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Today is Earth Day. It's a chance to reflect on how everyday actions impact the environment. Earth Day also is a welcome reminder that small behaviors make a big difference. Recycling is one of the easiest things you can do, especially with the recycling drop-box program offered by the Ottawa-Sandusky-Seneca Solid Waste District and serviced by Rumpke. Visit www.rumpkerecycling.com or www.recycleoss.org for a map of convenient recycling locations near you. The tips below can help you do even more. Top five ways you can help the recycling program: 1. No plastic bags. Recyclables should be placed unbagged in the container. If you use plastic bags to collect or transport recyclables, empty the recyclables at the recycling site and take the bags home to reuse. Or, consider taking plastic bags back to the grocery store for recycling. 2. Plenty of paper. Remember to recycle computer paper, magazines, newspapers and inserts, envelopes with or without windows, postcards and junk mail. 3. Recycle right. Each recycling drop-box is stickered with a list of acceptable and unacceptable items. The long list includes many items found in your home. Recycling the right items helps the program run smoother and keeps costs low. 4. Flatten cardboard. Do you shop online? If so, you probably have a bunch of cardboard boxes, which are great to recycle. Help save space in the container by flattening boxes. 5. Summer parties. Are you hosting a party soon? Memorial Day? Graduation? Fourth of July? Place a recycling container next to each trash can to make it easy for your guests to recycle glass and plastic bottles, along with beer and soda cans. Rumpke is proud to support recycling throughout the community. Let's all make the most of the opportunity to recycle more and trash less. Happy Earth Day! and recycling education

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What is neck pain? Because of its location and range-of-motion, your neck is often left unprotected and subject to injury. Neck pain can range from mild discomfort to disabling, chronic pain. What causes neck pain? Neck pain can result from many different causes--from injury, to age-related disorders, or inflammatory disease. Causes of neck pain and problems may include the following: - Injury (damage to the muscles, tendons, and/or ligaments) - Herniated disk in the neck - Arthritis (such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis) - Cervical (neck) disk degeneration - Congenital (present at birth) abnormalities of the vertebrae and bones How is neck pain diagnosed? Along with a complete medical history and physical exam, diagnostic procedures for neck pain may include the following: - Blood tests. These tests can help determine the diagnosis of inflammatory disease. - Electromyogram (EMG). A test to evaluate nerve function. - X-ray. A diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of bones onto film. - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body; can often determine damage or disease of internal structures within our joints, or in a surrounding ligament or muscle. - Computed tomography scan (also called a CT or CAT scan). A diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of X-rays and computer technology to produce images of the body. A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more detailed than general X-rays. How is neck pain treated? Specific treatment for neck pain will be determined by your doctor based on: - Your age, overall health, and medical history - Your diagnosis - Extent of the condition - Your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - Expectations for the course of the condition - Your opinion or preference Treatment may include: - Medication (to reduce inflammation and control pain) - Physical therapy - Neck brace or immobilization When should I call my health care provider? Treatment for neck pain is recommended when the pain starts to prevent any future injury or damage. Living with neck pain Living with neck pain can be difficult. But the following treatments , often in combination, prove effective both immediately and over time. To manage your neck pain, you may try medications, rest physical therapy and exercise. - Neck pain can range from mild discomfort to disabling, chronic pain. - Neck pain can result from many different causes--from injury, to age-related disorders, or inflammatory disease. - Seeking medical advice as soon as possible after the injury will minimize future damage and inflammation. - Once you have been treated for the initial injury, a program of physical rehabilitation may be necessary. It is important to follow through with your program and exercises to both strengthen and build muscles to support your activities. - Using good body mechanics may prevent future injury. Tips to help you get the most from a visit to your health care provider: - Before your visit, write down questions you want answered. - Bring someone with you to help you ask questions and remember what your provider tells you. - At the visit, write down the names of new medicines, treatments, or tests, and any new instructions your provider gives you. - If you have a follow-up appointment, write down the date, time, and purpose for that visit. - Know how you can contact your provider if you have questions. Online Medical Reviewer: Fincannon, Joy, RN, MSN Date Last Reviewed: © 2000-2016 The StayWell Company, LLC. 780 Township Line Road, Yardley, PA 19067. All rights reserved. This information is not intended as a substitute for professional medical care. Always follow your healthcare professional's instructions.

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This is the first in a series of articles on the root problems of most chronic illnesses: diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, autoimmune disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, chronic fatigue, Parkinson’s disease and early aging. Over the next few months, I will share how oxidative stress, inflammation, hormone imbalance and toxins cause chronic illness and how to prevent early aging and chronic illness. FREE RADICALS AND TORNADOES When we mix oxygen with food, we get energy. As our body transforms oxygen and food into energy, we make “free radicals.” Free radicals include compounds like peroxides and are like little tornadoes that spin off more little tornadoes. These free radical tornadoes go around and damage cells. Free radicals damage the protein and fats in cell membranes, mitochondria — which are the energy factories in the cells — and even sometimes DNA, leading to cancer. It is estimated the average human cell sustains 10,000 hits per day from free radicals. When cells are damaged by free radicals, the body reacts with inflammation. Chronic inflammation can lead to more cell damage. Free radicals lead to a toxic spiral of cell damage, inflammation and cell death. To stay healthy, the body must maintain a healthy balance between formation of free radicals and destruction of free radicals. How does the body do this? It tries to keep the free radicals within the cells and breaks the free radicals down. It uses antioxidants like vitamin C and E to destroy the free radicals and uses natural repair mechanisms to mend damaged cells. COMBATING OXIDATIVE STRESS First, try to avoid toxins like cigarette smoke, pesticides, solvents, ozone and other chemicals that increase free radical production. Second, we must have adequate dietary intake and absorption of antioxidant nutrients found in fruits and vegetables. Basically, eat more plants so your plate has a variety of colors at every meal. Americans’ poor intake of fruits and vegetables means most Americans do not have enough antioxidants to protect them from the damaging effects of free radicals. MEASURING OXIDATIVE STRESS We can actually measure your body’s oxidative stress levels with special lab tests, including glutathione, serum lipid peroxides, 8OhdG and enzymes that increase with oxidative stress. The best defense against oxidative stress is to listen to what your mother always told you: Eat your fruits and vegetables. This means at least five servings a day and 10 or 12 servings are better for maximum health. Next month, we will learn more about how inflammation causes chronic disease. Hopefully, 2012 will be a year to attain better health by understanding how your body works. So dress up your plate and eat a rainbow of fresh fruits and veggies to fight off free radicals. Dr. Steinmetz is a board-certified family medical doctor based in Alexandria who uses conventional and integrative practices. She welcomes reader questions at [email protected].

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In 1564, in his 50th year, Andreas Vesalius died, alone and unattended, on the remote island of Zante, off the west coast of Greece. This year, 1964, commemorates the quadricentenary of the death of this illustrious and fearless iconoclast, the author of the epochal volume, De Fabrica Humani Corporis. Vesalius, his name derived from the Flemish name Wesel, was born in Brussels in the year 1514. His forebears were closely affiliated with the medical profession: his great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, and grandfather were physicians, his father was an apothecary. The bequeathal of this medical heritage to Vesalius was manifested in him at an early age. He began his medical studies at Louvain, where he displayed an avid interest in anatomical dissection, and became proficient in Arabic, Greek, and Latin. In 1533, Vesalius left for Paris to continue his medical education. At Paris, the instruction of anatomy was directed by the eminent anatomists,

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Yesterday, the International Energy Agency (IEA) released a report in which it urges the adoption of four approaches to curb greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. In announcing the report the IEA noted that, at the earliest, the next international treaty won't even be finalized before 2015 (and its implementation won't start until 2020). But in the intervening years, we're likely to build infrastructure and continue emissions that will make the goals of that agreement nearly impossible to reach. In the interim, the IEA suggests steps that are needed to keep the planet on a path that would limit emissions to 2°C. The report comes immediately in the wake of the first recordings of carbon dioxide levels that exceed 400 parts per million at Mauna Loa, far from any sites of industrial emissions. These levels haven't been seen in millions of years and, if current emissions trends continue, we're expected to reach temperatures we've not seen in equally long: between 3.6°C and 5.3°C warmer than the preindustrial era, according to the IEA. And, as the World Bank recently noted, that sort of rise would radically reshape our world. So the IEA is sold on the goal of limiting future temperature rises to 2°C. Unfortunately, energy-related emissions went up by 1.4 percent last year to 31.6 Gigatons. If we wait to 2015 to finalize plans to keep future temperature rises to 2°C, the IEA estimates we'll need to spend $5 trillion to get back on track. In contrast, the IEA estimates that we can stay on track by spending $1.5 trillion in the years between now and 2020. If spent according to the IEA's new four-step plan, we'll save just as much money as we spend due to more efficient use of energy. The IEA focused on technologies that are already on the market and are in active use in some countries, meaning that there are no barriers other than cost and scaling. One of the steps is something the IEA has been arguing for a while: given that there is a finite supply of fossil fuels and that burning them creates problems, it makes no sense to actively encourage their use. Despite this, fossil fuel is heavily subsidized in many countries. The IEA has consistently called for these subsidies to be phased out; one of its four points is to simply accelerate the phasing out. While also on the subject of waste, the IEA would like to see oil and gas producers do more to capture methane that is currently allowed to escape into the atmosphere. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas and is eventually converted to CO2 in the atmosphere; capturing more of it will account for 18 percent of the savings. In the US, the expansion of renewables and natural gas has led to a significant decline in the use of coal, which has led to a corresponding drop in carbon emissions (coal is the least efficient fossil fuel in terms of energy per emissions); China's emissions growth is slowing for similar reasons. The IEA would like to see that happen globally. If we limit the construction and use of the least efficient coal plants for the rest of the decade, it could account for 20 percent of the IEA's goals. But the biggest step we can take is simple efficiency. Building or retrofitting more efficient buildings, industry, and transportation could account for nearly half the emission changes needed for the IEA's plan. And this is where most of the money for the plan comes from; efficiency measures can usually save a significant amount on energy expenses, often with time windows of less than a decade. These savings are required to offset the cost of mothballing some of the coal plants before the end of their expected lifespans. These savings will, of course, exact a cost somewhere, primarily in the energy industries. If the IEA's plan were adopted, coal consumption would obviously drop and some fossil fuel reserves that are currently slated for development will not be needed as quickly as expected. As a bit of a sop to the energy industry, the IEA notes that the problems caused by climate change—water shortages, severe storms, sea level rise—will exact a cost on the industry's infrastructure as well. Overall, the IEA's plan seems like a solid one. But the group has been calling for many of these steps for a number of years and responses have been slow. There's definitely an element of the "tragedy of the commons" here. Although it's appealing in general to think that these efficiency measures could allow finite reserves of fossil fuels to last decades longer than they would otherwise, the countries and companies relying on the income from developing them are unlikely to be happy to go along with the plan.

