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CREATION Origin of sin and its consequences Gen: 3-11 Introduction Man and woman fell from the Garden of Eden. This experience is expla-ined in genesis chapter 3 verse 4; chapter 6 verse 9 and chapter 11. In these verses, the Bible is teaching about sin, which made Adam and Eve fall. Sin is defined as iniquity, and guilt. It is to miss a mark, to transgress. Sin is a rebellion or an offence against God. Sin originated with the disobedience of Adam and Eve. They had been commanded not to eat of the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil the tree in the middle of the Garden of Eden. But Adam and Eve ate the fruit after being deceived by the serpent. Man had the power to resist temptation but instead he yielded. Genesis Chapter 3 verse 6 states that man wanted to be wise and thought how wonderful it would be to become wise hence sin arises from the lack of knowledge of God, from the denial of trust of God. The consequences of sin After sinning, we the human race and sinners: 1 Replaced friendship with God with fear of God. 2 Lost innocence. What had been innocent and good became shameful. Adam and Eve became ashamed of their nakedness, something they had never felt before they sinned against God. 3 Lost good relationship with God. The good relationship between God and man was betrayed. Human beings were alienated from God. The Lord God sent him out of the Garden of Eden 4 Damaged the perfect relationship between man and woman. The Lord said to the woman You will have desire for your husband, yet you will be subject to him . 5 Pain became part of human experience. I will greatly multiply your pain in child bearing . 6 Man began toiling and struggling to meet his needs You will have to work hard and sweat to make the soil produce anything 7 The home of man, and the earth itself was placed under a curse. Cursed is the ground because of you. Enmity between man and wild animals emerged. 9 Man began to die. Death sentence is passed upon all men. You will return to the ground you are dust 10 Man began to hate. Man developed murderous feelings in his heart, for example Cain killed Abel, his younger brother. 11 Man changed and became prone to sin.
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You will return to the ground you are dust 10 Man began to hate. Man developed murderous feelings in his heart, for example Cain killed Abel, his younger brother. 11 Man changed and became prone to sin. 12 Life span of man was reduced see Gen. 6:3 I will not allow people to live forever, they will live no longer than 120 years 13 Man s language was confused by God after the flood read Gen.11: 7 14 Sin led to embarrassment, mistrust, suffering, pain, pride, arrogance and death. Summary Disobedience of God by Adam and Eve brought serious sin consequences to humanbeings. Sin brings sadness and suffering to man even today. Activity In groups of two or three, discuss the origin and consequences of sin. CONCEPT OF EVIL Introduction In this lesson, we shall discuss the concept of evil as told by the traditi-onal African religion and the biblical writings. We shall study similarities and differences of evil from the two religions. What is evil? In the traditional African society, evil was an offence against God, spirits and ancestors. It was also viewed as an offence against another person or community. Evil was also a misfortune that can befall an individual or a community. What are the causes of evil? Many of the traditional African societies do not associate God with evil. God is not the creator of evil. Some communities believe that evil is an external power that exists on its own. Thus in the traditional African society, evil was understood or explained as something mysterious that was caused by several people and things. These were:a Evil spirits b Ancestral spirits due to disobedience to them c Some animals like the chameleon are sources of evil. The Akamba believed that chameleons brought evil. Other communities believed that if an owl cries near one s homestead, it is a sign of evil. D People with mystical powers for example magic, sorcery, and witchcraft are evils e If a member of a community breaks a taboo by disobedience, this action may bring evil spirits. F The spirits of the dead; cause evil; if they are not remembered or respected. Evil spirits cause harm and violence.
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D People with mystical powers for example magic, sorcery, and witchcraft are evils e If a member of a community breaks a taboo by disobedience, this action may bring evil spirits. F The spirits of the dead; cause evil; if they are not remembered or respected. Evil spirits cause harm and violence. Consequences of evil in traditional African society These were many and ranged from a Barrenness b Drought c Epidemics d Madness e Sickness f Death g Drowning h Burning in a house i War j Physically and mentally handicapped children l Rebellious children Values needed to overcome temptationsSkills needed to overcome temptations Recognize Your Tendency to Sin James 1:14 explains that we are tempted when we become enticed by our own natural desires. The first step toward overcoming temptation is to recognize the human tendency to be seduced by our own fleshly cravings. The temptation to sin is a given, so don't be surprised by it. Expect to be tempted daily, and be prepared for it. The apostle Peter reminds us to stay on the lookout: Be alert and of sober mind. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. 1 Peter 5:8, NIV Flee From Temptation But remember that the temptations that come into your life are no different from what others experience. And God is faithful. He will keep the temptation from becoming so strong that you can't stand up against it. When you are tempted, he will show you a way out so that you will not give in to it. When you come face to face with temptation, look for the way out the way of escape that God has promised. Then skedaddle. Flee. Run as fast as you can. Resist Temptation with the Word of Truth Hebrews 4:12 says that God's Word is living, active, and powerful. Did you know you can carry a weapon that will make your thoughts obey Jesus Christ? According to Ephesians 6:17, one of our weapons is the Word of God: The weapons we fight with are not the weapons of the world. On the contrary, they have divine power to demolish strongholds.
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Did you know you can carry a weapon that will make your thoughts obey Jesus Christ? According to Ephesians 6:17, one of our weapons is the Word of God: The weapons we fight with are not the weapons of the world. On the contrary, they have divine power to demolish strongholds. We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up against the knowledge of God, and we take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ. 2 Corinthians 10:4 5, NIV Jesus overcame the devil's temptations in the wilderness with the Word of God. If it worked for him, it will work for us. And because Jesus was fully human, he is able to identify with our struggles and give us the exact help we need for overcoming temptation. While it can be helpful to read God's Word when you're being tempted, sometimes that's not practical. Even better is to practice reading the Bible daily so that eventually you have so much of it on the inside, you are ready whenever temptation strikes. If you are reading the Bible regularly, you will have the full counsel of God at your disposal. You will start to have the mind of Christ. When temptation comes knocking on your door, all you'll have to do is draw your weapon, aim, and fire. Refocus Your Mind and Heart with Praise How often have you been tempted to sin when your whole heart was fully concentrated on worshiping the Lord? I'm guessing your answer is never. Praising God takes our focus off of self and puts it on God. You may not be strong enough to resist temptation on your own, but as you focus on God, he will inhabit your praises. He will give you the strength to resist and walk away from the temptation. Psalm 147 might be a good place to start: Praise the Lord. How good it is to sing praises to our God, how pleasant and fitting to praise him! Psalm 147:1, NIV Repent Quickly When You Fail In several places, the Bible tells us the best way to resist and overcome temptation is to flee from it 1 Corinthians 6:18; 1 Corinthians 10:14; 1 Timothy 6:11; 2 Timothy 2:22 . Even still, we fall from time to time. When we fail to flee temptation, eventually we will give in and fall.
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Psalm 147:1, NIV Repent Quickly When You Fail In several places, the Bible tells us the best way to resist and overcome temptation is to flee from it 1 Corinthians 6:18; 1 Corinthians 10:14; 1 Timothy 6:11; 2 Timothy 2:22 . Even still, we fall from time to time. When we fail to flee temptation, eventually we will give in and fall. Having a more realistic view knowing that at times you will fail should help you to repent quickly when you do. Failing is not the end of the world, but it is dangerous to persist in your sin. Going back to the book of James, verse 1:15 explains that sin "when it is full-grown, gives birth to death.". Continuing or persisting in sin leads to spiritual death, and often even physical death. That is why it's best to repent quickly when you know you've fallen into sin Others include: 1. Keep yourself busy 2. Avoid comparison as it triggers temptations 3. Avoid watching negative films, movies etc. 4. Keep your mind focused and positive 5. Seek help where needed be God s plan of salvation After the fall of man, God took steps to heal the damaged situation and relationship between Him and Adam and Eve. GOD: 1. Provided clothing of skin to Adam and Eve. 2. Looked for Adam and Eve since they were hiding from His presence. 3. Provided Adam and Eve with the knowledge to find different foods. 4. Declared enmity between man and the snake. 5. Hinted at the ultimate victory of man when He said that the seed of the woman would crush the snake or serpent s head. The serpent would attack the heel of man and woman. All through the Old Testament, and the New Testament, we see God s plan of salvation being manifested. For instance, GOD chose and separated Abraham from other communities. The children of Israel led by Moses were delivered from Egypt,. God sent prophets to teach and warn the Israelites of the dangers of sin. Finally God sent his only son Jesus Christ to die on the cross to save human kind. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN VIEW OF EVIL AND BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF SIN Similarities Both the Biblical and traditional African view or agree that 1 God is supreme.
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God sent prophets to teach and warn the Israelites of the dangers of sin. Finally God sent his only son Jesus Christ to die on the cross to save human kind. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN VIEW OF EVIL AND BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF SIN Similarities Both the Biblical and traditional African view or agree that 1 God is supreme. God is neither the creator nor author of evil 2 Sin comes from the disobedience of God by human beings 3 Evil and misfortune are God s curse to man Biblical while the traditional African society sees evil as curses by ancestors, and elders. Both curses lead to misfortunes. 4 The result of sin and evil is human sufferings 5 Sin and evil lead to man being separated from God 6 God is the guardian of law and order 7 Human beings have the ability to overcome evil Differences 1 Biblical account emphasizes personal nature of sin while in the African concept; sin is more social and communal 2 Biblical account attributes evil to disobedience while African concept attributes evil not only to disobediences but other external forces. 3 Biblical accounts offer a message of hope to overcome evil while African concept doesn t offer a solution to sin and evil. 4 Traditional African concept all forms of suffering as a result of sin while in the Bible suffering is not always a result of sin. Questions 1 Explain the differences between the two creation stories 2 State the traditional African view of creation 3 Explain how human beings continue with the work of creation 4 What is the origin of sin and evil according to traditional African society? 5 Give three consequences of sin as stated in Genesis 6 State the consequences of evil according to African traditional societies 7 Trace God s plan of salvation of human kindCompare biblical and traditional African understanding of evil and sin. 9 What does the command Subdue the earth in Genesis 1 verse 28 mean? THE BIBLE CALL OF ABRAHAM BACKGROUND TO THE CALL OF ABRAHAM Genesis 11:24-32, 12 Introduction The background to the call of Abraham is found in the first book of the bible. This is Genesis which is a Greek word meaning Beginning . The relationship between Adam and God was good but after Adam disobeyed GOD, their relationship changed because of sin by Eve and Adam. After sometime, God repaired this relationship by calling Abraham and offering salvation.
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This is Genesis which is a Greek word meaning Beginning . The relationship between Adam and God was good but after Adam disobeyed GOD, their relationship changed because of sin by Eve and Adam. After sometime, God repaired this relationship by calling Abraham and offering salvation. Background -Abraham lived with his father Terah at a place called Ur. Abraham s father lived among people who worshiped many gods. One of the god s whom people of Ur worshipped was the moon. This worship of many gods is referred to as polytheism. -The family of Terah moved from Ur to Haran. While at Haran, God called Abraham at 75 years old. He was told to . Leave your country, your relatives and your father s home and go to a land that I am going to show you . Abraham obeyed God s call. He left Haran for a land that was unknown to him. He took his property his wife Sarah and his nephew lot. At the time of the call of Abraham, he was known as Abram and his wife Sarai. God changed their names to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham means Father of many nations while Sarah means mother of nations. -On arrival in Canaan, he travelled and came to a place called Schechem. God appeared to him once more. Abraham built an altar for the lord at this place. Altars are places of worship. They were regarded as holy and were manifestations of God s presence. An altar was made of stones. -After sometime, he separated with his nephew Lot due to their servants having strife over water for their livestock. Abraham left Canaan due to feminine. He went to Egypt. Activity 1. Where did Lot settle? 2. Read GENESIS, chapter 11 24 32 and chapter 12 1 9 FAITH AND GOD S PROMISES TO ABRAHAM HEBREWS 11: 1 6 THE MEANING OF FAITH -Faith is a strong belief, a complete trust or confidence in someone or something. It is also a firm belief, which is not based on any scientific or logical proof. Faith in God is an attitude of complete trust in God. It is not based on concrete or tangible objects. Faith is manifested in the ways of life of a believer. -Abraham is an example of someone who had faith in God. He showed his faith in action in several ways.
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Faith is manifested in the ways of life of a believer. -Abraham is an example of someone who had faith in God. He showed his faith in action in several ways. HOW ABRAHAM DEMONSTRATED HIS FAITH IN GOD 1. Although Abraham was old, he left Haran to go to a strange unknown land of Canaan. 2. After he settled in Canaan, Abraham was assured by God of his protection and was given other promises such as he will get a son, and Abraham believed God. Sarah gave birth to a son when she was 90 years old and Abraham was around 120 years old. This was as the lord had promised Abraham. 3. The son was named Isaac that means laughter because Sarah had laughed when she was told that she would have a child in her old age. The child Isaac was circumcised when he was eight 8 days old. 4. Abraham was told by God to circumcise all males in his household including himself. He obeyed. 5. When Abraham was asked to sacrifice his son Isaac to God, he was ready to do so. 6. Abraham believed that God would fulfill all the promises he had given to him 7. Abraham demonstrated his faith by building altars GOD S PROMISES TO ABRAHAM GENESIS 12:2-3, 15:1-21, 21, 17:1-8, 17:15-18 A promise is giving an assurance of something to someone. The promises God gave to Abraham were that:1. God told him he would give him a land. His descendants would be given the land of Canaan to dwell in 2. His name would be made famous 3. His descendants will be many. Abraham would be made a great nation. 4. God would protect him 5. He was promised a son of their own 6. God would bless him 7. God would bless those who bless him and curse those who curse him 8. Abraham was promised that he would die in peace and in an old age 9. His descendants would be strangers in a foreign land but afterwards would come out with great possessions. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROMISES MADE BY GOD TO ABRAHAM TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Gen.
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Abraham was promised that he would die in peace and in an old age 9. His descendants would be strangers in a foreign land but afterwards would come out with great possessions. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROMISES MADE BY GOD TO ABRAHAM TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Gen. 12: 2 3, 15: 1 21, 21:1 7, 17: 15 18 God called Abraham from idol worship in the same way God continues to call people to serve him. 1 Through Abraham, God had a plan to restore the relationship between man and God 2 Christians receive the promises of blessings from God through Abraham Gods promises to Abraham fulfilled through Christians 3 As Abraham left his own people, Christians should leave their sinful lives and put their whole trust in God. 4 Abraham is seen as the descendant not only of the Israelites but also of Christians 5 Christians have faith that God fulfils promises to them as he did to Abraham 6 Christians are assured of God s protection 7 Through God s dealing with Abraham, God shows that he values a personal relationship with human kind. Through Jesus Christ Christians enter into an everlasting covenant with God. Just like Abraham entered into a covenant with God. 9 The promise to Abraham of Canaan Promised Land is to Christians the hope for new land heaven 10 God continues to make promises to those who believe him 11 Abraham is the ancestor Father of all believers COVENANT Definition. A covenant is a solemn agreement between two persons or two groups of people. An agreement is between two separated parties. It s a pact, a treaty. When it is a covenant, it conveys a union or partnership. Characteristics components of a covenant There are components or features that must be in a covenant. A covenant must have a ceremony, sign, witnesses, promises vows oaths, obligations consequences, and participants. A covenant establishes a sacrificial bond between the parties involved. There are obligations or rules by which the parties must abide by, adhere to and observe in order to keep the covenant. A covenant is an agreement and if it is broken, there are consequences for breaking it. In the Bible, there are many covenants. Examples of covenants in the Bible 1. Adamic covenant Agreement between God and Adam 2.
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Items for sacrifice Three 3 years olds: heifer, goat, ram and a dove and a pigeon. Abraham then cut these animals into two halves and placed them opposite each other. The birds were not split. After it was dark, smoking fire and a flaming torch suddenly appeared and passed between the pieces of animals. Towards evening, Abraham fell into a deep sleep. While he slept the Lord appeared to him and told him that: His descendants will be strangers in a foreign land and be slaves for 400 years. But they will come out of this land with a lot of wealth and God will punish the nation that will enslave Israelites. He, Abraham will live up to a ripe age, and die in peace. Then the Lord made a covenant with Abraham and promised to give him and his descendants the land of Canaan. God himself passed through the sacrifices and bound himself to keep the promises. IMPORTANCE OF THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AND ABRAHAM GEN. 15: 1- 19 God bound himself in a personal relationship with a human being As God passed through the meat, he showed Abraham he would always protect him. This passed on to the descendants of Abraham This covenant between God and Abraham begins a lasting relationship between God and all the nations of the earth. Throughout this covenant God was initiating his plan of salvation for human kind The promises made to Abraham were fulfilled in New Testament blood of the lamb death of Jesus Christ It emphasized the importance of faith followed by obedience that Abraham shared. COVENANTS IN MODERN LIFE AND THEIR IMPORTANCE Modern covenants are a Marriage b Baptism c Oath of loyalty and d Ordination of clergy Marriage ceremony: In marriage, the bride, bridegroom and their families come together. When the two families come together a relationship is developed. They make an agreement and both sides are seriously involved in the ceremony, whether the marriage is civil or religious. During the marriage ceremony the couple makes vows promises to each other, before a priest pastor and the congregation. Two officials witness theseagreements. Rings are exchanged as a sign of a lasting relationship. A certificate is given in some cases as a testimony sign of this agreement. There is eating and drinking.
