosphorelay system compared to orthodox two-component signaling provides additional opportunities for regulation and improves the specificity of the response. Although there is very little cross-talk between orthodox two-component systems, phosphorelays allow more complex signaling pathways; examples include a bifurcated pathway with multiple downstream outputs, as in the case of the Caulobacter crescentus ChpT HPt involved in cell cycle regulation, or, alternatively, pathways in which more than one histidine kinase controls a single response regulator, such as the sporulation pathway in Bacillus subtilis, which can give rise to complex temporal variations. In some known cases, there is an additional form of regulation in phosphohistidine phosphatase enzymes that act on HPt, such as the Escherichia coli protein SixA which targets ArcB.
Structure
The histidine phosphotransfer function can be carried out by proteins with at least two different architectures, both composed of a four-helix bundle but differing in the way the bundle is assembled. Most structurally characterized HPt proteins, such as the Hpt domain from the Escherichia coli protein ArcB and the Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein Ypd1, form the bundle as monomers. In the less common type, such as the Bacillus subtilis sporulation factor Spo0B or the Caulobacter crescentus protein ChpT, the bundle is assembled as a protein dimer, with similarity to the structure of histidine kinases. Monomeric HPt domains possess only one phosphorylatable histidine residue and interact with one response regulator, whereas dimers have two phosphorylation sites and can interact with two response regulators at the same time. Monomeric HPt domains have no enzymatic activity of their own and act purely as phosphate shuttles, while the dimeric Spo0B is catalytic; its phosphotransfer rate to the recipient response regulator is dramatically accelerated compared to histidine phosphate. Despite possessing a second domain with some similarity to ATPase domains, dimeric HPt proteins have not been shown to bind or hydrolyze ATP and lack key residues present in other ATPases.
The monomeric and dimeric forms do not have detectable sequence similarity and are most likely not evolutionarily related; they are instead examples of convergent evolution. Although dimeric HPts likely originate from degenerate histidine kinases, it is possible that monomeric HPts have a number of distinct origins, as there are few evolutionary constraints on the structure.
Distribution
In bacteria, where two-component signaling is extremely common, about 25% of known histidine kinases are of the hybrid type. Two-component systems are much rarer in archaea and eukaryotes, and occur in lower eukaryotes and in plants but not in metazoans. Among known examples, most if not all eukaryotic two-component systems are hybrid kinase phosphorelays.
A bioinformatic census of bacterial genomes found large variations in the number of (monomeric) HPt domains identified in different bacterial phyla, with some genomes encoding no HPts at all. Relative to the number of histidine kinase and response regulators present in a genome, eukaryotes have more identifiable HPt domains than bacteria. In fungi, the genomic inventory of HPt proteins varies, with filamentous fungi generally possessing more HPt proteins than yeasts; only one is encoded in the well-characterized Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Plants generally have more than one HPt, but fewer HPts than response regulators.
References
Protein families
Signal transduction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histidine%20phosphotransfer%20domain | Histidine phosphotransfer domain |
Rhizobium binae is a gram-negative bacterium which was isolated from root nodules of lentils in Bangladesh.
Description
Rhizobium binae are rod-shaped bacteria found in the soil. They require oxygen and do not form spores.
Rhizobium binae grow well on YEMA medium agar, where they form colonies which are circular, convex and creamy white. Strains survive at pH values between 5.5 and 10. They are very sensitive to ampicillin and resistant to kanamycin and nalidixic acid. Strains do not tolerate tetracycline and do not grow on LB medium.
