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Let's begin by assuming that the cell is only permeable to our potassium. So as potassium leaves the cell, it travels from the inside to the outside via these proteins that passively diffuse our molecules, our ions. So as our potassium leaves the cell, we have less positively charged ions. And so the positive charge will decrease and the inside will become more negative. At the same time as these potassiums are being pumped into the outside, the outside will gain a certain positive charge. So as the positive charge builds up on the outside, the electric force begins to force the potassium back inside. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
And so the positive charge will decrease and the inside will become more negative. At the same time as these potassiums are being pumped into the outside, the outside will gain a certain positive charge. So as the positive charge builds up on the outside, the electric force begins to force the potassium back inside. So we build up our positive charge on the outside, and that drives via an electric force, these potassiums slowly back inside. And eventually when the electric force, due to the positive charge build up on the outside is exactly the same as the force that is pushing our potassiums to the outside. As a result of the concentration gradient, when these two forces are exactly the same and point in the opposite direction, equilibrium is reached. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
So we build up our positive charge on the outside, and that drives via an electric force, these potassiums slowly back inside. And eventually when the electric force, due to the positive charge build up on the outside is exactly the same as the force that is pushing our potassiums to the outside. As a result of the concentration gradient, when these two forces are exactly the same and point in the opposite direction, equilibrium is reached. And when equilibrium is reached, we have this concentration of our potassium. So let's try to use this concentration and the nursed equation to calculate what the voltage difference is. So remember when we discussed the chemistry of neurons? | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
And when equilibrium is reached, we have this concentration of our potassium. So let's try to use this concentration and the nursed equation to calculate what the voltage difference is. So remember when we discussed the chemistry of neurons? We said that the Neuron is basically a concentration cell. And we can use the nurse equation to calculate what the voltage difference is between the inside and the outside of the cell due to our potassium ions. So 2.3 multiplied by R, the Gas constant 8.3, 114 multiplied by T, the temperature Inside the body. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
We said that the Neuron is basically a concentration cell. And we can use the nurse equation to calculate what the voltage difference is between the inside and the outside of the cell due to our potassium ions. So 2.3 multiplied by R, the Gas constant 8.3, 114 multiplied by T, the temperature Inside the body. So that's 310 Degrees Kelvin, or Simply 310 Kelvin divided by Z, which is basically one in this case divided by F farades constant, which is about 96,500. Now, the concentration of potassium outside, according to our table, is five millimolar. And outside or inside, is 130 millimolar. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
So that's 310 Degrees Kelvin, or Simply 310 Kelvin divided by Z, which is basically one in this case divided by F farades constant, which is about 96,500. Now, the concentration of potassium outside, according to our table, is five millimolar. And outside or inside, is 130 millimolar. So we have five on top and 130 on the bottom. So we have log of this ratio multiplied by this. We plug in our values and we get negative zero point 87 volts or equivalently. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
So we have five on top and 130 on the bottom. So we have log of this ratio multiplied by this. We plug in our values and we get negative zero point 87 volts or equivalently. If we multiply this by 1000, we get negative 87 millivolts. So we see that this would be our voltage difference, the electric potential difference between the inside and the outside portion of the resting membrane of the neuron. If the permeability of the membrane to sodium was zero, So we know that this is not actually the resting potential, the resting membrane potential, the voltage difference. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
If we multiply this by 1000, we get negative 87 millivolts. So we see that this would be our voltage difference, the electric potential difference between the inside and the outside portion of the resting membrane of the neuron. If the permeability of the membrane to sodium was zero, So we know that this is not actually the resting potential, the resting membrane potential, the voltage difference. Because our membrane is not only permeable to potassium, as we assumed here, but it's also permeable to sodium. So what will happen? Well, basically, as Our potassium is being pumped to the outside, the sodium will also begin to slowly pump to the inside. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
Because our membrane is not only permeable to potassium, as we assumed here, but it's also permeable to sodium. So what will happen? Well, basically, as Our potassium is being pumped to the outside, the sodium will also begin to slowly pump to the inside. Now, the rate at which our sodium is brought to the inside is much smaller, and so that means much less of those sodiums will be brought to the inside. Then the potassiums will be brought to the outside. So the sodium will flow naturally from the high concentration, the outside to the low concentration to the inside. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
Now, the rate at which our sodium is brought to the inside is much smaller, and so that means much less of those sodiums will be brought to the inside. Then the potassiums will be brought to the outside. So the sodium will flow naturally from the high concentration, the outside to the low concentration to the inside. And the way that that takes place is via these special proteins that passively pump these ions. Now, this means that if we move positive charge from the outside of the cell to the inside of the cell, this inside will become slightly more positive, that is, slightly less negative. So this value of negative 87 millivolts will become more positive because this membrane is slightly permeable to our sodium. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
And the way that that takes place is via these special proteins that passively pump these ions. Now, this means that if we move positive charge from the outside of the cell to the inside of the cell, this inside will become slightly more positive, that is, slightly less negative. So this value of negative 87 millivolts will become more positive because this membrane is slightly permeable to our sodium. And so some of these sodiums will be brought to the inside, and so this will become more positive. And that's exactly why the actual value for the voltage difference of the rustic membrane is around negative 70 millivolts. Because the membrane is not only permeable to our potassium, it's also slightly permeable to our sodium. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
And so some of these sodiums will be brought to the inside, and so this will become more positive. And that's exactly why the actual value for the voltage difference of the rustic membrane is around negative 70 millivolts. Because the membrane is not only permeable to our potassium, it's also slightly permeable to our sodium. So we see that these potassiums are brought to the outside, and that makes the inside negative. At the same time, these sodiums are brought to the inside at a much smaller rate, so this becomes slightly more positive. And so what the actual voltage difference between the inside and outside? | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
So we see that these potassiums are brought to the outside, and that makes the inside negative. At the same time, these sodiums are brought to the inside at a much smaller rate, so this becomes slightly more positive. And so what the actual voltage difference between the inside and outside? Is? It's negative 70 millivolts. So that means the inside has a negative charge and the outside has a positive charge. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