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Rings are exchanged as a sign of a lasting relationship. A certificate is given in some cases as a testimony sign of this agreement. There is eating and drinking. Baptism: In a Christian baptism, a covenant is entered into between the believer and God. The believer makes vows before God. The priest and the whole congregation witness this agreement. In some churches, a card is issued to the person who has been baptized as a sign of Christian membership. The baptized can now take the Holy Communion, which is a Christian Ceremony. But when an infant is baptized, parents take the vows on behalf of the child. Loyalty oath: Leaders in public service for example the president, ministers, Members of Parliament, and Governors are sworn in before they take over their new responsibilities. They swear take an oath and promise to carry out their duties firmly and without fear or favor. Ordination of the clergy: Church leaders, nuns and priests take oaths and make vows to God and to the congregation in a ceremony attended by worshippers. The importance of modern day covenants They bind different groups They act as a security They strengthen relationships They unite people together They create loyalty They create peace, harmony and bring a sense of permanence THE TESTING OF ABRAHAM S FAITH GEN. 22: 1 18 God tested Abraham s faith by asking him to go and sacrifice his only son Isaac. This was the son he loved so much. He was to travel to Mount Moniah. On reaching Mt. Moriah, he built an altar, and arranged wood on it. He tied up his son Isaac and placed him on the altar on top of the wood. He lifted a knife to kill him. But the Angel of the Lord called out to him from heaven. Abraham! Abraham! Do not lay a hand on the boy Do not do anything to him. Now I know you that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son v 11-12 . Abraham had obedient reverence for God became he did not keep back his only son from God. God provided a ram for sacrifice. He named the mountain the Lord provided God was pleased with Abraham and promised him blessings, many descendants victory, and protection.
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Abraham had obedient reverence for God became he did not keep back his only son from God. God provided a ram for sacrifice. He named the mountain the Lord provided God was pleased with Abraham and promised him blessings, many descendants victory, and protection. Activity Read Genesis 12:1 9, 15:1 6, 17:23 24, 21:1 7, 22:1-19 IMPORTANCE OF FAITH IN CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY 1. A Christian today is acceptable to God through his faith in God through Jesus Christ. Without faith it is impossible to please God. 2. A Christian can only serve God if he has faith in him. Faith enables a Christian to serve God 3. Faith enables a Christian to accomplish what appears to be impossible 4. Through faith, Christians are able to trust God to fulfill his promises to them 5. Faith is the foundation of the Christians salvation 6. Faith in God gives a Christian the power to overcome all temptations. 8. Christians should expect to have their faith tested just like Abraham was. 9. Faith enables Christians to patiently wait on God s promises 10. Christians through faith in God help the poor, make right decisions and are able to understand and know God better. JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION IMPORTANCE OF CIRCUMCISION TO ABRAHAM AND HIS DESCENDANTS GEN. 17: 1 16 The rite of circumcision was started by Abraham and has been practiced by the Jews up to the present times. In the Old Testament, it was important because: i Through circumcision: God assured Abraham that he would fulfill His promises to him. Ii Circumcision was a sign that Abraham and his descendants had entered into a covenant with God. It was an outward sign of inner faith. Iii Circumcision was a mark of identity for the Jews iv It was a sign of obedience to God v It was an acceptance of God as the only true God and their willingness to remain faithful to him In the New Testament vi Circumcision doesn t qualify one to be a child of God. One is accepted as a Christian without circumcision as long as they have faith in God. Vii A true descendant of Abraham is the Christian who truly believes in God and lives according to His will regardless of colour, race or creed.
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Iii Circumcision was a mark of identity for the Jews iv It was a sign of obedience to God v It was an acceptance of God as the only true God and their willingness to remain faithful to him In the New Testament vi Circumcision doesn t qualify one to be a child of God. One is accepted as a Christian without circumcision as long as they have faith in God. Vii A true descendant of Abraham is the Christian who truly believes in God and lives according to His will regardless of colour, race or creed. CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES Circumcision is one of the rites of passage among the African people. It marks the transition from one stage to another. Many ethnic communities in Kenya still practice the rite of circumcision. During circumcision ceremonies, prayers are offered to God for the well-being of the initiates those who are being circumcised and the prosperity of the whole community. Initiates learn secrets of their community and society. They are taught myths, origin, religious beliefs, and sex education. In some communities, initiates are given new names or ornaments to signify their new status. JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION Similarities In both Jewish and African communities, circumcision: a Is a mark of identity b Provided a sense of belonging c Was observed as a religious experience d was compulsory e Was a tradition passed from one generation to another f Is a time for shedding blood g Was a time for offering prayers to God for the well-being of the initiates h Was a time for giving gifts i Was a ceremony for initiation j Was a time for giving the initiates names k Took place in sacred places. Differences In Jewish community, i. Circumcision was a rite for boys while in African society it was for both boys and girls. But it was for boys in a few communities. Ii. Boys were circumcised when aged 8 days while in the African society; it was between 15 to 25 years old. Iii. Circumcision was for boy s organ while in African societies several forms of initiation were done, for example, removal of teeth, and body piercing among others. Iv.
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Iii. Circumcision was for boy s organ while in African societies several forms of initiation were done, for example, removal of teeth, and body piercing among others. Iv. Circumcision was a command from God while for the African communities it was in obedience to customary law where ancestors were invoked to protect the initiates. Among the African societies v. Circumcision was a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood while for the Jews it was not. Vi. The initiates were given specialized education while the Jews were not. Vii. The initiates were grouped into age groups, and were secluded from the community while among the Jews it was not so. Viii. The rite of circumcision according to seasons while the Jews once a child is born, they are circumcised on the 8th day. Ix. After circumcision, the initiates were allowed to marry, enter a warrior group, own property but for the Jews the initiate was still a child. Questions 1.Explain why Abraham is referred to as the father of faith2. Give five actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith to God 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham 4. Compare and contrast the Jewish and traditional African practice of circumcision 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? 6. State the elements of a covenant 7. Give examples of covenants in the bible and the modern society 8. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham. LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL Introduction When the Israelites had settled in Canaan, they did not have an earthly King. Their unseen ruler was God. Such a community was called a Theocratic community. God ruled through some judges who were appointed. The role of judges in Israel 1. They led the Israelites into war against enemies such as the Philistines. 2. They settled disputes among the people. 3. They acted as spiritual leaders and officiated in worship. 4. They offered sacrifice on behalf of the people. 5. Some of the judges acted as the prophets of God. 6. The judges foretold the future. 7. The judges condemned the injustices in Israel. 8. They reminded the people of Gods ways. Reasons why the Israelites demanded for a King 1 Samuel 8:1-9 They demanded to be given a King because: - 1. Samuel had grown old.
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They reminded the people of Gods ways. Reasons why the Israelites demanded for a King 1 Samuel 8:1-9 They demanded to be given a King because: - 1. Samuel had grown old. 2. He had imposed his sons Joel and Abijah as judges over the Israelites. 3. The two sons were not like their father for they lacked leadership skills. 4. They were corrupt and took bribes. 5. They wanted a King so that they would be like other nations in Canaan. 6. They wanted a stable political government ruled by law and order. 7. They had been influenced by political government of the Canaanites. 8. They wanted a king who would lead them into war against their enemies such as the Philistines and bring back the Ark that had been taken. 9. They wanted an earthly king who they could see and consult in time of problems Reasons against Kingship in Israel 1 Sam 8:10-20 Samuel was very upset by the request for a King because: 1. By demanding an earthly King, it meant that they had rejected Yahweh as their king. 2. They were going to lose their identity as Gods chosen people 3. The leaders to be appointed were going to lack leadership qualities. 4. The King would oppress them. 5. Some of their sons would be recruited to serve as soldiers in his army. 6. Others would be put into forced labor. 7. Their daughters would be put to work as cooks and perfumers. 8. The king would take the best of their flock. 9. The king would take their lands and good vineyards. 10.At that time, they would cry to God but God will not listen to them; the people refused to listen to Samuels warning and went ahead with their demand for a king. So the Lord told Samuel to do as they wanted. The Choosing of Saul as the first King of Israel 1Sam 9:10 After the Israelites had appealed to Samuel that they wanted a King, Samuel told the Lord what the people had said and the Lord instructed him to do, as they wanted. Saul the son of Kish was appointed as the first King of Israel. Achievements of King Saul 1. He was Gods choice who was to save the Israelites from the power of the Philistines. 2.
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Achievements of King Saul 1. He was Gods choice who was to save the Israelites from the power of the Philistines. 2. He received the spirit of God, which made him to prophesy like one of the prophets of God. 3. He fought and conquered the Israelite e.g. the Amorites, the Moabites and the Amalekites. Failures of King Saul 1 Sam 13, 15, 18:6-9, 28:3-15, 3 1. He offered sacrifices to God at Gilgal yet he was not a priest. 2. He spared Agag the king of the Amalekites. 3. He spared the best sheep and cattle of the Amalekites for selfish gain. 4. He cheated Samuel that he wanted to offer the animals as sacrifice to God. 5. He listened to the voice of his subjects and army to spare the animals and Agag. 6. He became jealous and plotted to kill David. 7. He consulted a medium so that he could talk to the spirit of Samuel. 8. He killed the priest of God, 1 Sam 22. 9. He committed suicide when he went to war against the Philistines Lessons Learnt from the Failures of King Saul 1. Christians should obey Gods command and prophets 2. It is important to have faith in God. 3. A Christian needs to be patient. 4. Christians should not be influenced by greed for wealth and earthly desires. 5. God does not value incense sacrifice instead he is more pleased with obedience 6. Leaders need not to be jealous of others Saul was jealous and plotted to kill David. 7. There is need to respect every ones responsibility. 8. Saul never respected the position of Samuel. Choosing of David as the king of Israel 1sam 16:1-15 David was the son of Jesse from the tribe of Judah. God instructed Samuel to go and anoint David to succeed Saul as a King of Israel. Achievements of King David 1. He was chosen by God. God told Samuel to come and anoint him as king of Israel. 2. He was a skilled Musician and composed the book of Psalms that is used in the church even today 1Sam 16:14-23 . 3.
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2. He was a skilled Musician and composed the book of Psalms that is used in the church even today 1Sam 16:14-23 . 3. He brought back the Ark of the Covenant from the house of Abinadab to Jerusalem with great celebration. The Ark had been taken away by the enemies. 2Sam 6:15 . 4. He conquered the city of Jerusalem and made it its capital city. 2sam; 5:6-25 . 5. He was a brilliant military commander. The name David means Army Commander. He waged successful wars against Moab, Ammor, Amelekite and Aram. 6. He killed Goliath who was a great warrior of the Philistines because he had great faith in God. 1Sam 17 . 7. He expanded the boundaries of Israel through military conquest. 8. He was a good administrator. He administered through law and justice to all people. He chose wise leaders to advise him. 9. David was a humble king who was ready to repent whenever he committed a sin. He repented after taking Uriahs wife. 2 Sam: 11 . 10.He was publicly anointed as a King of Israel. He was made king over Judah and was later accepted by the whole Israel. 11.He established good diplomatic relations with the surrounding nations for example;he signed a treaty with Syria and through the treaty Israel benefited both economically and politically. 12.He laid foundation of building the great temple which was later completed by Solomon. 2Sam 7:1-17 . 13.God promised to establish an everlasting kingdom for David where his descendants would live in peace. Jesus is a descendant of King David. 14. He united the Northern and Southern kingdom and made it into one nation. David as the ancestor of Jesus 2 Sam 1:29, Luke 1:26-33 Nathans prophesy about the Messiah is seen as having been fulfilled in the work of Jesus Christ in the following ways: - Jesus Christ who was the Messiah is seen as being born from Davids lineage. Mathew in the Genealogy of Jesus tells that Jesus was a descendant of King David. Matt 1:1 . Jesus was born in Bethlehem, which was referred to as the city of David.
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Mathew in the Genealogy of Jesus tells that Jesus was a descendant of King David. Matt 1:1 . Jesus was born in Bethlehem, which was referred to as the city of David. Luke 2:4 In their sermons, the early apostles like Paul and Peter made a number of references to Jesus as a descendant of King David. Romans: 1:3-5 . The blind man at Jericho hailed Jesus as son of David and looked to him to restore his sight. Lk 18:35-36 . During Triumphant entry into Jerusalem, Jesus was hailed by the crowd as the Messiah descendant from the house of King David. Math. 21:9 . Angel Gabriel told Mary that the son would be great and will be called the son of the Most-High . Lk. 1:26-33 . Jesus foster father was a direct descendant of King David Qualities of a Good Leader drawn from David 1. Modern rulers should be courageous and ready to die with and for their subjects like David was a strong Military Commander. 2. Modern leaders should have faith in God and realize that authority comes from God. 3. Leaders should be thankful to God. David was thankful not only to God but also to his people. 4. Modern leaders should be loyal to their oath of office. David kept his without favoring some people. 5. Leaders should be kind. David was a kind leader. He pardoned many of those who had offended him. 6. A good leader should be humble. David was a humble person. He consulted Gods prophets. 7. A leader should be able to admit his mistakes. David realized his mistakes and asked for forgiveness. 8. Modern leaders should be willing to delegate duty as David did. David had a team of advisors and administrators. Achievements and failures of king Solomon After David died, his son Solomon took over as king in Israel. Achievements of king Solomon 1Kings 4:29, 3:16, 4:20-27, 10:14, 11:3 1. He was considered to have been a wise ruler. The wisdom was given by God. 2. He built the great temple and dedicated if for the service of the Lord. 3. He brought the Ark of the Covenant into the temple. 4. He established trade links with the neighbouring communities and made Israel a prosperous nation. 5.
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Rehoboam told them to go and come after three days. He then went and consulted the elders who told him to do as the people had said. He ignored the advice of the elders and went to his fellow young men who advised him to be even harsher than his father was. When the people went back to him he said he refused to relax his rule. When the people heard this, they rebelled against him and established the Northern kingdom that came to be known as Israel with Jeroboam as the king. Importance of the Temple to the Jewish People 1.The temple symbolized Gods presence among the Israelites.2.It was a house where the Israelites offered prayers to God.3.It was the place where the first-born male children were dedicated to God.4.The temple was a place where the Israelites offered sacrifices to God.5.The Ark of the Covenant, which symbolized Gods presence, was kept in the temple.6.It was a place where the priests and prophets resided.7.The rites of purification were carried out in the temple.8.It acted as a symbol of unity in Israel.9.The Jewish ceremonies such as the Passover feast and the feast of the Tabernacle were formed in the temple.10.The temple also served as a commercial centre. The animals for sacrifice were brought in the temple.11.The temple acted as a court. The Jewish elders sat in the temple to judge cases. The Sanhedrin It acted as a training place for the priests, Rabiis and scribes. It was where the people were taught the Mosaic Laws.
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GRADE 8 CREATIVE ARTS AND SPORTS NOTES STRAND ONE: FOUNDATIONS OF CREATIVE ARTS AND SPORTS Definition of creative arts and sport: Creative Arts This is a description of various artistic activities that allow performers to use their imaginations, creativity, and express ideas through a variety of mediums to passage a message to the audience. Sport A sport is any activity involving physical or mental effort combined with skills in which an individual or a team or teams compete against another or others for entertainment. Roles of creative arts and sports The roles of creative arts and sports are divided into two different types namely: - Economic roles - Social roles Social roles of creative arts and sports Creates a sense of identity-bring people together, creating shared experiences that help to foster a sense of community and collective identity. Creative arts and sports promote cohesion through teamwork. Through creative arts and sports culture is preserved-it ensures that our history and traditions are not forgotten, and that future generations can appreciate and learn from them. Creative arts and sports inspire creativity, talents and abilities. Creative arts and sports provide provides us with entertainment through components such as music, dance, drama, narratives, films and movies, various sports i.e., soccer, basketball, netball, volley ball. Help develop problem solving skills Learning resilience and perseverance Make one to gain confident Economic roles of creative arts and sports Creative arts and sports provide employment opportunities such as artists, musicians, referees, sports coaches, sports doctors, choreographers. Trainers, teachers etc. One can earn income through activities related to creative arts and sports hence eradicating poetry. Through creative arts and sports, a country can earn or generate tax revenue. Boosts revenue collection Creative arts and sports attract investments which in turn increases job opportunities. Creative arts and sports stimulate growth of economy through sectors such as tourism. Encourages tourism Create employment opportunitiesTourist attractions sites preservation of culture 1.2 Components of creative arts and sports Creative arts are made of the following components: Visual arts -creative art forms appreciated through sense of sight such as; Drawing. Painting. Sculpture. Montage. Collage Play - a written work that tells a story through action and speech and is meant to be acted on a stage.