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When approaching a complex situation that requires a creative solution, some leading research points to a novel approach to problem solving. Don’t solve the problem based on how you would solve it, but instead pretend to be someone else and solve it from their perspective. Via BPS Digest: According to Evan Polman and Kyle Emich, we’re more capable of mental novelty when thinking on behalf of strangers than for ourselves. This is just the latest extension of research into construal level theory, an intriguing concept that suggests various aspects of psychological distance can affect our thinking style. Across four studies involving hundreds of undergrads, Polman and Emich found…that participants were more likely to solve an escape-from-tower problem if they imagined someone else trapped in the tower, rather than themselves (a 66 vs. 48 per cent success rate). Briefly, the tower problem requires you to explain how a prisoner escaped the tower by cutting a rope that was only half as long as the tower was high. The solution is that he divided the rope lengthwise into two thinner strips and then tied them together. The researchers were careful to consider a range of possible confounding factors, including confidence in our knowledge of ourselves versus others, emotional involvement and feelings of closeness. None of these made much difference to the main result. On the other hand, among participants who tackled the tower problem, it was those who said afterwards that they felt the tower was further away, who tended to have found the solution. This reinforces the researchers’ claim that solving a problem for a stranger is easier because of the feeling of psychological distance that it creates. This concept could be particularly useful for those engaged in negations, mediation, arbitration, etc. By framing your position from the viewpoint of another person, it might be possible to arrive at a more creative solution. It could also be useful in anticipating or predicting what angle an opponent might be positioning towards. So next time you’re about to tackle a problem head on, take a moment to step into someone else’s shoes and think about what they would do to solve the problem, you might just get a different result. Polman E, and Emich KJ (2011). Decisions for Others Are More Creative Than Decisions for the Self. Personality and social psychology bulletin PMID: 21317316

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American low cost orbital launch vehicle. The Falcon 9 Heavy would consist of a standard Falcon 9 with two additional Falcon 9 first stages as liquid strap-on boosters. The Falcon 9 first stage had been designed to support the additional loads of this configuration, with common tanking and engines across both vehicles. Initial architectural work had begun in 2008, and first availability of the Falcon 9 Heavy would be as early as 2010. LEO Payload: 28,000 kg (61,000 lb) to a 200 km orbit at 28.00 degrees. Payload: 12,000 kg (26,000 lb) to a GTO, 28 deg. Boost Propulsion: Lox/Kerosene. Cruise Thrust: 66.600 kN (14,972 lbf). Cruise Thrust: 6,800 kgf. Cruise engine: Kestrel. Initial Operational Capability: 2010. Status: In development. More... - Chronology... Gross mass: 885,000 kg (1,951,000 lb). Payload: 28,000 kg (61,000 lb). Height: 54.90 m (180.10 ft). Diameter: 3.60 m (11.80 ft). Span: 3.60 m (11.80 ft). Thrust: 15,000.00 kN (3,372,000 lbf). Apogee: 200 km (120 mi). Falcon Falcons are a family of two stage, reusable, liquid oxygen and kerosene powered launch vehicles, designed for cost-efficient and reliable transport of satellites and manned spacecraft to low Earth orbit. The Falcon 1 satellite launcher began launches in 2006, with the Falcon 9 - as large as a Saturn I - flying in 2010. The Falcon series was the only successful project among many attempts to privately develop a low cost launch system since the 1960's. More... LCLV Various independently-funded launch vehicles have been advocated, designed, and even developed over the years. A lot of these are attempts to build low-cost launch vehicles using simpler technology. Often such projects begin based on a low cost liquid fuel technology but end up just trying to sell various combinations of Castor solid fuel stages. These enterprises often discover there's more to coming up with a reliable launch vehicle than slashing together a bunch of 'off the shelf' rocket motors and lighting the fuse.... On the other hand, if there is ever a breakthrough in less expensive access to space, it will come through one of these entrepreneurial schemes... More... Associated Manufacturers and Agencies SpaceX American manufacturer of rockets, spacecraft, and rocket engines. SpaceX, USA. More... Home - Browse - Contact © / Conditions for Use

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There is only one fundamental alternative in the universe: existence or non-existence—and it pertains to a single class of entities: to living organisms. The existence of inanimate matter is unconditional, the existence of life is not: it depends on a specific course of action. Matter is indestructible, it changes its forms, but it cannot cease to exist. It is only a living organism that faces a constant alternative: the issue of life or death. Life is a process of self-sustaining and self-generated action. If an organism fails in that action, it dies; its chemical elements remain, but its life goes out of existence. It is only the concept of “Life” that makes the concept of “Value” possible. It is only to a living entity that things can be good or evil. Only a living entity can have goals or can originate them. And it is only a living organism that has the capacity for self-generated, goal-directed action. On the physical level, the functions of all living organisms, from the simplest to the most complex—from the nutritive function in the single cell of an amoeba to the blood circulation in the body of a man—are actions generated by the organism itself and directed to a single goal: the maintenance of the organism’s life. An organism’s life depends on two factors: the material or fuel which it needs from the outside, from its physical background, and the action of its own body, the action of using that fuel properly. What standard determines what is proper in this context? The standard is the organism’s life, or: that which is required for the organism’s survival. When applied to physical phenomena, such as the automatic functions of an organism, the term “goal-directed” is not to be taken to mean “purposive” (a concept applicable only to the actions of a consciousness) and is not to imply the existence of any teleological principle operating in insentient nature. I use the term “goal-directed,” in this context, to designate the fact that the automatic functions of living organisms are actions whose nature is such that they result in the preservation of an organism’s life. In a fundamental sense, stillness is the antithesis of life. Life can be kept in existence only by a constant process of self-sustaining action. The goal of that action, the ultimate value which, to be kept, must be gained through its every moment, is the organism’s life.

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Henry Gray (18251861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. maternal blood, and give up to the latter its waste products. The blood, so purified, is carried back to the fetus by the umbilical vein. It will thus be seen that the placenta not only establishes a mechanical connection between the mother and the fetus, but subserves for the latter the purposes of nutrition, respiration, and excretion. In favor of the view that the placenta possesses certain selective powers may be mentioned the fact that glucose is more plentiful in the maternal than in the fetal blood. It is interesting to note also that the proportion of iron, and of lime and potash, in the fetus is increased during the last months of pregnancy. Further, there is evidence that the maternal leucocytes may migrate into the fetal blood, since leucocytes are much more numerous in the blood of the umbilical vein than in that of the umbilical arteries. The placenta is usually attached near the fundus uteri, and more frequently on the posterior than on the anterior wall of the uterus. It may, however, occupy a lower position and, in rare cases, its site is close to the orificium internum uteri, which it may occlude, thus giving rise to the condition known as placenta previa. Separation of the Placenta.After the child is born, the placenta and membranes are expelled from the uterus as the after-birth. The separation of the placenta from the uterine wall takes place through the stratum spongiosum, and necessarily causes rupture of the uterine vessels. The orifices of the torn vessels are, however, closed by the firm contraction of the uterine muscular fibers, and thus postpartum hemorrhage is controlled. The epithelial lining of the uterus is regenerated by the proliferation and extension of the epithelium which lines the persistent portions of the uterine glands in the unaltered layer of the decidua. The expelled placenta appears as a discoid mass which weighs about 450 gm. and has a diameter of from 15 to 20 cm. Its average thickness is about 3 cm., but this diminishes rapidly toward the circumference of the disk, which is continuous with the membranes. Its uterine surface is divided by a series of fissures into Iobules or cotyledons, the fissures containing the remains of the septa which extended between the maternal and fetal portions. Most of these septa end in irregular or pointed processes; others, especially those near the edge of the placenta, pass

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Upton Sinclair, ed. (18781968). The Cry for Justice: An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest. 1915. Essay on Liberty By John Stuart Mill (English philosopher and economist, 18061873) MANKIND can hardly be too often reminded, that there was once a man named Socrates, between whom and the legal authorities and public opinion of his time, there took place a memorable collision. Born in an age and country abounding in individual greatness, this man has been handed down to us by those who best knew both him and the age, as the most virtuous man in it; while we know him as the head and prototype of all subsequent teachers of virtue, the source equally of the lofty inspiration of Plato and the judicious utilitarianism of Aristotle, the two headsprings of ethical as of all other philosophy. This acknowledged master of all the eminent thinkers who have since livedwhose fame, still growing after more than two thousand years, all but outweighs the whole remainder of the names which make his native city illustriouswas put to death by his countrymen, after a judicial conviction, for impiety and immorality. Impiety, in denying the Gods recognized by the State; indeed his accusers asserted (see the Apologia) that he believed in no gods at all. Immorality, in being, by his doctrines and instructions, a corrupter of youth. Of these charges the tribunal, there is every ground for believing, honestly found him guilty, and condemned the man who probably of all then born had deserved best of mankind, to be put to death as a criminal.

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E. Cobham Brewer 18101897. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 1898. One which shows the new and full moon, with the time of Easter and the movable feasts depending thereon. The reformed calendar of the Church of Rome, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582, corrected the error of the civil year, according to the Julian calendar.

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A part of the global food crisis is the inefficiency of current irrigation methods. More irrigated water evaporates than reaches the roots of crops, amounting to an enormous waste of water and energy. Tel Aviv University researchers, however, are investigating a new solution that turns the problem upside-down, getting to the root of the issue. They are genetically modifying plants' root systems to improve their ability to find the water essential to their survival. The Root Cause of Wasting Water When it comes to water, every drop counts. "Improving water uptake by irrigated crops is very important," says Prof. Amram Eshel, the study's co-researcher from Tel Aviv University's Plant Sciences Department. His team, with that of Prof. Hillel Fromm, hope to engineer a plant that takes advantage of a newly discovered gene that controls hydrotropism, a plant's ability to send its roots towards water. Scientists in TAU's lab are observing plants that are grown on moist air in the University's lab, making it possible to investigate how the modified plant roots orient themselves towards water. Until now, aeroponics (a method of growing plants in air and mist) was a benchtop technique used only in small-scale applications. The current research is being done on the experimental model plant Arabidopsis, a small flowering plant related to cabbage and mustard. Environmental Consequences Have Economic Consequences Too "Our aim is to save water," explains Prof. Eshel. "We are increasing a plant's efficiency for water uptake. Plants that can sense water in a better fashion will be higher in economic value in the future." There can be significant water-saving consequences for farmers around the world. "We are developing plants that are more efficient in sensing water," says research doctoral student Tal Sherman, who is working under Prof. Amram Eshel and Prof. Hillel Fromm. The project is funded by a grant from the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to Prof. Fromm and Prof. Eshel. Ideas Planted in Darwin's Time In the nineteenth century, scientists were already observing that plant roots naturally seek out the wetter regions in soil. Although the phenomenon is well documented, scientists until recently had no clue as to how the mechanism worked, or how to make it better. New insights from the Tel Aviv University study could lead to plants that are super water seekers, say researchers. |Contact: George Hunka| American Friends of Tel Aviv University

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School’s out. It’s the time of year that was once reserved for kids to help their on their family farms to maintain and pull in the crops. Now, it’s a time of leisure, play and (with any luck) visits to the grandparents. However, research shows that kids lose ground academically during the summer months unless they use the skills they learn in school throughout the year. Some studies suggest that the loss is up to three months of in-classroom work. That’s where a parent, grandparent, favorite uncle or close family can make a real difference in a child’s education. And it doesn’t have to be in a classroom. Get Them Out of the House Local libraries often have summer reading programs for kids of all ages; so sign them up now. It’s a low-cost activity that can be fun for adults and children. Some libraries offer contests and allow the whole family to sign up. And with books in hand, you can work with a child to read them. Create a routine that includes 30 minutes of reading before bed or after lunch if you’re helping with day care. For older children, you might consider issuing a book challenge. Who can read the most books over the summer? Or join them in your City Reads program. Over the summer many library systems pick one book and encourage the entire city to read that book. Often, there are events associated with a City Reads program too. Your local library will have details. Museums are another way to stimulate the mind of a child. Encourage them to ask questions and ask them questions about what they see. In some larger museums there is curriculum available designed especially to engage children in the exhibits. Call or visit the website of your local museum to see what they have available. Buy Them Books for the Summer Live too far away from the kids in your life? Buy them books for the summer. Get the same books for yourself and then spend 20 minutes on the phone reading with them. They want your undivided attention and you want them to be stronger readers. It’s a win-win. Local nonprofits, like AARP Experience Corps and Boys and Girls Clubs often provide free books to students in their programs over the summer too. Make sure to ask the children in your life what they are planning to read over the summer and if they have any new books. Ask them to read those books with you. That can be done over the phone, video chat or in person. The bottom line? You can have a role in helping the kids in your life be prepared for school in the fall … and have fun doing it. Photo credit: Svadilfari via Flickr. Also of Interest - Building a Story – The Roles of Authors and Illustrators - Games for 50+: Grandparents and Grandchildren Find Adventure, Build Memories - Join AARP: Savings, resources and news for your well-being See the AARP home page for deals, savings tips, trivia and more

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Yesterday we featured a book about tarantulas and asked some questions about them, Today we have the answers to those questions, using the illustration. (Photograph by Jason van den Bemd) 1. Find the legs and count them. Are there eight legs? Yes, tarantulas have eight legs like other spiders and arachnids. 2. What are those two appendages in front of the tarantula? Those two shorter appendages at the front of the tarantula are not legs. They are called pedipalps. They are used for various purposes other than walking. 3. Can you find the eyes? Do you know how many eyes a tarantula has? Is this more than, less than or the same number as other spiders? Tarantulas have eight small eyes. That is the same number as most spiders. One exception is the brown recluse, which has only six eyes. 4. Where are the spinnerets to make silk? Tarantulas have spinnerets at the back of the abdomen. In this photograph they only show as a slight bump. Both males and females make silk. They use it to line their burrows. Tarantulas do not make elaborate webs. 5. Is this a male or female spider? How can you tell? Based on the fact this spider was found out wandering around and that it has extensive black coloring on its legs and abdomen, it is reasonable to assume it is a male. Mature male tarantulas have a hook on the tibia of the front leg, which is not visible in the photograph. How did you do? Are you a tarantula expert? Be sure to let me know if you have any other questions about tarantulas.