Is? It's negative 70 millivolts. So that means the inside has a negative charge and the outside has a positive charge. So we began by assuming electron neutrality, but now we know that the resting membrane potential inside has a negative charge, while the outside contains a positive charge. And what created this difference in charge is basically this movement on equal movement of sodium as well as potassium. Potassium is more permeable than sodium. | Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron.txt |
Eukaryotic cells can divide by either one of two methods. If we're talking about somatic eukaryotic cells, then those divide via mitosis. If we're talking about gametocides, those divide via meiosis. Now, mitosis is the process by which a somatic cell divides into two genetically identical deployed daughter cells cells, and the chromosome number remains exactly the same. So if we begin with 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell, we produce 46 chromosomes in the daughter cell, and this is mitosis. Now, in meiosis, we basically have a single gametocide, divides into four genetically different haploid cells. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
Now, mitosis is the process by which a somatic cell divides into two genetically identical deployed daughter cells cells, and the chromosome number remains exactly the same. So if we begin with 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell, we produce 46 chromosomes in the daughter cell, and this is mitosis. Now, in meiosis, we basically have a single gametocide, divides into four genetically different haploid cells. And that basically means if we begin with 46 chromosomes in our gametocide, our daughter cells will contain 23 chromosomes in each one of the four daughter cells, and this is known as meiosis. Now, both mitosis and meiosis consist of a process of phase known as anaphase. And during anaphase, we have the separation of chromosomes or the equal separation of chromosomes to both sides of our cell. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And that basically means if we begin with 46 chromosomes in our gametocide, our daughter cells will contain 23 chromosomes in each one of the four daughter cells, and this is known as meiosis. Now, both mitosis and meiosis consist of a process of phase known as anaphase. And during anaphase, we have the separation of chromosomes or the equal separation of chromosomes to both sides of our cell. And this process is known as disjunction. Now, just like any other biological process, disjunction is also prone to mistakes. And one mistake that can take place during this junction is an unequal or an incorrect separation of chromosomes. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And this process is known as disjunction. Now, just like any other biological process, disjunction is also prone to mistakes. And one mistake that can take place during this junction is an unequal or an incorrect separation of chromosomes. And this is known as nondisjunction. So non disjunction is the process by which the chromosomes actually fail to separate correctly or equally during anaphase of either mitosis or mitosis. And this results in cells that have an incorrect number of chromosomes. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And this is known as nondisjunction. So non disjunction is the process by which the chromosomes actually fail to separate correctly or equally during anaphase of either mitosis or mitosis. And this results in cells that have an incorrect number of chromosomes. So in human somatic cells, we know that if we begin with 46 chromosomes, we have to produce cells that also consists of 46 chromosomes and any variations to this number. For example, if we produce 45 chromosomes or 47 chromosomes, this leads to a condition known as anapply. Now, let's discuss how none disjunction actually takes place in mitosis as well as in meiosis. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So in human somatic cells, we know that if we begin with 46 chromosomes, we have to produce cells that also consists of 46 chromosomes and any variations to this number. For example, if we produce 45 chromosomes or 47 chromosomes, this leads to a condition known as anapply. Now, let's discuss how none disjunction actually takes place in mitosis as well as in meiosis. So let's begin with mitosis. Now, mitosis actually consists of four individual phases. We have ProPhase, metaphase, anaphase, and telephase. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So let's begin with mitosis. Now, mitosis actually consists of four individual phases. We have ProPhase, metaphase, anaphase, and telephase. And we also have the process of cytokinesis that actually divides the cell membrane and the cytoplasm of our cell. Now, during the process of s phase of interphase, which takes place right before mitosis, we actually replicate each one of our chromosomes. So let's suppose we begin with a cell that consists of one, two, three chromosomes. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And we also have the process of cytokinesis that actually divides the cell membrane and the cytoplasm of our cell. Now, during the process of s phase of interphase, which takes place right before mitosis, we actually replicate each one of our chromosomes. So let's suppose we begin with a cell that consists of one, two, three chromosomes. So during interphase, we have to replicate each one of the chromosomes. And that's exactly why each one of these chromosomes consist of two identical chromatids known as cystochromatids. So chromosome one consists of one two identical cystic chromatids. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So during interphase, we have to replicate each one of the chromosomes. And that's exactly why each one of these chromosomes consist of two identical chromatids known as cystochromatids. So chromosome one consists of one two identical cystic chromatids. And the same thing is true for chromosome number two and chromosome number three. So, for this particular cell, we have three chromosomes lined up at the center at metaphase of mitosis. In the case of human somatic cells, we actually have 46 of these chromosomes lined up at the center during metaphase of mitosis. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And the same thing is true for chromosome number two and chromosome number three. So, for this particular cell, we have three chromosomes lined up at the center at metaphase of mitosis. In the case of human somatic cells, we actually have 46 of these chromosomes lined up at the center during metaphase of mitosis. So at metaphase, we basically line up all our chromosomes along the center, as shown, and the two centrioles are found on opposite sides. And the centriole synthesize fibers known as spindle fibers. And if disjunction actually takes place correctly, what happens is each spindle fiber attaches to each side of our chromosome. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So at metaphase, we basically line up all our chromosomes along the center, as shown, and the two centrioles are found on opposite sides. And the centriole synthesize fibers known as spindle fibers. And if disjunction actually takes place correctly, what happens is each spindle fiber attaches to each side of our chromosome. So when our separation takes place, we have an equal separation of chromosomes to both sides of the cells. So these chromatids will end up on that side, and these chromatids will end up on the other side. Now, in the case of nondisjunction, during anaphase of mitosis, what can happen is a spindle fiber might incorrectly attach itself or not attach itself at all to the centromere portion of our chromosome, or the centromere might not actually divide correctly, and this can lead to the process of nondisjunction. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So when our separation takes place, we have an equal separation of chromosomes to both sides of the cells. So these chromatids will end up on that side, and these chromatids will end up on the other side. Now, in the case of nondisjunction, during anaphase of mitosis, what can happen is a spindle fiber might incorrectly attach itself or not attach itself at all to the centromere portion of our chromosome, or the centromere might not actually divide correctly, and this can lead to the process of nondisjunction. So in this case, we basically have our mitotic spindle fiber not binding to this side of chromosome number one. And what happens is, when anaphase takes place and when we have the separation, this entire chromosome that consists of two individual cystochromatids will end up on the left side of the cell, while this side will consist of only one two cystochromatids, as shown. So when we have telephase and cytokinesis take place and we produce our two daughter cells, one of these daughter cells, we will have an extra chromatid, while the other one will have one less chromatid than normal. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So in this case, we basically have our mitotic spindle fiber not binding to this side of chromosome number one. And what happens is, when anaphase takes place and when we have the separation, this entire chromosome that consists of two individual cystochromatids will end up on the left side of the cell, while this side will consist of only one two cystochromatids, as shown. So when we have telephase and cytokinesis take place and we produce our two daughter cells, one of these daughter cells, we will have an extra chromatid, while the other one will have one less chromatid than normal. And this basically causes a variation of the correct number of chromosomes. And both of these cells have the condition known as anapply. So nondisjunction can occur in somatic cells during the process of mitosis. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And this basically causes a variation of the correct number of chromosomes. And both of these cells have the condition known as anapply. So nondisjunction can occur in somatic cells during the process of mitosis. At the beginning of anaphase, the spindle fibers begin to pull on the cystochromatids in an attempt to separate those chromatids equally to opposite poles of the cell. Now, none disjunction takes place when the centromere holding our two chromatids fails to break or the spinal fiber actually fails to attach to one end of the chromosome. And both chromatids in that chromosome are pulled to the same side of the cell. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
At the beginning of anaphase, the spindle fibers begin to pull on the cystochromatids in an attempt to separate those chromatids equally to opposite poles of the cell. Now, none disjunction takes place when the centromere holding our two chromatids fails to break or the spinal fiber actually fails to attach to one end of the chromosome. And both chromatids in that chromosome are pulled to the same side of the cell. In this case, to the left side of the cell. Now let's move on to nondisjunction taking place in meiosis. Now, meiosis is a slightly more complicated process because it actually consists of two individual stages. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
In this case, to the left side of the cell. Now let's move on to nondisjunction taking place in meiosis. Now, meiosis is a slightly more complicated process because it actually consists of two individual stages. So gametosites are those cells that undergo meiosis. And meiosis actually involves two stages meiosis one and meiosis two. And because each one of these individual stages contains its own anaphase, there are two locations where nondisjunction can take place during the process of meiosis. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So gametosites are those cells that undergo meiosis. And meiosis actually involves two stages meiosis one and meiosis two. And because each one of these individual stages contains its own anaphase, there are two locations where nondisjunction can take place during the process of meiosis. So let's begin with anaphase one of meiosis one. So let's suppose we're at metaphase, and let's suppose that our cell consists of six chromosomes and not three chromosomes. So we take our gamethocide that consists of six chromosomes in human cells. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So let's begin with anaphase one of meiosis one. So let's suppose we're at metaphase, and let's suppose that our cell consists of six chromosomes and not three chromosomes. So we take our gamethocide that consists of six chromosomes in human cells. We basically have 23 pairs of these tetris found at the center of our cell in metaphase. So let's suppose this is metaphase one of meiosis one, and we have the six chromosomes, and we have these three tetris. So each one of these pairs are homologous chromosomes that have undergone a genetic recombination process known as crossing over. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
We basically have 23 pairs of these tetris found at the center of our cell in metaphase. So let's suppose this is metaphase one of meiosis one, and we have the six chromosomes, and we have these three tetris. So each one of these pairs are homologous chromosomes that have undergone a genetic recombination process known as crossing over. Basically, line up at the center of our cell. Now, once again, what we can have is the spindle fiber basically fails to actually attach to one side of the tetris. And what happens when anaphase takes place? | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
Basically, line up at the center of our cell. Now, once again, what we can have is the spindle fiber basically fails to actually attach to one side of the tetris. And what happens when anaphase takes place? These tetris are not correctly separated. So what should happen if this junction takes place correctly is each one of these tetrades is separated correctly. So this goes here, this goes here. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
These tetris are not correctly separated. So what should happen if this junction takes place correctly is each one of these tetrades is separated correctly. So this goes here, this goes here. These two go this way, and these two go this way. But what actually takes place is this entire tetrad. The pair of homologous chromosomes, or recombinant chromosomes end up being dragged to the left side of the cell. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
These two go this way, and these two go this way. But what actually takes place is this entire tetrad. The pair of homologous chromosomes, or recombinant chromosomes end up being dragged to the left side of the cell. So when our cell division actually takes place, one of our daughter cells consists of one extra chromosome and two extra chromatids while the other cell consists of one less chromosome and two less chromatids. So during the beginning of anaphase one of meiosis one, the tetras are pulled apart to opposite poles. nondisjunction will cause a tetra to move to one side, ultimately leading to a cell with one extra chromosome and two extra chromatids, while the other cell will contain one less chromosome and two less chromatids. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So when our cell division actually takes place, one of our daughter cells consists of one extra chromosome and two extra chromatids while the other cell consists of one less chromosome and two less chromatids. So during the beginning of anaphase one of meiosis one, the tetras are pulled apart to opposite poles. nondisjunction will cause a tetra to move to one side, ultimately leading to a cell with one extra chromosome and two extra chromatids, while the other cell will contain one less chromosome and two less chromatids. Now, let's move on to meiosis two. Now, meiosis two contains its own process of anaphase that is known as anaphase two. Now, if nondisjunction takes place, in anaphase II of meiosis, one of the daughter cells will have an extra chromatid while one will have one less chromatid than the normal number. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
