setfit safetensors mpnet sentence-transformers text-classification generated_from_setfit_trainer arxiv:2209.11055 base_model:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 base_model:finetune:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 model-index region:us
---
base_model: sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
library_name: setfit
metrics:
- f1
pipeline_tag: text-classification
tags:
- setfit
- sentence-transformers
- text-classification
- generated_from_setfit_trainer
widget:
- text: in durankulak near varna is another important example other signs of early
    metals are found from the third millennium bc in palmela portugal los millares
    spain and stonehenge united kingdom the precise beginnings however have not be
    clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing in tamilnadu
    in approximately 1900 bc ancient iron smelting sites were functioning in tamil
    nadu in the near east about 3500 bc it was discovered that by combining copper
    and tin a superior metal could be made an alloy called bronze this represented
    a major technological shift known as the bronze age the extraction of iron from
    its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin the
    process appears to have been invented by the hittites in about 1200 bc beginning
    the iron age the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the
    success of the philistineshistorical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be
    found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations this includes the ancient
    and medieval kingdoms and empires of the middle east and near east ancient iran
    ancient egypt ancient nubia and anatolia in presentday turkey ancient nok carthage
    the greeks and romans of ancient europe medieval europe ancient and medieval china
    ancient and medieval india ancient and medieval japan amongst others many applications
    practices and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in
    ancient china such as the innovation of the blast furnace cast iron hydraulicpowered
    trip hammers and double acting piston bellowsa 16th century book by georg agricola
    de re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining
    metal ores metal extraction and metallurgy of the time agricola has been described
    as the father of metallurgy extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing
    valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer
    form in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal the ore must
    be reduced physically chemically or electrolytically extractive metallurgists
    are interested in three primary streams feed concentrate metal oxidesulphide and
    tailings waste after mining large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing
    or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either
    mostly valuable or mostly waste concentrating the particles of value in a form
    supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products
    mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive
    to leaching leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched
    solution the solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals ore
- text: '##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf
    x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate
    the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point
    of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat
    algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch
    step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical
    srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer
    tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point
    this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the
    grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not
    correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic
    with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa
    information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point
    in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related
    to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering
    a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x
    and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation
    limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf
    x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring
    the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid
    alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the
    tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle
    nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau
    m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright
    of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated
    a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given
    by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min
    leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert'
- text: authority to select projects and mandated new metropolitan planning initiatives
    for the first time state transportation officials were required to consult seriously
    with local representatives on mpo governing boards regarding matters of project
    prioritization and decisionmaking these changes had their roots in the need to
    address increasingly difficult transportation problems — in particular the more
    complicated patterns of traffic congestion that arose with the suburban development
    boom in the previous decades many recognized that the problems could only be addressed
    effectively through a stronger federal commitment to regional planning the legislation
    that emerged the intermodal surface transportation efficiency act istea was signed
    into federal law by president george h w bush in december 1991 it focused on improving
    transportation not as an end in itself but as the means to achieve important national
    goals including economic progress cleaner air energy conservation and social equity
    istea promoted a transportation system in which different modes and facilities
    — highway transit pedestrian bicycle aviation and marine — were integrated to
    allow a seamless movement of both goods and people new funding programs provided
    greater flexibility in the use of funds particularly regarding using previously
    restricted highway funds for transit development improved intermodal connections
    and emphasized upgrades to existing facilities over building new capacity — particularly
    roadway capacity to accomplish more serious metropolitan planning istea doubled
    federal funding for mpo operations and required the agencies to evaluate a variety
    of multimodal solutions to roadway congestion and other transportation problems
    mpos also were required to broaden public participation in the planning process
    and to see that investment decisions contributed to meeting the air quality standards
    of the clean air act amendments in addition istea placed a new requirement on
    mpos to conduct fiscally constrained planning and ensure that longrange transportation
    plans and shortterm transportation improvement programs were fiscally constrained
    in other words adopted plans and programs can not include more projects than reasonably
    can be expected to be funded through existing or projected sources of revenues
    this new requirement represented a major conceptual shift for many mpos and others
    in the planning community since the imposition of fiscal discipline on plans now
    required not only understanding how much money might be available but how to prioritize
    investment needs and make difficult choices among competing needs adding to this
    complexity is the need to plan across transportation modes and develop approaches
    for multimodal investment prioritization and decision making it is in this context
    of greater prominence funding and requirements that mpos function today an annual
    element is composed of transportation improvement projects contained in an areas
    transportation improvement program tip which is proposed for implementation during
    the current year the annual element is submitted to the us department of transportation
    as part of the required planning process the passage of safe accountable flexible
    efficient transportation equity act a legacy for users safetealu
- text: '##pignygiroux served as an assistant professor from 1997 2003 associate professor
    from 2003 2014 chair of the department of geography from 2015 2018 and professor
    beginning in 2014 with secondary appointments in department of geology the college
    of education social services and rubenstein school of environment natural resources
    she teaches courses in meteorology climatology physical geography remote sensing
    and landsurface processes in her work as state climatologist for vermont dupignygiroux
    uses her expertise hydrology and extreme weather such as floods droughts and storms
    to keep the residents of vermont informed on how climate change will affect their
    homes health and livelihoods she assists other state agencies in preparing for
    and adapting to current and future impacts of climate change on vermonts transportation
    system emergency management planning and agriculture and forestry industries for
    example she has published analyses of the impacts of climate change on the health
    of vermonts sugar maples a hardwood species of key economic and cultural importance
    to the state as cochair of vermonts state ’ s drought task force she played a
    key role in developing the 2018 vermont state hazard mitigation plandupignygiroux
    served as secretary for the american association of state climatologists from
    20102011 and president elect from 20192020 in june 2020 she was elected as president
    of the american association of state climatologists which is a twoyear term in
    addition to her research on climate change dupignygiroux is known for her efforts
    to research and promote climate literacy climate literacy is an understanding
    of the influences of and influences on the climate system including how people
    change the climate how climate metrics are observed and modelled and how climate
    change affects society “ being climate literate is more critical than ever before
    ” lesleyann dupignygiroux stated for a 2020 article on climate literacy “ if we
    do not understand weather climate and climate change as intricate and interconnected
    systems then our appreciation of the big picture is lost ” dupignygiroux is known
    for her climate literacy work with elementary and high school teachers and students
    she cofounded the satellites weather and climate swac project in 2008 which is
    a professional development program for k12 teachers designed to promote climate
    literacy and interest in the stem science technology engineering and mathematics
    careers dupignygiroux is also a founding member of the climate literacy and energy
    awareness network clean formerly climate literacy network a communitybased effort
    to support climate literacy and communication in a 2016 interview dupignygiroux
    stated “ sharing knowledge and giving back to my community are my two axioms in
    life watching students mature and flourish in'
- text: no solutions to x n y n z n displaystyle xnynzn for all n ≥ 3 displaystyle
    ngeq 3 this claim appears in his annotations in the margins of his copy of diophantus
    euler the interest of leonhard euler 1707 – 1783 in number theory was first spurred
    in 1729 when a friend of his the amateur goldbach pointed him towards some of
    fermats work on the subject this has been called the rebirth of modern number
    theory after fermats relative lack of success in getting his contemporaries attention
    for the subject eulers work on number theory includes the following proofs for
    fermats statements this includes fermats little theorem generalised by euler to
    nonprime moduli the fact that p x 2 y 2 displaystyle px2y2 if and only if p ≡
    1 mod 4 displaystyle pequiv 1bmod 4 initial work towards a proof that every integer
    is the sum of four squares the first complete proof is by josephlouis lagrange
    1770 soon improved by euler himself the lack of nonzero integer solutions to x
    4 y 4 z 2 displaystyle x4y4z2 implying the case n4 of fermats last theorem the
    case n3 of which euler also proved by a related method pells equation first misnamed
    by euler he wrote on the link between continued fractions and pells equation first
    steps towards analytic number theory in his work of sums of four squares partitions
    pentagonal numbers and the distribution of prime numbers euler pioneered the use
    of what can be seen as analysis in particular infinite series in number theory
    since he lived before the development of complex analysis most of his work is
    restricted to the formal manipulation of power series he did however do some very
    notable though not fully rigorous early work on what would later be called the
    riemann zeta function quadratic forms following fermats lead euler did further
    research on the question of which primes can be expressed in the form x 2 n y
    2 displaystyle x2ny2 some of it prefiguring quadratic reciprocity diophantine
    equations euler worked on some diophantine equations of genus 0 and 1 in particular
    he studied diophantuss work he tried to systematise it but the time was not yet
    ripe for such an endeavour — algebraic geometry was still in its infancy he did
    notice there was a connection between diophantine problems and elliptic integrals
    whose study he had himself initiated lagrange legendre and gauss josephlouis
inference: true
model-index:
- name: SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
  results:
  - task:
      type: text-classification
      name: Text Classification
    dataset:
      name: Unknown
      type: unknown
      split: test
    metrics:
    - type: f1
      value: 0.7189776686702876
      name: F1
---

# SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1

This is a [SetFit](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit) model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1) as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance is used for classification.

The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:

1. Fine-tuning a [Sentence Transformer](https://www.sbert.net) with contrastive learning.
2. Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.

## Model Details

### Model Description
- **Model Type:** SetFit
- **Sentence Transformer body:** [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1)
- **Classification head:** a [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Number of Classes:** 43 classes
<!-- - **Training Dataset:** [Unknown](https://huggingface.co/datasets/unknown) -->
<!-- - **Language:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->

### Model Sources

- **Repository:** [SetFit on GitHub](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit)
- **Paper:** [Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055)
- **Blogpost:** [SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://huggingface.co/blog/setfit)