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These simple outdoor activities are great for keeping kids of different ages active and entertained, while spending time together! When the warm weather starts and school breaks begin, kids of different ages can suddenly find themselves spending time together . . . and thinking, “What now?” Whether you’re having a multi-family playdate or your kids aren’t sure what they have in common with the other children in the neighborhood, these timeless outdoor activities could be the answer! - Beanbag Toss: Use sidewalk chalk to draw throw lines at different distances from the target, for children of different ages. (You might even let toddlers walk up to the game and drop their bean bag in each hole, or to place their beanbag on the sticky target!) - Water Play: With supplies as simple as a wide plastic bowl (or water table), a collection of cups and a garden sprinkler, older children can experiment and learn about volume and cause-and-effect, while younger kids develop fine motor skills and enjoy a cooling, sensory splash. Of course, one of the coolest things about water is that it’s used to make BUBBLES . . . Let the shimmery magical fun begin! - Hopscotch: Older children can get a game going with a few sticks of chalk and play together, according to traditional directions (toss a marker into the number squares in order, hopping to pick it up each time without stepping out); younger children can take a turn tossing a marker anywhere on the game, or just hopping from square to square. Sidewalk chalk and a little imagination can take outdoor play time almost anywhere! - Sand Play: No matter their skill level, children of all ages can play in the sand together! If your demo-minded toddler and architect big kid have different ideas about how to treat a sandcastle, try introducing play figures instead of building tools for a dino dig, moon landing or other imaginative play. - Nature Walk & Hunt: Each person uses a pair of binoculars (real or crafted out of toilet-paper rolls) or a magnifying glass to find something in the yard. With older children, you can play a guessing game or challenge them to spot smaller objects such as a bird’s nest. Younger children will enjoy playing along, counting items in broader categories, such as trees or flowers. You can easily turn your adventure into a real game with this printable nature bingo game sheet! What are some of your child’s favorite outdoor activities? Join the conversation in the comments section below! Shop the Story At Melissa & Doug we strive to produce the highest quality educational toys for children. From puzzles to puppets, plush to play food, magnetic activities, music and more, Melissa & Doug is one of the leading designers and manufacturers of educational toys and children’s products. Started in 1988 in their garage, Melissa & Doug has something for everyone, with over 1000 unique and exciting products for children of all ages.

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Your kids may soon have a day off from school so their teachers can participate in a Professional Development Day, but do not assume this day need only be for the teachers‘ professional development! Take the day to learn about different professions with your child. It’s a great opportunity for him to see and appreciate the many ways in which people work to earn a living and develop their skills, abilities, and talents. Plus, you never know, he just may find something he wants to be when he grows up and will learn what he needs to do to achieve his goal! To start your Professional Development (P.D.) Day, print off several pages of this worksheet (click here to download) and store them in a folder or binder. This will be where he keeps everything he’s learned about each profession. Since they are blank, he may select any occupation he wishes to observe and record – take it while you are out and about running errands, and he can write about what the cashier does, or what the bank teller’s role is, or why the garbage collector’s job is so important. Head to the library or internet to look up even more information about the jobs he is interested in. You can help to make it even more interesting by gathering up some toys or costumes to help him role-play as many jobs as possible – he can do nothing better to know if he likes a particular profession or not than by learning on the job! While there are a plethora of professions out there to be explored, we’ve been focusing on the following (and they seem to be pretty popular answers to the question “What do you want to be when you grow up?”): Train Engineer: Any mother of boys will most likely come across this at some point in the early years, but I know many girls who also love to play with trains! A train engineer costume and a train set, even if it’s made from paper tracks and a wooden-block train, are perfect for setting the stage. Get to know the different parts of a train. In what ways could they break down or wreck? How might they be fixed? Should the train go fast or slow going down hill? Role-play a day in the life of a train and discover the many important things they need to do, both passenger trains, and freight trains. Cowboy: Be a cowboy or cowgirl for a day! Dress up in a cowboy costume and visit a farm or petting zoo, or simply pull out a favorite farm/animal book or fold & go barn. Anything that will help them learn about animals or crops will work well. What do you know about crop rotation or pivots? Why are they important? What kids of things to the different animals on the farm eat? How often to they need to be fed and what else does and farmer or cowboy need to do to take care of them? Why is it important that we have farms? Fire Chief: Not only is this a good activity for learning about what a fire chief and other firefighters do, but it’s a perfect opportunity to talk about fire safety and how serious the dangers of fire can be. We used this fire rescue set to role-play what happens in a house fire, and then spent some time talking about what our family fire plan would be – what to do (stop, drop, roll), how to get out of the house, etc. Professional Chef: A few months ago, I posted about a Kid’s Restaurant activity in which we dressed up as a chef, learned about different types of food, how they are good for us, and role-played being a chef in a restaurant. To take it a step further, we’ve since made simple kid-friendly recipes in the kitchen to learn more about what foods taste good together as well as some techniques, such as how to measure, how to use a rolling pin, and how to follow a recipe. Construction Worker: Did you know that a career in construction requires more than just manual labor? It can require math for carpenters, computer skills for workers using heavy machinery, and chemistry for welders, amongst many other skills required. So gather a hard hat and construction worker costume and get to work learning about all the ins and outs of specific types of construction. Or simply let him enjoy the satisfaction that comes with having built something himself using building blocks, or a wooden tool kit. Doctor: What does a doctor do? Well, there are many different kinds of doctors. You could learn about and role-play what doctors do generally, but there are variations on what they do specifically depending on the type of doctor you’re researching. Do you want to learn about family doctors, ER doctors, pediatricians, etc? It may be beneficial to first learn about all the different types of doctors before going into what they do and what kind of training and education they require. Police Officer: Young children may think that a police officer’s only role is to put people in jail. And while that is certainly one of their responsibilities, they are also there to make sure people are safe and to enforce the rules. Have your child make a list of rules that need to be followed in your community – obey the speed limit, wear seat-belts, no stealing, etc. While police officers ensure that people are obeying the rules, or laws, of you city they are also there to keep people safe, help people who are hurt, and help find people who may be lost. Veterinarian: At first glance, a veterinarian costume may look like the same thing regular doctors wear. But what is the difference between what they do every day? While doctors help people stay healthy, veterinarians help animals to stay healthy. Many children love animals, so build on that interest and learn about as many different animals as possible. If you have a pet in your house, give your child some responsibility when it comes to taking care of it. If you don’t have a pet in your house, stuffed animals are a great substitute! By exposing your child to the many different professions and their roles in society, he will become more aware of what might be available for him in the future, and also what it takes to make a community run smoothly. Every job is important and is worth learning about! Katie Heap is the author of Live Craft Eat–a place where she writes about her 3 loves: raising her family, her crafting endeavors, and learning to cook. You can subscribe to her blog or follow Live Craft Eat on Pinterest and Facebook. PIN this Post! Shop the Story

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Pruitt-Igoe was taken down in stages, beginning in 1972. Video of the demolition was broadcast around the world. What happened in those brief intervening years is the subject of a new documentary, “The Pruitt-Igoe Myth: An Urban History.” Star-Ledger editorial writer Linda Ocasio spoke with filmmaker Chad Freidrichs. Q. What inspired you to make the documentary? A. My wife, Jaime, and I were decorating our first house and reading a lot about Modernist architecture and design. I came across Pruitt-Igoe while listening to an audio lecture about architecture and the city. Pruitt-Igoe was billed as this giant failure of Modernism, where the design had led to social collapse. When I learned that this housing project was actually in St. Louis, I got really excited because I went to high school on the outskirts of St. Louis, but I had never heard of Pruitt-Igoe. Q. What did you discover in your research? A. I came to understand that there were far deeper issues than the project’s design. Pruitt-Igoe had to be placed in its social, economic, legislative contexts if you really wanted to understand what happened. So, the lesson I took from all of this is the danger of oversimplifying, and the tendency in discussions of Pruitt-Igoe to try to find one scapegoat, especially when it fits neatly into a preformed narrative, whether about architecture, welfare programs or urban poverty. Q. What was the biggest surprise? A. For me — and I think this hits everyone who watches the film — it’s that fathers were encouraged by Missouri welfare policy to leave the home. You had situations where families were destroyed by a public policy. In addition, I learned how deeply embedded segregation was into the city officials’ vision of St. Louis public housing. What else did you learn? Rising crime was an issue, not just in Pruitt-Igoe, but throughout St. Louis and nationwide during these years. The picture of crime-ridden Pruitt-Igoe isn’t the whole picture. Plenty of people in the projects were living relatively normal lives. But most discussions of Pruitt-Igoe focus strictly on the criminal behavior; this stigmatizes the projects and the people who live in them. The broader lesson is that there was a social commitment to public housing initially because it was intended for working- and middle-class people. When public housing became a poor person’s project, that social commitment evaporated. I don’t think that’s an accident. Q. Would anyone build on that scale again? A. In order to understand Pruitt-Igoe’s scale, you have to look at the context. St. Louis wanted to see itself as a big city, like Chicago or New York. The way forward was to build new and to build big. And, in a very practical sense, it was needed. St. Louis was overcrowded in 1945, with migrants streaming in. The city desperately needed more housing. But shortly after Pruitt-Igoe’s construction, the city’s population crashed because of suburbanization. St. Louis lost half of its population in a generation. Rents went down, vacancies went up. And Pruitt-Igoe was deeply hit by these changes. For a variety of reasons, it could no longer attract tenants, so vacancy became a huge issue. Those large, vacant buildings have so much to do with the vandalism and crime that are associated with Pruitt-Igoe. The large scale, by itself, wasn’t the issue. The large scale, relative to the dwindling population, became a huge problem. Q. You gave former residents a chance to recall their happy memories of living in Pruitt-Igoe. A. There’s been a tendency to focus on one extreme or another, usually the negative. We tried to show the good times and the bad. There’s certainly a sadness about its decline. And that downward trajectory can be horrifying. But to say that Pruitt-Igoe was a downward spiral and nothing more is to oversimplify the variety of experience of life lived in the projects.

