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18256919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halidzor | Halidzor | Halidzor is a village in the Tatev Municipality of the Syunik Province in Armenia.
Demographics
Population
The Statistical Committee of Armenia reported its population was 707 in 2010, up from 602 at the 2001 census.
Features
The village hosts a station of the Wings of Tatev - the world's longest non-stop double track aerial tramway.
Gallery
References
Populated places in Syunik Province
Communities in Syunik Province |
18220755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly%20Hunter | Holly Hunter | Holly Hunter (born March 20, 1958) is an American actress. Hunter won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance as Ada McGrath in the 1993 drama film The Piano. She earned three additional Academy Award nominations for Broadcast News (1987), The Firm (1993), and Thirteen (2003). She won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie for the television films Roe vs. Wade (1989) and The Positively True Adventures of the Alleged Texas Cheerleader-Murdering Mom (1993). She also starred in the TNT drama series Saving Grace (2007–2010).
Hunter's other film roles include Raising Arizona (1987), Always (1989), Miss Firecracker (1989), Home for the Holidays (1995), Crash (1996), O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), The Incredibles (2004) and its sequel Incredibles 2 (2018), Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), and The Big Sick (2017), the latter of which earned her a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role.
Early life
Hunter was born in Conyers, Georgia, the daughter of Marguerite "Dee Dee" (née Catledge), a homemaker, and Charles Edwin Hunter, a part-time sporting goods company representative and farmer with a 250-acre farm. She is the youngest of six children. Her parents encouraged her talent at an early age, and her first acting part was as Helen Keller in a fifth-grade play. She is unable to hear with her left ear due to a childhood case of the mumps. The condition sometimes leads to complications at work, and some movie scenes have to be altered from the script for her to use her right ear. She is irreligious. She began acting at Rockdale County High School in the early 1970s, performing in local productions of Oklahoma, Man of La Mancha, and Fiddler on the Roof. Hunter earned a degree in drama from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and for a while performed in local theater, playing ingenue roles at City Theater, then named the City Players.
Career
Hunter moved to New York City and roomed with fellow actress Frances McDormand, living in the Bronx "at the end of the D [subway] train, just off 205th Street, on Bainbridge Avenue and Hull Avenue". A chance encounter with playwright Beth Henley, when the two were trapped alone in an elevator, led to Hunter's being cast in Henley's plays Crimes of the Heart (succeeding Mary Beth Hurt on Broadway), and Off-Broadway's The Miss Firecracker Contest. "It was like the beginning of 1982. It was on 49th Street between Broadway and Eighth [Avenue] ... on the south side of the street," Hunter recalled in an interview. "[We were trapped] 10 minutes; not long. We actually had a nice conversation. It was just the two of us."
Hunter made her film debut in the 1981 slasher movie The Burning. After moving to Los Angeles in 1982, Hunter appeared in TV movies before being cast in a supporting role in 1984's Swing Shift. That year, she had her first collaboration with the writing-directing-producing team of brothers Ethan Coen and Joel Coen, in Blood Simple, making an uncredited appearance as a voice on an answering-machine recording. More film and television work followed until 1987, when she earned a starring role in the Coens' Raising Arizona and was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance in Broadcast News, after which Hunter became a critically acclaimed star.
Hunter went on to the screen adaptation of Henley's Miss Firecracker; Steven Spielberg's Always, a romantic drama with Richard Dreyfuss; and the made-for-TV 1989 docudrama Roe vs. Wade about the Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade. Following her second collaboration with Dreyfuss, in Once Around, Hunter garnered critical attention for her work in two 1993 films, resulting in her being nominated for two Academy Awards the same year: Hunter's performance in The Firm won her a nomination as Best Supporting Actress, while her portrayal of a mute Scottish woman entangled in an adulterous affair with Harvey Keitel in Jane Campion's The Piano won her the Best Actress award. Hunter went on to star in the comedy-drama Home for the Holidays and the thriller Copycat, both in 1995. Hunter appeared in David Cronenberg's Crash and as a sardonic angel in A Life Less Ordinary. The following year, Hunter played a recently divorced New Yorker in Richard LaGravenese's Living Out Loud; starring alongside Danny DeVito, Queen Latifah, and Martin Donovan. Hunter rounded out the 1990s with a minor role in the independent drama Jesus' Son and as a housekeeper torn between a grieving widower and his son in Kiefer Sutherland's drama Woman Wanted. Following a supporting role in the Coens' O Brother, Where Art Thou?, Hunter took top billing in the same year's television movie Harlan County War, an account of labor struggles among Kentucky coal-mine workers. Hunter would continue her small screen streak with a role in When Billie Beat Bobby, playing tennis pro Billie Jean King in the fact-based story of King's exhibition match with Bobby Riggs; and as narrator of Eco Challenge New Zealand before returning to film work with a minor role in the 2002 drama Moonlight Mile. The following year found Hunter in the redemption drama Levity.
In 2003, Hunter had the role of a mother named Melanie Freeland, whose daughter is troubled and going through the perils of being a teenager in the film Thirteen. The film was critically acclaimed along with Hunter and her co-stars and earned her nominations for the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. In 2004, Hunter starred alongside Brittany Murphy in the romantic satire Little Black Book, and provided the voice for Helen Parr (also known as Elastigirl) in the acclaimed computer-animated superhero film, The Incredibles. She reprised the role in the Disney Infinity video game series, and in the film's long-awaited sequel Incredibles 2 in 2018.
In 2005, Hunter starred alongside Robin Williams in the black comedy-drama The Big White. Hunter became an executive producer, and helped develop a starring vehicle for herself with the TNT cable-network drama Saving Grace, which premiered in July 2007. For her acting, she received a Golden Globe Award nomination, two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations, and an Emmy Award nomination. On May 30, 2008, Hunter received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2009, she was awarded the Women in Film Lucy Award. In 2016, Hunter played Senator Finch in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Hunter's likeness was used to portray Senator Finch in the Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice tie-in prequel comics, released by Dr. Pepper on February 3, 2016. Hunter stars opposite Ted Danson in the 2021 NBC comedy Mr. Mayor.
Personal life
Hunter was married to Janusz Kamiński, cinematographer of Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan, from 1995 until 2001. She has been in a relationship with British actor Gordon MacDonald since 2001. The couple met in San Jose Repertory Theatre's production of playwright Marina Carr's By the Bog of Cats, in which she played a woman abandoned by her lover of 14 years, played by MacDonald. In January 2006, Hunter gave birth to the couple's twin sons, Claude and Press.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theme parks
Awards and nominations
In 1999, Hunter received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2016, Hunter was awarded an Honorary Doctorate degree by her alma mater, Carnegie Mellon University.
References
External links
"What people don't know about Holly" (interview), The Guardian, November 22, 2003
1958 births
Living people
People from Conyers, Georgia
Actresses from Georgia (U.S. state)
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Actress AACTA Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Silver Bear for Best Actress winners
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
American agnostics |
208214 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%98 | უშაფათი | უშაფათი — სოფელი საქართველოში, სამეგრელო-ზემო სვანეთის მხარის სენაკის მუნიციპალიტეტში, თემის ცენტრი (სოფლები: ლეგოგინე, ლეკოკაიე, უშაფათი). მდებარეობს ოდიშის ვაკეზე, ზღვის დონიდან 85 მ სიმაღლეზე. ქალაქ სენაკიდან დაშორებულია 27 კილომეტრით.
დემოგრაფია
2014 წლის აღწერის მონაცემებით სოფელში ცხოვრობს 389 ადამიანი.
ლიტერატურა
სქოლიო
სენაკის მუნიციპალიტეტის სოფლები |
62481928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Azerbaijani%20parliamentary%20election | 2020 Azerbaijani parliamentary election | 2020 Azerbaijani parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Azerbaijan on 9 February 2020. They were originally scheduled to take place in November 2020, but were brought forward after parliament was dissolved in December 2019. Opposition parties accused President Ilham Aliyev of limiting their ability to campaign and called for a boycott of the election.
The ruling New Azerbaijan Party retained its majority, winning 72 of the 125 seats, although this was later reduced to 70 when results in two constituencies were annulled. The second largest party (the Civic Solidarity Party) won only three seats.
Electoral system
The 125 members of the National Assembly were elected in single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post system.
Campaign
A total of 1,314 candidates contested the elections; 1,057 ran as independents, with 246 running as candidates of 19 different parties and 11 as nominees of initiative groups.
Although a significant part of the opposition boycotted the elections, some parties (e.g. Musavat) announced that they would participate.
Results
The New Azerbaijan Party was initially reported to have won 72 seats, with 43 taken by independents. However, the results in four constituencies were later annulled by the Election Commission, with the New Azerbaijan Party and independents both losing two seats.
Erkin Gadirli of the Republican Alternative Party won a seat running as an independent.
Razi Nurullayev, the chairman of the spitter group from Azerbaijani Popular Front Party won a seat running as an independent.
Aftermath
The newly elected National Assembly met for the first time on 10 March and elected Sahiba Gafarova as Speaker.
References
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Parliamentary election
February 2020 events in Asia
Parliamentary elections in Azerbaijan
Election and referendum articles with incomplete results |
77752 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0-%E1%83%9F%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98 | პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი | პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი (დ. 15 იანვარი, 1809 — გ. 19 იანვარი, 1865) — ფრანგი პუბლიცისტი, სოციალისტური მიმდევრობის პოლიტიკური ფილოსოფოსი და ეკონომისტი, ანარქიზმის ერთ-ერთი ფუძემდებელი. პირველმა უწოდა საკუთარ თავს „ანარქისტი“ (1848 წლის შემდეგ საკუთარ თავს უკვე „ფედერალისტს“ უწოდებდა). მუშაობდა პუბლიცისტად და თავად ისწავლა ლათინური, რათა ამ ენაზე წიგნების ბეჭდვა შეძლებოდა. პრუდონის ერთ-ერთი ყველაზე ცნობილი გამოთქმაა „საკუთრება მძარცველობაა“ ნაშრომში „რა არის საკუთრება?“, სადაც ის მთავრობისა და საკუთრების პრინციპებს განიხილავდა (თავდაპირველი სათაური იყო „Qu'est-ce que la propriété? Recherche sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement“), მის პირველ მნიშვნელოვან ნაშრომში, რომელიც 1840 წელს გამოქვეყნდა.
შეიუმუშავა ე. წ. პრუდონიზმი.
ლიტერატურა
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი, ბიოგრაფიული ცნობები.
ფრანგი პუბლიცისტები
ფრანგი ეკონომისტები
ანარქისტები
დაბადებული 15 იანვარი
დაბადებული 1809
გარდაცვლილი 19 იანვარი
გარდაცვლილი 1865 |
131258 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98 | ალექსანდრე ერქომაიშვილი | ალექსანდრე ერქომაიშვილი (დ. 1887 — გ. 1937) — ქართველი რევოლუციონერი. რეპრესირებული.
ბიოგრაფია
დაიბადა 1887 წლის 12 დეკემბერს სოფელ წითელმთაში (ოზურგეთის მაზრა). სწვალობდა თბილისის კომერციულ სასწავლებელში, სადაც ჩაება რევოლუციურ მოძრაობაში. მონაწილეობდა 1905-1907 წლების რევოლუციაში.
1907-1917 წლებში ერქომაიშვილი გადასახლებული იყო ქალაქ კრასნოიარსკში. 1917 წლის თებერვლის რევოლუციის შემდეგ გახდა კრასნოიარსკის მუშათა და ჯარისკაცთა დეპუტატების საბჭოს თავმჯდომარეა. 1917 წლის მაისში ის ერქომაიშვილი თბილისში დაბრუნდა. 1918-1920 წლებში მუშაობდა ცეკავშირში.
საქართველოში საბჭოთა ხელისუფლების დამყარების შემდეგ ერქომაიშვილი მუშაობდა სხვადასხვა თანამდებობებზე. იყო სასურსათო საქმეთა სახალხო კომისარი, ამიერკავკასიის საფინანსო ინსტიტუტის დირექტორი, საქართველოს პედაგოგიური ინსტიტუტის რექტორი (1931-1932 წწ.), უმაღლესი სასოფლო-სამეურნეო კომუნისტური სკოლის დირექტორი.
დახვრიტეს 1937 წელს.
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
ქართველი რევოლუციონერები
დაბადებული 1887
გარდაცვლილი 1937
ოზურგეთის მუნიციპალიტეტში დაბადებულები
საბჭოთა კავშირის რეპრესიების მსხვერპლნი საქართველოში
თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის რექტორები
ალექსანდრე |
13865321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droshky | Droshky | Droshky
A droshky or drosky is a term used for a four-wheeled open carriage used especially in Russia. The vehicle has a long bench on which the driver or passengers sit as if on a saddle, either astride or sideways. From droga, the pole that connects the front and rear axles.
See also
Horses in Russia
References
Carriages
Russian inventions |
57140410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agata%20Biernat | Agata Biernat | Agata Biernat (born 1989) is a Polish beauty pageant titleholder who won the Miss Polonia 2017. she represented Poland at the Miss World 2018 pageant in China, in December.
Personal life
Biernat lives in Zduńska Wola, Poland. She has been involved in dance and sport since childhood, since she was a child she trained dance and athletics . She is a dance instructor in many dance styles, including pole dance, as well as fitness instructor and personal trainer. Biernat started to compete at Miss Polonia in 2009. She was placing as the First Runner-up while Maria Nowakowska won the title and competed at the Miss Universe 2010 in Las Vegas. In 2017 she finally won the national title.
The Miss Polonia Organization was recently granted the rights to send the Polish contestant to Miss World (their last year was 2006). Agata was chosen to represent Poland and was officially crowned Miss World Poland 2018 in a small ceremony. Since the Miss World and Miss Universe pageants conflict in terms of dates, the new Miss Polonia 2018 will compete in Miss World.
Achievements
Miss Polonia 2017.
References
External links
misspolonia.com.pl
missuniverse.com
agatabiernat.com
Living people
1989 births
Miss World 2018 delegates
Polish beauty pageant winners |
310289 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94 | ერმილე ნაკაშიძე | ერმილე ნაკაშიძე (დ. 8 ივლისი, 1859, მაკვანეთი — გ. 7 მაისი, 1937, თბილისი) — ქართველი აგრონომი, მეღვინე, მეჩაიე, მეჩაიეობის დარგის ერთ-ერთი ფუძემდებელი საქართველოში.
ბიოგრაფია
განათლება
ისტორიული ცნობების თანახმად, ნაკაშიძეების წარჩინებული თავადური გვარიდან მაკვანეთში მხოლოდ ერმილე და ბეჟან ნაკაშიძეები ცხოვრობდნენ. მისი დედა, მაკა, რაჭის ერისთავის, გრიგოლის, ასული იყო. მამა, კაცია ნაკაშიძე, გარდაიცვალა 30 წლის ასაკში, როცა ერმილე 2 წლის იყო. ერმილე ნაკაშიძემ პირველადი განათლება სოფელ ლიხაურის დაწყებით სკოლაში მიიღო, შემდეგ ოზურგეთის საქალაქო სასწავლებელში გადავიდა. აგრონომიის მიმართ ინტერესი ნაკაშიძემ ჯერ კიდევ ოზურგეთში, სკოლაში სწავლისას გამოიჩინა. მან სახლში მოაწყო პატარა სანერგე, სადაც თხილის, ვაშლი,ს თუთისა და კაკლის ნერგებს ამყნიდა და ახალი ჯიშები გამოჰყავდა. მან გამოიყვანა კაკლის გაუმჯობესებული ჯიში, რომელიც ძვირფას სამერქნე მასალას იძლეოდა. 1879 წლიდან ნაკაშიძემ სწავლა ქუთაისის კლასიკურ გიმნაზიაში IV კლასის მოსწავლედ გააგრძელა. გიმნაზიაში მასთან ერთად, მისი მკვიდრი მამიდაშვილი, ექვთიმე თაყაიშვილი და ნიკო მარი სწავლობდნენ. 1883 წელს ნაკაშიძემ დაასრულა გიმნაზია, მაგრამ უსახსრობის გამო ვერ ახერხებდა უმაღლესი განათლების მიღებას მანამ, სანამ ქუთაისის სათავადაზნაურო ბანკმა 5 სტიპენდია არ დანიშნ იმ პირთათვის, ვინც უმაღლეს სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებელში წავიდოდა სასწავლებლად. ერთი სტიპენდია ნაკაშიძემ მიიღო და სწავლა პოლონეთში, ნოვოალექსანდრიის (ამჟამინდელი სახელი Puławy) სასოფლო–სამეურნეო და სატყეო ინსტიტუტში გააგრძელა. ის სასწავლებელში ერთადერთი სტუდენტი იყო ამიერკავკასიიდან.