### Model Labels
| Label | Examples                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 35    | <ul><li>'brown podzolic soils are a subdivision of the podzolic soils in the british soil classification although classed with podzols because they have an ironrich or spodic horizon they are in fact intermediate between podzols and brown earths they are common on hilly land in western europe in climates where precipitation of more than about 900mm exceeds evapotranspiration for a large part of the year and summers are relatively cool the result is that leaching of the soil profile occurs in which mobile chemicals are washed out of the topsoil or a horizon and accumulate lower down in the b horizon these soils have large amounts more than 5 of organic carbon in the surface horizon which is therefore dark in colour in unploughed situations there may be a mor humus layer in which the surface organic matter is only weakly mixed with the mineral component unlike podzols proper these soils have no continuous leached e horizon this is because they are formed on slopes where over long periods the topsoil weathered from higher up the slope is continually being carried down the slope by the action of rain gravity and faunal activity this means that fresh supplies of iron and aluminium oxides sesquioxides are constantly being provided and leaching ensures a net accumulation of these compounds in the b horizon giving an orangebrown rusty colour which is very distinctive the aluminum and ferric iron compounds in the subsoil also tend to bind the soil particles together giving a pellety fine structure to the soil and improving permeability so that despite being in relatively high rainfall areas the soils do not have the grey colours or mottles of gley soils in the world reference base for soil resources these soils are called umbrisols and the soil atlas of europe shows a preponderance of this kind of soil in northwest spain there is a tendency for the soils to occur in oceanic areas where there is abundant rainfall throughout the year winters are mild and summers relatively cool thus they are common in ireland scotland wales where they occupy about 20 of the country and western england especially devon cornwall and the lake district they also occur in the appalachian mountains and on the west coast of north america'</li><li>'in the geosciences paleosol palaeosol in great britain and australia is an ancient soil that formed in the past the precise definition of the term in geology and paleontology is slightly different from its use in soil science in geology and paleontology a paleosol is a former soil preserved by burial underneath either sediments alluvium or loess or volcanic deposits volcanic ash which in the case of older deposits have lithified into rock in quaternary geology sedimentology paleoclimatology and geology in general it is the typical and accepted practice to use the term paleosol to designate such fossil soils found buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits exposed in all continentsin soil science the definition differs only slightly paleosols are soils formed long ago that have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the presentday climate or vegetation such soils are found within extremely old continental cratons or in small scattered locations in outliers of other ancient rock domains because of the changes in the earths climate over the last 50 million years soils formed under tropical rainforest or even savanna have become exposed to increasingly arid climates which cause former oxisols ultisols or even alfisols to dry out in such a manner that a very hard crust is formed this process has occurred so extensively in most parts of australia as to restrict soil development the former soil is effectively the parent material for a new soil but it is so unweatherable that only a very poorly developed soil can exist in present dry climates especially when they have become much drier during glacial periods in the quaternary in other parts of australia and in many parts of africa drying out of former soils has not been so severe this has led to large areas of relict podsols in quite dry climates in the far southern inland of australia where temperate rainforest was formerly dominant and to the formation of torrox soils a suborder of oxisols in southern africa here present climates allow effectively the maintenance of the old soils in climates under which they could not actually form if one were to start with the parent material on which they developed in the mesozoic and paleocene paleosols in this sense are always exceedingly infertile soils containing available phosphorus levels orders of magnitude lower than in temperate regions with younger soils ecological studies have shown that this has forced highly specialised evolution amongst australian flora to obtain minimal nutrient supplies the fact that soil formation is simply not occurring makes ecologically sustainable management even more difficult however paleosols often contain the most exceptional biodiversity due to the absence of competition the'</li><li>'have a rich fossil record from the paleoproterozoic onwards outside of ice ages oxisols have generally been the dominant soil order in the paleopedological record this is because soil formation after which oxisols take more weathering to form than any other soil order has been almost nonexistent outside eras of extensive continental glaciation this is not only because of the soils formed by glaciation itself but also because mountain building which is the other critical factor in producing new soil has always coincided with a reduction in global temperatures and sea levels this is because the sediment formed from the eroding mountains reduces the atmospheric co2 content and also causes changes in circulation linked closely by climatologists to the development of continental ice sheets oxisols were not vegetated until the late carboniferous probably because microbial evolution was not before that point advanced enough to permit plants to obtain sufficient nutrients from soils with very low concentrations of nitrogen phosphorus calcium and potassium owing to their extreme climatic requirements gelisol fossils are confined to the few periods of extensive continental glaciation the earliest being 900 million years ago in the neoproterozoic however in these periods fossil gelisols are generally abundant notable finds coming from the carboniferous in new south wales the earliest land vegetation is found in early silurian entisols and inceptisols and with the growth of land vegetation under a protective ozone layer several new soil orders emerged the first histosols emerged in the devonian but are rare as fossils because most of their mass consists of organic materials that tend to decay quickly alfisols and ultisols emerged in the late devonian and early carboniferous and have a continuous though not rich fossil record in eras since then spodosols are known only from the carboniferous and from a few periods since that time though less acidic soils otherwise similar to spodosols are known from the mesozoic and tertiary and may constitute an extinct suborder during the mesozoic the paleopedological record tends to be poor probably because the absence of mountainbuilding and glaciation meant that most surface soils were very old and were constantly being weathered of what weatherable materials remained oxisols and orthents are the dominant groups though a few more fertile soils have been found such as the extensive andisols mentioned earlier from jurassic siberia evidence for widespread deeply weathered soils in the paleocene can be seen in abundant oxisols and ultisols in nowheavily glaciated scotland and antarctica mollisols the major agricultural soils'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       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| 37    | <ul><li>'village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond thus the romans used the tribal names graecus greek and germanus germanic the russians used the village name of chechen medieval europeans took the tribal name tatar as emblematic for the whole mongolic confederation and then confused it with tartarus a word for hell to produce tartar and the magyar invaders were equated with the 500yearsearlier hunnish invaders in the same territory and were called hungarians the germanic invaders of the roman empire applied the word walha to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in west germanic languages as a generic name for all nongermanic speakers thence wallachia the historic name of romania inhabited by the vlachs the slavic term vlah for romanian dialectally italian latin wallonia the frenchspeaking region of belgium cornwall and wales the celticspeaking regions located west of the anglosaxondominated england wallis a mostly frenchspeaking canton in switzerland welschland the german name for the frenchspeaking switzerland the polish and hungarian names for italy włochy and olaszorszag respectively during the late 20th century the use of exonyms often became controversial groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in a pejorative way for example romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as gypsy from the name of egypt and the french term bohemien boheme from the name of bohemia people may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity as in the case of german names for polish and czech places that at one time had been ethnically or politically german eg danziggdansk auschwitzoswiecim and karlsbadkarlovy vary and russian names for nonrussian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed eg kievkyivin recent years geographers have sought to reduce the use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem for example it is now common for spanish speakers to refer to the turkish capital as ankara rather than use the spanish exonym angora according to the united nations statistics division time has however shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease the number of exonyms were overoptimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way the reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the languages cultural heritage in some situations the use of exonyms can be preferred for instance in multilingual cities such as'</li><li>'in linguistics a grammatical category or grammatical feature is a property of items within the grammar of a language within each category there are two or more possible values sometimes called grammemes which are normally mutually exclusive frequently encountered grammatical categories include tense the placing of a verb in a time frame which can take values such as present and past number with values such as singular plural and sometimes dual trial paucal uncountable or partitive inclusive or exclusive gender with values such as masculine feminine and neuter noun classes which are more general than just gender and include additional classes like animated humane plants animals things and immaterial for concepts and verbal nounsactions sometimes as well shapes locative relations which some languages would represent using grammatical cases or tenses or by adding a possibly agglutinated lexeme such as a preposition adjective or particlealthough the use of terms varies from author to author a distinction should be made between grammatical categories and lexical categories lexical categories considered syntactic categories largely correspond to the parts of speech of traditional grammar and refer to nouns adjectives etc a phonological manifestation of a category value for example a word ending that marks number on a noun is sometimes called an exponent grammatical relations define relationships between words and phrases with certain parts of speech depending on their position in the syntactic tree traditional relations include subject object and indirect object a given constituent of an expression can normally take only one value in each category for example a noun or noun phrase cannot be both singular and plural since these are both values of the number category it can however be both plural and feminine since these represent different categories number and gender categories may be described and named with regard to the type of meanings that they are used to express for example the category of tense usually expresses the time of occurrence eg past present or future however purely grammatical features do not always correspond simply or consistently to elements of meaning and different authors may take significantly different approaches in their terminology and analysis for example the meanings associated with the categories of tense aspect and mood are often bound up in verb conjugation patterns that do not have separate grammatical elements corresponding to each of the three categories see tense – aspect – mood categories may be marked on words by means of inflection in english for example the number of a noun is usually marked by leaving the noun uninflected if it is singular and by adding the suffix s if it is plural although some nouns have irregular plural forms on other occasions a category may not be marked overtly on the item to which it pertains being manifested only through other grammatical features of'</li><li>'to be agents and objects to be patients or themes however the thematic relations cannot be substituted for the grammatical relations nor vice versa this point is evident with the activepassive diathesis and ergative verbs marge has fixed the coffee table the coffee table has been fixed by margethe torpedo sank the ship the ship sankmarge is the agent in the first pair of sentences because she initiates and carries out the action of fixing and the coffee table is the patient in both because it is acted upon in both sentences in contrast the subject and direct object are not consistent across the two sentences the subject is the agent marge in the first sentence and the patient the coffee table in the second sentence the direct object is the patient the coffee table in the first sentence and there is no direct object in the second sentence the situation is similar with the ergative verb sunksink in the second pair of sentences the noun phrase the ship is the patient in both sentences although it is the object in the first of the two and the subject in the second the grammatical relations belong to the level of surface syntax whereas the thematic relations reside on a deeper semantic level if however the correspondences across these levels are acknowledged then the thematic relations can be seen as providing prototypical thematic traits for defining the grammatical relations another prominent means used to define the syntactic relations is in terms of the syntactic configuration the subject is defined as the verb argument that appears outside of the canonical finite verb phrase whereas the object is taken to be the verb argument that appears inside the verb phrase this approach takes the configuration as primitive whereby the grammatical relations are then derived from the configuration this configurational understanding of the grammatical relations is associated with chomskyan phrase structure grammars transformational grammar government and binding and minimalism the configurational approach is limited in what it can accomplish it works best for the subject and object arguments for other clause participants eg attributes and modifiers of various sorts prepositional arguments etc it is less insightful since it is often not clear how one might define these additional syntactic functions in terms of the configuration furthermore even concerning the subject and object it can run into difficulties eg there were two lizards in the drawerthe configurational approach has difficulty with such cases the plural verb were agrees with the postverb noun phrase two lizards which suggests that two lizards is the subject but since two lizards follows the verb one might view it as being located inside the verb phrase which means it should count as the object this second observation suggests that the expletive there should be granted subject status many efforts to define the grammatical'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
| 12    | <ul><li>'set − 1 0 1 2 3 displaystyle 10123 not all edges have 0 – 1 weights finally since the sum of weights of all the sets of cycle covers inducing any particular satisfying assignment is 12m and the sum of weights of all other sets of cycle covers is 0 one has permgφ 12m · φ the following section reduces computing perm g [UNK] displaystyle gphi to the permanent of a 01 matrix the above section has shown that permanent is phard through a series of reductions any permanent can be reduced to the permanent of a matrix with entries only 0 or 1 this will prove that 01permanent is phard as well reduction to a nonnegative matrix using modular arithmetic convert an integer matrix a into an equivalent nonnegative matrix a ′ displaystyle a so that the permanent of a displaystyle a can be computed easily from the permanent of a ′ displaystyle a as follows let a displaystyle a be an n × n displaystyle ntimes n integer matrix where no entry has a magnitude larger than μ displaystyle mu compute q 2 ⋅ n ⋅ μ n 1 displaystyle q2cdot ncdot mu n1 the choice of q is due to the fact that perm a ≤ n ⋅ μ n displaystyle operatorname perm aleq ncdot mu n compute a ′ a mod q displaystyle aabmod q compute p perm a ′ mod q displaystyle poperatorname perm abmod q if p q 2 displaystyle pq2 then perma p otherwise perm a p − q displaystyle operatorname perm apq the transformation of a displaystyle a into a ′ displaystyle a is polynomial in n displaystyle n and log μ displaystyle logmu since the number of bits required to represent q displaystyle q is polynomial in n displaystyle n and log μ displaystyle logmu an example of the transformation and why it works is given below a 2 − 2 − 2 1 displaystyle abeginbmatrix2221endbmatrix perm a 2 ⋅ 1 − 2 ⋅ − 2 6 displaystyle operatorname perm a2cdot 12cdot 26 here n 2 displaystyle n2 μ 2 displaystyle mu 2 and μ n 4 displaystyle mu n4 so q 17 displaystyle q17 thus a ′ a mod 1 7 2 15 15 1 displaystyle aabmod 17beginbmatrix215151endbmatrix note how the elements are nonnegative because of the modular arithmetic it is simple to compute the permanent perm a ′ 2 ⋅'</li><li>'corresponding to the arrangement of schoolgirls on a particular day a packing of pg32 consists of seven disjoint spreads and so corresponds to a full week of arrangements block design – a generalization of a finite projective plane generalized polygon incidence geometry linear space geometry near polygon partial geometry polar space'</li><li>'combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting both as a means and an end in obtaining results and certain properties of finite structures it is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics notably in algebra probability theory topology and geometry as well as in its many application areas many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context in the later twentieth century however powerful and general theoretical methods were developed making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right one of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms a mathematician who studies combinatorics is called a combinatorialist the full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon according to hj ryser a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses combinatorics is involved with the enumeration counting of specified structures sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense associated with finite systems the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria the construction of these structures perhaps in many ways and optimization finding the best structure or solution among several possibilities be it the largest smallest or satisfying some other optimality criterionleon mirsky has said combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives their methods and the degree of coherence they have attained one way to define combinatorics is perhaps to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques this is the approach that is used below however there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella although primarily concerned with finite systems some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite specifically countable but discrete setting basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world indian physician sushruta asserts in sushruta samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes taken one at a time two at a time etc thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities greek historian plutarch discusses an argument between chrysippus 3rd century bce and hippar'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 20    | <ul><li>'in literary and historical analysis presentism is a term for the introduction of presentday ideas and perspectives into depictions or interpretations of the past some modern historians seek to avoid presentism in their work because they consider it a form of cultural bias and believe it creates a distorted understanding of their subject matter the practice of presentism is regarded by some as a common fallacy when writing about the past the oxford english dictionary gives the first citation for presentism in its historiographic sense from 1916 and the word may have been used in this meaning as early as the 1870s the historian david hackett fischer identifies presentism as a fallacy also known as the fallacy of nunc pro tunc he has written that the classic example of presentism was the socalled whig history in which certain 18th and 19thcentury british historians wrote history in a way that used the past to validate their own political beliefs this interpretation was presentist because it did not depict the past in objective historical context but instead viewed history only through the lens of contemporary whig beliefs in this kind of approach which emphasizes the relevance of history to the present things that do not seem relevant receive little attention which results in a misleading portrayal of the past whig history or whiggishness are often used as synonyms for presentism particularly when the historical depiction in question is teleological or triumphalist presentism has a shorter history in sociological analysis where it has been used to describe technological determinists who interpret a change in behavior as starting with the introduction of a new technology for example scholars such as frances cairncross proclaimed that the internet had led to the death of distance but most community ties and many business ties had been transcontinental and even intercontinental for many years presentism is also a factor in the problematic question of history and moral judgments among historians the orthodox view may be that reading modern notions of morality into the past is to commit the error of presentism to avoid this historians restrict themselves to describing what happened and attempt to refrain from using language that passes judgment for example when writing history about slavery in an era when the practice was widely accepted letting that fact influence judgment about a group or individual would be presentist and thus should be avoided critics respond that avoidance of presentism on issues such as slavery amounts to endorsement of the views of dominant groups in this case slaveholders as against those who opposed them at the time history professor steven f lawson argues for example with respect to slavery and race historians influenced by the present have uncovered new data by raising new questions about racial issues they have discovered for instance points of view and behavior'</li><li>'and very few explicitly designated ethnohistories of european communities have been written to date history new philology aztec codices maya codices ethnography ethnic group ethnoarchaeology indian claims commission history of the romani people adams richard n ethnohistoric research methods some latin american features anthropological linguistics 9 1962 179205 bernal ignacio archeology and written sources 34th international congress of americanists vienna 1966 acta pp 219 – 25 carrasco pedro la etnohistoria en mesoamerica 36th international congress of americanists barcelona 1964 acta 2 10910 cline howard f introduction reflections on ethnohistory in handbook of middle american indians guide to ethnohistorical sources part 1 vol 12 pp 3 – 17 austin university of texas press 1973 fenton wn the training of historical ethnologists in america american anthropologist 541952 32839 gunnerson jh a survey of ethnohistoric sources kroeber anthr soc papers 1958 4965 lockhart james charles gibson and the ethnohistory of postconquesst central mexico in nahuas and spaniards postconquest central mexican history and philology stanford university press and ucla latin american studies vol 76 1991 sturtevant wc anthropology history and ethnohistory ethnohistory 131966 151 vogelin ew an ethnohistorians viewpoint the bulletin of the ohio valley historic indian conference 1 195416671'</li><li>'gauthiers 1907 – 1917 le livre des rois degypte ancien empire ancient empire dynasties 1 – 10 moyen empire middle empire dynasties 11 – 17 nouvel empire new empire dynasties 17 – 25 epoque saitopersane saitopersian period dynasties 26 – 31 epoque macedogrecque macedonian – greek period dynasties 32 macedonian and 33 ptolemaic 19thcentury egyptology did not use the concept of intermediate periods these were included as part of the preceding periods as times of interval or transitionin 1926 after the first world war georg steindorffs die blutezeit des pharaonenreiches and henri frankforts egypt and syria in the first intermediate period assigned dynasties 6 – 12 to the terminology first intermediate period the terminology had become well established by the 1940s in 1942 during the second world war german egyptologist hanns stocks studien zur geschichte und archaologie der 13 bis 17 dynastie fostered use of the term second intermediate period in 1978 british egyptologist kenneth kitchens book the third intermediate period in egypt 1100 – 650 bc coined the term third intermediate period schneider thomas 27 august 2008 periodizing egyptian history manetho convention and beyond in klauspeter adam ed historiographie in der antike walter de gruyter pp 181 – 197 isbn 9783110206722 clayton peter a 1994 chronicle of the pharaohs london thames and hudson isbn 9780500050743'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 21    | <ul><li>'tap at these times the user encounters the sour odour of lactofermentation often described as a pickle which is much less offensive than the odour of decomposition when closed an airtight fermentation bin cannot attract insects bokashi literature claims that scavengers dislike the fermented matter and avoid it in gardens fermented bokashi is added to a suitable area of soil the approach usually recommended by suppliers of household bokashi is along the lines of dig a trench in the soil in your garden add the waste and cover overin practice regularly finding suitable sites for trenches that will later underlie plants is difficult in an established plot to address this an alternative is a soil factory this is a bounded area of soil into which several loads of bokashi preserve are mixed over time amended soil can be taken from it for use elsewhere it may be of any size it may be permanently sited or in rotation it may be enclosed wirenetted or covered to keep out surface animals spent soil or compost and organic amendments such as biochar may be added as may nonfermented material in which case the boundary between bokashi and composting becomes blurred a proposed alternative is to homogenise and potentially dilute the preserve into a slurry which is spread on the soil surface this approach requires energy for homogenisation but logically from the characteristics set out above should confer several advantages thoroughly oxidising the preserve disturbing no deeper layers except by increased worm action being of little use to scavenging animals applicable to large areas and if done repeatedly able to sustain a more extensive soil ecosystem the practice of bokashi is believed to have its earliest roots in ancient korea this traditional form ferments waste directly in soil relying on native bacteria and on careful burial for an anaerobic environment a modernised horticultural method called korean natural farming includes fermentation by indigenous microorganisms im or imo harvested locally but has numerous other elements too a commercial japanese bokashi method was developed by teruo higa in 1982 under the em trademark short for effective microorganisms em became the best known form of bokashi worldwide mainly in household use claiming to have reached over 120 countrieswhile none have disputed that em starts homolactic fermentation and hence produces a soil amendment other claims have been contested robustly controversy relates partly to other uses such as direct inoculation of soil with em and direct feeding of em to animals and partly to whether the soil amendments effects are due simply to the energy and nutrient'</li><li>'in horticulture stratification is a process of treating seeds to simulate natural conditions that the seeds must experience before germination can occur many seed species have an embryonic dormancy phase and generally will not sprout until this dormancy is brokenthe term stratification can be traced back to at least 1664 in sylva or a discourse of foresttrees and the propagation of timber where seeds were layered stratified between layers of moist soil and the strata were exposed to winter conditions thus stratification became the process by which seeds were artificially exposed to conditions to encourage germination cold stratification is the process of subjecting seeds to both cold and moist conditions seeds of many trees shrubs and perennials require these conditions before germination will ensuein the wild seed dormancy is usually overcome by the seed spending time in the ground through a winter period and having its hard seed coat softened by frost and weathering action by doing so the seed is undergoing a natural form of cold stratification or pretreatment this cold moist period triggers the seeds embryo its growth and subsequent expansion eventually break through the softened seed coat in its search for sun and nutrientscold stratification simulates the natural process by subjecting seed to a cool ideally 1° to 3°c 34 to 37 degrees fahrenheit moist environment for a period one to three months seeds are placed in a medium such as vermiculite peat or sand and refrigerated in a plastic bag or sealed container soaking the seeds in cold water for 6 – 12 hours before placing them in cold stratification can cut down on the amount of time needed for stratification as the seed needs to absorb some moisture to enable the chemical changes that take placeuse of a fungicide to moisten the stratifying vermiculite will help prevent fungal diseases chinosol 8quinolyl potassium sulfate is one such fungicide used to inhibit botrytis cinerea infections any seeds that are indicated as needing a period of warm stratification followed by cold stratification should be subjected to the same measures but the seeds should additionally be stratified in a warm area first followed by the cold period in a refrigerator later warm stratification requires temperatures of 1520°c 5968°f in many instances warm stratification followed by cold stratification requirements can also be met by planting the seeds in summer in a mulched bed for expected germination the following spring some seeds may not germinate until the second spring'</li><li>'this is the decline in the number and variety of plant and animal species loss of biodiversity can have a number of negative impacts including the disruption of food chains and the loss of ecosystem servicesland conversion can also have a number of negative economic impacts including decreased agricultural productivity this can lead to higher food prices and food insecurity increased unemployment this can occur when people are displaced from their land due to land conversion loss of tourism revenue this can occur when land conversion destroys natural attractionsland conversion can also have a number of negative social impacts including conflicts between different groups this can occur when different groups have different interests in the land such as farmers developers and conservationists displacement of people this can occur when people are forced to leave their land due to land conversion loss of cultural heritage this can occur when land conversion destroys archaeological sites and other cultural landmarksland conversion is a complex issue with a wide range of environmental economic and social impacts it is important to weigh the benefits and costs of land conversion carefully before making a decision about whether or not to proceed here are some ways to mitigate the negative impacts of land conversion planning careful planning can help minimize the negative impacts of land conversion this includes identifying the potential impacts of land conversion and developing strategies to mitigate those impacts rehabilitation land that has been converted can be rehabilitated to restore its environmental functions this can involve planting trees restoring wetlands and reintroducing native species sustainable land use sustainable land use practices can help to reduce the need for land conversion this includes practices such as crop rotation conservation tillage and integrated pest managementby taking these steps we can help minimize the negative impacts of land conversion and protect our natural resources sustainable farming is the practice of producing food and other agricultural products in a way that does not deplete natural resources or harm the environment it is a way of farming that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs sustainable farming practices include crop rotation this is the practice of planting different crops in the same field each year this helps to maintain soil fertility and prevent pests and diseases conservation tillage this is the practice of minimizing soil disturbance during cultivation this helps to reduce soil erosion and improve water infiltration integrated pest management this is a system of pest control that uses a variety of methods such as crop rotation biological control and natural enemies to reduce the need for pesticides water conservation this is the practice of using water efficiently in agriculture this can be done by using drip irrigation planting droughttolerant crops and mulching regenerative agriculture this is a system of farming that aims to improve soil health and'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       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| 22    | <ul><li>'orographic or relief rainfall is caused when masses of air are forced up the side of elevated land formations such as large mountains or plateaus often referred to as an upslope effect the lift of the air up the side of the mountain results in adiabatic cooling with altitude and ultimately condensation and precipitation in mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds for example the trade winds a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward downwind side as wind carries moist air masses and orographic precipitation moisture is precipitated and removed by orographic lift leaving drier air see foehn on the descending generally warming leeward side where a rain shadow is observedin hawaii mount waiʻaleʻale waiʻaleʻale on the island of kauai is notable for its extreme rainfall it currently has the highest average annual rainfall on earth with approximately 460 inches 12000 mm per year storm systems affect the region with heavy rains during winter between october and march local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography divisible into windward koʻolau and leeward kona regions based upon location relative to the higher surrounding mountains windward sides face the easttonortheast trade winds and receive much more clouds and rainfall leeward sides are drier and sunnier with less rain and less cloud cover on the island of oahu high amounts of clouds and often rain can usually be observed around the windward mountain peaks while the southern parts of the island including most of honolulu and waikiki receive dramatically less rainfall throughout the year in south america the andes mountain range blocks pacific ocean winds and moisture that arrives on the continent resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western argentina the sierra nevada range creates the same drying effect in north america causing the great basin desert mojave desert and sonoran desert precipitation is measured using a rain gauge and more recently remote sensing techniques such as a weather radar when classified according to the rate of precipitation rain can be divided into categories light rain describes rainfall which falls at a rate of between a trace and 25 millimetres 0098 in per hour moderate rain describes rainfall with a precipitation rate of between 26 millimetres 010 in and 76 millimetres 030 in per hour heavy rain describes rainfall with a precipitation rate above 76 millimetres 030 in per hour and violent rain has a rate more than 50 millimetres 20 in per hoursnowfall intensity is classified in terms of visibility instead when the visibility is over 1 kilometre 062 mi snow is determined to be light moderate snow describes snowfall'</li><li>'flow equation may be obtained by invoking the dupuit – forchheimer assumption where it is assumed that heads do not vary in the vertical direction ie ∂ h ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial hpartial z0 a horizontal water balance is applied to a long vertical column with area δ x δ y displaystyle delta xdelta y extending from the aquifer base to the unsaturated surface this distance is referred to as the saturated thickness b in a confined aquifer the saturated thickness is determined by the height of the aquifer h and the pressure head is nonzero everywhere in an unconfined aquifer the saturated thickness is defined as the vertical distance between the water table surface and the aquifer base if ∂ h ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial hpartial z0 and the aquifer base is at the zero datum then the unconfined saturated thickness is equal to the head ie bh assuming both the hydraulic conductivity and the horizontal components of flow are uniform along the entire saturated thickness of the aquifer ie ∂ q x ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial qxpartial z0 and ∂ k ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial kpartial z0 we can express darcys law in terms of integrated groundwater discharges qx and qy q x [UNK] 0 b q x d z − k b ∂ h ∂ x displaystyle qxint 0bqxdzkbfrac partial hpartial x q y [UNK] 0 b q y d z − k b ∂ h ∂ y displaystyle qyint 0bqydzkbfrac partial hpartial y inserting these into our mass balance expression we obtain the general 2d governing equation for incompressible saturated groundwater flow ∂ n b ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k b ∇ h n displaystyle frac partial nbpartial tnabla cdot kbnabla hn where n is the aquifer porosity the source term n length per time represents the addition of water in the vertical direction eg recharge by incorporating the correct definitions for saturated thickness specific storage and specific yield we can transform this into two unique governing equations for confined and unconfined conditions s ∂ h ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k b ∇ h n displaystyle sfrac partial hpartial tnabla cdot kbnabla hn confined where sssb is the aquifer storativity and s y ∂ h ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k h ∇ h n displaystyle syfrac partial hpartial tna'</li><li>'a rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall behind a mountainous region on the side facing away from prevailing winds known as its leeward side evaporated moisture from water bodies such as oceans and large lakes is carried by the prevailing onshore breezes towards the drier and hotter inland areas when encountering elevated landforms the moist air is driven upslope towards the peak where it expands cools and its moisture condenses and starts to precipitate if the landforms are tall and wide enough most of the humidity will be lost to precipitation over the windward side also known as the rainward side before ever making it past the top as the air descends the leeward side of the landforms it is compressed and heated producing foehn winds that absorb moisture downslope and cast a broad shadow of dry climate region behind the mountain crests this climate typically takes the form of shrub – steppe xeric shrublands or even deserts the condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range as atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point which is not the same as its constant pressure dew point commonly reported in weather forecasts at the adiabatic dew point moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top and windward sides of the mountain the air descends on the leeward side but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture typically descending air also gets warmer because of adiabatic compression as with foehn winds down the leeward side of the mountain which increases the amount of moisture that it can absorb and creates an arid region there are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in bands round earths equatorial region the zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° n and 30° s blowing predominantly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere the westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude blowing predominantly from the southwest in the northern hemisphere and from the northwest in the southern hemisphere some of the strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties of the southern hemisphere between 30 and 50 degrees latitudeexamples of notable rain shadowing include northern africa the sahara is made even drier because of two strong rain shadow effects caused by major mountain ranges whose highest points can culminate to more than 4000 meters high to the northwest the atlas mountains covering the mediterranean coast for'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 25    | <ul><li>'often be evaluated using asymptotic expansion or saddlepoint techniques by contrast the forward difference series can be extremely hard to evaluate numerically because the binomial coefficients grow rapidly for large n the relationship of these higherorder differences with the respective derivatives is straightforward d n f d x n x δ h n f x h n o h ∇ h n f x h n o h δ h n f x h n o h 2 displaystyle frac dnfdxnxfrac delta hnfxhnohfrac nabla hnfxhnohfrac delta hnfxhnolefth2right higherorder differences can also be used to construct better approximations as mentioned above the firstorder difference approximates the firstorder derivative up to a term of order h however the combination δ h f x − 1 2 δ h 2 f x h − f x 2 h − 4 f x h 3 f x 2 h displaystyle frac delta hfxfrac 12delta h2fxhfrac fx2h4fxh3fx2h approximates f ′ x up to a term of order h2 this can be proven by expanding the above expression in taylor series or by using the calculus of finite differences explained below if necessary the finite difference can be centered about any point by mixing forward backward and central differences for a given polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 expressed in the function px with real numbers a = 0 and b and lower order terms if any marked as lot p x a x n b x n − 1 l o t displaystyle pxaxnbxn1lot after n pairwise differences the following result can be achieved where h = 0 is a real number marking the arithmetic difference δ h n p x a h n n displaystyle delta hnpxahnn only the coefficient of the highestorder term remains as this result is constant with respect to x any further pairwise differences will have the value 0 base case let qx be a polynomial of degree 1 this proves it for the base case inductive step let rx be a polynomial of degree m − 1 where m ≥ 2 and the coefficient of the highestorder term be a = 0 assuming the following holds true for all polynomials of degree m − 1 δ h m − 1 r x a h m − 1 m − 1 displaystyle delta hm1rxahm1m1 let sx be a polynomial of degree m with one pairwise difference as ahm = 0'</li><li>'##mizing the height of the packing this definition is used for all polynomial time algorithms for pseudopolynomial time and fptalgorithms the definition is slightly changed for the simplification of notation in this case all appearing sizes are integral especially the width of the strip is given by an arbitrary integer number larger than 1 note that these two definitions are equivalent there are several variants of the strip packing problem that have been studied these variants concern the geometry of the objects dimension of the problem if it is allowed to rotate the items and the structure of the packinggeometry of the items in the standard variant of this problem the set of given items consists of rectangles in an often considered subcase all the items have to be squares this variant was already considered in the first paper about strip packing additionally variants have been studied where the shapes are circular or even irregular in the latter case we speak of irregular strip packing dimension when not mentioned differently the strip packing problem is a 2dimensional problem however it also has been studied in three or even more dimensions in this case the objects are hyperrectangles and the strip is openended in one dimension and bounded in the residual ones rotation in the classical strip packing problem it is not allowed to rotate the items however variants have been studied where rotating by 90 degrees or even an arbitrary angle is allowed structure of the packing in the general strip packing problem the structure of the packing is irrelevant however there are applications that have explicit requirements on the structure of the packing one of these requirements is to be able to cut the items from the strip by horizontal or vertical edge to edge cuts packings that allow this kind of cutting are called guillotine packing the strip packing problem contains the bin packing problem as a special case when all the items have the same height 1 for this reason it is strongly nphard and there can be no polynomial time approximation algorithm which has an approximation ratio smaller than 3 2 displaystyle 32 unless p n p displaystyle pnp furthermore unless p n p displaystyle pnp there cannot be a pseudopolynomial time algorithm that has an approximation ratio smaller than 5 4 displaystyle 54 which can be proven by a reduction from the strongly npcomplete 3partition problem note that both lower bounds 3 2 displaystyle 32 and 5 4 displaystyle 54 also hold for the case that a rotation of the items by 90 degrees is allowed additionally it was proven by ashok et al that strip packing is w1hard when parameterized by the height of the optimal packing there are two trivial lower bounds on optimal'</li><li>'are several different concepts that are classically equivalent but not constructively equivalent indeed if the interval ab were sequentially compact in constructive analysis then the classical ivt would follow from the first constructive version in the example one could find c as a cluster point of the infinite sequence cnn∈n computable analysis constructive nonstandard analysis heyting field indecomposability constructive mathematics pseudoorder bishop errett 1967 foundations of constructive analysis isbn 4871877140 bridger mark 2007 real analysis a constructive approach hoboken wiley isbn 0471792306'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 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| 39    | <ul><li>'decreases with pressure as shown by the phase diagrams dashed green line just below the triple point compression at a constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and then to liquid historically during the mariner 9 mission to mars the triple point pressure of water was used to define sea level now laser altimetry and gravitational measurements are preferred to define martian elevation at high pressures water has a complex phase diagram with 15 known phases of ice and several triple points including 10 whose coordinates are shown in the diagram for example the triple point at 251 k −22 °c and 210 mpa 2070 atm corresponds to the conditions for the coexistence of ice ih ordinary ice ice iii and liquid water all at equilibrium there are also triple points for the coexistence of three solid phases for example ice ii ice v and ice vi at 218 k −55 °c and 620 mpa 6120 atm for those highpressure forms of ice which can exist in equilibrium with liquid the diagram shows that melting points increase with pressure at temperatures above 273 k 0 °c increasing the pressure on water vapor results first in liquid water and then a highpressure form of ice in the range 251 – 273 k ice i is formed first followed by liquid water and then ice iii or ice v followed by other still denser highpressure forms triplepoint cells are used in the calibration of thermometers for exacting work triplepoint cells are typically filled with a highly pure chemical substance such as hydrogen argon mercury or water depending on the desired temperature the purity of these substances can be such that only one part in a million is a contaminant called six nines because it is 999999 pure a specific isotopic composition for water vsmow is used because variations in