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Stand with Sportsmen and Conservationists for Clean Water Whether you’re an angler, hunter or wildlife viewer — or, perhaps like many of us, are all three — you understand the importance of watery habitats for wildlife. These habitats not only include the obvious, such as larger rivers and lakes, but also the water bodies we don’t see as often. Headwater streams provide important spawning and rearing habitat for fish, while wetlands are utilized for breeding, rearing, and migrating by waterfowl. Both wetlands and headwater streams help provide important drinking water for wildlife and people of all shapes and sizes.Unfortunately, over the past decade, safeguards for many streams, lakes and wetlands have steadily eroded. Two Supreme Court decisions and subsequent administrative guidance in the 2000s removed Clean Water Act protections for at least 20 million acres of wetlands, allowing for the pollution and degradation of much critical habitat that was previously protected. The recently proposed rule by the Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ensures the Clean Water Act once again safeguards many — but not all — streams, lakes, and wetlands that had lost protections due to the court decisions. There’s a great deal of misinformation out there about what the rule actually does and does not do. Attacks against the proposed rule are primarily based on exaggeration and extreme worst-case scenarios, and often have very little grounding in actual fact. Many are just plain false. Politically, these attacks have included a proposed rider to a Senate spending bill, a recently introduced Senate bill, and a charged House hearing on the subject, among others. Despite what the opposition says, the proposed rule doesn’t protect all waters of the U.S. and doesn’t change the definition of navigability. It does provide exemptions for many farming, timber and other land-use activities, and leaves many important waters at risk to these operations. The proposed rule is a compromise solution that restores protections for some wildlife habitats but also ensures many protections for landowners. Getting this proposed rule passed and implemented is an important battle for everyone that cares about wildlife and clean water. It’s also vitally important that sportsmen and sportswomen be involved. Rarely have so many sporting organizations come together on a common cause as they are with this one. Back in 2008, Congress had the opportunity to act, but didn’t, and again sportsmen are united to achieve administratively what Congress has been unable or unwilling to do legislatively. If you’re an angler and/or hunter wondering if your voice matters, you need look no further than this struggle. Know that you do matter and can make a difference, even during these days of political polarization and corporate spending. Sportsmen engagement likely kept the Senate rider from derailing the proposed rule in June. In fact, shortly after the rider was defeated, President Obama, said “I am going to stand with sportsmen and conservationists against members of Congress who want to dismantle the Clean Water Act.” It’s been decades since there’s been a federal conservation action as significant for trout fishing and duck hunting as the current proposed Clean Water Act rule. These clarifications of an already existing law are currently open for public comment and are already under heavy attack, so now is a critical time to show your support for the habitat ducks, fish, and our outdoor traditions depend on. Take a stand with other sportsmen and conservationists: support the proposed Clean Water Act rule.

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Alright, the title is a little of a stretch. However, the efforts of Mackenzie Cowell and Jason Bobe have demonstrated that hacking biology can and may some day become as common as hacking away on your computer (think positive!). A recent article in the Boston Globe lists some of the issues related to doing biological work from home and how there are rules and regulations that need updating and revision. Unlike hacking on your computer, biological work usually generates waste that may (or may not) be harmful and work is not as “straight-forward” as coding. The movement is getting much of its steam from synthetic biology, a field of science that seeks to make working with cells and genes more like building circuits by creating standardized biological parts. Although it’s not as simple as it’s portrayed, synthetic biology does allow for genetic transformation of bacteria and other types of cells with great ease, however it should not be something taken lightly and performed by amateurs. Or should it? What is your opinion about DIY Bio? I’d love to hear your opinion.

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When you’re a new parent rocking a screaming infant in your arms at 2 a.m., you begin to wonder, Will he ever sleep through the night? A new study indicates that most babies are capable of “sleeping through the night” by three months. (This means they’re sleeping between five and eight hours. Anyone find this hard to believe?) In the past most pediatricians have told parents they should expect their babies to get a full night’s sleep by 12 months, so the findings in this study are surprising. The researchers asked 75 new parents to keep diaries tracking their babies’ sleep habits for six days each month for a year. Parents were also invited to shoot time-lapse video of their children’s sleep so researchers could monitor the accuracy of the diaries. The study’s purpose was to determine whether new babies could actually sleep through the night. Researchers looked at three different criterion: Sleeping uninterrupted from midnight till 5 a.m., sleeping uninterrupted for eight hours, or sleeping uninterrupted from 10 p.m to 6 a.m. More than half of the infants were able to sleep from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. by five months. The researchers didn’t collect data on whether the infants were breast- or bottle-fed. Nor did they track the specific methods and techniques parents were using to put their children to sleep. Although the researchers did conclude that parents should develop a sleep routine by the time an infant reaches 1 month. The study was published in the November edition of the journal Pediatrics.

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The Washington Post has noted the Neanderthal research of SMU archaeology graduate student Metin I. Eren in a new article “Neanderthals reimagined” that looks out the changing scientific interpretation of humans ancestors. Reporter Marc Kaufman in the Oct. 5 article Neanderthals reimagined cites Eren’s 2007 research as some of the scientific evidence showing Neanderthals were smarter than once thought, and more like sisters and brothers to modern humans, rather than cousins, as previously perceived. By Marc Kaufman The Washington Post Scientists are broadly rethinking the nature, skills and demise of the Neanderthals of Europe and Asia, steadily finding more ways that they were substantially like us and quite different from the limited, unchanging and ultimately doomed inferiors most commonly described in the past. The latest revision involves Neanderthals who lived in southern Italy from about 42,000 to 35,000 years ago, a group that had to face fast-changing climate conditions that required them to adapt. And that, says anthropologist Julien Riel-Salvatore, is precisely what they did: fashioning new hunting tools, targeting more-elusive prey and even wearing identifying ornaments and body painting. Traditional Neanderthal theory has it that they changed their survival strategies only when they came into contact with more-modern early humans. But Riel-Salvatore, a professor at the University of Colorado at Denver writing in the Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, says that was not the case in southern Italy. “What we know is that the more-modern humans lived in northern Italy, more-traditional Neanderthals lived in middle Italy, and this group that adapted to a changing world was in the south — out of touch with the northern group,” he said. … Research debunking the position that Neanderthals were “cognitively inferior” comes from Daniel Adler of the University of Connecticut and Metin Eren of Southern Methodist University. In 2006, Adler described evidence that Neanderthals hunted just as well as Homo sapiens, even if their weapons were less sophisticated. In 2007, Eren replicated the making of Neanderthal disc-shaped tools, or “flakes,” and found they were in some ways more efficient than Homo sapiens’ blade-based tools. Both researchers said that while the Neanderthals did not make the transition to more advanced tools — which generations of researchers saw as proof of Homo sapiens’ superiority — they were nonetheless well adapted to their environment.

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UI, UX, IA, IxD, UCD, HCI . . . There seems to be a lot of confusion around User Experience Design, what it does, why it is important and how it is different from User Interface Design. This last point is often combined with calls for rules or SOPs to guide developers in creating good user experiences. While there are certainly guidelines and design patterns for creating digital interfaces, these are by no means prescriptive. User Experience Design is about crafting the potential for a great interaction between a user and his/her tool. This interaction, however, is highly dependent on the situation; the environment, type of user, interaction modes, visual language, and especially the user themselves. The consequence of this web of interconnected dependencies is that there are no hard and fast rules. There are, however, some concepts which all User Experience and Interaction Designers strive to achieve through the use of the visual elements and principles of design. This is an fantastic talk and interesting article on internet personalization filtering that happens automatically. By doing this ‘invisible’ filtering, search engines are usurping the control from the user. While the smart algorithm filtering is very helpful, it has to be made visible. Any time a system utilizes automation, that automation must be communicated to all parts of the system – especially the human user (see airplane crashes for the result of that lack of communication in extreme cases). Users often interact with similar content in different ways. Online news content is a good area to see this clearly. And it is getting a lot of attention these days following the release of the Pew Report on “Navigating News Online.” Some people are casual browsers, visiting sites and stories suggested by their social network. Some people are occasional users, checking in with a news website once a week. There are mobile users who consume immense amounts of content through their mobile device. Others are power users – super consumers who visit several sites, get massive amounts of content, often on a computer, and share that content with others. Then there are people like me. I consider myself a multi-channel regular user: I consume news content in several different ways (email digest, through websites, rss feeds, and apps on my phone) at least once a day. I never though about why I interacted with similar sites and content in different ways until reading some of the recent articles about the ways people consume news. How can we know if interaction design is successful? Being an interaction designer, I think about this often. Moreover, I think about how we discuss these questions. Many designers evaluate designs on an instinctive level and when they attempt to externalize their thoughts, it ends up sounding like “I just know users will hate that.” How then do designers discuss interactions in a credible way? How does one evaluate interaction design? Why do I know users will hate that (whatever that is)? How Mere Words Can Shape Enterprise Trajectory Businesses at all levels are beginning to actively engage with the problems of user experience because they have seen the profound effects of excellent interactions with customers: more re-purchasers, more customer referrals, greater customer loyalty, etc. The list of benefits goes on and on. I’m not going to discuss the need for interaction design and customer experience management right now. Research shows that “90% of companies feel that customer experience is very important or critical in 2010, and 80% intend to use it as competitive differentiation.”1 Most companies understand that need and those that don’t will soon be left behind. Hello world indeed! I’m just getting this blog set up, so it may be a few days before my first real post. The purpose of this blog is to discuss interaction design and it’s impact on user and customer experience, especially within enterprise environments. I’ll be blogging from my perspective as an Enterprise Interaction Designer with Adobe Systems, but remember, this is a personal blog, so my views do not necessarily reflect the views of Adobe. One of my goals with this blog is to impact the discussion of users here at Adobe, but also participate in the greater conversation on interaction in the design world, so comments (that can add to our conversation) are welcome. I look forward to sharing with you.

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The evolutionary history of lions is opaque, as most of the sub-species that once roamed the Old World are now extinct. However new research, published in BMC Evolutionary Biology, uses ancient DNA from extinct lions to piece together the gaps in their history. The findings provide both a new understanding of the lion’s past and may provide new insight into how to conserve what remain for the future. Lions once roamed across the world. Until relatively recently, various sub-species could be found across Africa and all the way from the Indian subcontinent, through the Middle East and into modern day Greece and Turkey. Visitors to the British Museum in London can see engravings from Assyria (in modern day Iraq) made as recently as 635BC of large scale lion hunting by the local people (see picture). Sadly these hunts, and others like them, were rather too successful. Along with increasing human encroachment on their habitats, persecution has resulted in the virtual extinction of lions outside of sub-Saharan Africa. The Asian lion lives on only through a small and highly endangered Indian population of approximately 400 individuals; all other lions outside of sub-Saharan Africa are extinct. These recent extinctions create problems for our understanding of the evolutionary history of lions. Such an understanding is desirable not just to satisfy our curiosity about these charismatic animals, but also to help focus efforts for conserving those lions that still remain. Yet sampling only those lion populations that are still in existence inevitably gives an incomplete – and perhaps misleading – impression of this species history. Well then, suggests new research recently published in BMC Evolutionary Biology, why not use what remains of extinct lions to fill the gaps in their history? Origins of the ancients A worldwide team of researchers, led by Ross Barnett of Durham University, searched museums across Europe to locate bone or tissue specimens from extinct lions, in order to extract their DNA. Samples from extinct lions originally living in West, Central and North Africa, as well as some from the Middle East, were tracked down, of which a number had somewhat unusual origins. Two skull fragments from North African Barbary lions, now housed in London’s Natural History Museum, were originally found underneath the Tower of London during building work, presumably remnants of the Tower’s medieval Royal menagerie. Extracting mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from these museum samples and combining the DNA with 74 previously published mtDNA sequences from existing lion populations in Africa and Asia enabled the authors to estimate both the relatedness of these different populations (ancient and modern) as well as the likely dates they separated from one another. Consistent with previous analyses, the researchers find that the most likely origin of lions is eastern-southern Africa. What’s new is the estimated date for the migration of lions out of Africa and into Asia. Previous research, based only on existing populations, suggested that this occurred at least 74,000 years ago and perhaps as long as 500,000 years ago. This new work suggests that the exodus of lions out of Africa occurred a mere 21,000 years ago. The additional use of ancient DNA from extinct populations has then resulted in substantially different conclusions from studies using living lions only. Out of Africa This data also allows the likely course of this migration to be mapped. The results suggest that, having initially arisen in East Africa, lions migrated to West and Central Africa approximately 120,000 years ago; climatic change then separated these two populations. The authors analysis suggests these western populations were the pioneers who migrated into North Africa and from there into Asia, Europe and the Middle East (see figure 3 for more details). Genetically then, modern day lion populations in West and Central Africa appear to be more closely related to existing Asian Lions (and all those now extinct populations in-between) than they are to East African lions. Given that these West and Central African lion populations are close to extinction in the wild, this has potentially important implications for lion conservation. Currently, all African lions are considered to represent just one conservation unit, with Asian lions making up a second. The authors strongly suggest that this dichotomy now needs to be revised. Central and West African lions are actually more closely related to Asian lions and, to preserve as much lion diversity as possible, extra attention needs to be given to these populations. This research then, does not just change our perceptions of the lion’s past but may also change our perception of how to safeguard its future as well. Ancient DNA comes of age These results come with caveats. All these findings are based on maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA which, as the researchers readily admit, cannot be considered as accurate as phylogenetic analyses based on biparentally inherited nuclear DNA. This is a particular concern in species like lions, where it is males that migrate between populations, while females usually remain with the group of their mother. Of course the reason for using mtDNA is that it is easier to extract successfully from difficult samples like bone fragments than nuclear DNA. Perhaps in the future next generation sequencing techniques will enable the extraction of nuclear DNA from such samples with sufficient quality to confirm the authors results. Even without this confirmation, it remains extraordinary that we can reach back into the past and utilise the DNA of animals dead many centuries, whose entire sub-species are no longer found anywhere on earth. Ancient DNA studies have the potential to explain the diversity of the past and, perhaps, help us conserve it for the future.