Rhizobium binae can utilize a variety of nutrients, including dextrin, D-maltose, D-trehalose, D-cellobiose, gentiobiose, sucrose, D-raffinose, α-D-glucose, D-turanose, α-D lactose, D-fructose, D-melibiose, β-methyl-D-glucoside, salicin, N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, D-mannose, D-galactose, D-mannitol, D-sorrbitol, D-arabitol, glycerol, D-glucose-6-phosphate, D-fructose-6-phosphate, D-alanine, L-aspartic acid, L-histidine, l-pyroglutamic acid, quinic acid, D-saccharic acid, methyl pyruvate, L-lactic acid, citric acid, D-malic acid, L-malic acid, bromo-succinic acid, β-hydroxy-d,l-butyric acid and acetic acid. R. binae can not use the nutrients N-acetyle-D-mannosamine, 3-methyle glucose, inosine, glycyl-L-proline, L-arginine, D-galacturonic acid, D-glucuronic acid, glucuronamide, p-hydroxy-phenylacetic acid, D-lactic acid methyl ester, α-keto-glutaric acid, tween 40, propionic acid or formic acid.
Rhizobium binae can grow in the presence of the antibiotic compounds lincomycin and potassium tellurite, but not in the presence of 1% sodium lactate, troleandomycin, lithium chloride or sodium butyrate.
The type strain of R. binae is strain BLR195T (=LMG 28443T = DSM 29288T).
Applications
Different strains of this species can form effective nodules and enhance growth of lentil, peas and lathyrus, and are useful for bio-fertilizer production.
Genetics
Rhizobiu binae is genetically very similar to its close relatives Rhizobium etli and Rhizobum phaseoli. The GC-content of the DNA of the type strain of R. binae is 61.5%.
The genome sequence is available in NCBI and the European nucleotide archive.
History
Rhizobium binae was first described in 2015 by M. Harun-or Rashid and others. It was isolated from the root nodules of Lens culinaris in the Feni district of Bengladesh. It was named "binae" as an abbreviation for Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture, the research institute where the bacteria was originally studied.
References
Further reading
Rashid, M.H., Gonzalez, H., Young, J.P.W., and Wink, M. (2014) Rhizobium leguminosarum is the symbiont of lentil in the Middle East and Europe but not in Bangladesh. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 87: 64 -77.
Rashid, M.H., Schafer, H., Gonzalez, H, and Wink, M. (2012) Genetic diversity of rhizobia nodulating lentil (Lens culinaris) in Bangladesh. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 35: 98-109.
External links
The National Center for Biotechnology Information page on R. binae
Type strain of Rhizobium binae at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Rhizobiaceae
Bacteria described in 2015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizobium%20binae | Rhizobium binae |
MicroRNA let-7a-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MIRLET7A2 gene.
Function
microRNAs (miRNAs) are short (20-24 nt) non-coding RNAs that are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in multicellular organisms by affecting both the stability and translation of mRNAs. miRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II as part of capped and polyadenylated primary transcripts (pri-miRNAs) that can be either protein-coding or non-coding. The primary transcript is cleaved by the Drosha ribonuclease III enzyme to produce an approximately 70-nt stem-loop precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA), which is further cleaved by the cytoplasmic Dicer ribonuclease to generate the mature miRNA and antisense miRNA star (miRNA*) products. The mature miRNA is incorporated into a RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which recognizes target mRNAs through imperfect base pairing with the miRNA and most commonly results in translational inhibition or destabilization of the target mRNA. The RefSeq represents the predicted microRNA stem-loop.
References
MicroRNA | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroRNA%20let-7a-2 | MicroRNA let-7a-2 |
In algebra, the 3x + 1 semigroup is a special subsemigroup of the multiplicative semigroup of all positive rational numbers. The elements of a generating set of this semigroup are related to the sequence of numbers involved in the still open Collatz conjecture or the "3x + 1 problem". The 3x + 1 semigroup has been used to prove a weaker form of the Collatz conjecture. In fact, it was in such context the concept of the 3x + 1 semigroup was introduced by H. Farkas in 2005. Various generalizations of the 3x + 1 semigroup have been constructed and their properties have been investigated.