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Rhyme 8. Tone 9. MoodEndurance and agility of physical Agility This is the ability to move and change the direction and position of the body quickly and effectively while under control. It requires quick reflexes, coordination, balance, speed, and correct response to the changing situation. Agility training has been included in several endurance training programs. Maximum oxygen consumption rate is a direct measurement of an individual's endurance capacity and its relationship to agility has not been studied. Endurance- refers to your body's physical capability to sustain an exercise for an extended period. It's made up of two components: cardiovascular endurance muscular endurance. Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of your heart and lungs to fuel your body with oxygen Physical activities that build up endurance Brisk walking or jogging. Yard work mowing, raking Dancing. Swimming. Biking. Climbing stairs or hills. Playing tennis or basketball Pitch This is a property of a sound and especially a musical tone that is determined by the frequency of the waves producing it. Bass staff On the bass clef, the notes going through the lines on the staff from the bottom up are G, B, D, F and A. To make it easy to remember these notes, we use the sentence Good Boy Deserves Fruit Always . The notes going through the spaces on the bass clef from the bottom up are A, C, E, and G. 1. Lines: The lines of the bass staff, from bottom to top, correspond to the notes G, B, D, F, and A. A handy phrase to remember this is Good Boys Do Fine Always . 2. Spaces: The spaces, from the lowest to the highest, represent the notes A, C, E, and G. A ledger lineThis is a small line that extends the stave when we run out of room. With the ledger line drawn, we can place the A. Next, let's discuss the Bass Clef also called the F Clef . The staff line in between the two dots of the clef is F. Ledger lines G major scale piano G major is a musical key that has G as the tonic.
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Eventually, the random motion of all the potassium permanganate particles results in the purple colour being equally dispersed throughout the water. The process appears slow as the dissolved particles collide with the water molecules and each other, slowing their progress. Changes of state of matter A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter. Common changes of the state include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. Why matter states changes It is possible that we have seen changes in the state of matter as the ice cubes melt into liquid water, or when the water boils and turns into vapour but have we ever thought about the reason behind this? The changing states of matter occur as the matter absorbs or loses energy. When an object absorbs energy, molecules and atoms accelerate their movement and this increased energy kinetics can push particles so that they alter their state. The energy that is absorbed is typically thermal or heat energy. Changing States of Matter There are generally three types of matter: liquid, solid, and gas. In the solid state, the particles or molecules are tightly together which is why they possess an intenseintermolecular force of attraction. The liquid states of particles, however, are apart from one another and thus have less force to attract them. In the case of gas, the particles are extremely far from one another and exhibit a negligible force of attraction. If there are changes in the temperature or pressure of a material, the change of states of matter takes place. The state of matter can be changed by changing temperature and pressure. The impact of temperature changes on states of matter shifting will be directly related to changes in the interaction between molecules that make up the substance. If the temperature drops, particles can soften into a robust structure. The diagram below depicts the change of states of matter through different types of processes taking place in those states: Here to understand this phenomenon we can take an example of the conversion of ice into water. In this conversion, the ice which is a solid form of water gets changed into water which is the liquid form itself. This change in the state occurs due to a process known as melting, and in this process, when kept at a higher temperature the solid ice gets converted into liquid water. In melting, mainly the liquefaction of ice takes place.
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O Frost formation: When the temperature drops below 0 C, water vapour in the air condenses directly into solid ice crystals. O Water boiling: When water is heated, it changes from liquid state to gas state steam . O Condensation of water vapour: When water vapour in the air cools below 100 C, it changes from gas state to liquid state and condenses to form liquid water droplets. O Sublimation: An example of sublimation is when solid dry ice frozen carbon dioxide changes into carbon dioxide gas without melting. Causes and Effects of Changing States of Matter The main cause of change in states of matter is due to the addition or loss of energy in the state of a substance that is altered physically. This phenomenon is connected with the movement of molecules. Solids possess very little kinetic energy, meaning that they only vibrate and keep the bonds of chemical strength. If the energy source is placed in e.g. heat energy, which can later be converted into kinetic energy then the molecules begin spinning and vibrating faster, which causes the strength of the bonds to diminish. If a certain amount of heating is applied this is different for each substance, for example, the melting point of the water is 0 C while the boiling point is 100 C those molecules will be moving towards the point of not remaining in their original form. When energy levels are reduced and reversed, the process begins again. Whereas, the effects of change in the state of matter are only two which are mentioned as well as explained below: o Change in Temperature: The temperature change occurs in states of a matter when it undergoes heat transfer to its surroundings. When a substance is placed in surroundings of a different temperature, heat is exchanged between the substance and the surroundings, causing both to achieve an equilibrium temperature. So when an ice cube is exposed to heat, its water molecules absorb heat energy from the surrounding atmosphere and begin to move more energetically, causing the water ice to melt into liquid water. O Change in Pressure: The change in pressure occurs in states of a matter only when it undergoes liquefaction. We can understand this effect from the examples of smoke rising all over the stage at performances or parties. Dry ice is the only thing that exists solid carbon dioxide . The solid carbon dioxide is kept at high pressure and instantly melts when pressure is reduced down to 1 bar. The space between particles of the material is what determines its physical state.
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Dry ice is the only thing that exists solid carbon dioxide . The solid carbon dioxide is kept at high pressure and instantly melts when pressure is reduced down to 1 bar. The space between particles of the material is what determines its physical state. In the end, when pressure is applied to the gas, it is compressed into a liquid. Then, the pressure applied to liquids becomes solid. Pressure does not affect solids. If pressure is applied to the material and the chemical state of the substance shifts from liquid to gas and after that, liquid changes to solid. Experiments of Changing States of Matter Below are mentioned three experiments that depict all the five processes that take place during the change of state of matter: o If we take an ice cube and put it in a bowl then after some time it will melt into water. This depicts the conversion of a solid into liquid due to the process of melting which took place due to an increase in the temperature of the substance. Now if we put that bowl that has water in a freezer, then the water will again solidify into ice and again change its state. This phenomenon occurs due to the conversion of liquid into solid by the process of freezing. Freezing can only take place when the temperature of a substance is decreased. O Now if you put a bowl filled with water outside your home in the sun then after some days there will be no water. Due to an increase in the temperature, the liquid water changes its form into gaseous water vapour which depicts the process of evaporation taking place. Now to depict condensation we can take a bottle and fill it with some chilled water and as time goes by we can see small droplets of water outside of thebottle which occurred due to the process of condensation taking place. Condensation occurs when the gaseous water vapours come in contact with the cold water having a decreased temperature; they start to solidify and get converted into liquid water again. O If we take some dry ice and put it in a bowl then after some time we can see that the dry ice will disappear. This occurs due to the process of sublimation taking place in it. Sublimation converts the solid into a gaseous form and it occurs only when the temperature is increased. To reverse this process we can decrease the temperature as well as pressure and the atmospheric dry ice will again solidify. Applications of Changing States of Matter The phenomenon of change of states of matter can be found in the following examples: 1.
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They are also called chemical changes There are many differences between physical and chemical changes and it is important to understand them to be able to understand these concepts clearly. The comparisons and differences between physical and chemical changes are given below along with their examples. To understand physical and chemical properties and changes better, it is important to know what they are. Differences between Physical and Chemical Change Physical Change Chemical Change When a substance undergoes a physical change, its composition remains the same despite its molecules being rearranged. When a substance undergoes a chemical change, its molecular composition is changed entirely. Thus, chemical changes involve the formation of new substances. Physical change is a temporary change. A chemical change is a permanent change. A Physical change affects only physical properties i.e. shape, size, etc. Chemical change both physical and chemical properties of the substance including its composition A physical change involves very little to no absorption of energy. During a chemical reaction, absorption and evolution of energy take place. Some examples of physical change are freezing of water, melting of wax, boiling of water, etc. A few examples of chemical change are digestion of food, burning of coal, rusting, etc. Generally, physical changes do not involve the production of energy. Chemical changes usually involve the production of energy which can be in the form of heat, light, sound, etc. In a physical change, no new substance is formed. A chemical change is always accompanied by one or more new substance s . Physical change is easily reversible i.e original substance can be recovered. Chemical changes are irreversible i.e. original substance cannot be recovered. Thus, it can be understood that the primary difference between physical and chemical changes is that physical changes are reversible, whereas chemical changes are usually not. Test your Knowledge on Difference Between Physical And Chemical Change QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Q1 How can you tell the difference between physical and chemical changes? The appearance or form of matter changes during a physical change, but the type of matter in the substance does not. A chemical change, on the other contrary, results in the creation of at least one new substance with new properties. Q2. Why is it important to know the difference between physical and chemical changes? It s essential to recognise the difference between chemical and physical changes. Several changes are obvious, but there are some fundamental concepts to be aware of. Physical changes usually refer to changes in the physical state of stuff. When two or more molecules interact, chemical changes occur on a molecular level. Q3.
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Physical changes usually refer to changes in the physical state of stuff. When two or more molecules interact, chemical changes occur on a molecular level. Q3. What are the examples of physical and chemical changes? Examples of chemical changes would be burning, cooking, rusting, and rotting. Examples of physical changes could be boiling, melting, freezing, and shredding. Most physical changes can be reversed if sufficient energy is provided. Q4. How to tell whether it s a physical or chemical change? Check for indications that a chemical change has taken place. The following are indications of a chemical change: Gas is created. Bubbles can occur in liquids. An odour is created. The colour of the substance changes. Sound is generated. There is a shift in the temperature. The environment either heats up or cools down. Light is generated. A precipitate develops. Reversing the change is difficult or impossible. Q5. What are three forces that can cause a physical change? Forces such as motion, temperature, and pressure can create physical changes. Oxygen in the air reacts with sugar, and the chemical bonds are destroyed. Elements and compounds Elements are pure substances which are composed of only one type of atom. Compound is substances which are formed by two or more different types of elements that are united chemically in fixed proportions. Elements and Their Symbols Chemical elements are the basic building blocks of matter. Elements are referred to by their names and their symbols. This makes it easier to write chemical structures and equations. Examples The first 20 elements of the periodic table are listed below. These elements include some of the most abundant in the universe hydrogen, oxygen, carbon as well as some of the most unusual phosphorus, boron . 1. H - Hydrogen 2. He - Helium 3. Li - Lithium 4. Be - Beryllium 5. B - Boron 6. C - Carbon 7. N - Nitrogen 8. O - Oxygen 9. F - Fluorine 10. Ne - Neon 11. Na - Sodium 12. Mg - Magnesium 13. Al - Aluminum 14. Si - Silicon 15. P - Phosphorus 16. S - Sulfur 17. Cl - Chlorine 18. Ar - Argon 19. K Potassium 20.
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Cl - Chlorine 18. Ar - Argon 19. K Potassium 20. Ca - Calcium Notice that the symbols are one- and two-letter abbreviations for their names, with a few exceptions where symbols are based on old names. For example, potassium is K for kalium, not P, which is already the element symbol for phosphorusCommon Metals Magnesium: It has a symbol of Mg. Calcium: It has a symbol of Ca. Chromium: It has a symbol of Cr. Iron: It has a symbol of Fe. ... Zinc: It has a symbol of Zn. Mercurys-Hg Gold-Au Tin Sn Uses of elements 1. Hydrogen - Rocket propellant, chemical reagent, potential alternative fuel, coolant for electrical equipment, airship lifting gas. 2. Helium - Lifting gas for balloons airships, coolant for superconductors. Shielding gas for welding. 3. Lithium - Batteries, psychiatric medications, constituent in light structural metals. 4. Beryllium - Light, hard, strong structural metal, x-ray transparent materials. 5. Boron - Composite materials, cleaning agents, semiconductors, chemical reagents. 6. Carbon - Structural material, jewellery diamonds , basis for all organic compounds, adsorbent material, pencils. 7. Nitrogen - Primary component of the atmosphere, fertilizer production, rocket propellants, shielding gas for welding. 8. Oxygen - Primary active component of atmosphere, medical use, rocket propellant, steelmaking, support of combustion. 9. Fluorine - Toothpaste, pharmaceuticals, etching of glass, rocket propellant for use outside the atmosphere . 10. Neon - Electric signs, lasers. 11. Sodium - Table salt, glassmaking, baking soda, reducing agent. 12. Magnesium - Structural material, dietary supplement, flashbulbs, fireworks. 13. Aluminium - Structural material, ceramics aluminium oxide . 14. Silicon - Semiconductors, glassmaking, abrasives, structural material. 15. Phosphorus - Fertilizers, rust remover phosphoric acid , matches. 16. Sulphur - Primary starting material for sulphuric acid which has MANY uses , vulcanized rubber, detergents, odorant in natural gas, fungicide. 17.
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What is an easy way to remember the first 20 elements? You just need to remember 2 sentences First Sentence - Hi Hello Listen Be. B.C. News On Friday Night. Hi-H-Hydrogen Hello-He-Helium Listen-Li- Lithium B.-Be-Beryllium B.-B-Boron C.-C-Carbon News-N-Nitrogen On-O-Oxygen Friday-F-Fluorine Night-Ne-Neon Second sentence - Natives Might All Sing Party Songs Clearly Arousing Kitty Cats Natives-Na-Sodium Might-Mg-Magnesium All-Al-Aluminium Sing-Si-Silicon Party-P-Phosphorus Songs-S-Sulfur Clearly-Cl-Chlorine Arousing-Ar-Argon Kitty-K-Potassium Cats-Ca-CalciumOXYGEN Preparation of oxygen One of the most common methods for the laboratory preparation of oxygen is by the method of preparation of oxygen by simply treating hydrogen peroxide in a particular manner so that it decomposes to form water and oxygen from which then, the oxygen can be extracted. Oxygen is one of the most important and basic elements found in the earth s atmosphere. All living animals need oxygen in the air to survive. Without oxygen, there would be no trace of life on earth. Apart from being one of the basic elements on earth for a living being to survive, it is important in a lot of other areas as well. Oxygen is used in medical applications, commercial and industrial practices all over the world. It is very much possible to manufacture oxygen in a laboratory. Apart from the necessary apparatus, the main ingredients required to make oxygen in a laboratory are hydrogen peroxide and manganese IV oxide. It must be noted that hydrogen peroxide is the main ingredient for the preparation and the manganese IV oxide acts as a catalyst to enhance the speed of the process. Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen https: www.youtube.com watch?v nkeniDKGs6Q There are a lot of laboratory processes for producing oxygen. Among them, one of the most common ways of preparation of oxygen is in a laboratory by the method of preparation of oxygen by simply treatinghydrogen peroxide in a particular manner so that it decomposes to form water and oxygen from which then, the oxygen can be extracted. Produce oxygen by heating potassium manganate VII , then identify it with a glowing splint This experiment should take 30 minutes.
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Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen https: www.youtube.com watch?v nkeniDKGs6Q There are a lot of laboratory processes for producing oxygen. Among them, one of the most common ways of preparation of oxygen is in a laboratory by the method of preparation of oxygen by simply treatinghydrogen peroxide in a particular manner so that it decomposes to form water and oxygen from which then, the oxygen can be extracted. Produce oxygen by heating potassium manganate VII , then identify it with a glowing splint This experiment should take 30 minutes. Equipment Apparatus Eye protection Test tube holder Ceramic wool Test tube Spatula Bunsen burner Splints Heat-proof mat Chemicals Potassium manganate VII Health, safety and technical notes Always wear eye protection. When KMnO4 is heated, tiny particles shoot out. These are trapped by the ceramic wool. Potassium manganate is an oxidiser and harmful,Procedure 1. Place two spatula measures of potassium manganate VII in a test tube. 2. Place a small piece of ceramic wool near the top of the test tube. This stops fine dust escaping. 3. Gently heat the test-tube containing the potassium manganate VII . 4. Light a splint and extinguish it, to make a glowing splint . 5. Place the glowing splint just above the top of the test tube. Keep heating the test tube. The splint should relight. 6. Scrape out the ceramic wool. Let the test tube cool to room temperature and then wash it out. 7. Notice the colours produced when the test tube is washed out. 8. Record your observations. Conclusion Oxygen is one of the most important and basic elements found in the earth s atmosphere. All living animals need oxygen in the air to survive. Without oxygen, there would be no trace of life on earth. Over the years, scientists have discovered multiple ways of preparation of oxygen in laboratories and also identified other diverse uses of this gas. Oxygen is used in medical applications, commercial, and industrial practices. There are a lot of different methods of preparing oxygen and different methods may have different purity rates of the concerned gas.