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http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcseriesblog/2014/04/08/ancient-dna-reveals-the-lions-past-and-perhaps-future/

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en

The glaciers that shine at the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest peak in Africa, could vanish entirely within 15 years, according to a somber new report. Says glaciologist Lonnie Thompson: “Of the ice cover present in 1912 … 85% has disappeared and 26% of that present in 2000 is now gone” [USA Today]. The mountaintop glaciers are both shrinking around the edges and growing thinner, Thompson’s team found. If the current rate of ice loss continues, the mountain could be ice free as early as 2022. Thompson says his team has fresh evidence that global warming is to blame. As similar changes are occurring on other mountains in Africa, South America, and in the Himalayas, Thompson says that global climate change, not local weather effects, must be responsible for the receding ice. “The fact that so many glaciers throughout the tropics and subtropics are showing similar responses suggests an underlying common cause,” Thompson said [AP]. For the study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the researchers used maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images to track the ice’s retreat over the last century, and also looked at data from instruments implanted in the glaciers in 2000. Some previous researchers have argued that Kilimanjaro’s glaciers are disappearing because of what they viewed as local factors, namely less snowfall and more sublimation, which turns ice directly into water vapor. But Thompson found that higher temperatures are melting the ice, and he also argues that the drier and less cloudy conditions leading to sublimation on Tanzania’s Kilimanjaro are part of a suite of changes driven by global warming. “You change the temperature profile of this planet, you are going to change precipitation and cloudiness and humidity and temperature,” he said. “Those are all part of climate change. And so to say that that Kilimanjaro is not responding to global climate change is untrue” [National Geographic News]. If the glaciers disappear entirely, it will make an anachronism of a great piece of literature. The “snows of Kilimanjaro” were made famous in the Ernest Hemingway short story of that name in 1938, in which the main character notices “as wide as all the world, great, high and unbelievably white in the sun, was the square top of Kilimanjaro” [USA Today]. 80beats: 2 Trillion Tons of Polar Ice Lost in 5 Years, and Melting Is Accelerating 80beats: From Yellowstone’s Hills to Walden Pond’s Woods, Evidence of Global Warming 80beats: Global Warming Threatens Tropical Species, Too 80beats: Plants “Climb” Mountains to Escape Global Warming Image: Lonnie G. Thompson / Ohio State University

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http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2009/11/03/the-snows-of-kilimanjaro-could-be-gone-by-2022/

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By: Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D. It has been 11 years since Congress passed the Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act mandating the creation of the Office of Pediatric Therapeutics (OPT) at FDA. But it has been light years in terms of the progress we have made to ensure that children have access to innovative, safe and effective medical products. Increasingly, parents can rest assured that the medications they give their children have been tested—in children—in scientifically necessary and ethical clinical trials. OPT’s Pediatric Advisory Committee has reviewed over 200 products for their safety when used by children. Today, nearly 500 drug and biologic products have been improved by including, in their labeling, information describing safety, effectiveness and, where appropriate, dosing relating to use of the product in children. We’ve come a long way. And as director of OPT since 2003, pediatrician Dianne Murphy, M.D., has led the charge. It is because of her indefatigable work on behalf of children that the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has bestowed on Dr. Murphy its Excellence in Public Service Award (EPSA) “representing the highest honor awarded…to a public servant for distinguished service to the nation’s children, adolescents and young adults.” In the letter informing Dr. Murphy of this honor, AAP says her work at FDA “has profoundly improved the lives of children in the U.S. and around the world through increased access to needed therapeutics.” I couldn’t agree more. For many years before Dr. Murphy began her tenure at FDA, the playing field badly needed leveling when it came to safety in children’s drugs. Very few drugs—even those meant solely for children’s use— were actually tested on children. For one thing, some drug companies, eager to get their new products out while they still held exclusivity (that is, the period of time during which generic drugs cannot be developed), were reluctant to take the time or go to the expense. Many people, too, felt it was unethical to use children as so-called “guinea pigs.” Without the information gained from testing children in clinical trials, health care professionals and parents alike could only guess when trying to gauge the correct dosages for children. This was an enormous problem. Children are vulnerable. Their organs are developing, and they are experiencing physical changes that affect how a drug is metabolized. As Dr. Murphy has often said, guessing at the dose just doesn’t work. Children must be studied if we are to give them safe and effective treatments. The sea change began ten years before her arrival at FDA, when AIDS was entering the public consciousness. Dr. Murphy has told me that at the time, she was treating children in her practice who were dying of AIDS because there were no drugs available specifically to address their unique needs. Based on that hard lesson, a major priority when she came to FDA was to ensure that drugs for children first be tested in children in clinical trials. Dr. Murphy has worked with FDA scientists and reviewers to ensure that pediatric studies are rigorously designed and conducted in accord with current scientific understanding of the characteristics that make children unique. And she has championed FDA’s involvement in the international arena, where FDA has emerged as a leader in regulatory thinking. In achieving this honor, Dr. Murphy is in very good company. She shares it with such distinguished former honorees as First Lady Michelle Obama, the late Sen. Edward M. Kennedy, Rep. Henry Waxman, former FDA Commissioner David A. Kessler, and National Institutes of Health Director Francis S. Collins. At FDA, we offer our congratulations, and our thanks. Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D., is Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration

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http://blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2013/05/honoring-an-fda-champion-of-safe-treatments-for-children

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By: Jonathan Goldsmith, M.D., F.A.C.P. If you personally know 100 people living in the U.S., chances are that almost 10 will suffer from some form of a rare disease. If that makes it sound like rare diseases are not actually very rare in this country, that’s because there are 7,000 different rare diseases, 80% of which are caused by faulty genes. A rare disease is defined as a condition that affects fewer than 200,000 people living in the U.S., a country with almost 320 million people. When we do the math, it turns out there are roughly 30 million Americans who suffer from a rare disease. And sadly, about 50% are children. With the vast majority of rare diseases still without FDA-approved treatments, we have recently released a new resource for drug developers — a draft guidance document — designed to help them navigate the difficult and unique challenges of developing and bringing to market new FDA-approved drugs to treat rare diseases. When it comes to finding ways to test new treatments for rare diseases, we often cannot rely on the same methods that we use for testing treatments for more common, well-known diseases, such as diabetes or high blood pressure. Here’s why: In rare diseases, new drug development is especially challenging due to the small numbers of people affected by each disease, the lack of medical understanding of the disorder (because relatively few people suffer from it), and the lack of well-defined study results (endpoints) that can demonstrate that a potential treatment for a rare disease is safe and effective. The new draft guidance is intended to help drug developers create more accurate and timely drug development programs by encouraging - a focus on understanding a disease’s “natural history,” - creation of study designs with clinically meaningful endpoints, - development of evidence needed to establish safety and effectiveness, - and the establishment of drug manufacturing specifications to ensure quality. It is also important to note that FDA regulations provide flexibility in applying regulatory standards because of the many types and intended uses of drugs. Such flexibility is particularly important for treatments for life-threatening and severely-debilitating illnesses and rare diseases. Our guidance document will help us build on the gains we’ve made in helping patients with rare diseases. Since the passage of the Orphan Drug Act in 1983, the number of new requests for orphan designation has continued to rise. In 2014 we saw 469 requests, the highest number of new requests in one year. Also in 2014, an unprecedented 41 percent of all novel new drugs (17 of 41) approved by FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research were for the treatment of rare diseases. Our guidance document is intended to encourage drug developers to think early on in the process about all aspects of their program — and encourages careful planning which includes a foundation in strong science. Drug developers for rare diseases are often pioneers. Pioneers need maps and tools to guide them. We see this guidance as another important resource to help support their efforts. FDA is committed to working with all drug developers and stakeholders to establish successful drug development programs that include regulatory flexibility, creative approaches and a scientifically sound basis. Jonathan Goldsmith, M.D., F.A.C.P., is FDA’s Associate Director, Rare Diseases Program, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research

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http://blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2015/09/another-tool-helping-developers-navigate-the-difficult-road-to-approval-of-drugs-for-rare-diseases/

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This past month brought dramatic, though not unexpected relief to 33 drought-stricken counties in Minnesota. The frequent and abundant May rainfall was the most since 2004 and marked an emphatic end to seven months of severe drought in parts of Minnesota. Some areas received over three times the normal May rainfall amounts. Based on aggregate averages from cooperative weather station observations May of 2012 shows a statewide mean value for total rainfall of 5.82 inches. Using similar averaging techniques (though numbers of climate stations vary across years), May of 2012 ranks 4th all-time in average total rainfall for the state. The higher ranked years include: 1908 with 5.94 inches; 1962 with 6.06 inches; and 1938 with 6.24 inches. Besides replenishing soil moisture values, the abundant rainfall helped to restore most Minnesota watersheds to normal or above normal flow volumes. The exceptions seem to be some of the watersheds in the northwest that feed the Red River. They observed somewhat below normal rainfall during the month, For specific flow data on individual watersheds you can use the DNR stream hydrology web site.

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http://blogs.mprnews.org/updraft/2012/06/statewide_perspective_on_may_r/

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IOM hopes landmark trial will help stem child trafficking from Haiti When authorities from the Dominican Republic raided several houses in a poor residential neighbourhood last year in the capital city Santo Domingo, they found 44 children crammed in rooms, some sitting on the floor, others huddled under beds, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM). After the raid, 22 of the children were identified as victims of child trafficking, and this month two child traffickers received 15-year prison sentences for the smuggling, trafficking and labour exploitation of Haitian children after a historic trial. It is the first time Haitian traffickers have been jailed in the Dominican Republic for trafficking children, IOM said in a statement. “Parents were convinced their children were being taken for a better life in Santo Domingo and even to Miami,” IOM spokesperson Zoe Stopak-Behr told AlertNet, adding that all the money the children earned was taken by their traffickers. IOM returned the children to their families in Haiti, and also provided technical support and training to local state prosecutors during the trial, she added. “The Dominicans had been criticised for some time now for not bringing many trafficking cases to trial,” Stopak-Behr said. “The conviction is extremely important for prevention. It shows that there is a penalty for trafficking and that the Dominican authorities are working. We hope it will have a preventative effect and help stop the constant flow of children into the Dominican Republic.” At least 2,000 Haitian children were trafficked across the porous and poorly controlled border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic in 2009, according to UNICEF, the United Nations Children’s Fund. Haitian children are a frequent sight on the streets of Santo Domingo, and are often seen begging, shoe shining and washing car windscreens at traffic lights. Thousands of Haitian child domestic servants – known in Haitian Creole as “restaveks” – are also thought to be working in the Dominican Republic, according to IOM. UNPOL, the U.N. Police Division, says it has stepped up patrols along the 366 km (227 mile) border to combat child trafficking, a problem that worsened following the massive 7.0 magnitude earthquake that hit Haiti in 2010, according to both UNICEF and IOM. The disaster left hundreds of thousands of families homeless and pushed countless more Haitians into extreme poverty, forcing more families to send their children to Haiti’s wealthier Caribbean neighbour in search of work and a better life. “The number of cases of child victims of trafficking identified has most certainly increased since the 2010 earthquake,” Stopak-Behr said. “It’s impossible to determine whether this is due to an actual increase of human trafficking or just the result of greater attention and training on the subject,” she added. (Editing by Julie Mollins) Picture credit: An immigrant child from Haiti cleans the windshield of a car before asking for money on the streets of Santo Domingo, June 29, 2011. REUTERS/Eduardo Munoz