Definition
The 3x + 1 semigroup is the multiplicative semigroup of positive rational numbers generated by the set
The function T : Z → Z, where Z is the set of all integers, as defined below is used in the "shortcut" definition of the Collatz conjecture:
The Collatz conjecture asserts that for each positive integer n, there is some iterate of T with itself which maps n to 1, that is, there is some integer k such that T(k)(n) = 1. For example if n = 7 then the values of T(k)(n) for k = 1, 2, 3,... are 11, 17, 26, 13, 20, 10, 5, 8, 4, 2, 1 and T(11)(7) = 1.
The relation between the 3x + 1 semigroup and the Collatz conjecture is that the 3x + 1 semigroup is also generated by the set
The weak Collatz conjecture
The weak Collatz conjecture asserts the following: "The 3x + 1 semigroup contains every positive integer." This was formulated by Farkas and it has been proved to be true as a consequence of the following property of the 3x + 1 semigroup:
The 3x + 1 semigroup S equals the set of all positive rationals in lowest terms having the property that b ≠ 0 (mod 3). In particular, S contains every positive integer.
The wild semigroup
The semigroup generated by the set
which is also generated by the set
is called the wild semigroup. The integers in the wild semigroup consists of all integers m such that m ≠ 0 (mod 3).
See also
Wild number
References
Semigroup theory
Arithmetic
Integer sequences
Number theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3x%20%2B%201%20semigroup | 3x + 1 semigroup |
List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals.
Plants
Minimally psychoactive plants which contain mainly caffeine and theobromine:
Coffee
Tea (caffeine in tea is sometimes called theine) – also contains theanine
Guarana (caffeine in guarana is sometimes called guaranine)
Yerba Mate (caffeine in yerba mate is sometimes called mateine)
Cocoa
Kola
Most known psychoactive plants:
Cannabis: cannabinoids
Tobacco: nicotine and beta-carboline alkaloids
Coca: cocaine
Opium Poppy: morphine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine, noscapine and narceine
Salvia divinorum: salvinorin A
Khat: cathine and cathinone
Kava: kavalactones
Nutmeg: myristicin
Nightshade (Solanaceae) plants—contain hyoscyamine and scopolamine
Datura
Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna)
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)
other Solanaceae
Cacti with mescaline:
Peyote
other Lophophora
Peruvian Torch cactus
San Pedro cactus
other Echinopsis
Other plants:
Kratom: mitragynine, mitraphylline, 7-hydroxymitragynine, raubasine and Corynantheidine
Ephedra: ephedrine
Damiana
Calea zacatechichi
Silene capensis
valerian: valerian (the chemical with the same name)
various plants like Chacruna, Jurema, – DMT, 5-MeO-DMT
Cebil/Yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina and colubrina) - Bufotenine
Morning glory and Hawaiian Baby Woodrose – lysergic acid amide (LSA, ergine)
Iboga: ibogaine, noribogaine, ibogamine, voacangine, 18-methoxycoronaridine
Areca catechu (see: betel and paan)—arecoline
Rauvolfia serpentina: rauwolscine
Yohimbe: yohimbine, corynantheidine
Kanna: mesembrine and mesembrenone
Glaucium flavum (yellow horned poppy, yellow hornpoppy or sea poppy): glaucine
California poppies: protopine, allocryptopine, N-methyllaurotetanine
Mimosa hostilis: DMT
Fungi
Fungi:
Psilocybin mushrooms: psilocybin, psilocin, aeruginascin, baeocystin and norbaeocystin
psilocybin-containing genera include: Copelandia, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus and Psilocybe
Amanita muscaria: ibotenic acid, muscimol and muscarine
various Amanita mushrooms: bufotenine
Claviceps purpurea and other Clavicipitaceae: ergotamine
Collybia maculata: collybolide
Dictyonema huaorani: psilocybin, DMT and 5-MeO-DMT
Animals
Psychoactive animals:
fire salamander: samandarin
hallucinogenic fish
psychoactive toads: bufotenin, Bufo alvarius (Colorado River toad or Sonoran Desert toad) also contains 5-MeO-DMT
Several sea sponges: brominated DMT analogs, notably 5-Bromo-DMT:
Smenospongia aurea: 5-Bromo-DMT
Smenospongia echina: 5,6-Dibromo-DMTVerongula rigida: 5-Bromo-DMT, 5,6-Dibromo-DMT, et al.Eudistoma fragum: 5-Bromo-DMTParamuricea chamaeleon: DMT, NMTVillogorgia rubra: NMT
Tree frogs belonging to the genus Phyllomedusa'', notably P. bicolor: opioid peptides including deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin.
