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Isomers of Heptane.txt | So, it looks like we're done with step two. Let's go to step three. So, in step three, it says shorten the chain by removing two carbons. Not one, but two. So now we're removing this carbon as well as this carbon. So we're developing a pentane molecule, and now we have two carbon atoms at our disposal, methyl groups at our disposal. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | Not one, but two. So now we're removing this carbon as well as this carbon. So we're developing a pentane molecule, and now we have two carbon atoms at our disposal, methyl groups at our disposal. So let's first point the two methyl groups here. That's one isomer. Let's show our pentane again. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | So let's first point the two methyl groups here. That's one isomer. Let's show our pentane again. And now take one methyl, place it here. The second methyl. Place it here. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | And now take one methyl, place it here. The second methyl. Place it here. That's a second isomer. Let's show one more pentane. And let's leave this methyl here and place this methyl here. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | That's a second isomer. Let's show one more pentane. And let's leave this methyl here and place this methyl here. That's yet another isomer. So let's see if we can get more isomers. Let's actually take both of these guys and place them here. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | That's yet another isomer. So let's see if we can get more isomers. Let's actually take both of these guys and place them here. And let's take one more. And place it like so all these guys have different structures, but identical molecular formulas, so they're all isomers. So let's go to step four, because we're essentially done here, if we rearrange them in some other way, we're going to get back on the same molecule as before. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | And let's take one more. And place it like so all these guys have different structures, but identical molecular formulas, so they're all isomers. So let's go to step four, because we're essentially done here, if we rearrange them in some other way, we're going to get back on the same molecule as before. So let's go to step four. In step four, I have dot, dot, dot, because we're simply removing not one or two, but three carbons from the end. So we're moving one, two, three. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | So let's go to step four. In step four, I have dot, dot, dot, because we're simply removing not one or two, but three carbons from the end. So we're moving one, two, three. So here we have one. So we have one, two, three. And now we have three carbons at our disposal, three methyl groups. |
Isomers of Heptane.txt | So here we have one. So we have one, two, three. And now we have three carbons at our disposal, three methyl groups. So let's place one here, a second one here, and let's place a third one here. And this concludes our isomers. We should have a total of nine, so 123-45-6789. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Now, in this lecture, we're going to talk about something called electrochemical cells, also known as Galvanic cells. Now, recall that redox reactions are chemical reactions in which electrons flow from one atom to another. From physics, we know that moving charge such as electrons can be used to do useful work. Therefore, the flow of electrons found in redox reactions can somehow be transformed to do useful work. So an electrochemical cell is simply a way to capture this useful work produced by the movement of electrons from one atom to another. Now, we're going to talk about special types of electrochemical cells called voltaic cells, also known as batteries. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Therefore, the flow of electrons found in redox reactions can somehow be transformed to do useful work. So an electrochemical cell is simply a way to capture this useful work produced by the movement of electrons from one atom to another. Now, we're going to talk about special types of electrochemical cells called voltaic cells, also known as batteries. Now, these types of cells contain oxidizing reducing agent pairs connected by a conductor such as a wire. And this conductor allows electrons to flow from one atom to a second atom. Now, let's look at a layout of a voltaic cell. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Now, these types of cells contain oxidizing reducing agent pairs connected by a conductor such as a wire. And this conductor allows electrons to flow from one atom to a second atom. Now, let's look at a layout of a voltaic cell. Voltaic cells broken down into two half cells. So one half cell in a second half cell. In the first half cell, one half reaction takes place called oxidation. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Voltaic cells broken down into two half cells. So one half cell in a second half cell. In the first half cell, one half reaction takes place called oxidation. And the second half reaction takes place in a second half cell called reduction. Now, this wire connects the two cells. This wire is our conductor allowing electrons to flow. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | And the second half reaction takes place in a second half cell called reduction. Now, this wire connects the two cells. This wire is our conductor allowing electrons to flow. This is a light bulb that lights up when there is a flow of electrons. And this salt bridge becomes important in allowing these electrons to continually flow. Now, let's look at this picture in more detail and let's see exactly what voltaic cells are and how they function. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | This is a light bulb that lights up when there is a flow of electrons. And this salt bridge becomes important in allowing these electrons to continually flow. Now, let's look at this picture in more detail and let's see exactly what voltaic cells are and how they function. So let's examine the following reduction reaction. So, zinc solid reacts with aqueous copper to form a crease zinc and solid copper. Notice that our zinc solid is oxidized. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So let's examine the following reduction reaction. So, zinc solid reacts with aqueous copper to form a crease zinc and solid copper. Notice that our zinc solid is oxidized. It loses two electrons to form a plus two ana while those two same electrons are taken up by our copper molecule in the Aqueous state. And so this guy is reduced from a plus two to a neutral atom. Now, oxidation of zinc occurs in half cell number one. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | It loses two electrons to form a plus two ana while those two same electrons are taken up by our copper molecule in the Aqueous state. And so this guy is reduced from a plus two to a neutral atom. Now, oxidation of zinc occurs in half cell number one. And zinc solid becomes zinc in the Aqueous state with a plus two charge, and it releases two electrons while in half cell number two reduction occurs. An aqueous copper takes up two electrons to form solid copper. So let's examine these reactions as they occur within our electrochemical cell, our voltaic cell. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | And zinc solid becomes zinc in the Aqueous state with a plus two charge, and it releases two electrons while in half cell number two reduction occurs. An aqueous copper takes up two electrons to form solid copper. So let's examine these reactions as they occur within our electrochemical cell, our voltaic cell. So in eco number one and half cell number one, this red bar corresponds to our zinc solid. So zinc solid releases two electrons and it also releases our zinc ion. Now, this zinc ion is released into our solution from our metal bar. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So in eco number one and half cell number one, this red bar corresponds to our zinc solid. So zinc solid releases two electrons and it also releases our zinc ion. Now, this zinc ion is released into our solution from our metal bar. So the solution that has water as solvent increases in its concentration of zinc ion and at the same time, it increases the positive charge found within our solution in beaker one in half cell number one. Now, these electrons travel through the conductor and across and into the other side. Now, as it travels from this side to this side, this light bulb lights up. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So the solution that has water as solvent increases in its concentration of zinc ion and at the same time, it increases the positive charge found within our solution in beaker one in half cell number one. Now, these electrons travel through the conductor and across and into the other side. Now, as it travels from this side to this side, this light bulb lights up. And therefore, this light bulb allows us to visualize the movement of these electrons. As soon as it lights up, we know that electrons are traveling from this side to this side. Now let's look at hop cell number two. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | And therefore, this light bulb allows us to visualize the movement of these electrons. As soon as it lights up, we know that electrons are traveling from this side to this side. Now let's look at hop cell number two. So this metal bar corresponds to our copper solid. And what happens is these two electrons combine with this copper ions down within the aqueous solution to form our copper solid. So in this solution, the copper ions move from in the solution to inside this metal bar. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So this metal bar corresponds to our copper solid. And what happens is these two electrons combine with this copper ions down within the aqueous solution to form our copper solid. So in this solution, the copper ions move from in the solution to inside this metal bar. So our concentration of copper ions found in solution decreases. And that means our plus charge found in this solution also decreases. So now let's look at a few terms that we need to know. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So our concentration of copper ions found in solution decreases. And that means our plus charge found in this solution also decreases. So now let's look at a few terms that we need to know. Electrodes are metals that conduct electrical current into out of the solution. So in this case, this is our electrode and this is our electrode. So our zinc solid and copper solid are our electrodes because they're metals that allow electrons to flow in or out. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Electrodes are metals that conduct electrical current into out of the solution. So in this case, this is our electrode and this is our electrode. So our zinc solid and copper solid are our electrodes because they're metals that allow electrons to flow in or out. So the anode is defined to be the half cell where oxidation takes place. So the anode is this guy. It includes beaker one, the aqueous solution, as well as the electrode. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So the anode is defined to be the half cell where oxidation takes place. So the anode is this guy. It includes beaker one, the aqueous solution, as well as the electrode. Beaker one, the capital, is defined to be the half cell where reduction takes place. So this is our cathode. It includes the aqueous solution, the beaker, as well as the electrode down and beaker two. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Beaker one, the capital, is defined to be the half cell where reduction takes place. So this is our cathode. It includes the aqueous solution, the beaker, as well as the electrode down and beaker two. So electrons travel from our anode to our cathode. Now let's look at the salt bridge. We still have discussed what this guy here is. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So electrons travel from our anode to our cathode. Now let's look at the salt bridge. We still have discussed what this guy here is. This is our salt bridge. Now, our salt bridge is composed of a solution of salt. For example, k two, so four. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | This is our salt bridge. Now, our salt bridge is composed of a solution of salt. For example, k two, so four. So what's the purpose? What's the function of our salt bridge? Well, let's look at this picture here. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So what's the purpose? What's the function of our salt bridge? Well, let's look at this picture here. Eventually, when enough electrons travel to this location, what will happen to our positive charge in this speaker and our positive charge in this speaker? Well, we're going to have a build up, a positive charge in this speaker because this metal bar releases ions, right while in this speaker, these ions found within our solution are taken up by this metal bar, meaning there's a decrease in positive charge found on this side. So eventually, if we don't have anything connecting them like a salt bridge, the electrons will stop flowing. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | Eventually, when enough electrons travel to this location, what will happen to our positive charge in this speaker and our positive charge in this speaker? Well, we're going to have a build up, a positive charge in this speaker because this metal bar releases ions, right while in this speaker, these ions found within our solution are taken up by this metal bar, meaning there's a decrease in positive charge found on this side. So eventually, if we don't have anything connecting them like a salt bridge, the electrons will stop flowing. So in order for the electrons to continue to flow, the circuit, this circuit must be closed. And it's closed using this sold bridge. And what happens is this salt dissociates into k plus. |
Electrochemical cell .txt | So in order for the electrons to continue to flow, the circuit, this circuit must be closed. And it's closed using this sold bridge. And what happens is this salt dissociates into k plus. And so for minus ions, and the positively charged ions begin to flow into the second half cell into the cathode. And this increases the positive charge found in this cathode in this half cell two. Now, the same happens with the so minus four. |
The Periodic Table .txt | That means we need a very good way of organizing all these elements. And the periodic table does just that. What it does is it organizes our elements or atoms into columns and rows. Now the columns are known as groups or families, while the rows are called periods. So let's zoom in on our periodic table. So this is a general representation of our periodic table. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now the columns are known as groups or families, while the rows are called periods. So let's zoom in on our periodic table. So this is a general representation of our periodic table. I did not include the names of our atoms and I also did not include other elements usually found in two rows on the bottom. Now that's simply for simplification purposes. If you'd like to see the actual table, Google it or check out a chemistry textbook. |
The Periodic Table .txt | I did not include the names of our atoms and I also did not include other elements usually found in two rows on the bottom. Now that's simply for simplification purposes. If you'd like to see the actual table, Google it or check out a chemistry textbook. Now these guys, these columns are known as groups. So group one, group two, group three, group four, all the way up to group 18, while these rows are known as periods. So period one, period two, period 3456, all the way up to period seven. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now these guys, these columns are known as groups. So group one, group two, group three, group four, all the way up to group 18, while these rows are known as periods. So period one, period two, period 3456, all the way up to period seven. Now these guys, or this table is divided into three main divisions known as metals, nonmetals and metalloids. Now the white squares or the white elements are known as metals. And they're found from left all the way up to this section here. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now these guys, or this table is divided into three main divisions known as metals, nonmetals and metalloids. Now the white squares or the white elements are known as metals. And they're found from left all the way up to this section here. Now the orange guys are known as metalloids, while the red guys are known as nonmetals. Now group 18 is called the Noble gas group, while group 17, the group right next to group 18, are known as halogens. Now these guys here from this group to group number three are called transition metals. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now the orange guys are known as metalloids, while the red guys are known as nonmetals. Now group 18 is called the Noble gas group, while group 17, the group right next to group 18, are known as halogens. Now these guys here from this group to group number three are called transition metals. Group number one are known as alkaline metals, and group number two are known as alkaline earth metals. Now we're going to go into more detail in our next lecture about what the alkaline, alkaline, earth, noble halogens and transition metals are. In this lecture, we're only going to look at the three divisions that exist, namely metals, metalloids and nonmetals. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Group number one are known as alkaline metals, and group number two are known as alkaline earth metals. Now we're going to go into more detail in our next lecture about what the alkaline, alkaline, earth, noble halogens and transition metals are. In this lecture, we're only going to look at the three divisions that exist, namely metals, metalloids and nonmetals. So let's zoom out. Now. Let's examine our divisions. |
The Periodic Table .txt | So let's zoom out. Now. Let's examine our divisions. Let's look at the metals. Metals are large atoms that tend to lose electrons with great ease, forming ions in which the oxidation state is positive. Now within a metal, electrons move with great ease from one point to another. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Let's look at the metals. Metals are large atoms that tend to lose electrons with great ease, forming ions in which the oxidation state is positive. Now within a metal, electrons move with great ease from one point to another. And that means our metals are able to conduct electricity very well. So metals generally have high connectivity rates. Now metals are also malleable, which means you can hammer them into very thin strips. |