საფილოქსერო დასი
სწავლის დასრულების შემდეგ, 1886 წელს, ნაკაშიძე დაბრუნდა სამშობლოში და აქტიურად ჩაება საზოგადოებრივ და სამეურნეო ცხოვრებაში. დაბრუნებისთანავე, 1887 წლიდან, ნაკაშიძე ჩაერთო ილია წინამძღვრიშვილის მიერ დაფუძნებული ქართული სამეურნეო სკოლის მუშაობაში. იგი დაინიშნა სასწავლებლის მმართველად. 1892 წელს, წარმატებული შრომის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძემ სასწავლებელი დატოვა და დაიკავა აგრონომ-ინსპექტორის თანამდებობა „ფილოქსერასთან მებრძოლ კავკასიის კომიტეტში“, რომელიც სახელმწიფოს მიერ დაარსებული დაწესებულება იყო და მიზნად ადგილობრივი მევენახეობის გადარჩენას ისახავდა.
ნაკაშიძემ მოიარა საქართველოს მევენახეობის თითქმის ყველა რეგიონი, რათა ადგილზე შეემოწმებინა ფილოქსერითა და სხვა დაავადებებით დაზიანებული ვენახების მდგომარეობა და დახმარება გაეწია მოსახლეობისათვის მათ წინააღმდეგ საბრძოლველად. 1892 წლის ივნისში ერმილე ნაკაშიძემ მოიარა იმერეთის მრავალი სოფელი, სადაც ის აკვირდებოდა გავრცელებულ სოკოვან დაავადებებს. პრაქტიკული დახმარება გაუწია მოსახლეობას ვენახების წამლობასთან დაკავშირებით. ის მუშაობდა შემდეგ სოფლებში: ჯოკოეთი, კაცხი, ნავარზეთი, რგანი, ბუნიკაური, სარქველთუბანი, ზადარგანი, ტაბაკრება, დარკვეთი, კრონისი, მღვიმე, ხოლიპირი და წირქვალი. ნაკაშიძემ შეამოწმა აგრეთვე კახეთის რაიონებისა და ზაქათალის ოლქის მევენახეობის მდგომარეობა. იგი დამხმარე პერსონალთან ეწეოდა პროპაგანდას ამ რაიონებში ვაზის წამლობის ახალი წესების დასანერგად. პრაქტიკულად ეხმარებოდა მის მფლობელებს ვენახის მოვლასა და შეწამვლაში, აგრეთვე, ღვინის ტექნოლოგიის გაუმჯობესებაში. ნაკაშიძის იმდროინდელი მოხსენების მიხედვით, სოკოვანი დაავადებებით მეტად დაზიანებული ვენახები იყო ალაზნის გაღმა მხარეში, რასაც ხსნიდა ვაზის შესაწამლი მასალებისა და საწყობების უქონლობით. მხარეში ერთადერთი საწყობი ყვარელში მდებარეობდა და ვერ აკმაყოფილებდა ვენახის მფლობელთა დიდ მოთხოვნილებებს.
ნაკაშიძის ძალისხმევამ, გაეუმჯობესებინა დაღუპვის პირას მდგარი კახეთის მევენახეობა, შედეგი გამოიღო – არსებული ვითარება თანდათან უმჯობესდებოდა. მევენახეობისა და მეღვინეობის საკითხებზე მუშაობის შედეგად ნაკაშიძემ 1896 წელს კრებულში „Сборник сведений по виноградарству и виноделии на Кавказе“ გამოსცა ორი ნაშრომი: „Виноградарство в Имеретии“ (Вып. Ш) და „Очерк виноградарства и виноделия Гурии и Мингрелии“ (Вып. IV). ნაკაშიძე „საფილოქსერო დასის“ საქმიანობას ძირითადი დანიშნულების გარდა, იყენებდა პოლიტიკური მიზნითაც, კერძოდ რეგიონებში გლეხთა შორის პოლიტიკური განათლებისა და პროპაგანდის მიზნით. „საფილოქსერო დასში“ ის 1896 წლამდე მუშაობდა, თუმცა შემდგომაც არაოფიციალურად განაგრძობდა მევენახეობის ხელშეწყობას.
მოღვაწეობა გურიაში
ერმილე ნაკაშიძის მეუღლე ივლიტა (იტა) ასათიანი იყო პედაგოგი, პუბლიცისტი, წერა–კითხვის გამვრცელებელი საზოგადოების წევრი. მან მეუღლესთან ერთად საკუთარ მამულში ოთხკლასიანი სკოლა დააარსა, სადაც ცოლ–ქმარი ერთად ასწავლიდნენ. მათი ოჯახი განათლებისა და კულტურის ერთ-ერთი კერა იყო გურიაში. ერმილე ნაკაშიძეს და მის მეუღლეს 5 შვილი – ერთი ვაჟი და ოთხი ქალიშვილი – ჰყავდათ. მათ შორის ელენე ნაკაშიძე — მედიცინის მეცნიერებათა დოქტორი. შემდგომში 1890-იან წლებში ნაკაშიძემ პრესის მეშვეობით გამოაქვეყნა იდეა სამეურნეო კოლონიების მოწყობისა. მისი ხედვით სამეურნეო განათლების მქონე პირებს სოფლად უნდა მოეწყოთ სანიმუშო მეურნეობები, კოოპერატივები. იდეას დიდი მხარდაჭერა არ ჰქონია. ამიტომ ნაკაშიძემ თავად დააარსა ასეთი კოლონია მშობლიურ სოფელ მაკვანეთში და ბაზად საკუთარი მამული აქცია. 900 კვადრატული საჟენი მიწა მან აჩუქა სოფლის სკოლას საცდელი ნაკვეთების მოსაწყობად, გადასცა მას ლიტერატურა და გამოიწერა პრესა. მისი მეუღლის ხელმძღვანელობით კი ტარდებოდა კურსები სოფლად მცხოვრები ბავშვებისთვის. მეურნეობაში ნაკაშიძემ სხვადასხვა ჯიშის ხეხილი და ვაზი გააშენა, გამოჰყო ნაკვეთი ექსპერიმენტებისთვის, პარალელურად თანამშრომლობდა სხვადასხვა სამეურნეო გამოცემებთან. მან პირველმა აღძრა საკითხი, გახსნილიყო ოზურგეთში სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებელი. ამისთვის პროექტი და სასწავლო პროგრამაც შეიმუშავა. მისი პროექტის მიხედვით სასწავლებელში მეაბრეშუმეობა, მეფუტკრეობა, მებაღეობა, მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა, მესაქონლეობა და მემინდვრეობა უნდა ესწავლებინათ.
1896-1905 წლებში ნაკაშიძე მუშაობდა მიწათმოქმედების დეპარტამენტში აგრონომ-ინსპექტორად. ამ პერიოდში ნაკაშიძე ხელმძღვანელობდა გურია–სამეგრელოსა და აფხაზეთში ჩაისა და თხილის კულტურის ფართოდ გავრცელებას. 1909 წელს იყო მივლენილი ოსმალეთის იმპერიაში, კერძოდ ლაზეთში იქაური თხილის, ჩაისა და თამბაქოს, ასევე სხვა სუბტროპიკული კულტურების მეურნეობების შესასწავლად, რის შემდეგაც მან თხილის საუკეთესო ჯიშები საქართველოში ჩამოიტანა. ამ მოგზაურობის ამსახველ ამბებს მან ვრცელი სტატიები მიუძღვნა.
ნაკაშიძე 1905-1911 წლებში ხელმძღვანელობდა ოზურგეთის ჩაის საცდელ პლანტაციას. მან მოსახლეობას შეასწავლა შინამრეწველური წესით ჩაის ფოთლის გადამუშავება. ნაკაშიძემ სოფელ მაკვანეთში მდებარე თავის მამულში, ჩაის პლანტაცია გააშენა, სადაც კუსტარული მეთოდით ამუშავებდა ჩაის ფოთოლს და უშვებდა პროდუქციას. ნაკაშიძემ საკუთარ პროდუქტს საკუთარი და მისივე მეუღლის, იტას სახელების მიხედვით „ერმილიტა“ დაარქვა. ნაკაშიძე დაინტერესებულ მეურნეებს პრესის საშუალებით აწვდიდა რჩევებს ჩაის ბუჩქის მოვლასთან დაკავშირებით, ურჩევდა მათ, რაციონალურად გამოეყენებინათ ფართობი. ნაკაშიძის თაოსნობით მოსახლეობამ სხვა კულტურებთან ერთად, ხელი მოჰკიდა ლიმონის, ფორთოხლის, მანდარინისა და სხვა სუბტროპიკული მცენარეების გაშენებას. 1911 წლის მოხსენებაში მისი ყურადღება დაფნამაც მიიპყრო. მისი თქმით დაფნის ფოთოლს ერთ საუკუნეზე მეტი იყო, რაც სამეგრელოში აგროვებდნენ და ზღვით რუსეთში გაჰქონდათ. როგორც ოზურგეთის თამბაქოს საცდელი პლანტაციის გამგე, მონაწილეობდა თამბაქოს გაშენებისა და მოვლა-მოყვანის საქმეში.
1911 წელს მისი ხელმშღვანელობით დაარსდა „გურიის მებაღეთა საკრედიტო ამხანაგობა“, რომელსაც ორი წლის თავზე უკვე 393 წევრი ჰყავდა. ამხანაგობის მიზანი იყო სამეურნეო დარგების წახალისება, ტექნოლოგიური განათლების გავრცელება. 1914 წელს ერმილე ნაკაშიძის ხელმძღვანელობით, ზვანში, თამბაქოს საცდელ პლანტაციაში, გურიაში პირველი, სრულყოფილი ჩაის გადამამუშავებელი ფაბრიკა აშენდა. ნაკაშიძის სანიმუშო მეურნეობა მძიმედ დაზარალდა 1918 წლის გაზაფხულზე ოსმალეთის იმპერიის ჯარების მიერ ბათუმის ოლქისა და ოზურგეთის მაზრის დაკავების შემდეგ. ოსმალეთის ჯარები ქართულმა ძალებმა შეაჩერეს, თუმცა ოსმალებმა მოახერხეს ქალაქ ოზურგეთისა და მიმდებარე სოფლების დაკავება რამდენიმე თვით და მათი განადგურება. ამას შეეწირა ნაკაშიძის სახლი და მეურნეობა. მან მეურნეობის აღდგენა ვეღარ შეძლო და საცხოვრებლად თბილისში გადავიდა.
მოღვაწეობა თბილისში
პირველი რესპუბლიკის პერიოდში, 1921 წლამდე, ნაკაშიძე მიწათმოქმედების სამინიტროს სპეციალისტად მიიწვიეს. იგი იყო ჯერ სახალხო მამულების სპეციალისტი, შემდგომ მებაღე-მევენახეობის, სუბტროპიკული და სამკურნალო მცენარეთა განყოფილებების ინსპექტორი და განაგებდა დასავლეთ საქართველოში სუბტროპიკულ და სამკურნალო მცენარეთა კულტურების მიმართულებას. ამავე დროს ხელმძღვანელობდა აღნიშნული დარგების სანერგეებს,
1921 წლიდან, საქართველოს საბჭოთა ოკუპაციის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძე მუშაობდა მიწათმოქმედების სახალხო კომისარიატში და კვლავ ცდილობდა ჩაისა და ციტრუსების გაშენების კამპანიის გაგრძელებას. მისი ძალისხმევით გაიხსნა სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებლები აკეთსა და გორაბერეჟოულში. მონაწილეობდა ნოსირსა და მშობლიურ მაკვანეთში ჩაის მეურნეობების გაშენებაში, ზედამხედველობას უწევდა ჩაქვის, სალიბაურისა და ზედუბნის სახალხო სუბტროპიკულ მეურნეობებს. 1925 წელს ის თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის აგრონომიულმა ფაკულტეტმა ლექტორად მიიწვია, მაგრამ ასაკში შესულმა ნაკაშიძემ საუნივერსიტეტო საქმიანობა ვერ შეძლო. 1919 წელს რეპრესიებისას მას პენსია ჩამოართვეს, მაგრამ ძველი ნაცნობი ბოლშევიკების წყალობით, ისევ დაუბრუნეს.
პენსიაში გასვლის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძე აქტიურად აგრძელებდა მუშაობას საგამომცემლო მიმართულებით. აქვეყნებდა წერილებს სოფლის მეურნეობის აქტუალურ საკითხებზე, გამოსცა წიგნები და ბროშურები: „პამიდორის შენახვა საზამთროდ“, „ნიადაგი შემოდგომაზე უნდა დაიბაროს” და სხვა. 1928 წელს გამოვიდა ნაკაშიძის წიგნი „ჩაის ბუჩქი, მისი გაშენება და ჩაის დამუშავება“. მევენახეობა – მეღვინეობას ის ისევ დაუბრუნდა 1929 წელს და გამოაქვეყნა წიგნი „მევენახეობა–მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში.“ 1930 წელს ნაკაშიძემ გამოსცა წიგნი „ზეთისხილის ხე, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა“, რომელშიც დაახასიათა ეს მცენარე, აღწერა მისი ბიო-ეკოლოგიური თვისებები, ჯიშები, მოთხოვნილებები ნიადაგისა და ჰავისადმი, გამრავლების ხერხები და სხვა. ი. ქურდიანთან ერთად ნაკაშიძემ 1932 წელს გამოსცა ორტომიანი სახელმძღვანელო – „ტექნიკური კულტურები”, რომელიც აქტიურად გამოიყენებოდა სოფლის მეურნეობის მუშაკებისა და სტუდენტების მიერ. ნაკაშიძის ავტორობით 1934 წელს გამოიცა წიგნი „ნარინჯოვნები“, რომელშიც ყოველმხრივაა დახასიათებული მანდარინი, ფორთოხალი, ლიმონი, ნარინჯი, ლაიმი, სამყურა ლიმონი და სხვა.
1937 წლის რეპრესიებისას დააპატიმრეს მისი ვაჟი ლევანი, რომელსაც ფიზიკოსის განათლება საზღვარგარეთ, გერმანიაში, ჰქონდა მიღებული. შვილის ტრაგედია ნაკაშიძემ ვერ გადაიტანა და იმავე წელსვე გარდაიცვალა. დაკრძალულია თბილისში, ვაკის სასაფლაოზე.
ბიბლიოგრაფია
1895. აბუსალათინი (ზეთის მცენარე) და მისი მოშენება, ქუთაისი. „მეურნის“ რედ. გამოცემა. 24 გვ.
1927. თხილი, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“, 39 გვ.
1927. სიმინდის ჩრჩილი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 16 გვ.
1928. ჩაის ბუჩქი, მისი გაშენება და ჩაის დამუშავება. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 72გვ. ილ.
1929. მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 60 გვ.
1930. აბუსალათინი და მისი მოყვანა. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 27გვ.
1930. ზეთის ხილის ხე, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა. გამოცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 19 გვ.
1930. მანდარინის გაშენება და მოვლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 42გვ.
1931. ლუფა ანუ მცენარის ღრუბელი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 30გვ.
1931. ნაგავიც სიმდიდრეა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 16 გვ.
1931. რამი ანუ ჩინური ჭინჭარი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 39გვ.
1931. საქონლის საკვების დამჟავება ანუ დასილოსება. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 41გვ.
1932. ბეღლის მავნებლები და მათთან ბრძოლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 3გვ. ილ.
1932. ტეხნიკური კულტურები. ნაწილი 1. ზეთოვანი მცენარეები (სოია, არახისი, მზესუმზირა, აბუსალათინი). 112 გვ. ტეხნიკური კულტურები. ნაწილი 2. ბოჭკოვანი მცენარეები. 91 გვ. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“.