See also
Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
List of plants used for smoking
Medicinal fungi
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
Psilocybin mushrooms
Psychoactive cacti
References
Biological sources of psychoactive drugs
Psychoactive
Psychoactive
Hallucinations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20psychoactive%20plants%2C%20fungi%2C%20and%20animals | List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals |
Intermittent hypoxia (also known as episodic hypoxia) is an intervention in which a person or animal undergoes alternating periods of normoxia and hypoxia. Normoxia is defined as exposure to oxygen levels normally found in earth's atmosphere (~21% O2) and hypoxia as any oxygen levels lower than those of normoxia. Normally, exposure to hypoxia is negatively associated to physiological changes to the body, such as altitude sickness. However, when used in moderation, intermittent hypoxia may be used clinically as a means to alleviate various pathological conditions.
General Mechanisms
When used as a rehabilitative intervention, particularly for respiration and walking, intermittent hypoxia typically works by using long-term facilitation (LTF). LTF, which is synonymous to long-term potentiation, occurs when there are long-term increases in synaptic strength due to synaptic plasticity. In the case of intermittent hypoxia, these increases in synaptic strength result in increased motor output.
Reduced partial pressures of oxygen in the arteries due to intermittent hypoxia are sensed by and stimulate the carotid body, a chemoafferent receptor. The activated carotid body triggers the release of serotonin that attach to serotonin receptors on the surface of motoneurons, such as the phrenic motoneuron in the case of respiratory recovery. This signal transduction pathway then uses downstream molecules such as TrkB, BDNF, and PKA to increase the synaptic output of the involved motor neuron which in turn increases the motor output of the involved muscles and, thus, decreases functional impairment. As the amount of intermittent hypoxia changes the amount of serotonin release and, as a result, the amount of LTF, this process exhibits metaplasticity. Metaplasticity occurs when the LTF is itself plastic or variable.
Intermittent hypoxia-induced LTF has also been demonstrated in carotid denervated rats, suggesting that synaptic plasticity due to intermittent hypoxia also works through other mechanisms outside of carotid chemoafferents.
Aside from this, intermittent hypoxia also alters overall nitric oxide production, concentration, and gene expression, which occurs due to cardiovascular adaptations to hypoxia. This mechanism is relevant when used as a means to decrease hypertension or increase bone mineral density
Dosage
An understanding of proper dosage is needed in order to design an effective intermittent hypoxia protocol, particularly due to the comorbidities associated with hypoxia. For example, intermittent hypoxia has been shown to induce LTF in rats while continuous hypoxia does not. And acute IH shows no evidence of the hippocampal cell death found in rats while chronic intermittent hypoxia exposure does
Though intermittent hypoxia has been used for various therapeutic applications across a number of physiological system, there is a general consensus in what can be considered a safe and beneficial amount of intermittent hypoxia. Such a protocol would involve a fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) ranging between 0.09 – 0.16 with 3 – 15 episodes per day with comorbidities found in the range of a FiO2 of 0.03 – 0.08 and 48 – 2400 episodes per day.
Pathological and beneficial effects
Therapeutic applications
Though intermittent hypoxia is initially involved with only the respiratory system, its downstream effects allow it to also be used as an effective rehabilitative intervention in a number of different biological systems in both animals and humans.
LTF
For the respiratory system, the LTF facilitated by intermittent hypoxia aids in increasing phrenic motor nerve output. This has been shown to help people with obstructive sleep apnea and COPD. The ability to increase muscle activity, specifically for walking, has also been demonstrated in both rats and humans after spinal cord injury.