The Periodic Table .txt | And that means our metals are able to conduct electricity very well. So metals generally have high connectivity rates. Now metals are also malleable, which means you can hammer them into very thin strips. Examples include wires. Now metals are also or have high ductility rates. In other words, they're stretchy or stretchable. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Examples include wires. Now metals are also or have high ductility rates. In other words, they're stretchy or stretchable. Now metals, whenever they form compounds with oxygen, they form or bond non Covalently. They create ionic oxides. The one exception is Beryllium. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now metals, whenever they form compounds with oxygen, they form or bond non Covalently. They create ionic oxides. The one exception is Beryllium. Beryllium bonds with oxygen Covalently. And that's the only exception known. Now let's look at the second type of division, namely the nonmetals. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Beryllium bonds with oxygen Covalently. And that's the only exception known. Now let's look at the second type of division, namely the nonmetals. Now nonmetals, which are found on the right side of the table. The red guys have very diverse chemical characteristics. And these guys form negative ions. |
The Periodic Table .txt | Now nonmetals, which are found on the right side of the table. The red guys have very diverse chemical characteristics. And these guys form negative ions. They don't lose electrons very easily. In fact, they gain electrons more easily than metals and that's why they form negative oxidation states. Now, these guys, when they combine with oxygen, they form covalent oxides. |
The Periodic Table .txt | They don't lose electrons very easily. In fact, they gain electrons more easily than metals and that's why they form negative oxidation states. Now, these guys, when they combine with oxygen, they form covalent oxides. Examples include carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Now, let's look at the third type division called the metalloids. metalloids are interesting in that they have characteristics of both metals and nonmetals. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | And we saw that these laws both helped us explain exactly how gas molecules interact and function on the macroscopic level. Now we're going to look at a third law called Avocadoso's Law. And we're going to see how this law also helps us gain more intuition about the interactions of gas molecules on a macroscopic level. So let's look at the conditions under which this law holds. So this law will only work when our pressure and temperature are both held constant. And what this law tells us is that volume is directly proportional to the number of moles. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | So let's look at the conditions under which this law holds. So this law will only work when our pressure and temperature are both held constant. And what this law tells us is that volume is directly proportional to the number of moles. And what that means. If these guys are held constant, the only way we can increase our volume of our system is to add more gas or to add more moles of gas. Now, if we multiply this side by some constant, this we set equal and our N comes to this side. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | And what that means. If these guys are held constant, the only way we can increase our volume of our system is to add more gas or to add more moles of gas. Now, if we multiply this side by some constant, this we set equal and our N comes to this side. We get the following relation. Volume over N, our number of moles equals a constant. Now this constant, which we will see next when we learn about the ideal gas law, depends on temperature and pressure. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | We get the following relation. Volume over N, our number of moles equals a constant. Now this constant, which we will see next when we learn about the ideal gas law, depends on temperature and pressure. In other words, if our pressure and temperature are the same, then our constant will always be the same. But if we increase or decrease our temperature or pressure, our constant will also change. So that brings up an interesting relation. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | In other words, if our pressure and temperature are the same, then our constant will always be the same. But if we increase or decrease our temperature or pressure, our constant will also change. So that brings up an interesting relation. That basically means as long as our pressure and temperature are the same, this will always be true for any volume or for any number of moles. This will always be our constant. And we'll see why this is important in Part D. Let's look at C for a second. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | That basically means as long as our pressure and temperature are the same, this will always be true for any volume or for any number of moles. This will always be our constant. And we'll see why this is important in Part D. Let's look at C for a second. It's important to mention that experimental results show that a zero degree Celsius or 273 Kelvin and 1 ATM and pressure 1 mol of any gas, any gas whatsoever, will always correspond to 22.4
liters. And that's because according to our Kinetic Molecular Theory, volume of gas is zero. It's assumed to be zero. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | It's important to mention that experimental results show that a zero degree Celsius or 273 Kelvin and 1 ATM and pressure 1 mol of any gas, any gas whatsoever, will always correspond to 22.4
liters. And that's because according to our Kinetic Molecular Theory, volume of gas is zero. It's assumed to be zero. And so it doesn't matter what type of gas you use, if it's large or small, it will have a volume of 22.4 liters. Now, this is according to experimental results. Once again, something we observe experimentally, we turn into a theory. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | And so it doesn't matter what type of gas you use, if it's large or small, it will have a volume of 22.4 liters. Now, this is according to experimental results. Once again, something we observe experimentally, we turn into a theory. And that's where our assumptions from our kinetic theory came. Let's look at Part D.
