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Well, erythropletin is basically a glycoprotein that is produced by special cells found inside our kidneys. And these glycoproteins are released into the blood plasma and they act as hormones. They basically bind on suspension precursor cells and they stimulate the cells to basically produce erythrocytes, red blood cells. Now, the reason we essentially add these sugar molecules onto the protein component is to basically increase the stability of erythropleton within the blood plasma. And this decreases the likelihood that the kidneys are going to remove this hormone from the blood plasma. So glycosylation of Erythropolietin helps to stabilize this structure in the blood plasma. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
Now, the reason we essentially add these sugar molecules onto the protein component is to basically increase the stability of erythropleton within the blood plasma. And this decreases the likelihood that the kidneys are going to remove this hormone from the blood plasma. So glycosylation of Erythropolietin helps to stabilize this structure in the blood plasma. And what that means is it decreases the likelihood of the kidneys are going to remove this protein, the glycoprotein, from the blood plasma. That means this glycoprotein can basically stimulate the production of red blood cells. Now, urethraplatin is not the only glycoprotein that act as a hormone inside our body. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And what that means is it decreases the likelihood of the kidneys are going to remove this protein, the glycoprotein, from the blood plasma. That means this glycoprotein can basically stimulate the production of red blood cells. Now, urethraplatin is not the only glycoprotein that act as a hormone inside our body. We have many other examples of glycoproteins that act as hormones. For instance, we have the thyroid stimulating hormone that is a glycoprotein. We have the human coriane gunitosropin that also acts as a hormone and is a glycoprotein. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
We have many other examples of glycoproteins that act as hormones. For instance, we have the thyroid stimulating hormone that is a glycoprotein. We have the human coriane gunitosropin that also acts as a hormone and is a glycoprotein. We have the leezing hormone and the follicle stimulating hormone, which are also examples of glycoproteins that act as hormones. Now, let's move on to tissue factor and antibodies. So we're not going to go into detail into these two glycoproteins because we actually focus on them in detail previously. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
We have the leezing hormone and the follicle stimulating hormone, which are also examples of glycoproteins that act as hormones. Now, let's move on to tissue factor and antibodies. So we're not going to go into detail into these two glycoproteins because we actually focus on them in detail previously. So tissue factor is a glycoprotein that is basically exposed when the blood vessels in our cardiovascular system experience some type of trauma. And these glycoproteins, the tissue factor, is found on the membrane of epithelial cells and once the tissue factor, the glycoprotein, is exposed, it initiates the extrinsic pathway of the blood clotting cascade. It basically initiates the formation of blood clots, the coagulation process. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
So tissue factor is a glycoprotein that is basically exposed when the blood vessels in our cardiovascular system experience some type of trauma. And these glycoproteins, the tissue factor, is found on the membrane of epithelial cells and once the tissue factor, the glycoprotein, is exposed, it initiates the extrinsic pathway of the blood clotting cascade. It basically initiates the formation of blood clots, the coagulation process. Now, antibodies are also glycoproteins, which basically are found floating within our blood plasma. And we have many different types of antibodies. So what these immunoglobulins do is basically they bind onto pathogenic or infectious antigens and they initiate some type of immune defense or response that ultimately kills off that infecting agent. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
Now, antibodies are also glycoproteins, which basically are found floating within our blood plasma. And we have many different types of antibodies. So what these immunoglobulins do is basically they bind onto pathogenic or infectious antigens and they initiate some type of immune defense or response that ultimately kills off that infecting agent. So it protects our body from these different types of infectious agents. So we see that glycoproteins have a wide range of functionality. So some glycoproteins basically absorb water and act as lubricants and also protect our body from infectious agents. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
So it protects our body from these different types of infectious agents. So we see that glycoproteins have a wide range of functionality. So some glycoproteins basically absorb water and act as lubricants and also protect our body from infectious agents. And antibodies also carry out the function of protecting our body. We see that others play a role in the blood clotting cascade and basically creating these blood clots and initiating the coagulation process. Other glycoproteins act as hormones and we have many, many other examples of glycoproteins. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And antibodies also carry out the function of protecting our body. We see that others play a role in the blood clotting cascade and basically creating these blood clots and initiating the coagulation process. Other glycoproteins act as hormones and we have many, many other examples of glycoproteins. Now, the final thing I'd like to discuss in this lecture is this disease we call the eye cell disease, also known as Mucolipidosis II, which is basically a liposomal storage disease. So what exactly does that mean? Well, inside our normal cells we basically have an organelle known as a lysosome. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
Now, the final thing I'd like to discuss in this lecture is this disease we call the eye cell disease, also known as Mucolipidosis II, which is basically a liposomal storage disease. So what exactly does that mean? Well, inside our normal cells we basically have an organelle known as a lysosome. And inside the lysosome we have these digestive enzymes, these hydrolytic enzymes. And what they do is they basically recycle and break down the different types of byproducts which are produced inside the cells. So they break down things like large carbohydrates and glycosaminoglycans and glycolipids. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And inside the lysosome we have these digestive enzymes, these hydrolytic enzymes. And what they do is they basically recycle and break down the different types of byproducts which are produced inside the cells. So they break down things like large carbohydrates and glycosaminoglycans and glycolipids. And all this takes place inside the lysosomes. Now, these hydrolytic enzymes, under normal conditions are produced inside the Er, then modified inside the Golgi apparatus, and then they end up inside the lysosome. So how this process takes place is in the following way. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And all this takes place inside the lysosomes. Now, these hydrolytic enzymes, under normal conditions are produced inside the Er, then modified inside the Golgi apparatus, and then they end up inside the lysosome. So how this process takes place is in the following way. So the ribosomes found on the rough Er basically synthesize these hydrolytic enzymes. And once synthesized, they are basically modified in some way by adding the endgycoacetic linkages. And then those hydrolytic enzymes are transferred into this membraneous sac known as the Golgi apparatus. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