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Water extinguishers are coloured signal red. Other extinguishers will be predominantly signal red with a label, band or circle covering at least 5 of the surface area of the extinguisher in a second colour indicating the contents of the extinguisher. Fire Rating All extinguishers capable of extinguishing class A, B or F fires carry a fire rating which is indicated by a number and letter eg 13A, 55B . The number is indicating the size of fire it can extinguish under test conditions. The larger the number, the larger the fire it can extinguish. The letter indicates the fire classification as above. Class C, D and the electrical symbol do not carry a numerical rating. All extinguishers capable of extinguishing class F fires have a rating based on 4 benchmark tests using 5, 15, 25 and 75 litres of sunflower oil. The oil is heated to auto-ignition and allowed to pre-burn for 2 minutes. The fire is then extinguished and no re-ignition shall occur within 10 minutes of extinguishing the fire. Chosing Fire Extinguishers The following factors should also be considered when siting fire extinguishers: Extinguishers should normally be sited on escape routes on all floors at what is called fire points . They should be fixed in a location where the extinguisher can be reached quickly. The best place is near a door leading to a place of safety or near a specific fire risk. They should be fixed where they can be easily seen. Fixing them inside cupboards or behind doors will waste valuable time if a fire breaks out. Do not place them over cookers or heaters or in places of extreme temperatures, hot or cold. Extinguishers should be fixed at an elevated height, so that the carrying handle is 1m from the floor for heavier units heavier than 4kg and 1.5m for smaller units. Extinguishers should be within reasonable distance from any fire risk: 1. Class A: 30m 2. Class B: 10m 3. Class C: 30m 4. Class D: case-by-case basis, by expert advice 5. Class F: 10m If you have to travel through doorways, the maximum travel distances need to be reduced.
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Only tackle a fire in its very early stages Always put your own and other peoples safety first On discovering the fire, immediately raise an alarm Make sure you can escape if you need to and never let a fire block your exitIf you cannot put out the fire or if the extinguisher becomes empty, get out and get everyone else out of the building immediately, closing all doors behind you as you go. Then ensure the fire brigade has been called Fire Triangle Trying to understand the seemingly endless list of fire safety regulations can be a complex and confusing task. Whether you are attempting to identify the different types of fire extinguisher and their appropriate uses or are learning about the benefits of a fire blanket, it is vital to remember that the various stringent rules are there for a reason and this reason ultimately relates to the fire triangle. Something usually taught in school, the fire triangle which is also known as the combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the chemical reaction which must occur to create a fire. It is composed of three elements fuel, heat and oxygen which must all be present for a fire to ignite. It also demonstrates the interdependence of these ingredients in creating and sustaining a fire and teaches us that removing any one of these elements would prevent or extinguish the fire. The fire triangle is often used as a basic form of fire safety training and looks at the dynamics of fire itself. By looking at and understanding this in more detail, it is much easier to grasp the need for, and details of, fundamental fire regulations so let s get back to basics Fuel In order for a fire to start there must be a material to burn and this is referred to as the fuel. Fuel is any kind of combustible material, including paper, oils, wood, gases, fabrics, liquids, plastics and rubber. The fuel for a fire is usually characterised by its moisture content, size, shape and quantity and this will determine how easily the fuel will burn and at what temperature. Heat In addition to a fuel source, heat must be present in order for ignition to take place. All flammable materials give off flammable vapours which, when heat is present, combust. Heat is also responsible for the spread and maintenance of fire as it removes the moisture from nearby fuel, warming the surrounding area and pre-heating fuel in its path, enabling it to travel and develop with greater ease. Oxygen As well as fuel and heat, fires also need oxygen to stay alight.
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All flammable materials give off flammable vapours which, when heat is present, combust. Heat is also responsible for the spread and maintenance of fire as it removes the moisture from nearby fuel, warming the surrounding area and pre-heating fuel in its path, enabling it to travel and develop with greater ease. Oxygen As well as fuel and heat, fires also need oxygen to stay alight. Ambient air is made up of approximately 21 oxygen and, as most fires only require at least 16 oxygen to burn, it acts as the oxidising agent in the chemical reaction. This means that when the fuel burns, it reacts with the oxygen to release heat and generate combustion. Extinction of the fire To stop a fire, one of the three elements of the fire triangle must be removed. So, if a fire runs out of fuel, it will smoulder out; if you can cool a fire down it will lose heat and go out; and if the oxygen is removed it will suffocate. Therefore, attempts at combatting a fire and also preventing a fire are based upon these principles. Fire blankets, for example, suppress a fire, removing the oxygen and, as a result, putting it out. Similarly, fire extinguishers are developed to eliminate one of the three elements such as water fire extinguishers which cool the fire down and remove any heat. By the same codes of practice, fire prevention methods are also developed in relation to the chemical reaction which occurs when fire takes place. Undertaking safety steps such as storing flammable liquids away andmaking sure piles of paper or fabric are not left near any possible heat sources are highly important. By using this fundamental fire safety knowledge, the prevalence of fires and the damage they cause can be significantly reduced.
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JUNIOR SCHOOL2o24 GRADE 8 AGRICULTURE Oscar MwangiSOIL CONSERVATION: INTRODUCTION Soil provides the nutrients essential for plant growth, animal life, and millions of microorganisms. However, if soil becomes unhealthy, unstable, or polluted, the life cycle stops. Soil conservation refers to the protection and management of soil resources to prevent their degradation and promote sustainable land use practices. It is an important field of study and practice aimed at preserving the productivity, fertility, and health of soils for future generations. Soil is a vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting plant growth, water filtration, carbon storage, and providing a habitat for various organisms. Threats to soil conservation The primary threats to soil conservation are Chemical contamination The use of pesticides can contaminate the soil, as well as nearby vegetation and water sources, with harmful chemicals. In addition to contamination, chemicals used on crops can be toxic to important beneficial insects, such as bees, as well as fish and bird populations. A Good example is the growing use of pesticides, herbicides and toxic fertilizers. Slash and burn Slash-and-burn farming is the practice of burning and clearing forests to make way for farmland. This method kills plant species and displaces wildlife from their natural habitats. Land cleared using slash and burn is only used while it s productive for farming. Once it loses its fertility, another patch of forest is identified for clearing. This unsustainable process repeats endlessly, preventing soil from recovering sufficiently to support healthy ecosystems. Land overuse, overgrazing, etc. Overuse of land can limit soil s ability to play its part in the global climate cycle. For example, overcutting forests and woodlands for timber and overgrazing pastures can far outpace the natural regrowth of vegetation, subjecting soil to increased exposure to erosionImportance of Soil Conservation Soil conservation is of paramount importance due to the following reasons: Preserving Agricultural Productivity: Healthy and fertile soil is essential for sustaining agricultural productivity. Soil conservation practices help prevent soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and degradation, ensuring that the land remains productive for farming. By conserving soil, we can maintain high yields, improve food security, and support sustainable agriculture. Protecting Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Soil is a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems, supporting diverse plant and animal life. Soil conservation helps preserve natural habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands, which are home to a variety of species.
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By conserving soil, we can maintain high yields, improve food security, and support sustainable agriculture. Protecting Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Soil is a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems, supporting diverse plant and animal life. Soil conservation helps preserve natural habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands, which are home to a variety of species. By protecting soil, we maintain the balance of ecosystems and safeguard biodiversity. Water Quality and Quantity: Healthy soil acts as a natural filter, purifying water as it infiltrates through the soil layers. Soil conservation practices reduce runoff and erosion, preventing sediment and pollutants from reaching water bodies. By preserving soil, we maintain water quality, prevent contamination, and ensure the availability of clean water resources. Climate Change Mitigation: Soils play a significant role in mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration. Healthy soils store organic carbon, helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. By practising soil conservation, such as promoting organic matter content and reducing soil disturbance, we enhance carbon storage and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. Mitigating Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is a natural process, but human activities can accelerate it to alarming levels. Erosion leads to the loss of topsoil, which contains essential nutrients for plant growth. Soil conservation practices, such as contour ploughing, terracing, and cover cropping, help control erosion and preserve valuable topsoil, ensuring long-term land productivity. Methods of Soil Conservation There are several effective methods and techniques for soil conservation. Here are some commonly used methods: Grassed waterways gr sometimes also called grass waterways are wide, shallow channels that are installed where water runoff usually concentrates in an agricultural field. They are planted with permanent vegetation, meaning they might be mowed, but the plants are never plowed or killed intentionally Stone lines are constructed along the contours to slow down the speed of runoff, reduce soil erosion, and enhance water infiltration. In addition, the stone barrier blocks and settles down the sediments transported from the upper slopes. Stone constructions are often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land Trash lines are ideally 0.5m to 1.0m wide and 0.5m high. Advantages of using trash lines They conserve top soil by trapping or reducing the speed of run-off. When they compose they turn into manure and boost soil fertility.
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Stone constructions are often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land Trash lines are ideally 0.5m to 1.0m wide and 0.5m high. Advantages of using trash lines They conserve top soil by trapping or reducing the speed of run-off. When they compose they turn into manure and boost soil fertility. Trash lines increase soil water infiltration since they tend to hold the water longer Bund is an engineering measure of soil conservation, used for creating obstruction across the path of surface runoff to reduce the velocity of flowing water. It retains the running off water in the watershed and thus to helps to control soil erosion. Bunds are simply embankment like structures, constructed across the land slopeCrop rotation Instead of planting the same crop year after year on the same plot of land, crop rotation involves planning out growing seasons for different crops. This method of sustainable agricultureExternal link:open in new requires long-term planning, with crops changed every season. In addition to improving soil health and organic matter, crop rotationExternal link:open in new reduces the need for fertilizer and pesticides, lowering costs. It also helps prevent excess chemicals from entering water supplies, improving water quality. Contour Plowing: Plowing along the contour lines of the land helps to slow down water runoff, reduce erosion, and retain moisture in the soil. This technique involves creating furrows or ridges that follow the natural contours of the land. Terracing: Terracing is the construction of broad, level platforms on steep slopes. By creating terraces, water runoff is slowed down, allowing it to infiltrate the soil and reducing erosion. Terraces also help to retain moisture and provide flat areas for planting crops. Windbreaks: Windbreaks are rows of trees or shrubs planted along the edges of fields or across wind-exposed areas. They help to reduce wind speed, minimise wind erosion and protect the soil. Windbreaks also provide habitat for wildlife and contribute to biodiversity. Strip Cropping: Strip cropping involves planting different crops in alternating strips or bands across a field. This method helps to break up the flow of water and reduce erosion. The alternating strips of different crops also help to improve nutrient uptake and reduce pest and disease problems. Conservation Tillage: Conservation tillage practices involve reducing or eliminating the amount of soil disturbance during planting and cultivation. This includes techniques such as no-till, where seeds are planted directly into untilled soil, and reduced tillage, where minimal soil disturbance occurs.
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Grey Water Recycling Grey water makes up roughly 60 of household waste water. This waste water is from baths, sinks, washing machines and dish washers. As the cheapest and simplest technique, capturing of the grey water is done in a bucket or drain, and used for the farm or garden. Contour Trenching Also known as the fanya juu technique, trench contouring entails digging of trenches along contour lines where water flows down the hill and soil thrown upslope to form an embankment which traps the run-off water and sediment, while still penetrating the soil below. Through this technique, though tedious in implementation and maintenance, crops can be grown in low rainfall seasons from the subsoil water reserve gathered. Example of Fanya juu technique Fog Harvesting Fog harvesting is best done at night and early mornings during the cold season in mountain faced regions or plains; e.g. Kajiado County and Coastal areas. Air is cooled to a point where it can no longer retain water vapour, hence forming ground level clouds. These clouds water droplets are captured in a synthetic plastic mesh net, that is hoisted with two posts planted in the ground which drain the water in a gutter; then transferred in tanks. This technique is easy to replicate, cheap and the level of technology and maintenance is simple. Groundwater Ponds Using an artificial pond laid a few meters below the ground, increases the chances of a better harvest of rain water runoff. This water can be used for irrigation and livestock drinking water. Compared to construction of a borehole, laying of a synthetic membrane on dug out grounds is cheaper, and traps the runoff water. These ponds vary in size depending on the size of the farm. They are easy to manage and are cost effective. Gutter Installation This roof catchment system has been used for decades as a traditional means of water harvesting technique. The water can be harvested in small scale or large scale for the purpose of irrigation, livestock, drinking or all of the fore mentioned. The size of the storage tank is dependent on the owners financial ability and water usage. With gutter installation, water runs down the strip iron sheets which are bent at an angle and nailed onto the roof, suspended with galvanized wires. The water is drained into a storage reservoir placed on the ground. SQUARE FOOT GARDENING Square foot gardening is the practice of dividing the growing area into small square sections, typically 1 foot 30 cm on a side, hence the name.
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With gutter installation, water runs down the strip iron sheets which are bent at an angle and nailed onto the roof, suspended with galvanized wires. The water is drained into a storage reservoir placed on the ground. SQUARE FOOT GARDENING Square foot gardening is the practice of dividing the growing area into small square sections, typically 1 foot 30 cm on a side, hence the name. The aim is to assist the planning and creating of a small but intensively planted vegetable garden square allows you to get a high yield from a small area It's especially beneficial to gardeners who don't have much time or farm space. Square-foot gardening typically starts with a 4x4-foot raised garden bed filled with amended soil, then subdivided into 1-foot squares with markers like lattice strips. You then plant the appropriate number of plants in each square. You determine this by plant size. This method optimizes your space and reduces the effort needed to go from planting to harvest. Preparing square foot garden Follow this guide to square-foot gardening based on a grid of 1x1 foot squares and grow more vegetables than you can imagine with less work. Follow the steps below to start your square-foot garden. 1. Pick the Correct Location for Square-Foot Gardening As with most vegetable gardens, a square-foot garden must be where the ground is relatively flat and gets at least 6 to 8 hours of full sun daily. Avoid low areas that may turn into puddles after a hard rain. You may want to choose a spot near your house to make watering, weeding, harvesting, and other garden chores more convenient and harder to overlook. 2. Build a Raised Garden Bed The most common configuration for square-foot raised garden beds is 4x4 feet. At this size, most gardeners can reach the middle from any side. Plus, this size divides easily into a grid of sixteen 1x1-foot squares. Make your sides at least 6 inches deep. Growing root vegetables such as carrots call for sides that are 12 inches deep. To make a 6-inch-tall raised bed for square-foot gardening in a flash, buy four planter wall blocks which have 2-inch slots on four sides and four 4-foot-long 2x6s at your local home center. Set the blocks approximately 4 feet apart on level ground to form a square. Connect two blocks by sliding a 2x6 board into the respective 2-inch slots.
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To make a 6-inch-tall raised bed for square-foot gardening in a flash, buy four planter wall blocks which have 2-inch slots on four sides and four 4-foot-long 2x6s at your local home center. Set the blocks approximately 4 feet apart on level ground to form a square. Connect two blocks by sliding a 2x6 board into the respective 2-inch slots. Repeat with the remaining boards and blocks to create a 4x4-foot frame in about 15 minutes. Use a more durable material such as pressuretreated lumber or cedar for a long-lasting frame. 3. Fill the Raised Garden Bed You've built the frame for a raised garden bed; now you need to fill it with soil. You may be wondering if you need special soil for square-foot gardening. You can use what you have as long as you amend it which is a good idea for any garden . First, loosen and aerate the ground soil. Then mix in enough compost and extra topsoil if needed to fill the frame. Work compost into the soil at the rate of one-third by volume such as a 2-inch layer of compost into 6 inches of soil . Soil Amendments Nutrients If you want to be more scientific about it, you should test your soil to determine its composition. Once you have that information, add the right amendments in the correct proportions to achieve the best-growing medium for a vegetable garden. Another option: Prepare the soilless mix advocated by Mel Bartholomew rather than amending your ground soil. Follow this formula: one-third compost, one-third peat moss, and one-third vermiculite. You'll need 8 cubic feet of it to fill a bed with 6-inch sides and 16 cubic feet to fill a bed with 12-inch sides. This mix is pricey, but it creates a weed-free bed that's high in nutrients and retains moisture. Blend the ingredients well whether you amend the existing soil or create a new soilless mix. Some gardeners use a portable concrete mixer plugged into a household outlet to get a uniform texture and distribution of particle sizes. No mixer? No problem. Blend all the ingredients on top of a tarp, then shovel the mixture into the frame. To get a speedier start on planting, skip the mixing and fill the frame with high-quality bagged garden soil from a nursery or gardening center.