isotopic composition cause small changes in the triple point triplepoint cells are so effective at achieving highly precise reproducible temperatures that an international calibration standard for thermometers called its – 90 relies upon triplepoint cells of hydrogen neon oxygen argon mercury and water for delineating six of its defined temperature points this table lists the gas – liquid – solid triple points of several substances unless otherwise noted the data come from the us national bureau of standards now nist national institute of standards and technology notes for comparison typical atmospheric pressure is 101325 kpa 1 atm before the new definition of si units waters triple point 27316 k was an exact number critical point thermodynamics gibbs phase rule'</li><li>'quantity thus it is useful to derive relationships between μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt and other more conveniently measured quantities as described below the first step in obtaining these results is to note that the joule – thomson coefficient involves the three variables t p and h a useful result is immediately obtained by applying the cyclic rule in terms of these three variables that rule may be written ∂ t ∂ p h ∂ h ∂ t p ∂ p ∂ h t − 1 displaystyle leftfrac partial tpartial prighthleftfrac partial hpartial trightpleftfrac partial ppartial hrightt1 each of the three partial derivatives in this expression has a specific meaning the first is μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt the second is the constant pressure heat capacity c p displaystyle cmathrm p defined by c p ∂ h ∂ t p displaystyle cmathrm p leftfrac partial hpartial trightp and the third is the inverse of the isothermal joule – thomson coefficient μ t displaystyle mu mathrm t defined by μ t ∂ h ∂ p t displaystyle mu mathrm t leftfrac partial hpartial prightt this last quantity is more easily measured than μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt thus the expression from the cyclic rule becomes μ j t − μ t c p displaystyle mu mathrm jt frac mu mathrm t cp this equation can be used to obtain joule – thomson coefficients from the more easily measured isothermal joule – thomson coefficient it is used in the following to obtain a mathematical expression for the joule – thomson coefficient in terms of the volumetric properties of a fluid to proceed further the starting point is the fundamental equation of thermodynamics in terms of enthalpy this is d h t d s v d p displaystyle mathrm d htmathrm d svmathrm d p now dividing through by dp while holding temperature constant yields ∂ h ∂ p t t ∂ s ∂ p t v displaystyle leftfrac partial hpartial prightttleftfrac partial spartial prighttv the partial derivative on the left is the isothermal joule – thomson coefficient μ t displaystyle mu mathrm t and the one on the right can be expressed in terms of the coefficient of thermal expansion via a maxwell relation the appropriate relation is ∂ s ∂ p t − ∂ v ∂ t p − v α displaystyle leftfrac partial spartial prighttleftfrac partial'</li><li>'##o sdsrho 2rho theta dtheta rho another mathematical implication for the existence of a spiciness influence manifests itself in a s θ displaystyle stheta diagram where the negative slope of the isopleths equals the ratio between the temperature and salinity derivative of the spiciness d s d θ τ − τ θ τ s displaystyle frac dsdtheta tau frac tau theta tau s a purpose for introducing spiciness is to decrease the amount of state variables needed the density at constant depth is a function of potential temperature and salinity and of using both spiciness can be used if the goal is to only quantify the variation of water parcels along isopycnals the variation in absolute salinity or temperature can be used instead because it gives the same information with the same amount of variablesanother purpose is to examine how the stability ratio r ρ displaystyle rrho varies vertically on a water column the stability ratio is a number determining the involvement of temperature changes relative to the involvement salinity changes in a vertical profile which yields relevant information about the stability of the water column r ρ − ρ θ θ z ρ s s z displaystyle rrho rho theta theta zrho ssz the vertical variation of this number is often shown in a spicinesspotential density diagram andor plot where the angle shows the stability the spiciness can be calculated in several programming languages with the gibbs seawater gsw toolbox it is used to derive thermodynamic seawater properties and is adopted by the intergovernmental oceanographic commission ioc international association for the physical sciences of the oceans iapso and the scientific committee on oceanic research scor they use the definition of spiciness gswspiciness0 gswspiciness1 gswspiciness2 at respectively 0 1000 and 2000 dbar provided by these isobars are chosen because they correspond to commonly used potential density surfaces areas with constant density but different spiciness have a net water flow of heat and salinity due to diffusion the exact definition of spiciness is debated specifically the orthogonality of the density with spiciness and the used scaling factor of potential temperature and salinity mcdougall claims that orthogonality should not be imposed because there is no physical reason to impose orthogonality imposing orthogonality would necessarily depends on an arbitrary scaling factor of the salinity and temperature axes in other words spiciness would have different meanings for different chosen scaling factors the meaning of spiciness'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 15    | <ul><li>'hypothesis under this hypothesis any model for the emergence of the genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer from ribozymes rna enzymes to proteins as the principal enzymes in cells in line with the rna world hypothesis transfer rna molecules appear to have evolved before modern aminoacyltrna synthetases so the latter cannot be part of the explanation of its patternsa hypothetical randomly evolved genetic code further motivates a biochemical or evolutionary model for its origin if amino acids were randomly assigned to triplet codons there would be 15 × 1084 possible genetic codes 163 this number is found by calculating the number of ways that 21 items 20 amino acids plus one stop can be placed in 64 bins wherein each item is used at least once however the distribution of codon assignments in the genetic code is nonrandom in particular the genetic code clusters certain amino acid assignments amino acids that share the same biosynthetic pathway tend to have the same first base in their codons this could be an evolutionary relic of an early simpler genetic code with fewer amino acids that later evolved to code a larger set of amino acids it could also reflect steric and chemical properties that had another effect on the codon during its evolution amino acids with similar physical properties also tend to have similar codons reducing the problems caused by point mutations and mistranslationsgiven the nonrandom genetic triplet coding scheme a tenable hypothesis for the origin of genetic code could address multiple aspects of the codon table such as absence of codons for damino acids secondary codon patterns for some amino acids confinement of synonymous positions to third position the small set of only 20 amino acids instead of a number approaching 64 and the relation of stop codon patterns to amino acid coding patternsthree main hypotheses address the origin of the genetic code many models belong to one of them or to a hybrid random freeze the genetic code was randomly created for example early trnalike ribozymes may have had different affinities for amino acids with codons emerging from another part of the ribozyme that exhibited random variability once enough peptides were coded for any major random change in the genetic code would have been lethal hence it became frozen stereochemical affinity the genetic code is a result of a high affinity between each amino acid and its codon or anticodon the latter option implies that pretrna molecules matched their corresponding amino acids by this affinity later during evolution this matching was gradually replaced with matching by aminoacyltrna synthetases optimality the genetic code continued to evolve after its initial creation'</li><li>'##aptic stimulation of sufficient strength synaptic tagging may result in capture of the rnarnp complex via any number of possible mechanisms such as the synaptic tag triggers transient microtubule entry to within the dendritic spine recent research has shown that microtubules can transiently enter dendritic spines in an activitydependent manner the synaptic tag triggers the dissociation of the cargo from motor protein and somehow guides it to dynamically formed microfilaments since the 1980s it has become more and more clear that the dendrites contain the ribosomes proteins and rna components to achieve local and autonomous protein translation many mrnas shown to be localized in the dendrites encode proteins known to be involved in ltp including ampa receptor and camkii subunits and cytoskeletonrelated proteins map2 and arcresearchers provided evidence of local synthesis by examining the distribution of arc mrna after selective stimulation of certain synapses of a hippocampal cell they found that arc mrna was localized at the activated synapses and arc protein appeared there simultaneously this suggests that the mrna was translated locally these mrna transcripts are translated in a capdependent manner meaning they use a cap anchoring point to facilitate ribosome attachment to the 5 untranslated region eukaryotic initiation factor 4 group eif4 members recruit ribosomal subunits to the mrna terminus and assembly of the eif4f initiation complex is a target of translational control phosphorylation of eif4f exposes the cap for rapid reloading quickening the ratelimiting step of translation it is suggested that eif4f complex formation is regulated during ltp to increase local translation in addition excessive eif4f complex destabilizes ltp researchers have identified sequences within the mrna that determine its final destination called localization elements les zipcodes and targeting elements tes these are recognized by rna binding proteins of which some potential candidates are marta and zbp1 they recognize the tes and this interaction results in formation of ribonucleotide protein rnp complexes which travel along cytoskeleton filaments to the spine with the help of motor proteins dendritic tes have been identified in the untranslated region of several mrnas like map2 and alphacamkii synaptic tagging is likely to involve the acquisition of molecular maintenance mechanisms by a synapse that would then allow for the conservation of synaptic changes there are several proposed processes'</li><li>'the scleraxis protein is a member of the basic helixloophelix bhlh superfamily of transcription factors currently two genes scxa and scxb respectively have been identified to code for identical scleraxis proteins it is thought that early scleraxisexpressing progenitor cells lead to the eventual formation of tendon tissue and other muscle attachments scleraxis is involved in mesoderm formation and is expressed in the syndetome a collection of embryonic tissue that develops into tendon and blood vessels of developing somites primitive segments or compartments of embryos the syndetome location within the somite is determined by fgf secreted from the center of the myotome a collection of embryonic tissue that develops into skeletal muscle the fgf then induces the adjacent anterior and posterior sclerotome a collection of embryonic tissue that develops into the axial skeleton to adopt a tendon cell fate this ultimately places future scleraxisexpressing cells between the two tissue types they will ultimately join scleraxis expression will be seen throughout the entire sclerotome rather than just the sclerotome directly anterior and posterior to the myotome with an overexpression of fgf8 demonstrating that all sclerotome cells are capable of expressing scleraxis in response to fgf signaling while the fgf interaction has been shown to be necessary for scleraxis expression it is still unclear as to whether the fgf signaling pathway directly induces the syndetome to secrete scleraxis or indirectly through a secondary signaling pathway most likely the syndetomal cells through careful reading of the fgf concentration coming from the myotome can precisely determine their location and begin expressing scleraxis much of embryonic development follows this model of inducing specific cell fates through the reading of surrounding signaling molecule concentration gradients bhlh transcription factors have been shown to have a wide array of functions in developmental processes more precisely they have critical roles in the control of cellular differentiation proliferation and regulation of oncogenesis to date 242 eukaryotic proteins belonging to the hlh superfamily have been reported they have varied expression patterns in all eukaryotes from yeast to humansstructurally bhlh proteins are characterised by a “ highly conserved domain containing a stretch of basic amino acids adjacent to two amphipathic αhelices separated by a loop ” these helices have important functional properties forming part of the dna binding and transcription activating domains with respect'</li></ul>                                                                            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| 26    | <ul><li>'material between the damaging environment and the structural material aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues there may be tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high temperature platings usually fail only in small sections but if the plating is more noble than the substrate for example chromium on steel a galvanic couple will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly than an unplated surface would for this reason it is often wise to plate with active metal such as zinc or cadmium if the zinc coating is not thick enough the surface soon becomes unsightly with rusting obvious the design life is directly related to the metal coating thickness painting either by roller or brush is more desirable for tight spaces spray would be better for larger coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications flexible polyurethane coatings like durabakm26 for example can provide an anticorrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane painted coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary nowadays organic coatings made using petroleum based polymer are being replaced with many renewable source based organic coatings among various vehicles or binders polyurethanes are the most explored polymer in such an attempts reactive coatings if the environment is controlled especially in recirculating systems corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it these chemicals form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces to suppress electrochemical reactions such methods make the system less sensitive to scratches or defects in the coating since extra inhibitors can be made available wherever metal becomes exposed chemicals that inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in hard water roman water systems are known for their mineral deposits chromates phosphates polyaniline other conducting polymers and a wide range of specially designed chemicals that resemble surfactants ie longchain organic molecules with ionic end groups anodization aluminium alloys often undergo a surface treatment electrochemical conditions in the bath are carefully adjusted so that uniform pores several nanometers wide appear in the metals oxide film these pores allow the oxide to grow much thicker than passivating conditions would allow at the end of the treatment the pores are allowed to seal forming a harderthanusual surface layer if this coating is scratched normal passivation processes take over to protect the damaged area anodizing is very resilient to weathering and corrosion so it is commonly used for building facades and other areas where the surface will come into regular contact with the elements while being resilient it must be cleaned frequently if left'</li><li>'in geology a deformation mechanism is a process occurring at a microscopic scale that is responsible for changes in a materials internal structure shape and volume the process involves planar discontinuity andor displacement of atoms from their original position within a crystal lattice structure these small changes are preserved in various microstructures of materials such as rocks metals and plastics and can be studied in depth using optical or digital microscopy deformation mechanisms are commonly characterized as brittle ductile and brittleductile the driving mechanism responsible is an interplay between internal eg composition grain size and latticepreferred orientation and external eg temperature and fluid pressure factors these mechanisms produce a range of microstructures studied in rocks to constrain the conditions rheology dynamics and motions of tectonic events more than one mechanism may be active under a given set of conditions and some mechanisms can develop independently detailed microstructure analysis can be used to define the conditions and timing under which individual deformation mechanisms dominate for some materials common deformation mechanisms processes include fracturing cataclastic flow diffusive mass transfer grainboundary sliding dislocation creep dynamic recrystallization recovery fracturing is a brittle deformation process that creates permanent linear breaks that are not accompanied by displacement within materials these linear breaks or openings can be independent or interconnected for fracturing to occur the ultimate strength of the materials need to be exceeded to a point where the material ruptures rupturing is aided by the accumulations of high differential stress the difference between the maximum and minimum stress acting on the object most fracture grow into faults however the term fault is only used when the fracture plane accommodate some degree of movement fracturing can happen across all scales from microfractures to macroscopic fractures and joints in the rocks cataclasis or comminution is a nonelastic brittle mechanism that operates under low to moderate homologous temperatures low confining pressure and relatively high strain rates it occurs only above a certain differential stress level which is dependent on fluid pressure and temperature cataclasis accommodates the fracture and crushing of grains causing grain size reduction along with frictional sliding on grain boundaries and rigid body grain rotation intense cataclasis occurs in thin zones along slip or fault surfaces where extreme grain size reduction occurs in rocks cataclasis forms a cohesive and finegrained fault rock called cataclasite cataclastic flow occurs during shearing when a rock deform by microfracturing and frictional sliding where tiny fractures microcracks and associated rock fragments move past each other cataclastic'</li><li>'corrosion engineering is an engineering specialty that applies scientific technical engineering skills and knowledge of natural laws and physical resources to design and implement materials structures devices systems and procedures to manage corrosion from a holistic perspective corrosion is the phenomenon of metals returning to the state they are found in nature the driving force that causes metals to corrode is a consequence of their temporary existence in metallic form to produce metals starting from naturally occurring minerals and ores it is necessary to provide a certain amount of energy eg iron ore in a blast furnace it is therefore thermodynamically inevitable that these metals when exposed to various environments would revert to their state found in nature corrosion and corrosion engineering thus involves a study of chemical kinetics thermodynamics electrochemistry and materials science generally related to metallurgy or materials science corrosion engineering also relates to nonmetallics including ceramics cement composite material and conductive materials such as carbon and graphite corrosion engineers often manage other notstrictlycorrosion processes including but not restricted to cracking brittle fracture crazing fretting erosion and more typically categorized as infrastructure asset management in the 1990s imperial college london even offered a master of science degree entitled the corrosion of engineering materials umist – university of manchester institute of science and technology and now part of the university of manchester also offered a similar course corrosion engineering masters degree courses are available worldwide and the curricula contain study material about the control and understanding of corrosion ohio state university has a corrosion center named after one of the more well known corrosion engineers mars g fontana in the year 1995 it was reported that the costs of corrosion nationwide in the usa were nearly 300 billion per year this confirmed earlier reports of damage to the world economy caused by corrosion zaki ahmad in his book principles of corrosion engineering and corrosion control states that corrosion engineering is the application of the principles evolved from corrosion science to minimize or prevent corrosion shreir et al suggest likewise in their large two volume work entitled corrosion corrosion engineering involves designing of corrosion prevention schemes and implementation of specific codes and practices corrosion prevention measures including cathodic protection designing to prevent corrosion and coating of structures fall within the regime of corrosion engineering however corrosion science and engineering go handinhand and they cannot be separated it is a permanent marriage to produce new and better methods of protection from time to time this may include the use of corrosion inhibitors in the handbook of corrosion engineering the author pierre r roberge states corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment the serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a problem of worldwide significancecosts are not only monetary'</li></ul>                                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| 2     | <ul><li>'##arrow infty due to arnold walfisz its proof exploiting estimates on exponential sums due to i m vinogradov and n m korobov by a combination of van der corputs and vinogradovs methods hq liu on eulers functionproc roy soc edinburgh sect a 146 2016 no 4 769 – 775 improved the error term to o n log n 2 3 log log n 1 3 displaystyle oleftnlog nfrac 23log log nfrac 13right this is currently the best known estimate of this type the big o stands for a quantity that is bounded by a constant times the function of n inside the parentheses which is small compared to n2 this result can be used to prove that the probability of two randomly chosen numbers being relatively prime is 6π2 in 1950 somayajulu proved lim inf φ n 1 φ n 0 and lim sup φ n 1 φ n ∞ displaystyle beginalignedlim inf frac varphi n1varphi n0quad textand5pxlim sup frac varphi n1varphi ninfty endaligned in 1954 schinzel and sierpinski strengthened this proving that the set φ n 1 φ n n 1 2 … displaystyle leftfrac varphi n1varphi nn12ldots right is dense in the positive real numbers they also proved that the set φ n n n 1 2 … displaystyle leftfrac varphi nnn12ldots right is dense in the interval 01 a totient number is a value of eulers totient function that is an m for which there is at least one n for which φn m the valency or multiplicity of a totient number m is the number of solutions to this equation a nontotient is a natural number which is not a totient number every odd integer exceeding 1 is trivially a nontotient there are also infinitely many even nontotients and indeed every positive integer has a multiple which is an even nontotientthe number of totient numbers up to a given limit x is x log x e c o 1 log log log x 2 displaystyle frac xlog xebig co1big log log log x2 for a constant c 08178146if counted accordingly to multiplicity the number of totient numbers up to a given limit x is n φ n ≤ x ζ 2 ζ 3 ζ 6 ⋅ x r x displays'</li><li>'and the coefficients of p this polynomial transformation is often used to reduce questions on algebraic numbers to questions on algebraic integers combining this with a translation of the roots by a 1 n a 0 displaystyle frac a1na0 allows to reduce any question on the roots of a polynomial such as rootfinding to a similar question on a simpler polynomial which is monic and does not have a term of degree n − 1 for examples of this see cubic function § reduction to a depressed cubic or quartic function § converting to a depressed quartic all preceding examples are polynomial transformations by a rational function also called tschirnhaus transformations let f x g x h x displaystyle fxfrac gxhx be a rational function where g and h are coprime polynomials the polynomial transformation of a polynomial p by f is the polynomial q defined up to the product by a nonzero constant whose roots are the images by f of the roots of p such a polynomial transformation may be computed as a resultant in fact the roots of the desired polynomial q are exactly the complex numbers y such that there is a complex number x such that one has simultaneously if the coefficients of p g and h are not real or complex numbers complex number has to be replaced by element of an algebraically closed field containing the coefficients of the input polynomials p x 0 y h x − g x 0 displaystyle beginalignedpx0yhxgx0endaligned this is exactly the defining property of the resultant res x y h x − g x p x displaystyle operatorname res xyhxgxpx this is generally difficult to compute by hand however as most computer algebra systems have a builtin function to compute resultants it is straightforward to compute it with a computer if the polynomial p is irreducible then either the resulting polynomial q is irreducible or it is a power of an irreducible polynomial let α displaystyle alpha be a root of p and consider l the field extension generated by α displaystyle alpha the former case means that f α displaystyle falpha is a primitive element of l which has q as minimal polynomial in the latter case f α displaystyle falpha belongs to a subfield of l and its minimal polynomial is the irreducible polynomial that has q as power polynomial transformations have been applied to the simplification of polynomial equations for solution where possible by radicals descartes introduced the transformation of a polynomial of degree d which eliminates the term of degree d − 1 by a translation of the roots such a polynomial'</li><li>'##tyle farightarrow b is a homomorphism between two algebraic structures such as homomorphism of groups or a linear map between vector spaces then the relation r displaystyle r defined by a 1 r a 2 displaystyle a1ra2 if and only if f a 1 f a 2 displaystyle fa1fa2 is a congruence relation on a displaystyle a by the first isomorphism theorem the image of a under f displaystyle f is a substructure of b isomorphic to the quotient of a by this congruence on the other hand the congruence relation r displaystyle r induces a unique homomorphism f a → a r displaystyle farightarrow ar given by f x y [UNK] x r y displaystyle fxymid xry thus there is a natural correspondence between the congruences and the homomorphisms of any given algebraic structure in the particular case of groups congruence relations can be described in elementary terms as follows if g is a group with identity element e and operation and is a binary relation on g then is a congruence whenever given any element a of g a a reflexivity given any elements a and b of g if a b then b a symmetry given any elements a b and c of g if a b and b c then a c transitivity given any elements a a ′ b and b ′ of g if a a ′ and b b ′ then a b a ′ b ′ given any elements a and a ′ of g if a a ′ then a−1 a ′ −1 this is implied by the other four so is strictly redundantconditions 1 2 and 3 say that is an equivalence relation a congruence is determined entirely by the set a ∈ g a e of those elements of g that are congruent to the identity element and this set is a normal subgroup specifically a b if and only if b−1 a e so instead of talking about congruences on groups people usually speak in terms of normal subgroups of them in fact every congruence corresponds uniquely to some normal subgroup of g a similar trick allows one to speak of kernels in ring theory as ideals instead of congruence relations and in module theory as submodules instead of congruence relations a more general situation where this trick is possible is with omegagroups in the general sense allowing operators with multiple arity but this cannot be done with for example monoids so the study of congruence relations plays a more central role in monoid theory the general notion of'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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| 18    | <ul><li>'been replaced by the wideformat printer that prints a raster image which may be rendered from vector data because this model is useful in a variety of application domains many different software programs have been created for drawing manipulating and visualizing vector graphics while these are all based on the same basic vector data model they can interpret and structure shapes very differently using very different file formats graphic design and illustration using a vector graphics editor or graphic art software such as adobe illustrator see comparison of vector graphics editors for capabilities geographic information systems gis which can represent a geographic feature by a combination of a vector shape and a set of attributes gis includes vector editing mapping and vector spatial analysis capabilities computeraided design cad used in engineering architecture and surveying building information modeling bim models add attributes to each shape similar to a gis 3d computer graphics software including computer animation vector graphics are commonly found today in the svg wmf eps pdf cdr or ai types of graphic file formats and are intrinsically different from the more common raster graphics file formats such as jpeg png apng gif webp bmp and mpeg4 the world wide web consortium w3c standard for vector graphics is scalable vector graphics svg the standard is complex and has been relatively slow to be established at least in part owing to commercial interests many web browsers now have some support for rendering svg data but full implementations of the standard are still comparatively rare in recent years svg has become a significant format that is completely independent of the resolution of the rendering device typically a printer or display monitor svg files are essentially printable text that describes both straight and curved paths as well as other attributes wikipedia prefers svg for images such as simple maps line illustrations coats of arms and flags which generally are not like photographs or other continuoustone images rendering svg requires conversion to a raster format at a resolution appropriate for the current task svg is also a format for animated graphics there is also a version of svg for mobile phones in particular the specific format for mobile phones is called svgt svg tiny version these images can count links and also exploit antialiasing they can also be displayed as wallpaper cad software uses its own vector data formats usually proprietary formats created by the software vendors such as autodesks dwg and public exchange formats such as dxf hundreds of distinct vector file formats have been created for gis data over its history including proprietary formats like the esri file geodatabase proprietary but public formats like the shapefile and the original kml open source formats like geojson'</li><li>'in traditional subjects such as bamboo and old chinese mountains preferring instead to paint the typewriter and the skyscraper with a particular interest in 1950sera objects ohnishis approach in the credits made frequent use of photographs of real people and historical events which he would then modify when adapting it into a painting exchanging and replacing the details of for example a european picture with asian or middleeastern elements and motifs in this way the credits would reflect both the cultural mixing that gives the film as a whole its appearance and symbolize the blurring between our world and the films world thus serving royal space forces function as a kaleidoscopic mirror the last painting in the opening credits where yamagas name as director appears is based on a photograph of yamaga and his younger sister when they were children shiros return alive from space is depicted in the first paintings of the ending credits yamaga remarked that they represent the photos appearing in textbooks from the future of the world of royal space force'</li><li>'figures of speech such as personification or allusion may be implemented in the creation of an artwork a painting may allude to peace with an olive branch or to christianity with a cross in the same way an artwork may employ personification by attributing human qualities to a nonhuman entity in general however visual art is a separate field of study than visual rhetoric graffiti is a pictorial or visual inscription on a publically sic accessible surface according to hanauer graffiti achieves three functions the first is to allow marginalized texts to participate in the public discourse the second is that graffiti serves the purpose of expressing openly controversial contents and the third is to allow marginal groups to the possibility of expressing themselves publicly bates and martin note that this form of rhetoric has been around even in ancient pompeii with an example from 79 ad reading oh wall so many men have come here to scrawl i wonder that your burdened sides dont fall gross and gross indicated that graffiti is capable of serving a rhetorical purpose within a more modern context wiens 2014 research showed that graffiti can be considered an alternative way of creating rhetorical meaning for issues such as homelessness furthermore according to ley and cybriwsky graffiti can be an expression of territory especially within the context of gangs this form of visual rhetoric is meant to communicate meaning to anyone who so happens to see it and due to its long history and prevalence several styles and techniques have emerged to capture the attention of an audience while visual rhetoric is usually applied to denote the nontextual artifacts the use and presentation of words is still critical to understanding the visual argument as a whole beyond how a message is conveyed the presentation of that message encompasses the study and practice of typography professionals in fields from graphic design to book publishing make deliberate choices about how a typeface looks including but not limited to concerns of functionality emotional evocations and cultural context though a relatively new way of using images visual internet memes are one of the more pervasive forms of visual rhetoric visual memes represent a genre of visual communication that often combines images and text to create meaning visual memes can be understood through visual rhetoric which combines elements of the semiotic and discursive approaches to analyze the persuasive elements of visual texts furthermore memes fit into this rhetorical category because of their persuasive nature and their ability to draw viewers into the argument ’ s construction via the viewer ’ s cognitive role in completing visual enthymemes to fill in the unstated premise the visual portion of the meme is a part of its multimo'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 7     | <ul><li>'commonly researched substance for the purpose of protecting against auditory fatigue however at this time there has been no marketed application in addition no synergistic relationships between the drugs on the degree of reduction of auditory fatigue have been discovered at this time physical exercise heat exposure workload ototoxic chemicalsthere are several factors that may not be harmful to the auditory system by themselves but when paired with an extended noise exposure duration have been shown to increase the risk of auditory fatigue this is important because humans will remove themselves from a noisy environment if it passes their pain threshold however when paired with other factors that may not physically recognizable as damaging tts may be greater even with less noise exposure one such factor is physical exercise although this is generally good for the body combined noise exposure during highly physical activities was shown to produce a greater tts than just the noise exposure alone this could be related to the amount of ros being produced by the excessive vibrations further increasing the metabolic activity required which is already increased during physical exercise however a person can decrease their susceptibility to tts by improving their cardiovascular fitness overallheat exposure is another risk factor as blood temperature rises tts increases when paired with highfrequency noise exposure it is hypothesized that hair cells for highfrequency transduction require a greater oxygen supply than others and the two simultaneous metabolic processes can deplete any oxygen reserves of the cochlea in this case the auditory system undergoes temporary changes caused by a decrease in the oxygen tension of the cochlear endolymph that leads to vasoconstriction of the local vessels further research could be done to see if this is a reason for the increased tts during physical exercise that is during continued noiseexposure as well another factor that may not show signs of being harmful is the current workload of a person exposure to noise greater than 95 db in individuals with heavy workloads was shown to cause severe tts in addition the workload was a driving factor in the amount of recovery time required to return threshold levels to their baselinesthere are some factors that are known to directly affect the auditory system contact with ototoxic chemicals such as styrene toluene and carbon disulfide heighten the risk of auditory damages those individuals in work environments are more likely to experience the noise and chemical combination that can increase the likelihood of auditory fatigue individually styrene is known to cause structural damages of the cochlea without actually interfering with functional capabilities this explains the synergistic interaction between noise and'</li><li>'that we had no voice or tongue and wanted to communicate with one another should we not like the deaf and dumb make signs with the hands and head and the rest of the body his belief that deaf people possessed an innate intelligence for language put him at odds with his student aristotle who said those who are born deaf all become senseless and incapable of reason and that it is impossible to reason without the ability to hear this pronouncement would reverberate through the ages and it was not until the 17th century when manual alphabets began to emerge as did various treatises on deaf education such as reduccion de las letras y arte para ensenar a hablar a los mudos reduction of letters and art for teaching mute people to speak written by juan pablo bonet in madrid in 1620 and didascalocophus or the deaf and dumb mans tutor written by george dalgarno in 1680 in 1760 french philanthropic educator charlesmichel de lepee opened the worlds first free school for the deaf the school won approval for government funding in 1791 and became known as the institution nationale des sourdsmuets a paris the school inspired the opening of what is today known as the american school for the deaf the oldest permanent school for the deaf in the united states and indirectly gallaudet university the worlds first school for the advanced education of the deaf and hard of hearing and to date the only higher education institution in which all programs and services are specifically designed to accommodate deaf and hard of hearing students causes of hearing loss deaf culture deaf education deaf history history of sign language hearing loss models of deafness'</li><li>'otoblocker in place the impression material can now be used to fill in the external ear canal and the spaces and crevices of the outer ear with the impression material in place and set in the ear canal the clinician can decide what type of earmold material would benefit the patient the most the three types of earmold materials include acrylic polyvinyl chloride and silicone each type of material has positives and negatives about them for instance acrylic can help older patients with dexterity issues as the earmold is hard so insertion and removal of the earmold is easier or a silicone earmold which is soft and is extremely useful for children because of how pliable the material is earmolds present a variety of challenges they can be inconsistent timeconsuming or inaccurate this is why in the early 2000s a new idea for determining the anatomical shape of the individuals ear canal began circulating the navy often had issues with earmolds for the fact that once the initial impression was taken the impressions would have to be shipped to a manufacturer before the hearing protection could be made this made imperative personal protective equipment often timeconsuming and difficult to obtain this is why the navy then began looking for universities to create an anatomical 3d model of the ear using a scanner the idea was that these scans could be sent electronically to manufacturers almost instantaneously karol hatzilias from georgia tech undertook inventing an ear scanner which has since then been successfully integrated onto naval ships this technology has slowly been working its way into clinical settings many different companies have come up with their own version of ear scanning'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               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| 23    | <ul><li>'##al techniques increases diagnostic accuracy in these cases ghosh mason and spriggs analysed 53 samples of pleural or peritoneal fluid from 41 patients with malignant disease conventional cytological examination had not revealed any neoplastic cells three monoclonal antibodies anticea ca 1 and hmfg2 were used to search for malignant cells immunocytochemical labelling was performed on unstained smears which had been stored at 20 °c up to 18 months twelve of the fortyone cases in which immunocytochemical staining was performed revealed malignant cells the result represented an increase in diagnostic accuracy of approximately 20 the study concluded that in patients with suspected malignant disease immunocytochemical labeling should be used routinely in the examination of cytologically negative samples and has important implications with respect to patient management another application of immunocytochemical staining is for the detection of two antigens in the same smear double staining with light chain antibodies and with t and b cell markers can indicate the neoplastic origin of a lymphomaone study has reported the isolation of a hybridoma cell line clone 1e10 which produces a monoclonal antibody igm k isotype this monoclonal antibody shows specific immunocytochemical staining of nucleolitissues and tumours can be classified based on their expression of certain markers with the help of monoclonal antibodies they help in distinguishing morphologically similar lesions and in determining the organ or tissue origin of undifferentiated metastases immunocytological analysis of bone marrow tissue aspirates lymph nodes etc with selected monoclonal antibodies help in the detection of occult metastases monoclonal antibodies increase the sensitivity in detecting even small quantities of invasive or metastatic cells monoclonal antibodies mabs specific for cytokeratins can detect disseminated individual epithelial tumour cells in the bone marrow'</li><li>'visilizumab with a tentative trade name of nuvion they are being investigated for the treatment of other conditions like crohns disease ulcerative colitis and type 1 diabetes further development of teplizumab is uncertain due to oneyear data from a recent phase iii trial being disappointing especially during the first infusion the binding of muromonabcd3 to cd3 can activate t cells to release cytokines like tumor necrosis factor and interferon gamma this cytokine release syndrome or crs includes side effects like skin reactions fatigue fever chills myalgia headaches nausea and diarrhea and could lead to lifethreatening conditions like apnoea cardiac arrest and flash pulmonary edema to minimize the risk of crs and to offset some of the minor side effects patient experience glucocorticoids such as methylprednisolone acetaminophen and diphenhydramine are given before the infusionother adverse effects include leucopenia as well as an increased risk for severe infections and malignancies typical of immunosuppressive therapies neurological side effects like aseptic meningitis and encephalopathy have been observed possibly they are also caused by the t cell activationrepeated application can result in tachyphylaxis reduced effectiveness due to the formation of antimouse antibodies in the patient which accelerates elimination of the drug it can also lead to an anaphylactic reaction against the mouse protein which may be difficult to distinguish from a crs except under special circumstances the drug is contraindicated for patients with an allergy against mouse proteins as well as patients with uncompensated heart failure uncontrolled arterial hypertension or epilepsy it should not be used during pregnancy or lactation muromonabcd3 was developed before the who nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies took effect and consequently its name does not follow this convention instead it is a contraction from murine monoclonal antibody targeting cd3'</li><li>'has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate b cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes the chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody — the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes igh is found on chromosome 14 and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes igl and igk are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans one of these domains is called the variable domain which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct b cells differences between the variable domains are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions hv1 hv2 and hv3 or complementaritydetermining regions cdr1 cdr2 and cdr3 cdrs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions the heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their cdrs combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability this combination is called vdj recombination discussed below somatic recombination of immunoglobulins also known as vdj recombination involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region the variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces — known as gene segments subgenes these segments are called variable v diversity d and joining j segments v d and j segments are found in ig heavy chains but only v and j segments are found in ig light chains multiple copies of the v d and j gene segments exist and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals in the bone marrow each developing b cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one v one d and one j gene segment or one v and one j segment in the light chain as there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region this process generates a huge number of antibodies each with different paratopes and thus different antigen specific'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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| 30    | <ul><li>'the immunerelated response criteria irrc is a set of published rules that define when tumors in cancer patients improve respond stay the same stabilize or worsen progress during treatment where the compound being evaluated is an immunooncology drug immunooncology part of the broader field of cancer immunotherapy involves agents which harness the bodys own immune system to fight cancer traditionally patient responses to new cancer treatments have been evaluated using two sets of criteria the who criteria and the response evaluation criteria in solid tumors recist the immunerelated response criteria first published in 2009 arose out of observations that immunooncology drugs would fail in clinical trials that measured responses using the who or recist criteria because these criteria could not account for the time gap in many patients between initial treatment and the apparent action of the immune system to reduce the tumor burden part of the process of determining the effectiveness of anticancer agents in clinical trials involves measuring the amount of tumor shrinkage such agents can generate the who criteria developed in the 1970s by the international union against cancer and the world health organization represented the first generally agreed specific criteria for the codification of tumor response evaluation these criteria were first published in 1981 the recist criteria first published in 2000 revised the who criteria primarily to clarify differences that remained between research groups under recist tumour size was measured unidimensionally rather than bidimensionally fewer lesions were measured and the definition of progression was changed so that it was no longer based on the isolated