transformers pytorch bloom text-classification mgt-detection ai-detection en dataset:NicolaiSivesind/human-vs-machine dataset:gfissore/arxiv-abstracts-2021 license:openrail autotrain_compatible text-generation-inference endpoints_compatible region:us
---
datasets:
- NicolaiSivesind/human-vs-machine
- gfissore/arxiv-abstracts-2021
language:
- en
license: openrail
pipeline_tag: text-classification
tags:
- mgt-detection
- ai-detection
widget:
- text: I am totally a human, trust me bro.
  example_title: default
- text: In Finnish folklore, all places and things, and also human beings, have a
    haltija (a genius, guardian spirit) of their own. One such haltija is called etiäinen—an
    image, doppelgänger, or just an impression that goes ahead of a person, doing
    things the person in question later does. For example, people waiting at home
    might hear the door close or even see a shadow or a silhouette, only to realize
    that no one has yet arrived. Etiäinen can also refer to some kind of a feeling
    that something is going to happen. Sometimes it could, for example, warn of a
    bad year coming. In modern Finnish, the term has detached from its shamanistic
    origins and refers to premonition. Unlike clairvoyance, divination, and similar
    practices, etiäiset (plural) are spontaneous and can't be induced. Quite the opposite,
    they may be unwanted and cause anxiety, like ghosts. Etiäiset need not be too
    dramatic and may concern everyday events, although ones related to e.g. deaths
    are common. As these phenomena are still reported today, they can be considered
    a living tradition, as a way to explain the psychological experience of premonition.
  example_title: real wikipedia
- text: In Finnish folklore, all places and things, animate or inanimate, have a spirit
    or "etiäinen" that lives there. Etiäinen can manifest in many forms, but is usually
    described as a kind, elderly woman with white hair. She is the guardian of natural
    places and often helps people in need. Etiäinen has been a part of Finnish culture
    for centuries and is still widely believed in today. Folklorists study etiäinen
    to understand Finnish traditions and how they have changed over time.
  example_title: generated wikipedia
- text: This paper presents a novel framework for sparsity-certifying graph decompositions,
    which are important tools in various areas of computer science, including algorithm
    design, complexity theory, and optimization. Our approach is based on the concept
    of "cut sparsifiers," which are sparse graphs that preserve the cut structure
    of the original graph up to a certain error bound. We show that cut sparsifiers
    can be efficiently constructed using a combination of spectral techniques and
    random sampling, and we use them to develop new algorithms for decomposing graphs
    into sparse subgraphs.
  example_title: from ChatGPT
- text: Recent work has demonstrated substantial gains on many NLP tasks and benchmarks
    by pre-training on a large corpus of text followed by fine-tuning on a specific
    task. While typically task-agnostic in architecture, this method still requires
    task-specific fine-tuning datasets of thousands or tens of thousands of examples.
    By contrast, humans can generally perform a new language task from only a few
    examples or from simple instructions - something which current NLP systems still
    largely struggle to do. Here we show that scaling up language models greatly improves
    task-agnostic, few-shot performance, sometimes even reaching competitiveness with
    prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Specifically, we train GPT-3, an
    autoregressive language model with 175 billion parameters, 10x more than any previous
    non-sparse language model, and test its performance in the few-shot setting. For
    all tasks, GPT-3 is applied without any gradient updates or fine-tuning, with
    tasks and few-shot demonstrations specified purely via text interaction with the
    model. GPT-3 achieves strong performance on many NLP datasets, including translation,
    question-answering, and cloze tasks, as well as several tasks that require on-the-fly
    reasoning or domain adaptation, such as unscrambling words, using a novel word
    in a sentence, or performing 3-digit arithmetic. At the same time, we also identify
    some datasets where GPT-3's few-shot learning still struggles, as well as some
    datasets where GPT-3 faces methodological issues related to training on large
    web corpora. Finally, we find that GPT-3 can generate samples of news articles
    which human evaluators have difficulty distinguishing from articles written by
    humans. We discuss broader societal impacts of this finding and of GPT-3 in general.
  example_title: GPT-3 paper
---

Machine-generated text-detection by fine-tuning of language models
===

This project is related to a bachelor's thesis with the title "*Turning Poachers into Gamekeepers: Detecting Machine-Generated Text in Academia using Large Language Models*" (see [here](https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/handle/11250/3078096)) written by *Nicolai Thorer Sivesind* and *Andreas Bentzen Winje* at the *Department of Computer Science* at the *Norwegian University of Science and Technology*.

It contains text classification models trained to distinguish human-written text from text generated by language models like ChatGPT and GPT-3. The best models were able to achieve an accuracy of 100% on real and *GPT-3*-generated wikipedia articles (4500 samples), and an accuracy of 98.4% on real and *ChatGPT*-generated research abstracts (3000 samples).

The dataset card for the dataset that was created in relation to this project can be found [here](https://huggingface.co/datasets/NicolaiSivesind/human-vs-machine).

**NOTE**: the hosted inference on this site only works for the RoBERTa-models, and not for the Bloomz-models. The Bloomz-models otherwise can produce wrong predictions when not explicitly providing the attention mask from the tokenizer to the model for inference. To be sure, the [pipeline](https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/pipelines)-library seems to produce the most consistent results.