Hippocampal neurogenesis
Hippocampal neurogenesis has also been demonstrated in rats subjected to intermittent hypoxia. This neurogenesis has shown related cognitive improvements such as enhanced learning and memory as well as overall increases in spatial cognitive ability. Additionally, antidepressant-like effects are exhibited in rats undergoing such treatment.
Nitric oxide production
Nitric oxide level changes due to intermittent hypoxia also provide potential benefits. People with hypertension have shown decreases in blood pressure. Increases in bone mineral density in rats has also been attributed to this process. Such changes to nitric oxide levels also aid in protection from myocardial ischemia and perfusion.
See also
Hypoxia (medical)
Hypoxia (disambiguation)
Intermittent hypoxic training
References
Medical treatments | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermittent%20hypoxia | Intermittent hypoxia |
The Na+-transporting Carboxylic Acid Decarboxylase (NaT-DC) Family (TC# 3.B.1) is a family of porters that belong to the CPA superfamily. Members of this family have been characterized in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. A representative list of proteins belonging to the NaT-DC family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
Function
Porters of the NaT-DC family catalyze decarboxylation of a substrate carboxylic acid and use the energy released to drive extrusion of one or two sodium ions (Na+) from the cytoplasm of the cell. These systems have been characterized only from bacteria.
The generalized reaction for the NaT-DC family is:R - CO (in) + H+ (out) and 1 or 2 Na+ (in) ←→ R-H + CO2 (in) and 1 or 2 Na+ (out).Distinct enzymes catalyze decarboxylation of (1) oxaloacetate, (2) methylmalonyl-CoA, (3) glutaconyl-CoA and (4) malonate. The oxaloacetate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.3; TC# 3.B.1.1.1), methylmalonyl CoA decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.4; TC# 3.B.1.1.2) and malonate decarboxylases (TC# 3.B.1.1.4) are homologous.
Composition
Glutaconyl-CoA decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.70; TC# 3.B.1.1.3) consists of four subunits: α (GcdA, 587 amino acyl residues (aas); catalytic subunit), β (GcdB, 375 aas; 9 TMSs; Na+-transporter subunit), γ (GcdC, 145 aas; biotin-carrier subunit) and δ (GcdD, 107 aas; 1 TMS; the GcdA anchor protein). The catalytic subunit of all four enzyme porters are biotin-containing multi-subunit enzymes. The α-δ subunits of these enzymes are homologous to proteins encoded within the genomes of archaea, such as Pyrococcus abyssi (Cohen et al., 2003). Consequently, NaT-DC family members may be present in archaea as well as bacteria.
The α-subunits of the oxaloacetate and methylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylases are homologous to many biotin-containing enzymes including (1) pyruvate carboxylases, (2) homocitrate synthases, (3) biotin carboxyl carrier proteins, (4) isopropylmalate synthases and (5) acyl-CoA carboxylase. The α-subunit of the glutaconate decarboxylase is homologous to propionyl-CoA carboxylase. The crystal structure of the carboxyltransferase at 1.7 Å resolution shows a dimer of TIM barrels with an active site metal ion, identified spectroscopically as Zn2+.
Structure
The high resolution crystal structure of the α-subunit of the glutaconyl-CoA decarboxylase (Gcdα) of Acidaminococcus fermentans (TC# 3.B.1.1.3) has been solved (). The active site of the dimeric enzyme lies at the interface between the two monomers. The N-terminal domain binds the glutaconyl-CoA, and the C-terminal domain binds the biotinyl lysine moiety. The enzyme transfers CO2 from glutaconyl-CoA to a biotin carrier protein (the γ-subunit) that is subsequently decarboxylated by the carboxybiotin decarboxylation site within the Na+ pumping beta subunit (Gcdβ). A proposed structure of the holoenzyme positions the water-filled central channel of the Gcdα dimer coaxial with the ion channel in Gcdβ. The central channel is blocked by arginines, which could allow Na+ passage by conformational movement or by entry through two side channels.