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http://blogs.reuters.com/the-human-impact/2012/06/14/iom-hopes-landmark-trial-will-help-stem-child-trafficking-from-haiti/

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About the TNM System The TNM system is the most widely used means for classifying the extent of cancer spread. TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours, Seventh Edition provides the new, internationally agreed-upon standards to describe and categorize cancer stages and progression. This guide contains important new and updated organ-specific classifications that oncologists and other professionals who treat patients with cancer must use to adequately classify tumours for prognosis and treatment. This introduction provides a history of the TNM system, the principles of the classification of cancers and general rules of the TNM system applicable to all sites. Headings used in the TNM system to classify tumours for specific anatomical regions and sites are also provided with definitions. The History of the TNM System The TNM System for the classification of malignant tumours was developed by Pierre Denoix (France) between the years 1943 and 19521. In 1950, the UICC appointed a Committee on Tumour Nomenclature and Statistics and adopted, as a basis for its work on clinical stage classification, the general definitions of local extension of malignant tumours suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) Sub-Committee on The Registration of Cases of Cancer as well as Their Statistical Presentation2. In 1953, the Committee held a joint meeting with the International Commission on Stage-Grouping in Cancer and Presentation of the Results of Treatment of Cancer appointed by the International Congress of Radiology. Agreement was reached on a general technique for classification by anatomical extent of the disease, using the TNM system. In 1954, the Research Commission of the UICC set up a special Committee on Clinical Stage Classification and Applied Statistics to "pursue studies in this field and to extend the general technique of classification to cancer at all sites." In 1958, the Committee published the first recommendations for the clinical stage classification of cancers of the breast and larynx and for the presentation of results3. A second publication in 1959 presented revised proposals for the breast, for clinical use and evaluation over a 5-year period (1960-1964)4. Between 1960 and 1967, the Committee published nine brochures describing proposals for the classification of 23 sites. It was recommended that the classification proposals for each site be subjected to prospective or retrospective trial for a 5-year period. In 1968, these brochures were combined in a booklet, the Livre de Poche5 and a year later, a complementary booklet was published detailing recommendations for the setting-up of field trials, for the presentation of end results and for the determination and expression of cancer survival rates6. The Livre de Poche was subsequently translated into 11 languages. In 1974 and 1978, second and third editions7 were published containing new site classifications and amendments to previously published classifications. The third edition was enlarged and revised in 1982. It contained new classifications for selected tumours of childhood. This was carried out in collaboration with La Société Internationale d'Oncologie Pédiatrique (SIOP). A classification of ophthalmic tumours was published separately in 1985. Over the years some users introduced variations in the rules of classification of certain sites. In order to correct this development, the antithesis of standardization, the national TNM committees in 1982 agreed to formulate a single TNM. A series of meetings was held to unify and update existing classifications as well as to develop new ones. The result was the fourth edition of TNM9. In 1993, the project published the TNM Supplement10. The purpose of this work was to promote the uniform use of TNM by providing detailed explanations of the TNM rules with practical examples. It also included proposals for new classifications, and optional expansions of selected categories. A second edition appeared in 2001.11. In 1995, the project published Prognostic Factors in Cancer12, a compilation and discussion of prognostic factors in cancer, both anatomic and nonanatomic, at each of the body sites. This was expanded in the second edition in 2001 with emphasis on the relevance of different prognostic factors. The subsequent third edition in 2006 attempted to refine this by providing evidence-based criteria for relevance. The present seventh edition of TNM Classification contains rules of classification and staging that correspond with those appearing in the seventh edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual (2009) and have approval of all national TNM committees. The UICC recognizes the need for stability in the TNM classification so that data can be accumulated in an orderly way over reasonable periods of time. Accordingly, it is the intention that the classifications published in this booklet should remain unchanged until some major advances in diagnosis or treatment relevant to a particular site requires reconsideration of the current classification. To develop and sustain a classification system acceptable to all requires the closest liaison between national and international committees. Only in this way will all oncologists be able to use a ‘common language’ in comparing their clinical material and in assessing the results of treatment. While the classification is based on published evidence, in areas of controversy it is based on international consensus. The continuing objective of the UICC is to achieve common consent in the classification of anatomical extent of disease. 1. The General Rules of the TNM System1,21.1. General Rule No. 1 All cases should be confirmed microscopically. Any cases not so proved must be reported separately. Microscopic confirmation of choriocarcinoma is not required if the hCG is abnormally elevated. 1.2. General Rule No. 2 Two classifications are described for each site, namely: Biopsy provides the diagnosis, including histological type and grade. The clinical assessment of tumour size should not be based on the biopsy. In general, the cTNM is the basis for the choice of treatment and the pTNM is the basis for prognostic assessment. In addition, the pTNM may determine adjuvant treatment. Comparison between cTNM and pTNM can help in evaluating the accuracy of the clinical and imaging methods used to determine the cTNM. Therefore, it is important to retain the clinical as well as the pathological classification in the medical record. A tumour is primarily described by the clinical classification before treatment or before the decision not to treat. In addition, a pathological classification is performed if specific requirements are met (see Introduction). Therefore, for an individual patient there may be a clinical classification, e.g., T2N1M0 and a pathological classification, e.g., pT2pNXpMX. 1.3. General Rule No. 3 After assigning T, N and M and/or pT, pN and pM categories, these may be grouped into stages. The TNM classification and stage grouping, once established, must remain unchanged in the medical records. The clinical stage is essential to select and evaluate therapy, while the pathological stage provides the most precise data to estimate prognosis and calculate end results. After two surgical procedures for a single lesion, the pTNM classification should be a composite of the histological examination of the specimens from both operations. Example. Initial endoscopic polypectomy of a carcinoma of the ascending colon is classified pT1pNXpMX; the subsequent right hemicolectomy contains two lymph nodes with tumour, and a suspicious metastatic focus in the liver, later found to be a haemangioma, is excised-pT0pN1pM0. The definitive pTNM classification consists of the results of both operative specimens-pTlpN1pM0 (stage III). For final stage grouping clinical and pathological data may be combined when only partial information is available in either the pathological classification or the clinical classification. The example on p. 2 is expressed as pT2cN1cM0 (stage III). For further discussion on the meaning and application of X (e.g. NX, MX). 1.4. General Rule No. 4 If there is doubt concerning the correct T, N or M category to which a particular case should be allotted, then the lower (i.e., less advanced) category should be chosen. This will also be reflected in the stage grouping. If there are different results from different methods, the classification should be based on the most reliable method of assessment. Example. Colorectal carcinoma, preoperative examination of the liver: sonography, suspicious, but no evidence of metastasis; CT, evidence of metastasis. The results of CT determine the classification-Ml. However, if CT were negative, the case would be classified M0. 1.5. General Rule No. 5 |In the case of multiple simultaneous tumours in one organ, the tumour with the highest T category should be classified and the multiplicity or the number of tumours should be indicated in parentheses, e.g., T2(m) or T2(5). In simultaneous bilateral cancers of paired organs, each tumour should be classified independently. In tumours of the thyroid, liver, ovary, and fallopian tube, multiplicity is a criterion of T classification.| The following apply to grossly recognizable multiple primary simultaneous carcinomas at the same site. They do not apply to one grossly detected tumour associated with multiple separate microscopic foci. Multiple synchronous tumours in one organ may be: For (a) the multiplicity should be indicated by the suffix "(m)", e.g. Tis(m). For (b) and (c) the tumour with the highest T category is classified and the multiplicity or the number of invasive tumours is indicated in parentheses, e.g., T2(m) or T2(4). For (c) and (d) the presence of associated carcinoma in situ may be indicated by the suffix "(is)", e.g., T3(m, is) or T2(3, is) or T2(is). For classification of multiple simultaneous tumours in "one organ", the definitions of one organ listed in Table 1 should be applied. The tumours at these sites with the highest T category should be classified and the multiplicity or the number of tumours should be indicated in parentheses, e.g., T2(m) or T2(5). Combining multiple carcinomas of skin should be done only within subsites (C44.1,2, etc). A carcinoma of the skin in subsite C44.3 and a synchronous one in subsite C44.6 and C44.7 should be classified as separate synchronous tumours. Examples of sites for separate classification of two tumours are: Examples for classification of the tumour with the highest T category and indication of multiplicity (m symbol) or numbers of tumours: If a new primary cancer is diagnosed within 2 months in the same site this new cancer is considered synchronous (based on criteria used by the SEER Program of the National Cancer Institute, USA). 2. The Principles of the TNM System The practice of dividing cancer cases into groups according to so-called stages arose from the fact that survival rates were higher for cases in which the disease was localized than for those in which the disease had extended beyond the organ of origin. These groups were often referred to as early cases and late cases, implying some regular progression with time. Actually, the stage of disease at the time of diagnosis may be a reflection not only of the rate of growth and extension of the neoplasm but also of the type of tumour and of the tumour-host relationship. The staging of cancer is hallowed by tradition, and for the purpose of analysis of groups of patients it is often necessary to use such a method. The UICC believes that it is important to reach agreement on the recording of accurate information on the extent of the disease for each site, because the precise clinical description of malignant neoplasms and histopathological classification may serve a number of related objectives, namely - To aid the clinician in the planning of treatment - To give some indication of prognosis - To assist in evaluation of the results of treatment - To facilitate the exchange of information between treatment centres - To contribute to the continuing investigation of human cancer There are many bases or axes of tumour classification: for example, the anatomical site and the clinical and pathological extent of disease, the reported duration of symptoms or signs, the gender and age of the patient, and the histological type and grade. All of these bases or axes represent variables that are known to have an influence on the outcome of the disease. Classification by anatomical extent of disease as determined clinically and histopathologically (when possible) is the one with which the TNM system primarily deals. The clinician's immediate task is to make a judgment as to prognosis and a decision as to the most effective course of treatment. This judgment and this decision require, among other things, an objective assessment of the anatomical extent of the disease. In accomplishing this, the trend is away from "staging" to meaningful description, with or without some form of summarization. To meet the stated objectives a system of classification is needed - whose basic principles are applicable to all sites regardless of treatment; and - which may be supplemented later by information that becomes available from histopathology and/or surgery. 3. The General Rules of the TNM System The TNM system for describing the anatomical extent of disease is based on the assessment of three components: T. The extent of the primary tumour N. The absence or presence and extent of regional lymph node metastasis M. The absence or presence of distant metastasis. The addition of numbers to these three components indicates the extent of the malignant disease, thus: In effect the system is a "shorthand notation" for describing the extent of a particular malignant tumour. The general rules applicable to all sites are as follows: 1. All cases should be confirmed microscopically. Any cases not so proved must be reported separately. 2. Two classifications are described for each site, namely: (a) Clinical classification (Pre-treatment clinical classification), designated TNM (or cTNM). This is based on evidence acquired before treatment. Such evidence arises from physical examination, imaging, endoscopy, biopsy, surgical exploration, and other relevant examinations. (b) Pathological classification (Post-surgical histopathological classification), designated pTNM. This is based on the evidence acquired before treatment, supplemented or modified by the additional evidence acquired from surgery and from pathological examination. The pathological assessment of the primary tumour (pT) entails a resection of the primary tumour or biopsy adequate to evaluate the highest pT category. The pathological assessment of the regional lymph nodes (pN) entails removal of nodes adequate to validate the absence of regional lymph node metastasis (pN0) and sufficient to evaluate the highest pN category. The pathological assessment of distant metastasis (pM) entails microscopic examination. 3. After assigning T, N, and M and/or pT, pN, and pM categories, these may be grouped into stages. The TNM classification and stage grouping, once established, must remain unchanged in the medical records. The clinical stage is essential to select and evaluate therapy, while the pathological stage provides the most precise data to estimate prognosis and calculate end results. 