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No problem. Blend all the ingredients on top of a tarp, then shovel the mixture into the frame. To get a speedier start on planting, skip the mixing and fill the frame with high-quality bagged garden soil from a nursery or gardening center. Once the bed is filled and you've raked the soil or soilless mix smooth, create a square-foot garden grid using lattice strips, PVC pipes, or even string. Use nails or screws to attach the grid to the sides of the frame. Being able to see each square-foot section clearly simplifies planting. If you like, cover the prepared garden with a thin layer of fine mulch to conserve soil moisture and slow down the growth of weeds. 4. Plant Your Favorite Vegetables If you're building more than one raised square-foot garden bed, leave enough space between them to roll a wheelbarrow. The formula for planting is simple: one extra-large plant per 1x1-foot square; four large plants per square; nine medium plants per square; and 16 small plants per square. Here's an idea of what you can fit in each square: one vine tomato, pepper plant, sukumawiki or eggplant; four bush tomatoes, heads of cabbage, or heads of lettuce; nine onions or beets; or 16 radishes. Zucchini needs nine of the 16 squares for just one specimen, but you can plant other vegetables in the remaining seven squares. Vegetables or fruits that spread such as watermelons require a separate bed. Planting Seeds If planting seeds, plant one seed per hole spaced appropriately for the mature plant. Look on the back of the packet for instructions. Poke a finger through the mulch into the soil, drop in a small amount of vermiculite, then the seed, and cover it with more vermiculite a material that will help keep the seeds moist while it's sprouting . Mist the newly planted seeds daily, so the soil doesn't dry out. Once plants are established, water them approximately once a week. Transplanting Vegetables If you're transplanting vegetables from a nursery or gardening center, use the same spacing method mentioned earlier. Place plants in the dirt, leaving a shallow depression around each one to help hold water. You may want to shade newly planted vegetables to protect them from wilting. Water daily for a few days, and then remove the shade and water weekly. 5.
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You may want to shade newly planted vegetables to protect them from wilting. Water daily for a few days, and then remove the shade and water weekly. 5. Maintain Your Garden Yes, square-foot gardening may take a little less work than traditional gardening, but you still have to pay attention to your produce. Watering Schedule You need to water when the soil feels dry, but you won't waste water on any exposed soil between traditional rows. Don't water from overhead. Instead, use a small container to water each plant individually pouring the water into the depressions you made when you planted them. Don't panic; it will still take less than 10 minutes to water a 4x4-foot garden this way. If your schedule permits, water in the morning. You'll need to water more often on days that are hot or windy because the soil will dry out faster. Weeding Your Garden Plan on weeding every week, but either pull weeds when they're small or use scissors to cut weeds off at the base instead of pulling them up by the roots or using a hoe. You don't want to disturb the roots of vegetables growing nearby. Make it easy on yourself by weeding every time you walk by the bed or only one square at a time. Because weedswon't compete with your vegetables for nutrients, you probably won't need to fertilize. Pest Control Inspect your garden daily to spot insect trouble early. Either hand-pick and destroy insects or spray the soft-bodied ones with insecticidal soap. Knock aphids off of plants by spraying them with a hose. CROP MANAGEMENT Crop pest A pest can be described as any organism capable of causing damage to crop plant. Types of Crop Pest. Important pests of crop plants are grouped into the following classes: i insect; ii birds; iii rodents; iv monkeys; v man; vi nematodesClassification of insect pests Insects pests can be classified into various groups based on their mode of feeding. These groups of insect pest include: 1. Biting and chewing insects; 2. Piercing and sucking insects; 3. Boring insects. 4. Biting and Chewing Insects: These insect mouth-parts which enable them to bite and chew plant Examples include: termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantis, locust, beetles, etc. 5.
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4. Biting and Chewing Insects: These insect mouth-parts which enable them to bite and chew plant Examples include: termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantis, locust, beetles, etc. 5. Piercing and sucking insects: These insect pests possess strong mouthparts called proboscis stuck liquid from materials from plants tissues. Examples include aphids, cotton strainers, mealy bugs, scale insects, capsids or mirids, white flies, etc. 6. Burrowing insects: These insects including their larvae are capable of burrowing into plant parts and destroying the tissues of the plant or fruits or seeds. Examples include: bean beetles, stem burrowers, maize weevils and rice weevilsCrop pestsAphids ois Ogres ArT ForContig Pant Cut wormsCaterpillar Vegetables attacked by pests Kale Spinach... Tomatoes Onions ... Carrots ... etcEffects or economic importance of insect pests in crop production 1. Insects pest destroy crops in the field through their biting, chewing, boring, sucking and defoliation activities 2. They cause reduction in viability of stored produce 3. Spot of injuries by insets may predispose crops to disease attact. 4. They increase the cost of production during the course of controlling them 5. They render vegetables and fruits unattractive and unmarketable 6. Some are carriers or vectors of diseases. 7. The profits of farmers are reduced 8. They reduce the quality of produce either in the store or in the field 9. They generally reduce the yield of crops 10. They can also cause total death of crop plants. What you need to know about insects pests Not all insects are pests. Some bugs are beneficial to the garden. These good guys are known as beneficial insects, and they can greatly benefit your garden by consuming pest insects that would otherwise feast on your plants.
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What you need to know about insects pests Not all insects are pests. Some bugs are beneficial to the garden. These good guys are known as beneficial insects, and they can greatly benefit your garden by consuming pest insects that would otherwise feast on your plants. Examples Of Beneficial Insects Include: Playing mantises Robber flies Hoverflies Assassin bugs Ground beetles Ladybugs Green lacewings Spiders Soldier beetles How to Control Pests in Crops Pests can be controlled by implementing: Chemical control; Cultural control, including crop rotation, use of locally adapted and or pest-resistant or -tolerant varieties, sanitation, and the manipulation of planting and harvest dates to avoid pests; Biological control by using natural enemies of pests; Mechanical control through cultivation practices or pest trapping; Biotechnology. .. Cultural Control: By cultural control, it is meant those methods of planting, growing and harvesting a crop which will prevent or lessen insect damage. This method consists of a slight departure from the usual time of planting, sowing or harvesting the crops or changing the plan of crop rotation, weed control, disposal of the crop remnants after harvest. Planting good seeds and resistant varieties are very important in controlling some insect pests. Since cultural methods are usually economical, they are especially useful against pests of low unit-value crops. Practices which reduce the chances of buildup of pest populations may hold them below the level which will cause economic damage. Such methods are particularly applicable to field crops and forests. Knowledge of the life history or bionomics of a pest species is essential to the effective use of cultural control methods. The principle of the weakest link or most vulnerable part of the life cycle usually applies. The environment is changed by altering farming practices at the correct time so as to kill the pests or to slow down their multiplication. In this way, the method is aimed more at prevention than at cure. If the environment is unfavorable, the pest may not reach a population level which will cause serious damage. Cultural controls are often used when chemical or biological methods have not yet been devised for an injurious species. Cleanup of the sources of infestation and changes in the planting or harvesting time are particularly important when no effective method of killing the pest is known. However, these methods are also used in combination with other controls: 1.
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Cultural controls are often used when chemical or biological methods have not yet been devised for an injurious species. Cleanup of the sources of infestation and changes in the planting or harvesting time are particularly important when no effective method of killing the pest is known. However, these methods are also used in combination with other controls: 1. Control by Planting Pest Resistant Varieties: Seeds of healthy plants preferably of a resistant variety only should be sown as far as possible. Certain varieties are naturally resistant or less susceptible to insect attack e.g. certain varieties of wild apples are immune to aphid attacks while most of the cultivated varieties are very susceptible. Hence, by interbreeding wild with cultivated variety, a strain can be evolved which yield good fruits and shall also will be immune to pests. 2. Tolerance to Insect Infestation: A variety may be infected by insects yet survive and show less injury than others because of its ability to replace injured parts such as leaves and rootlets. 3. Ploughing in Relation to Insect Control:The plough if used at right time is a good tool for combating many insect pests; it disturbs or kills them, eradicates weeds upon which they might feed and breed, exposes them to natural enemies or to weather control and buries them so deeply that few adults can emerge. A thorough stirring of the soil before planting is an indirect method for controlling the corn root aphids, because, it breaks up ant colonies, kills many aphids and prevents the growth of weeds on which they live until corn roots are available. 4. Clean Cultivation: Clean cultivation means the removal of weeds, plant residues, and other materials from the fields and growing only healthy crops. The destruction of crop residues is a very good preventive measure for controlling certain species of insects e.g. caterpillars or beetles. The elimination of remaining effectively stops further insect breeding by cutting of their food supply and shelter. Many insects infesting crops will develop on weeds which may or may not be related to these crops botanically. Hence, weed control is a good practice for reducing insect infestation. Damage due to Leptocorisa is very serious when paddy fields are surrounded by weeds which provide a good shelter to the pests till the ears have been formed in them.
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Many insects infesting crops will develop on weeds which may or may not be related to these crops botanically. Hence, weed control is a good practice for reducing insect infestation. Damage due to Leptocorisa is very serious when paddy fields are surrounded by weeds which provide a good shelter to the pests till the ears have been formed in them. Similarly various species of red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei, Amsacta collaris and other species of this insect are polyphagous and lay eggs on a number of weeds and on emergence the caterpillars feed on the weeds and then migrate to the nearby fields of any crop. 5. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is effective as preventive measures against insects that feed on relatively few plant species or where the insects are incapable of long distance migration but crop rotation is useless against a general feeder. If one and the same crop is grown every year the insect population is bound to increase due to abundance of food material. On the contrary, if crops are grown in rotation or alternate years e.g. a crop of one plant family followed by that of different family e.g. barley grown in spring may be followed by legumes or pulses and then wheat in winter and so on. The crops of the same family e.g. cotton, and lady s finger okra belonging to the same family Malvaceae must not follow same year. Mixed crops are sometimes useful as pests do not thrive in large number. 6. Flooding or Irrigation: Where water is available, it is sometime possible to destroy insects by flood or irrigation of the field. Flooding rice fields destroys many sugarcane borers. Similarly other burrowing insects e.g. crickets, grasshoppers, beetles and bugs come out of the ground after flooding the fields. They either die their natural death or readily picked up by birds. Ploughing followed by heavy irrigation within 30 days destroys many pink boll worms. The sugarcane and wheat crops can be saved from the attack of termites by irrigation. 7. Fertilizing: Nitrogenous fertilizers in some soils tend to increase the susceptibility of sorghum to damage by attack of some insects. As a result of proper manuring the plant growth is stimulated. The healthy and vigorous plants can easily resist the attack to which the weaklings would have surrendered. 8. Pruning and Thinning: Some pests are normally carried from old crop to the new one.
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The healthy and vigorous plants can easily resist the attack to which the weaklings would have surrendered. 8. Pruning and Thinning: Some pests are normally carried from old crop to the new one. Pruning and thinning decrease the intensity of attack. Infested plant shoots and dead hearts must be immediately removed. Ratooning should be avoided and there should be plenty of intervals between harvesting a crop and sowing a new one. 9. Time of Planting and Harvesting: Time of planting and harvesting has great influence on insect infestation e.g. early maturing cotton is not attacked by pink boll worm in areas where moth do not emerge early. Late planted wheat escapes oviposition by hessian flies in America because the plants do not emerge until most of the flies have disappeared as they are very short lived. Similarly early sowing of rice in the Punjab between the 3rd week of May and mid-June is helpful in protecting it from the attack of rice borer, Tryporyza incertulas so the time should be so regulated that the crop may not be worth the attack at the active period of the pests. 10. Closed Season:An insect species limited in its feeding to one crop may be eradicated by not growing this crop for a year or two. This has been done with success in isolated areas for eradicating the pink boll worm. Such a closed season consists in not growing cotton for a period of several months. 11. Destruction of Volunteer Crops: Volunteer crops are those which grow from self-sown seeds, and stubble crops are those which sprout from roots or stubbles stumps , may be a source of insect infestation and they should be destroyed by ploughing or other means. 12. Trap Crop: A trap crop is a small planting often only a few rows, made somewhat earlier than the main planting for the purpose of diverting insects away from the main crop. The trap crop can either be harvested early or cut and used as fodder before a generation of the insect can be completed. Otherwise it will serve as a breeding ground for the pest which will then attack the main crop in large numbers. The plant species used for trap crop should be one that is very attractive to the insect. The preferred host plants can also be grown around the main crop and when the pest has appeared it can be cut and destroyed.
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Otherwise it will serve as a breeding ground for the pest which will then attack the main crop in large numbers. The plant species used for trap crop should be one that is very attractive to the insect. The preferred host plants can also be grown around the main crop and when the pest has appeared it can be cut and destroyed. The other methods of cultural control are early cutting of crop, rate and depth of planting, sowing, separation of complimentary host plants, pasturing the heavy infected crops and drying out the soil etc. Physical and Mechanical Control: The protection of crops and foods from insect attack by physical and mechanical means is the simplest and most effective method. Such measures consist of destruction of insects by mechanical means, burning, trapping, protective screens or barriers, use of high or low temperature, soaking in water and drying. 1. Hand Picking: When only a few plants are infected, certain large conspicuous species may be removed from the plants by hand and destroyed just by pressing the abdomen or dipping them in kerosenized water. 2. Mechanical Means: A rotary blow has been found to destroy over 96 of white grubs as well as cut worms, army worms and other caterpillars. The cutting wheel is thirty two inches in diameter and fourteen inches wide and carries sixteen steel blades. It operates by power take off from a tractor at 150 rpm. 3. Trapping: The insects may be turned into a tray by light and baits or the trap may be mobile and drawn across a field. 4. Light Traps: The attraction of nocturnal insects to light is a common observation and the light traps have been invented and tested for killing crop pests. The attractiveness of an artificial light depends upon its candle power and colour. A yellow light will attract 60 fewer insects than a white light of the same candle power and brightness. The insects attracted by light may be destroyed as they hit electric grid or they may be drowned in water and oil after they have been turned into the trap. 5. Bait Traps: Baits are a form of control whereby insects are attracted to a selected spot on which they can be easily removed. Bait traps have been found to be very effective in controlling the nocturnal insects like cockroaches, crickets, caterpillars and nocturnal moths. 6. Temperature Treatments: a Low Temperature Control: Low temperature extremes are fatal to insects of stored grains.
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Bait traps have been found to be very effective in controlling the nocturnal insects like cockroaches, crickets, caterpillars and nocturnal moths. 6. Temperature Treatments: a Low Temperature Control: Low temperature extremes are fatal to insects of stored grains. Usually a temperature of 28 C or lower for at least several hours will kill most of the insects. Tribolium confusum can be killed in 24 h when exposed to subzero temperatures. Low temperatures are utilized for the control of insects in mills, warehouses and similar establishments. B High Temperature Control: High temperatures are also fatal to other species and can be used to kill them. Heating cotton seeds to a temperature of 65.5 C for 30 seconds will kill all pink boll worms in the seeds. Temperature of 48.8-51.6 C in all plants of a flour mill for 10-12 h will kill all insects exposed to such temperature. Exposing the infested grains to the sun also kill all the adults of the stored grain insects. 7. Physical Barriers: The protection of crops from insects by barrier is possible in case of crawling and migratory insects. Treated paper barriers and dust barriers are also used. Trenches are also used to stop army worms. Similarly water channels can be used for checking the migration of crawling insects. 8. Burning: Although destroying insects by burning their shelters is sometime practicable, burning pastures and woodland to destroy insects should not be recommended. It has been found that such practices reduce soil fertility and increases soil erosion. Furthermore, it fails to destroy injurious species but does eradicate many beneficial forms. Both cutting away dead hearts and burning them in time save valuable crops from destruction. Burning the field refuse and stubbles, are the other useful ways of pest control. 9. Sieving and Winnowing: It is possible only for domestic purposes. 10. Flooding: It is well known that a large number of insects breed and dwell in the soil, which may be destroyed by flooding the fields with water. There are several other simple methods through which a number of pest infestation can be controlled but the mechanical method of insect pest control involves a lot of labour like shaking the trees and killing the insects either in the larval or adult stages. Biological Control: The term biological control means control of insects by several biological agencies such as parasites, predators and pathogens.