So the ribosomes found on the rough Er basically synthesize these hydrolytic enzymes. And once synthesized, they are basically modified in some way by adding the endgycoacetic linkages. And then those hydrolytic enzymes are transferred into this membraneous sac known as the Golgi apparatus. And as they move within the Golgaparatus, a special enzyme known as phosphotransphrase basically adds up a sporal group onto the mano sugar found on the hydrolytic enzyme and that produces the manos six phosphate. Now, the special thing about this modified sugar molecule found on the hydrolytic enzymes is that it is the marker. It basically dictates exactly where the hydrolytic enzyme will actually end up. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And as they move within the Golgaparatus, a special enzyme known as phosphotransphrase basically adds up a sporal group onto the mano sugar found on the hydrolytic enzyme and that produces the manos six phosphate. Now, the special thing about this modified sugar molecule found on the hydrolytic enzymes is that it is the marker. It basically dictates exactly where the hydrolytic enzyme will actually end up. So it's the mano six phosphate that acts as the marker that basically is used to direct the hydrolytic enzymes to the lysosomes. And so normally, if this process takes place correctly and the hydrolytic enzymes are actually properly phosphorylated via this process, only then will they actually end up in the lysosomes. And only then will the lysosomes actually be able to carry out their process. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
So it's the mano six phosphate that acts as the marker that basically is used to direct the hydrolytic enzymes to the lysosomes. And so normally, if this process takes place correctly and the hydrolytic enzymes are actually properly phosphorylated via this process, only then will they actually end up in the lysosomes. And only then will the lysosomes actually be able to carry out their process. Now, what happens in individuals that have the eye cell disease? Well, in individuals with the eye cell disease, this phosphate transferase cannot actually create the mano six phosphate. So what happens is, when the hydrolytic enzymes end up inside the Golgi apparatus, that mano sugar remains unmodified. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
Now, what happens in individuals that have the eye cell disease? Well, in individuals with the eye cell disease, this phosphate transferase cannot actually create the mano six phosphate. So what happens is, when the hydrolytic enzymes end up inside the Golgi apparatus, that mano sugar remains unmodified. And so what that means is the protein Glycosylation process does not take place correctly. And because we have the unmodified mannose, because we don't have the mano six phosphate, those hydrolytic enzymes do not actually know that they should go into the lysosome. And so what happens in individual with the eye cell diseases? | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
And so what that means is the protein Glycosylation process does not take place correctly. And because we have the unmodified mannose, because we don't have the mano six phosphate, those hydrolytic enzymes do not actually know that they should go into the lysosome. And so what happens in individual with the eye cell diseases? These hydrolytic enzyme, hydrolytic enzymes basically end up being transported out of the cell. And so in individuals with the eye cell disease will have a high concentration of these hydrolytic enzymes in our blood plasma, and the lysosomes are going to be deficient in these hydrolytic enzymes. And what happens if we don't have the hydrolytic enzymes inside the lysosomes? | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
These hydrolytic enzyme, hydrolytic enzymes basically end up being transported out of the cell. And so in individuals with the eye cell disease will have a high concentration of these hydrolytic enzymes in our blood plasma, and the lysosomes are going to be deficient in these hydrolytic enzymes. And what happens if we don't have the hydrolytic enzymes inside the lysosomes? That means we're going to have an accumulation of all these different types of byproducts inside the lysosomes. So things like glyco, lipids and large carbohydrates and glycosaminoglycans will not be able to be broken down because of the absence of these hydrolytic enzymes. And that can lead to many, many negative problems inside our cells and inside our body. | Functions of Glycoproteins and I-Cell Disease .txt |
So when the left ventricle of the heart contracts, it pumps all that blood into the largest artery of the body known as our aorter. Now we have different segments of the aorta and the segment of the aorta that actually extends from the left ventricle and moves upward is known as our ascending an order. And this is shown in red as it travels right over to this location here. Now at the beginning portion of our ascending A order, we have branching taking place and we form two smaller arteries given by one A. So these arteries right here are the left and the right coronary arteries. And these bring oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the cells of our heart. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now at the beginning portion of our ascending A order, we have branching taking place and we form two smaller arteries given by one A. So these arteries right here are the left and the right coronary arteries. And these bring oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the cells of our heart. Now if we follow the ascending A order, eventually we get to this arch. And this arch is commonly known as our aortic arch. Now, Aortic arch contains three important branching points. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now if we follow the ascending A order, eventually we get to this arch. And this arch is commonly known as our aortic arch. Now, Aortic arch contains three important branching points. We have one on the left side, one on the right side and one in the middle. So we have the left side of the body and the right side of the body. So let's begin with our leftmost branch labeled as two A. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
We have one on the left side, one on the right side and one in the middle. So we have the left side of the body and the right side of the body. So let's begin with our leftmost branch labeled as two A. This is known as our left subclavian artery. Now if we follow the left subclavian artery, it extends all the way to the left shoulder, the left arm and the left hand. So the left subclavian artery brings oxygen to these parts of our body. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
This is known as our left subclavian artery. Now if we follow the left subclavian artery, it extends all the way to the left shoulder, the left arm and the left hand. So the left subclavian artery brings oxygen to these parts of our body. Now at this particular intersection point, we see that the left subclavian artery actually branches. So it branches and informs this artery, known as the left vertebral artery, that goes to our head portion of the body. It also extends many times, it permeates many times within our shoulder and arm portion as shown. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now at this particular intersection point, we see that the left subclavian artery actually branches. So it branches and informs this artery, known as the left vertebral artery, that goes to our head portion of the body. It also extends many times, it permeates many times within our shoulder and arm portion as shown. And that is to ensure that all the blood gets to the cells of our left shoulder and our left arm. Now what about the middle branching point on the arch? This right here labeled as two B, is known as our left common carotid artery. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
And that is to ensure that all the blood gets to the cells of our left shoulder and our left arm. Now what about the middle branching point on the arch? This right here labeled as two B, is known as our left common carotid artery. And this artery brings our oxygenated blood filled with nutrients to the head of our body. For example, the thyroid and a parathyroid glands. These organs receive blood from this common carotid artery. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