4. If there is doubt concerning the correct T, N, or M category to which a particular case should be allotted, then the lower (i.e., less advanced) category should be chosen. This will also be reflected in the stage grouping. 5. In the case of multiple simultaneous tumours in one organ, the tumour with the highest T category should be classified and the multiplicity or the number of tumours should be indicated in parentheses, e.g., T2 (m) or T2 (5). In simultaneous bilateral cancers of paired organs, each tumour should be classified independently. In tumours of the liver, ovary, and fallopian tube, multiplicity is a criterion of T classification. 6. Definitions of TNM categories and stage grouping may be telescoped or expanded for clinical or research purposes as long as basic definitions recommended are not changed. For instance, any T, N, or M can be divided into subgroups. 4. Anatomical Regions and Sites The sites in this classification are listed by code number of the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology15. Each region or site is described under the following headings: - Rules for classification with the procedures for assessing the T, N, and M categories - Anatomical sites, and subsites if appropriate - Definition of the regional lymph nodes - TNM Clinical classification - pTNM Pathological classification - G Histopathological grading - Stage grouping - Summary for the region or site 5. TNM Clinical ClassificationThe following general definitions are used throughout: 5.1. T - Primary Tumour TX. Primary tumour cannot be assessed T0. No evidence of primary tumour Tis. Carcinoma in situ T1, T2, T3, T4. Increasing size and/or local extent of the primary tumour 5.2. N - Regional Lymph Nodes NX. Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed N0. No regional lymph node metastasis N1. Regional lymph node metastasis 5.3. M - Distant Metastasis MX. Distant metastasis cannot be assessed M0. No distant metastasis M1. Distant metastasis The categories M1 and pM1 may be further specified according to the following notation: 6. pTNM Pathological Classification The following general definitions are used throughout: 6.1. pT - Primary Tumour pTX. Primary tumour cannot be assessed histologically pT0. No histological evidence of primary tumour pTis. Carcinoma in situ pT1, pT2, pT3, pT4. Increasing size and/or local extent of the primary tumour histologically 6.2. pN - Regional Lymph Nodes pNX. Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed histologically pN0. No regional lymph node metastasis histologically pN1, pN2, pN3. Increasing involvement of regional lymph nodes histologically - Direct extension of the primary tumour into lymph nodes is classified as lymph node metastasis. - A tumour nodule in the connective tissue of a lymph drainage area without histologic evidence of residual lymph node is classified in the pN category as a regional lymph node metastasis if the nodule has the form and smooth contour of a lymph node. A tumour nodule with an irregular contour is classified in the pT category, i.e., discontinuous extension. It may also be classified as venous invasion (V classification). - When size is a criterion for pN classification, measurement is made of the metastasis, not of the entire lymph node. - Cases with micrometastasis only, i.e., no metastasis larger than 0.2 cm, can be identified by the addition of "(mi)", e.g., pN1(mi) or pN2(mi) 6.3. Sentinel Lymph Node The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive lymphatic drainage from a primary tumour. If it contains metastatic tumour this indicates that other lymph nodes may contain tumour. If it does not contain metastatic tumour, other lymph nodes are not likely to contain tumour. Occasionally there is more than one sentinel lymph node. The following designations are applicable when sentinel lymph node assessment is attempted: pNX (sn). Sentinel lymph node could not be assessed pN0 (sn). No sentinel lymph node metastasis pN1 (sn). Sentinel lymph node metastasis 6.4. Isolated Tumour Cells Isolated tumour cells (ITC) are single tumour cells or small clusters of cells not more than 0.2 mm in greatest dimension that are usually detected by immunohistochemistry or molecular methods, but which may be verified with H and E stains. ITCs do not typically show evidence of metastatic activity (e.g., proliferation or stromal reaction) or penetration of vascular or lymphatic sinus walls. Cases with ITC in lymph nodes or at distant sites should be classified as N0 or M0, respectively. The same applies to cases with findings suggestive of tumour cells or their components by non-morphologic techniques such as flow cytometry or DNA analysis. These cases should be analysed separately16. Their classification is as follows. pN0. No regional lymph node metastasis histologically, no examination for isolated tumour cells (ITC) pN0(i-). No regional lymph node metastasis histologically, negative morphological findings for ITC pN0(i+). No regional lymph node metastasis histologically, positive morphological findings for ITC pN0(mol-). No regional lymph node metastasis histologically, negative non-morphological findings for ITC pN0(mol+). No regional lymph node metastasis histologically, positive non-morphological findings for ITC Cases with or examined for isolated tumour cells (ITC) in sentinel lymph nodes can be classified as follows: pN0 (i-)(sn). No sentinel lymph node metastasis histologically, negative morphological findings for ITC pN0 (i+)(sn). No sentinel lymph node metastasis histologically, positive morphological findings for ITC pN0 (mol-)(sn). No sentinel lymph node metastasis histologically, negative non-morphological findings for ITC pN0 (mol+)(sn). No sentinel lymph node metastasis histologically, positive non-morphological findings for ITC 6.5. pM - Distant Metastasis pMX. Distant metastasis cannot be assessed microscopically pM0. No distant metastasis microscopically pM1. Distant metastasis microscopically The category pM1 may be further specified in the same way as M1 (see M - Distant Metastasis). Isolated tumour cells found in bone marrow with morphological techniques are classified according to the scheme for N, e.g., M0(i+). For non-morphologic findings "mol" is used in addition to M0, e.g., M0(mol+). 6.6. Subdivisions of pTNM Subdivisions of some main categories are available for those who need greater specificity (e.g., pT1a, 1b or pN2a, 2b). 7. Histopathological Grading In most sites further information regarding the primary tumour may be recorded under the following heading: G - Histopathological Grading GX. Grade of differentiation cannot be assessed G1. Well differentiated G2. Moderately differentiated G3. Poorly differentiated - Grades 3 and 4 can be combined in some circumstances as "G3-4, Poorly differentiated or undifferentiated." - The bone and soft tissue sarcoma classifications also use "high grade" and "low grade." - Special systems of grading are recommended for tumours of breast, corpus uteri, and liver. 8. Additional DescriptorsFor identification of special cases in the TNM or pTNM classification, the m, y, r, and a symbols are used. Although they do not affect the stage grouping, they indicate cases needing separate analysis. m Symbol. The suffix m, in parentheses, is used to indicate the presence of multiple primary tumours at a single site. See TNM rule no. 5. y Symbol. In those cases in which classification is performed during or following initial multimodality therapy, the cTNM or pTNM category is identified by a y prefix. The ycTNM or ypTNM categorizes the extent of tumour actually present at the time of that examination. The y categorization is not an estimate of the extent of tumour prior to multimodality therapy. r Symbol. Recurrent tumours, when classified after a disease-free interval, are identified by the prefix r. a Symbol. The prefix a indicates that classification is first determined at autopsy. 9. Optional Descriptors9.1. L - Lymphatic Invasion LX. Lymphatic invasion cannot be assessed L0. No lymphatic invasion L1. Lymphatic invasion 9.2. V - Venous Invasion VX. Venous invasion cannot be assessed V0. No venous invasion V1. Microscopic venous invasion V2. Macroscopic venous invasion Note: Macroscopic involvement of the wall of veins (with no tumour within the veins) is classified as V2. The C-factor, or certainty factor, reflects the validity of classification according to the diagnostic methods employed. Its use is optional. The C-factor definitions are: C1. Evidence from standard diagnostic means (e.g., inspection, palpation, and standard radiography, intraluminal endoscopy for tumours of certain organs) C2. Evidence obtained by special diagnostic means (e.g., radiographic imaging in special projections, tomography, computerized tomography [CT], ultrasonography, lymphography, angiography; scintigraphy; magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]; endoscopy, biopsy, and cytology) C3. Evidence from surgical exploration, including biopsy and cytology C4. Evidence of the extent of disease following definitive surgery and pathological examination of the resected specimen C5. Evidence from autopsy Example: Degrees of C may be applied to the T, N, and M categories. A case might be described as T3C2, N2C1, M0C2. The TNM clinical classification is therefore equivalent to C1, C2, and C3 in varying degrees of certainty, while the pTNM pathological classification generally is equivalent to C4. 10. Residual Tumour (R) ClassificationThe absence or presence of residual tumour after treatment is described by the symbol R. More details can be found in the TNM Supplement (see footnote 11). TNM and pTNM describe the anatomical extent of cancer in general without considering treatment. They can be supplemented by the R classification, which deals with tumour status after treatment. It reflects the effects of therapy, influences further therapeutic procedures and is a strong predictor of prognosis. The definitions of the R categories are: RX. Presence of residual tumour cannot be assessed R0. No residual tumour R1. Microscopic residual tumour R2. Macroscopic residual tumour 11. Stage GroupingClassification by the TNM system achieves reasonably precise description and recording of the apparent anatomical extent of disease. A tumour with four degrees of T, three degrees of N, and two degrees of M will have 24 TNM categories. For purposes of tabulation and analysis, except in very large series, it is necessary to condense these categories into a convenient number of TNM stage groups. Carcinoma in situ is categorized stage 0; cases with distant metastasis stage IV (except at certain sites, e.g., papillary and follicular carcinoma of thyroid). The grouping adopted is such as to ensure, as far as possible, that each group is more or less homogeneous in respect of survival, and that the survival rates of these groups for each cancer site are distinctive. For pathological stage grouping, if sufficient tissue has been removed for pathologic examination to evaluate the highest T and N categories, M1 may be either clinical (cM1) or pathologic (pM1). However, if only a distant metastasis has had microscopic confirmation, the classification is pathologic (pM1) and the stage is pathologic. 12. Site SummaryAs an aide-mémoire or as a means of reference, a simple summary of the chief points that distinguish the most important categories is added at the end of each site. These abridged definitions are not completely adequate, and the full definitions should always be consulted. 13. Related Classifications Since 1958, WHO has been involved in a programme aimed at providing internationally acceptable criteria for the histologic diagnosis of tumours. This has resulted in the International Histological Classification of Tumours, which contains, in an illustrated multivolume series, definitions of tumour types and a proposed nomenclature. A new series, WHO Classification of Tumours-Pathology and Genetics of Tumours, continues this effort. The publications can be ordered online at www.iarc.fr/who-bluebooks/ or by email, [email protected]. The WHO International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) (see footnote 15) s a coding system for neoplasms by topography and morphology and for indicating behaviour (e.g., malignant, benign). This coded nomenclature is identical in the morphology field for neoplasms to the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED)17. In the interest of promoting national and international collaboration in cancer research and specifically of facilitating cooperation in clinical investigations, it is recommended that the WHO Classification of Tumours be used for classification and definition of tumour types and that the ICD-O code be used for storage and retrieval of data. |1.||Denoix PF: Bull Inst Nat Hyg (Paris) 1944;1:69. 1944;2:82. 1950;5:81. 1952;7:743. |2.||World Health Organization Technical Report Series, number 53, July 1952, pp. 4748 |3.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC), Committee on Clinical Stage Classification and Applied Statistics: Clinical stage classification and presentation of results, malignant tumours of the breast and larynx. Paris; 1958. |4.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC), Committee on Stage Classification and Applied Statistics: Clinical stage classification and presentation of results, malignant tumors of the breast. Paris; 1959. |5.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Classification of malignant tumours. Geneva; 1968. |6.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM General Rules. Geneva; 1969. |7.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Classification of malignant tumours. 2nd ed. Geneva; 1974. |8.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Classification of malignant tumours. 3rd ed. Harmer MH, ed. Geneva; 1978. Enlarged and revised 1982. |9.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Classification of malignant tumours. 4th ed. Hermanek P, Sobin LH, eds. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag; 1987. Revised 1992. |10.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Supplement 1993. A commentary on uniform use. Hermanek P, Henson DE, Hutter RVP, Sobin LH, eds. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag; 1993. |11.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): TNM Supplement. A commentary on uniform use. 2nd ed. Wittekind Ch, Henson DE, Hutter RVP, Sobin LH, eds. New York: Wiley; 2001. |12.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): Prognostic factors in cancer. Hermanek P, Gospodarowicz MK, Henson DE, Hutter RVP, Sobin LH, eds. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag; 1995. |13.||International Union Against Cancer (UICC): Prognostic factors in cancer. 2nd ed. Gospodarowicz MK, Henson DE, Hutter RVP, O'Sullivan B, Sobin LH,Wittekind Ch, eds. New York: Wiley; 2001. |14.||Greene FL, Page D, Morrow M, Balch C, Haller D, Fritz A, Fleming I, eds. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 6th ed. New York: Springer; |15.||Fritz A, Percy C, Jack A, Shanmugaratnam K, Sobin L, Parkin DM, Whelan S, eds. WHO International Classification of Diseases for Oncology ICD-O, 3rd ed. Geneva: WHO; 2000. |16.||Hermanek P, Hutter RVP, Sobin LH, Wittekind Ch. Classification of isolated tumor cells and micrometastasis. Cancer 1999;86:26682673. |17.||SNOMED International: The systematized nomenclature of human and veterinary medicine, Northfield, Ill: College of American Pathologists, http://snomed.org