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Flooding: It is well known that a large number of insects breed and dwell in the soil, which may be destroyed by flooding the fields with water. There are several other simple methods through which a number of pest infestation can be controlled but the mechanical method of insect pest control involves a lot of labour like shaking the trees and killing the insects either in the larval or adult stages. Biological Control: The term biological control means control of insects by several biological agencies such as parasites, predators and pathogens. The introduction of sterile males in a normal population and use of sex attractants have been reported to bring about effective biological control. The theoretical basis of the biological control defends on the existence of a natural enemy. The effective natural enemy can be deduced to have the following characteristics: i High searching ability, ii High degree of host specificity or preference, iii Good reproductive capacity relative to the host iv Good adaptation to a wide range of environmental conditions. The most essential characteristic is high searching ability. It should be borne in mind that a really effective enemy may be scarce in its native home because it regulates the host population at low level. There usually is one best enemy for each species in a given habitat and one frequently is sufficient for complete biological control, often, however, a second or third enemy species may add to host population regulation and may in fact be necessary to achieve satisfactory biological control. The best enemy species may differ for different host habitats. Hence there is generally no single best natural enemy extending throughout the range of a pest species. With these qualities the introduced natural enemy by itself or in conjunction with other mortality factors is expected to prevent outbreak of the pest species or at least to drop down major population fluctuations. The essential principle of biological control is to maintain a state of biological equilibrium of a living organism. This biological equilibrium is normally maintained by a set of forces called environmental resistance. Often the biological equilibrium of a living organism is disturbed either due to environmental or biotic factors and consequently a particular organism multiplies and spreads in a unlimited manner so as to assume the status of a pest. The inherent ability of an organism to survive and to reproduce within a given time and under optimal environmental conditions is known as biotic potential. Biotic potential is a force opposed to environmental resistance. It takes into account the number of young produced per female in each reproduction, the number of reproduction in a given time and the sex ratio of the species.
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The inherent ability of an organism to survive and to reproduce within a given time and under optimal environmental conditions is known as biotic potential. Biotic potential is a force opposed to environmental resistance. It takes into account the number of young produced per female in each reproduction, the number of reproduction in a given time and the sex ratio of the species. Advantages of Biological Control: Only a limited number of introduced pests have been successfully exterminated with chemicals. It would seem wiser in many instances to attempt a biological control programme which might reduce pest populations below the level which causes economic damage. Biological control has the tremendous advantage that, if successful, it becomes self-sustaining and integrated into the normal environment of the control area. If pest populations are reduced to the point where economic damage is negligible, the control programme is a success. Biological controls tend to be particularly useful on low unit-value crops where complete control may not be required or where chemicals are not recommended. Pests of field and forage crops, forests, and range may be economically controlled by biological methods; chemical controls against such pests may be impractical. A biological control destined to be fully effective will be easily and quickly established. If an imported parasite or predator is not established within three years of careful releases under good conditions for its development, the programme may be justifiably discontinued. Types of Biological Control: There are 4 main types of biological control viz.:. I Introduction of parasites, ii Predators, iii Pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi etc. And iv Removal of fertile males and creating sterility in males by gamma radiation and introducing these sterile males in a normal population. In addition to these 4 main types, there is a fifth type of biological control where the indigenous parasite of the locality is being utilized for this purpose. 1. Parasites: Parasitic insects develop as larvae on or in a single host individual from eggs generally laid on, in or near the host and usually consume all or most of the host body, killing the host and then pupate, either within or outside the host. The free living adult parasite emerges from the pupa and starts the next generation a new by actively searching for host in which to oviposit. They tend to attack only one host stage i.e. eggs, larvae, or pupae, although there is also some overlapping in certain cases, adult insects do not serve as hosts.
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The free living adult parasite emerges from the pupa and starts the next generation a new by actively searching for host in which to oviposit. They tend to attack only one host stage i.e. eggs, larvae, or pupae, although there is also some overlapping in certain cases, adult insects do not serve as hosts. Very often life cycles are commonly short, ranging from 10 days to 2 weeks or so in mid-summer but correspondingly longer in cold weather. In general, they all have great potential rates of increase. According to the species one or more parasitic larvae may characteristically develop per host individual, thus we have either solitary or gregarious parasitism. Sometimes two different species of larvae develop from eggs laid in the same host. This is multiple parasitism. There is also ectoparasitism and endoparasitism, depending upon whether the larva develops externally or internally. The major groups occur in two orders of insects viz. Hymenoptera and Diptera. 2. Predators: Predator insects differ from parasitic ones in that the larvae or nymphs, as the case may be, require several to many prey individuals to attain maturity. The adults generally deposit their eggs near the prey population and after hatching the active mobile immature search out and consume prey individuals. This need of larvae or nymphs to search is an important distinction from parasitic forms whose larvae develop on a single host individual and thus have the advantage of not having to discover additional hosts. Adults of many species are also predatory. There may be one or several generations to one of the prey. Larvae and nymphs as well as corresponding adults may be predaceous or only one stage may exhibit the habit. 3. Pathogens: Pathogenic microorganisms attack insects and have life cycles more or less characteristic or similar microorganisms developing in other groups of animals. Insects are probably subject to as wide as variety of disease as are the vertebrates. Except for the fungi, disease organisms gain entry in the host via mouth or the digestive tract, i.e. the insect host must eat plant or other food contaminated with pathogen. In case of fungi, entrance is gained through the insect integument and free water or very high humidity is generally required. Thus, fungi tend to be restricted to moist environments.
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The insect host must eat plant or other food contaminated with pathogen. In case of fungi, entrance is gained through the insect integument and free water or very high humidity is generally required. Thus, fungi tend to be restricted to moist environments. However, fungi do have advantage of attacking sucking insects which because of the nature of their feeding on sap, tend to be fairly free of disease caused by microorganisms because they rarely ingest them. Virtually no insect disease organisms occur in mammals and none have been recorded from man. Thus they are safe to use in biological control even in large scale microbial spraying operations. 4. Genetic Methods: Genetic pest control implies the manipulation and use of genetic material in a manner injurious to pest insects. The control of insect pest populations by the release of sterile males has been demonstrated with at least five insect species. This spectacular technique has been termed autocidal control and involves using an insect species to bring about its own self-destruction. It is accomplished by irradiating laboratory reared males of the species to an extent sufficient to disrupt the genetic function of the sperm nucleus but not appreciably interfere with the normal ability of the male to mate or of the sperm to penetrate the egg of the female. However, such fertilized eggs fail to develop so a wild female mated with a sterilized male produces no progeny. If sterile males are released in large enough number in relation to the wild population they will fertilize more females than will the wild males. The advantage is cumulative in each generation hence eradication may be achieved within a few generations under ideal conditions. The boll weevil is reported to have been eradicated from a small isolated field by the release of chemically sterilized males. Chemosterilants have been under intensive investigation but are not as yet practical. They offer the advantage of treating the wild population directly and thus avoiding the mass rearing necessary with gamma radiation. Use of Pheromones: The ability of an insect to locate a mate and to copulate once it has been found is often directed by natural specific chemicals produced by the insect called pheromones. Natural chemical attractants and mating stimulants have been shown to occur in many pest insects. They are often effective in incredibly small concentrations; one caged virgin female of the introduced pine sawfly attracted over 11000 males. Some have been chemically identified and even synthesized. Its high specificity for particular target insects however makes this approach highly desirable.
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They are often effective in incredibly small concentrations; one caged virgin female of the introduced pine sawfly attracted over 11000 males. Some have been chemically identified and even synthesized. Its high specificity for particular target insects however makes this approach highly desirable. Such phenomena gave rise to the intriguing idea of using these natural or artificial pheromones to attract and trap insects, to lure them to contact poisons, chemosterilants or pathogens and to mask the location of females by saturating the environment with synthetic sex pheromones. Such techniques could offer highly specific control methods with little or no ecological side effects. It appears that adequate control from pheromones or attractants probably can only result if they are so highly effective as to be able to reduce the pest population to low level in the treated area and are used over a large area so that immigration of the pest from the outside would not negate the effort. Pheromone traps are commonly used for controlling various moths Heliothis, Spodoptera, Leucinodes etc. Chemical Control: Recent discoveries of new synthetic insecticides have sparked exciting advances and major breakthroughs in the control of insect enemies. Chemicals have subdued pests that once caused wide spread crop destruction, death of domestic animals and epidemics of insect borne human diseases. The modern insecticides are both effective and reliable. The whole world is resorting to them more and more for the solution of many insect problems. The chemicals which kill the insects by their chemical action are termed as insecticides. They are used for the protection of men, domestic animals, crops, agricultural products from the attack of insects when other methods fail to control the pests. Insecticides are seldom used in full strength but are formulated in a variety of ways to make them easier for application. Formulations of Insecticides: Following are the common formulations of insecticides viz.:. 1 Dusts, 2 Granular formulations, 3 Insecticide-fertilizer mixtures, 4 Wettable powders, 5 Solutions, 6 Emulsifiable concentrates, 7 Aerosoles, 8 Fumigants and 9 Miscellaneous formulations. Whatever may be the formulations the poisonous chemical present in an insecticide must penetrate the vital organs and tissues of the insect and ultimately kill it.
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Insecticides are seldom used in full strength but are formulated in a variety of ways to make them easier for application. Formulations of Insecticides: Following are the common formulations of insecticides viz.:. 1 Dusts, 2 Granular formulations, 3 Insecticide-fertilizer mixtures, 4 Wettable powders, 5 Solutions, 6 Emulsifiable concentrates, 7 Aerosoles, 8 Fumigants and 9 Miscellaneous formulations. Whatever may be the formulations the poisonous chemical present in an insecticide must penetrate the vital organs and tissues of the insect and ultimately kill it. 1 Dusts: Insecticidal dusts are those powders which are used dry and mixed with or impregnated with certain organic materials or pulverised minerals powders such as talc, pyrophyllite, bentonite etc. These minerals are called carriers or vehicles since they carry the insecticide. Dusts are blown to deposit on plants by dusting machinery or blowers. Ground to a fine size, most dust will pass through a 325 mesh screen and range in size from 1 to 40 . The finished dust may be 0.1 to 25 active material. In dust form, in general, the toxicity of an insecticide increases as the particle size decreases. 2 Granular Formulations: These are similar to dusts except for larger particle size. The range of particle size in a granular product is designated by a two figures mesh classification e.g. 30 60 means that virtually all the insecticide granules will pass through a standard 30-mesh sieve while a negligible quantity will pass through a standard 60 mesh sieve. Some of the common granular formulations are 16 30, 20 40, 24 48 and 30 60. Granular insecticides are generally used as dressings on or in the soil and may be applied with fertilizer spreaders or special granule applicators. 3 Insecticide Fertilizer Mixtures: Insecticide fertilizer mixtures may be formulated by adding granular insecticides to commercial fertilizers or by spraying insecticides directly on to the fertilizer. Such mixtures are applied at the regular fertilizing time to provide both plant nutrients and control of soil insects.
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Granular insecticides are generally used as dressings on or in the soil and may be applied with fertilizer spreaders or special granule applicators. 3 Insecticide Fertilizer Mixtures: Insecticide fertilizer mixtures may be formulated by adding granular insecticides to commercial fertilizers or by spraying insecticides directly on to the fertilizer. Such mixtures are applied at the regular fertilizing time to provide both plant nutrients and control of soil insects. 4 Wettable Powders: These are similar to dusts but they are meant to be diluted and suspended in water and used as spray. To make an insecticidal dust act in this manner a dispersing and wetting agent is added to the formulation. They are more concentrated than dust as they may contain as high as 75 toxicant. 5 Solutions:Many of the modern synthetic insecticides are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. These soluble insecticides in solution form are used directly for insect control. They are however seldom used on plants because of their phytotoxic reaction. 6 Emulsifiable Concentrates: The most common and versatile formulation is the emulsifiable concentrate. This formulation consists of an insecticide, a solvent for the insecticide and an emulsifying agent. Mixing the concentrate with water forms an emulsion. The solvent used may evaporate quickly after spraying leaving a deposit of toxicant after the water has evaporated. The use of an emulsifying agent serves several purposes; it makes possible the diluting of a water insoluble chemical with water, it reduces the surface tension of the spray thus allowing it to spread and wet the treated surface more effectively, helps the spray and make a better contact with the insect cuticle. Generally oil soluble emulsifying substance is used. Normally emulsions are unstable and break up into their component parts. This action is termed breaking. For spraying on plants a quick breaking mixture is preferred. Since this results in heavier deposits of toxicant. 7 Insecticidal Aerosols: Aerosols are minute particles suspended in air or fog or smoke. The diameter of these particles range from 0.1 to 50 . The dispersion of insecticide into aerosol form may be accomplished by burning, vapourising with heat, atomizing mechanically or releasing through a small hole an insecticide that has been dissolved in a liquified gas. The last method of aerosol preparation gives the popular aerosol bomb.
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The diameter of these particles range from 0.1 to 50 . The dispersion of insecticide into aerosol form may be accomplished by burning, vapourising with heat, atomizing mechanically or releasing through a small hole an insecticide that has been dissolved in a liquified gas. The last method of aerosol preparation gives the popular aerosol bomb. 8 Fumigants:Insecticides used in the gaseous form are known as fumigants. Fumigants are most often formulated as liquids under pressure and are held in tanks. When the liquid is released in open air it changes back to a gas, quite often fumigants are a mixture of two or more gases. 9 Miscellaneous Formulations: There are certain insecticides which are special formulations meant for specific uses. Often insecticides are stuffed in large pills and capsules and introduced into the stomach of animal. Insecticides may be mixed in shampoos, intended for use on house pets waxes for use on floors may contain an insecticide. Poison baits consist of toxicants combined with food stuff attractive to the insect pests. All these types of insecticides are special formulations designed for special purposes. Synergists: Some chemicals have the property of greatly increasing toxicity of certain insecticides. When the increased toxicity is markedly greater than the sum of the two used separately, it is termed a synergistic action. Most synergists have been used with pyrethrum or allethrin etc. Synergistic action is important because it provides a means for a more effective insecticide and it reduces the cost of control. Legal Control: Legal control is the lawful regulation of areas to eradicate, prevent or control infestation or reduce the damage caused by insects. This mainly involves the use of quarantines and pest control procedures. The central and state officials often work with local community or districts as in mosquito or locust control projects. Crop Harvesting: Harvesting: Have you ever wondered how we get food grains supplied neat and cleaned directly to the shop? Yes, farmers are using traditional and modern techniques for harvesting the crops grown. There are various stages to harvesting a variety of crops when the particular crop attains its maturity. Harvesting the crops at matured levels gives high income, and good quality produces. If the crops such as pulses, cereals, oilseeds, etc.,. Are left in the field for too long after maturity without harvesting, it can lead to the predisposition of pests.
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Maturity indices are a set of indicators that tell us when our crops have reached their optimal stage for harvest, based on various factors like size, color, texture, or taste. Here are some maturity indices for vegetables that are commonly sold in the local markets. These indices can serve as a guide for growers and consumers in determining the ideal time to harvest and purchase these crops for optimal flavor and quality. Tomato For local markets in the Philippines, tomatoes are typically harvested when they have reached the breaker stage, which is when the fruit has just started to changecolor from green to red. This is because the market demand for tomatoes is usually for ripe, red tomatoes that are ready for immediate consumption. It is important for growers to keep in mind that tomatoes that are picked too early will not ripen properly and may not have the desired flavor or texture. On the other hand, overripe tomatoes may be too soft and have a shorter shelf life. Eggplant Eggplants should be harvested at the right stage of maturity to ensure good quality and yield. Commercial maturity for eggplant is generally reached when the fruit has reached its full size and firmness, and has developed a glossy, smooth skin with a uniform color. The fruit should have a dark purple or black color, be firm to the touch, and have a slight give when gently squeezed. The calyx, or stem, should be green and firmly attached to the fruit. It is important to note that overly matured eggplants may have a bitter taste. Squash When the squash is ripe, its color becomes dull or matte, and it loses its sheen. Another indication is the hardness of the skin. When the skin of the squash becomes hard and difficult to puncture, it is a sign that it is mature and ready for harvest. Additionally, the tendril near the stem of the squash plant starts to dry out and turn brown when the squash is mature. The leaves of the plant may also start to wilt or yellow when the squash is ready to be harvested. Onion Onions are ready for harvest when their leaves start to turn yellow and fall over. This is an indication that the plant has stopped growing and the bulbs have reached their full size. The outer skin of the onion bulb should also be dry and papery. Once the leaves have fallen over and the skin is dry, the onion bulbs can be pulled from the ground and left to dry for a few days in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated area.
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This is an indication that the plant has stopped growing and the bulbs have reached their full size. The outer skin of the onion bulb should also be dry and papery. Once the leaves have fallen over and the skin is dry, the onion bulbs can be pulled from the ground and left to dry for a few days in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated area. After drying, the onions can be cleaned, trimmed, and stored. Garlic The timing of garlic harvest is determined by the maturity of the bulbs, which is indicated by the drying and browning of the leaves. When approximately one-half of the leaves have turned yellow or brown and have begun to dry out, it is time to harvest the garlic bulbs. Bitter gourd Bitter gourds are harvested when they have reached a length of 4-6 inches and a diameter of about one inch. The color should also be dark green, which indicates that it is still young and tender. The seeds inside the bitter gourd should be small and white, which indicates that the vegetable is still young and has not yet matured. Cucumber Cucumbers are typically harvested when they are young and tender for best flavor and texture. Cucumbers intended for the local market are usually harvested when they are still green, although some varieties may have a slightly yellow or white coloration. Over-ripe cucumbers will turn yellow or orange and are no longer suitable for the market. Cucumbers intended for fresh consumption should have a crisp texture and a slightly sweet, mild flavor. Overly matured cucumbers may have a bitter or unpleasant taste. It is important for growers and consumers to know the maturity indices of vegetables because it helps ensure that the vegetables are harvested at the optimal time for consumption or processing. For growers, knowledge of maturity indices can help them plan their planting and harvesting schedule, as well as manage their resources more efficiently. For consumers, knowing the maturity indices can help them choose the freshest and most nutritious vegetables, as well as get the best value for their moneyMethods of Harvesting There are three essential methods of cutting the crop or harvesting. 1. Hand Harvesting Manual Harvesting: Hand harvesting is a method of gathering grains, fruits, vegetables, leaves, etc.,. By hand or manually. Fig: Hand Harvesting 2. Harvesting with Hand Tools: Farmers use a few tools to harvest the crops.