1934. ნარინჯოვანნი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 93 გვ. ილ
ლიტერატურა
კალანდაძე, ბ. „ქართული ღვინისა და ალკოჰოლური სასმელების მატიანე“ გვ. 220 — „პეტიტი“, თბილისი, 2008
სარიშვილი, ი. „სოფლის მეურნეობის ქართველი მოღვაწეები“ გვ. 79 — თბილისი, 1965
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
ერმილე ნაკაშიძე, მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში
ქართველი აგრონომები
დაბადებული 8 ივლისი
დაბადებული 1848
გარდაცვლილი 7 მაისი
გარდაცვლილი 1937
ოზურგეთის მუნიციპალიტეტში დაბადებულები
საქართველოს საისტორიო და საეთნოგრაფიო საზოგადოების წევრები |
134253 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98 | თებეს ლეგიონი | თებეს ლეგიონი (აგრეთვე ცნობილი როგორც აგაუნუმის წამებულები) ქრისტიანული ჰაგიოგრაფიის გმირები. რომაული ლეგიონი, რომელიც შედგებოდა ექვსი ათას ექვსას სამოცდაექვსი ადამიანისგან. ჰაგიოგრაფი წმინდა მორისის მიხედვით, მათ მასიურად მოაქციეს ხალხი ქრისტიანობაზე და ეწამნენ ერთად 286 წელს. მათი ხსენების დღე არის 22 სექტემბერს. |
6913641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arve%20River%20%28Tasmania%29 | Arve River (Tasmania) | Arve River (Tasmania)
The Arve River is a river in the southeast region of Tasmania, Australia.
The river rises below Devils Backbone in the Hartz Mountains and flows generally north towards the Arve Plains. It reaches its confluence with the Huon River west of Huonville. The river descends over its course.
See also
List of rivers of Tasmania
References
Rivers of Tasmania
Southern Tasmania |
305730 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90 | კრევოს უნია | კრევოს უნია — ხელშეკრულება, რომლითაც შეიქმნა დინასტიური გაერთიანება პოლონეთსა და ლიტვას შორის. ლიტვის მეფე იაგაილო დაქორწინდა პოლონეთის დედოფალ იადვიგაზე.
კრევოს უნიას ხელი მოაწერეს 1385 წლის 14 აგვისტოს კრევოს ციხესიმაგრეში (თანამედროვე ბელარუსი, სოფელი კრევო). ხელშეკრულების თანახმად იაგაილომ აიღო რამდენიმე ვალდებულება: ლიტვა გადაიყვანა ლათინურ დამწერლობაზე; ხელს შუეწყბდა პოლონეთისათვის დაკარგული ტერიტორიების დაბრუნებას; იადვიგას ყოფილ ქმარს გადაუხდიდა კომპესაციას საქორწინო ხელშეკრულების დარღვევისათვის. ჯარი, საამართლო და საკანონმდებლო ხელისუფლება, აგრეთვე ხაზინა შეინარჩუნა ორივე სამეფომ.
უნიამ იარსება 1569 წლამდე, როდესაც ორივე სახელმწიფომ ხელი მოაწერა ლუბლინის უნიას, რომლის ძალითაც ჩამოყალიბდა არჩევითი მონარქია რეჩ პოსპოლიტა.
იხილეთ აგრეთვე
სამშვიდობო ხელშეკრულებების სია
ლიტერატურა
პოლონეთის ისტორია |
364918 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98 | გორის ტროლეიბუსი | გორის ტროლეიბუსი — გაუქმებული ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა ქ. გორში. ეს იყო უკანასკნელი მოქმედი ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა საქართველოს მიერ კონტროლირებად ტერიტორიაზე (ერთადერთი ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა, რომელიც საქართველოში შემორჩა სოხუმის ტროლეიბუსია).
ისტორია
ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა გორში 1972 წლის 30 აპრილს ამოქმედდა. ამავე წელს გაიხსნა მეორე ხაზიც. 1970-იან წლებში გორის ტროლეიბუსის ქსელი სწრაფად იზრდებოდა, 1979 წლისთვის ქალაქში უკვე 3 ტროლეიბუსის ხაზი იყო. ბოლო, მე-4 ხაზი ექსპლუატაციაში შევიდა 1981 წელს.
გორში პირველი ტროლეიბუსები 22 ჩეხოსლოვაკიური Škoda 9Tr იყო, რომლებიც ქალაქმა 1972 წელს მიიღო. ეს ტროლეიბუსები იყო ორ და სამკარიანი. 1984 წელს ქალაქმა მიიღო 3 ახალი Škoda 14Tr. 1990 წელს მოძრავი შემადგენლობა შეივსო 2 ტროლეიბუსით ЗиУ-9.
ტროლეიბუსის დეპო მდებარეობდა ცხინვალის გზატკეცილზე.
არსებული ხაზები გორის ცენტრს აკავშირებდა გარეუბნებთან და უახლოეს სოფლებთან:
№ 1: პურის ქარხანა — მიკრორაიონი კვერნაქი — სოფელი ორთაშენი
№ 2: რკინიგზის სადგური — სოფელი ტინისხიდი
№ 3: დავით აღმაშენებლის მოედანი — მიკრორაიონი კომბინატი
№ 4: რკინიგზის სადგური — დავით აღმაშენებლის მოედანი
სსრკ-ს დაშლასთან ერთად გორის ტროლეიბუსი აღმოჩნდა მძიმე მდგომარეობაში. ჩეხოსლოვაკიურმა Škoda 9Tr-ებმა უკვე ამოწურეს თავისი რესურსი, ახალი ტროლეიბუსების ყიდვისთვის საჭირო სახსრები კი ტროლეიბუსების პარკს არ გააჩნდა. ამიტომ 1990-იან წლებში მოხდა მოძრავი შემადგენლობის მასიურად ჩამოწერა — ტროლეიბუსები დაშალეს რათა მათი ნაწილები გამოეყენებინათ შედარებით ახალი ტროლეიბუსების შესაკეთებლად. გაუქმდა მარშრუტები № 1 და № 3.
2006 წელს თბილისის ტროლეიბუსის გაუქმების შემდეგ თბილისიდან გორში ჩაიტანეს ათენისგან ნაყიდი ტროლეიბუსები ЗиУ-9. 2006 წლისთვის სულ ორ მარშრუტზე მუშაობდა 12 ტროლეიბუსი. 2008 წლის ომის დროს რუსული ავია დაბომბვების გამო დაზიანდა მარშრუტი № 4, რომელიც ომის შემდეგ აღარ აღდგა.
2008-2010 წლებში ქალაქში მოქმედებდა ერთადერთი მარშრუტი № 2 რკინიგზის სადგურიდან სოფელ ტინისხიდამდე. 2009 წელს ტროლეიბუსების პარკი შეივსო რუსთავიდან ჩამოტანილი ტროლეიბუსებით, სადაც ტროლეიბუსი გაუქმდა.
გორის ტროლეიბუსი თავისი არსებობის ბოლო წელს მუშაობდა 9-დან 16:30 საათამდე და მგზავრობის ღირებულება 10 თეთრი იყო.
2010 წლის 29 მარტს გორში ტროლეიბუსების მოძრაობა შეწყდა, ხოლო ამავე წლის აპრილში მიღებულ იქნა ტროლეიბუსის გაუქმების გადაწყვეტილება.
გორის ტროლეიბუსი ფილმებში
გორის ტროლეიბუსის ხილვა შეიძლება რენი ჰარლინის ფილმში „აგვისტოს 5 დღე“, როცა ფილმის მთავარი გმირები სხედან კაფეში სტალინის გამზირზე და უკანა პლანზე გაივლის ტროლეიბუსი Škoda 9Tr.
საქართველოს ტროლეიბუსის სისტემების სია
ბათუმი (გაუქმებულია)
გორი (გაუქმებულია)
ზესტაფონი (შეწყდა მშენებარე)
ზუგდიდი (გაუქმებულია)
თბილისი (გაუქმებულია)
ოზურგეთი (გაუქმებულია)
რუსთავი (გაუქმებულია)
სამტრედია (გაუქმებულია)
სოხუმი (მოქმედია)
ფოთი (გაუქმებულია)
ქობულეთი (შეწყდა მშენებარე)
ქუთაისი (გაუქმებულია)
ცხინვალი (გაუქმებულია)
ჭიათურა (გაუქმებულია)
წყარო
ლიტერატურა
KLEMENT, Radim. Konec trolejbusů v Gruzii. Československý dopravák. 2010, roč. IX., čís. 4, s. 40–44.
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
გორის Škoda 9Tr და Škoda 14Tr-ის ფოტო
გორი
ტროლეიბუსის სისტემები საქართველოში |
68001234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossacks%20%28video%20games%20series%29 | Cossacks (video games series) | Cossacks (video games series)
Cossacks is a series of real-time strategy video games developed by Ukrainian video game developer GSC Game World for Microsoft Windows.
Games
Cossacks: European Wars (2001)
Cossacks II: Napoleonic Wars (2005)
Cossacks 3 (2016)
Reception
References
External links
Cossacks Official website
Real-time strategy video games
Video game franchises introduced in 2001
Video games developed in Ukraine
Windows games |
35326487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby%20Hirose | Ruby Hirose | Ruby Hirose
Ruby Sakae Hirose (1904–1960) was an American biochemist and bacteriologist. She did research on blood clotting and thrombin, allergies, and researched cancer using antimetabolites.
Family and early life
Ruby Hirose was born to Shiusaka (father) Hirose and Tome (née Kurai) in Kent, Washington, on August 30, 1904. She was the second child of seven children in the family, but because the first child died very young, grew up as the oldest child of six in the family. She had four sisters and one brother, and they lived in the White River (Shirakawa) area around Seattle. The second child in the family was Fumiko, two years younger than Ruby. Fumi, as she was called, contracted tuberculosis as did her mother. Fumi died in 1925 and her mother Tome died in 1934.
The third child in the family was brother Kimeo, who was two years younger than Fumi and excelled in sports in high school, lettering in three sports, and was named football captain and class treasurer. He lived until 1991. Mary, the next sibling, was a year younger than Kimeo. The last two children were twin girls: Toki and Tomo, born in 1912, were three years younger than Mary and 9 years younger than Ruby. Sister Tomo died in 1928 at age 16.
Ruby's father was born in a Tokyo suburb, only had a middle school education, and according to Ruby, was in some type of manufacturing in Japan, but it failed. Ruby's mother Tome's family were dry goods merchants. After Shiusaka's business failed, they decided to come to America, settle in the Seattle area, and try farming for a living. Because the Naturalization Act of 1870 only extended citizenship rights to African Americans, Asians were deemed "aliens ineligible for citizenship". Several states, but specifically Washington, used this status to deny Asians from owning property because they were "aliens ineligible for citizenship", which was a way to discriminate without reference to particular racial categories. These provisions were not held unconstitutional until 1952. Thus, the lease for the Hirose land and some later land purchases were in Ruby's name because she was a natural-born American.
In high school, Ruby said she felt no particular prejudice, but that later Japanese American children did. She said that the teachers showed prejudice in favor of the white pupils. Still, Ruby was popular and took part in athletics and sang in the glee club and in the operetta. Ruby said her preference was to associate with white students in high school as well as college, as opposed to associating with the Japanese children.
Ruby was somewhat religious, attending Sunday School at the First Methodist Church and also taking part in the Japanese Students Christian Association which met at the University YMCA. She also helped at the Japanese Baptist Church in Seattle, but preferred to attend the American churches.
Education at University of Washington
The Issei, or first generation, were the first people to immigrate to the U.S. from Japan. Because of this, they wanted their children, the Nisei (of which Ruby was one), to learn Japanese language, culture, and religious traditions. The White River Buddhist Church was the second Buddhist church in King County In 1912, the White River Japanese Language School ("Nihongo Gakko") was opened at and under the auspices of the White River Buddhist Church. The area of White River was called Shirakawa, which literally means White River in Japanese. Shirakawa included the areas of Auburn, Thomas, and Christopher.
In 1929, Ruby's father, Shiusaku Hirose, was the president of the Thomas Japanese Association. Under his leadership, they purchased the "Yank Hotel" and refurbished it to become the Thomas Japanese Language School. This building had twice the space for classrooms and was much closer to Thomas Grade School, that most students, including Ruby attended. However, after a few years, Shiusaku had a falling out with others in the organization and quit. Sadly, he was widowed in 1934 and moved to Los Angeles in 1936. When the war broke out in 1941, he was working in a hotel in Los Angeles and requested a permit to return to Seattle to join with his daughter Mary before the evacuation and internment process began. In April, 1942, after Executive Order 9066 had been issued, the FBI began rounding up people that were active in the Japanese American community, including Shiusaku. He was detained by the FBI and was given a hearing at the INS in Seattle in May and was paroled, probably because there was little or no evidence of any espionage or crimes.
Ruby attended Thomas Grade school, and would have walked to attend the Thomas Japanese Language School. She was the first Nisei (2nd generation) Japanese American to graduate from Auburn High School in Auburn, WA in 1922. Ruby was admitted to the University of Washington and would have entered in fall of 1922.
Hirose earned her bachelor's degree in 1926 (in pharmacy) and her master's degree in pharmacology from the University of Washington in 1928.
Women had just achieved the right to vote in 1920 and prohibition had just gone into effect the same year (and would not be repealed until 1933). While she was earning her master's degree at University of Washington, she was living in the Catherine P. Blaine Home in Seattle, sponsored by the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The Blaine Home was part of the Japanese and Korean section in Seattle of Woman's Home Missionary Society.
Second-generation problem
In December of in 1925, the Japanese Students' Christian Association (JSCA) held a conference in Asilomar, California. Ruby had been an active member of the JSCA and attended the conference. A major topic at this conference was something called the "second-generation problem", which, briefly stated, resulted from the cultural differences between the Issei (first generation) from Japan and the Nisei (second generation) born in America. Although both the Issei and Nisei had a common cultural heritage, the Nisei were native English speakers and for the most part lived their day-to-day lives immersed in American, not Japanese culture. The conference created a Committee On Second Generation Problem, led by Roy Akagi, a PhD student and JSCA leader which included Ruby Hirose, who would have been entering her Senior year at University of Washington, as well as students from Stanford, Caltech, and Occidental College, and produced a report about this problem.
They outlined the situation as having several aspects from the viewpoint of the Nisei: (1) Relation to First Generation, (2) Relation to American Society, (3) Vocational and Employment Guidance, (4) Standard of Social Conduct, and (5) Religious Life. These young people were having identity issues, although in 1925, they didn't call them that. They were worried about how to respect and carry on their culture, but also wanted to be full-fledged Americans in an environment that was racially prejudiced and had a real lack of job opportunities. Japanese Americans were excluded from owning land, but agriculture was a big part of the Japanese American experience in those days. It would turn out later when they were incarcerated due to World War II, many of the successful Issei and Nisei lost all of the businesses that they had built.
One of the proposed strategies for handling the vocational problem was to emphasize higher education, which Ruby certainly did, becoming one of the earliest Japanese American PhDs in the United States. Other strategies included cooperating with other American organizations such as churches, YMCA and YWCA.
PhD at University of Cincinnati
Hirose received a fellowship and moved to Cincinnati and the University of Cincinnati where she worked on her PhD in biochemistry. While at the University of Cincinnati, in 1931, Ruby received the Moos Fellowship in Internal Medicine. She was elected to membership in 1931 and was an active participant in Sigma Xi, an honorary fraternity for the advancement of research. Ruby was also active in the Cincinnati chapter of Iota Sigma Pi, a national honorary women's chemical fraternity, serving as Vice President in 1931
In 1932, she graduated with her PhD and her thesis was entitled "Nature of Thrombin and Its Manner of Action". A paper based on this thesis was later published in the American Journal of Physiology in 1934 with the title "The Second Phase of Thrombin Action: Fibrin Resolution".
Career
She worked at the University of Cincinnati until being hired by the research division of the William S. Merrell Company where she researched serums and antitoxins.