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Simplicity is crucial to design optimization at nanoscale February 3, 2009 By Denise Brehm Civil & Environmental Engineering MIT researchers who study the structure of protein-based materials with the aim of learning the key to their lightweight and robust strength have discovered that the particular arrangement of proteins that produces the sturdiest product is not the arrangement with the most built-in redundancy or the most complicated pattern. Instead, the optimal arrangement of proteins in the rope-like structures they studied is a repeated pattern of two stacks of four bundled alpha-helical proteins. This composition of two repeated hierarchies (stacks and bundles) provides great strength—the ability to withstand mechanical pressure without giving way—and great robustness—the ability to perform mechanically, even if flawed. Because the alpha-helical protein serves as the building block of many common materials, understanding the properties of those materials has been the subject of intense scientific inquiry since the protein's discovery in the 1940s. In a paper published in the Jan. 27 online issue of Nanotechnology, Markus Buehler and Theodor Ackbarow describe a model of the protein’s performance, based on molecular dynamics simulations. With their model they tested the strength and robustness of four different combinations of eight alpha-helical proteins: a single stack of eight proteins, two stacks of four bundled proteins, four stacks of two bundled proteins, and double stacks of two bundled proteins. Their molecular models replicate realistic molecular behavior, including hydrogen bond formation in the coiled spring-like alpha-helical proteins. “The traditional way of designing materials is to consider properties at the macro level, but a more efficient way of materials’ design is to play with the structural makeup at the nanoscale,” said Buehler, the Esther and Harold E. Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. “This provides a new paradigm in engineering that enables us to design a new class of materials.” More and more frequently, natural protein materials are being used as inspiration for the design of synthetic materials that are based on nanowires and carbon nanotubes, which can be made to be much stronger than biological materials. Buehler and Ackbarow's work demonstrates that by rearranging the same number of nanoscale elements into hierarchies, the performance of a material can be radically changed. This could eliminate the need to invent new materials for different applications. In a follow-up study, Buehler and CEE graduate students Zhao Qin and Steve Cranford ran similar tests using more than 16,000 elements instead of eight. They found that 98 percent of the randomly arranged rope-like structures did not meet the optimal performance level of the self-assembled natural molecules, which made up the other 2 percent of the structures. The most successful of those again utilized the bundles of four alpha-helical proteins. That analysis shows that random arrangements of elements typically lead to inferior performance, and may explain why many engineered materials are not yet capable of combining disparate properties such as robustness and strength. “Only a few specific nanostructured arrangements provide the basis for optimal material performance, and this must be incorporated in the material design process,” said Buehler. This work is funded by the Army Research Office, a National Science Foundation CAREER Award, and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Ackbarow, a graduate student at the Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces in Potsdam, Germany, was supported in this work by the German National Academic Foundation, the Hamburg Foundation for research studies abroad and the Dr. Juergen Ulderup Foundation.

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One day when Nuraini was taking a shower, she felt a hard lump on her left breast. It was like a tiny, moving ball trying to break out from below the skin. She went to visit a doctor at a nearby Puskesmas (community health center) and was told the lump was nothing to worry about. Luckily her husband insisted she get a second opinion at a hospital. "It turned out it was a benign tumor at stage one," Nuraini said. Breast cancer usually develops in stages, from stage one to stage four. A month after the tumor was diagnosed, Nuraini underwent an operation, which was followed by radiation and chemotherapy. Now she is in remission from the illness that could have killed her. However, Nuraini was lucky. Many women suffering from the symptoms of breast cancer delay paying a visit to the doctor. "About 70 percent of people diagnosed with breast cancer are already at stage three or four, which is usually considered too late for medical treatment to be effective," oncologist and surgeon Sonar S. Panigoro from Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital said. Breast cancer occurs when cancer cells attack glandular breast tissue. Most cases of this type of cancer are found on the upper part of the breast closest to the arm. Breast cancer can spread by way of the lymphatic system or blood stream to the lungs, liver, bones or other organs, or can spread directly to the skin. It can also occur in men, although cases are very rare. In Indonesia, only one man diagnosed with breast cancer died in 2006. Breast cancer is the world's fifth most common cause of cancer-related death, after lung cancer, stomach cancer, liver cancer and colon cancer. Breast cancer resulted in 502,000 deaths (7 percent of cancer-related deaths and almost 1 percent of all deaths) worldwide in 2005. "Here it is estimated that between 18 to 20 percent of women may be diagnosed with breast cancer. It ranks second after cervical cancer," said Sonar. Sonar said when breast cancer is at stage one or two, operations can be performed, followed by a combination of radiation therapy, chemotherapy and hormone therapy. "However, if breast cancer is at stage three or four, the adjuvant therapies are pursued first before an operation is attempted. But in many cases, it is too late for an operation," he said. Depending on each patent's age and the type of cancer they have, cancer cases are divided into various categories from high risk to low risk. Each category of cancer is treated differently. Treatment possibilities include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy and immune therapy. Early detection is the best way to deal with breast cancer. However, in many cases slow-growing breast tumors may not be detectable by touch for up to eight years. Women can examine their own breasts regularly by pressing each breast firmly and carefully using three fingers. It is best to do this one week after menstruation. However, it is more reliable to seek a mammogram (x-ray), USG (ultrasonography) or advanced MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) to check for breast cancer. With technology improving rapidly, breast cancer cases are increasingly being detected early before any symptoms are present. "The mammography is recommended for women over 40, while the other early detection methods are best for women under 40," said Sonar. While the cause of breast cancer remains to a large extent unknown, many risk factors have been recognized. These include gender, age, hormones, a high-fat diet, alcohol intake, obesity and environmental factors such as tobacco consumption and radiation. Psychological aspects should also be taken seriously as not all breast cancer patients cope with their illness in the same way. Many larger hospitals are affiliated with cancer support groups, which help patients cope with the issues they may face in a supportive environment. In Indonesia, the Reach to Recovery support group was formed in 1997 by the Indonesian Cancer Foundation (YKI). The support group is made up of breast cancer survivors who voluntarily provide counseling to people diagnosed with breast cancer. "The volunteers ensure patients that medical treatment is the best way to treat their illness. In many cases, patients listen to the volunteers more than their doctors," said program director Rabecca N. Angka, who also works at the YKI's Early Diagnostic Center in Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta. However, she said temptation among breast cancer patients to try alternative treatments remains high. Sonar said many breast cancer patients try alternative treatments before seeking medical advice because of what they see on television. "They say traditional healers can transfer the disease to an animal. Sometimes patients even come to believe that breast cancer is the result of black magic," he said. --Alpha Amirrachman

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I once found a Mandarin Chinese dictionary which for each character listed the ancient, the traditional and the simplified Chinese characters. For each it described its meaning and how it developed into the current form. I cannot find it or anything similar anymore. The most I can find are sites which explain radicals of each character but not actual ancient symbols and variations. For instance, the word "eye" was shown as a pictogram resembling an eye, then into the traditional and then into 目 explaining "a simplified eye turned 90°". I know not all characters are made this way but again, maybe it was a dictionary of radicals but it was very good.

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On January 3, 2008, the Center for History and New Media and the History Education Group at Stanford University were awarded the American Historical Association’s James Harvey Robinson Prize for Historical Thinking Matters <historicalthinkingmatters.org>. The biennial prize is awarded for the teaching aid that had made the most outstanding contribution to the teaching and learning of history in any field for public or educational purposes. Historical Thinking Matters is designed to teach students how to “think historically” by critically reading primary sources and participating in authentic inquiries about key topics in U.S. history. Sharon Leon, Director of Public Projects at CHNM, was joined by Sam Wineburg and Daisy Martin from the History Education Group to accept the award from AHA President Gabrielle M. Spiegel at the General Meeting in New York City. This is third CHNM project to receive the Robinson Prize. Archives by Year: Since 1994, the Center for History and New Media at George Mason University has used digital media and computer technology to democratize history—to incorporate multiple voices, reach diverse audiences, and encourage popular participation in presenting and preserving the past. We sponsor more than two dozen digital history projects and offer free tools and resources for historians. Learn More Teachinghistory.org is the central online location for accessing high-quality resources in K-12 U.S. history education. Explore the highlighted content on our homepage or visit individual sections for additional materials.

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Amateurish historians often tell us that we must study the past to avoid repeating its mistakes. Such efforts rarely work out well. Consider the determination of the U.S. in the 1930s to avoid replicating the events of World War I or subsequent efforts to oppose communism in places like Vietnam to avoid repeating the appeasement of the 1930s. Laurie Maffly-Kipp, by contrast, offers an unusual, complex and thoughtful approach to history. With remarkable erudition and careful analysis, she presents the lives and ideas of 19th-century African-American writers, preachers and missionaries who thought long and hard about their past.

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Learn German Animal Words and Phrases This page should act as a good reference for those who are looking for a place to build on their basic German vocabulary - especially when it comes to learning about German animal words and phrases, this is a great place to start. Now everyone can learn how to say the animal names in German with our German to English animals dictionary! On this page there are several animal words that have been translated from German to English. There's also a couple of translated sentences which contain animal references, listed below the list of animal names. Beyond that, you'll find our comment section, a list of articles about Germany, and our current German Web Poll. If you know the translations for any other animal words or related phrases, feel free to use the submit form at the bottom of the page. Everything on this site was submitted by our visitors, simply sharing some of what they know. Don't know German, but know another language instead? Feel free to submit translations in that language instead. All submissions will be posted to the site in a future update. To be notified of these future updates, there's a Twitter follow button also located at the bottom of the page where site updates are listed. German to English Animals: Whether you are taking online German classes, doing distance learning German, or studying German abroad in Europe, our German to English dictionary is always being updated with new German animal translations which makes it an excellent supplement for those trying to learn how to speak German. (Words in bold added during the last update.) German to English General Animal Words: das Tier - Animal Names of the Animals in German: der Bär - Bear der Elefant - Elephant der Fisch - Fish das Huhn - Chicken der Hund - Dog das Hündchen - Puppy das Kaninchen - Rabbit das Kätzchen - Kitten die Katze - Cat die Kuh - Cow das Pferd - Horse das Schwein - Pig das Stinktier - Skunk der Tiger - Tiger der Vogel - Bird German Sentences with Animal References: Beruhren Sie die Huhner nicht! - Do not touch the chickens! Leute sind gewohnlich dumme Schweine - People are generally pigs Leave a Comment If you found any errors in our translations, let us know in the comments below! Looking for a specific translation relating to the theme of this page? Free free to ask for one in the comment section as well. Otherwise, just let us know what's on your mind! Continue Learning with These Resources Articles about Germany: Vote in Our Web Poll Did You Know? German Language Trivia According to Google Trends, the countries most interested in learning German are: - Ireland (Dublin) - India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Delhi) - Singapore (Singapore) - Egypt (Cairo Governorate) - Australia (Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales) - New Zealand - United Kingdom (Scotland, England) - United Arab Emirates - South Africa *Specific sub-regions only listed if they were available. The Fine Print The German to English Dictionary featured at the Chromlea Language Tutor may contain some errors in the German language. It is to be seen with a grain of salt, as all the content is from actual user submissions and not checked for grammatical / spelling accuracy (though we do correct our content as we are informed of errors). We wish you the best with your learning German and hope you can find this site helpful in your German language study.

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