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Cleaning, fumigation, and drying are done to the stockroom before the grains are stored or deposited. The grains are later transported to dissimilar places throughout the year. Importance of Harvesting 1. Harvesting crops by using advanced technology reduces the wastage of grains and increases in quality and quantity. 2. The direction of cutting fruits, grains and vegetables are very important during harvesting to save the quality of the fruits and also, we should see that the tools used should not damage the plant. 3. Harvesting at the right stage enriches the quality of grains or seed protection. Summary Harvesting is the act of gathering the edible parts of the plant after they approach the stage of maturity. Harvesting of crops is done using many tools and types of machinery in the agricultural fields. The tools that are used while harvesting, such as sickle, axe, etc.,. To harvest the crops like paddy, wheat, maize, grass, etc. Hand harvesting, harvesting with hand tools and harvesting with machinery are the three harvesting methods. Reaping, threshing, cleaning and hauling are the four stages of harvesting. The importance of harvesting crops by using advanced technology reduces the wastage of grains and increases in quality and quantity. Post-Harvest Management Best Practices and Methods Reducing post-harvest loss is critical. Great post-harvest management will help address the growing concerns around food sustainability. What does post-harvest mean? Post-harvest process is the stage that immediately follows the harvest. The final quantity and quality of the product depends on it. Appropriate pre-harvest practices and harvesting the crop at the right time using adequate farming equipment are also important in order to optimize the overall postharvest output. Additionally, post-harvest management includes various steps such as: Drying: This decreases the moisture levels to ensure safe storage and prevents grain germination. It also reduces the risk of fungal attack and contamination by aflatoxin, maximizing the quality of crops retained. Threshing Shelling: Threshing or shelling of grains helps to reduce the required storage capacity and minimize the susceptibility of the grain to pests. Cleaning Winnowing: This involves removing any foreign matter from the grain, such as leaf, stalk, or empty seeds, in order to optimize its market value. Storage: Protecting the grain from climatic changes and contamination by insects and pests is crucial. Various post-harvest grain storage methods can accomplish this.
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Cleaning Winnowing: This involves removing any foreign matter from the grain, such as leaf, stalk, or empty seeds, in order to optimize its market value. Storage: Protecting the grain from climatic changes and contamination by insects and pests is crucial. Various post-harvest grain storage methods can accomplish this. Transport: Grains sold to buyers are transported to warehouses or markets where they are made available to the common folk. Minimize post-harvest losses and preserve produce by correctly following the steps above. How does grain storage play a major role? Agricultural products are stored before they are made available and accessible to the public. The storage process keeps grains, whether in bags or in bulk, in a storage structure. The structure, designed to protect the stored product for a short or long period, hosts the grains awaiting movement to other locations. Grain storage occurs at three levels: producer s level, trader s level, and urban organization storage level. Storing it is necessary for the following reasons: To provide a uniform supply of food throughout the year. Grains are produced seasonally while consumption is a constant. To provide reserve for contingencies such as flood, drought, pandemics, and other calamities. To speculate a good price either in domestic or in export markets. Hence storage is fundamental to the concept of food security. What happens if grain storage is improper? The main cause of deterioration of grain quality and decrease in grain quantity is improper storage. This can occur due to: Weather changes: Changes in climatic conditions such as rain, humidity, increased dampness, moisture; heat can harm the grain quality and seed viability. Infestation: Unfavorable environmental conditions can also make the grain more vulnerable to infestation by insects, pests, and molds. Incorrect Grain Storage resulting in post-harvest losses In fact, rodents and birds often attack incorrectly stored grains. They can not only feed on the grain, but also contaminate it with their urine, droppings, and hair feathers. These problems caused due to improper storage result in post-harvest losses in the form of: Weight loss of the agricultural produce. The grain is prone to rancidity or it may undergo sprouting, over-ripening if not stored properly. There is loss in quality and market value of the produce. Furthermore, the nutritive value of the grain also decreases.
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The grain is prone to rancidity or it may undergo sprouting, over-ripening if not stored properly. There is loss in quality and market value of the produce. Furthermore, the nutritive value of the grain also decreases. What are the correct post-harvest storage methods?Proper grain storage methods are the key to reducing post-harvest losses. The quantity of produce and the duration of storage are important to choose the proper storage method. Storage in bags: Storing grains in bags is convenient for short-term storage when grains are intended to be moved early. Short term storage duration requires few measures against insects. Loose storage: Large quantities of grains can be stored in loose bulk storage. Requirements for correct storage are: A good storage site: Ventilate and keep the site cool. Have a strong roof to protect from high winds and rain. Ideally, raise the site off the ground to prevent ground water soaking into the stored grains. Produce in suitable condition: Ensure that the crop going into the store is in good condition, cleaned and well dried. It is also necessary to store the grain at the right moisture content. Intake of grain is orderly and controlled: Maintain the air-tight barrier each time the storage unit is opened and closed. Quality maintenance ensured: Keep stored grains in the shade to protect them from rodents and birds. Security against theft and loss: Keep the storage area locked in order to limit access. Any loss is identifiable and accountable: Regularly inspect the store to maintain the condition of crops throughout the storage period. Adherence to these requirements helps to know the quantity stored at any given time, decrease the grain loss during storage, and quickly recognize the causal agents of losses and accordingly control them. Hermetic storage Hermetic Bags by Save Grain Bags A post-harvest storage technology, Hermetic storage protects grain by creating an oxygen-deficient and carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere that is incompatible with the survival or breeding of pests. It creates an airtight and moisture-tight barrier, preserving the agricultural products in their optimal form.
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All art uses some blend of many or all of these aspects in order to be pleasing to the eye or to communicate its message. For example, Grant Wood's Fall Plowing uses a blend of color, repetition, line, shape and balance to bring his piece to life. He uses bold greens, yellows and reds, hard, flowing crop lines, and repetition of fun shapes to guide the viewer's eye over what seems to be a fairly serene scene of a freshly plowed field. To analyze the visual elements of visual arts one has to Consider the composition, colors, textures, size, space, and other visual and material attributes of the artwork The seven principles of visual arts 1. Balance refers to the visual weight of the elements of the composition. It is a sense that the painting feels stable and "feels right.". Imbalance causes a feeling of discomfort in the viewer. Balance can be achieved in 3 different ways: Symmetry, in which both sides of a composition have the same elements in the same position, as in a mirror-image, or the two sides of a face. Asymmetry, in which the composition is balanced due to the contrast of any of the elements of art. For example, a large circle on one side of a composition might be balanced by a small square on the other side Radial symmetry, in which elements are equally spaced around a central point, as in the spokes coming out of the hub of a bicycle tire. Contrast This is the difference between elements of art in a composition, such that each element is made stronger in relation to the other. When placed next to each other, contrasting elements command the viewer's attention. Areas of contrast are among the first places that a viewer's eye is drawn. Contrast can be achieved by juxtapositions of any of the elements of art. Negative Positive space is an example of contrast. Complementary colors placed side by side is an example of contrast. Notan is an example of contrast. Emphasis This is when the artist creates an area of the composition that is visually dominant and commands the viewer's attention. This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making.
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This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making. Pattern is the uniform repetition of any of the elements of art or any combination thereof. Anything can be turned into a pattern through repetition. Some classic patterns are spirals, grids, weaves. For examples of different pattern types see the Artlandia Glossary of Pattern Design. A popular drawing practice is Zentangles, in which an abstract or representational outline is divided into different areas, each of which contains a unique pattern. Rhythm This is created by movement implied through the repetition of elements of art in a nonuniform but organized way. It is related to rhythm in music. Unlike pattern, which demands consistency, rhythm relies on variety. Unity Variety You want your painting to feel unified such that all the elements fit together comfortably. Too much unity creates monotony, too much variety creates chaos. You need both. Ideally, you want areas of interest in your composition along with places for your eye to rest. PAINTING Colour wheel Colour wheel a diagram used in the visual arts to represent the colours of the visible spectrum and their relationships to one another. The colours are arranged systematically into a circle, with each hue usually falling into one of three categories: 1. Primary2. Secondary 3. Intermediate. Colour gradation strip for colour contrast Start with your chosen colour at the top of the column on your palette cool blues below the cool blue column, warm reds below the warm red column and apply in a broad band on your canvas. Back to your palette, add white to your colour and mix it in the column below the first colour. Still life drawing Still Life drawing is literally creating a two dimensional image of inanimate objects. Various media are used to emphasize a skill or topic. Still Life drawings created as preliminary studies for paintings are typically pencil, pastels, or pen and ink. A still life drawing is created by placing objects in a design setting that utilizes available light and contrasts in shapes in an eye pleasing manner. The artist sketches the basic shapes first and continues to fill in details and or color until the desired outcome is achieved.
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What Is Time Signature 3 4? The time signature or meter 3 4 is show in the music as a 3 above a 4. This comes before the music starts but after the clef and key signature. The 3 stands for 3 beats per measure and the 4 tells us that each beat is a quarter note. This means that the notes in each measure will add to three quarter notes. See if you can spot the three quarter note beats in this line of music. Now here it is with the beats labelled. Master Time Signatures With Our Free Mini Course Get 10 video lessons complete with worksheets and quiz to learn about simple, compound and irregular meters. How To Count In 3 4 3 4, like all meters, has a distinctive feel to it. We count 3 4 as 1..2 3 .1 2 .3 and you can see this on the music below. These three quarter-note beats are counted regardless of how those beats are divided up. Here is a piece by Chopin. It contains more complex rhythms with a variety of note lengths, however this piece would still counted with three quarter-note beat. Can you spot where each beat falls? Now here it is with the beats added. 3 4 Is A Simple, Triple Time Signature There are three broad types of time signature: simple, compound and irregular. Simple time signatures have beats that divide into two. Compound time signatures have beats that divide into three and irregular time signatures have a mixture of beats. In time signature 3 4 each beat is a quarter note and therefore can be divided into TWO eighth notes. This makes 3 4 a Simple Time Signature. It is a Triple time signature because there areThe notes below show how each quarter note beat in 3 4 time can be divided into two eight notes. Athletics and Montage Athletics is a sport that includes a number of events involving running, jumping, throwing or walking. Middle distance races. Middle distance race starts with a standing start, athletes start from an upright, standing position the crouch forward with one foot about 18 inches behind the other. The leading foot and shoulder both point forward. The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs.
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The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs. An athlete knows how long it takes him or her to cover a certain distance. Stride length it is the uniform length of steps taken during running. Recovery - It is a stop, walk or slow jog made after striding. It helps an athlete to catch a breath and relax before striding again which helps in developing speed and running skills. Middle-distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance even MONTAGE is the production of a rapid succession of images in a motion picture to illustrate an association of idea. Photomontage. Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. It is assembly of images that relate to each other in some way to create a single work or part of a work of art. Photomontage is an image constructed from collaged photographs. Characteristics shown in photomontage. Superimposition-combine two images to create something new. Use of pictures. Emphasis on shape. MELODY Composing melody A melody is a collection of musical tones that are grouped together as a single entity. Most compositions consist of multiple melodies working in conjunction with one another. In a rock band, the vocalist, guitarist, keyboardist, and bassist are all playing melodies on their respective instruments. The basic process of melody writing is to create a musical sequence of notes, often referred to as a line, that's interesting and pleasing to the listener. This is done by using pitch notes and rhythm beats . Melodies are most often built using scales or modes. There are a few ways to extend a melody, depending on the style of music and the desired effect. Here are a few methods that may be helpful: Repeat and vary the melody. Repeat the melody multiple times, with slight variations each time. This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody.
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This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody. This can create a sense of harmony and depth. Use harmonic progression. Change the chords that the melody is played over. This can create a sense of movement and tension. Add a coda. Add a section at the end of the melody that provides a sense of closure. NETBAL Netball is a ball sport played on a rectangular court by two teams of seven players. The primary objective is to shoot a ball through the defender's goal ring while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own goal ring. Passes in netball 1. Chest pass in Net ball. Chest pass is a way of throwing the ball to a teammate where the ball is released and received at the chest level. The pass is usually used when the teammates are not far from each other. Learning points for the chest pass. 1. Grip Spread your fingers out behind the ball to form a W formation, holding it at chest height with your elbows out in front of you. 2. Stance. Face the direction you want the ball to go in. Step forwards with your dominant foot as you begin to straighten your arms. 3. Execution of the pass. Push the ball away from your body at chest height by powerfully extending the arms forwards and flicking the wrists. Follow through with the arms, wrists, hands and fingers in the direction of the throw. Chest pass drills Dodging and marking in Netball. Dodging is a technique used to counter the marking attempts. It is applied by members of the team in control of the ball. The player being marked attempts to get free from the marker and move into space to receive a pass. It may involve changing pace and use of deceptive body actions to put the marking player off balance. Deceptive means misleading or trickiness while off-balance means not steady or stable. Intercept means block a pass or prevent it from reaching destination or to block something from happening. Body movements used by a player when dodging an opponent. Using bending or leaning movements with the body trunk to the left or right or left once or repeatedly. Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent.
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Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent. Marking is a technique used by a team that is not in possession of the ball to prevent an opponent from receiving a pass. The intention is to obstruct passes made by the team in control of the ball. A player can mark an opponent in possession of the ball or an opponent without the ball. Marking opponent with the ball. Marking opponent without the ball. Body movements used by a player when marking an opponent. Standing in front of the player being marked. Standing beside the player being marked. Raising hands up or to the side to reach the path of the ball. Stepping forward, or sideways while avoiding any obstruction. Things to learn when dodging and marking stance. Marking a player without the ball. Establish the basic stance for marking with body weight on your toes. Take a position slightly in front of the player you intend to mark. Be on your toes, with knees slightly bent, ready to catch the ball or move in the direction of the opponent. The hands should be on the side of the body. React quickly when the opponent being marked makes any movement, move in the direction of the opponent using short steps, shuffle sideways without crossing the feet. Focus on both the ball and the player and forth from one place to another. Activity. Guided by the teacherDemonstrate Basic stance for dodging, marking, body movement for dodging and marking. Footwork in Netball. Landing techniques. In netball, the ball is played using hands. During play, the players may: Run to doge an opponent or to reach a ball. Jump to catch a high ball or rebound from the ring. Stop the running action suddenly to dodge an opponent or avoid getting to an offside position. Land on the floor or the ground as dedicated by the laws of gravity in integrated science and as guided by the law of the game. However, players need to land safely for safety and healthy living. There are two landing techniques in Netball: The double foot landing. Single foot landing. Pivoting.
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Batik fabrics often include colorful, intricate, ornamental designs. What are two types of batik art? There are several different varieties of batik art. Two main types include hand-painted or drawn and stamped, block printed, or machine-printed. What is the batik method? The traditional batik method includes the drawing of a pattern on fabric, then the application of hot wax on the pattern, the dyeing of the fabric, removal of the wax, or some wax, then sometimes additional rounds of dyeing. The parts under the wax are not dyed. Other methods than the aforementioned traditional method exist. Light and Dry Crackle Effects has been formulated to create dry, cracked floors on the undersurfaces of vehicles, dioramas and vignettes. This product has been developed for the creation of scale crackle effects. On an acrylic base, use a thin coat and let dry. Descant recorder or Any other western instrumentDescant recorder, is the third-smallest instrument of the modern recorder family and is usually played as the highest voice in four-part ensembles SATB soprano, alto, tenor, bass . Recorders made today are designed after originals preserved in museums and based on historical evidence regarding dimensions, materials and pitch. Recorders come in many different sizes. The main kinds, from small to large, are: sopranino, descant soprano , treble alto , tenor and bass. Examples of western solo instruments. Instruments Playing technique Fingering chart for the G scale. Violin Bowing on the strings Guitar. Plucking the strings Trumpet in B flat Blowing air while producing a buzzing sound. Tones can be varied by pressing the valves. Xylophone Hitting the bars with a small mallet. Each piece of wood is a different length so it produces different sounds when they are hit. Piano Pressing on the keys. Playing the recorder using appropriate techniques. The following techniques are used to play descant recorder: Tonguing. Gently say tu when blowing air into the recorder. Embouchure. This is how one places their mouth on the recorder s mouthpiece to ensure that no air is lost when blowing into the instrument. Fingering. Correct placement of the fingers on the recorder. As a rule, the left hand is always at the top part of the recorder. All the holes must be tightly covered to prevent leakage of air.