In 1940, the American Chemical Society held its meeting in Cincinnati during April 8–12. A report to the meeting indicated that there was increasing opportunity for women in the industry. It noted that in the Cincinnati section of the American Chemical Society, out of 300 members, there were ten women members and Dr. Ruby Hirose was listed as one of the ten members.
During World War II, Ruby was connected with the Kettering Laboratory of Applied Physiology, University of Cincinnati. She also taught microbiology and did research on cancer at Indiana University using antimetabolites. In 1946, she published a paper called "Diffusion of sulfonamides from emulsified ointment bases", which concerned the characteristics of diffusion of sulfa drugs in various types of bases. In 1958, she joined the Lebanon (Pennsylvania) Veterans Administration Hospital as a bacteriologist. Prior to this, she was affiliated with the Ft. Benjamin Harrison Hospital in Indianapolis and the VA Hospital in Dayton, OH.
Japanese American concentration camps
Three of Ruby's family members were incarcerated in the U.S. Government's concentration camps for Japanese Americans. Mother Tome and sister Fumi were already deceased by the time WW II started and Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066. Sister Toki lived in Hawaii and so was not interned. Ruby was living in Cincinnati and so therefore was not interned either. Brother Kimeo was interned at Poston War Relocation Center, while sister Mary and her father Shiusaku were sent to Minidoka, which is now Minidoka National Historic Site.
Leukemia and death
Ruby Hirose died of acute myeloid leukemia in West Reading, Pennsylvania, on October 7, 1960, at the age of 56 and was survived by sisters Mary and Toki, and brother Kimeo. Her surviving family buried her at the Auburn Pioneer Cemetery in Auburn, Washington.
References
External links
American women chemists
University of Washington School of Pharmacy alumni
1904 births
1960 deaths
Place of birth missing
University of Cincinnati alumni
20th-century American women scientists
20th-century American chemists
American people of Japanese descent
Deaths from leukemia |
17196292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanatile%20District | Yanatile District | Yanatile District is one of eight districts of the province Calca in Peru.
Ethnic groups
The people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population (69.84%) learnt to speak in childhood, 28.33% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language (2007 Peru Census).
Climate
References |
461803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanacetum | Tanacetum | Tanacetum is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere. They are known commonly as tansies. The name tansy can refer specifically to Tanacetum vulgare, which may be called the common tansy or garden tansy for clarity. The generic name Tanacetum means 'immortality' in Botanical Latin, since tansy was once placed between the burial sheets of the dead to repel vermin.
Other familiar species include costmary (T. balsamita) and feverfew (T. parthenium).
Tansies are mainly perennial herbs, but some are annuals and subshrubs. Some are a few centimeters tall and some reach . They vary in form, with one or more branching stems growing erect or prostrate, usually from rhizomes. They are hairy to hairless in texture, and most are aromatic. The leaves are alternately arranged, the blades sometimes borne on petioles. They are usually deeply lobed and may have toothed edges. Most species have flowers in loose or dense inflorescences. The flower has layers of distinct phyllaries around its base and may be flat to hemispheric in shape. The flower has many yellow disc florets, sometimes over 300. Some species have ray florets in shades of yellow, or white with yellowish bases. Some species lack true ray florets but have flat yellowish disc florets that look like rays. The fruit is a ribbed, glandular cypsela, usually with a pappus on the end.
Selected species
Species include:
Tanacetum abrotanifolium (L.) Druce
Tanacetum abrotanoides
Tanacetum achilleifolium (M. Bieb.) Sch. Bip.
Tanacetum alatavicum
Tanacetum annuum – Moroccan Tansy, Blue Tansy
Tanacetum argenteum (Lam.) Willd.
Tanacetum atkinsonii (C.B.Clarke) Kitam.
Tanacetum balsamita L. – costmary
Tanacetum bipinnatum (L.) Sch. Bip. – Lake Huron tansy, camphor tansy
Tanacetum camphoratum Less. – dune tansy
Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip. – Dalmatian insect-flower, Dalmatian pyrethrum
Tanacetum coccineum (Willd.) Grierson – garden pyrethrum, painted daisy, Persian insect-flower
Tanacetum corymbosum (L.) Sch. Bip. – scentless feverfew, corymbflower tansy
Tanacetum densum (Labill.) Sch. Bip.
Tanacetum falconeri
Tanacetum ferulaceum (Sch. Bip.) Walp.
Tanacetum haradjanii (Rech. f.) Grierson
Tanacetum kaschgarianum
Tanacetum krylovianum
Tanacetum macrophyllum (Waldst. & Kit.) Sch. Bip. – rayed tansy
Tanacetum microphyllum DC.
Tanacetum niveum
Tanacetum parthenifolium (Willd.) Sch. Bip.
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. – feverfew
Tanacetum pinnatum
Tanacetum polycephalum
Tanacetum poteriifolium (Nordm.) Grierson
Tanacetum praeteritium (Horw.) Heywood
Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum (Webb) Sch. Bip. – dusty-miller, silver-lace
Tanacetum pulchrum
Tanacetum richterioides
Tanacetum santolina
Tanacetum scopulorum
Tanacetum tanacetoides
Tanacetum tatsienense
Tanacetum vulgare L. – common tansy, garden tansy, golden-buttons
Gallery of species
References
Asteraceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
67172 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98 | კოტბუსი | კოტბუსი — ქალაქი აღმოსავლეთ გერმანიაში, პოტსდამის შემდეგ მეორე უდიდესი ქალაქი ბრანდენბურგის მხარეში. ქალაქი ითვლება ქვედა ლუჟიცაში სორბების პოლირიკურ და კულტურულ ცენტრად. სორბული ენა ქალაქში ოფიციალური ენაა. სწორედ სორბებს მიეწერებათ კოტბუსის დაარსება მე-10 საუკუნეში და მისი სახელწოდებაც მომდინარეობს სორბული სიტყვიდან კოპ’სებუზ, რაც მდინარისპირა ბილიკს ნიშნავს. სორბების ენის და კულტურის შენარჩუნების მიზნით კოტბუსში მოქმედებს სორბული სკოლა. მეორე მსოფლიო ომის დროს კოტბუსის განაშენიანება განადგურდა. კოტბუსი ცნობილია როგორც საუნივესიტეტო ქალაქი. აქ მდებარეობს ბრანდენბურგის ტექნიკური უნივერსიტეტი.
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
.
ბრანდენბურგის ქალაქები |
12873 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%20%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98 | ალეკ გინესი | ალეკ გინესი
სერ ალეკ გინესი, (დ. 2 აპრილი, 1914, ლონდონი — გ. 5 აგვისტო, 2000) — ინგლისელი მსახიობი და რეჟისორი.
ბიოგრაფია
თეატრალური განათლება მიიღო ფ. კომპტონის კერძო სტუდიაში. ლონდონის თეატრ „ოლდ ვიკში“ გინესმა განასახიერა ჰამლეტის, რიჩარდ II-ის (შექსპირის „ჰამლეტი“, „რიჩარდ II“), ხლესტაკოვის (გოგოლის „რევიზორი“), ხოლო სხვა თეატრებში დომიტრი კარამაზოვის (დოსტოევსკის „ძმები კარამაზოვების“ მიხედვით) და სხვა როლები. დადგა სპექტაკლები: შექსპირის „მეთორმეტე ღამე“ და „ჰამლეტი“.
ფილმოგრაფია
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
გინესის გამოსვლები თეატრალურ არქივში, ბრისტოლი
ოსკარის მფლობელი კინომსახიობები
ინგლისელი მსახიობები
დაბადებული 2 აპრილი
დაბადებული 1914
გარდაცვლილი 5 აგვისტო
გარდაცვლილი 2000 |
240724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham%20%28district%29 | Cham (district) | Cham (district)
Cham is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Regen, Straubing-Bogen, Regensburg and Schwandorf and by the Czech Plzeň Region.
History
The first historical date in the regional history is the year 748, when the bishop of Regensburg ordered the foundation of a monastery in the sparsely populated region. About 100 years later, the royal castle of Cham was built and became a summer residence for the Holy Roman Emperors. The region was called Campriche or Mark Cham. In 1204, the Mark Cham became subject to Bavaria, in 1352 to the Electorate of the Palatinate and in the 17th century back to Bavaria. Nowadays, Cham still enjoys the laid-back lifestyle from the days of yore. Many projects have been initiated to give this area an impetus to grow, yet in spite of this, it is still one of the least-populated regions in Germany.
Geography
The district is located in the northern parts of the Bavarian Forest. It is situated within the borders of the Upper Bavarian Forest Nature Park. The highest mountain is the Großer Arber at 1439 m, located near the Germany–Czech Republic border. The Regen river enters the district in the southeast and leaves to the west; most of the settled places are situated along this river and its main tributary, the Chamb coming from the Czech border.
Coat of arms
The upper part of the arms is occupied by the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria. Below the church of Chammünster is displayed (today belonging to the town of Cham), which was built in 748 within a famous monastery.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Bavaria |
1519794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karabakh%20horse | Karabakh horse | Karabakh horse
The Karabakh horse is a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse breed. It is named after the Karabakh region, from which the breed originates. The breed is noted for its good temperament and speed; in 2004, a Karabakh horse named Kishmish from an Aghdam stud farm covered in and in .
The Karabakh is thought to be influenced by Persian horses and the Akhal-Teke, Kabarda, Turkoman and Arabian breeds, and it influenced the development of the Russian Don during the 19th century. It is bred primarily in Azerbaijan's Shaki region. The breed numbers below 1,000, and it is threatened with extinction.
History
The Karabakh region was known for the quality of its horses; the classical historian Strabo describes the Armenian province of “Orchistene" as supplying the kingdom with the "most cavalry." According to some sources, tens of thousands of horses with golden-chestnut coloring (characteristic of Karabakhs) were seized by the Arabs during their eighth- and ninth-century conquest of Arran.
The Karabakh has close links to the Akhal-Teke (which is bred in Turkmenistan) and the Turkoman horse, which is bred in Iran. Some historians believe that they were originally a single breed and significantly influenced the development of the Arabian horse. These facts were found out after numerous studies in the 19th century.
The breed acquired its present characteristics during the 18th and 19th centuries. In Transcaucasia, Karabakh Khanate was known as a place for breeding of horses. Factory of the khanate was the main farm of purebred horses, which were not held for sale, but were only presented as gifts. According to Diterikhs, in 1797, right after the death of Agha Mohammad , Ibragim khan got his stable. There is some evidence that Ibrahim-Khalil (1763–1806), ruler of the Karabakh Khanate, had a herd numbering 3,000–4,000 (primarily Karabakhs). During the 19th century, Karabakhs became popular in Europe. An English company purchased 60 Karabakh mares from Mehdigulu Khan Javanshir, the last ruler of the Karabakh Khanate, at a large 1823 sale. Although its numbers were impacted in 1826 during the Russo-Iranian war, the breed remained intact.
The Karabakh played a significant role in the formation of the Russian Don breed. The heir of Russian general Valerian Madatov sold all his horses, including 200 Karabakh mares, to a breeder in the Don region in 1836. The mares were used to improve the Russian Don into the 20th century.
Karabakh numbers sharply decreased again during the early 20th century, primarily because of civil and ethnic wars in the Caucasus in general and the Karabakh region in particular. The breeding enterprise established by the Karabakh khans and developed by their heirs was destroyed in 1905. Karabakhs were bred to other breeds, resulting in changes including a reduction in size.
In 1949, the breed was revived at the Agdam stud in Azerbaijan. Seven years later, the Karabakh stallion Zaman and an Akhal-Teke named Mele-Kush were presented to Queen Elizabeth II by the Soviet government.
The breed experienced another setback during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Before the 1993 capture of Agdam by Armenian forces, most of the Karabakh horses were moved from the Agdam stud. They are currently bred in winter pastures on the lowland Karabakh plains between Barda and Agjabadi.
During the years of Russian Empire
In 1805 Karabakh became part of Russia. Mehdigulu Khan, who ruled after Ibragim Khan, was not interested in the development of stud farms. As a consequence the quantity of khan horses was decreasing. In 1822, Mehdigulu Khan ran away to Persia, and his best horses were presented as gifts to his close people. Unlike Mehdigulu Khan, his daughter Khurshidbanu Natavan was actively engaged in the development of stud farms. Natavan's Karabakh horses took part in the Exposition Universelle (1867), agricultural exhibition in Moscow (1869), in Tbilisi (1882) and were awarded golden medals and certificates of honour. Karabakh horses were also awarded at the Second All-Russian Exhibition in 1869: Meymun – silver medal, Tokmak – bronze medal. At the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris, Khan got a silver medal.
According to modern Azerbaijani sources, not only Khan's daughter, but also many Karabakh bays owned stud farms. Among them were Ugurlu Bay, Jafargulu Khan, Rustam Bay Behbudov, Kerim-aga Javanshir, Shamil bay and others. Overall in the middle of the 19th century, there were 11 stud farms, with 250 stallions and 1450 fillies.
Karabakh horses were used by Russian officers who served in the Caucasus. Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin, who traveled to Arzurum in 1829, wrote in his travel notes that young Russian officers were riding Azerbaijani horses. On 21 May 1843, the coat of arms of Shusha was approved and Karabkh horse was depicted on it.
In the Soviet Union
In 1948, the Soviets began a breeding program which included the use of nine Arabian stallions, as no pure Karabakh stallions were available at the time.
During the years of Azerbaijan Republic
Karabakh horses are bred at two stud farms: in the village of Lambaran of the Barda region, and in Agstafa. Private stud farms exist in line with state enterprises. Because of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the number of horses significantly decreased. This happened because horses were often moved from one place to another and pregnant fillies experienced miscarriages. Moreover, horses were bred in unsatisfactory conditions.
In 2013, Chovqan, a traditional Karabakh horse riding game in the Republic of Azerbaijan, was included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List. As of 2015, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Agriculture the export of Karabakh horses is banned and the Ministry focuses on the breeding of the small amount of still existing Karabakh horses.
On 13 February 2017, the Organisational Committee of the Islamic Solidarity Games introduced mascots: Karabakh horses Inca, that represented beauty and tenderness, and Casur, that stood out with self-confidence and love of freedom.
Modern times
The Karabakh horse is the national animal of Azerbaijan and the official symbol of the Agdam and Shaki districts. The horse, of great cultural importance to the people of Azerbaijan, appears in literature and on postage stamps. Qarabağ FK's logo contains two rearing horses, based on the Karabakh horse.
According to Kurban Said's novel Ali and Nino, "I looked at the horse and was struck numb. There stood the red-golden miracle of Karabakh ... one of the twelve golden horses in the whole world ..." A horse in Karabakh is described in Mikhail Lermontov's poem, "Demon".
In 2012, the breed appeared at the Royal Windsor Horse Show to perform at the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. A monument to the Karabakh horse was unveiled in Belgium in March 2017, and the Karabakh was the mascot of the 2017 Islamic Solidarity Games.
On May 16, 2022, Queen Elizabeth II was presented with a Karabakh horse named Shohrat (Glory) as gift from President Ilham Aliyev of Azerbaijan.
Characteristics
The Karabakh is hardy, strong, tough and sure-footed, standing high. It has a small, well-defined head, a straight profile with a broad forehead, and large nostrils. The neck is set high, average in length, muscular and elegant. It has a compact body, with well-defined and well-developed muscles. The shoulder is often upright. The horse has a deep chest, a sloping croup and long, fine, strong legs with small joints. Its chest is narrow and it is not very deep through the girth, due to the Akhal-Teke influence.
The skin is thin and soft, with a shiny coat. The main colors are chestnut and bay, with a characteristic golden tint; some are gray, and palominos and buckskins are rare. White markings are permitted. As well as being fast and agile, the Karabakh is known for its endurance and loyalty.
They are known for their endurance as the 19th century French Geographer Reclus Elisée describes in his book L'Homme et la terre (The Earth and its Inhabitants) their strength as: "The Karabakh horses, however, which climb the cliffs like goats, are said to be the finest in Transcaucasia"
See also
Azerbaijan horse
Chernomor (horse)
References
Horse breeds
Karabakh
Horse breeds originating in Azerbaijan
National symbols of Azerbaijan |
18882395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malibeyli | Malibeyli | Malibeyli or Ajapnyak is a village de facto part of Stepanakert city in the breakaway Republic of Artsakh, de jure in the Shusha District of Azerbaijan.