Now, let's move on to meiosis two. Now, meiosis two contains its own process of anaphase that is known as anaphase two. Now, if nondisjunction takes place, in anaphase II of meiosis, one of the daughter cells will have an extra chromatid while one will have one less chromatid than the normal number. So to see what we mean, let's suppose we have this process that actually takes place correctly. So let's assume meiosis one takes place correctly and we produce a daughter cell that consists of three of these chromosomes. That itself consists of two cystochromatids. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So to see what we mean, let's suppose we have this process that actually takes place correctly. So let's assume meiosis one takes place correctly and we produce a daughter cell that consists of three of these chromosomes. That itself consists of two cystochromatids. So each chromosome consists of its own set of chromatids. So now these chromatids are not cystochromatids, meaning they're not identical, as we saw in this case because in meiosis, we have the process of crossing over that takes place. So once again, let's suppose a spindle fiber does not correctly attach to the centromere of one of these chromosomes. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So each chromosome consists of its own set of chromatids. So now these chromatids are not cystochromatids, meaning they're not identical, as we saw in this case because in meiosis, we have the process of crossing over that takes place. So once again, let's suppose a spindle fiber does not correctly attach to the centromere of one of these chromosomes. And during the process of anaphase, we have the separation. But the separation is unequal. Our distribution of chromosomes is unequal. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And during the process of anaphase, we have the separation. But the separation is unequal. Our distribution of chromosomes is unequal. This entire chromosome that consists of two individual chromatids are pulled to one side. And so eventually, when our cytokinetis takes place, we have two of these daughter cells. Now, one of them contains one extra chromatid while the other one contains one less chromatid. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
This entire chromosome that consists of two individual chromatids are pulled to one side. And so eventually, when our cytokinetis takes place, we have two of these daughter cells. Now, one of them contains one extra chromatid while the other one contains one less chromatid. So we see that this process of nondisjunction, which is basically the unequal separation of chromosomes to both sides of our cell, can take place in mitosis as well as in meiosis. Now, because mitosis consists of one anaphase, nondisjunction takes place only at one location during our cell cycle of mitosis or cell division of mitosis. But in meiosis, because we have two individual anaphase processes, we have anaphase one and anaphase two, there are two places where nondisjunction can actually take place. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
So we see that this process of nondisjunction, which is basically the unequal separation of chromosomes to both sides of our cell, can take place in mitosis as well as in meiosis. Now, because mitosis consists of one anaphase, nondisjunction takes place only at one location during our cell cycle of mitosis or cell division of mitosis. But in meiosis, because we have two individual anaphase processes, we have anaphase one and anaphase two, there are two places where nondisjunction can actually take place. And when nondisjunction actually takes place, in Meiosis One. That can lead to more serious problems than when it takes place in meiosis two. Because in this case, we're producing a cell with two extra chromatids and with two less chromatids. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
And when nondisjunction actually takes place, in Meiosis One. That can lead to more serious problems than when it takes place in meiosis two. Because in this case, we're producing a cell with two extra chromatids and with two less chromatids. But in this case, we're producing a cell with one extra and one less chromatid. Now, what kind of problems can this cause? Well, whenever a cell is missing a set of genes, a set of DNA, that means it cannot actually synthesize certain types of proteins. | Nondisjunction of Chromosomes .txt |
Now, the question is not how we create the electrochemical gradient. We're going to discuss that in the next lecture. The question is what exactly is is electrochemical gradient? So before we discuss the different modes of cell transport, let's define what an electrochemical gradient is. So let's begin with a concentration gradient or a chemical concentration gradient. So let's recall a concept from physics. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So before we discuss the different modes of cell transport, let's define what an electrochemical gradient is. So let's begin with a concentration gradient or a chemical concentration gradient. So let's recall a concept from physics. We know that in physics, according to Brownian motion, if we take a molecule and place it inside a fluid, the molecule will collide with the atoms or molecules of that fluid. And as a result, that molecule in the fluid will experience random and rapid motion. So let's conduct the following thought experiment. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
We know that in physics, according to Brownian motion, if we take a molecule and place it inside a fluid, the molecule will collide with the atoms or molecules of that fluid. And as a result, that molecule in the fluid will experience random and rapid motion. So let's conduct the following thought experiment. Let's suppose we take a container shown in the black region. And inside that container we have a certain fluid. So the atoms of that fluid are shown by these blue dots. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
Let's suppose we take a container shown in the black region. And inside that container we have a certain fluid. So the atoms of that fluid are shown by these blue dots. So let's suppose we take twelve molecules. Six of those molecules are molecule A. And we place those six molecules onto the left side of our container. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So let's suppose we take twelve molecules. Six of those molecules are molecule A. And we place those six molecules onto the left side of our container. And the other six molecules, let's call a molecule B, are found on the right side of that fluid filled container. Now, separating the left and the right side is a semi permeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to basically pass through. The question is, what exactly will take place over time? | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
And the other six molecules, let's call a molecule B, are found on the right side of that fluid filled container. Now, separating the left and the right side is a semi permeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to basically pass through. The question is, what exactly will take place over time? Well, over time, we're going to get the following case in which we're going to have equal amounts of molecule A on both sides and equal amounts of molecule B on both sides. Basically, as a result of Brownian motion, molecules A and molecules B will be in a constant state of motion. And based on the law of entropy, the most mathematically probable state of our system is in which we have an even amount of molecules on each side. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
Well, over time, we're going to get the following case in which we're going to have equal amounts of molecule A on both sides and equal amounts of molecule B on both sides. Basically, as a result of Brownian motion, molecules A and molecules B will be in a constant state of motion. And based on the law of entropy, the most mathematically probable state of our system is in which we have an even amount of molecules on each side. So this is the most probable state. And if we begin with state number one, where we have all the A molecules on the left side, all the B molecules on the right side, eventually we will develop the following state. So we say that molecule A moves down the concentration gradient from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So this is the most probable state. And if we begin with state number one, where we have all the A molecules on the left side, all the B molecules on the right side, eventually we will develop the following state. So we say that molecule A moves down the concentration gradient from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. So notice we had no molecules A on the right side. And so A will move naturally from this location to this location. And likewise the B molecules will move down their concentration gradient from a higher concentration to a lower concentration in the opposite direction of A. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So notice we had no molecules A on the right side. And so A will move naturally from this location to this location. And likewise the B molecules will move down their concentration gradient from a higher concentration to a lower concentration in the opposite direction of A. And eventually we will have an equilibrium that will exist and our concentration gradient will basically cease to exist. Now, according to Brownian motion, molecules A and molecules B will still move across our semipermeable membrane, but there will be no net change. So we take six molecules A and place them on the left side of a fluid filled container. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