increase of a single lesion recist also adopted a different shrinkage threshold for definitions of tumour response and progression for the who criteria it had been 50 tumour shrinkage for a partial response and 25 tumour increase for progressive disease for recist it was 30 shrinkage for a partial response and 20 increase for progressive disease one outcome of all these revisions was that more patients who would have been considered progressors under the old criteria became responders or stable under the new criteria recist and its successor recist 11 from 2009 is now the standard measurement protocol for measuring response in cancer trials the key driver in the development of the irrc was the observation that in studies of various cancer therapies derived from the immune system such as cytokines and monoclonal antibodies the lookedfor complete and partial responses as well as stable disease only occurred after an increase in tumor burden that the conventional recist criteria would have dubbed progressive disease basically recist failed to take account of the delay between dosing and an observed antitumour t cell response so that otherwise successful drugs that is drugs which'</li><li>'##vers may be at higher risk because of a higher likelihood of social isolation than younger caregivers however older caregivers are usually more satisfied with their role than are younger caregivers among women this may be explained by the finding that younger female caregivers tend to perceive demands on their time due to role strain more negatively role strain tends to be more severe for later middle age caregivers due to their many responsibilities with family and work caregivers in this age group may also be more prone to emotional distress and ultimately a decreased quality of life this is because the caregivers are at higher risk of experiencing social isolation career interruption and a lack of time for themselves their families and their friends the age of the cancer patient can also affect the physical and psychological burden on caregivers given that the highest percentage of individuals with cancer are older adults caregiving for older cancer patients can be complicated by other comorbid diseases such as dementia the spouses of elderly cancer patients are likely to be elderly themselves which may cause the caregiving to take an even more significant toll on their well being individuals of lower socioeconomic status may experience the increased burden of financial strain due to the expenses involved in cancer care this may cause them to experience more psychological distress from cancer caregiving than other caregivers caregivers with lower levels of education have been shown to report more satisfaction from caregiving caregivers can sustain their quality of life by deriving selfesteem from caregiving caregivers beliefs and perceptions can also strongly impact their adjustment to caregiving for instance caregivers who believe their coping strategies are effective or caregivers who perceive sufficient help from their support networks are less likely to be depressed in fact these factors relate more strongly to their levels of depression than stress does personality factors may play a role in caregiver adjustment to cancer for instance caregivers that are high on neuroticism are more likely to suffer from depression on the other hand caregivers that are more optimistic or who acquire a sense of mastery from caregiving tend to adjust better to the experience along these lines caregivers who use problemsolving coping strategies or who seek social support are less distressed than those that use avoidant or impulsive strategies some caregivers also report that spirituality helps them cope with the difficulties of caregiving and watching a loved one endure their cancer the caregivers relationship to the patient can be an important factor in their adjustment to caregiving spouses followed by adult daughters are the most likely family members to provide care spouses generally tend to have the most'</li><li>'##cur and which populations they originate from new tools are being developed that attempt to resolve clonal structure using allele frequencies for the observed mutations singlecell sequencing is a new technique that is valuable for assessing tumour heterogeneity because it can characterize individual tumour cells this means that the entire mutational profile of multiple distinct cells can be determined with no ambiguity while with current technology it is difficult to evaluate sufficiently large numbers of single cells to obtain statistical power singlecell tumour data has multiple advantages including the ability to construct a phylogenetic tree showing the evolution of tumour populations using wholegenome sequences or snpbased pseudosequences from individual cells the evolution of the subclones can be estimated this allows for the identification of populations that have persisted over time and can narrow down the list of mutations that potentially confer a growth advantage or treatment resistance on specific subclones algorithms for inferring a tumor phylogeny from singlecell dna sequencing data include scite onconem sifit siclonefit phiscs and phiscsbnb section sequencing can be done on multiple portions of a single solid tumour and the variation in the mutation frequencies across the sections can be analyzed to infer the clonal structure the advantages of this approach over single sequencing include more statistical power and availability of more accurate information on the spatial positioning of samples the latter can be used to infer the frequency of clones in sections and provide insight on how a tumour evolves in space to infer the clones genotypes and phylogenetic trees that model a tumour evolution in time several computational methods were developed including clomial clonehd phylowgs pyclone cloe phyc canopy targetclone ddclone pastri glclone trait wscunmix bscite theta sifa sclust seqclone calder bamse meltos submarine rndclone conifer devolution and rdaclone mouse models of breast cancer metastasis'</li></ul>                                                                                                             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| 8     | <ul><li>'airborne and ground equipment and to react appropriately to be able to use the system in the circumstances from which it is intended consequently the low visibility operations categories cat i cat ii and cat iii apply to all 3 elements in the landing – the aircraft equipment the ground environment and the crew the result of all this is to create a spectrum of low visibility equipment in which an aircrafts autoland autopilot is just one component the development of these systems proceeded by recognizing that although the ils would be the source of the guidance the ils itself contains lateral and vertical elements that have rather different characteristics in particular the vertical element glideslope originates from the projected touchdown point of the approach ie typically 1000 ft from the beginning of the runway while the lateral element localizer originates from beyond the far end the transmitted glideslope therefore becomes irrelevant soon after the aircraft has reached the runway threshold and in fact the aircraft has of course to enter its landing mode and reduce its vertical velocity quite a long time before it passes the glideslope transmitter the inaccuracies in the basic ils could be seen in that it was suitable for use down to 200 ft only cat i and similarly no autopilot was suitable for or approved for use below this height the lateral guidance from the ils localizer would however be usable right to the end of the landing roll and hence is used to feed the rudder channel of the autopilot after touchdown as aircraft approached the transmitter its speed is obviously reducing and rudder effectiveness diminishes compensating to some extent for the increased sensitivity of the transmitted signal more significantly however it means the safety of the aircraft is still dependent on the ils during rollout furthermore as it taxis off the runway and down any parallel taxiway it itself acts a reflector and can interfere with the localizer signal this means that it can affect the safety of any following aircraft still using the localizer as a result such aircraft cannot be allowed to rely on that signal until the first aircraft is well clear of the runway and the cat 3 protected area the result is that when these low visibility operations are taking place operations on the ground affect operations in the air much more than in good visibility when pilots can see what is happening at very busy airports this results in restrictions in movement which can in turn severely impact the airports capacity in short very low visibility operations such as autoland can only be conducted when aircraft crews ground equipment and air and ground traffic control all comply with more stringent requirements than normal the first commercial development automatic landings as opposed to pure experimentation were achieved through realizing that the vertical'</li><li>'##100418063538httpwwwlittoncorpcomlittoncorporationproductsasp'</li><li>'an electronic flight bag efb is an electronic information management device that helps flight crews perform flight management tasks more easily and efficiently with less paper providing the reference material often found in the pilots carryon flight bag including the flightcrew operating manual navigational charts etc in addition the efb can host purposebuilt software applications to automate other functions normally conducted by hand such as takeoff performance calculations the efb gets its name from the traditional pilots flight bag which is typically a heavy up to or over 18 kg or 40 lb documents bag that pilots carry to the cockpitan efb is intended primarily for cockpitflightdeck or cabin use for large and turbine aircraft far 91503 requires the presence of navigational charts on the airplane if an operators sole source of navigational chart information is contained on an efb the operator must demonstrate the efb will continue to operate throughout a decompression event and thereafter regardless of altitude the earliest efb precursors came from individual pilots from fedex in the early 1990s who used their personal laptops where are referred as airport performance laptop computer to carry out aircraft performance calculations on the aircraft this was a commercial offtheshelf computer and was considered portablethe first true efb designed specifically to replace a pilots entire kit bag was patented by angela masson as the electronic kit bag ekb in 1999 in october 2003 klm airlines accepted the first installed efb on a boeing 777 aircraft the boeing efb hardware was made by astronautics corporation of america and software applications were supplied by both jeppesen and boeing in 2005 the first commercial class 2 efb was issued to avionics support group inc with its constant friction mount cfmount as part of the efb the installation was performed on a miami air boeing b737ngin 2009 continental airlines successfully completed the world ’ s first flight using jeppesen airport surface area moving map amm showing “ own ship ” position on a class 2 electronic flight bag platform the amm application uses a high resolution database to dynamically render maps of the airportas personal computing technology became more compact and powerful efbs became capable of storing all the aeronautical charts for the entire world on a single threepound 14 kg computer compared to the 80 lb 36 kg of paper normally required for worldwide paper charts using efbs increases safety and enhances the crews ’ access to operating procedures and flight management information enhance safety by allowing aircrews to calculate aircraft performance for safer departures and arrivals as well as aircraft weight and balance for loadingplanning purposes accuratelythe air force special operations command af'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 17    | <ul><li>'of them many of the sandar surfaces are still visible albeit degraded over succeeding millennia extensive sandar are also recorded in the eastern part of the cheshire plain and beneath morecambe bay both in northwest england valley sandur deposits are recorded from various localities in that same region kankakee outwash plain terminal moraine – type of moraine that forms at the terminal of a glacier'</li><li>'an urstromtal plural urstromtaler is a type of broad glacial valley for example in northern central europe that appeared during the ice ages or individual glacial periods of an ice age at the edge of the scandinavian ice sheet and was formed by meltwaters that flowed more or less parallel to the ice margin urstromtaler are an element of the glacial series the term is german and means ancient stream valley although often translated as glacial valley it should not be confused with a valley carved out by a glacier more accurately some sources call them meltwater valleys or icemarginal valleys important for the emergence of the urstromtaler is the fact that the general lie of the land on the north german plain and in poland slopes down from south to north thus the ice sheet that advanced from scandinavia flowed into a rising terrain the meltwaters could therefore only flow for a short distance southwards over the sandurs outwash plains before having to find a way to the north sea basin that was parallel to the ice margin at that time the area that is now the north sea was dry as a result of the low level of the sea as elements of the glacial series urstromtaler are intermeshed with sandur areas for long stretches along their northern perimeters it was over these outwash plains that the meltwaters poured into them urstromtaler are relatively uniformly composed of sands and gravels the grain size can vary considerably however fine sand dominates especially in the upper sections of the urstromtal sediments the thickness of the urstromtal sediments also varies a great deal but is mostly well over ten metres urstromtaler have wide and very flat valley bottoms that are between 15 and 20 kilometres wide the valley sides by contrast are only a few to a few dozen metres high the bottom and the edges of an urstromtal may have been significantly altered by more recent processes especially the thawing of dead ice blocks or the accumulation of sand dunes in the postglacial period many urstromtaler became bogs due to their low lying situation and the high water table in central europe there are several urstromtaler from various periods breslaumagdeburgbremen urstromtal poland germany formed during the saale glaciation glogaubaruth urstromtal poland germany formed during the weichselian warsawberlin urstromtal poland germany formed during the weichselian thorneberswalde urstromtal poland germany formed during the weichselian the term elbe urstromtal refers to the elbe valley roughly at the height of'</li><li>'temperature of the arctic ocean is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice the phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing salt and water molecules similar to the dissolution of sugar in water even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar thus the dissolution rate is limited by salt transport whereas melting can occur at much higher rates that are characteristic for heat transport humans have used ice for cooling and food preservation for centuries relying on harvesting natural ice in various forms and then transitioning to the mechanical production of the material ice also presents a challenge to transportation in various forms and a setting for winter sports ice has long been valued as a means of cooling in 400 bc iran persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert the ice was brought in from ice pools or during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts and stored in specially designed naturally cooled refrigerators called yakhchal meaning ice storage this was a large underground space up to 5000 m3 that had thick walls at least two meters at the base made of a special mortar called sarooj composed of sand clay egg whites lime goat hair and ash in specific proportions and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer this mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable the space often had access to a qanat and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days the ice was used to chill treats for royalty harvesting there were thriving industries in 16th – 17th century england whereby lowlying areas along the thames estuary were flooded during the winter and ice harvested in carts and stored interseasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters this was allegedly copied by an englishman who had seen the same activity in china ice was imported into england from norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823in the united states the first cargo of ice was sent from new york city to charleston south carolina in 1799 and by the first half of the 19th century ice harvesting had become a big business frederic tudor who became known as the ice king worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice especially to the tropics this became known as the ice trade between 1812 and 1822 under lloyd hesketh bamford heskeths instruction gwrych castle was built with 18 large towers one of those towers is called the ice tower its sole purpose was to store icetrieste sent ice to'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              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| 0     | <ul><li>'in acoustics acoustic attenuation is a measure of the energy loss of sound propagation through an acoustic transmission medium most media have viscosity and are therefore not ideal media when sound propagates in such media there is always thermal consumption of energy caused by viscosity this effect can be quantified through the stokess law of sound attenuation sound attenuation may also be a result of heat conductivity in the media as has been shown by g kirchhoff in 1868 the stokeskirchhoff attenuation formula takes into account both viscosity and thermal conductivity effects for heterogeneous media besides media viscosity acoustic scattering is another main reason for removal of acoustic energy acoustic attenuation in a lossy medium plays an important role in many scientific researches and engineering fields such as medical ultrasonography vibration and noise reduction many experimental and field measurements show that the acoustic attenuation coefficient of a wide range of viscoelastic materials such as soft tissue polymers soil and porous rock can be expressed as the following power law with respect to frequency p x δ x p x e − α ω δ x α ω α 0 ω η displaystyle pxdelta xpxealpha omega delta xalpha omega alpha 0omega eta where ω displaystyle omega is the angular frequency p the pressure δ x displaystyle delta x the wave propagation distance α ω displaystyle alpha omega the attenuation coefficient and α 0 displaystyle alpha 0 and the frequencydependent exponent η displaystyle eta are real nonnegative material parameters obtained by fitting experimental data the value of η displaystyle eta ranges from 0 to 4 acoustic attenuation in water is frequencysquared dependent namely η 2 displaystyle eta 2 acoustic attenuation in many metals and crystalline materials is frequencyindependent namely η 1 displaystyle eta 1 in contrast it is widely noted that the η displaystyle eta of viscoelastic materials is between 0 and 2 for example the exponent η displaystyle eta of sediment soil and rock is about 1 and the exponent η displaystyle eta of most soft tissues is between 1 and 2the classical dissipative acoustic wave propagation equations are confined to the frequencyindependent and frequencysquared dependent attenuation such as the damped wave equation and the approximate thermoviscous wave equation in recent decades increasing attention and efforts have been focused on developing accurate models to describe general power law frequencydependent acoustic attenuation most of these recent frequencydependent models are established via'</li><li>'released the sm2m underwater passive acoustic monitor in may 2011 the unit has a depth rating of 150m and is designed for longterm autonomous recording recording life of up to 1500 hours is possible using 32 standard alkaline d cell batteries the recorder can record sounds from 2 hz to 48 khz and stores recordings on up to four sdhc or sdxc cards echo meter em3 handheld active bat detector at the uk national bat conference wildlife acoustics announced the echo meter handheld bat detector the device will be available in december 2011 the detector is capable of monitoring for bats using heterodyne frequency division or real time expansion rte rte is wildlife acoustics proprietary technique for shifting bat sounds to the audible range while maintaining distinctive temporal and spectral characteristics of the call in addition the em3 can record in full spectrum andor zerocross to an sd card while monitoring a real time spectrogram shows calls as they are happening while monitoring andor recording the spectrogram can be scrolled back to analyze the spectrogram of previous bat calls calls can be played back using time expansion song scope analysis software song scope is a software program that allows viewing of calls on a spectrogram and building recognizers to automatically search recordings for specific vocalizations wildlife acoustics has been awarded the following us patents us patent 7454334 method and apparatus for automatically identifying animal species from their vocalizations us patent 7782195 apparatus for low power autonomous data recording bat detector bat species identification'</li><li>'be white it is often incorrectly assumed that gaussian noise ie noise with a gaussian amplitude distribution – see normal distribution necessarily refers to white noise yet neither property implies the other gaussianity refers to the probability distribution with respect to the value in this context the probability of the signal falling within any particular range of amplitudes while the term white refers to the way the signal power is distributed ie independently over time or among frequencies one form of white noise is the generalized meansquare derivative of the wiener process or brownian motion a generalization to random elements on infinite dimensional spaces such as random fields is the white noise measure white noise is commonly used in the production of electronic music usually either directly or as an input for a filter to create other types of noise signal it is used extensively in audio synthesis typically to recreate percussive instruments such as cymbals or snare drums which have high noise content in their frequency domain a simple example of white noise is a nonexistent radio station static white noise is also used to obtain the impulse response of an electrical circuit in particular of amplifiers and other audio equipment it is not used for testing loudspeakers as its spectrum contains too great an amount of highfrequency content pink noise which differs from white noise in that it has equal energy in each octave is used for testing transducers such as loudspeakers and microphones white noise is used as the basis of some random number generators for example randomorg uses a system of atmospheric antennae to generate random digit patterns from sources that can be wellmodeled by white noise white noise is a common synthetic noise source used for sound masking by a tinnitus masker white noise machines and other white noise sources are sold as privacy enhancers and sleep aids see music and sleep and to mask tinnitus the marpac sleepmate was the first domestic use white noise machine built in 1962 by traveling salesman jim buckwalter alternatively the use of an fm radio tuned to unused frequencies static is a simpler and more costeffective source of white noise however white noise generated from a common commercial radio receiver tuned to an unused frequency is extremely vulnerable to being contaminated with spurious signals such as adjacent radio stations harmonics from nonadjacent radio stations electrical equipment in the vicinity of the receiving antenna causing interference or even atmospheric events such as solar flares and especially lightning the effects of white noise upon cognitive function are mixed recently a small study found that white noise background stimulation improves cognitive functioning among secondary students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adhd'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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| 36    | <ul><li>'experience in his notion of constitutive rhetoric influenced by theories of social construction white argues that culture is reconstituted through language just as language influences people people influence language language is socially constructed and depends on the meanings people attach to it because language is not rigid and changes depending on the situation the very usage of language is rhetorical an author white would say is always trying to construct a new world and persuading his or her readers to share that world within the textpeople engage in rhetoric any time they speak or produce meaning even in the field of science via practices which were once viewed as being merely the objective testing and reporting of knowledge scientists persuade their audience to accept their findings by sufficiently demonstrating that their study or experiment was conducted reliably and resulted in sufficient evidence to support their conclusionsthe vast scope of rhetoric is difficult to define political discourse remains the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing specific techniques and conceptions of persuasion or rhetoric throughout european history rhetoric meant persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts because of its associations with democratic institutions rhetoric is commonly said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of free speech free assembly and political enfranchisement for some portion of the population those who classify rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power to shape communities form the character of citizens and greatly affect civic life rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the ancient philosophers aristotle and isocrates were two of the first to see rhetoric in this light in antidosis isocrates states we have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts and generally speaking there is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish with this statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in the foundation of all aspects of society he further argues in against the sophists that rhetoric although it cannot be taught to just anyone is capable of shaping the character of man he writes i do think that the study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character aristotle writing several years after isocrates supported many of his arguments and argued for rhetoric as a civic art in the words of aristotle in the rhetoric rhetoric is the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion according to aristotle this art of persuasion could be used in public settings in three different ways a member of the assembly decides about future events a juryman about past events while those who merely decide on the orators skill are'</li><li>'terministic screen is a term in the theory and criticism of rhetoric it involves the acknowledgment of a language system that determines an individuals perception and symbolic action in the world kenneth burke develops the terministic screen in his book of essays called language as symbolic action in 1966 he defines the concept as a screen composed of terms through which humans perceive the world and that direct attention away from some interpretations and toward others burke offers the metaphor to explain why people interpret messages differently based on the construction of symbols meanings and therefore reality words convey a particular meaning conjuring images and ideas that induce support toward beliefs or opinions receivers interpret the intended message through a metaphorical screen of their own vocabulary and perspective to the world certain terms may grab attention and lead to a particular conclusion language reflects selects and deflects as a way of shaping the symbol systems that allow us to cope with the world burke describes two different types of terministic screens scientistic and dramatistic scientistic begins with a definition of a term it describes the term as what it is or what it is not putting the term in black and white when defining the essential function is either attitudinal or hortatory in other words the focus is on expressions or commands when terms are treated as hortatory they are developed burke comments on why he uses developed rather than another word i say developed i do not say originating the ultimate origins of language seem to me as mysterious as the origins of the universe itself one must view it i feel simply as the given the dramatistic approach concerns action thou shalt or thou shalt not this screen directs the audience toward action based on interpretation of a term via terministic screens the audience will be able to associate with the term or dissociate from it social constructionism is a metaphor that attempts to capture the way burke viewed the nature of the world and the function of language therein symbols terms and language build our view of life social constructionism allows us to look at burkes theory in terms we recognize and are comfortable with when a person says gender most people based on their individual beliefs normally think of male or female however some could think of intersex individuals if someone says they think of male female and intersex more would be reflected about the person based on their terminology still others would recognize gender as different from biological sex and say they think of man woman and other genders another example occurs within the abortion controversy a prochoice advocate would most likely use the word fetus but opponents of legal abortion would use the word baby because the'</li><li>'around 467 bce citizens found themselves involved in litigation and were forced to take up their own cases before the courts a few clever sicilians developed simple techniques for effective presentation and argumentation in the law courts and taught them to others thus trained capacity in speechmaking and the theory about such speechmaking exists because of legal exigencies the stasis doctrine proposed by hermagoras is an approach to systematically analyze legal cases which many scholars include in their treatises of rhetoric most famously in ciceros de inventione encyclopedia author james jasinski describes this doctrine as taxonomy to classify relevant questions in a debate and the existence or nonexistence of a fact in law the stasis doctrine is incorporated in rhetoric handbooks today since forensic rhetorics original purpose was to win courtroom cases legal aids have been trained in it since legal freedoms emerged because in early law courts citizens were expected to represent themselves and training in forensic rhetoric was very beneficial in ancient athens litigants in a private law suit and defendants in a criminal prosecution were expected to handle their own case before the court — a practice that aristotle approved of the hearings would consist of questions addressed to the litigantdefendant and were asked by a member of the court or the litigants could ask one another these circumstances did not call for legal or oratorical talent — therefore oratory or legalism was not expected encouraged or appreciated after the time of solon the court of areopagus was replaced and the litigantdefendant would deliver a prepared speech before the courts to try and sway the jury they expected dramatic and brilliant oratorical displays now listeners appreciated oratorical and even legalistic niceties such as appeals to passion piety and prejudice it was at this point in athens history where the forensic speechwriter made his first appearance the speechwriter would prepare an address which the litigantdefendant memorized and delivered before the court forensic speechwriting and oratory soon became an essential part of general rhetoric after the nineteenth century forensic rhetoric became the exclusive province of lawyers ” as it essentially remains today these people were experts in the court system and dominated forensic rhetoric since it is tied to past events — thus the relationship between law and rhetoric was solidified the critical legal studies movement occurred because as john l lucaites a prominent author on the subject concluded both legal studies and rhetorical scholars desire to demystify complex law discourse his task was to explore how the law — conceptualized as a series of institutional procedures and relationships — functions within a larger rhetorical cultureauthor james boyd white cultivated'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 31    | <ul><li>'and varzi 1999 differ in their strengths simons 1987 sees mereology primarily as a way of formalizing ontology and metaphysics his strengths include the connections between mereology and the work of stanisław lesniewski and his descendants various continental philosophers especially edmund husserl contemporary englishspeaking technical philosophers such as kit fine and roderick chisholm recent work on formal ontology and metaphysics including continuants occurrents class nouns mass nouns and ontological dependence and integrity free logic as a background logic extending mereology with tense logic and modal logic boolean algebras and lattice theory casati and varzi 1999 see mereology primarily as a way of understanding the material world and how humans interact with it their strengths include the connections between mereology and a protogeometry for physical objects topology and mereotopology especially boundaries regions and holes a formal theory of events theoretical computer science the writings of alfred north whitehead especially his process and reality and work descended therefromsimons devotes considerable effort to elucidating historical notations the notation of casati and varzi is often used both books include excellent bibliographies to these works should be added hovda 2008 which presents the latest state of the art on the axiomatization of mereology gunk mereology holism implicate and explicate order according to david bohm laws of form by g spencerbrown mereological essentialism mereological nihilism mereotopology meronomy meronymy monad philosophy plural quantification quantifier variance simple philosophy whiteheads pointfree geometry composition objects emergence bowden keith 1991 hierarchical tearing an efficient'</li><li>'in scholastic philosophy quiddity latin quidditas was another term for the essence of an object literally its whatness or what it is the term quiddity derives from the latin word quidditas which was used by the medieval scholastics as a literal translation of the equivalent term in aristotles greek to ti en einai το τι ην ειναι or the what it was to be a given thing quiddity describes properties that a particular substance eg a person shares with others of its kind the question what quid is it asks for a general description by way of commonality this is quiddity or whatness ie its what it is quiddity was often contrasted by the scholastic philosophers with the haecceity or thisness of an item which was supposed to be a positive characteristic of an individual that caused it to be this individual and no other it is used in this sense in british poet george herberts poem quiddity example what is a tree we can only see specific trees in the world around us the category tree which includes all trees is a classification in our minds not empirical and not observable the quiddity of a tree is the collection of characteristics which make it a tree this is sometimes referred to as treeness this idea fell into disuse with the rise of empiricism precisely because the essence of things that which makes them what they are does not correspond to any observables in the world around us nor can it be logically arrived at in law the term is used to refer to a quibble or academic point an example can be seen in hamlets graveside speech found in hamlet by william shakespeare where be his quiddities now his quillets his cases his tenures says hamlet referring to a lawyers quiddities quiddity is the name for the mystical dream sea in clive barkers novel the great and secret show that exists as a higher plane of human existence it is featured as more of a literal sea in the novels sequel everville and the related short story on amens shore essence hypokeimenon ousia haecceity substance theory quidditism'</li><li>'##ly suspect occams razor when applied to abstract objects like sets is either a dubious principle or simply false mereology itself is guilty of proliferating new and ontologically suspect entities such as fusionsfor a survey of attempts to found mathematics without using set theory see burgess and rosen 1997 in the 1970s thanks in part to eberle 1970 it gradually came to be understood that one can employ mereology regardless of ones ontological stance regarding sets this understanding is called the ontological innocence of mereology this innocence stems from mereology being formalizable in either of two equivalent ways quantified variables ranging over a universe of sets schematic predicates with a single free variableonce it became clear that mereology is not tantamount to a denial of set theory mereology became largely accepted as a useful tool for formal ontology and metaphysics in set theory singletons are atoms that have no nonempty proper parts many consider set theory useless or incoherent not wellfounded if sets cannot be built up from unit sets the calculus of individuals was thought to require that an object either have no proper parts in which case it is an atom or be the mereological sum of atoms eberle 1970 however showed how to construct a calculus of individuals lacking atoms ie one where every object has a proper part defined below so that the universe is infinite there are analogies between the axioms of mereology and those of standard zermelo – fraenkel set theory zf if parthood is taken as analogous to subset in set theory on the relation of mereology and zf also see bunt 1985 one of the very few contemporary set theorists to discuss mereology is potter 2004 lewis 1991 went further showing informally that mereology augmented by a few ontological assumptions and plural quantification and some novel reasoning about singletons yields a system in which a given individual can be both a part and a subset of another individual various sorts of set theory can be interpreted in the resulting systems for example the axioms of zfc can be proven given some additional mereological assumptions forrest 2002 revises lewiss analysis by first formulating a generalization of cem called heyting mereology whose sole nonlogical primitive is proper part assumed transitive and antireflexive there exists a fictitious null individual that is a proper part of every individual two schemas assert that every lattice join exists lattices are complete and that meet distributes over join on this heyting mereology forrest erects a theory of pseudosets adequate for all purposes to which sets have'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               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| 14    | <ul><li>'mapping experiments at the blastula stage show presomitic mesoderm progenitors at the site of gastrulation referred to as the primitive streak in some organisms in regions flanking the organizer transplant experiments show that only at the late gastrula stage are these cells committed to the paraxial fate meaning that fate determination is tightly controlled by local signals and is not predetermined for instance exposure of presomitic mesoderm to bone morphogenetic proteins bmps ventralizes the tissue however in vivo bmp antagonists secreted by the organizer such as noggin and chordin prevent this and thus promote the formation of dorsal structures it is currently unknown by what particular mechanism somitogenesis is terminated one proposed mechanism is massive cell death in the posteriormost cells of the paraxial mesoderm so that this region is prevented from forming somites others have suggested that the inhibition of bmp signaling by noggin a wnt target gene suppresses the epithelialtomesenchymal transition necessary for the splitting off of somites from the bands of presomitic mesoderm and thus terminates somitogenesis although endogenous retinoic acid is required in higher vertebrates to limit the caudal fgf8 domain needed for somitogenesis in the trunk but not tail some studies also point to a possible role of retinoic acid in ending somitogenesis in vertebrates that lack a tail human or have a short tail chick other studies suggest termination may be due to an imbalance between the speed of somite formation and growth of the presomitic mesoderm extending into this tail region different species have different numbers of somites for example frogs have approximately 10 humans have 37 chicks have 50 mice have 65 and snakes have more than 300 up to about 500 somite number is unaffected by changes in the size of the embryo through experimental procedure because all developing embryos of a particular species form the same number of somites the number of somites present is typically used as a reference for age in developing vertebrates'</li><li>'the vitelline membrane or vitelline envelope is a structure surrounding the outer surface of the plasma membrane of an ovum the oolemma or in some animals eg birds the extracellular yolk and the oolemma it is composed mostly of protein fibers with protein receptors needed for sperm binding which in turn are bound to sperm plasma membrane receptors the speciesspecificity between these receptors contributes to prevention of breeding between different species it is called zona pellucida in mammals between the vitelline membrane and zona pellucida is a fluidfilled perivitelline space as soon as the spermatozoon fuses with the ovum signal transduction occurs resulting in an increase of cytoplasmic calcium ions this itself triggers the cortical reaction which results in depositing several substances onto the vitelline membrane through exocytosis of the cortical granules transforming it into a hard layer called the “ fertilization membrane ” which serves as a barrier inaccessible to other spermatozoa this phenomenon is the slow block to polyspermy in insects the vitelline membrane is called the vitelline envelope and is the inner lining of the chorion the vitelline membrane of the hen is made of two main protein layers that provide support for the yolk and separation from the albumen the inner layer is known as the perivitelline lamina it is a single layer that measures roughly 1 μm to 35 μm thick and is mainly composed of five glycoproteins that have been discovered to resemble glycoproteins of the zona pellucida in mammals involved in maintaining structure the outer layer known as the extravitelline lamina has multiple sublayers which results in thickness that ranges from 03 μm to 9 μm it is primarily composed of proteins such as lysozyme ovomucin and vitelline outer membrane proteins that are responsible for constructing the network of dense thin protein fibres that establish the foundation for further growth of the outer layer during embryonic developmentthe vitelline membrane is known to function as a barrier that allows for diffusion of water and selective nutrients between the albumen and the yolk in the adult hen liver cells express the proteins required for initial formation of the inner layer these proteins travel via the blood from the liver to the site of assembly in the ovary before ovulation occurs the inner layer forms from follicular cells that surround the oocyte after ovulation fe'</li><li>'dacryocystocele dacryocystitis or timo cyst is a benign bluishgray mass in the inferomedial canthus that develops within a few days or weeks after birth the uncommon condition forms as a result as a consequence of narrowing or obstruction of the nasolacrimal duct usually during prenatal development nasolacrimal duct obstruction disrupts the lacrimal drainage system eventually creating a swelling cyst in the lacrimal sac area by the nasal cavity the location of the cyst can cause respiratory dysfunction compromising the airway the obstruction ultimately leads to epiphora an abundance of tear production dacryocystocele is a condition that can occur to all at any age however the population most affected by this rare condition are infants the intensity of the symptoms may vary depending on the type of dacryocystocele there are three types of dacrycystocele acute congenital and chronic acute dacryocystocele is a bacterial infection that includes symptoms such as fever and pus from the eye region while chronic dacryocystocele is less severe people with the chronic form of the condition experience symptoms of pain or discomfort from the corner of the eye congenital is the dacryocystocele form that appears in infants the infant may have watering or discharge from the eyescommon symptoms of all types of dacryocystocele include pain surrounding the outer corner of the eye and areas around redness swelling of the eyelid reoccurring conjunctivitis epiphora overproduction of tears pus or discharge fever the nasolacrimal ducts drain the excess tears from our eyes into the nasal cavity in dacryocystocele this tube gets blocked on either end and as a result when mucoid fluid collects in the intermediate patent section it forms a cystic structure the infection is often caused by injury to eye or nose area nasal abscess abnormal mass inside of the nose inflammation surgery nasal or sinus cancer sinusitis the nasolacrimal system is located within the maxillary bone the purpose of the nasolacrimal ducts is to drain tears from the eye area of the lacrimal sac and eventually through the nasal cavity dacryocystocele is caused by blockage on the nasolacrimal duct as a result when mucoid fluid collects in the intermediate patent section it forms a cystic structure the cyst is formed by the'</li></ul>                                                                                                                      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| 40    | <ul><li>'s ∈ s displaystyle sin s for which f s displaystyle mathcal fs is locally free is locally constructible proposition 947 if f x → s displaystyle fcolon xrightarrow s is an finitely presented morphism of schemes and z ⊂ x displaystyle zsubset x is a locally constructible subset then the set of s ∈ s displaystyle sin s for which f − 1 s ∩ z displaystyle f1scap z is closed or open in f − 1 s displaystyle f1s is locally constructible corollary 954 let s displaystyle s be a scheme and f x → y displaystyle fcolon xrightarrow y a morphism of s displaystyle s schemes consider the set p ⊂ s displaystyle psubset s of s ∈ s displaystyle sin s for which the induced morphism f s x s → y s displaystyle fscolon xsrightarrow ys of fibres over s displaystyle s has some property p displaystyle mathbf p then p displaystyle p is locally constructible if p displaystyle mathbf p is any of the following properties surjective proper finite immersion closed immersion open immersion isomorphism proposition 961 let f x → s displaystyle fcolon xrightarrow s be an finitely presented morphism of schemes and consider the set p ⊂ s displaystyle psubset s of s ∈ s displaystyle sin s for which the fibre f − 1 s displaystyle f1s has a property p displaystyle mathbf p then p displaystyle p is locally constructible if p displaystyle mathbf p is any of the following properties geometrically irreducible geometrically connected geometrically reduced theorem 977 let f x → s displaystyle fcolon xrightarrow s be an locally finitely presented morphism of schemes and consider the set p ⊂ x displaystyle psubset x of x ∈ x displaystyle xin x for which the fibre f − 1 f x displaystyle f1fx has a property p displaystyle mathbf p then p displaystyle p is locally constructible if p displaystyle mathbf p is any of the following properties geometrically regular geometrically normal geometrically reduced proposition 994one important role that these constructibility results have is that in most cases assuming the morphisms in questions are also flat it follows that the properties in question in fact hold in an open subset a substantial number of such results is included in ega iv § 12 constructible topology'</li><li>'in mathematical analysis a domain or region is a nonempty connected open set in a topological space in particular any nonempty connected open subset of the real coordinate space rn or the complex coordinate space cn a connected open subset of coordinate space is frequently used for the domain of a function but in general functions may be defined on sets that are not topological spaces the basic idea of a connected subset of a space dates from the 19th century but precise definitions vary slightly from generation to generation author to author and edition to edition as concepts developed and terms were translated between german french and english works in english some authors use the term domain some use the term region some use both terms interchangeably and some define the two terms slightly differently some avoid ambiguity by sticking with a phrase such as nonempty connected open subset one common convention is to