And this artery brings our oxygenated blood filled with nutrients to the head of our body. For example, the thyroid and a parathyroid glands. These organs receive blood from this common carotid artery. Now what about the final branching point given by two C? This is called the branchiocephalic artery. Now the bronchiocephalic artery travels a short distance before it actually branches itself. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now what about the final branching point given by two C? This is called the branchiocephalic artery. Now the bronchiocephalic artery travels a short distance before it actually branches itself. And it branches at this particular location. At this location it forms two important arteries. This artery is known as our right common carotid artery. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
And it branches at this particular location. At this location it forms two important arteries. This artery is known as our right common carotid artery. So this one is the right common carotid artery. So just like we have a left common carotid artery, we also have a right common carotid artery. Now this other one, this one right here that essentially extends, continues and extends all the way into the right arm is known as the right subclavian artery. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
So this one is the right common carotid artery. So just like we have a left common carotid artery, we also have a right common carotid artery. Now this other one, this one right here that essentially extends, continues and extends all the way into the right arm is known as the right subclavian artery. So just like we have a left subclavian artery, we also have a right subclavian arteries that extends into the right shoulder and into the right arm and the right hand of our body. Now in the same way that we have this splitting taking place and we form our left vertebral artery, we also form the right vertebral arteries. So this is the right vertebral artery right here. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
So just like we have a left subclavian artery, we also have a right subclavian arteries that extends into the right shoulder and into the right arm and the right hand of our body. Now in the same way that we have this splitting taking place and we form our left vertebral artery, we also form the right vertebral arteries. So this is the right vertebral artery right here. So we have symmetry taking place. Now the subclavian artery, the common carotid artery, this vertebral artery all bring our oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the organs and tissues found in the upper portion of our body. In the head portion, the neck region, the shoulders, as well as our arms and the coronary arteries bring our blood to the heart of our body. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
So we have symmetry taking place. Now the subclavian artery, the common carotid artery, this vertebral artery all bring our oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the organs and tissues found in the upper portion of our body. In the head portion, the neck region, the shoulders, as well as our arms and the coronary arteries bring our blood to the heart of our body. Now let's continue onwards. So we have the ascending portion of the aorter. We also have this aortic arch. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now let's continue onwards. So we have the ascending portion of the aorter. We also have this aortic arch. Now when the arch circles backwards, it then basically extends in the back of the heart and all the way to our pelvic portion of the body. So remember, this chest portion of the body is known as our thoracic region. And this is the abdomen portion. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
Now when the arch circles backwards, it then basically extends in the back of the heart and all the way to our pelvic portion of the body. So remember, this chest portion of the body is known as our thoracic region. And this is the abdomen portion. This is our abdominal region. Now as our order actually extends downward, we call that portion the descending an order. And we can break down the descending an order into two regions. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
This is our abdominal region. Now as our order actually extends downward, we call that portion the descending an order. And we can break down the descending an order into two regions. We have the thoracic descending an order and we have the abdominal descending an order. And basically the order extends and branches many times as we go down our body. And these branches form smaller arteries, eventually form arterios and then capillaries. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
We have the thoracic descending an order and we have the abdominal descending an order. And basically the order extends and branches many times as we go down our body. And these branches form smaller arteries, eventually form arterios and then capillaries. And these capillaries are found within the organs and tissues found within the thoracic and within the abdomen portion of our body. Now eventually when we get down to our pelvic region, the descending an order and more specifically our abdominal descending order actually splits. And this splitting takes place in the following region. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
And these capillaries are found within the organs and tissues found within the thoracic and within the abdomen portion of our body. Now eventually when we get down to our pelvic region, the descending an order and more specifically our abdominal descending order actually splits. And this splitting takes place in the following region. So these two arteries are called the common iliac arteries. So we have a left common iliac artery and a right common iliac artery. And as they extend down they split many more times. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
So these two arteries are called the common iliac arteries. So we have a left common iliac artery and a right common iliac artery. And as they extend down they split many more times. For example, they split in the following location. And when they split here they become the external and the internal iliac arteries. So these here are the external iliac arteries and these smaller ones are the internal iliac arteries. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
For example, they split in the following location. And when they split here they become the external and the internal iliac arteries. So these here are the external iliac arteries and these smaller ones are the internal iliac arteries. And these common iliac arteries deliver oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the leg portion of our body, to our right and our left leg. So these are some of the major arteries that are found within our arterial circulation system. Now of course we have many more arteries that we haven't actually shown. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
And these common iliac arteries deliver oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the leg portion of our body, to our right and our left leg. So these are some of the major arteries that are found within our arterial circulation system. Now of course we have many more arteries that we haven't actually shown. For example, we have our pulmonary arteries. So our right ventricle, when it actually contracts, it forces all that deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk. And the pulmonary trunk, this section here extends into our left and our right pulmonary artery. | Major Arteries of Circulation System .txt |