And eventually we will have an equilibrium that will exist and our concentration gradient will basically cease to exist. Now, according to Brownian motion, molecules A and molecules B will still move across our semipermeable membrane, but there will be no net change. So we take six molecules A and place them on the left side of a fluid filled container. We also take six molecules B and place them on the right end of our container. These two sides are separated by semipermeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to move with ease. Now, entropy dictates that after a while the most mathematically probable case will be a system in which we have these two molecules even out. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
We also take six molecules B and place them on the right end of our container. These two sides are separated by semipermeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to move with ease. Now, entropy dictates that after a while the most mathematically probable case will be a system in which we have these two molecules even out. So basically, we have the same molecules A on this side as on that side and the same number of B molecules on this side as on that side. We conclude that molecules tend to naturally move from a high concentration to a low concentration. So given situation A, we say that there exists a chemical concentration gradient and both molecules travel down their perspective, chemical concentrate their respective chemical concentration gradient. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So basically, we have the same molecules A on this side as on that side and the same number of B molecules on this side as on that side. We conclude that molecules tend to naturally move from a high concentration to a low concentration. So given situation A, we say that there exists a chemical concentration gradient and both molecules travel down their perspective, chemical concentrate their respective chemical concentration gradient. Molecule A travels from the left side, where we have a high concentration, to the right side, where we have a low concentration and molecule B moves in the opposite from a high concentration the right side to the left side, where we have a low concentration. And this is known as the chemical concentration gradient or simply our concentration gradient. Now, what about the electrical gradient? | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
Molecule A travels from the left side, where we have a high concentration, to the right side, where we have a low concentration and molecule B moves in the opposite from a high concentration the right side to the left side, where we have a low concentration. And this is known as the chemical concentration gradient or simply our concentration gradient. Now, what about the electrical gradient? Well, in this case, molecule A and molecule B were both neutral. They had no charge. Suppose our molecules now have a charge. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
Well, in this case, molecule A and molecule B were both neutral. They had no charge. Suppose our molecules now have a charge. So when molecules have electric charge, there can also be an electric gradient. And the electric gradient is a result of the electric repulsive and attractive forces that exist in nature. So this is basically a result of Brownian motion and the law of entropy. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So when molecules have electric charge, there can also be an electric gradient. And the electric gradient is a result of the electric repulsive and attractive forces that exist in nature. So this is basically a result of Brownian motion and the law of entropy. And this is a result of the electric forces that exist in nature both positive or both attractive and repulsive electric forces. So let's suppose we look at situation three. In situation three, we have six C molecules that each have a positive one charge. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
And this is a result of the electric forces that exist in nature both positive or both attractive and repulsive electric forces. So let's suppose we look at situation three. In situation three, we have six C molecules that each have a positive one charge. And on the other side, the right side, we have 6D molecules that each have a negative one charge. Once again, we are separated by a semipermeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to pass through. So in this case, molecule C has a positive charge and molecule D has a negative charge. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
And on the other side, the right side, we have 6D molecules that each have a negative one charge. Once again, we are separated by a semipermeable membrane that allows both of these molecules to pass through. So in this case, molecule C has a positive charge and molecule D has a negative charge. Both molecules will move down their electrical gradient and this movement is a result of the electric attractive and repulsive forces that exist in nature. Molecule C moves to the right while molecule D will move to the left until the electric charge basically equilibriates between our two sides. So in this case, we have a positive six charge. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
Both molecules will move down their electrical gradient and this movement is a result of the electric attractive and repulsive forces that exist in nature. Molecule C moves to the right while molecule D will move to the left until the electric charge basically equilibriates between our two sides. So in this case, we have a positive six charge. In this case, we have a negative six charge and we have the separation of our charge. Now eventually, after some time passes as a result of the tractive forces between the positive and negative as well as the repulsive forces between the negatives and the positives, we basically have the following situation in which we have no charge, no net charge. On the left side, we have three D and three C. And so the charges cancel out and no charge on this side because they cancel out. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
In this case, we have a negative six charge and we have the separation of our charge. Now eventually, after some time passes as a result of the tractive forces between the positive and negative as well as the repulsive forces between the negatives and the positives, we basically have the following situation in which we have no charge, no net charge. On the left side, we have three D and three C. And so the charges cancel out and no charge on this side because they cancel out. And so in this scenario, we no longer have an electric gradient. In the same way, in this case, we no longer have our concentration gradient. Now, if we combine the concentration gradient with the electrical gradient, we get the electrochemical gradient. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