define a domain as a connected open set but a region as the union of a domain with none some or all of its limit points a closed region or closed domain is the union of a domain and all of its limit points various degrees of smoothness of the boundary of the domain are required for various properties of functions defined on the domain to hold such as integral theorems greens theorem stokes theorem properties of sobolev spaces and to define measures on the boundary and spaces of traces generalized functions defined on the boundary commonly considered types of domains are domains with continuous boundary lipschitz boundary c1 boundary and so forth a bounded domain or bounded region is that which is a bounded set ie having a finite measure an exterior domain or external domain is the interior of the complement of a bounded domain in complex analysis a complex domain or simply domain is any connected open subset of the complex plane c for example the entire complex plane is a domain as is the open unit disk the open upper halfplane and so forth often a complex domain serves as the domain of definition for a holomorphic function in the study of several complex variables the definition of a domain is extended to include any connected open subset of cn in euclidean spaces the extent of one two and threedimensional regions are called respectively length area and volume definition an open set is connected if it cannot be expressed as the sum of two open sets an open connected set is called a domain german eine offene punktmenge heißt zusammenhangend wenn man sie nicht als summe von zwei offenen punktmengen darstellen kann eine offene zusammenhangende punktmenge heißt ein gebiet according to hans hahn the concept'</li><li>'ny dover publications isbn 9780486453521 oclc 853623322 willard stephen february 2004 general topology courier dover publications isbn 9780486434797 yosida kosaku 1980 functional analysis 6th ed springer isbn 9783540586548'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 28    | <ul><li>'the notation lc z displaystyle operatorname lc z for the logcotangent integral and using the fact that d d x log sin π x π cot π x displaystyle ddxlogsin pi xpi cot pi x an integration by parts gives lc z [UNK] 0 z π x cot π x d x z log sin π z − [UNK] 0 z log sin π x d x z log sin π z − [UNK] 0 z log 2 sin π x − log 2 d x z log 2 sin π z − [UNK] 0 z log 2 sin π x d x displaystyle beginalignedoperatorname lc zint 0zpi xcot pi xdxzlogsin pi zint 0zlogsin pi xdxzlogsin pi zint 0zbigg log2sin pi xlog 2bigg dxzlog2sin pi zint 0zlog2sin pi xdxendaligned performing the integral substitution y 2 π x ⇒ d x d y 2 π displaystyle y2pi xrightarrow dxdy2pi gives z log 2 sin π z − 1 2 π [UNK] 0 2 π z log 2 sin y 2 d y displaystyle zlog2sin pi zfrac 12pi int 02pi zlog left2sin frac y2rightdy the clausen function – of second order – has the integral representation cl 2 θ − [UNK] 0 θ log 2 sin x 2 d x displaystyle operatorname cl 2theta int 0theta log bigg 2sin frac x2bigg dx however within the interval 0 θ 2 π displaystyle 0theta 2pi the absolute value sign within the integrand can be omitted since within the range the halfsine function in the integral is strictly positive and strictly nonzero comparing this definition with the result above for the logtangent integral the following relation clearly holds lc z z log 2 sin π z 1 2 π cl 2 2 π z displaystyle operatorname lc zzlog2sin pi zfrac 12pi operatorname cl 22pi z thus after a slight rearrangement of terms the proof is complete 2 π log g 1 − z g 1 z 2 π z log sin π z π cl 2 2 π z [UNK] displaystyle 2pi log leftfrac g1zg1zright2pi zlog leftfrac sin pi zpi rightoperatorname cl 22pi zbox using the relation g 1 z γ z g z displaystyle g1zgamma zgz'</li><li>'in particular fn contains all of the members of fn−1 and also contains an additional fraction for each number that is less than n and coprime to n thus f6 consists of f5 together with the fractions 16 and 56 the middle term of a farey sequence fn is always 12 for n 1 from this we can relate the lengths of fn and fn−1 using eulers totient function φ n displaystyle varphi n f n f n − 1 φ n displaystyle fnfn1varphi n using the fact that f1 2 we can derive an expression for the length of fn f n 1 [UNK] m 1 n φ m 1 φ n displaystyle fn1sum m1nvarphi m1phi n where φ n displaystyle phi n is the summatory totient we also have f n 1 2 3 [UNK] d 1 n μ d [UNK] n d [UNK] 2 displaystyle fnfrac 12left3sum d1nmu dleftlfloor tfrac ndrightrfloor 2right and by a mobius inversion formula f n 1 2 n 3 n − [UNK] d 2 n f [UNK] n d [UNK] displaystyle fnfrac 12n3nsum d2nflfloor ndrfloor where µd is the numbertheoretic mobius function and [UNK] n d [UNK] displaystyle lfloor tfrac ndrfloor is the floor function the asymptotic behaviour of fn is f n [UNK] 3 n 2 π 2 displaystyle fnsim frac 3n2pi 2 the index i n a k n k displaystyle inaknk of a fraction a k n displaystyle akn in the farey sequence f n a k n k 0 1 … m n displaystyle fnaknk01ldots mn is simply the position that a k n displaystyle akn occupies in the sequence this is of special relevance as it is used in an alternative formulation of the riemann hypothesis see below various useful properties follow i n 0 1 0 displaystyle in010 i n 1 n 1 displaystyle in1n1 i n 1 2 f n − 1 2 displaystyle in12fn12 i n 1 1 f n − 1 displaystyle in11fn1 i n h k f n − 1 − i n k − h k displaystyle inhkfn1inkhk the index of 1 k displaystyle 1k where n i 1 k ≤ n i displaystyle ni'</li><li>'in number theory eulers totient function counts the positive integers up to a given integer n that are relatively prime to n it is written using the greek letter phi as φ n displaystyle varphi n or [UNK] n displaystyle phi n and may also be called eulers phi function in other words it is the number of integers k in the range 1 ≤ k ≤ n for which the greatest common divisor gcdn k is equal to 1 the integers k of this form are sometimes referred to as totatives of n for example the totatives of n 9 are the six numbers 1 2 4 5 7 and 8 they are all relatively prime to 9 but the other three numbers in this range 3 6 and 9 are not since gcd9 3 gcd9 6 3 and gcd9 9 9 therefore φ9 6 as another example φ1 1 since for n 1 the only integer in the range from 1 to n is 1 itself and gcd1 1 1 eulers totient function is a multiplicative function meaning that if two numbers m and n are relatively prime then φmn φmφn this function gives the order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n the group of units of the ring z n z displaystyle mathbb z nmathbb z it is also used for defining the rsa encryption system leonhard euler introduced the function in 1763 however he did not at that time choose any specific symbol to denote it in a 1784 publication euler studied the function further choosing the greek letter π to denote it he wrote πd for the multitude of numbers less than d and which have no common divisor with it this definition varies from the current definition for the totient function at d 1 but is otherwise the same the nowstandard notation φa comes from gausss 1801 treatise disquisitiones arithmeticae although gauss did not use parentheses around the argument and wrote φa thus it is often called eulers phi function or simply the phi function in 1879 j j sylvester coined the term totient for this function so it is also referred to as eulers totient function the euler totient or eulers totient jordans totient is a generalization of eulers the cototient of n is defined as n − φn it counts the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that have at least one prime factor in common with n there are several formulae for computing φn it states φ n n [UNK] p'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              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| 19    | <ul><li>'##anse which what later determined to be a nonenzymatic pathway such as formation of a 12dioxetane intermediate at the methine bridge resulting in carbon monoxide release and biliverdin formation claudio tiribelli italian hepatologist studies on bilirubin babesiosis biliary atresia bilirubin diglucuronide biliverdin crigler – najjar syndrome gilberts syndrome a genetic disorder of bilirubin metabolism that can result in mild jaundice found in about 5 of the population hys law lumirubin primary biliary cirrhosis primary sclerosing cholangitis'</li><li>'the pringle manoeuvre is a surgical technique used in some abdominal operations and in liver trauma the hepatoduodenal ligament is clamped either with a surgical tool called a haemostat an umbilical tape or by hand this limits blood inflow through the hepatic artery and the portal vein controlling bleeding from the liver it was first published by and named after james hogarth pringle in 1908 the pringle manoeuvre is used during liver surgery and in some cases of severe liver trauma to minimize blood loss for short durations of use it is very effective at reducing intraoperative blood loss the pringle manoeuvre is applied during closure of a vena cava injury when an atriocaval shunt is placed the pringle manoeuvre is more effective in preventing blood loss during liver surgery if central venous pressure is maintained at 5 mmhg or lower this is due to the fact that pringle manoeuver technique aims at controlling the blood inflow into the liver having no effect on the outflow in case of using pringle manoeuver during liver trauma should bleeding continue it is likely that the inferior vena cava or the hepatic vein are also traumatised if bleeding continues a variation in arterial blood flow may be present the pringle manoeuvre can directly lead to reperfusion injury in the liver causing impaired function this is particularly true for long durations of use such as more than 120 minutes of intermittent pringle occlusion the pringle manoeuvre consists in clamping the hepatoduodenal ligament the free border of the lesser omentum this interrupts the flow of blood through the hepatic artery and the portal vein which helps to control bleeding from the liver the common bile duct is also temporarily closed during this procedure this can be achieved using a large atraumatic hemostat soft clamp manual compression vessel loop or umbilical tape the pringle manoeuvre was developed by james hogarth pringle in the early 1900s in order to attempt to control bleeding during severe liver traumatic injuries'</li><li>'chromosomes ie enhanced monosomy x in female patients and an enhanced y chromosome loss in male patients have been described and might well explain the greater female predisposition to develop pbcan association of a greater incidence of pbc at latitudes more distant from the equator is similar to the pattern seen in multiple sclerosistypical disease onset is between 30 and 60 years though cases have been reported of patients diagnosed at the ages of 15 and 93 prevalence of pbc in women over the age of 45 years could exceed one in an estimated 800 individuals the first report of the disease dates back 1851 by addison and gull who described a clinical picture of progressive jaundice in the absence of mechanical obstruction of the large bile ducts ahrens et al in 1950 published the first detailed description of 17 patients with this condition and coined the term primary biliary cirrhosis in 1959 dame sheila sherlock reported a further series of pbc patients and recognised that the disease could be diagnosed in a precirrhotic stage and proposed the term chronic intrahepatic cholestasis as more appropriate description of this disease but this nomenclature failed to gain acceptance and the term primary biliary cirrhosis lasted for decades in 2014 to correct the inaccuracy and remove the social stigmata of cirrhosis as well as all the misunderstanding disadvantages and discrimination emanating from this misnomer in daily life for patients international liver associations agreed to rename the disease primary biliary cholangitis as it is now known pbc foundation the pbc foundation is a ukbased international charity offering support and information to people with pbc and their families and friends it campaigns for increasing recognition of the disorder improved diagnosis and treatments and estimates over 8000 people are undiagnosed in the uk the foundation has supported research into pbc including the development of the pbc40 quality of life measure published in 2004 and helped establish the pbc genetics study it was founded by collette thain in 1996 after she was diagnosed with the condition thain was awarded an mbe order of the british empire in 2004 for her work with the foundation the pbc foundation helped initiate the name change campaign in 2014 pbcers organization the pbcers organization is a usbased nonprofit patient support group that was founded by linie moore in 1996 it advocates for greater awareness of the disease and new treatments it supported the name change initiative'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 4     | <ul><li>'with respect to the distance function of the metric space the stability of sublevelset filtrations can be stated as follows given any two realvalued functions γ κ displaystyle gamma kappa on a topological space t displaystyle t such that for all i ≥ 0 displaystyle igeq 0 the i th displaystyle itextth dimensional homology modules on the sublevelset filtrations with respect to γ κ displaystyle gamma kappa are pointwise finite dimensional we have d b b i γ b i κ ≤ d ∞ γ κ displaystyle dbmathcal bigamma mathcal bikappa leq dinfty gamma kappa where d b − displaystyle db and d ∞ − displaystyle dinfty denote the bottleneck and supnorm distances respectively and b i − displaystyle mathcal bi denotes the i th displaystyle itextth dimensional persistent homology barcode while first stated in 2005 this sublevel stability result also follows directly from an algebraic stability property sometimes known as the isometry theorem which was proved in one direction in 2009 and the other direction in 2011a multiparameter extension of the offset filtration defined by considering points covered by multiple balls is given by the multicover bifiltration and has also been an object of interest in persistent homology and computational geometry'</li><li>'hormone auxin which activates meristem growth alongside other mechanisms to control the relative angle of buds around the stem from a biological perspective arranging leaves as far apart as possible in any given space is favoured by natural selection as it maximises access to resources especially sunlight for photosynthesis in mathematics a dynamical system is chaotic if it is highly sensitive to initial conditions the socalled butterfly effect which requires the mathematical properties of topological mixing and dense periodic orbitsalongside fractals chaos theory ranks as an essentially universal influence on patterns in nature there is a relationship between chaos and fractals — the strange attractors in chaotic systems have a fractal dimension some cellular automata simple sets of mathematical rules that generate patterns have chaotic behaviour notably stephen wolframs rule 30vortex streets are zigzagging patterns of whirling vortices created by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid most often air or water over obstructing objects smooth laminar flow starts to break up when the size of the obstruction or the velocity of the flow become large enough compared to the viscosity of the fluid meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels which form as a fluid most often water flows around bends as soon as the path is slightly curved the size and curvature of each loop increases as helical flow drags material like sand and gravel across the river to the inside of the bend the outside of the loop is left clean and unprotected so erosion accelerates further increasing the meandering in a powerful positive feedback loop waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water making it oscillate as they pass by wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models as waves in water or wind pass over sand they create patterns of ripples when winds blow over large bodies of sand they create dunes sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the taklamakan desert dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents very long straight lines stars domes parabolas and longitudinal or seif sword shapesbarchans or crescent dunes are produced by wind acting on desert sand the two horns of the crescent and the slip face point downwind sand blows over the upwind face which stands at about 15 degrees from the horizontal and falls onto the slip face where it accumulates up to the angle of repose of the sand which is about 35 degrees when the slip face'</li><li>'##ssa is enabling incomplete records to be spectrally analyzed — without the need to manipulate data or to invent otherwise nonexistent data magnitudes in the lssa spectrum depict the contribution of a frequency or period to the variance of the time series generally spectral magnitudes thus defined enable the outputs straightforward significance level regime alternatively spectral magnitudes in the vanicek spectrum can also be expressed in db note that spectral magnitudes in the vanicek spectrum follow βdistributioninverse transformation of vaniceks lssa is possible as is most easily seen by writing the forward transform as a matrix the matrix inverse when the matrix is not singular or pseudoinverse will then be an inverse transformation the inverse will exactly match the original data if the chosen sinusoids are mutually independent at the sample points and their number is equal to the number of data points no such inverse procedure is known for the periodogram method the lssa can be implemented in less than a page of matlab code in essence to compute the leastsquares spectrum we must compute m spectral values which involves performing the leastsquares approximation m times each time to get the spectral power for a different frequency ie for each frequency in a desired set of frequencies sine and cosine functions are evaluated at the times corresponding to the data samples and dot products of the data vector with the sinusoid vectors are taken and appropriately normalized following the method known as lombscargle periodogram a time shift is calculated for each frequency to orthogonalize the sine and cosine components before the dot product finally a power is computed from those two amplitude components this same process implements a discrete fourier transform when the data are uniformly spaced in time and the frequencies chosen correspond to integer numbers of cycles over the finite data record this method treats each sinusoidal component independently or out of context even though they may not be orthogonal to data points it is vaniceks original method in addition it is possible to perform a full simultaneous or incontext leastsquares fit by solving a matrix equation and partitioning the total data variance between the specified sinusoid frequencies such a matrix leastsquares solution is natively available in matlab as the backslash operatorfurthermore the simultaneous or incontext method as opposed to the independent or outofcontext version as well as the periodogram version due to lomb cannot fit more components sines and cosines than there are data samples so that serious repercussions can also arise if the selected frequencies result in some of the fourier'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          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| 29    | <ul><li>'##gat rises and pressure differences force the saline water from the north sea through the narrow danish straits into the baltic sea throughout the entire inflow process the baltic seas water level rises on average by about 59 cm with 38 cm occurring during the preparatory period and 21 cm during the actual saline inflow the mbi itself typically lasts for 7 – 8 days the formation of an mbi requires specific relatively rare weather conditions between 1897 and 1976 approximately 90 mbis were observed averaging about one per year occasionally there are even multiyear periods without any mbis occurring large inflows that effectively renew the deep basin waters occur on average only once every ten yearsvery large mbis have occurred in 1897 330 km3 1906 300 km3 1922 510 km3 1951 510 km3 199394 300 km3 and 20142015 300 km3 large mbis have on the other hand been observed in 1898 twice 1900 1902 twice 1914 1921 1925 1926 1960 1965 1969 1973 1976 and 2003 the mbi that started in 2014 was by far the third largest mbi in the baltic sea only the inflows of 1951 and 19211922 were larger than itpreviously it was believed that there had been a genuine decline in the number of mbis after 1980 but recent studies have changed our understanding of the occurrence of saline inflows especially after the lightship gedser rev discontinued regular salinity measurements in the belt sea in 1976 the picture of the inflows based on salinity measurements remained incomplete at the leibniz institute for baltic sea research warnemunde germany an updated time series has been compiled filling in the gaps in observations and covering major baltic inflows and various smaller inflow events of saline water from around 1890 to the present day the updated time series is based on direct discharge data from the darss sill and no longer shows a clear change in the frequency or intensity of saline inflows instead there is cyclical variation in the intensity of mbis at approximately 30year intervals major baltic inflows mbis are the only natural phenomenon capable of oxygenating the deep saline waters of the baltic sea making their occurrence crucial for the ecological state of the sea the salinity and oxygen from mbis significantly impact the baltic seas ecosystems including the reproductive conditions of marine fish species such as cod the distribution of freshwater and marine species and the overall biodiversity of the baltic seathe heavy saline water brought in by mbis slowly advances along the seabed of the baltic proper at a pace of a few kilometers per day displacing the deep water from one basin to another'</li><li>'fixed circle of latitude or zonal region if the coriolis parameter is large the effect of the earths rotation on the body is significant since it will need a larger angular frequency to stay in equilibrium with the coriolis forces alternatively if the coriolis parameter is small the effect of the earths rotation is small since only a small fraction of the centripetal force on the body is canceled by the coriolis force thus the magnitude of f displaystyle f strongly affects the relevant dynamics contributing to the bodys motion these considerations are captured in the nondimensionalized rossby number in stability calculations the rate of change of f displaystyle f along the meridional direction becomes significant this is called the rossby parameter and is usually denoted β ∂ f ∂ y displaystyle beta frac partial fpartial y where y displaystyle y is the in the local direction of increasing meridian this parameter becomes important for example in calculations involving rossby waves beta plane earths rotation rossbygravity waves'</li><li>'influenced by the concentration and composition of dissolved salts as salts increase the ability of a solution to conduct an electrical currentfor the gsas the difference in salinity compared to a reference salinity is used in order to identify the anomaly and salinity is measured using the practical salinity values which are unitless in the north atlantic ocean the high salinity of northwardflowing upper waters leads to the formation of deep cold dense waters at the high latitudes this is a vital driver of the meridional overturning circulation moc increasing the influx of fresh water which is less dense than saltier water lowers the salinity of the upper layers leading to a cold fresh light upper layer once cooled by the atmosphere in turn this deep water driver of the moc is weakened in turn weakening the mocthe gsas observed could have different driving causes for the anomaly in the late 1960s and early 1970s the main cause of the anomaly was by a freshwater and sea ice pulse which came from the arctic ocean via the fram strait studies show an indirect cause of this pulse to be abnormally strong northern winds over the greenland sea which brought more cold and fresh polar water to iceland which was in turn caused by a high pressure anomaly cell over greenland in the 1960s this is known as a remote cause of gsas however local conditions such as cold weather are also important for the preservation of a gsa in order to stop the anomaly being mixed out and allowing it to propagate as the gsa of the 1970s did as for the anomaly of the 1980s the cause is likely to be more local this gsa was likely caused by the extremely severe winters of the early 1980s in the labrador sea and the baffin sea however as with the earlier gsa there is also the remote aspect the gsa was likely supplemented by arctic freshwater outflow it is possible that the great salinity anomaly in the 1960s affected the convection pattern and the atlantic meridional overturning circulation amoc the amoc is a large system of ocean currents that carry warm water from the tropics northwards to the north atlantic this is measured by calculating the difference in sea surface temperature between the northern and southern hemisphere averages which is used as a proxy for amoc variations in the years of 1967 – 1972 this difference dropped by 039 which indicates a colder state for the amoc this abrupt change indicates that the amoc was in a weaker state with a recovery to the warmer state occurring by the late 1980sa weaker amoc leads to less heat being transported northwards which leads to a cooling in'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              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| 27    | <ul><li>'matthew putman is an american scientist educator musician and film stage producer he is best known for his work in nanotechnology the science of working in dimensions smaller than 100 nanometers putman currently serves as the ceo of nanotronics imaging an advanced machines and intelligence company that has redefined factory control through the invention of a platform that combines ai automation and sophisticated imaging to assist human ingenuity in detecting flaws in manufacturing he recently built new york state ’ s first hightech manufacturing hub located in building 20 of the brooklyn navy yard after receiving a ba in music and theater from baldwinwallace university in ohio putman worked as vice president of development for tech pro inc a business launched by his parents kay and john putman in 1982 he later received a phd in applied mathematics and physics and served as a professor and researcher techpro was acquired by roper industries in march 2008 that same year john and matthew putman founded nanotronics imaging which includes peter thiel as the 3rd director on the board putman has published over 30 papers and is an inventor on over 50 patent applications filed in the us and other countries for his work on manufacturing automation inspection instrumentation super resolution and artificial intelligence he is an expert in quantum computing and a founding member of the quantum industry coalition his groundbreaking inventions in manufacturing include the development of the world ’ s most advanced inspection instrument which combines super resolution ai and robotics he has lectured at the university of paris usc university of michigan and the technical university of sao paulo along with his scientific and engineering work matthew putman has produced several plays and films putman is an artistinresidence for imagine science films which seeks to build relationships between scientists and filmmakers he most recently produced the critically acclaimed film son of monarchs which premiered at sundance in february 2021 and was awarded the sloane prize also published a book of poems magnificent chaos partly written during his battle with esophagal cancer in 2005 authorhouse 2011 a jazz pianist and composer he appears on the cds perennial 2008 gowanus recordings 577 records 2009 telepathic alliances 577 records 2017 and has played with jazz masters ornette coleman daniel carter and vijay iyer he has performed in several venues and festivals including the forward festival his most recent jazz album was released on in april 2021 with 577 records featuring michael sarian he has also published a book of poems magnificent chaos partly written during his battle with esophagal cancer in 2005 authorhouse 2011 matthew putman serves on the board of directors of pioneer works and new york live arts he is an artistinresidence for imagine science films which seeks'</li><li>'a matter of size triennial review of the national nanotechnology initiative put out by the national academies press in december 2006 roughly twenty years after engines of creation was published no clear way forward toward molecular nanotechnology could yet be seen as per the conclusion on page 108 of that report although theoretical calculations can be made today the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles error rates speed of operation and thermodynamic efficiencies of such bottomup manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time thus the eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products while they can be calculated in theory cannot be predicted with confidence finally the optimum research paths that might lead to systems which greatly exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies and other capabilities of biological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time research funding that is based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide longterm vision is most appropriate to achieve this goal this call for research leading to demonstrations is welcomed by groups such as the nanofactory collaboration who are specifically seeking experimental successes in diamond mechanosynthesis the technology roadmap for productive nanosystems aims to offer additional constructive insights it is perhaps interesting to ask whether or not most structures consistent with physical law can in fact be manufactured advocates assert that to achieve most of the vision of molecular manufacturing it is not necessary to be able to build any structure that is compatible with natural law rather it is necessary to be able to build only a sufficient possibly modest subset of such structures — as is true in fact of any practical manufacturing process used in the world today and is true even in biology in any event as richard feynman once said it is scientific only to say whats more likely or less likely and not to be proving all the time whats possible or impossible there is a growing body of peerreviewed theoretical work on synthesizing diamond by mechanically removingadding hydrogen atoms and depositing carbon atoms a process known as mechanosynthesis this work is slowly permeating the broader nanoscience community and is being critiqued for instance peng et al 2006 in the continuing research effort by freitas merkle and their collaborators reports that the moststudied mechanosynthesis tooltip motif dcb6ge successfully places a c2 carbon dimer on a c110 diamond surface at both 300 k room temperature and 80 k liquid nitrogen temperature and that the silicon variant dcb6si also works at 80 k but not at 300 k over 100000 cpu hours were invested'</li><li>'to assist fiber formation in 1938 nathalie d rozenblum and igor v petryanovsokolov working in nikolai a fuchs group at the aerosol laboratory of the l ya karpov institute in the ussr generated electrospun fibers which they developed into filter materials known as petryanov filters by 1939 this work had led to the establishment of a factory in tver for the manufacture of electrospun smoke filter elements for gas masks the material dubbed bf battlefield filter was spun from cellulose acetate in a solvent mixture of dichloroethane and ethanol by the 1960s output of spun filtration material was claimed as 20 million m2 per annumbetween 1964 and 1969 sir geoffrey ingram taylor produced the theoretical underpinning of electrospinning taylor ’ s work contributed to electrospinning by mathematically modeling the shape of the cone formed by the fluid droplet under the effect of an electric field this characteristic droplet shape is now known as the taylor cone he further worked with j r melcher to develop the leaky dielectric model for conducting fluidssimon in a 1988 nih sbir grant report showed that solution electrospinning could be used to produced nano and submicronscale polystyrene and polycarbonate fibrous mats specifically intended for use as in vitro cell substrates this early application of electrospun fibrous lattices for cell culture and tissue engineering showed that various cell types would adhere to and proliferate upon the fibers in vitro small changes in the surface chemistry of the fibers were also observed depending upon the polarity of the electric field during spinning in the early 1990s several research groups notably that of reneker and rutledge who popularised the name electrospinning for the process demonstrated that many organic polymers could be electrospun into nanofibers between 1996 and 2003 the interest in electrospinning underwent an explosive growth with the number of publications and patent applications approximately doubling every yearsince 1995 there have been further theoretical developments of the driving mechanisms of the electrospinning process reznik et al described the shape of the taylor cone and the subsequent ejection of a fluid jet hohman et al investigated the relative growth rates of the numerous proposed instabilities in an electrically forced jet once in flight and endeavors to describe the most important instability to the electrospinning process the bending whipping instability the size of an electrospun fiber can be in the nano scale and the fibers may possess nano scale surface texture leading to different modes of'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 6     | <ul><li>'sign indicates right circular polarization in the case of circular polarization the electric field vector of constant magnitude rotates in the xy plane if basis vectors are defined such that r ⟩ d e f 1 2 1 − i displaystyle mathrm r rangle stackrel mathrm def 1 over sqrt 2beginpmatrix1iendpmatrix and l ⟩ d e f 1 2 1 i displaystyle mathrm l rangle stackrel mathrm def 1 over sqrt 2beginpmatrix1iendpmatrix then the polarization state can be written in the rl basis as ψ ⟩ ψ r r ⟩ ψ l l ⟩ displaystyle psi rangle psi mathrm r mathrm r rangle psi mathrm l mathrm l rangle where ψ r d e f 1 2 cos θ i sin θ exp i δ exp i α x ψ l d e f 1 2 cos θ − i sin θ exp i δ exp i α x displaystyle beginalignedpsi mathrm r stackrel mathrm def frac 1sqrt 2leftcos theta isin theta exp leftidelta rightrightexp leftialpha xrightpsi mathrm l stackrel mathrm def frac 1sqrt 2leftcos theta isin theta exp leftidelta rightrightexp leftialpha xrightendaligned and δ α y − α x displaystyle delta alpha yalpha x a number of different types of antenna elements can be used to produce circularly polarized or nearly so radiation following balanis one can use dipole elements two crossed dipoles provide the two orthogonal field components if the two dipoles are identical the field intensity of each along zenith would be of the same intensity also if the two dipoles were fed with a 90° degree timephase difference phase quadrature the polarization along zenith would be circular one way to obtain the 90° timephase difference between the two orthogonal field components radiated respectively by the two dipoles is by feeding one of the two dipoles with a transmission line which is 14 wavelength longer or shorter than that of the other p80 or helical elements to achieve circular polarization in axial or endfire mode the circumference c of the helix must be with cwavelength 1 near optimum and the spacing about s wavelength4 p571 or patch elements circular and elliptical polarizations can be obtained using various feed arrangements or slight modifications made to the elements circular polar'</li><li>'langle delta lrm bin2rangle lrm bin2approx leftm over m12right2langle delta l2rangle gm12aapprox m over m12grho a over sigma where ρ mn is the mass density of field stars let fθt be the probability that the rotation axis of the binary is oriented at angle θ at time t the evolution equation for f is ∂ f ∂ t 1 sin θ ∂ ∂ θ sin θ ⟨ δ ξ 2 ⟩ 4 ∂ f ∂ θ displaystyle partial f over partial t1 over sin theta partial over partial theta leftsin theta langle delta xi 2rangle over 4partial f over partial theta right if δξ2 a ρ and σ are constant in time this becomes ∂ f ∂ τ 1 2 ∂ ∂ μ 1 − μ 2 ∂ f ∂ μ displaystyle partial f over partial tau 1 over 2partial over partial mu left1mu 2partial f over partial mu right where μ cos θ and τ is the time in units of the relaxation time trel where t r e l ≈ m 12 m σ g ρ a displaystyle trm relapprox m12 over msigma over grho a the solution to this equation states that the expectation value of μ decays with time as μ [UNK] μ [UNK] 0 e − τ displaystyle overline mu overline mu 0etau hence trel is the time constant for the binarys orientation to be randomized by torques from field stars rotational brownian motion was first discussed in the context of binary supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies perturbations from passing stars can alter the orbital plane of such a binary which in turn alters the direction of the spin axis of the single black hole that forms when the two coalesce rotational brownian motion is often observed in nbody simulations of galaxies containing binary black holes the massive binary sinks to the center of the galaxy via dynamical friction where it interacts with passing stars the same gravitational perturbations that induce a random walk in the orientation of the binary also cause the binary to shrink via the gravitational slingshot it can be shown that the rms change in the binarys orientation from the time the binary forms until the two black holes collide is roughly δ θ ≈ 20 m m 12 displaystyle delta theta approx sqrt 20mm12 in a real galaxy the two black holes would eventually coalesce due to emission of gravitational waves the spin axis of the coalesced hole will be aligned with the angular momentum axis of'</li><li>'the major particle under consideration ie m [UNK] m displaystyle mgg m and with a maxwellian distribution for the velocity of matter particles ie where n displaystyle n is the total number of stars and σ displaystyle sigma is the dispersion in this case the dynamical friction formula is as follows where x v m 2 σ displaystyle xvmsqrt 2sigma is the ratio of the velocity of the object under consideration to the modal velocity of the maxwellian distribution e r f x displaystyle mathrm erf x is the error function ρ m n displaystyle rho mn is the density of the matter fieldin general a simplified equation for the force from dynamical friction has the form where the dimensionless numerical factor c displaystyle c depends on how v m displaystyle vm compares to the velocity dispersion of the surrounding matter but note that this simplified expression diverges when v m → 0 displaystyle vmto 0 caution should therefore be exercised when using it the greater the density of the surrounding medium the stronger the force from dynamical friction similarly the force is proportional to the square of the mass of the object one of these terms is from the gravitational force between the object and the wake the second term is because the more massive the object the more matter will be pulled into the wake the force is also proportional to the inverse square of the velocity this means the fractional rate of energy loss drops rapidly at high velocities dynamical friction is therefore unimportant for objects that move relativistically such as photons this can be rationalized by realizing that the faster the object moves through the media the less time there is for a wake to build up behind it dynamical friction is particularly important in the formation of planetary systems and interactions between galaxies during the formation of planetary systems dynamical friction between the protoplanet and the protoplanetary disk causes energy to be transferred from the protoplanet to the disk this results in the inward migration of the protoplanet when galaxies interact through collisions dynamical friction between stars causes matter to sink toward the center of the galaxy and for the orbits of stars to be randomized this process is called violent relaxation and can change two spiral galaxies into one larger elliptical galaxy the effect of dynamical friction explains why the brightest more massive galaxy tends to be found near the center of a galaxy cluster the effect of the two body collisions slows down the galaxy and the drag effect is greater the larger the galaxy mass when the galaxy loses kinetic energy it moves towards the center of the cluster however the observed'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          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| 9     | <ul><li>'the second step of this process has recently fallen into question for the past few decades the common view was that a trimeric multiheme ctype hao converts hydroxylamine into nitrite in the periplasm with production of four electrons 12 the stream of four electrons is channeled through cytochrome c554 to a membranebound cytochrome c552 two of the electrons are routed back to amo where they are used for the oxidation of ammonia quinol pool the remaining two electrons are used to generate a proton motive force and reduce nadp through reverse electron transportrecent results however show that hao does not produce nitrite as a direct product of catalysis this enzyme instead produces nitric oxide and three electrons nitric oxide can then be oxidized by other enzymes or oxygen to nitrite in this paradigm the electron balance for overall metabolism needs to be reconsidered nitrite produced in the first step of autotrophic nitrification is oxidized to nitrate by nitrite oxidoreductase nxr 2 it is a membraneassociated ironsulfur molybdo protein and is part of an electron transfer chain which channels electrons from nitrite to molecular oxygen the enzymatic mechanisms involved in nitriteoxidizing bacteria are less described than that of ammonium oxidation recent research eg woznica a et al 2013 proposes a new hypothetical model of nob electron transport chain and nxr mechanisms here in contrast to earlier models the nxr would act on the outside of the plasma membrane and directly contribute to a mechanism of proton gradient generation as postulated by spieck and coworkers nevertheless the molecular mechanism of nitrite oxidation is an open question the twostep conversion of ammonia to nitrate observed in ammoniaoxidizing bacteria ammoniaoxidizing archaea and nitriteoxidizing bacteria such as nitrobacter is puzzling to researchers complete nitrification the conversion of ammonia to nitrate in a single step known as comammox has an energy yield ∆g° ′ of −349 kj mol−1 nh3 while the energy yields for the ammoniaoxidation and nitriteoxidation steps of the observed twostep reaction are −275 kj mol−1 nh3 and −74 kj mol−1 no2− respectively these values indicate that it would be energetically favourable for an organism to carry out complete nitrification from ammonia to nitrate comammox rather'</li><li>'and other mineral absorption immune system effectiveness bowel acidity reduction of colorectal cancer risk inflammatory bowel disease crohns disease or ulcerative colitis hypertension and defecation frequency prebiotics may be effective in decreasing the number of infectious episodes needing antibiotics and the total number of infections in children aged 0 – 24 monthsno good evidence shows that prebiotics are effective in preventing or treating allergieswhile research demonstrates that prebiotics lead to increased production of shortchain fatty acids scfa more research is required to establish a direct causal connection prebiotics may be beneficial to inflammatory bowel disease or crohns disease through production of scfa as nourishment for colonic walls and mitigation of ulcerative colitis symptomsthe sudden addition of substantial quantities of prebiotics to the diet may result in an increase in fermentation leading to increased gas production bloating or bowel movement production of scfa and fermentation quality are reduced during longterm diets of low fiber intake until bacterial flora are gradually established to rehabilitate or restore intestinal bacteria nutrient absorption may be impaired and colonic transit time temporarily increased with a rapid addition of higher prebiotic intake genetically modified plants have been created in research labs with upregulated inulin production antibiotic – antimicrobial substance active against bacteria mannan oligosaccharide based nutritional supplements mos – polysaccharides formed from mannosepages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets prebiotic scores – measure of effects of prebioticspages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets probiotic – microorganisms said to provide health benefits when consumed psychobiotic – microorganisms giving mental health effects resistant starch – dietary fiber synbiotics – nutritional supplements frank w jackson prebiotics not probiotics 2013 jacksong gi medical isbn 9780991102709'</li><li>'the international committee on systematics of prokaryotes icsp formerly the international committee on systematic bacteriology icsb is the body that oversees the nomenclature of prokaryotes determines the rules by which prokaryotes are named and whose judicial commission issues opinions concerning taxonomic matters revisions to the bacteriological code etc the icsp consists of an executive board the members of a decisionmaking committee judicial commission and members elected from member societies of the international union of microbiological societies iums in addition the icsp has a number of subcommittees dealing with issues regarding the nomenclature and taxonomy of specific groups of prokaryotes the icsp has a number of subcommittees dealing with issues regarding the nomenclature and taxonomy of specific groups of prokaryotes these include the following aeromonadaceae vibrionaceae and related organisms genera agrobacterium and rhizobium bacillus and related organisms bifidobacterium lactobacillus and related organisms genus brucella burkholderia ralstonia and related organisms campylobacter and related bacteria clostridia and clostridiumlike organisms comamonadaceae and related organisms family enterobacteriaceae flavobacterium and cytophagalike bacteria gramnegative anaerobic rods family halobacteriaceae family halomonadaceae genus leptospira genus listeria methanogens suborder micrococcineae families micromonosporaceae streptosporangiaceae and thermomonosporaceae class mollicutes genus mycobacterium nocardia and related organisms family pasteurellaceae photosynthetic prokaryotes pseudomonas xanthomonas and related organisms suborder pseudonocardineae staphylococci and streptococci family streptomycetaceae the icsp is also integral to the production of the publication of the international code of nomenclature of bacteria the bacteriological code and the international journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology ijsem formerly the international journal of systematic bacteriology ijsb iums has now agreed to transfer copyright of future versions of the international code of nomenclature of bacteria to be renamed the international code of nomenclature of prokaryotes to the icsp'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          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| 16    | <ul><li>'describes the process through which hot viscous crustal material flows horizontally between the upper crust and lithospheric mantle and is eventually pushed to the surface this model aims to explain features common to metamorphic hinterlands of some collisional orogens most notably the himalaya – tibetan plateau system in mountainous areas with heavy rainfall thus high erosion rates deeply incising rivers will form as these rivers wear away the earths surface two things occur 1 pressure is reduced on the underlying rocks effectively making them weaker and 2 the underlying material moves closer to the surface this reduction of crustal strength coupled with the erosional exhumation allows for the diversion of the underlying channel flow toward earths surface the term erosion refers to the group of natural processes including weathering dissolution abrasion corrosion and transportation by which material is worn away from earths surface to be transported and deposited in other locations differential erosion – erosion that occurs at irregular or varying rates caused by the differences in the resistance and hardness of surface materials softer and weaker rocks are rapidly worn away whereas harder and more resistant rocks remain to form ridges hills or mountains differential erosion along with the tectonic setting are two of the most important controls on the evolution of continental landscapes on earththe feedback of erosion on tectonics is given by the transportation of surface or nearsurface mass rock soil sand regolith etc to a new location this redistribution of material can have profound effects on the state of gravitational stresses in the area dependent on the magnitude of mass transported because tectonic processes are highly dependent on the current state of gravitational stresses redistribution of surface material can lead to tectonic activity while erosion in all of its forms by definition wears away material from the earths surface the process of mass wasting as a