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inated with the broader power grid.
It is the first ever energy-blockchain-platform, that allows devices
at the grid edge to securely and directly transact for energy sales
among microgrid participants. A hybrid device measures a build-
ing's energy production in use and sends data to the network.
The project for Autonomous Decentralized Peer-to-Peer
Telemetry (ADEPT) led by IBM and Samsung [80] aims to promote
device autonomy, and to this end they use blockchain technology
to ensure code execution on ed | [
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ge devices. ADEPT uses three proto-
cols: Telehash, Bittorrent and Ethereum, for messaging, file shar-
ing and blockchain, respectively. Blockchain technology provides
authentication, engagement, contracts and checklists. Their proof
of concept consists in smart washing machines that use smart
contracts to buy detergent supplies from retailers.
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address security, identity, coordination and privacy over billions
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,873 |
build a sharing economy where
each IoT asset can be rented securely and quickly without the need
for any authority. They are working on a variety of projects, for
instance a marketplace to provide a charging infrastructure for
electric vehicles, called Blockcharge. This solution uses a smart-
plug, a mobile application to activate the plug and control the
charge, and the blockchain to pay for the services. They are also
working on a smart lock to automate apartment renting.
Aigang [88] is an autonomous | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,874 |
insurance network for IoT assets.
Aigang has deployed smart contracts over the Ethereum test-bed
that issue policies, conduct risk assessment and process claims
automatically. They have also created a custom virtual currency
(AIX). They offer investment opportunities in different products
with different risk levels and potential gains. Smart contracts
connect intelligent devices with insurance policies. Through these
contracts the devices can order maintenance and insurance pay-
ment can be automated. Wit | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,875 |
h the inclusion of Oracles to report
events, claim handling can be automatically handled.
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 187
Table 6
IoT–Blockchain applications.
Application Classification Platform
LO3 Energy [87] Energy microgrid Ethereum
ADEPT [80] Smart contracts involving IoT devices Ethereum
Slock.it [85] Renting | [
18630,
131,
120,
120,
13395,
1665,
22715,
119,
3254,
120,
1504,
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4775,
120,
4925,
120,
1488,
1183,
118,
1972,
118,
3510,
7147,
1394,
120,
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7916,
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120,
170,
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18290,
1424,
119,
3254,
1212,
3510,
7147,
1394,
1105,
1157,
9111,
1114,
146,
1186,
1942,
119,
6571,
1116,
1105,
6305,
13813,
8093,
7147,
1394,
6571,
1116,
1457,
27611,
3211,
1105,
188,
7867,
6328,
4354,
131,
24417,
1105,
8657,
1760,
10031,
15455,
1105,
2233,
9909,
13015,
8216,
10800,
2492,
16752,
3792,
14410,
146,
1186,
1942,
1105,
3510,
7147,
1394,
9111,
6571,
1116,
1107,
3510,
7147,
1394,
782,
146,
1186,
1942,
9111,
1457,
27611,
3211,
1105,
188,
7867,
6328,
4354,
1760,
10031,
15455,
1105,
2233,
9909,
13015,
8216,
10800,
2492,
16752,
3792,
14410,
17742,
1116,
1105,
4683,
8093,
7147,
1394,
6833,
1111,
146,
1186,
1942,
27845,
8093,
7147,
1394,
4683,
146,
1186,
1942,
782,
3510,
7147,
1394,
4683,
16752,
1665,
17855,
1105,
2174,
1250,
138,
2158,
2728,
10481,
1174,
14294,
1116,
14593,
16752,
14970,
1116,
23419,
1104,
2199,
19714,
1116
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24,
21,
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,876 |
h the inclusion of Oracles to report
events, claim handling can be automatically handled.
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 187
Table 6
IoT–Blockchain applications.