And so in this scenario, we no longer have an electric gradient. In the same way, in this case, we no longer have our concentration gradient. Now, if we combine the concentration gradient with the electrical gradient, we get the electrochemical gradient. So the electrochemical gradient basically combines these two different types of gradients. So notice that in this case, we also had a concentration gradient because we have no molecule C on the right side. All the molecules C were on this side. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So the electrochemical gradient basically combines these two different types of gradients. So notice that in this case, we also had a concentration gradient because we have no molecule C on the right side. All the molecules C were on this side. So on top of these molecules moving to the right side as a result of an electric gradient, because there is an attraction between the positive and negative, these C molecules will also move to the right side because they will move from a high C concentration to a low C concentration. So this concept, this scenario actually incorporates both the concentration gradient and our electrical gradient. So at the end, we have an even amount of molecules on both sides, and the charges are also in equilibrium. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So on top of these molecules moving to the right side as a result of an electric gradient, because there is an attraction between the positive and negative, these C molecules will also move to the right side because they will move from a high C concentration to a low C concentration. So this concept, this scenario actually incorporates both the concentration gradient and our electrical gradient. So at the end, we have an even amount of molecules on both sides, and the charges are also in equilibrium. We have no net charge here and no net charge here. And this is the electrochemical gradient. So basically, one of the purposes of our cell membrane is to create an electrochemical gradient. | Electrochemical Gradient.txt |
So we essentially have the mRNA chain, the ribosome attaches onto the mRNA chain and reads the codons on the mRNA chain and brings those amino acids and builds that polypeptide chain that are essentially complementary to those codons. Now, how exactly does the ribosome actually know where to begin and where to end the process of translation on that mRNA molecule? Well, in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells we have the specific sequences of nucleotides. These codons known as start codons and stop codons. And these are used to essentially initiate and terminate the process of translation. So let's briefly discuss how this takes place in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
These codons known as start codons and stop codons. And these are used to essentially initiate and terminate the process of translation. So let's briefly discuss how this takes place in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. So in prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells, we have this specific sequence of nucleotides, Aug and less commonly CUG that essentially code for the beginning of that process. So Aug and C UG are the start codons. Now, in prokaryotic cells, in bacterial cells, this is not enough to actually initiate the process of translation. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
So in prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells, we have this specific sequence of nucleotides, Aug and less commonly CUG that essentially code for the beginning of that process. So Aug and C UG are the start codons. Now, in prokaryotic cells, in bacterial cells, this is not enough to actually initiate the process of translation. What has to happen is we have to have this specific sequence of nucleotides that is rich in puree nucleotides known as the Shine Delgarno sequence that has to be found about ten nucleotides upstream to the left of the first Aug sequence. So as shown on the following diagram. So let's imagine this is the mRNA molecule inside that particular bacterial cell. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
What has to happen is we have to have this specific sequence of nucleotides that is rich in puree nucleotides known as the Shine Delgarno sequence that has to be found about ten nucleotides upstream to the left of the first Aug sequence. So as shown on the following diagram. So let's imagine this is the mRNA molecule inside that particular bacterial cell. So we have this Aug sequence, Aristocodon, and about ten nucleotides upstream to the left we have this sequence rich in pure nucleotides known as the Shine Dalgarno sequence. And what happens is a specific rRNA molecule, ribosomal RNA. The 16s ribosomal RNA of that ribosome has a complementary nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the Shine Dolgarno sequence. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
So we have this Aug sequence, Aristocodon, and about ten nucleotides upstream to the left we have this sequence rich in pure nucleotides known as the Shine Dalgarno sequence. And what happens is a specific rRNA molecule, ribosomal RNA. The 16s ribosomal RNA of that ribosome has a complementary nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the Shine Dolgarno sequence. And that's exactly why that ribosomal RNA can attach itself onto the Shindal Garno sequence. And once it attaches itself, it essentially forms that entire complex, the ribosome complex. And it stimulates a tRNA molecule, a transfer RNA molecule to bring an activated amino acid we call formal methionine or FMet. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And that's exactly why that ribosomal RNA can attach itself onto the Shindal Garno sequence. And once it attaches itself, it essentially forms that entire complex, the ribosome complex. And it stimulates a tRNA molecule, a transfer RNA molecule to bring an activated amino acid we call formal methionine or FMet. And so the Aug actually codes for this methionine molecule. And the formal methionine looks like this. The formal simply means we have this group attached onto the central carbon as shown in the following diagram. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And so the Aug actually codes for this methionine molecule. And the formal methionine looks like this. The formal simply means we have this group attached onto the central carbon as shown in the following diagram. So once that molecule, the rRNA, binds onto the Shine Del Garner sequence, it forms that complex, it stimulates the tRNA to bring this form of methionine onto that Aug and that essentially establishes the reading frame of that mRNA molecule. Now, what do we mean by the reading frame or establishing the reading frame? Well, what that means is we essentially establish all the codon sequences that we're going to read on that mRNA molecule. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
So once that molecule, the rRNA, binds onto the Shine Del Garner sequence, it forms that complex, it stimulates the tRNA to bring this form of methionine onto that Aug and that essentially establishes the reading frame of that mRNA molecule. Now, what do we mean by the reading frame or establishing the reading frame? Well, what that means is we essentially establish all the codon sequences that we're going to read on that mRNA molecule. So this becomes our first codon and this is essentially the methionine molecule. Then we have CUC, then we have UCC, then we have Ugg and so forth. And so once we know that this is our first codon, the next triplet nucleotide sequence is codon number two. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
So this becomes our first codon and this is essentially the methionine molecule. Then we have CUC, then we have UCC, then we have Ugg and so forth. And so once we know that this is our first codon, the next triplet nucleotide sequence is codon number two. Then the next one is codon number three and so forth. Now, in eukaryotic cells, such as human cells, we have the methionine tRNA complex. So the transfer RNA molecule attached to that activated methionine molecule essentially reads our mRNA molecule. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