So earlier I said that for any given temperature and pressure, as long as they are held constant at that same temperature and pressure, our constant will always be the same. So suppose that's our case. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | And that's where our assumptions from our kinetic theory came. Let's look at Part D.
So earlier I said that for any given temperature and pressure, as long as they are held constant at that same temperature and pressure, our constant will always be the same. So suppose that's our case. Suppose I have a system under which I have constant temperature and pressure. Now, suppose I have a balloon at some volume one and some volume two. And suppose I have three molecules or three moles on my gas inside my balloon. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | Suppose I have a system under which I have constant temperature and pressure. Now, suppose I have a balloon at some volume one and some volume two. And suppose I have three molecules or three moles on my gas inside my balloon. What if I increase the number of moles to six moles? What will happen to my volume? Well, suppose I take a balloon and I put a liter of water into my balloon, it's going to fill up to a certain volume. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | What if I increase the number of moles to six moles? What will happen to my volume? Well, suppose I take a balloon and I put a liter of water into my balloon, it's going to fill up to a certain volume. Suppose I put one more liter of water into my balloon. Well, it's going to take up twice as much volume because we're assuming, of course, that temperature and pressure is the same. So our Law of Evangels Law becomes the following this law holds for two sets of different conditions under which temperature and pressure is held the same. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | Suppose I put one more liter of water into my balloon. Well, it's going to take up twice as much volume because we're assuming, of course, that temperature and pressure is the same. So our Law of Evangels Law becomes the following this law holds for two sets of different conditions under which temperature and pressure is held the same. So for one condition, for one volume in one mode, this guy equals the second condition, v two over n two. The same thing. The same results we saw in Charles Law and also in Boyle's Law. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | So for one condition, for one volume in one mode, this guy equals the second condition, v two over n two. The same thing. The same results we saw in Charles Law and also in Boyle's Law. Except in Boyle's Law it was p times V equals p two times V two. Now this guy is equal to the constant, because remember, no matter what volume or number of mold we're talking about, as long as this is true, our constant will be the same. So both this guy and this guy equals the same constant. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | Except in Boyle's Law it was p times V equals p two times V two. Now this guy is equal to the constant, because remember, no matter what volume or number of mold we're talking about, as long as this is true, our constant will be the same. So both this guy and this guy equals the same constant. Now, this formula can be applied in many different examples. Let's see one, an easy one in Part E. Suppose I'm given that for three moles, my volume is 22 liters. Now suppose my second volume in my second condition is 44 liters. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | Now, this formula can be applied in many different examples. Let's see one, an easy one in Part E. Suppose I'm given that for three moles, my volume is 22 liters. Now suppose my second volume in my second condition is 44 liters. What is my mole? What? I basically plug in my values. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | What is my mole? What? I basically plug in my values. 22 over three equals 44 over n two. I solve for n and I find six. That's exactly how I use Avogadro's Law to solve problems. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | 22 over three equals 44 over n two. I solve for n and I find six. That's exactly how I use Avogadro's Law to solve problems. So now let's explain Avogadro's Law, a macro scale concept using a microscale concept or the kinetic theory or the Kinetic molecular theory. Now, Kinetic theory explains of Agadro's Law in the following way. Now if temperature and pressure is to remain constant, an increase in the number of moles will increase volume. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | So now let's explain Avogadro's Law, a macro scale concept using a microscale concept or the kinetic theory or the Kinetic molecular theory. Now, Kinetic theory explains of Agadro's Law in the following way. Now if temperature and pressure is to remain constant, an increase in the number of moles will increase volume. In other words, if our kinetic energy or average kinetic energy of our molecules is to remain the same, and the pressure or the force per unit area exerted by or on the walls of my container is to remain the same, that means when we increase the number of moles, we also increase the number of molecules hitting the walls. And that means the only way to keep these two guys constant is if we increase the volume. That's exactly how our kinetic theory explains Abogro's Law. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | In other words, if our kinetic energy or average kinetic energy of our molecules is to remain the same, and the pressure or the force per unit area exerted by or on the walls of my container is to remain the same, that means when we increase the number of moles, we also increase the number of molecules hitting the walls. And that means the only way to keep these two guys constant is if we increase the volume. That's exactly how our kinetic theory explains Abogro's Law. Now, once again, to recap, kinetic theory explains microscopic concepts. It explains how two individual gas molecules interact. The fact that their volume is so small that it's assumed to be zero. |