## Fine-tuned detectors

This project includes 12 fine-tuned models based on the RoBERTa-base model, and three sizes of the bloomz-models. 

| Base-model | RoBERTa-base                                                                   | Bloomz-560m                                                                                | Bloomz-1b7                                                                               | Bloomz-3b                                                                              |
|------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Wiki       | [roberta-wiki](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/roberta-wiki-detector)     | [Bloomz-560m-wiki](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-560m-wiki-detector)         | [Bloomz-1b7-wiki](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-1b7-wiki-detector)         | [Bloomz-3b-wiki](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-3b-wiki-detector)         |
| Academic   | [roberta-academic](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/roberta-academic-detector) | [Bloomz-560m-academic](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-560m-academic-detector) | [Bloomz-1b7-academic](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-1b7-academic-detector) | [Bloomz-3b-academic](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-3b-academic-detector) |
| Mixed      | [roberta-mixed](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/roberta-mixed-detector)   | [Bloomz-560m-mixed](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-560m-mixed-detector)       | [Bloomz-1b7-mixed](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-1b7-mixed-detector)       | [Bloomz-3b-mixed](https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/bloomz-3b-mixed-detector)       |


### Datasets

The models were trained on selections from the [GPT-wiki-intros]() and [ChatGPT-Research-Abstracts](), and are separated into three types, **wiki**-detectors, **academic**-detectors and **mixed**-detectors, respectively.

- **Wiki-detectors**:
  - Trained on 30'000 datapoints (10%) of GPT-wiki-intros.
  - Best model (in-domain) is Bloomz-3b-wiki, with an accuracy of 100%.
- **Academic-detectors**:
  - Trained on 20'000 datapoints (100%) of ChatGPT-Research-Abstracts.
  - Best model (in-domain) is Bloomz-3b-academic, with an accuracy of 98.4%
- **Mixed-detectors**:
  - Trained on 15'000 datapoints (5%) of GPT-wiki-intros and 10'000 datapoints (50%) of ChatGPT-Research-Abstracts.
  - Best model (in-domain) is RoBERTa-mixed, with an F1-score of 99.3%.


### Hyperparameters

All models were trained using the same hyperparameters:

```python
{
 "num_train_epochs": 1,
 "adam_beta1": 0.9,
 "adam_beta2": 0.999,
 "batch_size": 8,
 "adam_epsilon": 1e-08
 "optim": "adamw_torch" # the optimizer (AdamW)
 "learning_rate": 5e-05, # (LR)
 "lr_scheduler_type": "linear", # scheduler type for LR
 "seed": 42, # seed for PyTorch RNG-generator.
}
```

### Metrics

Metrics can be found at https://wandb.ai/idatt2900-072/IDATT2900-072.


In-domain performance of wiki-detectors:

| Base model  | Accuracy | Precision | Recall | F1-score |
|-------------|----------|-----------|--------|----------|
| Bloomz-560m | 0.973    | *1.000    | 0.945  | 0.972    |
| Bloomz-1b7  | 0.972    | *1.000    | 0.945  | 0.972    |
| Bloomz-3b   | *1.000   | *1.000    | *1.000 | *1.000   |
| RoBERTa     | 0.998    | 0.999     | 0.997  | 0.998    |


In-domain peformance of academic-detectors:

| Base model  | Accuracy | Precision | Recall | F1-score |
|-------------|----------|-----------|--------|----------|
| Bloomz-560m | 0.964    | 0.963     | 0.965  | 0.964    |
| Bloomz-1b7  | 0.946    | 0.941     | 0.951  | 0.946    |
| Bloomz-3b   | *0.984   | *0.983    | 0.985  | *0.984   |
| RoBERTa     | 0.982    | 0.968     | *0.997 | 0.982    |


F1-scores of the mixed-detectors on all three datasets:

| Base model  | Mixed  | Wiki   | CRA    |
|-------------|--------|--------|--------|
| Bloomz-560m | 0.948  | 0.972  | *0.848 |
| Bloomz-1b7  | 0.929  | 0.964  | 0.816  |
| Bloomz-3b   | 0.988  | 0.996  | 0.772  |
| RoBERTa     | *0.993 | *0.997 | 0.829  |


## Credits

- [GPT-wiki-intro](https://huggingface.co/datasets/aadityaubhat/GPT-wiki-intro), by Aaditya Bhat
- [arxiv-abstracts-2021](https://huggingface.co/datasets/gfissore/arxiv-abstracts-2021), by Giancarlo
- [Bloomz](bigscience/bloomz), by BigScience
- [RoBERTa](https://huggingface.co/roberta-base), by Liu et. al.


## Citation

Please use the following citation:

```
@misc {sivesind_2023,
    author       = { {Nicolai Thorer Sivesind} and {Andreas Bentzen Winje} },
    title        = { Machine-generated text-detection by fine-tuning of language models },
    url          = { https://huggingface.co/andreas122001/roberta-academic-detector },
    year         = 2023,
    publisher    = { Hugging Face }
}
```