Then the next one is codon number three and so forth. Now, in eukaryotic cells, such as human cells, we have the methionine tRNA complex. So the transfer RNA molecule attached to that activated methionine molecule essentially reads our mRNA molecule. And when it reaches the first aug that is closer to the five N, it attaches onto that and initiates the process of protein synthesis. Now, how exactly do we terminate this process of translation? Well, there are these proteins, these enzymes known as release factors. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And when it reaches the first aug that is closer to the five N, it attaches onto that and initiates the process of protein synthesis. Now, how exactly do we terminate this process of translation? Well, there are these proteins, these enzymes known as release factors. And these release factors, they essentially move along the mRNA molecule and they bind to these special stop codons. And remember when we discussed genetic code, we said there are three different stop codons. We have UAAG, UAG and UGA. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And these release factors, they essentially move along the mRNA molecule and they bind to these special stop codons. And remember when we discussed genetic code, we said there are three different stop codons. We have UAAG, UAG and UGA. These three codons essentially stimulate these release factors to bind onto that stop codon. And that essentially causes the dissociation of that ribosome complex. And that essentially concludes and terminates that synthesis of that particular polypeptide chain. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
These three codons essentially stimulate these release factors to bind onto that stop codon. And that essentially causes the dissociation of that ribosome complex. And that essentially concludes and terminates that synthesis of that particular polypeptide chain. So to see what we mean, let's take a look at the following diagram. So this is the eukaryotic mRNA molecule. So we initiate the process of protein synthesis when the methionine tRNA complex brings that methionine onto the aug, then we establish the reading frame. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
So to see what we mean, let's take a look at the following diagram. So this is the eukaryotic mRNA molecule. So we initiate the process of protein synthesis when the methionine tRNA complex brings that methionine onto the aug, then we establish the reading frame. And then the ribosome essentially reads every codon one at a time in a sequential manner until we reach this stop codon, UAA. Now, once we reach UA, the release factors bind onto the UAA sequence and that causes the dissociation of this polypeptide chain. So this is the first amino acid. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And then the ribosome essentially reads every codon one at a time in a sequential manner until we reach this stop codon, UAA. Now, once we reach UA, the release factors bind onto the UAA sequence and that causes the dissociation of this polypeptide chain. So this is the first amino acid. And then we have many other amino acids. And this is the final amino acid that contains that carboxyl terminal group. And once we reach this, this essentially dissociates the polypeptide chain associates from the mRNA molecule and from that ribosome. | Start and Stop Codons .txt |
And the four major mechanisms of action that we spoke of previously include Covalent catalysis acidbased catalysis, metal ion catalysis and catalysis by proximity and orientation. And so, to demonstrate these mechanisms, we're going to begin our discussion on the first group of protein enzymes used inside our body, namely the proteases. So what exactly is a protease? Well, a protease is a protein enzyme. It's an enzyme molecule that is a protein that catalyzes the hydrolysis, the breaking of peptide bonds and peptide bonds, also known as amide bonds are the bonds that hold amino acids together in any protein molecule, in any polypeptide chain. Now, why would we need to actually break a peptide bond in the first place? | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Well, a protease is a protein enzyme. It's an enzyme molecule that is a protein that catalyzes the hydrolysis, the breaking of peptide bonds and peptide bonds, also known as amide bonds are the bonds that hold amino acids together in any protein molecule, in any polypeptide chain. Now, why would we need to actually break a peptide bond in the first place? Well, for instance, if we ingest some food particle that is a macromolecule for instant protein, then we have to be able to break down that food protein molecule into its individual constituent amino acids. So that once we have those amino acids, we can either use the amino acids to actually form, let's say, ATP molecules, or we can also use the amino acids to actually form brand new proteins and brand new enzymes. Now, the second reason as to why we need to be able to break a peptide bond is because our cells actually need to be able to recycle protein molecules. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Well, for instance, if we ingest some food particle that is a macromolecule for instant protein, then we have to be able to break down that food protein molecule into its individual constituent amino acids. So that once we have those amino acids, we can either use the amino acids to actually form, let's say, ATP molecules, or we can also use the amino acids to actually form brand new proteins and brand new enzymes. Now, the second reason as to why we need to be able to break a peptide bond is because our cells actually need to be able to recycle protein molecules. For instance, if, let's say, a cell needs to decrease the number of protein channels found in the cell membrane, it has to be able to remove those protein channels and then digest those protein channels. And so inside the cells, we have these digestive enzymes in the same way that we have digestive enzymes inside our small intestine as well as inside our stomach. And these digestive enzymes are proteases. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
For instance, if, let's say, a cell needs to decrease the number of protein channels found in the cell membrane, it has to be able to remove those protein channels and then digest those protein channels. And so inside the cells, we have these digestive enzymes in the same way that we have digestive enzymes inside our small intestine as well as inside our stomach. And these digestive enzymes are proteases. They are used to break down and recycle the proteins found inside our cells. And finally, as we'll discuss in much more detail in the future, these proteases are also actually used in proteolytic cleavage and that is used to activate or sometimes deactivate important biological pathways and biological molecules. So as we'll see in the future lecture, these different types of digestive enzymes are actually themselves activated by other proteases. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
They are used to break down and recycle the proteins found inside our cells. And finally, as we'll discuss in much more detail in the future, these proteases are also actually used in proteolytic cleavage and that is used to activate or sometimes deactivate important biological pathways and biological molecules. So as we'll see in the future lecture, these different types of digestive enzymes are actually themselves activated by other proteases. So the digestive enzymes inside our stomach, for example, aren't always functioning. But as soon as we ingest food, those enzymes are activated by proteolytic cleavage, by other protease molecules. So these are the three major reasons as to why we have to be able to break a peptide bond. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So the digestive enzymes inside our stomach, for example, aren't always functioning. But as soon as we ingest food, those enzymes are activated by proteolytic cleavage, by other protease molecules. So these are the three major reasons as to why we have to be able to break a peptide bond. Now, the next question is why do we have to use a catalyst? Why do we need to use an enzyme for this reaction to actually take place inside our body? Well, as it turns out, as we'll see in just a moment, the rate at which the reaction takes place is very, very low. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Now, the next question is why do we have to use a catalyst? Why do we need to use an enzyme for this reaction to actually take place inside our body? Well, as it turns out, as we'll see in just a moment, the rate at which the reaction takes place is very, very low. So let's take a look at this particular reaction. So we have the peptide bond between the carbon and nitrogen shown in purple. And what this describes is the hydrolysis of the peptide bond. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So let's take a look at this particular reaction. So we have the peptide bond between the carbon and nitrogen shown in purple. And what this describes is the hydrolysis of the peptide bond. So ultimately the water molecule acts as a nucleophile, this carbon acts as an electrophile. And what happens is this nucleophilically attacks the carbon and ultimately displaces that amide bond, the peptide bond. And notice that the arrow pointing this way is longer than the arrow pointing in reverse. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So ultimately the water molecule acts as a nucleophile, this carbon acts as an electrophile. And what happens is this nucleophilically attacks the carbon and ultimately displaces that amide bond, the peptide bond. And notice that the arrow pointing this way is longer than the arrow pointing in reverse. And what that means is equilibrium will lie towards the product side and that implies that the products are lower in energy and more stable than the reactants. So we see that even though this reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it doesn't take place at a very high rate without the use of the protease enzyme. Now, why doesn't it take place at a very high rate? | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