The next two amino acids that we're going to focus on will be the aromatic amino acids phenolalamine and tyrosine. And we're going to look at how our liver cells can metabolize these two amino acids, ultimately forming acetylacetate and fumarate. Now, acetoacitate can be used by hepatocytes to form ketone bodies, while fumerate can be be used to form glucose. And that's exactly why these two amino acids, phenylalanine and tyrosine, are known as glucogenic and ketonic amino acids, because we can use them to ultimately form both glucose and ketone bodies. So let's begin by examining step one. And actually what step one shows us is we can transform phenylalanine directly into tyrosine. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And that's exactly why these two amino acids, phenylalanine and tyrosine, are known as glucogenic and ketonic amino acids, because we can use them to ultimately form both glucose and ketone bodies. So let's begin by examining step one. And actually what step one shows us is we can transform phenylalanine directly into tyrosine. And this is precisely how our cells can synthesize tyrosine by beginning with phenylalanine. Now, the enzyme that catalyzes step one is phenylalanine hydroxylase. And this enzyme is part of a category of enzymes we call mixed function oxygenases. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And this is precisely how our cells can synthesize tyrosine by beginning with phenylalanine. Now, the enzyme that catalyzes step one is phenylalanine hydroxylase. And this enzyme is part of a category of enzymes we call mixed function oxygenases. So this is a mixed function oxygenase. And what that means is it uses a diatomic oxygen. It takes one of the oxygen atoms within this diatomic molecule, places it on this, reactant the phenylalanine, and this basically forms the tyrosine. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So this is a mixed function oxygenase. And what that means is it uses a diatomic oxygen. It takes one of the oxygen atoms within this diatomic molecule, places it on this, reactant the phenylalanine, and this basically forms the tyrosine. And this oxygen is shown here. Now, the other oxygen atom goes to form water, and that's exactly why water is released here. So phenylalanine hydroxylase is a mixed function oxygenase. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And this oxygen is shown here. Now, the other oxygen atom goes to form water, and that's exactly why water is released here. So phenylalanine hydroxylase is a mixed function oxygenase. Now, in order for the phenolaline hydroxylase to be able to catalyze this step, it has to use the reducing power of an electron carrier molecule we call tetrahydrobiopterin. Now, tetrahydrobiopterin is actually not a vitamin because our cells can synthesize this molecule. And to synthesize this molecule, we basically begin with dihydrobiopterin. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
Now, in order for the phenolaline hydroxylase to be able to catalyze this step, it has to use the reducing power of an electron carrier molecule we call tetrahydrobiopterin. Now, tetrahydrobiopterin is actually not a vitamin because our cells can synthesize this molecule. And to synthesize this molecule, we basically begin with dihydrobiopterin. So in the presence of NADPH and an H plus ion, the enzyme Dihydrophobate reductase basically takes the dihydrobiopterine and transfers the reducing power from NADPH onto this molecule to give us tetrahydrobiopterin. And then this mixed function oxygenates, this enzyme, phenylaline hydroxylase, uses the reducing power of tetrahydrobiopterin to basically form tyrosine. And of course, we also use up the reducing power of this molecule to form Quinnode dihydrobiopterin. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So in the presence of NADPH and an H plus ion, the enzyme Dihydrophobate reductase basically takes the dihydrobiopterine and transfers the reducing power from NADPH onto this molecule to give us tetrahydrobiopterin. And then this mixed function oxygenates, this enzyme, phenylaline hydroxylase, uses the reducing power of tetrahydrobiopterin to basically form tyrosine. And of course, we also use up the reducing power of this molecule to form Quinnode dihydrobiopterin. Now, to regenerate back the tetrahydrobiopterin so that it can be used again in this reaction, we use an enzyme called dihydropyridine reductase. And this enzyme takes the reducing power of NADPH, transfers it onto this molecule to form back the tetrahydrobiopter. And so that again, we can use the reducing power of this molecule to undergo this first step. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
Now, to regenerate back the tetrahydrobiopterin so that it can be used again in this reaction, we use an enzyme called dihydropyridine reductase. And this enzyme takes the reducing power of NADPH, transfers it onto this molecule to form back the tetrahydrobiopter. And so that again, we can use the reducing power of this molecule to undergo this first step. So again, in the first step, we utilize a phenylalamine, a diatomic water molecule. We use NADPH to basically give us this. And by using the reducing power of this molecule, we transform the phenylalanine into tyrosine. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So again, in the first step, we utilize a phenylalamine, a diatomic water molecule. We use NADPH to basically give us this. And by using the reducing power of this molecule, we transform the phenylalanine into tyrosine. So one of the oxygen atoms goes on to this ring of the phenomealine, and the other one is used to form a water molecule. Now, once we form tyrosine, what happens next? Well, next we basically have to use an amino transferase to transfer the alpha amino group from tyrosine onto an alpha keto acid. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So one of the oxygen atoms goes on to this ring of the phenomealine, and the other one is used to form a water molecule. Now, once we form tyrosine, what happens next? Well, next we basically have to use an amino transferase to transfer the alpha amino group from tyrosine onto an alpha keto acid. And so we have the enzyme tyrosine amino transferase. And just like any immunransferase, this one has to use PLP. So, periodoxylphostate, we transfer this alpha aminogroup from the tyrosine onto an alpha ketoglutrate. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And so we have the enzyme tyrosine amino transferase. And just like any immunransferase, this one has to use PLP. So, periodoxylphostate, we transfer this alpha aminogroup from the tyrosine onto an alpha ketoglutrate. Now, the alpha ketoglutrate, upon receiving that amino group, we form glutamate. Upon removing the alpha amino group from tyrosine, we form this alpha keto acid, the p hydroxy phenyl pyruvate. Now, once we form this molecule, the next step is to use a dioxygenase. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
Now, the alpha ketoglutrate, upon receiving that amino group, we form glutamate. Upon removing the alpha amino group from tyrosine, we form this alpha keto acid, the p hydroxy phenyl pyruvate. Now, once we form this molecule, the next step is to use a dioxygenase. And unlike an oxygenase, where one of the oxygen atoms was used to form water, and the other oxygen atom went onto the phenolalanine to form the tyrosine, an enzyme that we call dioxygenase uses a diatomic water, a diatomic oxygen, and it uses both atoms of that diatomic oxygen to attach it onto that substrate molecule. So in this step, we basically want to remove this carbon dioxide, and we want to use both of the oxygen atoms and attach them onto this substrate to basically form an intermediate we call homogenesate. So the enzyme that catalyze this step is p hydroxy phenyl, Pyruvate dioxygenase. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And unlike an oxygenase, where one of the oxygen atoms was used to form water, and the other oxygen atom went onto the phenolalanine to form the tyrosine, an enzyme that we call dioxygenase uses a diatomic water, a diatomic oxygen, and it uses both atoms of that diatomic oxygen to attach it onto that substrate molecule. So in this step, we basically want to remove this carbon dioxide, and we want to use both of the oxygen atoms and attach them onto this substrate to basically form an intermediate we call homogenesate. So the enzyme that catalyze this step is p hydroxy phenyl, Pyruvate dioxygenase. And so ultimately, we attach an oxygen here onto this carbon, and the other oxygen goes onto this ring here. So now we have two oxygen atoms here, two oxygen atoms here, and this carbon dioxide group was basically removed as carbon dioxide. Now, in the next step, we want to use, yet again, a dioxygenase. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And so ultimately, we attach an oxygen here onto this carbon, and the other oxygen goes onto this ring here. So now we have two oxygen atoms here, two oxygen atoms here, and this carbon dioxide group was basically removed as carbon dioxide. Now, in the next step, we want to use, yet again, a dioxygenase. So now we use homogeneousate one two dioxygenase. Again, we use a diatomic water, a diatomic oxygen. One of the oxygen is basically attached onto this carbon. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So now we use homogeneousate one two dioxygenase. Again, we use a diatomic water, a diatomic oxygen. One of the oxygen is basically attached onto this carbon. The other oxygen is attached onto this carbon. So ultimately, we break this sigma bonded pi bond. Within this ring, we attached oxygen here and here to form this intermediate formal acetyl acetate. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