Avogadro's Law .txt | Now, once again, to recap, kinetic theory explains microscopic concepts. It explains how two individual gas molecules interact. The fact that their volume is so small that it's assumed to be zero. The fact that individual molecules travel at very high speeds, about 1000 these laws avoidros Charles and Boyle's Law all explain macroscopic concepts, things that you could see and feel and hear. For example, a balloon popping when you're putting pressure on it, or a balloon inflating when you're putting in more molds. Things like that are explained by these three laws. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | Well, this is defined as simply the combination of four atomic orbitals in a given atom to produce four hybridized orbitals which then can interact with other atomic orbitals of other atoms to produce codalent bonds. So to show this, let's examine the following methane molecule. So, our goal will be to produce this methane molecule composed of one carbon and four H atoms. So the carbon has the following electron configuration. It has a total of six electrons. Two electrons go to the one S, two electrons go to the two S and two electrons still to two P. Now, each H atom has one electron each. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So the carbon has the following electron configuration. It has a total of six electrons. Two electrons go to the one S, two electrons go to the two S and two electrons still to two P. Now, each H atom has one electron each. And that means that electron goes into the one x orbital. So we have one balance electron per H atom and four balance electrons two plus two four for the carbon atom. Now, before the carbon can combine with the H atoms to form our methane, hybridization must take place. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | And that means that electron goes into the one x orbital. So we have one balance electron per H atom and four balance electrons two plus two four for the carbon atom. Now, before the carbon can combine with the H atoms to form our methane, hybridization must take place. Remember, hybridization occurs because it increases the volume of the lobe interacting with the other atomic orbitals. And this increase in overlap will increase the strength of the bond. So hybridization takes place so that there is a better overlap between atomic orbitals and this stabilizes the bond. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | Remember, hybridization occurs because it increases the volume of the lobe interacting with the other atomic orbitals. And this increase in overlap will increase the strength of the bond. So hybridization takes place so that there is a better overlap between atomic orbitals and this stabilizes the bond. So before hybridization took place, we had the following picture of our carbon atom. So, the carbon atom has four bounce electrons. Two bounce electrons are in the two S orbitals shown here. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So before hybridization took place, we had the following picture of our carbon atom. So, the carbon atom has four bounce electrons. Two bounce electrons are in the two S orbitals shown here. One bounce electron is in the two PX, one balanced electron is in the two PY and no electrons are in the two PZ. So how does hybridization take place? Well, first we must ask the following question how many hybrid orbitals should carbon develop so that it can create the methane molecule? |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | One bounce electron is in the two PX, one balanced electron is in the two PY and no electrons are in the two PZ. So how does hybridization take place? Well, first we must ask the following question how many hybrid orbitals should carbon develop so that it can create the methane molecule? The answer lies in this picture. How many bonds are created between the carbon and the H? Well, since we have one carbon and four HS, there are four bonds. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | The answer lies in this picture. How many bonds are created between the carbon and the H? Well, since we have one carbon and four HS, there are four bonds. So that means we need four hybrid orbitals. So that means we have to use the two x and all the three P, x's, y's and Z's to form our four hybrid orbitals. In other words, for hybridization to take place, the two S must combine the two PX that must combine the two PY and the two PZ. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So that means we need four hybrid orbitals. So that means we have to use the two x and all the three P, x's, y's and Z's to form our four hybrid orbitals. In other words, for hybridization to take place, the two S must combine the two PX that must combine the two PY and the two PZ. If we combine all these four atomic orbitals, we will get four hybrid orbitals that are all identical and look like this. So we get four SP, three hybridized orbitals in which we have 25% S character and 75% P character. So this guy undergoes hybridization, we get the following depiction. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | If we combine all these four atomic orbitals, we will get four hybrid orbitals that are all identical and look like this. So we get four SP, three hybridized orbitals in which we have 25% S character and 75% P character. So this guy undergoes hybridization, we get the following depiction. So now our carbon atom no longer has that individual two S and these individual two PX two PY, two PZ. Instead, we have four identical XP, three hybridized orbitals. And so and since we have four balanced electrons, each bounced electron goes into each of the four identical SP three hybridized orbitals. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So now our carbon atom no longer has that individual two S and these individual two PX two PY, two PZ. Instead, we have four identical XP, three hybridized orbitals. And so and since we have four balanced electrons, each bounced electron goes into each of the four identical SP three hybridized orbitals. So one goes into here, one goes into here, one in here and one in here. Now, the carbon, which has undergone hybridization, is ready to interact with four other one s orbitals. So here we take the four one s orbitals. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So one goes into here, one goes into here, one in here and one in here. Now, the carbon, which has undergone hybridization, is ready to interact with four other one s orbitals. So here we take the four one s orbitals. We place each on to the positive green lobe, and we get our methane molecule. So a simpler way of looking at it is via this black diagram. So here we have our carbon nucleus. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | We place each on to the positive green lobe, and we get our methane molecule. So a simpler way of looking at it is via this black diagram. So here we have our carbon nucleus. We have these SP three lobes, which each have an electron. They interact with a one s orbital. So H, with one electron, they bind or bonds. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | We have these SP three lobes, which each have an electron. They interact with a one s orbital. So H, with one electron, they bind or bonds. And we create the following picture. Notice that these guys are identical. Now, for our methane molecule. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | And we create the following picture. Notice that these guys are identical. Now, for our methane molecule. Experimentally, we know that the bond between a two ch and C H is 109 degrees. And this takes the form of a tetrahedron. So now let's look at the energy diagram. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | Experimentally, we know that the bond between a two ch and C H is 109 degrees. And this takes the form of a tetrahedron. So now let's look at the energy diagram. So, let's say we want to combine one of these one SS with the SP three hypothetical orbital. So that one s will be slightly lower in energy than the SP three. The SP three will be slightly higher. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | So, let's say we want to combine one of these one SS with the SP three hypothetical orbital. So that one s will be slightly lower in energy than the SP three. The SP three will be slightly higher. They will combine to form a bonding and an antibanding orbital or a molecular orbital. So here we have the bonding, and the electrons will go into this orbital. And here we have the antibinding. |
Sp3 Hybridization.txt | They will combine to form a bonding and an antibanding orbital or a molecular orbital. So here we have the bonding, and the electrons will go into this orbital. And here we have the antibinding. Electrons will not want to go into this orbital. They will stay in this bonding orbital. And so this is exactly what happens in this picture. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | So these guys cancel, this guy becomes negative. And now we have the denominator on this term here. This equation is called a nurse equation and it can be used, used to find a cell voltage under non standard state conditions whereas this guy is our cell voltage under nonsense state conditions. So we basically plug this guy in and all these guys in and we get our cell voltage for nonstand state conditions. Now, this guy can be simplified even further because notice we have a constant R, a constant F. And if we're given some constant temperature, say 25 degrees Celsius, the most common temperature, room temperature, we can plug these guys in and simplify this whole guy to simply this guy here. Look, we rewrite this formula, we get this. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | So we basically plug this guy in and all these guys in and we get our cell voltage for nonstand state conditions. Now, this guy can be simplified even further because notice we have a constant R, a constant F. And if we're given some constant temperature, say 25 degrees Celsius, the most common temperature, room temperature, we can plug these guys in and simplify this whole guy to simply this guy here. Look, we rewrite this formula, we get this. We plug in our constant, our gas constant, our temperature in Kelvin and our Faraday's constant. We plug this into the calculator and we get this number to be zero point 25 seven. So this is a simplified version of this guy. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | We plug in our constant, our gas constant, our temperature in Kelvin and our Faraday's constant. We plug this into the calculator and we get this number to be zero point 25 seven. So this is a simplified version of this guy. But we're not done. Notice we have natural logs. We never want to deal with natural logs. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | But we're not done. Notice we have natural logs. We never want to deal with natural logs. We always want to convert natural logs into easier logs, say log base ten. So that means we have to use this mathematical formula that relates bases of logs. And what we basically have to realize is that natural log of Q is the same thing as this guy divided by this guy. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | We always want to convert natural logs into easier logs, say log base ten. So that means we have to use this mathematical formula that relates bases of logs. And what we basically have to realize is that natural log of Q is the same thing as this guy divided by this guy. It's just a formula. You can look that up online. So we take this guy, we plug it into this Lnq and that means we are left with log base ten Q on the top. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | It's just a formula. You can look that up online. So we take this guy, we plug it into this Lnq and that means we are left with log base ten Q on the top. And on the bottom we have this log of base ten of E. We plug this into the calculator and then we divide zero point 25 by this number to get our 0.0
59 two. So once again, we take this guy, we plug it into this LMQ, we use a calculator to find this number and our final nurse equation at 25 degrees Celsius is this following equation. Now, if this was a different temperature, I'd go back to my equation in part E and I'd plug in a different temperature here and solve it the same way and get a new value here. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | And on the bottom we have this log of base ten of E. We plug this into the calculator and then we divide zero point 25 by this number to get our 0.0