Application Classification Platform
LO3 Energy [87] Energy microgrid Ethereum
ADEPT [80] Smart contracts involving IoT devices Ethereum
Slock.it [85] Renting | [
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131,
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7867,
6328,
4354,
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24417,
1105,
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10031,
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782,
146,
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2728,
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23419,
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,877 |
Circle of Trust: A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol
Circle Of Trust: a high volume, energy efficient,
stake blind and high attack tolerant Blockchain
Consensus Protocol
Rahul RavindranSpizen Technologies Pvt Limited
Bangalore, Indiarahulravindran.in @ gmail.com
Abstract — Popular cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, NEO andRipple have their own advantages and disadvantage. Bitcoincauses massive depletion of energy and computational power.NE | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,878 |
Circle of Trust: A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol
Circle Of Trust: a high volume, energy efficient,
stake blind and high attack tolerant Blockchain
Consensus Protocol
Rahul RavindranSpizen Technologies Pvt Limited
Bangalore, Indiarahulravindran.in @ gmail.com
Abstract — Popular cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, NEO andRipple have their own advantages and disadvantage. Bitcoincauses massive depletion of energy and computational power.NE | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,879 |
O rewards rich miners with more blocks to validate. Ripplecan only process a mere 1500 transactions per second [1] with ablock time of 3.5 seconds [2]. All these major blockchains havemajor flaws. My Consensus Protocol "Circle of Trust"overcomes the drawbacks of other consensus protocols such asPoW, PoS and DPos. Apart from this, Circle of Trust also hasan architecture capable of scaling the transactions per second,as the network of miners grow, which no other blockchain onthe market is capable of doing. | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,880 |
This consensus protocol will beable to beat VISAs 56,000 transactions per second [3] whilemaintaining the sequence of blocks. All this can be done because,the concept of trust score is at the heart of this consensusprotocol.
Keywords — Blockchain, Consensus Protocol, High Attacktolerant, High Transaction Volume, Energy Efficient
I. PROBLEM STATEMENT
A. Bitcoin and Other PoW based blockchains
Bitcoin uses a BFT [4] based consensus protocol calledProof-of-Work. In this protocol all the miners in the world | [
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This consensus protocol will beable to beat VISAs 56,000 transactions per second [3] whilemaintaining the sequence of blocks. All this can be done because,the concept of trust score is at the heart of this consensusprotocol.
Keywords — Blockchain, Consensus Protocol, High Attacktolerant, High Transaction Volume, Energy Efficient
I. PROBLEM STATEMENT
A. Bitcoin and Other PoW based blockchains
Bitcoin uses a BFT [4] based consensus protocol calledProof-of-Work. In this protocol all the miners in the world | [
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aimto solve the same problem. This causes a massive wastage ofElectricity and computational power. Worldwide, Bitcoin usesa whopping 29.05 TWh per year [5]. If Bitcoin were a country,it would be ranked 61st in terms of its electricity needs [5]. Inconclusion, PoW based blockchains rewards those peoplewith higher computational power.
B. NEO and other PoS based blockchains
NEO [6] uses a Proof-of-Stake [7] [8] based consensusprotocol. In this protocol, a miner is randomly chosen with ahigh weightage on th | [
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e amount of coins he / she has. This meansminers with the most cash always have a high probability ofgetting chosen to become a forger. This leaves us with a fatalflaw where the rich becomes richer. In conclusion, PoS basedblockchains rewards those people with more money.
C. Ripple
Ripple [9] has the fastest block time and the fastest
transactions per second compared to any other blockchain. Itsblock time being 3.5 seconds and transactions per secondbeing 1500. This may be fast compared to other blockcha | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,884 |
insbut is not comparable to the needs of financial institutionssuch as VISA who had handled 11000 transactions per secondin their busiest minute [10]. Blockchain can only takeover suchaggregators only when the transaction rate can scale up to ormore than these figures.
My consensus protocol Circle-of-Trust aims to solve theseproblems by promoting trustworthy miners.
II. THE SOLUTION
A. Ranks and organisation of the networkThe organization of the network will be different from that
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,885 |
insbut is not comparable to the needs of financial institutionssuch as VISA who had handled 11000 transactions per secondin their busiest minute [10]. Blockchain can only takeover suchaggregators only when the transaction rate can scale up to ormore than these figures.
My consensus protocol Circle-of-Trust aims to solve theseproblems by promoting trustworthy miners.
II. THE SOLUTION
A. Ranks and organisation of the networkThe organization of the network will be different from that
of existing cryptocurr | [
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encies. The network architecturefeatures decentralization in three levels - Cluster, MegaCluster and Supercluster, where clusters are a subset of MegaCluster and Mega Clusters are a subset of Super Cluster asshown in Fig. 1 below.