And what that means is equilibrium will lie towards the product side and that implies that the products are lower in energy and more stable than the reactants. So we see that even though this reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it doesn't take place at a very high rate without the use of the protease enzyme. Now, why doesn't it take place at a very high rate? Well, as it turns out, water by itself is not a strong enough nucleophile to actually attack the carbon and the carbon is not a strong enough electrophile and this has to do with the strength of this amide bond. So as it turns out, this bond here shown as a single bond, is not actually a single bond. This peptide bond contains a double bond. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Well, as it turns out, water by itself is not a strong enough nucleophile to actually attack the carbon and the carbon is not a strong enough electrophile and this has to do with the strength of this amide bond. So as it turns out, this bond here shown as a single bond, is not actually a single bond. This peptide bond contains a double bond. Nature double bond character, as can be seen by drawing these two lewis dot structures. So this is the first lewis dot structure, but the other lewis dot structure is described by this diagram. And so if these two electrons essentially go on to form a pi bond, so let's use blue. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Nature double bond character, as can be seen by drawing these two lewis dot structures. So this is the first lewis dot structure, but the other lewis dot structure is described by this diagram. And so if these two electrons essentially go on to form a pi bond, so let's use blue. So we have these two electrons basically form this pi bond. Here. We get the following diagram. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So we have these two electrons basically form this pi bond. Here. We get the following diagram. And so these two electrons in this pipeline between the carbon and oxygen basically go on onto the orbital around the oxygen and we form a negative charge on the oxygen, a positive charge on a nitrogen, but at the same time we have a double bond between the carbon and that nitrogen. So we see that although this bond isn't exactly a double bond, it's also not exactly a single bond. It's somewhere in between because these two resonance stabilized structure describes the actual structure of that peptide bond which is somewhere in between. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
And so these two electrons in this pipeline between the carbon and oxygen basically go on onto the orbital around the oxygen and we form a negative charge on the oxygen, a positive charge on a nitrogen, but at the same time we have a double bond between the carbon and that nitrogen. So we see that although this bond isn't exactly a double bond, it's also not exactly a single bond. It's somewhere in between because these two resonance stabilized structure describes the actual structure of that peptide bond which is somewhere in between. So because we have a greater electron density that is fluctuating in between the carbon and nitrogen, we have more electrons fluctuating between those two atoms. The electrons of the oxygen will not be able to get to that carbon because of electron, electron repulsion. And that's exactly what we mean by the carbon simply will not be a good enough electrophile and this oxygen on the water will not be a good enough nucleophile for this reaction to take place at a high enough rate even though these products are more stable and lower in energy than these reactants. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So because we have a greater electron density that is fluctuating in between the carbon and nitrogen, we have more electrons fluctuating between those two atoms. The electrons of the oxygen will not be able to get to that carbon because of electron, electron repulsion. And that's exactly what we mean by the carbon simply will not be a good enough electrophile and this oxygen on the water will not be a good enough nucleophile for this reaction to take place at a high enough rate even though these products are more stable and lower in energy than these reactants. So we see that although this reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it occurs at an extremely slow rate. And this has to do with the double bond character of peptide bonds. In this diagram we see that the resonance stabilized structure of peptide bonds make the carbon, this carbon here less susceptible to nucleophilic attack by water. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
So we see that although this reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it occurs at an extremely slow rate. And this has to do with the double bond character of peptide bonds. In this diagram we see that the resonance stabilized structure of peptide bonds make the carbon, this carbon here less susceptible to nucleophilic attack by water. Because of this resonance stabilization, the electrons fluctuate around the carbon and nitrogen as a result of the double bond character and that essentially electrostatically repels the electrons of that water molecule. And therefore in order for this reaction to actually take place at a high enough rate inside our body and in order for us to be able to quickly and effectively break down these peptide bonds we have to use these enzymes, these proteases. Proteases. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
Because of this resonance stabilization, the electrons fluctuate around the carbon and nitrogen as a result of the double bond character and that essentially electrostatically repels the electrons of that water molecule. And therefore in order for this reaction to actually take place at a high enough rate inside our body and in order for us to be able to quickly and effectively break down these peptide bonds we have to use these enzymes, these proteases. Proteases. As we'll see in the next several electros actually make water a much better nucleophile and they make the carbon a much better electrophile. They make these reactants much more reactive and that facilitates this hydrolysis reaction. Now we can actually categorize proteases into different categories. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
As we'll see in the next several electros actually make water a much better nucleophile and they make the carbon a much better electrophile. They make these reactants much more reactive and that facilitates this hydrolysis reaction. Now we can actually categorize proteases into different categories. And these are five categories of proteases. We have seren proteases, we have cystine proteases, we have metalloprotiases and we have aspartape proteases. And we'll discuss these in much more detail in the next several lectures. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
And these are five categories of proteases. We have seren proteases, we have cystine proteases, we have metalloprotiases and we have aspartape proteases. And we'll discuss these in much more detail in the next several lectures. And we also have thirianine proteases. So let's very quickly discuss these four of the five protease molecules. So let's begin with serine proteases. | Introduction to Proteases.txt |
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