The other oxygen is attached onto this carbon. So ultimately, we break this sigma bonded pi bond. Within this ring, we attached oxygen here and here to form this intermediate formal acetyl acetate. Now, in the next step, we basically want to isomerize. So we want to transform this CIS group into a TransGroup. So we have the cyst double bond here, but we want to form a trans double bond, as shown here. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
Now, in the next step, we basically want to isomerize. So we want to transform this CIS group into a TransGroup. So we have the cyst double bond here, but we want to form a trans double bond, as shown here. So the enzyme that catalyze this step is an isomerase. So we have malleal acetoacetate isomerase, which uses the activity of glutathione to basically form this molecule, the four funeral acetylacetate. And the final step in this reaction, in which we ultimately want to cleave this Sigma bond here by using essentially a water molecule, this is catalyzed by fumarol acetylacetase. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
So the enzyme that catalyze this step is an isomerase. So we have malleal acetoacetate isomerase, which uses the activity of glutathione to basically form this molecule, the four funeral acetylacetate. And the final step in this reaction, in which we ultimately want to cleave this Sigma bond here by using essentially a water molecule, this is catalyzed by fumarol acetylacetase. And so ultimately, we form a fumerate, because once we cleave this bond, the oxygen essentially attaches onto this carbon and this becomes a ch three. And so we form acetoacetate and fumerate. And now this can be used to form a ketone body, and this can be used to form our glucose. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And so ultimately, we form a fumerate, because once we cleave this bond, the oxygen essentially attaches onto this carbon and this becomes a ch three. And so we form acetoacetate and fumerate. And now this can be used to form a ketone body, and this can be used to form our glucose. So we see that inside our cells, we can transform phenylalanine into tyrosine. And so ultimately, we can basically form tyrosine within this step. And both and tyrosine, by following these series of steps, can be transformed into these carbon skeletons, acetylacetate and fumerate. | Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.txt |
And that will also create an instantaneous dipole moment that points in the following general direction. And so what that means is these instantaneous partial charges will attract each other as a result of an electric force forest. And that is what a London dispersion forest is. Now, London dispersion forces are the weakest because these exist only for a moment in time. So at one moment they exist, and another moment they don't exist, and a third moment, they exist once again. And so that's why they're the weakest types. | Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces (Part II).txt |
Now, London dispersion forces are the weakest because these exist only for a moment in time. So at one moment they exist, and another moment they don't exist, and a third moment, they exist once again. And so that's why they're the weakest types. But once again, if we have many of these molecules in close proximity, Vanderwald forces, lunaspersion forces begin to play a very substantial role in holding the molecule together, as we'll see in the structure of DNA. So London dispersion forces are forces that exist because these electrons fluctuate over time. So the electron density around atoms is not static, but rather fluctuates with time. | Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces (Part II).txt |
But once again, if we have many of these molecules in close proximity, Vanderwald forces, lunaspersion forces begin to play a very substantial role in holding the molecule together, as we'll see in the structure of DNA. So London dispersion forces are forces that exist because these electrons fluctuate over time. So the electron density around atoms is not static, but rather fluctuates with time. The asymmetric distribution of one molecule, as shown here, can cause the electron density of a nearby molecule here to basically change in accordance with the law of repulsion. So we have these electrons repelling these electrons, creating a partial positive charge here, and these can interact a moment in time. And this is what we mean by an instantaneous interaction, which is another way of saying London dispersion forces. | Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces (Part II).txt |
So gluconeogenesis bypasses step ten V, a two step reaction pathway that involves the oxalo acetate intermediate. And if we sum up those two steps, this is a reaction reaction that we're basically going to get. So Pyruvate plus ATP plus GTP plus the water molecule gives us that pet molecule that we want, the ADP, GDP, an orthophosphate and two H plus ions. And this makes this reaction an exergonic reaction, unlike this reaction that would be an endorganic reaction. Now, by the same exact reasoning, steps three and one are also bypassed by using this step and this step respectfully. So in each one of these steps, we basically use a simple hydrolysis reaction and we'll talk about the details of that in the next lecture. | Introduction to Gluconeogenesis Part II .txt |
And this makes this reaction an exergonic reaction, unlike this reaction that would be an endorganic reaction. Now, by the same exact reasoning, steps three and one are also bypassed by using this step and this step respectfully. So in each one of these steps, we basically use a simple hydrolysis reaction and we'll talk about the details of that in the next lecture. So we see that step three is bypassed via an exergolic hydrolysis of fructose one, six bisphosphate into a fructose six phosphate. So this is hydrolyzed by water and the activity of a special enzyme to produce the fructose six phosphate and the orthophosphate. And step one is bypassed by another hydrolysis reaction that is basically catalyzed by a different enzyme to form that glucose molecule. | Introduction to Gluconeogenesis Part II .txt |