product of deep fluvial incision has the highest tectonic implications mass wasting is the geomorphic process by which surface material move downslope typically as a mass largely under the force of gravity as rivers flow down steeply sloping mountains deep channel incision occurs as the rivers flow wears away the underlying rock large channel incision progressively decreases the amount of gravitational force needed for a slope failure event to occur eventually resulting in mass wasting removal of large amounts of surface mass in this fashion will induce an isostatic response resulting in uplift until equilibrium is reached recent studies have shown that erosional and tectonic processes have an effect on the structural evolution of some geologic features most notably orogenic wedges highly useful sand box models in which horizontal layers of sand are slowly pressed against a backstop have shown that the geometries structures and'</li><li>'artifacts range in age from a 9000yearold calendar dart shaft to a 19thcentury musket ballof particular interest is the description of three different techniques for the construction of throwing darts and the observation of stability in the hunting technology employed in the study area over seven millennia radiocarbon chronologies indicate that this period of stability was followed by an abrupt technological replacement of the throwing dart by the bow and arrow after 1200 bp the artifacts are curated by the yukon archaeology program government of yukon 120 in the kusawa lake area there are no longer any caribou but in her 1987 interviews elder mary ned born 1890s spoke about caribou being “ all over this place ” evidence of this was proven by the nearby discovery of the ice patch artifactsoral history tells us that a corral or caribou fence was located on the east side of the lake between the lake and the mountain'</li><li>'on the roanoke river rocky mount north carolina on the tar river raleigh north carolina on the neuse river fayetteville north carolina on the cape fear river camden south carolina on the wateree river columbia south carolina on the congaree river augusta georgia on the savannah river milledgeville georgia on the oconee river macon georgia on the ocmulgee river columbus georgia on the chattahoochee river tallassee alabama on the tallapoosa river wetumpka alabama on the coosa river tuscaloosa alabama on the black warrior river the laurentian upland forms a long scarp line where it meets the great lakes – st lawrence lowlands along this line numerous rivers have carved falls and canyons listed east to west saint anne falls and canyon sainteanne river sainteannedunord chaudron a gaudreault riviere aux chiens unnamed falls riviere du sault a la puce canyon of the river cazeau montmorency falls river montmorency kabir kouba fall river saintcharles chute ford river sainteanne sainteursule falls river maskinonge chute a magnan riviere du loup chutes emery and chute du moulin coutu riviere bayonne les sept chutes river de lassomption dorwin falls river ouareau wilson falls riviere du nord long sault now flooded by the carillon hydroelectric generating station ottawa river the chaudiere falls run over the unrelated eardley escarpment of the ottawabonnechere grabenthe river jacquescartier and river saintmaurice lack such noticeable feature because they cross the scarp through ushaped valleys the falls of the lower saintmaurice as well as those of the river beauport in quebec city are due to the fluvial terraces of the saint lawrence river rather than the laurentian scarp geologic map of georgia us state spring line settlement'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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| 42    | <ul><li>'occupied by the ma myristoyl group hiv gag is then tightly bound to the membrane surface via three interactions 1 that between the ma hbr and the pi45p2 inositol phosphate 2 that between the extruded myristoyl tail of ma and the hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane and 3 that between the pi45p2 arachidonic acid moiety and the hydrophobic channel along the ma surface the p24 capsid protein ca is a 24 kda protein fused to the cterminus of ma in the unprocessed hiv gag polyprotein after viral maturation ca forms the viral capsid ca has two generally recognized domains the cterminal domain ctd and the nterminal domain ntd the ca ctd and ntd have distinct roles during hiv budding and capsid structurewhen a western blot test is used to detect hiv infection p24 is one of the three major proteins tested for along with gp120gp160 and gp41 while ma in vpr and cppt had been previously implicated as factors in hivs ability to target nondividing cells ca has been shown to be the dominant determinant of retrovirus infectivity in nondividing cells which is key in helping to avoid insertional mutagenesis in lentiviral gene therapy spacer peptide 1 sp1 previously p2 is a 14amino acid polypeptide intervening between ca and nc cleavage of the casp1 junction is the final step in viral maturation which allows ca to condense into the viral capsid sp1 is unstructured in solution but in the presence of less polar solvents or at high polypeptide concentrations it adopts an αhelical structure in scientific research western blots for ca 24 kda can indicate a maturation defect by the high relative presence of a 25 kda band uncleaved casp1 sp1 plays a critical role in hiv particle assembly although the exact nature of its role and the physiological relevance of sp1 structural dynamics are unknown the hiv nucleocapsid protein nc is a 7 kda zinc finger protein in the gag polyprotein and which after viral maturation forms the viral nucleocapsid nc recruits fulllength viral genomic rna to nascent virions spacer peptide 2 sp2 previously p1 is a 16amino acid polypeptide of unknown function which separates gag proteins nc and p6 hiv p6 is a 6 kda'</li><li>'##s that come from nuclear or endosomal membranes can leave the cell via exocytosis in which the host cell is not destroyed viral progeny are synthesized within the cell and the host cells transport system is used to enclose them in vesicles the vesicles of virus progeny are carried to the cell membrane and then released into the extracellular space this is used primarily by nonenveloped viruses although enveloped viruses display this too an example is the use of recycling viral particle receptors in the enveloped varicellazoster virus a human with a viral disease can be contagious if they are shedding virus particles even if they are unaware of doing so some viruses such as hsv2 which produces genital herpes can cause asymptomatic shedding and therefore spread undetected from person to person as no fever or other hints reveal the contagious nature of the host vaccine shedding a form of viral shedding following administration of an attenuated or live virus vaccine'</li><li>'##ing phages or if there is a high multiplicity it is likely that the phage will use the lysogenic cycle this may be useful in helping reduce the overall phagetohost ratio and therefore preventing the phages from killing their hosts also thereby increasing the phages potential for survival making this a form of natural selection a phage may decide to exit the chromosome and enter the lytic cycle if it is exposed to dnadamaging agents such as uv radiation and chemicals other factors with the potential to induce temperate phage release include temperature ph osmotic pressure and low nutrient concentration however phages may also reenter the lytic cycle spontaneously in 8090 of singlecell infections phages enter the lysogenic cycle in the other 1020 phages enter the lytic cycle it is sometimes possible to detect which cycle a phage enters by looking at the plaque morphology in bacterial plate culture since phages that enter the lytic cycle kill the host bacterial cells plaques will appear clear photo a the plaques may also appear to have a halolike ring around the edge indicating that these cells were not fully lysed in contrast infecting phages that enter the lysogenic cycle will produce cloudy or turbid plaques as the cells containing the lysogenic phage are not lysed and can continue growing photo b however exceptions to this rule are also known to exist where nontemperate phages still exhibit cloudy plaques and temperate phage mutants can generate clear plaques as a result of loss of lysogen formation abilitysee a comparison of clear and turbid plaques formed by lytic and lysogenic phages respectively in the phage discovery guide detection methods of phages released from the lysogenic cycle include electron microscopy dna extraction or propagation on sensitive strainsvia the lysogenic cycle the bacteriophages genome is not expressed and is instead integrated into the bacterias genome to form the prophage in its inactive form a prophage gets passed on each time the host cell divides if prophages become active they can exit the bacterial chromosome and enter the lytic cycle where they undergo dna copying protein synthesis phage assembly and lysis since the bacteriophages genetic information is incorporated into the bacterias genetic information as a prophage the bacteriophage replicates passively as the bacterium divides to form daughter bacteria cells in this scenario the daughter bacteria cells contain prophage and are known as lysogens lysogens can remain in the lysogenic cycle for many generations but'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 32    | <ul><li>'so that the secondary wavefront from p is tangential to w ′ at b then pb is a path of stationary traversal time from w to b adding the fixed time from a to w we find that apb is the path of stationary traversal time from a to b possibly with a restricted domain of comparison as noted above in accordance with fermats principle the argument works just as well in the converse direction provided that w ′ has a welldefined tangent plane at b thus huygens construction and fermats principle are geometrically equivalentthrough this equivalence fermats principle sustains huygens construction and thence all the conclusions that huygens was able to draw from that construction in short the laws of geometrical optics may be derived from fermats principle with the exception of the fermathuygens principle itself these laws are special cases in the sense that they depend on further assumptions about the media two of them are mentioned under the next heading in an isotropic medium because the propagation speed is independent of direction the secondary wavefronts that expand from points on a primary wavefront in a given infinitesimal time are spherical so that their radii are normal to their common tangent surface at the points of tangency but their radii mark the ray directions and their common tangent surface is a general wavefront thus the rays are normal orthogonal to the wavefrontsbecause much of the teaching of optics concentrates on isotropic media treating anisotropic media as an optional topic the assumption that the rays are normal to the wavefronts can become so pervasive that even fermats principle is explained under that assumption although in fact fermats principle is more general in a homogeneous medium also called a uniform medium all the secondary wavefronts that expand from a given primary wavefront w in a given time δt are congruent and similarly oriented so that their envelope w ′ may be considered as the envelope of a single secondary wavefront which preserves its orientation while its center source moves over w if p is its center while p ′ is its point of tangency with w ′ then p ′ moves parallel to p so that the plane tangential to w ′ at p ′ is parallel to the plane tangential to w at p let another congruent and similarly orientated secondary wavefront be centered on p ′ moving with p and let it meet its envelope w ″ at point p ″ then by the same reasoning the plane tangential to w ″ at p ″ is parallel to the other two'</li><li>'the neural circuitry in particular optogenetic stimulation that preferentially targets inhibitory cells can transform the excitability of the neural tissue affecting nontransfected neurons as well the original channelrhodopsin2 was slower closing than typical cation channels of cortical neurons leading to prolonged depolarization and calcium influx many channelrhodopsin variants with more favorable kinetics have since been engineered5556a difference between natural spike patterns and optogenetic activation is that pulsed light stimulation produces synchronous activation of expressing neurons which removes the possibility of sequential activity in the stimulated population therefore it is difficult to understand how the cells in the population affected communicate with one another or how their phasic properties of activation relate to circuit function optogenetic activation has been combined with functional magnetic resonance imaging ofmri to elucidate the connectome a thorough map of the brains neural connections precisely timed optogenetic activation is used to calibrate the delayed hemodynamic signal bold fmri is based on the opsin proteins currently in use have absorption peaks across the visual spectrum but remain considerably sensitive to blue light this spectral overlap makes it very difficult to combine opsin activation with genetically encoded indicators gevis gecis glusnfr synaptophluorin most of which need blue light excitation opsins with infrared activation would at a standard irradiance value increase light penetration and augment resolution through reduction of light scattering due to scattering a narrow light beam to stimulate neurons in a patch of neural tissue can evoke a response profile that is much broader than the stimulation beam in this case neurons may be activated or inhibited unintentionally computational simulation tools are used to estimate the volume of stimulated tissue for different wavelengths of light the field of optogenetics has furthered the fundamental scientific understanding of how specific cell types contribute to the function of biological tissues such as neural circuits in vivo on the clinical side optogeneticsdriven research has led to insights into parkinsons disease and other neurological and psychiatric disorders such as autism schizophrenia drug abuse anxiety and depression an experimental treatment for blindness involves a channel rhodopsin expressed in ganglion cells stimulated with light patterns from engineered goggles amygdala optogenetic approaches have been used to map neural circuits in the amygdala that contribute to fear conditioning one such example of a neural circuit is the connection made from the basolateral amygdala to the dorsalmedial prefrontal cortex where neuronal oscillations of 4'</li><li>'the position of the point source eg the image contrast and resolution are typically optimal at the center of the image and deteriorate toward the edges of the fieldofview when significant variation occurs the optical transfer function may be calculated for a set of representative positions or colors sometimes it is more practical to define the transfer functions based on a binary blackwhite stripe pattern the transfer function for an equalwidth blackwhite periodic pattern is referred to as the contrast transfer function ctf a perfect lens system will provide a high contrast projection without shifting the periodic pattern hence the optical transfer function is identical to the modulation transfer function typically the contrast will reduce gradually towards zero at a point defined by the resolution of the optics for example a perfect nonaberrated f4 optical imaging system used at the visible wavelength of 500 nm would have the optical transfer function depicted in the right hand figure it can be read from the plot that the contrast gradually reduces and reaches zero at the spatial frequency of 500 cycles per millimeter in other words the optical resolution of the image projection is 1500th of a millimeter or 2 micrometer correspondingly for this particular imaging device the spokes become more and more blurred towards the center until they merge into a gray unresolved disc note that sometimes the optical transfer function is given in units of the object or sample space observation angle film width or normalized to the theoretical maximum conversion between the two is typically a matter of a multiplication or division eg a microscope typically magnifies everything 10 to 100fold and a reflex camera will generally demagnify objects at a distance of 5 meter by a factor of 100 to 200 the resolution of a digital imaging device is not only limited by the optics but also by the number of pixels more in particular by their separation distance as explained by the nyquist – shannon sampling theorem to match the optical resolution of the given example the pixels of each color channel should be separated by 1 micrometer half the period of 500 cycles per millimeter a higher number of pixels on the same sensor size will not allow the resolution of finer detail on the other hand when the pixel spacing is larger than 1 micrometer the resolution will be limited by the separation between pixels moreover aliasing may lead to a further reduction of the image fidelity an imperfect aberrated imaging system could possess the optical transfer function depicted in the following figure as the ideal lens system the contrast reaches zero at the spatial frequency of 500 cycles per millimeter however at lower spatial frequencies the contrast is considerably lower than that of the perfect system in the previous example in fact'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 1     | <ul><li>'the wing span y θ displaystyle ytheta is the position on the wing span and c θ displaystyle ctheta is the chord a decomposed fourier series solution can be used to individually study the effects of planform twist control deflection and rolling rate a useful approximation is that c l c l α ar ar 2 α displaystyle clclalpha leftfrac textartextar2rightalpha where c l displaystyle ctextl is the 3d lift coefficient for elliptical circulation distribution c l α displaystyle clalpha is the 2d lift coefficient slope see thin airfoil theory ar displaystyle textar is the aspect ratio and α displaystyle alpha is the angle of attack in radiansthe theoretical value for c l α displaystyle clalpha is 2 π displaystyle pi note that this equation becomes the thin airfoil equation if ar goes to infinityas seen above the liftingline theory also states an equation for induced drag c d i c l 2 π ar e displaystyle cdifrac cl2pi textare where c d i displaystyle cdi is the induced drag component of the drag coefficient c l displaystyle cl is the 3d lift coefficient ar displaystyle textar is the aspect ratio e displaystyle e is the oswald efficiency number or span efficiency factor this is equal to 1 for elliptical circulation distribution and usually tabulated for other distributions according to liftingline theory any wing planform can be twisted to produce an elliptic lift distribution the lifting line theory does not take into account the following compressible flow viscous flow swept wings low aspect ratio wings unsteady flows horseshoe vortex kutta condition thin airfoil theory vortex lattice method'</li><li>'the yaw drive is an important component of the horizontal axis wind turbines yaw system to ensure the wind turbine is producing the maximal amount of electric energy at all times the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes this only applies for wind turbines with a horizontal axis rotor the wind turbine is said to have a yaw error if the rotor is not aligned to the wind a yaw error implies that a lower share of the energy in the wind will be running through the rotor area the generated energy will be approximately proportional to the cosine of the yaw error when the windmills of the 18th century included the feature of rotor orientation via the rotation of the nacelle an actuation mechanism able to provide that turning moment was necessary initially the windmills used ropes or chains extending from the nacelle to the ground in order to allow the rotation of the nacelle by means of human or animal power another historical innovation was the fantail this device was actually an auxiliary rotor equipped with plurality of blades and located downwind of the main rotor behind the nacelle in a 90° approximately orientation to the main rotor sweep plane in the event of change in wind direction the fantail would rotate thus transmitting its mechanical power through a gearbox and via a gearrimtopinion mesh to the tower of the windmill the effect of the aforementioned transmission was the rotation of the nacelle towards the direction of the wind where the fantail would not face the wind thus stop turning ie the nacelle would stop to its new positionthe modern yaw drives even though electronically controlled and equipped with large electric motors and planetary gearboxes have great similarities to the old windmill concept the main categories of yaw drives are the electric yaw drives commonly used in almost all modern turbines the hydraulic yaw drive hardly ever used anymore on modern wind turbines the gearbox of the yaw drive is a very crucial component since it is required to handle very large moments while requiring the minimal amount of maintenance and perform reliably for the whole lifespan of the wind turbine approx 20 years most of the yaw drive gearboxes have input to output ratios in the range of 20001 in order to produce the enormous turning moments required for the rotation of the wind turbine nacelle the gearrim and the pinions of the yaw drives are the components that finally transmit the turning moment from the yaw drives to the tower in order to turn the nacelle of the wind turbine around the tower axis z axis the main characteristics of the gearrim are its'</li><li>'##22leftfrac partial vpartial yright22leftfrac partial wpartial zright2leftfrac partial vpartial xfrac partial upartial yright2leftfrac partial wpartial yfrac partial vpartial zright2leftfrac partial upartial zfrac partial wpartial xright2rightlambda nabla cdot mathbf u 2 with a good equation of state and good functions for the dependence of parameters such as viscosity on the variables this system of equations seems to properly model the dynamics of all known gases and most liquids incompressible newtonian fluid for the special but very common case of incompressible flow the momentum equations simplify significantly using the following assumptions viscosity μ will now be a constant the second viscosity effect λ 0 the simplified mass continuity equation ∇ ⋅ u 0this gives incompressible navierstokes equations describing incompressible newtonian fluid ρ ∂ u ∂ t u ⋅ ∇ u − ∇ p ∇ ⋅ μ ∇ u ∇ u t ρ g displaystyle rho leftfrac partial mathbf u partial tmathbf u cdot nabla mathbf u rightnabla pnabla cdot leftmu leftnabla mathbf u leftnabla mathbf u rightmathsf trightrightrho mathbf g then looking at the viscous terms of the x momentum equation for example we have ∂ ∂ x 2 μ ∂ u ∂ x ∂ ∂ y μ ∂ u ∂ y ∂ v ∂ x ∂ ∂ z μ ∂ u ∂ z ∂ w ∂ x 2 μ ∂ 2 u ∂ x 2 μ ∂ 2 u ∂ y 2 μ ∂ 2 v ∂ y ∂ x μ ∂ 2 u ∂ z 2 μ ∂ 2 w ∂ z ∂ x μ ∂ 2 u ∂ x 2 μ ∂ 2 u ∂ y 2 μ ∂ 2 u ∂ z 2 μ ∂ 2 u ∂ x 2 μ ∂ 2 v ∂ y ∂ x μ ∂ 2 w ∂ z ∂ x μ ∇ 2 u μ ∂ ∂ x ∂ u ∂ x ∂ v ∂ y ∂ w ∂ z 0 μ ∇ 2 u displaystyle beginalignedfrac partial partial xleft2mu frac partial upartial xrightfrac partial partial yleftmu leftfrac partial upartial yfrac partial vpartial xrightrightfrac partial partial zleftmu leftfrac partial upartial zfrac partial wpartial xrightright8'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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| 38    | <ul><li>'legislation for protection of human rights was undertaken within infrastructure of united nations mainly for individual rights and collective rights to oppressed groups for selfdetermination early 1970s onwards there was a renewed interest in rights of minorities including language rights of minorities eg un declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic religious and linguistic minorities language rights human rights linguistic human rights lhr individual linguistic rights collective linguistic rights territoriality vs personality principles negative vs positive rights assimilationoriented vs maintenanceoriented overt vs covert criticisms of the framework of linguistic human rights practical application language rights at international and regional levels language rights in different countries disputes over linguistic rights see also sources may s 2012 language and minority rights ethnicity nationalism and the politics of language new york routledge skutnabbkangas t phillipson r linguistic human rights overcoming linguistic discrimination berlin mouton de gruyter 1994 faingold e d 2004 language rights and language justice in the constitutions of the world language problems language planning 281 11 – 24 alexander n 2002 linguistic rights language planning and democracy in post apartheid south africa in baker s ed language policy lessons from global models monterey ca monterey institute of international studies hult fm 2004 planning for multilingualism and minority language rights in sweden language policy 32 181 – 201 bamgbose a 2000 language and exclusion hamburg litverlag myersscotton c 1990 elite closure as boundary maintenance the case of africa in b weinstein ed language policy and political development norwood nj ablex publishing corporation tollefson j 1991 planning language planning inequality language policy in the community longman london and new york miller d branson j 2002 nationalism and the linguistic rights of deaf communities linguistic imperialism and the recognition and development of sign languages journal of sociolinguistics 21 3 – 34 asbjorn eide 1999 the oslo recommendations regarding the linguistic rights of national minorities an overview international journal on minority and group rights 319 – 328 issn 13854879 woehrling j 1999 minority cultural and linguistic rights and equality rights in the canadian charter of rights and freedoms mcgill law journal paulston cb 2009 epilogue some concluding thoughts on linguistic human rights international journal of the sociology of language 1271 187 – 196 druviete 1999 kontra m phillipson r skutnabbkangas t varday t 1999 language a right and a resource approaching linguistic human rights hungary akademiai nyomda'</li><li>'##c snjezana 10 january 2018 reagiranje na tekst borisa budena povodom deklaracije o zajednickom jeziku reaction to the boris budens text regarding the declaration on the common language in serbocroatian zagreb slobodni filozofski crosbi 935894 archived from the original on 16 april 2018 retrieved 18 june 2019 kordic snjezana 30 march 2018 cistoca naroda i jezika ne postoji intervju vodila gordana sandichadzihasanovic there is no purity of nation and language interviewed by gordana sandichadzihasanovic radio slobodna evropa in serbocroatian prague radio free europeradio liberty crosbi 935824 archived from the original on 30 march 2018 retrieved 18 june 2019 kordic snjezana 26 february 2018 deklaracija rusi i posljednji tabu intervju vodila maja abadzija the declaration breaks down the last taboo interviewed by maja abadzija in serbocroatian sarajevo oslobođenje pp 18 – 19 issn 03513904 crosbi 935790 archived from the original on 7 august 2018 retrieved 18 june 2019 alt url kordic snjezana 2019 reakcije na deklaraciju o zajednickom jeziku reactions to the declaration on the common language pdf njegosevi dani 7 zbornik radova s međunarodnog naucnog skupa kotor 308392017 in serbocroatian niksic univerzitet crne gore filoloski fakultet pp 145 – 152 isbn 9788677980627 s2cid 231517900 ssrn 3452730 crosbi 1019779 archived pdf from the original on 27 september 2019 retrieved 28 september 2019 krajisnik đorđe 18 april 2017 zasto cice bardovi nacionallingvistike why do the bards of nationallinguistics squall in serbocroatian belgrade xxz regionalni portal archived from the original on 21 april 2017 retrieved 18 june 2019 lucic predrag 3 april 2017 deklaracija o sao rijeci declaration on sao rijeka in serbocroatian'</li><li>'in pecs hungary it was there that they managed to consolidate an agenda on fundamental principles for a udlr the declaration was also discussed in december 1993 during a session of the translations and linguistic rights commission of the international penat the beginning of 1994 a team was rooted to facilitate the process of writing the official document about 40 experts from different countries and fields were involved in the first 12 drafts of the declaration progressively there were continuous efforts in revising and improving the declaration as people contributed ideas to be included in it it was on 6 june 1996 during the world conference on linguistic rights in barcelona spain that the declaration was acknowledged the conference which was an initiative of the translations and linguistic rights commission of the international pen club and the ciemen escarre international center for ethnic minorities and the nations comprised 61 ngos 41 pen centers and 40 experts the document was signed and presented to a representative of the unesco director general however this does not mean that the declaration has gained approval in the same year the declaration was published in catalan english french and spanish it was later translated into other languages some of which include galician basque bulgarian hungarian russian portuguese italian nynorsk sardinian even so there have been continuous efforts to bring the declaration through as unesco did not officially endorse the udlr at its general conference in 1996 and also in subsequent years although they morally supported it as a result a followup committee of the universal declaration of linguistic rights fcudlr was created by the world conference on linguistic rights the fcudlr is also represented by the ciemen which is a nonprofit and nongovernment organisation the main objectives of having a followup committee was to 1 garner support especially from international bodies so as to lend weight to the declaration and see it through to unesco 2 to maintain contact with unesco and take into account the many viewpoints of its delegates and 3 to spread awareness of the udlr and establish a web of supportconsequently the committee started a scientific council consisting of professionals in linguistic law the duty of the council is to update and improve the declaration from time to time by gathering suggestions from those who are keen on the issue of linguistic rights the following summarises the progress of the udlr the preamble of the declaration provides six reasons underlying the motivations to promote the stated principles to ensure clarity in applicability across diverse linguistic environments the declaration has included a preliminary title that addresses the definitions of concepts used in its articles articles 1 – 6 title one articles 7 – 14 lists general principles asserting equal linguistic rights for language communities and for the individual besides the main principles the second title'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              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| 13    | <ul><li>'or color codes such as those found in html irc and many internet message boards to add a bit more tone variation in this way it is possible to create ascii art where the characters only differ in color micrography types and styles alt code ascii stereogram boxdrawing characters emoticon file iddiz nfo release info file preascii history calligram concrete poetry typewriter typewriter mystery game teleprinter radioteletype related art ansi art ascii porn atascii fax art petscii shift jis art text semigraphics related context bulletin board system bbs computer art scene categoryartscene groups software aalib cowsay unicode homoglyph duplicate characters in unicode'</li><li>'of robert adrian ’ s the world in 24 hours in 1982 an important telematic artwork of ascott is la plissure du texte from 1983 which allowed ascott and other artists to participate in collectively creating texts to an emerging story by using computer networking this participation has been termed as distributed authorship but the most significant matter of this project is the interactivity of the artwork and the way it breaks the barriers of time and space in the late 1980s the interest in this kind of project using computer networking expanded especially with the release of the world wide web in the early 1990s thanks to the minitel france had a public telematic infrastructure more than a decade before the emergence of the world wide web in 1994 this enabled a different style of telematic art than the pointtopoint technologies to which other locations were limited in the 1970s and 1980s as reported by don foresta karen orourke and gilbertto prado several french artists made some collective art experiments using the minitel among them jeanclaude anglade jacqueselie chabert frederic develay jeanmarc philippe fred forest marc denjean and olivier auber these mostlyforgotten experiments with notable exceptions like the stillactive poietic generator foreshadowed later web applications especially the social networks such as facebook and twitter even as they offered theoretical critiques of them telematic art is now being used more frequently by televised performers shows such as american idol that are based highly form viewer polls incorporate telematic art this type of consumer applications is now grouped under the term transmedia planetary collegium poietic generator ascott roy2003telematic embrace visionary theories of art technology and consciousness ed edward a shanken berkeley cauniversity of california press isbn 9780520218031 ascott r 2002 technoetic arts editor and korean translation yi wonkon media art series no 6 institute of media art yonsei university yonsei yonsei university press ascott r 1998 art telematics toward the construction of new aesthetics japanese trans e fujihara a takada y yamashita eds tokyo ntt publishing coltd orourke k ed 1992 artreseaux with articles in english by roy ascott carlos fadon vicente mathias fuchs eduardo kac paulo laurentiz artur matuck frank popper and stephen wilson paris editions du cerap shanken edward a 2000 teleagency telematics telerobotics and the art of meaning art journal issue 2 2000'</li><li>'physical computing involves interactive systems that can sense and respond to the world around them while this definition is broad enough to encompass systems such as smart automotive traffic control systems or factory automation processes it is not commonly used to describe them in a broader sense physical computing is a creative framework for understanding human beings relationship to the digital world in practical use the term most often describes handmade art design or diy hobby projects that use sensors and microcontrollers to translate analog input to a software system andor control electromechanical devices such as motors servos lighting or other hardware physical computing intersects the range of activities often referred to in academia and industry as electrical engineering mechatronics robotics computer science and especially embedded development physical computing is used in a wide variety of domains and applications the advantage of physicality in education and playfulness has been reflected in diverse informal learning environments the exploratorium a pioneer in inquiry based learning developed some of the earliest interactive exhibitry involving computers and continues to include more and more examples of physical computing and tangible interfaces as associated technologies progress in the art world projects that implement physical computing include the work of scott snibbe daniel rozin rafael lozanohemmer jonah bruckercohen and camille utterback physical computing practices also exist in the product and interaction design sphere where handbuilt embedded systems are sometimes used to rapidly prototype new digital product concepts in a costefficient way firms such as ideo and teague are known to approach product design in this way commercial implementations range from consumer devices such as the sony eyetoy or games such as dance dance revolution to more esoteric and pragmatic uses including machine vision utilized in the automation of quality inspection along a factory assembly line exergaming such as nintendos wii fit can be considered a form of physical computing other implementations of physical computing include voice recognition which senses and interprets sound waves via microphones or other soundwave sensing devices and computer vision which applies algorithms to a rich stream of video data typically sensed by some form of camera haptic interfaces are also an example of physical computing though in this case the computer is generating the physical stimulus as opposed to sensing it both motion capture and gesture recognition are fields that rely on computer vision to work their magic physical computing can also describe the fabrication and use of custom sensors or collectors for scientific experiments though the term is rarely used to describe them as such an example of physical computing modeling is the illustris project which attempts to precisely simulate the evolution of the universe from the big bang to the present day 138 billion years later prototyping'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          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| 41    | <ul><li>'urban history is a field of history that examines the historical nature of cities and towns and the process of urbanization the approach is often multidisciplinary crossing boundaries into fields like social history architectural history urban sociology urban geography business history and archaeology urbanization and industrialization were popular themes for 20thcentury historians often tied to an implicit model of modernization or the transformation of rural traditional societiesthe history of urbanization focuses on the processes of by which existing populations concentrate in urban localities over time and on the social political cultural and economic contexts of cities most urban scholars focus on the metropolis a large or especially important city there is much less attention to small cities towns or until recently suburbs however social historians find small cities much easier to handle because they can use census data to cover or sample the entire population in the united states from the 1920s to the 1990s many of the most influential monographs began as one of the 140 phd dissertations at harvard university directed by arthur schlesinger sr 18881965 or oscar handlin 19152011 the field grew rapidly after 1970 leading one prominent scholar stephan thernstrom to note that urban history apparently deals with cities or with citydwellers or with events that transpired in cities with attitudes toward cities – which makes one wonder what is not urban history only a handful of studies attempt a global history of cities notably lewis mumford the city in history 1961 representative comparative studies include leonardo benevolo the european city 1993 christopher r friedrichs the early modern city 14501750 1995 and james l mcclain john m merriman and ugawa kaoru eds edo and paris 1994 edo was the old name for tokyoarchitectural history is its own field but occasionally overlaps with urban historythe political role of cities in helping state formation — and in staying independent — is the theme of charles tilly and w p blockmans eds cities and the rise of states in europe ad 1000 to 1800 1994 comparative elite studies — who was in power — are typified by luisa passerini dawn lyon enrica capussotti and ioanna laliotou eds who ran the cities city elites and urban power structures in europe and north america 17501940 2008 labor activists and socialists often had national or international networks that circulated ideas and tactics in the 1960s the historiography of victorian towns and cities began to flourish in britain much attention focused first on the victorian city with topics ranging from demography public health the workingclass and local culture in recent decades topics regarding class capitalism and social structure gave way to studies of the cultural history of urban life as'</li><li>'##xe et xxe siecles atlas of geneva territory cadastral permanencies and modifications during 19th and 20th centuries 7 volumes geneve georg ed 19831998 foreword by acorboz articles published on ferrania architettura urbanistica comunita casabella zodiac architese werk centro sociale ulisse paese sera il messaggero il manifesto la repubblica il corriere della sera rai italian state radiotelevision rts radiotelevision of frenchswitzerland aldo della rocca foundation award 1954 inarch award for historical criticism 1964 cervia award 1970 italian fund for the environment fai award 2008 elisabetta reale archivi italo insolera e ignazio guidi the archives italo insolera and ignazio guidi sheet on aaa italia bollettino n92010 p 3133 may 2010 alessandra valentinelli et al italo insolera fotografo italo insolera photographer roma palombi editore 2017 isbn 9788860607690 the exhibition held at museo di roma in trastevere 11 may3 september 2017 at palazzo gravina faculty of architecture naples 519 november 2018 and at polo del 900 turin 17 september18 october 2020 inu italian institute for urban planning in italian fai – italian fund for the environment in italian and english youtube italo insolera speaks about rome ’ s late urban development 1962 in italian raiscuola italo insolera speaks about rome ’ s fascist architecture 1991 in italian archived 20200807 at the wayback machine international society of city regional planners multilingual italo insolera ’ s and paolo berdini ’ s modern rome on rai art portal in italian'</li><li>'##burg and mikhail okhitovich advocated for the use of electricity and new transportation technologies especially the car to disperse the population from the cities to the countryside with the ultimate aim of a townless fully decentralized and evenly populated country however in 1931 the communist party ruled such views as forbidden throughout both the united states and europe the rational planning movement declined in the latter half of the 20th century the reason for the movements decline was also its strength by focusing so much on a design by technical elites rational planning lost touch with the public it hoped to serve key events in this decline in the united states include the demolition of the pruittigoe housing project in st louis and the national backlash against urban renewal projects particularly urban expressway projects an influential critic of such planning was jane jacobs who wrote the death and life of great american cities in 1961 claimed to be one of the most influential books in the short history of city planning she attacked the garden city movement because its prescription for saving the city was to do the city in and because it conceived of planning also as essentially paternalistic if not authoritarian the corbusians on the other hand were claimed to be egoistic in contrast she defended the dense traditional innercity neighborhoods like brooklyn heights or north beach san francisco and argued that an urban neighbourhood required about 200300 people per acre as well as a high net ground coverage at the expense of open space she also advocated for a diversity of land uses and building types with the aim of having a constant churn of people throughout the neighbourhood across the times of the day this essentially meant defending urban environments as they were before modern planning had aimed to start changing them as she believed that such environments were essentially selforganizing her approach was effectively one of laissezfaire and has been criticized for not being able to guarantee the development of good neighbourhoods the most radical opposition was declared in 1969 in a manifesto on the new society with the words that the whole concept of planning the townandcountry kind at least has gone cockeyed … somehow everything must be watched nothing must be allowed simply to “ happen ” no house can be allowed to be commonplace in the way that things just are commonplace each project must be weighed and planned and approved and only then built and only after that discovered to be commonplace after allanother form of opposition came from the advocacy planning movement opposes to traditional topdown and technical planning cybernetics and modernism inspired the related theories of rational process and systems approaches to urban planning in the 1960s they were imported into planning from other disciplines the systems approach was a reaction to the issues associated with'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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| 24    | <ul><li>'with undeniable importance as a design tool in contemporary design it is considered a palpable lived phenomenon that contributes to our perception and experience of the world in subtle but often intentional ways genius loci spirit of place sense of place rojien japanese gardens borrowed scenery japanese rock garden'</li><li>'centers neighborhood associations city programs faith groups and schools columbia an ecovillage in portland oregon consisting of 37 apartment condominiums influenced its neighbors to implement permaculture principles including in frontyard gardens suburban permaculture sites such as one in eugene oregon include rainwater catchment edible landscaping removing paved driveways turning a garage into living space and changing a south side patio into passive solarvacant lot farms are communitymanaged farm sites but are often seen by authorities as temporary rather than permanent for example los angeles south central farm 1994 – 2006 one of the largest urban gardens in the united states was bulldozed with approval from property owner ralph horowitz despite community protestthe possibilities and challenges for suburban or urban permaculture vary with the built environment around the world for example land is used more ecologically in jaisalmer india than in american planned cities such as los angeles the application of universal rules regarding setbacks from roads and property lines systematically creates unused and purposeless space as an integral part of the built landscape well beyond the classic image of the vacant lot because these spaces are created in accordance with a general pattern rather than responding to any local need or desire many if not most are underutilized unproductive and generally maintained as ecologically disastrous lawns by unenthusiastic owners in this broadest understanding of wasted land the concept is opened to reveal how our system of urban design gives rise to a ubiquitous pattern of land that while not usually conceived as vacant is in fact largely without ecological or social value permaculture derives its origin from agriculture although the same principles especially its foundational ethics can also be applied to mariculture particularly seaweed farming in marine permaculture artificial upwelling of cold deep ocean water is induced when an attachment substrate is provided in association with such an upwelling and kelp sporophytes are present a kelp forest ecosystem can be established since kelp needs the cool temperatures and abundant dissolved macronutrients present in such an environment microalgae proliferate as well marine forest habitat is beneficial for many fish species and the kelp is a renewable resource for food animal feed medicines and various other commercial products it is also a powerful tool for carbon fixationthe upwelling can be powered by renewable energy on location vertical mixing has been reduced due to ocean stratification effects associated with climate change reduced vertical mixing and marine heatwaves have decimated seaweed ecosystems in many areas marine permaculture mitigates this by restoring some vertical mixing and preserves these important ecosystems by preserving and'</li><li>'the parahyangansanggah area of a pekarangan while negative auras are believed to appear if they are planted in front of the bale daja a building specifically placed in the north part of a dwellingtaneyan a madurese kind of pekarangan is used to dry crops and for traditional rituals and family ceremonies taneyan is a part of the traditional dwelling system of taneyan lanjhang – a multiplefamily household whose spatial composition is laid out according to the bappa babbhu guru rato father mother teacher leader philosophy that shows the order of respected figures in the madurese culture by 1902 pekarangans occupied 378000 hectares 1460 sq mi of land in java and the area increased to 1417000 hectares 5470 sq mi in 1937 and 1612568 hectares 622616 sq mi in 1986 in 2000 they occupied about 1736000 hectares 6700 sq mi indonesia as a whole had 5132000 hectares 19810 sq mi of such gardens the number peaked at about 10300000 hectares 40000 sq mi in 2010central java is considered the pekarangans center of origin according to oekan abdoellah et al the gardens later spread to east java in the twelfth century soemarwoto and conway proposed that early forms of pekarangan date back to several thousand years ago but the firstknown record of them is a javanese charter from 860 during the dutch colonial era pekarangans were referred to as erfcultuur in the eighteenth century javanese pekarangans had already so influenced west java that they had partly replaced talun a local form of mixed gardens there since pekarangans contain many species which mature at different times throughout the year it has been difficult for governments throughout javanese history to tax them systematically in 1990 this difficulty caused the indonesian government to forbid the reduction of rice fields in