When a new miner joins a network, he will be randomlyassigned to a cluster. A cluster's maximum capacity can be100 (which varies with business case) and every hour themembers will be mixed up to form a new cluster to preventcluster members from conspiring to go against the chain | [
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. Onthe other hand, when an existing member is shuffled into anew cluster or rejoins the network, the node's trust scorecomes into play and is ranked according to table 1 shownbelow. Example: if a node who just joins, has the highest trustscore in the Mega Cluster the node was assigned to, the nodebecomes the president of the mega cluster. If the node onlyhas the highest trust score in his / her cluster, he / she becomesthe cluster head. If the node's trust score is lesser than thecluster head but is grea | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,888 |
. Onthe other hand, when an existing member is shuffled into anew cluster or rejoins the network, the node's trust scorecomes into play and is ranked according to table 1 shownbelow. Example: if a node who just joins, has the highest trustscore in the Mega Cluster the node was assigned to, the nodebecomes the president of the mega cluster. If the node onlyhas the highest trust score in his / her cluster, he / she becomesthe cluster head. If the node's trust score is lesser than thecluster head but is grea | [
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] | Circle of Trust A High Volume, Energy Efficient, Stake Blind and High Attack Tolerant Blockchain Consensus Protocol | 1,889 |
ter than the 90th percentile of thecluster, the node becomes a committee member. If the nodehas a positive trust score and who falls under 90th percentilebecomes a member. Finally, a node with negative trust scorebecomes a prisoner with no voting power.
Additionally, there are three special ranks in the systemwhose role cannot be taken by anyone with a high trust score:Finance Head, Global Financer, and Chain Owner. The nodewith the highest cash in the supercluster becomes the global
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ter than the 90th percentile of thecluster, the node becomes a committee member. If the nodehas a positive trust score and who falls under 90th percentilebecomes a member. Finally, a node with negative trust scorebecomes a prisoner with no voting power.
Additionally, there are three special ranks in the systemwhose role cannot be taken by anyone with a high trust score:Finance Head, Global Financer, and Chain Owner. The nodewith the highest cash in the supercluster becomes the global
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EPRESENTING THEHIERARCHY OF CLUSTERS
financier and the node with the highest cash in a Mega Clusterbecomes the Finance Head. Lastly, the chain owner is a rolethat is to be taken up by the individual or firm who owns theblockchain. Refer Fig. 2 For the complete representation ofthe hiera | [
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EPRESENTING THEHIERARCHY OF CLUSTERS
financier and the node with the highest cash in a Mega Clusterbecomes the Finance Head. Lastly, the chain owner is a rolethat is to be taken up by the individual or firm who owns theblockchain. Refer Fig. 2 For the complete representation ofthe hiera | [
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IPchain: Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delegation with
Blockchain
Jordi Paillisse∗, Miquel Ferriol∗, Eric Garcia∗, Hamid Latif∗, Carlos Piris∗,
Albert Lopez∗, Brenden Kuerbis†, Alberto Rodriguez-Natal‡, Vina Ermagan‡,
Fabio Maino‡ and Albert Cabellos∗
∗
UPC-BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain - {jordip, alopez, acabello}@ac.upc.edu,
{miquel.ferriol, eric.garcia.ribera, hamid.latif, carlos.piris}@est.fib.upc.edu
†
Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Public Policy, Atlanta, GA, USA
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,894 |
IPchain: Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delegation with
Blockchain
Jordi Paillisse∗, Miquel Ferriol∗, Eric Garcia∗, Hamid Latif∗, Carlos Piris∗,
Albert Lopez∗, Brenden Kuerbis†, Alberto Rodriguez-Natal‡, Vina Ermagan‡,
Fabio Maino‡ and Albert Cabellos∗
∗
UPC-BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain - {jordip, alopez, acabello}@ac.upc.edu,
{miquel.ferriol, eric.garcia.ribera, hamid.latif, carlos.piris}@est.fib.upc.edu
†
Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Public Policy, Atlanta, GA, USA
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",",
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"B",
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"(",
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",",
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"B",
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"out",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"band",
"mechanisms",
"where",
"network",
"operators",
"tell",
"each",
"other",
"which",
"pre",
"-",
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",",
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"-",
"u"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,895 |
[email protected]
‡
Cisco Systems, San Jose, CA, USA - {natal,vermagan,fmaino}@cisco.com
May 14, 2018
Abstract
We present IPchain, a blockchain to store the al-
locations and delegations of IP addresses, with the
aim of easing the deployment of secure interdomain
routing systems. Interdomain routing security is of
vital importance to the Internet since it prevents
unwanted traffic redirections. IPchain makes use
of blockchains' properties to provide flexible trust
models and simplified management | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,896 |
[email protected]
‡
Cisco Systems, San Jose, CA, USA - {natal,vermagan,fmaino}@cisco.com
May 14, 2018
Abstract
We present IPchain, a blockchain to store the al-
locations and delegations of IP addresses, with the
aim of easing the deployment of secure interdomain
routing systems. Interdomain routing security is of
vital importance to the Internet since it prevents
unwanted traffic redirections. IPchain makes use
of blockchains' properties to provide flexible trust
models and simplified management | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,897 |
when compared
to existing systems. In this paper we argue that
Proof of Stake is a suitable consensus algorithm
for IPchain due to the unique incentive structure
of this use-case. We have implemented and evalu-
ated IPchain's performance and scalability storing
around 150k IP prefixes in a 1GB chain.