References
External links
Stepanakert
Populated places in Shusha District |
3195592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softly%2C%20as%20I%20Leave%20You%20%28album%29 | Softly, as I Leave You (album) | Softly, as I Leave You (album)
Softly, as I Leave You is a 1964 studio album by American singer Frank Sinatra. Arranged by Ernie Freeman, several tracks such as "Softly, as I Leave You", "Then Suddenly Love" and "Available" departed from Sinatra's signature vocal jazz style by flirting with a more contemporary pop sound. The rest of the album is pieced together with leftovers from various early-'60s sessions, from many different arrangers and conductors.
The title track was the first of at least four attempts to mimic the chart success of Dean Martin's #1 hit "Everybody Loves Somebody", using a driving beat, heavy strings and choral tracks. Sinatra, arranger Ernie Freeman and producer Jimmy Bowen would incorporate the same sound to songs like "When Somebody Loves You", "Tell Her You Love Her (Each Day)" and "Somewhere in Your Heart" with only minor chart success.
Track listing
"Emily" (Johnny Mandel, Johnny Mercer) – 2:58
"Here's to the Losers" (Robert Wells, Jack Segal) – 3:05
"Dear Heart" (Jay Livingston, Ray Evans, Henry Mancini) – 2:43
"Come Blow Your Horn" (Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen) – 3:07
"Love Isn't Just for the Young" (Bernard Knee, Herb Miller) – 2:57
"I Can't Believe I'm Losing You" (Don Costa, Phil Zeller) – 2:43
"Pass Me By" (Cy Coleman, Carolyn Leigh) – 2:25
"Softly, as I Leave You" (Hal Shaper, Antonio DeVita, Giorgio Calabrese) – 2:50
"Then Suddenly Love" (Roy Alfred, Paul Vance) – 2:15
"Available" (Cahn, Ned Wynn, L.B. Marks) – 2:47
"Talk to Me Baby" (Robert Emmett Dolan, Mercer) – 3:00
"The Look of Love" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:43
Notes
Tracks 1, 3 and 7 recorded on October 3, 1964
Uncredited Background Singers perform on Tracks 1, 3 and 7-10
The Orchestra on Tracks 1, 3 and 6-7 includes 9 Violins
Tracks 2 and 5 recorded on July 31, 1963
The Orchestra on Tracks 2, 5 and 8-10 includes 12 Violins
"Come Blow Your Horn" recorded on January 21, 1963
Jimmy Van Heusen is also known as James Van Heusen
The Orchestra on Tracks 4 and 12 includes 10 Violins
"I Can't Believe I'm Losing You" recorded on April 8, 1964
Tracks 8-10 recorded on July 17, 1964
"Talk to Me Baby" recorded on December 3, 1963
The Orchestra on "Talk to Me Baby" includes 14 Violins
Robert Emmett Dolan is also known as Robert Dolan
"The Look of Love" recorded on August 27, 1962
Personnel
Main
Frank Sinatra - vocals (2, 4-6, 11-12, lead on 1, 3, 7-10)
Don Costa - arranger (6, 11), conductor (11)
Ernie Freeman - arranger, conductor (8-10)
Neal Hefti - conductor (12)
Billy May - arranger (7)
Marty Paich - arranger, conductor (2, 5)
Nelson Riddle - arranger (1, 3-4, 6, 12), conductor (1, 3-4, 6-7)
Strings
LeRoy Collins - viola (2, 5)
Joe Comfort - string bass (4)
Joseph DiFiore - viola (8-10)
Joseph DiTullio - cello (12)
Justin DiTullio - cello (2, 5, 8-10, 12)
Alvin Dinkin - viola (1, 3, 7-11)
Cecil Figelsky - viola (2, 5)
Eddie Gilbert - string bass (11)
Anne Goodman - cello (1, 3, 6-10)
Stanley Harris - viola (2, 4-5, 11-12)
Allan Harshman - viola (2, 4-5, 12)
Armand Kaproff - cello (1-3, 5-7)
Louis Kievman - viola (2, 5)
Ray Kramer - cello (2, 4-5, 11)
Edgar Lustgarten - cello (1, 3, 7, 11-12)
Virginia Majewski - viola (1-3, 5, 7, 11)
Joe Mondragon - string bass (2, 5, 8–10)
Alex Neiman - viola (6, 8-10, 12)
Gareth Nuttycombe - viola (8-10)
Ralph Peña - string bass (1, 3, 6-7, 12)
David Pratt - cello (6)
Kurt Reher - cello (4, 8-11)
Paul Robyn - viola (4, 6, 11)
Nino Rosso - cello (11-12)
Emmett Sargeant - cello (8-10)
Eleanor Slatkin - cello (2, 4-5)
Horns and Woodwinds
Harry Betts - trombone (12)
Hoyt Bohannon - trombone (11)
Robert Bryant - trumpet (8-10)
Conte Candoli - trumpet (2, 5)
Pete Candoli - trumpet (6)
John Cave - French horn (1, 3-4, 7, 11)
Gene Cipriano - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7), flute (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 7)
Buddy Collette - woodwinds (8–10)
Bob Cooper - saxophone, clarinet, bass clarinet (2, 5)
Vincent DeRosa - French horn (1, 3-4, 7, 11)
Henry Edison - trumpet (6)
Don Fagerquist - trumpet (4, 12)
Chuck Gentry - saxophone (1, 3, 7, 11), bass clarinet (11), woodwinds (1, 3, 7)
Arthur Gleghorn - saxophone, flute (11)
Conrad Gozzo - trumpet (12)
Herman Gunkler - saxophone, flute (12)
William Hinshaw - French horn (6)
Paul Horn - saxophone, flute, clarinet (2, 5)
Joe Howard - trombone (2, 5)
Jules Jacob - oboe (11), saxophone (11-12), clarinet, bass clarinet (12)
Plas Johnson - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7, 12), flute (12), clarinet (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7)
Harry Klee - saxophone (1-5, 7, 11), flute (2, 4-5, 11), clarinet (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7)
Joe Koch - saxophone, bass clarinet (4, 12), woodwinds (6)
Ronny Lang - saxophone, flute (12)
Richard Leith - trombone (2, 5)
Cappy Lewis - trumpet (1, 3-4, 6-7)
Sinclair Lott - French horn (12)
Arthur Maebe - French horn (12)
Gail Martin - trombone (6)
Dick Nash - trombone (2, 4-6, 11-12)
Ted Nash - saxophone, flute (2, 5)
Jack Nimitz - clarinet (2, 5), saxophone, bass clarinet (2, 5, 11)
Dick Noel - trombone (4, 11-12)
Tommy Pederson - trombone (6)
Richard Perissi - French horn (1-3, 5, 7, 12)
Al Porcino - trumpet (2, 5, 12)
George Roberts - bass trombone (4, 11)
Willie Schwartz - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7, 11), clarinet (4, 11), flute (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7)
George Seaberg - trumpet (4)
Tom Shepard - trombone (4, 6)
Shorty Sherock - trumpet (4, 6)
Gene Sherry - French horn (2, 5-6)
Ken Shroyer - bass trombone (1, 3, 7, 12)
George Smith - saxophone, clarinet (11)
Ray Triscari - trumpet (2, 5)
Champ Webb - woodwinds (6)
Stu Williamson - trumpet (2, 5, 12)
Other Instrumentalists
Dale Anderson - congas, timpani (2, 5)
Hal Blaine - drums (8-10)
Irv Cottler - drums (1-3, 5-7, 11-12), chimes (12)
Aida Dagort - harp (4)
Frank Flynn - timpani, bells (12)
Carl Fortina - accordion (11)
Gene Garf - piano (8-10)
Bobby Gibbons - guitar (1, 3, 7-11)
Al Hendrickson - guitar (2, 5, 8-10)
Kathryn Julye - harp (2, 5-6, 11)
Mel Lewis - drums (4)
Bill Miller - piano (All Tracks)
Verlye Mills - harp (12)
Emil Richards - percussion (1, 3, 6-11), timpani (4)
Ray Sherman - piano (1, 3, 7-10)
Ann Mason Stockton - harp (1, 3, 7)
Tommy Tedesco - guitar (1, 3, 7-10)
Vincent Terri - guitar (1, 3, 7)
Al Viola - guitar (1, 3-4, 6-7, 11-12)
References
1964 albums
Frank Sinatra albums
Albums arranged by Marty Paich
Albums arranged by Nelson Riddle
Albums arranged by Billy May
Reprise Records albums
Albums arranged by Ernie Freeman
Albums conducted by Nelson Riddle
Albums conducted by Neal Hefti
Albums produced by Jimmy Bowen
Albums produced by Sonny Burke |
15756994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kribul | Kribul | Kribul (old version: Krabul) is a village in Southwestern Bulgaria. It is located in the Satovcha Municipality, Blagoevgrad Province.
Kribul Hill on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica is named after the village.
Geography
The village of Kribul is located in the Western Rhodope Mountains. It belongs to the Chech region.
History
In the vicinity of Kribul after archeological research were found the remains of a late medieval church.
In 1873 Kribul (Kraboul) had male population of 140 Pomaks and 50 houses. According to Vasil Kanchov, in 1900, Kribul (Крабулъ) was populated by 550 Bulgarian Muslims According to Stefan Verković at the end of the 19th century the village had male population of 180 Pomaks and 50 houses.
Religions
The population is Muslim.
Notes
Villages in Blagoevgrad Province
Chech |
23366462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect | Insect | Insects (from Latin ) are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Their blood is not totally contained in vessels; some circulates in an open cavity known as the haemocoel. Insects are the most diverse group of animals; they include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms. The total number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million; potentially over 90% of the animal life forms on Earth are insects.
Nearly all insects hatch from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, and can include a usually immobile pupal stage in those groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis. Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of . The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants.
Adult insects typically move about by walking, flying, or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, composed of the front and rear on one side with the middle on the other side. Insects are the only invertebrate group with members able to achieve sustained powered flight, and all flying insects derive from one common ancestor. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with larval adaptations that include gills, and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light.
Humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides, and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves, fruits, or wood. Some species are parasitic, and may vector diseases. Some insects perform complex ecological roles; blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion but also spread diseases. Insect pollinators are essential to the life cycle of many flowering plant species on which most organisms, including humans, are at least partly dependent; without them, the terrestrial portion of the biosphere would be devastated. Many insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms produce silk and honey bees produce honey, and both have been domesticated by humans. Insects are consumed as food in 80% of the world's nations, by people in roughly 3000 ethnic groups. Human activities also have effects on insect biodiversity.
Etymology
The word insect comes from the Latin word , meaning "with a notched or divided body", or literally "cut into", from the neuter singular perfect passive participle of , "to cut into, to cut up", from "into" and from "to cut"; because insects appear "cut into" three sections. The Latin word was introduced by Pliny the Elder who calqued the Ancient Greek word éntomon "insect" (as in entomology) from éntomos "cut into sections" or "cut in pieces"; éntomon was Aristotle's term for this class of life, also in reference to their "notched" bodies. The English word insect first appears documented in 1601 in Holland's translation of Pliny. Translations of Aristotle's term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh (from "to cut" and , "animal"), Serbo-Croatian (from , "to cut"), Russian ([], from , "to cut"), etc.
In common parlance, insects are also called bugs (derived from Middle English bugge meaning "scarecrow, hobgoblin") though this term usually includes all terrestrial arthropods. The term is also occasionally extended to colloquial names for freshwater or marine crustaceans (e.g. Balmain bug, Moreton Bay bug, mudbug) and used by physicians and bacteriologists for disease-causing germs (e.g. superbugs), but entomologists to some extent reserve this term for a narrow category of "true bugs", insects of the order Hemiptera, such as cicadas and shield bugs.
Definitions
The precise definition of the taxon Insecta and the equivalent English name "insect" varies; three alternative definitions are shown in the table.
In the broadest circumscription, Insecta sensu lato consists of all hexapods. Traditionally, insects defined in this way were divided into "Apterygota" (the first five groups in the table)—the wingless insects—and Pterygota—the winged and secondarily wingless insects. However, modern phylogenetic studies have shown that "Apterygota" is not monophyletic, and so does not form a good taxon. A narrower circumscription restricts insects to those hexapods with external mouthparts, and comprises only the last three groups in the table. In this sense, Insecta sensu stricto is equivalent to Ectognatha. In the narrowest circumscription, insects are restricted to hexapods that are either winged or descended from winged ancestors. Insecta sensu strictissimo is then equivalent to Pterygota. For the purposes of this article, the middle definition is used; insects consist of two wingless taxa, Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and Zygentoma (silverfish), plus the winged or secondarily wingless Pterygota.
Phylogeny and evolution
External phylogeny
Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, more recent analysis indicates closer evolutionary ties with crustaceans. In the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, form a clade, the Pancrustacea. Insects form a single clade, closely related to crustaceans and myriapods.
Other terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, millipedes, scorpions, spiders, woodlice, mites, and ticks are sometimes confused with insects since their body plans can appear similar, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton. However, upon closer examination, their features differ significantly; most noticeably, they do not have the six-legged characteristic of adult insects.
A phylogenetic tree of the arthropods places the insects in the context of other hexapods and the crustaceans, and the more distantly-related myriapods and chelicerates.
Internal phylogeny
The internal phylogeny is based on the works of Sroka, Staniczek & Bechly 2014, Prokop et al. 2017 and Wipfler et al. 2019.
Taxonomy
Traditional morphology-based or appearance-based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass, and identified four groups within it: insects (Ectognatha), springtails (Collembola), Protura, and Diplura, the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts. Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data. A recent theory is that the Hexapoda are polyphyletic (where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group), with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from the Insecta. Many of the traditional appearance-based taxa are paraphyletic, so rather than using ranks like subclass, superorder, and infraorder, it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings (in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group). The following represents the best-supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta.
Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses: wingless insects, known as Apterygota, and winged insects, known as Pterygota. The Apterygota consisted of the primitively wingless orders Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and Zygentoma (silverfish). However, Apterygota is not a monophyletic group, as Archaeognatha are the sister group to all other insects, based on the arrangement of their mandibles, while Zygentoma and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It was originally believed that Archaeognatha possessed a single phylogenetically primitive condyle each (thus the name "Monocondylia"), where all more derived insects have two, but this has since been shown to be incorrect; all insects, including Archaeognatha, have dicondylic mandibles, but archaeognaths possess two articulations that are homologous to those in other insects, though slightly different. The Zygentoma themselves possibly are not monophyletic, with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota and the remaining Zygentoma).
Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites, and in the Neoptera, muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen. Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis-based (Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera) and complete metamorphosis-based groups. It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa. For example, the Paraneoptera have turned out to be more closely related to the Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea. Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form the Eukinolabia. Mantodea, Blattodea, and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera.
The Exopterygota likely are paraphyletic in regard to the Endopterygota. The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist. Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans. Many questions remain in the basal relationships among endopterygote orders, particularly the Hymenoptera.
Evolutionary relationships
Insects are prey for a variety of organisms, including terrestrial vertebrates. The earliest vertebrates on land existed 400 million years ago and were large amphibious piscivores. Through gradual evolutionary change, insectivory was the next diet type to evolve.
Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants. Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects, in turn, evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins. Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators. Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors. This successful evolutionary pattern has also been used by mimics. Over time, this has led to complex groups of coevolved species. Conversely, some interactions between plants and insects, like pollination, are beneficial to both organisms. Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems.
Evolutionary history
The oldest possible insect is Leverhulmia known from the Early Devonian aged Windyfield chert, which may represent a primitive wingless insect. The oldest known flying insects appeared during the mid-Carboniferous, around 328–324 million years ago, and the group subsequently underwent a rapid explosive diversification. Claims that they originated substantially earlier during the Silurian or Devonian based on molecular clock estimates are unlikely based on the fossil record, and are likely analytical artefacts.
Four large-scale radiations of insects have occurred: beetles (from about 300 million years ago), flies (from about 250 million years ago), moths and wasps (both from about 150 million years ago). These four groups account for the majority of described species.
The remarkably successful Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants) appeared as long as 200 million years ago in the Triassic period, but achieved their wide diversity more recently in the Cenozoic era, which began 66 million years ago. Some highly successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with flowering plants, a powerful illustration of coevolution.