favor of pekarangans such difficulty might have helped the gardens to become more complex over time despite that past governments still tried to tax the gardens since the 1970s indonesia had observed economic growth rooted in the indonesian governments fiveyear development plans repelita which were launched in 1969 the economic growth helped increase the numbers of middleclass and upperclass families resulting in better life and higher demand for quality products including fruits and vegetables pekarangans in urban suburban and main fruit production areas adapted its efforts to increase their products quality but this resulted in a reduction of biological diversity in the gardens leading to an increased vulnerability to pests and plant'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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| 10    | <ul><li>'##rmicompost is another process that has more recently been used in agricultural fields the process of vermicomposting involves using the waste from certain highnutrient foods as an organic fertilizer for crops earth worms play a large part in this process eating the nutritious waste then breaking it down to be absorbed into the soilvermicomposting has many benefits some of these benefits include the amount of food being wasted is minimized consequently also leading to a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions as the breaking down of food waste produces powerful methane emissions vermicomposting also reintroduces important nutrients such as potassium calcium and magnesium back into the soil so as to be readily accessible to plants this increase in nutrients in the soil also leads to an increase in the nutrients of the plants as well as it increases plant growth and decreases diseases finally vermicomposting is seen as a more beneficial fertilizer compared to chemical fertilizers due to longterm application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides leading to depletions in the soil and crops as well as it upsets ecological balance and healthsome disadvantages of vermicomposting include the complications that come with trying to compost a large amount of waste continuous waste and water is needed to maintain the process leading to some difficulties the earthworms that are essential to the process are also sensitive to such things as ph temperature and moisture content chemical materials developed to assist in the production of food feed and fiber include herbicides insecticides fungicides and other pesticides pesticides are chemicals that play an important role in increasing crop yield and mitigating crop losses a variety of chemicals are used as pesticides including 24dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 24d aldrindieldrin atrazine and others these work to keep insects and other animals away from crops to allow them to grow undisturbed effectively regulating pests and diseases disadvantages of pesticides and herbicides include contamination of the ground and water they may also be toxic to nontarget species including birds and fish specifically the pesticide glyphosate has been accused of being a cause for cancer after heavy routine use and has suitable faced many lawsuits the insecticide neonicotinoid has been found to be injurious to pollinators and the herbicide dicambas tendency to drift has caused damage to many crops according to us midwest farmers plant biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that occur within plants scientists use plant biochemistry to understand the genetic makeup of a plant in order to discover'</li><li>'cleavage of the enzyme ’ s inhibitor icad in contrast the oncotic pathway has been shown to be caspase3 independentthe primary determinant of cell death occurring via the oncotic or apoptotic pathway is cellular atp levels apoptosis is contingent upon atp levels to form the energy dependent apoptosome a distinct biochemical event only seen in oncosis is the rapid depletion of intracellular atp the lack of intracellular atp results in a deactivation of sodium and potassium atpase within the compromised cell membrane the lack of ion transport at the cell membrane leads to an accumulation of sodium and chloride ions within the cell with a concurrent water influx contributing to the hallmark cellular swelling of oncosis as with apoptosis oncosis has been shown to be genetically programmed and dependent on expression levels of uncoupling protein2 ucp2 in hela cells an increase in ucp2 levels leads to a rapid decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential reducing mitochondrial nadh and intracellular atp levels initiating the oncotic pathway the antiapoptotic gene product bcl2 is not an active inhibitor of ucp2 initiated cell death further distinguishing oncosis and apoptosis as distinct cellular death mechanisms'</li><li>'the geometric representation of the protein of interest next a potential energy function model for the protein is developed this model can be created using either molecular mechanics potentials or protein structure derived potential functions following the development of a potential model energy search techniques including molecular dynamic simulations monte carlo simulations and genetic algorithms are applied to the protein fragment based these methods use database information regarding structures to match homologous structures to the created protein sequences these homologous structures are assembled to give compact structures using scoring and optimization procedures with the goal of achieving the lowest potential energy score webservers for fragment information are itasser rosetta rosetta home fragfold cabs fold profesy cref quark undertaker hmm and anglor 72 homology modeling these methods are based upon the homology of proteins these methods are also known as comparative modeling the first step in homology modeling is generally the identification of template sequences of known structure which are homologous to the query sequence next the query sequence is aligned to the template sequence following the alignment the structurally conserved regions are modeled using the template structure this is followed by the modeling of side chains and loops that are distinct from the template finally the modeled structure undergoes refinement and assessment of quality servers that are available for homology modeling data are listed here swiss model modeller reformalign pymod tipstructfast compass 3dpssm samt02 samt99 hhpred fague 3djigsaw metapp rosetta and itasser protein threading protein threading can be used when a reliable homologue for the query sequence cannot be found this method begins by obtaining a query sequence and a library of template structures next the query sequence is threaded over known template structures these candidate models are scored using scoring functions these are scored based upon potential energy models of both query and template sequence the match with the lowest potential energy model is then selected methods and servers for retrieving threading data and performing calculations are listed here genthreader pgenthreader pdomthreader orfeus prospect bioshellthreading ffaso3 raptorx hhpred loopp server sparksx segmer threader2 esypred3d libra topits raptor coth musterfor more information on rational design see sitedirected mutagenesis multivalent binding can be used to increase the binding specificity and affinity through avidity effects having multiple binding domains in a single biomolecule or complex increases the likelihood of other interactions to occur via individual binding events avidity or effective affinity can be much higher'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               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| 5     | <ul><li>'in knowing the orientation of the rock insitu and the remanent magnetization researchers can determine the earths geomagnetic field at the time the rock was formed this can be used as an indicator of magnetic field direction or reversals in the earths magnetic field where the earths north and south magnetic poles switch which happen on average every 450000 years there are many methods for detecting and measuring magnetofossils although there are some issues with the identification current research is suggesting that the trace elements found in the magnetite crystals formed in magnetotactic bacteria differ from crystals formed by other methods it has also been suggested that calcium and strontium incorporation can be used to identify magnetite inferred from magnetotactic bacteria other methods such as transmission electron microscopy tem of samples from deep boreholes and ferromagnetic resonance fmr spectroscopy are being used fmr spectroscopy of chains of cultured magnetotactic bacteria compared to sediment samples are being used to infer magnetofossil preservation over geological time frames research suggests that magnetofossils retain their remanent magnetization at deeper burial depths although this is not entirely confirmed fmr measurements of saturation isothermal remanent magnetization sirm in some samples compared with fmr and rainfall measurements taken over the past 70 years have shown that magnetofossils can retain a record of paleorainfall variations on a shorter timescale hundreds of years making a very useful recent history paleoclimate indicator the process of magnetite and greigite formation from magnetotactic bacteria and the formation of magnetofossils are well understood although the more specific relationships like those between the morphology of these fossils and the effect on the climate nutrient availability and environmental availability would require more research this however does not alter the promise of better insight into the earths microbial ecology and geomagnetic variations over a large time scale presented by magnetofossils unlike some other methods used to provide information of the earths history magnetofossils normally have to be seen in large abundances to provide useful information of earths ancient history although lower concentrations can tell their own story of the more recent paleoclimate paleoenvironmental and paleoecological history of the earth'</li><li>'mainly to areas near the coast the decomposition of sinking organic matter would have also leached oxygen from deep watersthe sudden drop in o2 after the great oxygenation event — indicated by δ13c levels to have been a loss of 10 to 20 times the current volume of atmospheric oxygen — is known as the lomagundijatuli event and is the most prominent carbon isotope event in earths history oxygen levels may have been less than 01 to 1 of modernday levels which would have effectively stalled the evolution of complex life during the boring billion however a mesoproterozoic oxygenation event moe during which oxygen rose transiently to about 4 pal at various points in time is proposed to have occurred from 159 to 136 ga in particular some evidence from the gaoyuzhuang formation suggests a rise in oxygen around 157 ga while the velkerri formation in the roper group of the northern territory of australia the kaltasy formation russian калтасинская свита of volgouralia russia and the xiamaling formation in the northern north china craton indicate noticeable oxygenation around 14 ga although the degree to which this represents global oxygen levels is unclear oxic conditions would have become dominant at the noe causing the proliferation of aerobic activity over anaerobic but widespread suboxic and anoxic conditions likely lasted until about 055 ga corresponding with ediacaran biota and the cambrian explosion in 1998 geologist donald canfield proposed what is now known as the canfield ocean hypothesis canfield claimed that increasing levels of oxygen in the atmosphere at the great oxygenation event would have reacted with and oxidized continental iron pyrite fes2 deposits with sulfate so42− as a byproduct which was transported into the sea sulfatereducing microorganisms converted this to hydrogen sulfide h2s dividing the ocean into a somewhat oxic surface layer and a sulfidic layer beneath with anoxygenic bacteria living at the border metabolizing the h2s and creating sulfur as a waste product this created widespread euxinic conditions in middlewaters an anoxic state with a high sulfur concentration which was maintained by the bacteria however more systematic geochemical study of the midproterozoic indicates that the oceans were largely ferruginous with a thin surface layer of weakly oxygenated waters and euxinia may have occurred over relatively small areas perhaps less than 7 of the seafloor among rocks dating to the boring billion there is a conspicuous lack'</li><li>'the boring billion otherwise known as the mid proterozoic and earths middle ages is the time period between 18 and 08 billion years ago ga spanning the middle proterozoic eon characterized by more or less tectonic stability climatic stasis and slow biological evolution it is bordered by two different oxygenation and glacial events but the boring billion itself had very low oxygen levels and no evidence of glaciation the oceans may have been oxygen and nutrientpoor and sulfidic euxinia populated by mainly anoxygenic purple bacteria a type of chlorophyllbased photosynthetic bacteria which uses hydrogen sulfide h2s instead of water and produces sulfur instead of oxygen this is known as a canfield ocean such composition may have caused the oceans to be black and milkyturquoise instead of blue by contrast during the much earlier purple earth phase the photosynthesis was retinalbased despite such adverse conditions eukaryotes may have evolved around the beginning of the boring billion and adopted several novel adaptations such as various organelles multicellularity and possibly sexual reproduction and diversified into plants animals and fungi at the end of this time interval such advances may have been important precursors to the evolution of large complex life later in the ediacaran and phanerozoic nonetheless prokaryotic cyanobacteria were the dominant lifeforms during this time and likely supported an energypoor foodweb with a small number of protists at the apex level the land was likely inhabited by prokaryotic cyanobacteria and eukaryotic protolichens the latter more successful here probably due to the greater availability of nutrients than in offshore ocean waters in 1995 geologists roger buick davis des marais and andrew knoll reviewed the apparent lack of major biological geological and climatic events during the mesoproterozoic era 16 to 1 billion years ago ga and thus described it as the dullest time in earths history the term boring billion was coined by paleontologist martin brasier to refer to the time between about 2 and 1 ga which was characterized by geochemical stasis and glacial stagnation in 2013 geochemist grant young used the term barren billion to refer to a period of apparent glacial stagnation and lack of carbon isotope excursions from 18 to 08 ga in 2014 geologists peter cawood and chris hawkesworth called the time between 17 and 075 ga earths middle ages due to a lack of evidence of tectonic movementthe boring billion is now largely cited as'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 33    | <ul><li>'##ensory perception typically a remote viewer is expected to give information about an object event person or location that is hidden from physical view and separated at some distance several hundred such trials have been conducted by investigators over the past 25 years including those by the princeton engineering anomalies research laboratory pear and by scientists at sri international and science applications international corporation many of these were under contract by the us government as part of the espionage program stargate project which terminated in 1995 having failed to document any practical intelligence valuethe psychologists david marks and richard kammann attempted to replicate russell targ and harold puthoffs remote viewing experiments that were carried out in the 1970s at sri international in a series of 35 studies they were unable to replicate the results motivating them to investigate the procedure of the original experiments marks and kammann discovered that the notes given to the judges in targ and puthoffs experiments contained clues as to the order in which they were carried out such as referring to yesterdays two targets or they had the date of the session written at the top of the page they concluded that these clues were the reason for the experiments high hit rates marks was able to achieve 100 per cent accuracy without visiting any of the sites himself but by using cues james randi wrote controlled tests in collaboration with several other researchers eliminating several sources of cueing and extraneous evidence present in the original tests randis controlled tests produced negative results students were also able to solve puthoff and targs locations from the cues that had inadvertently been included in the transcriptsin 1980 charles tart claimed that a rejudging of the transcripts from one of targ and puthoffs experiments revealed an abovechance result targ and puthoff again refused to provide copies of the transcripts and it was not until july 1985 that they were made available for study when it was discovered they still contained sensory cues marks and christopher scott 1986 wrote considering the importance for the remote viewing hypothesis of adequate cue removal tarts failure to perform this basic task seems beyond comprehension as previously concluded remote viewing has not been demonstrated in the experiments conducted by puthoff and targ only the repeated failure of the investigators to remove sensory cuespear closed its doors at the end of february 2007 its founder robert g jahn said of it that for 28 years weve done what we wanted to do and theres no reason to stay and generate more of the same data statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community the physicist robert l park said of pear its been an embarrassment to'</li><li>'##menology of ndes one of the most influential is iands an international organization based in durham north carolina us that promotes research and education on the phenomenon of neardeath experiences among its publications is the peerreviewed journal of neardeath studies the organization also maintains an archive of neardeath case histories for research and studyanother research organization the louisianabased near death experience research foundation was established by radiation oncologist jeffrey long in 1998 the foundation maintains a website and a database of neardeath casesseveral universities have been associated with neardeath studies the university of connecticut us southampton university uk university of north texas us and the division of perceptual studies at the university of virginia us iands holds conferences on the topic of neardeath experiences the first meeting was a medical seminar at yale university new haven connecticut in 1982 the first clinical conference was in pembroke pines florida and the first research conference was in farmington connecticut in 1984 since then conferences have been held in major us cities almost annually many of the conferences have addressed a specific topic defined in advance of the meeting in 2004 participants gathered in evanston illinois under the headline creativity from the light a few of the conferences have been arranged at academic locations in 2001 researchers and participants gathered at seattle pacific university in 2006 the university of texas md anderson cancer center became the first medical institution to host the annual iands conferencethe first international medical conference on neardeath experiences was held in 2006 approximately 1500 delegates including people who claim to have had ndes attended the oneday conference in martigues france among the researchers at the conference were moody and anesthetist and intensive care doctor jeanjacques charbonnier iands publishes the quarterly journal of neardeath studies the only scholarly journal in the field iands also publishes vital signs a quarterly newsletter that is made available to its members and that includes commentary news and articles of general interestone of the first introductions to the field of neardeath studies was a collection of neardeath research readings scientific inquiries into the experiences of persons near physical death edited by craig r lundahl and released in 1982 an early general reader was the neardeath experience problems prospects perspectives published in 1984 in 2009 the handbook of neardeath experiences thirty years of investigation was published it was an overview of the field based on papers presented at the iands conference in 2006 making sense of neardeath experiences a handbook for clinicians was published in 2011 the book had many contributors and described how the nde could be handled in psychiatric and clinical practice in 2017 the university of missouri'</li><li>'who in 1784 was treating a local dullwitted peasant named victor race during treatment race reportedly would go into trance and undergo a personality change becoming fluent and articulate and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of others clairvoyance was a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day early researchers of clairvoyance included william gregory gustav pagenstecher and rudolf tischner clairvoyance experiments were reported in 1884 by charles richet playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject put under hypnosis attempted to identify them the subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in cambridge j m peirce and e c pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23384 trials which did not obtain above chance scoresivor lloyd tuckett 1911 and joseph mccabe 1920 analyzed early cases of clairvoyance and came to the conclusion they were best explained by coincidence or fraud in 1919 the magician p t selbit staged a seance at his own flat in bloomsbury the spiritualist arthur conan doyle attended the seance and declared the clairvoyance manifestations to be genuinea significant development in clairvoyance research came when j b rhine a parapsychologist at duke university introduced a standard methodology with a standard statistical approach to analyzing data as part of his research into extrasensory perception a number of psychological departments attempted to repeat rhines experiments with failure w s cox 1936 from princeton university with 132 subjects produced 25064 trials in a playing card esp experiment cox concluded there is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the average man or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group the discrepancy between these results and those obtained by rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects four other psychological departments failed to replicate rhines results it was revealed that rhines experiments contained methodological flaws and procedural errorseileen garrett was tested by rhine at duke university in 1933 with zener cards certain symbols that were placed on the cards and sealed in an envelope and she was asked to guess their contents she performed poorly and later criticized the tests by claiming the cards lacked a psychic energy called energy stimulus and that she could not perform clairvoyance to order the parapsychologist'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| 11    | <ul><li>'oximeter is used to monitor oxygenation it cannot determine the metabolism of oxygen or the amount of oxygen being used by a patient for this purpose it is necessary to also measure carbon dioxide co2 levels it is possible that it can also be used to detect abnormalities in ventilation however the use of a pulse oximeter to detect hypoventilation is impaired with the use of supplemental oxygen as it is only when patients breathe room air that abnormalities in respiratory function can be detected reliably with its use therefore the routine administration of supplemental oxygen may be unwarranted if the patient is able to maintain adequate oxygenation in room air since it can result in hypoventilation going undetectedbecause of their simplicity of use and the ability to provide continuous and immediate oxygen saturation values pulse oximeters are of critical importance in emergency medicine and are also very useful for patients with respiratory or cardiac problems especially copd or for diagnosis of some sleep disorders such as apnea and hypopnea for patients with obstructive sleep apnea pulse oximetry readings will be in the 70 – 90 range for much of the time spent attempting to sleepportable batteryoperated pulse oximeters are useful for pilots operating in nonpressurized aircraft above 10000 feet 3000 m or 12500 feet 3800 m in the us where supplemental oxygen is required portable pulse oximeters are also useful for mountain climbers and athletes whose oxygen levels may decrease at high altitudes or with exercise some portable pulse oximeters employ software that charts a patients blood oxygen and pulse serving as a reminder to check blood oxygen levelsconnectivity advancements have made it possible for patients to have their blood oxygen saturation continuously monitored without a cabled connection to a hospital monitor without sacrificing the flow of patient data back to bedside monitors and centralized patient surveillance systemsfor patients with covid19 pulse oximetry helps with early detection of silent hypoxia in which the patients still look and feel comfortable but their spo2 is dangerously low this happens to patients either in the hospital or at home low spo2 may indicate severe covid19related pneumonia requiring a ventilator pulse oximetry solely measures hemoglobin saturation not ventilation and is not a complete measure of respiratory sufficiency it is not a substitute for blood gases checked in a laboratory because it gives no indication of base deficit carbon dioxide levels blood ph or bicarbonate hco3− concentration the metabolism of oxygen can be readily measured by monitoring expired co2 but saturation figures give no'</li><li>'advanced cardiac life support advanced cardiovascular life support acls refers to a set of clinical guidelines for the urgent and emergent treatment of lifethreatening cardiovascular conditions that will cause or have caused cardiac arrest using advanced medical procedures medications and techniques acls expands on basic life support bls by adding recommendations on additional medication and advanced procedure use to the cpr guidelines that are fundamental and efficacious in bls acls is practiced by advanced medical providers including physicians some nurses and paramedics these providers are usually required to hold certifications in acls care while acls is almost always semantically interchangeable with the term advanced life support als when used distinctly acls tends to refer to the immediate cardiac care while als tends to refer to more specialized resuscitation care such as ecmo and pci in the ems community als may refer to the advanced care provided by paramedics while bls may refer to the fundamental care provided by emts and emrs without these terms referring to cardiovascularspecific care advanced cardiac life support refers to a set of guidelines used by medical providers to treat lifethreatening cardiovascular conditions these lifethreatening conditions range from dangerous arrhythmias to cardiac arrest acls algorithms frequently address at least five different aspects of pericardiac arrest care airway management ventilation cpr compressions continued from bls defibrillation and medications due to the seriousness of the diseases treated the paucity of data known about most acls patients and the need for multiple rapid simultaneous treatments acls is executed as a standardized algorithmic set of treatments successful acls treatment starts with diagnosis of the correct ekg rhythm causing the arrest common cardiac arrest rhythms covered by acls guidelines include ventricular tachycardia ventricular fibrillation pulseless electrical activity and asystole dangerous nonarrest rhythms typically covered includes narrow and widecomplex tachycardias torsades de pointe atrial fibrillationflutter with rapid ventricular response and bradycardiasuccessful acls treatment generally requires a team of trained individuals common team roles include leader backup leader 2 cpr performers an airwayrespiratory specialist an iv access and medication administration specialist a monitor defibrillator attendant a pharmacist a lab member to send samples and a recorder to document the treatment for inhospital events these members are frequently physicians midlevel providers nurses and allied health providers while for outofhospital events these teams are usually composed of a small number of emts and paramedics acls'</li><li>'algorithms include multiple simultaneous treatment recommendations some acls providers may be required to strictly adhere to these guidelines however physicians may generally deviate to pursue different evidencebased treatment especially if they are addressing an underlying cause of the arrest andor unique aspects of a patients care acls algorithms are complex but the table below demonstrates common aspects of acls care due to the rapidity and complexity of acls care as well as the recommendation that it be performed in a standardized fashion providers must usually hold certifications in acls care certifications may be provided by a few different generally national organizations but their legitimacy is ultimately determined by hospital hiring and privileging boards that is acls certification is frequently a requirement for employment as a health care provider at most hospitals acls certifications usually provide education on the aforementioned aspects of acls care except for specialized resuscitation techniques specialized resuscitation techniques are not covered by acls certifications and their use is restricted to further specialized providers acls education is based on ilcor recommendations which are then adapted to local practices by authoritative medical organizations such as the american red cross the european resuscitation council or the resuscitation council of asia bls proficiency is usually a prerequisite to acls training however the initial portions of an acls class may cover cpr initial training usually takes around 15 hours and includes both classroom instruction and handson simulation experience passing a test with a practical component at the end of the course is usually the final requirement to receive certification after receiving initial certification providers must usually recertify every two years in a class with similar content that lasts about seven hours widely accepted providers of acls certification include nonexclusively american heart association american red cross european resuscitation council or the australian resuscitation council holding acls certification simply attests a provider was tested on knowledge and application of acls guidelines the certification does not supersede a providers scope of practice as determined by state law or employer protocols and does not itself provide any license to practice like a medical intervention researchers have had to ask whether acls is effective data generally demonstrates that patients have better survival outcomes increased rosc increased survival to hospital discharge andor superior neurological outcomes when they receive acls however a large study of roc patients showed that this effect may only be if acls is delivered in the first six minutes of arrest this study also found that acls increases survival but does not produce superior neurological outcomes some studies have raised concerns that acls education can be inconstantly or inadequately taught which can result in poor retention'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| 3     | <ul><li>'view shifted as stalin aimed to homogenize russian culture and identity ethnologists were employed by the state with a focus on understanding regulating and standardizing the different ethnic groups of russia the nordic countries are a geographical and cultural region in northern europe and the north atlantic which includes the countries of denmark finland iceland norway and sweden and the autonomous territories of the faroe islands and greenland anthropology has a diverse history in the nordic countries tracing all the way back to the early nineteenth century with the establishment of ethnographic museums historythe institutionalization of anthropology in norway began in 1857 through the opening of the norwegian ethnographic museum in early 1900s norwegian academia was closely tied to germany and the german tradition of volkerkunde or ethnology was the primary influence of early development of norwegian anthropology physical anthropology was the primary focus of the early norwegian anthropological research specifically related to the racial identity and of the origin of the norwegian population norwegian anthropologists research was directly involved the development of a scientific understanding of race and racial superiority nordicism was a popular ideology at the time and fueled research to find scientific evidence to support the superiority of the nordic race also referred to as germanic race and was the key focus of anthropology in both norway and germany following world war i after german attacked norway political tensions developed between the two countries leading norwegian academics to move away from their traditionally strong attachment to germany in the early 1930s leading norwegian anthropological authorities began to condemn the study of the nordic master race as pseudoscientific ideology the increased skepticism towards nordicism was a direct response to the rise of nazi germany as the concept of nordic master race was incorporated into the nazi ideology by the end of world war ii norwegian ethnography turned away from german influence and turned towards an angloamerican perspective which was a direct result of fredrik barth norwegian anthropologist fredrik barth is credited as the most influential contemporary nordic anthropologist and known for transforming the discipline to focus on crosscultural and comparative fieldwork barth received his ma in paleoanthropology and archaeology from the university of chicago in 1949 and his subsequent graduate studies in cambridge england where he worked alongside british anthropologist edmund leach in 1961 barth was invited to the university of bergen to create an anthropology department and serve as its chair this important and prestigious position gave him the opportunity to introduce britishstyle social anthropology to norway that same year barth established the department of social anthropology which was the first department of social anthropology in all of scandinavianorwegian anthropology entered a period of rapid development following the introduction of social anthropology by barth and the further institutionalization of anthropology spread'</li><li>'history of anthropology in this article refers primarily to the 18th and 19thcentury precursors of modern anthropology the term anthropology itself innovated as a neolatin scientific word during the renaissance has always meant the study or science of man the topics to be included and the terminology have varied historically at present they are more elaborate than they were during the development of anthropology for a presentation of modern social and cultural anthropology as they have developed in britain france and north america since approximately 1900 see the relevant sections under anthropology the term anthropology ostensibly is a produced compound of greek ανθρωπος anthropos human being understood to mean humankind or humanity and a supposed λογια logia study the compound however is unknown in ancient greek or latin whether classical or mediaeval it first appears sporadically in the scholarly latin anthropologia of renaissance france where it spawns the french word anthropologie transferred into english as anthropology it does belong to a class of words produced with the logy suffix such as archeology biology etc the study or science of the mixed character of greek anthropos and latin logia marks it as neolatin there is no independent noun logia however of that meaning in classical greek the word λογος logos has that meaning james hunt attempted to rescue the etymology in his first address to the anthropological society of london as president and founder 1863 he did find an anthropologos from aristotle in the standard ancient greek lexicon which he says defines the word as speaking or treating of man this view is entirely wishful thinking as liddell and scott go on to explain the meaning ie fond of personal conversation if aristotle the very philosopher of the logos could produce such a word without serious intent there probably was at that time no anthropology identifiable under that name the lack of any ancient denotation of anthropology however is not an etymological problem liddell and scott list 170 greek compounds ending in – logia enough to justify its later use as a productive suffix the ancient greeks often used suffixes in forming compounds that had no independent variant the etymological dictionaries are united in attributing – logia to logos from legein to collect the thing collected is primarily ideas especially in speech the american heritage dictionary says it is one of derivatives independently built to logos its morphological type is that of an abstract noun logos logia a qualitative abstractthe renaissance origin of the name of anthropology does not exclude the possibility that ancient authors presented anthropogical material under another name see below such an identification is'</li><li>'indigenous psychology is defined by kim and berry as the scientific study of human behavior or mind that is native that is not transported from other regions and that is designed for its people there is a strong emphasis on how ones actions are influenced by the environment surrounding them as well as the aspects that make it up this would include analyzing the context in addition to the content that combine to make the domain that one is living in the context would consist of the family social cultural and ecological pieces and the content would consist of the meaning values and beliefs since the mid 1970s there has been outcry about the traditional views from psychologists across the world from africa to australia and many places in between about how the methods only reflect what would work in europe and the americas there are several ways that separate indigenous psychology from the traditional general psychology first there is a strong emphasis on the examining of phenomena in context in order to discover how ones culture influences their behaviors and thought patterns secondly instead of solely focusing on native populations it actually includes information based on any group of peoples that can be deemed exotic in one area or another this makes indigenous psychology a necessity for groups all over the world third is the fact that indigenous psychology is innovative because instead of only using one method for everyone there is time dedicated to the creation of techniques that work on an individual basis while working to learn why they are successful in the regions that they are being used in there is advocacy for an array of procedures such as qualitative experimental comparative philosophical analysis and a combination of them all fourth it debunks the idea that only members of these indigenous groups have the ability to achieve true understanding of how culture affects their life experiences in fact an outsiders view is extremely valuable when it comes to indigenous psychology because it can discover abnormalities not originally noticed by members of the group finally there are concepts that can only be explained by indigenous psychology this is due to researchers having a hard time conceptualizing these phenomenon despite there being noticeable differences between cultures they all share one common goal to address the forces that shape affective behavioral and cognitive human systems that in turn underlie the attitudes behaviors beliefs expectations and values of the members of each unique culture kim yang and hwang 2006 distinguish 10 characteristics of indigenous psychology it emphasizes examining psychological phenomena in ecological historical and cultural context indigenous psychology needs to be developed for all cultural native and ethnic groups it advocates use of multiple methods it advocates the integration of insiders outsiders and multiple perspectives to obtain comprehensive and integrated understanding it acknowledges that people have a complex and sophisticated understanding of themselves and it is necessary to translate their practical and episodic understanding into analytical knowledge it'</li></ul> |
| 34    | <ul><li>'senses and the evocation of the subject for example a parent or teacher can activate a childs attention with instructive phrases using the imperative tense retrieval is defined by the american psychological association as the process of recovering or locating information stored in memory retrieval is the final stage of memory after encoding and retention ” these associated stages are dealt with on an implicit basis in mental management retrieval is distinguished by la garanderie as the gesture of memorisation which involves bringing back evocations for the purpose of reproducing them in the short medium and longterm comprehension is defined as the “ act or capability of understanding something especially the meaning of a communication ” by the american psychological association it involves making sense in a subjective sense which does not require the understanding to be correct la garanderie distinguishes comprehension as the gesture of understanding which allows us to constantly shift between what is perceived and what is evoked in order to find the meaning of new information the american psychological association defines thinking as a “ cognitive behaviour in which ideas images mental representations or other hypothetical elements of thought are experienced or manipulated ” in the context of mental management the thinking process also involves “ selfreflection ” which involves the “ examination contemplation and analysis of ones thoughts feeling and actions ” thinking or the gesture of reflection involves selecting the notions or theory that has already been learnt and allow us to think through the task to be accomplished imagination is the faculty that produces ideas and images in the absence of direct sensory data often by combining fragments of previous sensory experiences into new syntheses it is a critical component of mental management as it captures the change involved in improving or optimising the mental processes the gesture of creative imagination allows for an individual to invent new approaches based on what they already know this allows individuals to make comparisons and develop responses to problems outside of a logical framework the measurement of mental processes can involve invasive or noninvasive ways to measure human activity in the brain known as neuroimaging neuroimaging is defined as “ a clinical specialty concerned with producing images of the brain by noninvasive techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging ” computed tomography is “ radiography in which a threedimensional image of a body structure is constructed by computer from a series of plane crosssectional images made along an axis ” magnetic resonance imaging commonly referred to as mri is “ a noninvasive diagnostic technique that produces computerised images of internal body tissues and is based on nuclear magnetic resonance of atoms within the body induced by the application of radio waves ” these advances'</li><li>'more like social constructs than a natural state of being despite believing in oakeshott ’ s theories about collaborative learning being natural he acknowledges the difficulty of blending this with the independent and authoritative environment of the classroom especially the college firstyear composition classroom bruffee confronts the overarching fact that humanistic study we have been led to believe is a solitary life and the vitality of the humanities lies in the talents and endeavors of each of us as individuals on a more minute level collaborative pedagogy becomes problematic for instructors who worry that classrooms will spiral out of control in an adversarial activity pitting individual against individual however bruffee thinks that if composition instructors and scholars believe in writing and learning as a process from which everyone can benefit then it is important to forge community through collaboration despite the individualist discourse of the university wayne campbell peck et al view collaborative pedagogy in a positive light due to its success at the community literacy center clc which pairs innercity high school students with student mentors from carnegie mellon university they describe a curriculum encouraging students to write responses to the real world situations they face such as writing their school administrators about detention policies peck et al justify the need for their program by positing that beyond cultural appreciation we believe that the next more difficult step in communitybuilding is to create an intercultural dialogue that allows people to confront and solve problems across racial and economic boundaries their program attempts to reach this goal of intercultural dialogue by promoting multiple levels of interaction and understanding first the mentors from carnegie mellon and the innercity youth must reach mutual understanding to promote clearer communication next the students and administrators need to remain open to the others ’ perspectives to develop stronger community last the program coordinators need to view all parties involved as equal stakeholders overall they argue that their program while often fraught with conflict helps stakeholders in different positions understand varying perspectives about issues in their local community and that this learning process is both necessary and beneficial a critique of collaborative pedagogy is that it juxtaposes the individual work production valued within the university in the idea of community in the study of writing joseph harris echoes bruffees sentiments that the community and individual work at crosspurposes within the university setting he claims that although the term collaborative usually connotes a positive sense of belonging community in reality often creates an us versus them mentality and also creating a dichotomy between individual and group or in this case student versus university he wonders if to enter the academic community a student must learn to speak our language in reference to david barthol'</li><li>'an active suzukitraining organ scheme is under way in the australian city of newcastle the application of suzukis teaching philosophy to the mandolin is currently being researched in italy by amelia saracco rather than focusing on a specific instrument at the stage of early childhood education ece a suzuki early childhood education sece curriculum for preinstrumental ece was developed within the suzuki philosophy by dorothy sharon jones saa jeong cheol wong asa emma okeefe ppsa anke van der bijl esa and yasuyo matsui teri the sece curriculum is designed for ages 0 – 3 and uses singing nursery rhymes percussion audio recordings and whole body movements in a group setting where children and their adult caregivers participate side by side the japanese based sece curriculum is different from the englishbased sece curriculum the englishbased curriculum is currently being adapted for use in other languages a modified suzuki philosophy curriculum has been developed to apply suzuki teaching to heterogeneous instrumental music classes string orchestras in schools trumpet was added to the international suzuki associations list of suzuki method instruments in 2011 the application of suzukis teaching philosophy to the trumpet is currently being researched in sweden the first trumpet teacher training course to be offered by the european suzuki association in 2013 suzuki teacher training for trumpet 2013 supplementary materials are also published under the suzuki name including some etudes notereading books piano accompaniment parts guitar accompaniment parts duets trios string orchestra and string quartet arrangements of suzuki repertoire in the late 19th century japans borders were opened to trade with the outside world and in particular to the importation of western culture as a result of this suzukis father who owned a company which had manufactured the shamisen began to manufacture violins instead in his youth shinichi suzuki chanced to hear a phonograph recording of franz schuberts ave maria as played on violin by mischa elman gripped by the beauty of the music he immediately picked up a violin from his fathers factory and began to teach himself to play the instrument by ear his father felt that instrumental performance was beneath his sons social status and refused to allow him to study the instrument at age 17 he began to teach himself by ear since no formal training was allowed to him eventually he convinced his father to allow him to study with a violin teacher in tokyo suzuki nurtured by love at age 22 suzuki travelled to germany to find a violin teacher to continue his studies while there he studied privately with karl klingler but did not receive any formal degree past his high school diploma he met and became friends with albert einstein who encouraged him in learning classical music he also met court'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |

## Evaluation

### Metrics
| Label   | F1     |
|:--------|:-------|
| **all** | 0.7190 |

## Uses

### Direct Use for Inference

First install the SetFit library:

```bash
pip install setfit
```

Then you can load this model and run inference.

```python
from setfit import SetFitModel

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SetFitModel.from_pretrained("udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-scon-3epochs")
# Run inference
preds = model("##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert")
```

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### Downstream Use

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-->

<!--
### Out-of-Scope Use

*List how the model may foreseeably be misused and address what users ought not to do with the model.*
-->

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## Bias, Risks and Limitations

*What are the known or foreseeable issues stemming from this model? You could also flag here known failure cases or weaknesses of the model.*
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### Recommendations

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-->

## Training Details

### Training Set Metrics
| Training set | Min | Median   | Max |
|:-------------|:----|:---------|:----|
| Word count   | 1   | 369.9960 | 509 |

| Label | Training Sample Count |
|:------|:----------------------|
| 0     | 100                   |
| 1     | 100                   |
| 2     | 100                   |
| 3     | 100                   |
| 4     | 100                   |
| 5     | 100                   |
| 6     | 100                   |
| 7     | 100                   |
| 8     | 100                   |
| 9     | 100                   |
| 10    | 100                   |
| 11    | 100                   |
| 12    | 100                   |
| 13    | 100                   |
| 14    | 100                   |
| 15    | 100                   |
| 16    | 100                   |
| 17    | 100                   |
| 18    | 100                   |
| 19    | 100                   |
| 20    | 100                   |
| 21    | 100                   |
| 22    | 100                   |
| 23    | 100                   |
| 24    | 100                   |
| 25    | 100                   |
| 26    | 100                   |
| 27    | 100                   |
| 28    | 100                   |
| 29    | 100                   |
| 30    | 100                   |
| 31    | 100                   |
| 32    | 100                   |
| 33    | 100                   |
| 34    | 100                   |
| 35    | 100                   |
| 36    | 100                   |
| 37    | 100                   |
| 38    | 100                   |
| 39    | 100                   |
| 40    | 100                   |
| 41    | 100                   |
| 42    | 100                   |

### Training Hyperparameters
- batch_size: (16, 16)
- num_epochs: (3, 8)
- max_steps: -1
- sampling_strategy: oversampling
- num_iterations: 20
- body_learning_rate: (2e-05, 0.01)
- head_learning_rate: 0.01
- loss: CosineSimilarityLoss
- distance_metric: cosine_distance
- margin: 0.25
- end_to_end: False
- use_amp: False
- warmup_proportion: 0.1
- max_length: 512
- seed: 42
- eval_max_steps: -1
- load_best_model_at_end: True

### Training Results
| Epoch      | Step      | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
|:----------:|:---------:|:-------------:|:---------------:|
| 0.0001     | 1         | 0.3404        | -               |
| 0.0465     | 500       | 0.106         | 0.1066          |
| 0.0930     | 1000      | 0.039         | 0.091           |
| 0.1395     | 1500      | 0.1144        | 0.091           |
| 0.1860     | 2000      | 0.08          | 0.0872          |
| 0.2326     | 2500      | 0.0413        | 0.0862          |
| 0.2791     | 3000      | 0.0354        | 0.0999          |
| 0.3256     | 3500      | 0.0114        | 0.0932          |
| 0.3721     | 4000      | 0.0217        | 0.1015          |
| 0.4186     | 4500      | 0.0015        | 0.1088          |
| 0.4651     | 5000      | 0.0109        | -               |
| 0.0001     | 1         | 0.0341        | -               |
| 0.2326     | 2500      | 0.005         | -               |
| 0.4651     | 5000      | 0.0011        | -               |
| 0.6977     | 7500      | 0.0009        | -               |
| **0.9302** | **10000** | **0.0548**    | **0.1603**      |
| 1.1628     | 12500     | 0.0002        | -               |
| 1.3953     | 15000     | 0.0002        | -               |
| 1.6279     | 17500     | 0.0061        | -               |
| 1.8605     | 20000     | 0.0001        | 0.1703          |
| 2.0930     | 22500     | 0.0002        | -               |
| 2.3256     | 25000     | 0.0003        | -               |
| 2.5581     | 27500     | 0.0035        | -               |
| 2.7907     | 30000     | 0.0           | 0.1726          |

* The bold row denotes the saved checkpoint.
### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- SetFit: 1.0.3
- Sentence Transformers: 2.7.0
- Transformers: 4.40.1
- PyTorch: 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets: 2.19.0
- Tokenizers: 0.19.1

## Citation

### BibTeX
```bibtex
@article{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2209.11055,
    doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2209.11055},
    url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055},
    author = {Tunstall, Lewis and Reimers, Nils and Jo, Unso Eun Seo and Bates, Luke and Korat, Daniel and Wasserblat, Moshe and Pereg, Oren},
    keywords = {Computation and Language (cs.CL), FOS: Computer and information sciences, FOS: Computer and information sciences},
    title = {Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts},
    publisher = {arXiv},
    year = {2022},
    copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
}
```

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