The β-subunits possess 9 transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs). The protein may dip into the membrane twice between TMSs III and IV. The most conserved regions are segments IIIa, the first membrane loop following TMS III, and TMS VIII. Conserved residues therein, D203 (IIIa), Y229 (IV) and N373, G377, S382 and R389 (VIII), provide Na+ binding sites and the translocation pathway. D203 and S382 may provide two binding sites for the two Na+ ions. D203 is absolutely essential for function and may provide the primary intramembranous Na+-binding site. The beta subunits of these transporters show sufficient sequence similarity to the Na+:H+ antiporters of the CPA2 family (TC #2.A.37) to establish homology (K. Studley and M.H. Saier, Jr., unpublished results).
See also
Decarboxylase
Membrane proteins
Transport proteins
Transporter Classification Database
References
Further reading
Protein families
Membrane proteins
Transmembrane proteins
Transmembrane transporters
Transport proteins
Integral membrane proteins | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium-transporting%20carboxylic%20acid%20decarboxylase | Sodium-transporting carboxylic acid decarboxylase |
2MASS J11193254–1137466 AB (often shortened to 2MASS J1119–1137 AB) is a planetary mass binary located light-years from the Earth in the constellation Crater. The components of 2MASS J1119–1137 are each roughly four Jupiter masses. The planetary-mass objects are probably a part of the TW Hydrae association which has an age of approximately 10 million years.
Overview
The object was found by a team of scientists from Canada, USA and Chile during a search for unusually red brown dwarfs (such color indicates some notable properties of their atmospheres, e.g. dustiness). The search used data of 3 surveys: SDSS (visible light data), 2MASS (near-infrared) and WISE (mid-wave infrared). was one of the reddest and, according to the authors, the most interesting object found. Results of the work were published in December 2015.
In April 2016, the first detailed study of the object was published. The investigators conducted its infrared spectroscopy on the telescope Gemini South. Radial velocity and proper motion were also calculated. The astronomers determined low surface gravity and moderate age of .
In November 2016 and March 2017, was imaged by the telescope Keck II with adaptive optics technique, which revealed its binarity. The angular separation of components is arcseconds (which corresponds to linear projected separation ). Their stellar magnitudes are roughly equal. Total mass of the system is estimated as 7.4 Jupiter masses. Their total bolometric luminosity is approximately 0.00004 solar units. The estimated orbital period is 90 years.
One of the components of binary is rotating rapidly, having a period 3.02 hours while the typical rotation period for young brown dwarfs is 10 hours.
Candidate exomoon
In August 2021, researchers reported signs of a habitable zone 1.7 exomoon (a moon orbiting a planetary-mass object outside our solar system) transiting one of the components in . A possible single transit of the moon candidate was detected in archival Spitzer Space Telescope data. The study determined that the detected event might have been caused by variability (clouds/weather) in the host planet's atmosphere, but was also consistent with an exomoon.
External links
2MASS J1119–1137
See also
PSO J318.5-22
References
J11193254-1137466
Exoplanets
Exoplanets detected by direct imaging
Giant planets
Exoplanets discovered in 2015
Rogue planets
Binary systems
Crater (constellation)
TW Hydrae association | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASS%20J11193254%E2%80%931137466%20AB | 2MASS J11193254–1137466 AB |
Trachitol is a brand of lozenge used as an over-the-counter drug for having a sore throat. It is being produced by Engelhard Arzneimittel GmbH&Co and distributed by Salveo Pharma bv. Trachitol packages are available with 20 or 30 lozenges.
Every lozenge contains the following substances:
1 mg Lidocaine for local anesthesia.
1 mg potassium alum for astringent.
1,8 mg propylparaben for desinfection.
References
Throat lozenges | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachitol | Trachitol |
Homarine (N-methyl picolinic acid betaine) is an organic compound with the chemical formula C7H7NO2. It is commonly found in aquatic organisms from phytoplankton to crustaceans, although it is not found in vertebrates.