Diversity
Estimates of the total number of insect species, or those within specific orders, often vary considerably. Globally, averages of these estimates suggest there are around 1.5 million beetle species and 5.5 million insect species, with about 1 million insect species currently found and described. E. O. Wilson has estimated that the number of insects living at any one time are around 10 quintillion (10 billion billion).
Between 950,000 and 1,000,000 of all described species are insects, so over 50% of all described eukaryotes (1.8 million) are insects (see illustration). With only 950,000 known non-insects, if the actual number of insects is 5.5 million, they may represent over 80% of the total. As only about 20,000 new species of all organisms are described each year, most insect species may remain undescribed, unless the rate of species descriptions greatly increases. Of the 24 orders of insects, four dominate in terms of numbers of described species; at least 670,000 identified species belong to Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera or Lepidoptera.
As of 2017, at least 66 insect species extinctions had been recorded in the previous 500 years, generally on oceanic islands. Declines in insect abundance have been attributed to artificial lighting, land use changes such as urbanization or agricultural use, pesticide use, and invasive species. Studies summarized in a 2019 review suggested that a large proportion of insect species is threatened with extinction in the 21st century. The ecologist Manu Sanders notes that the 2019 review was biased by mostly excluding data showing increases or stability in insect population, with the studies limited to specific geographic areas and specific groups of species. A larger 2020 meta-study, analyzing data from 166 long-term surveys, suggested that populations of terrestrial insects are decreasing rapidly, by about 9% per decade. Claims of pending mass insect extinctions or "insect apocalypse" based on a subset of these studies have been popularized in news reports, but often extrapolate beyond the study data or hyperbolize study findings. Other areas have shown increases in some insect species, although trends in most regions are currently unknown. It is difficult to assess long-term trends in insect abundance or diversity because historical measurements are generally not known for many species. Robust data to assess at-risk areas or species is especially lacking for arctic and tropical regions and a majority of the southern hemisphere.
Morphology and physiology
External
Insects have segmented bodies supported by exoskeletons, the hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units, or tagmata: a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, zero to three simple eyes (or ocelli) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax is made up of three segments: the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax. Each thoracic segment supports one pair of legs. The meso- and metathoracic segments may each have a pair of wings, depending on the insect. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, though in a few species of insects, these segments may be fused together or reduced in size. The abdomen also contains most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive internal structures. Considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects occur, especially wings, legs, antenna and mouthparts.
Segmentation
The head is enclosed in a hard, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented, exoskeletal head capsule, or epicranium, which contains most of the sensing organs, including the antennae, ocellus or eyes, and the mouthparts. Of all the insect orders, Orthoptera displays the most features found in other insects, including the sutures and sclerites. Here, the vertex, or the apex (dorsal region), is situated between the compound eyes for insects with a hypognathous and opisthognathous head. In prognathous insects, the vertex is not found between the compound eyes, but rather, where the ocelli are normally. This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body. In some species, this region is modified and assumes a different name.
The thorax is a tagma composed of three sections, the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax. The anterior segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax, with the major features being the first pair of legs and the pronotum. The middle segment is the mesothorax, with the major features being the second pair of legs and the anterior wings. The third and most posterior segment, abutting the abdomen, is the metathorax, which features the third pair of legs and the posterior wings. Each segment is delineated by an intersegmental suture. Each segment has four basic regions. The dorsal surface is called the tergum (or notum) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga. The two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron) and the ventral aspect is called the sternum. In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum. Continuing with this logic, the mesopleura and metapleura, as well as the mesosternum and metasternum, are used.
The abdomen is the largest tagma of the insect, which typically consists of 11–12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum and sternum. Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by membranes. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen.
Exoskeleton
The insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and a lower layer called the procuticle. The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers: an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many insects during their larval stages, e.g., caterpillars. It is also reduced in soft-bodied adult insects.
During growth insects goes through a various number of instars where the old exoskeleton is shed, but once they reach sexual maturity, they stop molting. The exceptions are apterygote (ancestrally wingless) insects. Mayflies are the only insects with a sexually immature instar with functional wings, called subimago.
As an adaptation to life on land, insects have evolved a gene that creates an enzyme called multicopper oxidase-2 (MCO2), which uses atmospheric oxygen to harden their cuticle, unlike crustaceans which use calcium for the same purpose. This makes their exoskeleton into a lightweight material. The gene is insect specific and not found in any other groups of arthropods, including hexapods like springtails and diplurans.
Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed active flight capability, and this has played an important role in their success. Their flight muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible.
Having their muscles attached to their exoskeletons is efficient and allows more muscle connections.
Internal
Nervous system
The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with either a pair of ganglia, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's esophagus, called the subesophageal ganglion.
The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.
At least some insects have nociceptors, cells that detect and transmit signals responsible for the sensation of pain. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruit-fly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is no consensus that insects feel pain consciously
Insects are capable of learning.
Digestive system
An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.
There is extensive variation among different orders, life stages, and even castes in the digestive system of insects. This is the result of extreme adaptations to various lifestyles. The present description focuses on a generalized composition of the digestive system of an adult orthopteroid insect, which is considered basal to interpreting particularities of other groups.
The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal, which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food unidirectionally from the mouth to the anus. It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut.
Foregut
The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus and crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut.
Digestion starts in buccal cavity (mouth) as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders.
From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then onward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a diverticulum, or fluid-filled structure, as in some Diptera species.
Midgut
Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut.
Hindgut
In the hindgut (element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. Envaginations at the anterior end of the hindgut form the Malpighian tubules, which form the main excretory system of insects.
Excretory system
Insects may have one to hundreds of Malpighian tubules (element 20). These tubules remove nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph of the insect and regulate osmotic balance. Wastes and solutes are emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut.
Reproductive system
The reproductive system of female insects consist of a pair of ovaries, accessory glands, one or more spermathecae, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called ovarioles, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can develop being also influenced by ovariole design. Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized.
For males, the reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. Most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the aedeagus. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or spermatogonia, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis.
Respiratory system
Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). In most insects, air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen and thorax called spiracles.
The respiratory system is an important factor that limits the size of insects. As insects get larger, this type of oxygen transport is less efficient and thus the heaviest insect currently weighs less than 100 g. However, with increased atmospheric oxygen levels, as were present in the late Paleozoic, larger insects were possible, such as dragonflies with wingspans of more than .
There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation, to discontinuous gas exchange. During continuous gas exchange, oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies, which may be held or trapped in special structures.
Circulatory system
Because oxygen is delivered directly to tissues via tracheoles, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system is open; it has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube that pulses peristaltically. This dorsal blood vessel (element 14) is divided into two sections: the heart and aorta. The dorsal blood vessel circulates the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, from the rear of the body cavity forward. Hemolymph is composed of plasma in which hemocytes are suspended. Nutrients, hormones, wastes, and other substances are transported throughout the insect body in the hemolymph. Hemocytes include many types of cells that are important for immune responses, wound healing, and other functions. Hemolymph pressure may be increased by muscle contractions or by swallowing air into the digestive system to aid in molting. Hemolymph is also a major part of the open circulatory system of other arthropods, such as spiders and crustaceans.
Reproduction and development
The majority of insects hatch from eggs. The fertilization and development takes place inside the egg, enclosed by a shell (chorion) that consists of maternal tissue. In contrast to eggs of other arthropods, most insect eggs are drought resistant. This is because inside the chorion two additional membranes develop from embryonic tissue, the amnion and the serosa. This serosa secretes a cuticle rich in chitin that protects the embryo against desiccation. In Schizophora however the serosa does not develop, but these flies lay their eggs in damp places, such as rotting matter. Some species of insects, like the cockroach Blaptica dubia, as well as juvenile aphids and tsetse flies, are ovoviviparous. The eggs of ovoviviparous animals develop entirely inside the female, and then hatch immediately upon being laid. Some other species, such as those in the genus of cockroaches known as Diploptera, are viviparous, and thus gestate inside the mother and are born alive. Some insects, like parasitic wasps, show polyembryony, where a single fertilized egg divides into many and in some cases thousands of separate embryos. Insects may be univoltine, bivoltine or multivoltine, i.e. they may have one, two or many broods (generations) in a year.
Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis or peramorphosis, sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism. In haplodiploidy, which is a type of sex-determination system, the offspring's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. This system is typical in bees and wasps. Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms, as in the oblong winged katydid, which has four different varieties: green, pink and yellow or tan. Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles; this is called paedomorphosis. In peramorphosis, an opposite sort of phenomenon, insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults. Many insects display sexual dimorphism, in which males and females have notably different appearances, such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects.
Some insects use parthenogenesis, a process in which the female can reproduce and give birth without having the eggs fertilized by a male. Many aphids undergo a form of parthenogenesis, called cyclical parthenogenesis, in which they alternate between one or many generations of asexual and sexual reproduction. In summer, aphids are generally female and parthenogenetic; in the autumn, males may be produced for sexual reproduction. Other insects produced by parthenogenesis are bees, wasps and ants, in which they spawn males. However, overall, most individuals are female, which are produced by fertilization. The males are haploid and the females are diploid.
Insect life-histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions. Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter, while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor. Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions.
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis in insects is the biological process of development all insects must undergo. There are two forms of metamorphosis: incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis.
Incomplete metamorphosis
Hemimetabolous insects, those with incomplete metamorphosis, change gradually by undergoing a series of molts. An insect molts when it outgrows its exoskeleton, which does not stretch and would otherwise restrict the insect's growth. The molting process begins as the insect's epidermis secretes a new epicuticle inside the old one. After this new epicuticle is secreted, the epidermis releases a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle. When this stage is complete, the insect makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air, which makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest.
Immature insects that go through incomplete metamorphosis are called nymphs or in the case of dragonflies and damselflies, also naiads. Nymphs are similar in form to the adult except for the presence of wings, which are not developed until adulthood. With each molt, nymphs grow larger and become more similar in appearance to adult insects.
Complete metamorphosis
Holometabolism, or complete metamorphosis, is where the insect changes in four stages, an egg or embryo, a larva, a pupa and the adult or imago. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. This worm-like form can be one of several varieties: eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grub-like), campodeiform (elongated, flattened and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) or vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage marked by reduced movement and often sealed within a cocoon. There are three types of pupae: obtect, exarate or coarctate. Obtect pupae are compact, with the legs and other appendages enclosed. Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended. Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin. Insects undergo considerable change in form during the pupal stage, and emerge as adults. Butterflies are a well-known example of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, although most insects use this life cycle. Some insects have evolved this system to hypermetamorphosis.
Complete metamorphosis is a trait of the most diverse insect group, the Endopterygota. Endopterygota includes 11 Orders, the largest being Diptera (flies), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), and Coleoptera (beetles). This form of development is exclusive to insects and not seen in any other arthropods.
Senses and communication
Many insects possess very sensitive and specialized organs of perception. Some insects such as bees can perceive ultraviolet wavelengths, or detect polarized light, while the antennae of male moths can detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. The yellow paper wasp (Polistes versicolor) is known for its wagging movements as a form of communication within the colony; it can waggle with a frequency of 10.6±2.1 Hz (n=190). These wagging movements can signal the arrival of new material into the nest and aggression between workers can be used to stimulate others to increase foraging expeditions. There is a pronounced tendency for there to be a trade-off between visual acuity and chemical or tactile acuity, such that most insects with well-developed eyes have reduced or simple antennae, and vice versa. There are a variety of different mechanisms by which insects perceive sound; while the patterns are not universal, insects can generally hear sound if they can produce it. Different insect species can have varying hearing, though most insects can hear only a narrow range of frequencies related to the frequency of the sounds they can produce. Mosquitoes have been found to hear up to 2 kHz, and some grasshoppers can hear up to 50 kHz. Certain predatory and parasitic insects can detect the characteristic sounds made by their prey or hosts, respectively. For instance, some nocturnal moths can perceive the ultrasonic emissions of bats, which helps them avoid predation. Insects that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts.
Some insects display a rudimentary sense of numbers, such as the solitary wasps that prey upon a single species. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but always the same for each sex of larva. The male solitary wasp in the genus Eumenes is smaller than the female, so the mother of one species supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell.
Light production and vision
A few insects, such as members of the families Poduridae and Onychiuridae (Collembola), Mycetophilidae (Diptera) and the beetle families Lampyridae, Phengodidae, Elateridae and Staphylinidae are bioluminescent. The most familiar group are the fireflies, beetles of the family Lampyridae. Some species are able to control this light generation to produce flashes. The function varies with some species using them to attract mates, while others use them to lure prey. Cave dwelling larvae of Arachnocampa (Mycetophilidae, fungus gnats) glow to lure small flying insects into sticky strands of silk. Some fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flashing of female Photinus species to attract males of that species, which are then captured and devoured. The colors of emitted light vary from dull blue (Orfelia fultoni, Mycetophilidae) to the familiar greens and the rare reds (Phrixothrix tiemanni, Phengodidae).
Most insects, except some species of cave crickets, are able to perceive light and dark. Many species have acute vision capable of detecting minute movements. The eyes may include simple eyes or ocelli as well as compound eyes of varying sizes. Many species are able to detect light in the infrared, ultraviolet and visible light wavelengths. Color vision has been demonstrated in many species and phylogenetic analysis suggests that UV-green-blue trichromacy existed from at least the Devonian period between 416 and 359 million years ago.
The individual lenses in compound eyes are immobile, and it was therefore presumed that insects were not able to focus. But research on fruit flies, which is the only insects studied so far, has shown that photoreceptor cells underneath each lens move rapidly in and out of focus in a series of movements called photoreceptor microsaccades. This gives them a much clearer image of the world than previously assumed.
Sound production and hearing
Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds. Hearing has evolved independently at least 19 times in different insect groups. Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages. In grasshoppers and crickets, this is achieved by stridulation. Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body to form tymbals and associated musculature. The African cicada Brevisana brevis has been measured at 106.7 decibels at a distance of . Some insects, such as the Helicoverpa zea moths, hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies, can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats. Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation. The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats, just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight. Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls. More recently, the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited. Ultrasonic recording and high-speed infrared videography of bat-moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar.
Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea and Neuroptera. These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect's movement. Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect's muscles and joints, the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects. Most sound-making insects also have tympanal organs that can perceive airborne sounds. Some species in Hemiptera, such as the corixids (water boatmen), are known to communicate via underwater sounds. Most insects are also able to sense vibrations transmitted through surfaces.
Communication using surface-borne vibrational signals is more widespread among insects because of size constraints in producing air-borne sounds. Insects cannot effectively produce low-frequency sounds, and high-frequency sounds tend to disperse more in a dense environment (such as foliage), so insects living in such environments communicate primarily using substrate-borne vibrations. The mechanisms of production of vibrational signals are just as diverse as those for producing sound in insects.
Some species use vibrations for communicating within members of the same species, such as to attract mates as in the songs of the shield bug Nezara viridula. Vibrations can also be used to communicate between entirely different species; lycaenid (gossamer-winged butterfly) caterpillars, which are myrmecophilous (living in a mutualistic association with ants) communicate with ants in this way. The Madagascar hissing cockroach has the ability to press air through its spiracles to make a hissing noise as a sign of aggression; the death's-head hawkmoth makes a squeaking noise by forcing air out of their pharynx when agitated, which may also reduce aggressive worker honey bee behavior when the two are close.
Chemical communication
Chemical communications in animals rely on a variety of aspects including taste and smell. Chemoreception is the physiological response of a sense organ (i.e. taste or smell) to a chemical stimulus where the chemicals act as signals to regulate the state or activity of a cell. A semiochemical is a message-carrying chemical that is meant to attract, repel, and convey information. Types of semiochemicals include pheromones and kairomones. One example is the butterfly Phengaris arion which uses chemical signals as a form of mimicry to aid in predation.