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Correct placement of the fingers on the recorder. As a rule, the left hand is always at the top part of the recorder. All the holes must be tightly covered to prevent leakage of air. Blowing. Blow warm air into the recorder. Blowing gently gives a good sound. Blowing too hard generates unpleasant sounds. Slurring. This is the technique of playing more than two notes in one breath. This involves only the movement of fingers while the airflow is constant. Staccato. Playing notes in a detached manner. Notes to be played staccato have a dot above or below the note. Tone quality. Listen carefully to the sound you produce when you blow into the recorder. Blowing gently and having consistent air gives a good tone. Blend and balance. Being able to listen to what the other in an ensemble are playing helps to blend and create a balanced sound. Interpret performance directions when playing the descant recorder. You should be able to play melodies on the descant recorder while observing the following directions: a. Repeat. Repeat signs are two dots that are placed before or after a double bar line. Whey they are placed after a double bar line, it means it is the start of the repeat. However, when they are placed before a double line, it means the end of repeat. B. 1st and 2nd ending The two lines above the staff mean that one will avoid playing 1 notes when repeating. This applies where there is a repeat and the last part of the melody is different from the first one. C. Da capo al fine It is often abbreviated as D.C al Fine. It means one goes back to the beginning of the piece and plays to the point written. D. Dal segno al fine. It is often abbreviated as D.S al fine. It means you go back to a point in the piece of music with the sign and play or sing to the bar marked Fine end then stop. E. Accent. The note with sign is played with emphasis. F. Fermata. This sign means that you can hold the note a little longer that its given time value or number of counts. G. Dynamics. This refers to how quietly or loudly a piece of music should be played. Italian terms are used to indicate dynamics in the piece of music. Dynamics English meaning.
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This refers to how quietly or loudly a piece of music should be played. Italian terms are used to indicate dynamics in the piece of music. Dynamics English meaning. Pianissimo pp Very soft Piano p Soft Mezzo piano mp Moderately soft Mezzo forte mf Moderately wide. Forte f Loud. Fortissimo ff Very loud. H. Tempo. This term is used to refer to how fast or slow a piece of music can be played. Italina terms are used to indicate what tempo the music is played Tempo terms English meaning. Andante At a walking pace 73-77 beats per minute Allegro Fast 109-132 beats per minute Adagio Slow ss-65 beats per minute Lento Slowly 40-45 beats per minute VerseVerse is writing arranged in lines which have rhythm and which often rhyme at the end. ... A slim volume of verse. I have been moved to write a few lines of verse. Synonyms: poetry, poems, lyrics, rhyme More Synonyms of verse Composing a verse Start by committing your main ideas to paper, then go back and refine them later. Draw on devices like simile and metaphor to tell your story in a way that's engaging to the listener. Don't just explain the action give life to it through concrete images and unexpected turns of phrase. VOLLEYBAL Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's Overarm and Jump serve in Volley. Over arm serve. Over arm serve is where a player tosses the ball with one hand and strikes it in the air above their head with the other hand so that it crosses the net and lands into the opponents side. Safety instructions. Ensure you perform thorough warm up activities. Avoid congestion by maintaining a safe distance from your peers. Follow instructions. Jump serve in Volleyball. This is a type of serve where the serving player increases power and serve height by jumping to hit the ball when serving in volleyball. Minor Games and basic rules. Minor games are small sided games that help you practice skills learnt in volleyball while applying the rules of the games. Safety precaution. Never fist hit the ball as you could hit someone s face. Do not swing on the post.
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Safety precaution. Never fist hit the ball as you could hit someone s face. Do not swing on the post. Do not go under the net, always walk around the nets. Do not throw the ball over the net, roll it under the net. Diagram of human figures playing Volley. Student activities monitored and instructed by the teacher Draw human figures of players serving or volleying a ball. C Serve the ball using the jump serve over a net. D Perform the volley for skill acquisition, KENYAN FOLK DANCE Classifying Kenyan folk dance African folk songs are classified according to the following. Their origin. Occasion. Function. Type. A. Community of origin. -. African songs can be classified according to their origin. -. The origin in this case means the community they are drawn from. -. Therefore, songs belong to a particular community such as luhya, luo, gikuyu, gusii. Kuria, Kamba, iteso, giriama, digo, Pokomo, gabra, nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, pokot, turkana and taita. -. These songs are passed on by oral tradition from one generation to the next. -. The music is related to the culture of a particular or region. For example, you can identify the culture od a particular community or region by their dressing, languageused, musical instruments, props, body adornments, ornaments, body movements, vocal embellishments used to enrich music, style of sing and tone among others. B. Occasion. -. African folk songs can also be categorized according to occasions they are performed. -. For example: - naming folk songs. -. Initiation folk songs. -. Marriage folk songs. -. War folk songs. -. Funeral folk songs. -. Worship folk songs among others. C. Function. Folk songs belong to the people with a common culture. Therefore, folk songs keep people connected to their cultures and heritage. They give history of the people and their culture. Folk songs usually pass important information, stories, messages and history from generation to generation. Folk songs are used to express emotions. They narrate stories of joy and sorrows in the simplest way. Folk songs are used as a means of unifying the community members when they come together to sing.
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Folk songs are used to express emotions. They narrate stories of joy and sorrows in the simplest way. Folk songs are used as a means of unifying the community members when they come together to sing. This also creates positive outcomes or consequences if they do not watch their actions and intention. Some of the folk songs are purely for entertainment, enjoyment by performers and the audience. D. Type. African folk songs can also be classified according to the type such as: Lullabies. Dirges. Love songs. Protest songs. Children s songs among others. Creating improvised implements to use in performance of Folkdance songs. Folk dances are performed by different participants who plays different roles as follows: Soloist-person who leads the rest of the participants in singing the melodies and dancing during the performance of the dance. Response group-they provide an answer to the soloist during the dance. Instrumentalist-plays instruments to accompany a dance. Dancers- makes dance movements and formation in response to the songs and instruments. Along side the participants, folk song dances also require other implements so help in identifying different cultures and diversities such as costumes, ornaments, body adornments, body make ups, props etc. During a folk-dance performance, participants wear specially designed cloths, hides or skins called costumes. Costumes are made using locally available materials such as sisal fibre, sisal string, comb and pair of scissors. The participants also decorate their bodies using different paints to make patterns. This is called body adornments. Body adornments are made using the following materials: Water paints. Chalk powder. Objects or items of different shapes and sizes like bottle tops, water bottles, combs, folk and other design shaped objects. Dancers also use beads, necklaces, bracelets and anklets during the dance performance. These are called ornaments. Body ornaments are made using locally available materials such as: Pieces of thread. Pair of scissors. Grains such as beans, maize soaked in water to make them soft A needle. The costumes, body adornments and ornaments vary from one community to another expressing different cultures in Kenya. The following are social importance of songs to the pastoralists: Songs they sing accompany their journey to facilitate movements.
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Grains such as beans, maize soaked in water to make them soft A needle. The costumes, body adornments and ornaments vary from one community to another expressing different cultures in Kenya. The following are social importance of songs to the pastoralists: Songs they sing accompany their journey to facilitate movements. They songs are sung during their herding sessions to take away boredom. They are a source of unity and collaboration among the community members. They educate on the importance of the animals and other resources. They tell the history of the community. General uses of Folk songs. As a source of entertainment. As a source of cultural and national unity. In teaching subjects such as history, literature and geography among others. To educate. To rebuke. To advise. To worship. To encourage. To promote culture. To give moral teachings. Economic importance of the songs. Economic importance or economic significance of something refers to the monetary or trade value of an item. Songs have economic importance to individuals, the cultural community and even the country. General these are the economic importance of folk songs: Performers can earn money or income by performing folk songs at private parties. Folk song musicians also earn a living by offering singing lessons. Some musicians are employed as singers or trainers of folk songs by some institutions such as cultural centres, universities and schools among others. Folk songs musicians also earn the country foreign exchange when they perform outside the country. Folk musicians also earn the country revenue when they pay taxes. Folk musicians can be independent artists by recording and selling their music. Indigenous Kenyan craft Baketry Kenya's artistic heritage also includes a rich tradition of traditional crafts, such as beadwork, woodcarving, pottery, and basket weaving. These crafts have been passed down through generations and are often used for practical purposes as well as for ceremonial and decorative purposes basketry items made using coil techniques This method is widely used throughout the world in making strong, fairly rigid objects for daily use: partitions for dwellings, baskets to be carried on the back, cages, and fish traps with a Mediterranean variety composed of three layers of standards and a knotted thread . Swimming Breast stroke in swimming.
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Indigenous Kenyan craft Baketry Kenya's artistic heritage also includes a rich tradition of traditional crafts, such as beadwork, woodcarving, pottery, and basket weaving. These crafts have been passed down through generations and are often used for practical purposes as well as for ceremonial and decorative purposes basketry items made using coil techniques This method is widely used throughout the world in making strong, fairly rigid objects for daily use: partitions for dwellings, baskets to be carried on the back, cages, and fish traps with a Mediterranean variety composed of three layers of standards and a knotted thread . Swimming Breast stroke in swimming. Breast stroke is a stroke in which the arms are pushed forward and then swept back in a circular movement, while the legs are tucked in towards the bod and then kicked out in a sideways and backward movement. Description of the prone body position. The body lies in a horizontal position in the water with the head in line, with the spine and the face in the water, eyes looking down. The arms are extended forward and the legs are held close together, toes pointed. The breast stroke begins with a forceful push from the poolside in order to generate some propulsion, which results in a glide. The body moves in a smooth, continuous and effortless motion while lying on the stomach and glides in a horizontal position. From the glide phase, the propulsive arm action takes place and then the leg action as the arms recover. The body is then in a streamlined glide for a short moment in each before the next stroke begins. Glide. For effective gliding in the water, the body should be well streamlined. This can be affected by the underwater recovery movements, as the propulsive force remain still and streamlined. For example, as the legs kick to provide propulsion, the arms should be extended forward to create the ideal streamlined body position at the front. Similarly, as the arms pull around, the legs should be in the glide phase to create the same streamlined body position at the back. Gliding helps to make the breast stroke movement smooth and reduces the effort required by the arms to move forward, resulting on a more efficient swimming technique. It is important to cultivate a glide so that the proper sequence of arms-breath-leg - glide can be established. The breast stroke starts with the arm pull, breathe, then the kick and finally the glide in a streamlined position. Prone body postion and glide.
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It is important to cultivate a glide so that the proper sequence of arms-breath-leg - glide can be established. The breast stroke starts with the arm pull, breathe, then the kick and finally the glide in a streamlined position. Prone body postion and glide. Stand waist-deep in water, with knees bent or feet flat against the side of the pool. You can hold onto the side of the pool with one hand for support. Breathe in and put your face in the water. Puch off the wall and glide to the prone body position. Lie flat, head facing down with your body in line with the water surface. Keep your face down and arms extended forward. Your eyes should look downwards and slightly forward to avoid straining the neck. Keep your shoulders, hips and legs horizontal as possible, and keep your hips as close as possible to the surface. Do not let your hips drop in the water. Stretch your legs behind with toes pointed but slope your body slightly to allow the legs to stay beneath the water. Keep your neck and shoulders as relaxed as possible to aid the arm action and reduce strain. Keep your body straight and streamlined to make swimming easier and enhance speed. The head movement should be kept to a minimum, and the shoulder should remain level throughout the stroke. Arm action. The arm pull technique is needed to assist the leg movement and also to keep the breast stroke streamlined and efficient. Cath phase. I. Begin with the glide position, arms extended out in front of you, fingers and hands together, palms facing downwards. Ii. Pitch your hand outwards and downwards to an angle of about 45 degrees at the start of the catch phase. Iii. Pull your arms outwards and downwards until they are appropriately shoulderwidth apart. Your elbows should begin to bend, and your shoulders to roll inwards at the end of the catch phase. Propulsive phase. Sweep your arms downwards and inwards, and let the hands pull to their deepest point. The elbows bend to 900 and remain high. At the end of the down sweep, your hands, your hands should sweep inwards and slightly upwards. The elbow should tuck into the side as you pull your hand inwards towards the chest and the chin. Recovery phase. Your hands should recover by stretching forward in a streamlined position.
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The elbow should tuck into the side as you pull your hand inwards towards the chest and the chin. Recovery phase. Your hands should recover by stretching forward in a streamlined position. They should recover under, on, or over the water surface ready to restart the arm action. Leg action. The legs are the powerhouse of the breast stroke, and the full leg kick should be a simultaneous and flowing action, resulting in a powerful boost that propels the whole stroke. I. Start with your legs straight and together. Ii. Bend your knees and bring the heels towards your seat with the sole of the feet facing outwards for the frog kick . Iii. Sweep the legs outwards and download in a flowing circular path. The heels and soles of your feet should drive around and back to provide power and propulsion to the stroke. Iv. Squeeze legs together to come back together to the starting streamlined position with the toes pointed. Breathing action. -. Breast stroke breathing occurs naturally as the breast technique has a body lift, which gives the ideal breathing point for each stroke. Breathing in takes place every time your arms pull back to all the body to lift and the head to rise. Lift your shoulders to bring your face out of the water to breath. Don t raise your head, let the head naturally rise with the shoulders so your chin is resting just above the water. Inhale through your mouth before letting your shoulder drop as you sweep with your arms. Breath out as your legs kick back and extend your arms forward. The head returns to the water to exhale as the arms stretch forward to begin their recovery phase. Timing. A well-executed breast stroke timing sequence is key to achieving a smooth and efficient swimming stroke as you will effortlessly glide through the water. A. Try to time your arm action and leg kick so there is always something propelling you through water. B. The arms will be propulsive while the legs recover and the legs propulsive while the arms recover. C. To coordinate the leg kick, the arm strokes, and the breathing, think of the phrase pull, breath, kick, glide d. As your arms complete the power phase, take a breath, and then draw your feet toward the hips. E. When your arms are about halfway through the recovery phase, begin the leg action.
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B. The arms will be propulsive while the legs recover and the legs propulsive while the arms recover.c. To coordinate the leg kick, the arm strokes, and the breathing, think of the phrase pull, breath, kick, glide d. As your arms complete the power phase, take a breath, and then draw your feet toward the hips.e. When your arms are about halfway through the recovery phase, begin the leg action.f. Time the arm strokes and kick so that the arms and legs are both at their full length as the kick finishes.g. Rest in the phase position as your body glides through the water. Then the glide begins to slow down, it is time to start another stroke. Water treading To maintain an upright position in deep water by moving the feet with a walking movement and the hands with a downward circular motion.
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Is the most advanced creature to appear on earthImportance of Fossil Records. Fossils refer to the preserved remains of plants and animals that are found beneath the surface of the earth. Fossil records help to understand how human beings evolved, lived, adapted and changed their physical appearance in the past. Fossil records have the following importance:Provide past evidence on how plants and animals adapted to their environment. Helps to establish evolutionary relationship between organisms and their ancestors. Fossil records help to establish the time period in which organisms lived. Fossil records help archeologists and other natural scientists to place important events and species in the appropriate historical and geographical era. Fossil records of humans help us to understand the social, political and economic life of man over years. They give us information on the culture of humans, clothing, food, and beliefs in the past. Fossil records give us information on the economic activities of man such as the animals they hunted, crops they cultivated, fishing among others. Fossil records give us information on the type and uses of tools and other materials used by humans in farming, hunting, war or religious activities over the years. They provide evidence of Africa being the cradle of humanity. Locations of human remains discovered in Africa. Prehistoric sites are places where man s remains which are evident of his past existence were found. The oldest known human remains in Africa were discovered in Ethiopia, dating back to around 200,000 years ago. The following are a few examples of where and when pre-historic human remains have been discovered in Africa. Other places are:Fort Ternan Kenya where Ramapithecus or Kenyapithecus were found. Changes that took places in humans as a result of evolution. Evolution of human beings has been a continuous process resulting from various changes and adaptations. These changes are characterized in their teeth, arms, body shape, brain size, structure of their legs and shape of their head. These changes were important for them to adapt to new environmental conditions for survival. Human beings evolved to walk on two legs, freeing their hands for tool use and enhancing mobility. Overtime, the human brain had grown, leading to advanced cognitive abilities. They developed the ability to make and use tools. Humans developed language, enabling communication. Evolution influenced teeth, adapting them to a diverse diet including plants and animals. Humans evolved complex social structures, forming family units and communities.
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