1 Introduction
Inter-domain routing security is a pressing issue
in today's Internet. In a nutshell, inter-domain
routing security encompasses the correct announce-
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,898 |
when compared
to existing systems. In this paper we argue that
Proof of Stake is a suitable consensus algorithm
for IPchain due to the unique incentive structure
of this use-case. We have implemented and evalu-
ated IPchain's performance and scalability storing
around 150k IP prefixes in a 1GB chain.
1 Introduction
Inter-domain routing security is a pressing issue
in today's Internet. In a nutshell, inter-domain
routing security encompasses the correct announce-
ment and propagation of IP prefixes acro | [
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where network operators tell each other which pre-
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router can divert traffic to networks which should
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ss the Au-
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Currently, the protocol that communicates these
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"addresses",
"to",
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"Regis",
"##tries",
"(",
"1",
")",
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"Those",
",",
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",",
"all",
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",",
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"(",
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")",
".",
"Finally",
",",
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"(",
"3",
")",
".",
"E",
"##qui",
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"##ly",
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".",
"The",
"R",
"##P",
"##K",
"##I",
"replica",
"##tes",
"this",
"structure",
"using",
"digital",
"certificates",
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"allow",
"authentic",
"##ating",
"the",
"allocation",
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"both",
"IP",
"prefix",
"##es",
"and",
"AS",
"numbers",
"(",
"figure",
"2",
")",
".",
"A",
"party",
"receives",
"a",
"them",
"via",
"a",
"Resource",
"Certificate",
"(",
"RC",
")",
",",
"which",
"binds",
"an",
"IP",
"prefix",
"or",
"AS",
"number",
"to",
"a",
"public",
"key",
"(",
"1",
")",
".",
"It",
"can",
"then",
"further",
"all",
"##oc",
"##ate",
"this",
"resource",
"to",
"other",
"parties",
"by",
"means",
"of",
"issuing",
"new",
"RC",
"##s",
"(",
"2",
",",
"dashed",
"line",
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".",
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"R",
"##OA",
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",",
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"##OA",
"##s",
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")",
".",
"This",
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"R",
"##P",
"##K",
"##I",
",",
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"150",
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"1",
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"Figure",
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":",
"Sam",
"##ple",
"R",
"##P",
"##K",
"##I",
"certificate",
"hierarchy",
".",
"3",
"Why",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"?",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"have",
"many",
"interesting",
"advantages",
".",
"In",
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"a",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"suits",
"the",
"requirements",
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"allocation",
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"F",
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":",
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"the",
"centralized",
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"R",
"##P",
"##K",
"##I",
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"[",
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",",
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"as",
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",",
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"its",
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".",
"Si",
"##mp",
"##li",
"##fied",
"management",
":",
"the",
"R"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,901 |
ble (and effectively bringing Internet services
down). This attack is commonly know as prefix hi-
jacking and can be accomplished forging BGP an-
nouncements and propagating them to neighboring
ASes. We can find several real-life examples of pre-
fix hijacks [1–3].