Biological function
Homarine functions as an osmolyte by affecting the ionic strength of the cytosol and thereby maintaining osmotic pressure within the cell.
Homarine may also act as a methyl group donor in the biosynthesis of various other N-methylated chemicals, such as glycine betaine and choline. The process of methyl donation converts homarine into picolinic acid and is reversible.
Etymology
The name of this chemical comes from the initial discovery of the molecule in 1933 in lobster tissue: the word homarine as an adjective means "of, or relating to, lobsters" (i.e. genus Homarus).
References
Solutions
Biosynthesis
Physiology articles about cellular physiology
Diffusion
Methylation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homarine | Homarine |
Choanozoa is a clade of opisthokont eukaryotes consisting of the choanoflagellates (Choanoflagellatea) and the animals (Animalia, Metazoa). The sister-group relationship between the choanoflagellates and animals has important implications for the origin of the animals. The clade was identified in 2015 by Graham Budd and Sören Jensen, who used the name Apoikozoa. The 2018 revision of the classification first proposed by the International Society of Protistologists in 2012 recommends the use of the name Choanozoa.
Introduction
A close relationship between choanoflagellates and animals has long been recognised, dating back at least to the 1840s. A particularly striking and famous similarity between the single-celled choanoflagellates and multicellular animals is provided by the collar cells of sponges and the overall morphology of the choanoflagellate cell. The relationship has since been confirmed by multiple molecular analyses. This proposed homology was however thrown into some doubt in 2013 by the still controversial suggestion that ctenophores, and not sponges, are the sister group to all other animals. More recent genomic work has suggested that choanoflagellates possess some of the important genetic machinery necessary for the multicellularity found in animals.
A synonym for the Choanozoa, Apoikozoa, derives from the ancient Greek for "colony" and "animal", referring to the ability of both animals and (some) choanoflagellates to form multicellular units. While animals are permanently multicellular, the colony-building choanoflagellates are only sometimes so, which raises the question of whether or not the colony-building ability in both groups was present at the base of the entire clade, or whether it was independently derived within the animals and choanoflagellates. In either case, these two groups are the only heterotrophs known to form colonies.
Nomenclature
The name "Choanozoa" was used by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1991 to refer to a group of basal protists that later proved not to form a clade. Adl et al. (2018) regard the name as appropriate for the clade of choanoflagellates and animals, since the Greek choanē (χοάνη), meaning 'funnel', refers to the collar, which is a synapomorphy of the clade. They reject the name "Apoikozoa" as being neither formally defined nor appropriate, since it refers to the ability to form colonies, which is not unique to this clade.
Evolutionary implications
Although the last common ancestor of the Choanozoa cannot be reconstructed with certainty, Budd and Jensen suggest that these organisms formed benthic colonies that competed for space amongst other mat-forming organisms known to have existed during the Ediacaran Period some 635–540 million years ago. As such they would form an important link between the unicellular ancestors of the animals and the enigmatic "Ediacaran" organisms known from this interval, thus allowing some sort of reconstruction of the earliest animals and their ecology. In the following cladogram, an indication is given of approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades. (Note that the later Budd and Jensen paper gives significantly younger dates. See also Kimberella.) The holomycota tree follows Tedersoo et al.
References
Opisthokont unranked clades | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choanozoa | Choanozoa |
Integrator complex subunit 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the INTS1 gene.
Function
INTS1 is a subunit of the Integrator complex, which associates with the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II large subunit (POLR2A; MIM 180660) and mediates 3-prime end processing of small nuclear RNAs U1 (RNU1; MIM 180680) and U2 (RNU2; MIM 180690) (Baillat et al., 2005 [PubMed 16239144]).
References
Further reading | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTS1 | INTS1 |
FastPOS is a variant of POS malware discovered by Trend Micro researchers. The new POS malware foregrounds on how speed the credit card data is stolen and sent back to the hackers.
History
Researchers at Trend Micro have named the new malware variant as TSPY_FASTPOS.SMZTDA. The malware is used by hackers to target small and mid-sized businesses (SMBs) in many countries like France, Taiwan, Japan, Brazil, Hong Kong and United States.