In addition to the use of sound for communication, a wide range of insects have evolved chemical means for communication. These semiochemicals are often derived from plant metabolites including those meant to attract, repel and provide other kinds of information. Pheromones, a type of semiochemical, are used for attracting mates of the opposite sex, for aggregating conspecific individuals of both sexes, for deterring other individuals from approaching, to mark a trail, and to trigger aggression in nearby individuals. Allomones benefit their producer by the effect they have upon the receiver. Kairomones benefit their receiver instead of their producer. Synomones benefit the producer and the receiver. While some chemicals are targeted at individuals of the same species, others are used for communication across species. The use of scents is especially well-developed in social insects. are nonstructural materials produced and secreted to the cuticle surface to fight desiccation and pathogens. They are important, too, as pheromones, especially in social insects.
Social behavior
Social insects, such as termites, ants and many bees and wasps, are the most familiar species of eusocial animals. They live together in large well-organized colonies that may be so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies of some species are sometimes considered superorganisms. It is sometimes argued that the various species of honey bee are the only invertebrates (and indeed one of the few non-human groups) to have evolved a system of abstract symbolic communication where a behavior is used to represent and convey specific information about something in the environment. In this communication system, called dance language, the angle at which a bee dances represents a direction relative to the sun, and the length of the dance represents the distance to be flown. Though perhaps not as advanced as honey bees, bumblebees also potentially have some social communication behaviors. Bombus terrestris, for example, exhibit a faster learning curve for visiting unfamiliar, yet rewarding flowers, when they can see a conspecific foraging on the same species.
Only insects that live in nests or colonies demonstrate any true capacity for fine-scale spatial orientation or homing. This can allow an insect to return unerringly to a single hole a few millimeters in diameter among thousands of apparently identical holes clustered together, after a trip of up to several kilometers' distance. In a phenomenon known as philopatry, insects that hibernate have shown the ability to recall a specific location up to a year after last viewing the area of interest. A few insects seasonally migrate large distances between different geographic regions (e.g., the overwintering areas of the monarch butterfly).
Care of young
The eusocial insects build nests, guard eggs, and provide food for offspring full-time.
Most insects, however, lead short lives as adults, and rarely interact with one another except to mate or compete for mates. A small number exhibit some form of parental care, where they will at least guard their eggs, and sometimes continue guarding their offspring until adulthood, and possibly even feeding them. Another simple form of parental care is to construct a nest (a burrow or an actual construction, either of which may be simple or complex), store provisions in it, and lay an egg upon those provisions. The adult does not contact the growing offspring, but it nonetheless does provide food. This sort of care is typical for most species of bees and various types of wasps.
Locomotion
Flight
Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed flight. The evolution of insect wings has been a subject of debate. Some entomologists suggest that the wings are from paranotal lobes, or extensions from the insect's exoskeleton called the nota, called the paranotal theory. Other theories are based on a pleural origin. Another theory suggest the wings are actually made up of both the notum and the pleuron. These theories include suggestions that wings originated from modified gills, spiracular flaps or as from an appendage of the epicoxa. The epicoxal theory suggests the insect wings are modified epicoxal exites, a modified appendage at the base of the legs or coxa. In the Carboniferous age, some of the Meganeura dragonflies had as much as a wide wingspan. The appearance of gigantic insects has been found to be consistent with high atmospheric oxygen. The respiratory system of insects constrains their size, however the high oxygen in the atmosphere allowed larger sizes. The largest flying insects today are much smaller, with the largest wingspan belonging to the white witch moth (Thysania agrippina), at approximately .
Insect flight has been a topic of great interest in aerodynamics due partly to the inability of steady-state theories to explain the lift generated by the tiny wings of insects. But insect wings are in motion, with flapping and vibrations, resulting in churning and eddies, and the misconception that physics says "bumblebees can't fly" persisted throughout most of the twentieth century.
Unlike birds, many small insects are swept along by the prevailing winds although many of the larger insects are known to make migrations. Aphids are known to be transported long distances by low-level jet streams. As such, fine line patterns associated with converging winds within weather radar imagery, like the WSR-88D radar network, often represent large groups of insects. Radar can also be deliberately used to monitor insects.
Walking
Many adult insects use six legs for walking, with an alternating tripod gait. This allows for rapid walking while always having a stable stance; it has been studied extensively in cockroaches and ants. For the first step, the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs are in contact with the ground and move the insect forward, while the front and rear right leg and the middle left leg are lifted and moved forward to a new position. When they touch the ground to form a new stable triangle the other legs can be lifted and brought forward in turn and so on. The purest form of the tripedal gait is seen in insects moving at high speeds. However, this type of locomotion is not rigid and insects can adapt a variety of gaits. For example, when moving slowly, turning, avoiding obstacles, climbing or slippery surfaces, four (tetrapod) or more feet (wave-gait) may be touching the ground. Insects can also adapt their gait to cope with the loss of one or more limbs.
Cockroaches are among the fastest insect runners and, at full speed, adopt a bipedal run to reach a high velocity in proportion to their body size. As cockroaches move very quickly, they need to be video recorded at several hundred frames per second to reveal their gait. More sedate locomotion is seen in the stick insects or walking sticks (Phasmatodea). A few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water, especially members of the Gerridae family, commonly known as water striders. A few species of ocean-skaters in the genus Halobates even live on the surface of open oceans, a habitat that has few insect species.
Insect walking is of particular interest as practical form of robot locomotion. The study of insects and bipeds has a significant impact on possible robotic methods of transport. This may allow new hexapod robots to be designed that can traverse terrain that robots with wheels may be unable to handle.
Swimming
A large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater. In many of the more primitive orders of insect, the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment. Some groups of insects, like certain water beetles, have aquatic adults as well.
Many of these species have adaptations to help in under-water locomotion. Water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted into paddle-like structures. Dragonfly naiads use jet propulsion, forcibly expelling water out of their rectal chamber. Some species like the water striders are capable of walking on the surface of water. They can do this because their claws are not at the tips of the legs as in most insects, but recessed in a special groove further up the leg; this prevents the claws from piercing the water's surface film. Other insects such as the Rove beetle Stenus are known to emit pygidial gland secretions that reduce surface tension making it possible for them to move on the surface of water by Marangoni propulsion (also known by the German term Entspannungsschwimmen).
Ecology
Insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects, individually or as a community, interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem. Insects play one of the most important roles in their ecosystems, which includes many roles, such as soil turning and aeration, dung burial, pest control, pollination and wildlife nutrition. An example is the beetles, which are scavengers that feed on dead animals and fallen trees and thereby recycle biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms. These insects, and others, are responsible for much of the process by which topsoil is created.
Defense and predation
Insects are mostly soft bodied, fragile and almost defenseless compared to other, larger lifeforms. The immature stages are small, move slowly or are immobile, and so all stages are exposed to predation and parasitism. Insects then have a variety of defense strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids. These include camouflage, mimicry, toxicity and active defense.
Camouflage is an important defense strategy, which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment. This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such as many of the leaf beetles (family Chrysomelidae) or weevils. In some of these species, sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects. Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate. Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves, and the bodies of some species (such as O. macklotti and Palophus centaurus) are covered in mossy or lichenous outgrowths that supplement their disguise. Very rarely, a species may have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift (Bostra scabrinota). In a further behavioral adaptation to supplement crypsis, a number of species have been noted to perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side that is thought to reflect the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze. Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by feigning death (catalepsy), where the insect enters a motionless state that can be maintained for a long period. The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also aids Phasmatodea in remaining concealed from predators.
Another defense that often uses color or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry. A number of longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to wasps, which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless. Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera. Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species (the mimic) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species (the model). Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian. One of the most famous examples, where the viceroy butterfly was long believed to be a Batesian mimic of the inedible monarch, was later disproven, as the viceroy is more toxic than the monarch, and this resemblance is now considered to be a case of Müllerian mimicry. In Müllerian mimicry, inedible species, usually within a taxonomic order, find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators who need to learn about the insects' inedibility. Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well known Müllerian complexes.
Chemical defense is another important defense found among species of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, usually being advertised by bright colors, such as the monarch butterfly. They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues. Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins. Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently, learning not to eat those types of species; this is actually the basis of Müllerian mimicry. A predator who has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future, thus saving many other species as well. Some ground beetles of the family Carabidae can spray chemicals from their abdomen with great accuracy, to repel predators.
Pollination
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants, thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction. Most flowering plants require an animal to do the transportation. While other animals are included as pollinators, the majority of pollination is done by insects. Because insects usually receive benefit for the pollination in the form of energy rich nectar it is a grand example of mutualism. The various flower traits (and combinations thereof) that differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination syndromes. These arose through complex plant-animal adaptations. Pollinators find flowers through bright colorations, including ultraviolet, and attractant pheromones. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology.
Parasitism
Many insects are parasites of other insects such as the parasitoid wasps. These insects are known as entomophagous parasites. They can be beneficial due to their devastation of pests that can destroy crops and other resources. Many insects have a parasitic relationship with humans such as the mosquito. These insects are known to spread diseases such as malaria and yellow fever and because of such, mosquitoes indirectly cause more deaths of humans than any other animal.
Relationship to humans
As pests
Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic (e.g. lice, bed bugs), transmit diseases (mosquitoes, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, as in research for companies to produce insecticides, but increasingly rely on methods of biological pest control, or biocontrol. Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the population density of another organism—the pest—and is considered a key element of integrated pest management.
Despite the large amount of effort focused at controlling insects, human attempts to kill pests with insecticides can backfire. If used carelessly, the poison can kill all kinds of organisms in the area, including insects' natural predators, such as birds, mice and other insectivores. The effects of DDT's use exemplifies how some insecticides can threaten wildlife beyond intended populations of pest insects.
In beneficial roles
Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans. Some insects, like wasps, bees, butterflies and ants, pollinate flowering plants. Pollination is a mutualistic relationship between plants and insects. As insects gather nectar from different plants of the same species, they also spread pollen from plants on which they have previously fed. This greatly increases plants' ability to cross-pollinate, which maintains and possibly even improves their evolutionary fitness. This ultimately affects humans since ensuring healthy crops is critical to agriculture. As well as pollination ants help with seed distribution of plants. This helps to spread the plants, which increases plant diversity. This leads to an overall better environment. A serious environmental problem is the decline of populations of pollinator insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, orchard or greenhouse at bloom time. Another solution, as shown in Delaware, has been to raise native plants to help support native pollinators like L. vierecki.
The economic value of pollination by insects has been estimated to be about $34 billion in the US alone.
Products made by insects. Insects also produce useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer and silk. Honey bees have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history, as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world.
Pest control. Insectivorous insects, or insects that feed on other insects, are beneficial to humans if they eat insects that could cause damage to agriculture and human structures. For example, aphids feed on crops and cause problems for farmers, but ladybugs feed on aphids, and can be used as a means to significantly reduce pest aphid populations. While birds are perhaps more visible predators of insects, insects themselves account for the vast majority of insect consumption. Ants also help control animal populations by consuming small vertebrates. Without predators to keep them in check, insects can undergo almost unstoppable population explosions.
Medical uses. Insects are also used in medicine, for example fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other medicinal substances. Adult insects, such as crickets and insect larvae of various kinds, are also commonly used as fishing bait.
In research
Insects play important roles in biological research. For example, because of its small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics, development, behavior and evolution. Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes, including humans. The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the organism's important role in biological research. It was found that 70% of the fly genome is similar to the human genome, supporting the evolution theory.
As food
In some cultures, insects form part of the normal diet. In Africa, for instance, locally abundant species of both locusts and termites are a common traditional human food source. Some, especially deep-fried cicadas, are considered to be delicacies. Insects have a high protein content for their mass, and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition. In most first-world countries, however, entomophagy (the eating of insects), is taboo. They are also recommended by militaries as a survival food for troops in adversity. Since it is impossible to eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock.
Because of the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations considers that the world may have to, in the future, regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple. Insects are noted for their nutrients, having a high content of protein, minerals and fats and are eaten by one-third of the global population.
As feed
Several insect species such as the black soldier fly or the housefly in their maggot forms, as well as beetle larvae such as mealworms can be processed and used as feed for farmed animals such as chicken, fish and pigs.
In other products
Black soldier fly larvae can provide protein, fats for use in cosmetics, and chitin.
Also, insect cooking oil, insect butter and fatty alcohols can be made from such insects as the superworm (Zophobas morio).
As pets
Many species of insects are sold and kept as pets. There are special hobbyist magazines such as "Bugs" (now discontinued).
In culture
Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt, Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality. In Mesopotamian literature, the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata that signify the impossibility of immortality. Among the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups, honey ants and witchetty grubs served as personal clan totems. In the case of the 'San' bush-men of the Kalahari, it is the praying mantis that holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting.
See also
Chemical ecology
Defense in insects
Entomology
Ethnoentomology
Flying and gliding animals
Insect biodiversity
Insect ecology
Insect pheromones
Insect-borne diseases
Prehistoric insects
Pain in invertebrates
Adipokinetic hormone
Notes
References
External links
Insect species and observations on iNaturalist
Insects of North America
Overview of Orders of Insects
A Safrinet Manual for Entomology and Arachnology SPC
Tree of Life Project – Insecta, Insecta Movies
Insect Morphology Overview of insect external and internal anatomy
Fossil Insect Database International Palaeoentological Society
UF Book of Insect Records
InsectImages.org 24,000 high resolution insect photographs
BBC Nature: Insect news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.
The Nature Explorers Many insect video clips.
Insects
Entomology
Insects described in 1758
Extant Early Devonian first appearances |
342012 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D-%E1%83%93%E1%83%94-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D | სინკო-დე-მაიო | სინკო-დე-მაიო (ხუთი მაისი) — მექსიკის ეროვნული დღესასწაული, პუებლის ბრძოლაში (5 მაისი, 1862 წ.) გამარჯვების აღსანიშნავად.
დღესასწაული ასევე ფართოდ აღინიშნება აშშ-შიც (ძირითადად ლათინოამერიკელების მიერ, რომლებიც ამერიკა-მექსიკის ომის შემდგომ ამერიკის მიერ ანექსირებულ სამხრეთის შტატებში ცხოვრობენ. მაგ: კალიფორნია, არიზონა, ნიუ-მექსიკო, ტეხასი).
აღნიშნულ დღესასწაულს ხშირად მოიხსენიებენ, როგორც მექსიკურ წმინდა პატრიკის დღეს. სინკო დე მაიოს დროს სუფრა მექსიკური კერძებითაა გაწყობილი, ფონს კი ამშვენებს ეროვნული ცეკვები და მუსიკა. ამ დღეს ეწყობა დიდი ფესტივალები და კარნავალები. ზოგიერთ რაიონში დღესასწაული კვირაობით გრძელდება.
რესურსები ინტერნეტში
სინკო დე მაიო — პუებლოში გამარჯვების დღე
მექსიკის ისტორია
მექსიკის ეროვნული დღესასწაულები |
265846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Moldova | Culture of Moldova | Culture of Moldova
The culture of Moldova is unique and influenced by the Romanian origins of its majority population, as well as the Slavic and minority Gagauz populations. The traditional Latin origins of Romanian culture reach back to the 2nd century, the period of Roman colonization in Dacia.
During the centuries following the Roman withdrawal in 271, the population of the region was influenced by contact with the Byzantine Empire, Slavic peoples, Hungarian people, and later by the Ottoman Turks. Slavic migration into the region began in the 6th century and continued gradually through the early 19th century. A heavy Polish influence occurred from the 14th through 16th centuries, when the Principality of Moldova was connected to Poland by a trade route and was briefly a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland. Since the 18th century, several waves of Poles emigrated to the land which constitutes the majority of modern Moldova. Beginning in the 19th century, a strong Western European (particularly French) influence came to be evident in literature and the arts. The resulting melting pot has produced a rich cultural tradition. Although foreign contact was an inevitable consequence of the region's geographical location, their influence only served to enhance a vital and resilient popular culture.
The population of what once was the Principality of Moldavia (1359–1859) had come to identify itself widely as "Moldovan" by the 14th century, but continued to maintain close cultural links with other Romanian groups. After 1812, the eastern Moldovans, those inhabiting Bessarabia and Transnistria, were also influenced by Slavic culture during the periods of 1812–1917, and during 1940–1989 they were influenced by Russia.