Inside the alveoli of our lungs, we have a special type of substance known as the pulmonary surfactant that consists of phospholipids and proteins. And what the pulmonary surfactant does is it decreases the surface tension of the fluid found inside the alveoli of our lungs. And that decreases the pressure that is needed to actually actually inflate those alveoli during the process of inhalation. So it decreases the pressure needed to expand or inflate the alveoli when we actually inhale, when we breathe in, it also prevents the alveoli from actually collapsing onto themselves when we actually exhale. So overall, what the surfactant in the alveoli of the lungs does is it makes the process of breathing much more efficient and much more easy to carry out. Now the question is why and how does the surfactant actually carry out these two functions? | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So it decreases the pressure needed to expand or inflate the alveoli when we actually inhale, when we breathe in, it also prevents the alveoli from actually collapsing onto themselves when we actually exhale. So overall, what the surfactant in the alveoli of the lungs does is it makes the process of breathing much more efficient and much more easy to carry out. Now the question is why and how does the surfactant actually carry out these two functions? Well, to answer this question, we have to begin by answering question number one and question number two, if we understand these two questions. And the answer to these two questions will have no problem actually understanding how the surfactant in the alveoli actually works. So let's begin with question number one. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Well, to answer this question, we have to begin by answering question number one and question number two, if we understand these two questions. And the answer to these two questions will have no problem actually understanding how the surfactant in the alveoli actually works. So let's begin with question number one. An individual droplet of water placed on the tabletop will basically form a spherical shape as shown in diagram A. If we then add a tiny drop of detergent using some type of pipette onto that droplet of water, that droplet of water will basically break and collapse its spherical shape and will flatten out and spread out along the surface of the table as shown in diagram B. The question is, why does this actually take place? | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
An individual droplet of water placed on the tabletop will basically form a spherical shape as shown in diagram A. If we then add a tiny drop of detergent using some type of pipette onto that droplet of water, that droplet of water will basically break and collapse its spherical shape and will flatten out and spread out along the surface of the table as shown in diagram B. The question is, why does this actually take place? How does our detergent actually break and cause the water droplet to actually collapse its shape? So let's begin with diagram A. And let's actually answer why the water actually forms that spherical shape in the first place. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
How does our detergent actually break and cause the water droplet to actually collapse its shape? So let's begin with diagram A. And let's actually answer why the water actually forms that spherical shape in the first place. So if we examine inside that water droplet, if we get down to the microscopic level, we'll see that the individual water molecules are actually forming relatively strong intermolecular bonds known as hydrogen bonds. So water can form many hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecules. Now, because hydrogen bonding is stabilizing, that means the water will tend to create a shape that will maximize the number of hydrogen bonds. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So if we examine inside that water droplet, if we get down to the microscopic level, we'll see that the individual water molecules are actually forming relatively strong intermolecular bonds known as hydrogen bonds. So water can form many hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecules. Now, because hydrogen bonding is stabilizing, that means the water will tend to create a shape that will maximize the number of hydrogen bonds. And it turns out that this spherical shape has the highest volume to surface area ratio and it creates an optimal arrangement of molecules that creates a maximum amount of hydrogen bonds. And that's exactly why the water forms that spherical shape in the first place. So pure water has a high surface tension. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And it turns out that this spherical shape has the highest volume to surface area ratio and it creates an optimal arrangement of molecules that creates a maximum amount of hydrogen bonds. And that's exactly why the water forms that spherical shape in the first place. So pure water has a high surface tension. Now, in diagram B, when we take our pipette that contains our detergent and we release a small amount onto the water, that water breaks its spherical shape, it collapses and spreads out. It flattens out along the surface of the table. The question is why? | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Now, in diagram B, when we take our pipette that contains our detergent and we release a small amount onto the water, that water breaks its spherical shape, it collapses and spreads out. It flattens out along the surface of the table. The question is why? Well, what exactly is a detergent? A detergent is basically some type of oil that contains hydrophobic non polar sections and hydrophilic polar sections. And when we add our detergent to the water. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Well, what exactly is a detergent? A detergent is basically some type of oil that contains hydrophobic non polar sections and hydrophilic polar sections. And when we add our detergent to the water. The polar section of our detergent will try to interact with the water and that will break the intermolecular bonds between water molecules. And the non polar will try to orient itself as far away from the water and that will also break intermolecular bonds. So by adding our detergent that contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, we essentially break many of those inter molecular bonds that are needed to create the spherical shape. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
The polar section of our detergent will try to interact with the water and that will break the intermolecular bonds between water molecules. And the non polar will try to orient itself as far away from the water and that will also break intermolecular bonds. So by adding our detergent that contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, we essentially break many of those inter molecular bonds that are needed to create the spherical shape. And that's exactly why our water essentially collapses and spreads out along the surface of our table. Now let's move on to question number two. So pure water, as I mentioned earlier, has a relatively high surface tension. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And that's exactly why our water essentially collapses and spreads out along the surface of our table. Now let's move on to question number two. So pure water, as I mentioned earlier, has a relatively high surface tension. So in diagram A before we added our detergent, we had a relatively high surface tension. Now when we add our detergent, we decrease the surface tension of that liquid. The question is why? | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So in diagram A before we added our detergent, we had a relatively high surface tension. Now when we add our detergent, we decrease the surface tension of that liquid. The question is why? Well, to begin, let's actually define what surface tension is. So surface tension basically means that the molecules found on the surface of the liquid remain on the surface and they're able to bond very well with adjacent liquid molecules. In the case of water, it's adjacent water molecules. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Well, to begin, let's actually define what surface tension is. So surface tension basically means that the molecules found on the surface of the liquid remain on the surface and they're able to bond very well with adjacent liquid molecules. In the case of water, it's adjacent water molecules. And so when we try to apply a force onto the surface of that liquid, because of these relatively strong intermolecular bonds, and because the molecules on the surface don't actually move too much, those molecules are able to actually stand their ground when a force is applied onto that surface. So surface tension means that it is relatively difficult to break the bonds that exist on the surface of that liquid. And this implies that the bonds on the surface of our water are strong and the water molecules on the surface don't actually move too much and so they can stand their ground when a force is applied on them. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And so when we try to apply a force onto the surface of that liquid, because of these relatively strong intermolecular bonds, and because the molecules on the surface don't actually move too much, those molecules are able to actually stand their ground when a force is applied onto that surface. So surface tension means that it is relatively difficult to break the bonds that exist on the surface of that liquid. And this implies that the bonds on the surface of our water are strong and the water molecules on the surface don't actually move too much and so they can stand their ground when a force is applied on them. So if we zoom in on the surface of the water in diagram A, we basically get the following picture. So let's compare the water molecules found deep inside that droplet and the water molecules found on the surface. So deep inside our water droplet, these molecules can easily move around. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So if we zoom in on the surface of the water in diagram A, we basically get the following picture. So let's compare the water molecules found deep inside that droplet and the water molecules found on the surface. So deep inside our water droplet, these molecules can easily move around. And that's because if they move from one location to a different location, it doesn't matter where they are within the water droplet, anywhere they are, they still are surrounded by cage of other water molecules. And that always creates intermolecular bonds. So beneath the surface of the water, the molecules can move around freely because by doing so, they are not losing any hydrogen bonds. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And that's because if they move from one location to a different location, it doesn't matter where they are within the water droplet, anywhere they are, they still are surrounded by cage of other water molecules. And that always creates intermolecular bonds. So beneath the surface of the water, the molecules can move around freely because by doing so, they are not losing any hydrogen bonds. So in this location, the water molecule creates 123456 of these bonds. Now when it moves somewhere else, it will create those same six bonds because it is always surrounded by water. Now let's take a look on the surface. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So in this location, the water molecule creates 123456 of these bonds. Now when it moves somewhere else, it will create those same six bonds because it is always surrounded by water. Now let's take a look on the surface. On the surface of our water, there is a change of phase. We have air that is right above our surface. And what that means is these water molecules on the surface will have a limited number of hydrogen bonds because they cannot actually bond with the air molecules. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
On the surface of our water, there is a change of phase. We have air that is right above our surface. And what that means is these water molecules on the surface will have a limited number of hydrogen bonds because they cannot actually bond with the air molecules. They can only bond with the adjacent water molecules. And so if we take a look at this particular water molecule, we only have one, two, three of these hydrogen bonds. Now, whenever our water molecule moves or rotates from the surface, it will lose those hydrogen bonds. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
They can only bond with the adjacent water molecules. And so if we take a look at this particular water molecule, we only have one, two, three of these hydrogen bonds. Now, whenever our water molecule moves or rotates from the surface, it will lose those hydrogen bonds. But it doesn't want to lose those hydrogen bonds because hydrogen bonds are stabilizing. So because on the surface we have this air phase and because the molecules cannot interact with the air molecules, that means the water molecules on the surface will be constrained to that location. They will not be able to move as freely as the molecules inside our water because by moving or rotating on the surface they lose those precious hydrogen bonds. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
But it doesn't want to lose those hydrogen bonds because hydrogen bonds are stabilizing. So because on the surface we have this air phase and because the molecules cannot interact with the air molecules, that means the water molecules on the surface will be constrained to that location. They will not be able to move as freely as the molecules inside our water because by moving or rotating on the surface they lose those precious hydrogen bonds. And we only have a limited number of hydrogen bonds on the surface. So on the surface of the water, the water molecules are more restricted. That is because they cannot interact well with the air molecules above. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And we only have a limited number of hydrogen bonds on the surface. So on the surface of the water, the water molecules are more restricted. That is because they cannot interact well with the air molecules above. And even the smallest rotational movement can cause them to lose those limited number of hydrogen bonds that they have in the first place. And because these water molecules remain in their location, they don't move, they stand their ground. When we apply a force, those molecules still don't want to move. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And even the smallest rotational movement can cause them to lose those limited number of hydrogen bonds that they have in the first place. And because these water molecules remain in their location, they don't move, they stand their ground. When we apply a force, those molecules still don't want to move. They don't want to break those bonds. And so that's exactly why it has a high surface tension. Because when we apply force, those surface molecules will apply force back. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
They don't want to break those bonds. And so that's exactly why it has a high surface tension. Because when we apply force, those surface molecules will apply force back. And that's what surface tension is. So when we add our detergent, that decreases the surface tension. Why? | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And that's what surface tension is. So when we add our detergent, that decreases the surface tension. Why? Well, what we basically do when we add our detergent into our liquid is we replace the surface water molecules with our detergent molecules. So this is the arrangement that we basically have. So what happens is, on the surface, instead of having the water molecules, we now have our detergent molecules. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Well, what we basically do when we add our detergent into our liquid is we replace the surface water molecules with our detergent molecules. So this is the arrangement that we basically have. So what happens is, on the surface, instead of having the water molecules, we now have our detergent molecules. And these hydrophilic polar heads shown in blue will orient and interact with the water molecules. But the hydrophobic tails, the non polar green tails will basically orient away from the water molecules and to the air. So we essentially replace our water molecules on the surface with these hydrophobic hydrophilic detergent molecules. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And these hydrophilic polar heads shown in blue will orient and interact with the water molecules. But the hydrophobic tails, the non polar green tails will basically orient away from the water molecules and to the air. So we essentially replace our water molecules on the surface with these hydrophobic hydrophilic detergent molecules. And now all these water molecules are found inside the liquid and they can easily move about because as we said earlier, once the water molecules are deep inside our liquid beneath the surface, they can move about freely because by moving about, they're not losing any net amount of hydrogen bonds. So adding detergent molecules will cause them to align along the surface so that their polar sections point inward towards the water, as shown in this diagram. And their non polar green tails, hydrophobic tails, point towards the air. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And now all these water molecules are found inside the liquid and they can easily move about because as we said earlier, once the water molecules are deep inside our liquid beneath the surface, they can move about freely because by moving about, they're not losing any net amount of hydrogen bonds. So adding detergent molecules will cause them to align along the surface so that their polar sections point inward towards the water, as shown in this diagram. And their non polar green tails, hydrophobic tails, point towards the air. Now, the water molecules near the surface now feel much more comfortable because they can interact with the polar heads of our detergent. And this means when we apply a force onto the surface of that liquid because these water molecules feel much more comfortable they're not constrained anymore and they can move around freely. When we apply a force, they will have no problem moving around that force. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Now, the water molecules near the surface now feel much more comfortable because they can interact with the polar heads of our detergent. And this means when we apply a force onto the surface of that liquid because these water molecules feel much more comfortable they're not constrained anymore and they can move around freely. When we apply a force, they will have no problem moving around that force. And that's exactly why the surface tension drops. So this means that the water molecules can rotate and move much more freely than before. And this lowers their ability to withstand any force because once we apply force, they simply move around that force and so our surface tension drops. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
And that's exactly why the surface tension drops. So this means that the water molecules can rotate and move much more freely than before. And this lowers their ability to withstand any force because once we apply force, they simply move around that force and so our surface tension drops. So by adding a detergent, a molecule that contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties into our water, into our liquid, we decrease our surface tension as a result of this concept. And this is exactly what happens inside the alveoli of our lungs. So within the lungs are microscopic balloon like structures called alveoli. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So by adding a detergent, a molecule that contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties into our water, into our liquid, we decrease our surface tension as a result of this concept. And this is exactly what happens inside the alveoli of our lungs. So within the lungs are microscopic balloon like structures called alveoli. Now, they resemble balloons in that we actually have to apply a certain pressure to inflate them. But when we release that pressure, when the pressure is removed, the elasticity of our balloons causes them to actually deflate and return back to their original shape. So let's take a look at the following microscopic sections. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Now, they resemble balloons in that we actually have to apply a certain pressure to inflate them. But when we release that pressure, when the pressure is removed, the elasticity of our balloons causes them to actually deflate and return back to their original shape. So let's take a look at the following microscopic sections. So, this is our bronchiol. And the bronchiol eventually connects to this space. And around this space, we have many of these alveoli. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So, this is our bronchiol. And the bronchiol eventually connects to this space. And around this space, we have many of these alveoli. So if we zoom in on a single alveolis, we basically get the following diagram. So, inside this region, we have air, we have carbon dioxide and we have oxygen. Now, this purple section is the wall of the alveola of the alveola. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So if we zoom in on a single alveolis, we basically get the following diagram. So, inside this region, we have air, we have carbon dioxide and we have oxygen. Now, this purple section is the wall of the alveola of the alveola. So it's the alveolar wall. And now within the wall, within the inside portion of the wall, between the wall and the air, we have this layer of fluid we call the alveolar fluid. And this is a polar fluid. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So it's the alveolar wall. And now within the wall, within the inside portion of the wall, between the wall and the air, we have this layer of fluid we call the alveolar fluid. And this is a polar fluid. Just like this water is a polar fluid. So we have this layer of fluid known as the alveolar fluid that is polar. Now, this, because it's polar, it basically has a high surface tension. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
Just like this water is a polar fluid. So we have this layer of fluid known as the alveolar fluid that is polar. Now, this, because it's polar, it basically has a high surface tension. So just like water has a high surface tension, this fluid also has a high surface tension. Now, what that means is because the fluid has a high surface tension, when we actually apply pressure, when we breathe inside these alveoli, we actually need to breathe, we need to create a high pressure to expand them, to inflate them because of the high surface tension of our fluid. And that means without any type of detergent, without any type of surfactant, which is basically a detergent inside the alveoli, we have to apply a high pressure to inflate our alveoli found within our lungs. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So just like water has a high surface tension, this fluid also has a high surface tension. Now, what that means is because the fluid has a high surface tension, when we actually apply pressure, when we breathe inside these alveoli, we actually need to breathe, we need to create a high pressure to expand them, to inflate them because of the high surface tension of our fluid. And that means without any type of detergent, without any type of surfactant, which is basically a detergent inside the alveoli, we have to apply a high pressure to inflate our alveoli found within our lungs. So what the pulmonary surfactant does is it basically decreases the surface tension of the fluid and it makes it much easier for us to actually breathe in and apply a smaller pressure to inflate those balloon like structures, our alveoli. So pulmonary surfactant is a substance that resembles our detergent because it consists of about 90% of phospholipids and it also contains about 10% protein. So that means it contains polar hydrophilic and nonpolar hydrophobic regions. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
So what the pulmonary surfactant does is it basically decreases the surface tension of the fluid and it makes it much easier for us to actually breathe in and apply a smaller pressure to inflate those balloon like structures, our alveoli. So pulmonary surfactant is a substance that resembles our detergent because it consists of about 90% of phospholipids and it also contains about 10% protein. So that means it contains polar hydrophilic and nonpolar hydrophobic regions. So these tiny molecules shown here are basically our surfactant molecules. So we have the non polar hydrophobic tail and the polar hydrophilic head. So in the same way that we discussed here, the head of the surfactant, the head of the surfactant basically interacts with the surface of our fluid, but the tail points away towards our air found within this cavity. | Surfactant in Alveoli and Surface Tension.txt |
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