Operation
Unlike other POS malware, FastPOS does not store the information locally to send it to the cyber thieves periodically. The variant POS malware executes the attack on the target through infected websites or through Virtual Network Computing (VNC) or via file sharing service. The stolen data is instantly transferred to the Control and Command Server that is hardcoded by the hacker. The POS malware consists of two components– a keylogger and a RAM scraper. The logged keystrokes are stored in memory and transmitted to the attacker when the Enter key is pressed and are not stored in a file of the infected system. The stolen data can be user credentials, payment information which depends on the business procedures. The RAM scraper is devised to steal only credit card data. The memory scraper is designed to verify the service code of the credit card to help remove out cards that demands PINS.
See also
Point-of-sale malware
Cyber security standards
List of cyber attack threat trends
References
Windows trojans
Cyberwarfare
Carding (fraud) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FastPOS | FastPOS |
S5P4418 is a system-on-a-chip (SoC) based on the 32-bit ARMv7-A architecture for tablets and cell-phones.
Introduction
S5P4418 uses the ARM Cortex-A9 in a quad core configuration, the latter provides a 50% overall performance boost over the earlier Cortex-A8 core. The SoC memory controller supports a maximum memory bandwidth of 6.4GB/s for heavy traffic operations such as 1080p video encoding and decoding, 3D graphics display and high resolution image signal processing with a Full HD display. The application processor supports dynamic virtual address mapping, which helps software engineers to fully utilize the memory resources with ease.
The S5P4418 features the Mali-400MP graphics processing unit which supports OpenGL ES 1.1 and 2.0. The native dual display, in particular, supports Full HD resolution of a main LCD display and 1080p 60 frame HDTV display throughout HDMI, simultaneously.
Specifications
28 nm HKMG process.
Quad-core ARM Cortex-A9 at 1.4 GHz
ARM Mali-400MP GPU
Full-HD Multi Format Video Codec
Supports MLC/SLC NAND Flash with Hardwired ECC algorithm (4/8/12/16/24/40/60-bit)
Dual Display up to 2048x1280, TFT-LCD, LVDS, HDMI 1.4a, MIPI-DSI output
Supports various memory types: x32 LPDDR3 up to 667 MHz (TBD), Low Voltage DDR3 , DDR3 up to 800 MHz
3 channel ITUR.BT 656 Parallel Video Interface and MIPI-CSI
Security functions (AES, DES/TDES, SHA-1, MD5 and PRNG) and Secure JTAG
Related products
ARTIK530 — ARTIK530 is Samsung IoT module optimized for IoT gateway or devices with modest video and processing requirements.
MINI4418 — MINI4418 module is the Computer-on-Module that Boardcon designed for embedded solutions.
EM4418 — A single board computer features Samsung S5P4418 processor with 1GB RAM and 4GB eMMC Flash.
System on a chip | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S5P4418 | S5P4418 |
Antimicrobial peptides are short peptides that possess antimicrobial properties. The female reproductive tract and its tissues produce antimicrobial peptides as part of the immune response. These peptides are able to fight pathogens and at the same time allow the maintenance of the microbiota that are part of the reproductive system in women.
Defensins
alpha-Defensins
beta-Defensins
theta-defensins
Cathelicidins
LL-37
Whey acid proteins
SLPI
Elafin
HE-4
Lysozyme
S100 proteins
Calpotectin
Psoriasin (S100A7)
C-type lectins
SP-A
SP-D
Iron metabolism proteins
Lactoferrin
Kinocidins
CCL20/Mip-3-alpha
External links
Defensins Database, Singapore
Innate ( Nonspecific ) Immunity at Western Kentucky University
References
Immunology
Immune system
Peripheral membrane proteins
Medical lists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20antimicrobial%20peptides%20in%20the%20female%20reproductive%20tract | List of antimicrobial peptides in the female reproductive tract |
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