The geographical area that is now modern Moldova was formed under the conditions of contacts with the East Slavic population, and later under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. In 1812, the territory of modern Moldova was liberated from Ottoman rule and incorporated into the Bessarabian province of the Russian Empire, which had a great influence on the development of the culture of the region. After the October Revolution in 1918, Romania annexed the nation for 22 years, and the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on the left bank of the Dniester, as a result of which culture developed under a stronger Russian influence under Soviet administrative control, as well as by ethnic Russian or Russian-speaking immigration.
By 1918, Bessarabia was one of the least developed, and least educated European regions of the Russian Empire. In 1930, Moldova's literacy rate was 40%, while Romania itself had a 38% literacy rate according to the 1930 Romanian census. Especially low was the literacy rate for women, less than 10% in 1918, to just under 50% in 1940. Although Soviet authorities promoted education, the region's cultural ties with Romania were slowly eroded due to administrative policies. With many ethnic Romanian intellectuals, either fleeing, being killed after 1940, or being deported both during and after World War II, Bessarabia's cultural and educational situation changed drastically and became more Russified.
After the 1960s, Soviet authorities developed urban cultural and scientific institutions that were subsequently filled with Russians, and diverse ethnic groups from across the Soviet Union. Much of the urban culture came from Moscow, while the primarily rural ethnic Romanian population was allowed to express itself in folklore and folk art.
Folk culture
Although the folk arts flourished, similarities with Romanian culture were hidden. Music and dance, particularly encouraged by Soviet authorities, were made into a showcase, but were subtly changed to hide their Romanian origins. For example, the national folk costume, in which the traditional Romanian moccasin (opinca) was replaced by the Russian boot.
Moldova's traditional folk culture is very rich. The ancient folk ballads, such as "Mioriţa" and "Meşterul Manole", play a central role in this traditional culture. Folk traditions, including ceramics and weaving, continue to be practiced in rural areas. The folk culture tradition is promoted at the national level and is represented by, among other groups, the folk choir, Doina.
Literary culture
The first Moldovan books, religious texts, appeared in the mid-17th century. Prominent figures in Moldova's cultural development include Dosoftei, Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, metropolitan of Kiev Petru Movilă, scholars Nicolae Milescu-Spãtaru, Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), and Ion Neculce, Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni, Alexandru Donici, Constantin Stamati, Costache Negruzzi, historian and philologist Bogdan P. Hasdeu (1836–1907), author Ion Creangă (1837–1889), and poet Mihai Eminescu (1850–1889).
Varlaam published the first books. Dosoftei founded numerous schools and published a lot. Cantemir wrote the first thorough geographical, ethnographical, and economic description of the country in Descriptio Moldaviae (Berlin, c. 1714).
Modern writers include Vladimir Beşleagă, Nicolae Dabija, Ion Druţă, Victor Teleucă, and Grigore Vieru. In 1991, a total of 520 books were published in Moldova, of which 402 were in Romanian, 108 in Russian, eight in Gagauz, and two in Bulgarian.
In the early 1990s, Moldova had twelve professional theaters. All performed in Romanian, except the A.P. Chekhov Russian Drama Theater in Chişinău, and the Russian Drama and Comedy Theater in Tiraspol, both of which performed solely in Russian, and the Licurici Republic Puppet Theater, in Chişinău, which performed in both Romanian and Russian. Members of ethnic minorities manage a number of folklore groups and amateur theaters throughout the country.
Cuisine
Moldovan cuisine consists mainly of traditional European foods, such as beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, cheese, and a variety of cereal grains. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy), beer, and local wine.
Very popular dishes include manti (a type of dumpling filled with meat and vegetables, which is wrapped in a dough wrapper, and served with a spicy sour cream), ciorbă (a sour soup consisting of meat and vegetables, served with sauerkraut, polenta, or rice), pelmeni (another type of dumpling, filled with meat and onions, but sometimes mushrooms, turnips, and sauerkraut are added), borscht (made with beets, tomatoes, and other vegetables to form a stew), and sarma (a dish made with stuffed cabbage rolls, accompanied by sauerkraut and mămăligă).
Other common foods in Moldova include grilled meats, other grains, dairy products, and mămăligă (a type of polenta made with cornmeal, and mashed into a porridge).
Sports
See also
Music of Moldova
Religion in Moldova
History of the Jews in Bessarabia
References
External links
Information about Moldova from the page of the Moldovan Ministry of Culture and Tourism
www.moldova.md about Moldovan culture
www.tur.md about Moldovan rest |
12254180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svitlovodsk%20Raion | Svitlovodsk Raion | Svitlovodsk Raion was a raion (district) of Kirovohrad Oblast in central Ukraine. The administrative center of the raion was the city of Svitlovodsk, which is incorporated separately as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to the raion. The raion was abolished on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kirovohrad Oblast to four. The area of Svitlovodsk Raion was merged into Oleksandriia Raion. The last estimate of the raion population was
At the time of disestablishment, the raion consisted of one hromada, Velyka Andrusivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Velyka Andrusivka.
References
Former raions of Kirovohrad Oblast
1962 establishments in Ukraine
Ukrainian raions abolished during the 2020 administrative reform |
1027767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izora%20Armstead | Izora Armstead | Izora Armstead
Izora Margaret Rhodes-Armstead (July 6, 1942 – September 16, 2004) was an American singer-songwriter. Known for her distinctive alto voice, Armstead first achieved successful as one half of the duo Two Tons O' Fun, along with Martha Wash, as they sang backup for American disco singer Sylvester. The duo obtained their own record deal as Two Tons O'Fun in 1979. They released three consecutive songs that were hits on the Dance Chart. The duo was renamed The Weather Girls in 1982 after the release of their single "It's Raining Men", their most successful single. As a duo, The Weather Girls released five albums and were also featured on Sylvester's albums.
After The Weather Girls disbanded in 1988, Armstead released a single, "Don't Let Love Slip Away" (1991). In 1991, she reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes, who had been one of the duo's background singers. Over the course of a decade, they released three albums: Double Tons of Fun (1993), Think Big! (1995), and Puttin' On The Hits (1999).
On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure in San Leandro, California.
Early life
Izora M. Rhodes was born on July 6, 1942, in Houston, Texas. She moved to San Francisco, California with her family when she was a child. At the young age of four, she began playing piano and later began singing at age eight. Rhodes eventually became the lead vocalist and pianist of San Francisco Inspirational Choir. Rhodes studied classical music at San Francisco Conservatory. She modeled herself after her favorite singers Mahalia Jackson and Clara Ward.
By 1975, Rhodes had a total of seven children, six boys and a girl, that she raised as a single parent. To support her children, Rhodes worked as a bartender and a nurse assistant. In addition, Rhodes also worked as a piano and vocal teacher. In 1976, Rhodes married a new husband and changed her last name to Armstead. According to the autobiography book The Fabulous Sylvester: The Legend, the Music, the Seventies in San Francisco written by Joshua Gamson, she had a total of eleven children (four of which are allegedly step-children) with then-new husband [Armstead]. Now Izora Armstead, she eventually landed in a short-lived gospel group called N.O.W. (News of the World), which would include neighborhood friend Martha Wash.
Career
1976–1981: Sylvester and Two Tons O' Fun
In February 1976, friend Martha Wash auditioned as a backup singer before American singer-songwriter Sylvester and his manager Brent Thomson. Impressed with her vocal performance, Sylvester inquired if she had another large black friend who could sing, after which she introduced him to Izora Rhodes. Although he referred to them simply as "the girls", Wash and Rhodes formed a musical duo called Two Tons O' Fun (sometimes referred to as "The Two Tons"). Two Tons O' Fun debuted as Sylvester's backing vocalists on his self-titled third album Sylvester, released in 1977. The duo sang backup vocals on the album's singles "Down, Down, Down" and "Over and Over", which charted at number eighteen on the Billboard Dance chart. In 1978, Sylvester released his fourth album Step II, which also featured The Two Tons' background vocals throughout the album. "Dance (Disco Heat)", the album's lead single which featured The Tons, peaked at number one on Billboard Dance chart and became their first number-one single on that chart. In 1979, Two Tons O' Fun sang background on Sylvester's live album Living Proof. Later that year, the duo secured their own record deal with Fantasy Records.
On January 24, 1980, the duo released their debut self-titled album Two Tons of Fun. The album spawned two top-five dance singles: "Earth Can Be Just Like Heaven" and "I Got the Feeling". Their second album Backatcha was released later that year. The album spawned a single "I Depend On You" that peaked at number seventy-two on the Dance chart.
1982–1988: The Weather Girls
In September 1982, the duo released their single "It's Raining Men". The song became their biggest hit, peaking at number one on the Dance chart and number forty-six on Billboard'''s Hot 100 chart. Following the success of the song, Two Tons o Fun changed their group name to The Weather Girls. On January 22, 1983, they released their third album Success. The album's titled-track "Success" was released as the second single and peaked at number eighty-nine on the R&B chart. In 1985, The Weather Girls released their fourth album Big Girls Don't Cry. In 1988, The Weather Girls released their self-titled fifth album The Weather Girls, the final album featuring Armstead and Wash. Shortly after the release of the album, The Weather Girls were dropped from Columbia and soon disbanded to pursue solo careers.
1989–1991: Solo career
Following the disbandment of The Weather Girls, Armstead pursued a brief solo career. She began touring as a solo artist, performing songs from The Weather Girls. In 1991, she released a single "Don't Let Love Slip Away".
1991–2004: Reformation of The Weather Girls
After a three-year hiatus and Wash pursuing her solo career, Armstead reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes and relocated to Germany in 1991. Their first album together Double Tons of Fun was released in 1993. The album's lead single "Can You Feel It" peaked at number two Billboard's Dance chart. The song also peaked at number 75 on Germany's music chart, their second single to enter that chart since "It's Raining Men". While touring the club circuit, the album's third single "We Shall All Be Free" peaked at number 80 on Germany's music chart. Their follow-up album Think Big! was released in December 1995. The album saw Armstead's contribution as a songwriter and penning several songs, including the album's third single "The Sound of Sex (Ooh Gitchie O-La-La-Ay)" which was written with her daughter. The album also contained a cover version of Sylvester's 1979 disco hit "Stars", recorded as a duet with Scottish pop singer Jimmy Somerville.
In 1999, The Weather Girls released eighth studio album Puttin' On The Hits'' which contained a collection of covered disco songs. In 2002, they joined the Disco Brothers for a participation in the German National Final for the Eurovision Song Contest, with their song "Get Up". Overall, the group finished in thirteenth place.
Final years and death
Armstead's final recording was the single "Big Brown Girl" with The Weather Girls, released in 2004. In August 2004, Armstead returned to the Bay Area to undergo treatment for heart-related problems. In mid-September 2004, Armstead was checked into San Leandro Hospital after her condition deteriorated. On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure at the age of 62 in 2004 in San Leandro, California. She was survived by her seven children. Her funeral was held at St. John Missionary Baptist Church in San Francisco, California. She was laid to rest in Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California.
Legacy
As of 2004, Armstead's voice has collectively accumulated a total of three number-one dance singles: "Dance (Disco Heat)" (1978) and "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" (1978) with Sylvester; and "It's Raining Men" with The Weather Girls. Her single "It's Raining Men" was ranked the song at thirty-five on VH1's list of the 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2000, and also at thirty-five in their 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders of the 1980s in 2009. Armstead's daughter Dynelle Rhodes received the rights to The Weather Girls name. Rhodes added a then-new member Ingrid Arthur to The Weather Girls and began performing as a tribute to Armstead. The Weather Girls' album "Totally Wild" (2005) was dedicated to Armstead. In 2012, Rhodes replaced Ingrid Arthur with Dorrey Lin Lyles.
On September 14, 2014, Mighty Real: A Fabulous Sylvester Musical, a Broadway musical about Sylvester, debuted in New York City. Armstead's likeness was featured in the production and she was portrayed by actress Anastacia McCleskey.
Discography
Singles
1991: "Don't Let Love Slip Away"
References
External links
1942 births
2004 deaths
20th-century African-American women singers
African-American record producers
African-American women writers
American contemporary R&B singers
American contraltos
American dance musicians
American disco musicians
American expatriates in Germany
American women pop singers
American house musicians
American hi-NRG musicians
American music publishers (people)
African-American women singer-songwriters
American soul singers
Columbia Records artists
Singers from San Francisco
Songwriters from San Francisco
American women in electronic music
21st-century African-American women singers
Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park
Singer-songwriters from California
The Weather Girls members |
239553 | https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98 | ბერნარდ ბერენსონი | ბერნარდ ბერენსონი (დ. 26 ივნისი, 1865, ვილნო — გ. 7 ოქტომბერი, 1959, ფლორენცია) — ამერიკელი ხელოვნების ისტორიკოსი. დაამთავრა ჰარვარდის უნივერსიტეტი (1887). ამერიკული ხელოვნების და ლიტერატურის აკადემიისა და ევროპული რამდენიმე აკადემიის წევრი. 1900 წლიდან ცხოვრობდა იტალიაში. 1890 და 1900-იანი წლების დასაწყისის შრომებში ბერნსონმა პირველმა განსაზღვრა იტალიური აღორძინების სხვადასხვა სკოლისა და მხატვართა შემოქმედების სტილისტური თავისებურებანი. ბერნსონმა დიდი მუშაობა ჩაატარა იტალიელ მხატვართა სურათების ატრიბუციისათვის.
ლიტერატურა
ამერიკელი ხელოვანები
დაბადებული 26 ივნისი
დაბადებული 1865
გარდაცვლილი 7 ოქტომბერი
გარდაცვლილი 1959 |
End of preview. Expand
in Data Studio
| Language | Articles | Token Count* | Character Count |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | 107,123 | 219.88 M | 951.53 M |
| Georgian | 169,602 | 175.32 M | 260.86 M |
*Gemma Tokenizer
Original model card
The dataset is built from the Wikipedia dumps (https://dumps.wikimedia.org/) with one subset per language, each containing a single train split.
Each example contains the content of one full Wikipedia article with cleaning to strip markdown and unwanted sections (references, etc.).
All language subsets have already been processed for recent dump, and you can load them per date and language this way:
from datasets import load_dataset
ds = load_dataset("wikimedia/wikipedia", "20231101.en")
Data Visualization
Click the Nomic Atlas map below to visualize the 6.4 million samples in the 20231101.en split.
Supported Tasks and Leaderboards
The dataset is generally used for Language Modeling.
Languages
You can find the list of languages here: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias
Dataset Structure
Data Instances
An example looks as follows:
{'id': '1',
'url': 'https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April',
'title': 'April',
'text': 'April is the fourth month...'
}
Data Fields
The data fields are the same among all configurations:
id(str): ID of the article.url(str): URL of the article.title(str): Title of the article.text(str): Text content of the article.
Data Splits
All configurations contain a single train split.
Dataset Creation
Curation Rationale
[More Information Needed]
Source Data
Initial Data Collection and Normalization
The dataset is built from the Wikipedia dumps: https://dumps.wikimedia.org
You can find the full list of languages and dates here: https://dumps.wikimedia.org/backup-index.html
The articles have been parsed using the mwparserfromhell tool.
When uploading the data files for the 20231101 dump, we noticed that the Wikimedia Dumps website does not contain this date dump for the "bbc", "dga", nor "zgh" Wikipedias. We have reported the issue to the Wikimedia Phabricator: https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T351761
Who are the source language producers?
[More Information Needed]
Annotations
Annotation process
[More Information Needed]
Who are the annotators?
[More Information Needed]
Personal and Sensitive Information
[More Information Needed]
Considerations for Using the Data
Social Impact of Dataset
[More Information Needed]
Discussion of Biases
[More Information Needed]
Other Known Limitations
[More Information Needed]
Additional Information
Dataset Curators
[More Information Needed]
Licensing Information
Copyright licensing information: https://dumps.wikimedia.org/legal.html
All original textual content is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike 3.0 License. Some text may be available only under the Creative Commons license; see their Terms of Use for details. Text written by some authors may be released under additional licenses or into the public domain.
Citation Information
@ONLINE{wikidump,
author = "Wikimedia Foundation",
title = "Wikimedia Downloads",
url = "https://dumps.wikimedia.org"
}
- Downloads last month
- 6
Size of downloaded dataset files:
840 MB
Size of the auto-converted Parquet files:
840 MB
Number of rows:
276,725