59 two. So once again, we take this guy, we plug it into this LMQ, we use a calculator to find this number and our final nurse equation at 25 degrees Celsius is this following equation. Now, if this was a different temperature, I'd go back to my equation in part E and I'd plug in a different temperature here and solve it the same way and get a new value here. Now, last thing I want to mention is notice that if Q is equal to one, that means our log of one is zero. So what we guess is our cell voltage is simply cell voltage under state and state conditions. And that means this holds true as well. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | Now, last thing I want to mention is notice that if Q is equal to one, that means our log of one is zero. So what we guess is our cell voltage is simply cell voltage under state and state conditions. And that means this holds true as well. Well, why is this the case? Well, if our Q is one, that means this Q is one. So our ratio of concentration of products or reactions is one. |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | Well, why is this the case? Well, if our Q is one, that means this Q is one. So our ratio of concentration of products or reactions is one. That means this guy, this guy and this guy. This guy has molarity of one. But that simply stands the condition, right? |
Nernst Equation Part II .txt | That means this guy, this guy and this guy. This guy has molarity of one. But that simply stands the condition, right? It's assumed that molarity is one under those conditions. That's exactly what this states. Now, also notice what this formula states. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | So gas molecules have generally different properties than that of liquid molecules or solid molecules. Now, in this lecture, I'm going to give a brief introduction to the gas state. So, gas molecules travel at very, very high velocities at approximately 1000 mph or 480 meters/second. Now, that means if you allow single gas molecule to travel from New York to California without being interrupted, it would take it about 3 hours to get there versus a car that would take days and days. And so, because of this high speed, they feel very little force from other gas molecules and that means very little intermolecular bonding. Remember, the reason water is held together or any other solid is due to intermolecular bonding between the molecules. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | Now, that means if you allow single gas molecule to travel from New York to California without being interrupted, it would take it about 3 hours to get there versus a car that would take days and days. And so, because of this high speed, they feel very little force from other gas molecules and that means very little intermolecular bonding. Remember, the reason water is held together or any other solid is due to intermolecular bonding between the molecules. Now, in gas molecules we don't have that because the molecules move at high speeds when they pass each other, they don't really feel too much force, so they don't bond. Let's look at the second thing. So gases are compressible and that's because they take up much less volume than the volume of the container they are in. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | Now, in gas molecules we don't have that because the molecules move at high speeds when they pass each other, they don't really feel too much force, so they don't bond. Let's look at the second thing. So gases are compressible and that's because they take up much less volume than the volume of the container they are in. For example, let's look at this big ball, right? So inside this ball we have air. And if you were to push this guy in, I could easily to some point push this ball in. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | For example, let's look at this big ball, right? So inside this ball we have air. And if you were to push this guy in, I could easily to some point push this ball in. Now, if this, if the inside was replaced with, say, salad or liquid, I wouldn't be able to push it without changing the volume. Notice how when I'm pushing this I'm not really affecting the volume too much, right? And that's why I'm able to push it, I'm compressing it. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | Now, if this, if the inside was replaced with, say, salad or liquid, I wouldn't be able to push it without changing the volume. Notice how when I'm pushing this I'm not really affecting the volume too much, right? And that's why I'm able to push it, I'm compressing it. And the reason for that is this following idea. Now, the volume of the inside of the ball is much greater than the volume that is taken up by these molecules. In other words, any two molecules at any given time are very far apart. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | And the reason for that is this following idea. Now, the volume of the inside of the ball is much greater than the volume that is taken up by these molecules. In other words, any two molecules at any given time are very far apart. So when I compress this ball, these molecules have lots of room to get closer, right? So this model gets closer, this one gets closer, this one gets closer and eventually they all get closer so I could push them in. Now, if this guy was replaced with liquid or solid, liquid and solid is much more dense and that means I would not be able to push it together because all the molecules are close together. |
Introduction to Gas State .txt | So when I compress this ball, these molecules have lots of room to get closer, right? So this model gets closer, this one gets closer, this one gets closer and eventually they all get closer so I could push them in. Now, if this guy was replaced with liquid or solid, liquid and solid is much more dense and that means I would not be able to push it together because all the molecules are close together. And that leads straight to the third point. Gas molecules exert a force on whatever they hit. And this force can be calculated in terms of pressure. |
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