Given the severity of these attacks, the IETF (In-
ternet Engineering Task Force) has designed a so-
lution to inter-domain routing security by means
of the RPKI (Resource Public Key Infrastructure,
RFC 6480), a PKI repository to record the le | [
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ble (and effectively bringing Internet services
down). This attack is commonly know as prefix hi-
jacking and can be accomplished forging BGP an-
nouncements and propagating them to neighboring
ASes. We can find several real-life examples of pre-
fix hijacks [1–3].
Given the severity of these attacks, the IETF (In-
ternet Engineering Task Force) has designed a so-
lution to inter-domain routing security by means
of the RPKI (Resource Public Key Infrastructure,
RFC 6480), a PKI repository to record the le | [
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"On",
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",",
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"##over",
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"##in",
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",",
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"(",
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"the",
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"This"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,903 |
giti-
mate owners of IP prefixes, AS numbers and ROAs
(Route Origin Authorization, a certificate to allow
an AS to announce an IP prefix).
Unfortunately, the global deployment of the
RPKI is slower than expected with only ∼9% of
the total /24 IPv4 address blocks owned by the five
Internet Registries being protected by the RPKI
(figure 1). The reasons of this have been exten-
sively analyzed and discussed in the literature [4–
8], mainly: (i) Centralized operations: Certifica-
tion Authorities (CAs) hold | [
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giti-
mate owners of IP prefixes, AS numbers and ROAs
(Route Origin Authorization, a certificate to allow
an AS to announce an IP prefix).
Unfortunately, the global deployment of the
RPKI is slower than expected with only ∼9% of
the total /24 IPv4 address blocks owned by the five
Internet Registries being protected by the RPKI
(figure 1). The reasons of this have been exten-
sively analyzed and discussed in the literature [4–
8], mainly: (i) Centralized operations: Certifica-
tion Authorities (CAs) hold | [
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ultimate control of re-
sources in the RPKI. Since IP addresses are a crit-
ical asset of RPKI's participants (especially ISPs),
they would like to have a higher degree of control
1
ar
X
iv
:1
80
5.
04
43
9v
1
[
cs
.N
I]
1
1
M
ay
2
01
8
Figure 1: Amount of RIPE's IPv4 address space
covered by ROAs, in /24 units (source [12]). Of
the five Registries, RIPE is the one with highest
RPKI adoption
over them, but without loosing the security of be-
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,906 |
ultimate control of re-
sources in the RPKI. Since IP addresses are a crit-
ical asset of RPKI's participants (especially ISPs),
they would like to have a higher degree of control
1
ar
X
iv
:1
80
5.
04
43
9v
1
[
cs
.N
I]
1
1
M
ay
2
01
8
Figure 1: Amount of RIPE's IPv4 address space
covered by ROAs, in /24 units (source [12]). Of
the five Registries, RIPE is the one with highest
RPKI adoption
over them, but without loosing the security of be-
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,907 |
between
users and CAs [9]. (ii) Management complexity:
PKIs are cumbersome to manage, e.g. when per-
forming a key rollover. In addition, deploying these
extensions is not trivial and requires trained staff
[5] and financial investment, and (iii) Exposure of
business relationships through peering agreements
in the RPKI [4]. In addition, the RPKI faces im-
plementation [10] and transparency [11] challenges.
In the light of this situation, in this paper we pro-
pose IPchain: a blockchain to store IP addre | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,908 |
between
users and CAs [9]. (ii) Management complexity:
PKIs are cumbersome to manage, e.g. when per-
forming a key rollover. In addition, deploying these
extensions is not trivial and requires trained staff
[5] and financial investment, and (iii) Exposure of
business relationships through peering agreements
in the RPKI [4]. In addition, the RPKI faces im-
plementation [10] and transparency [11] challenges.
In the light of this situation, in this paper we pro-
pose IPchain: a blockchain to store IP addre | [
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"since",
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"This",
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"Such",
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"##cha",
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",",
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".",
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"all",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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"##es",
",",
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"(",
"4",
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".",
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",",
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",",
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"/",
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","
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,909 |
ss allo-
cation and delegation data. IPchain leverages some
of blockchain's properties to ease the deployment of
inter-domain routing security mechanisms. Three
of these properties stand out when compared to the
RPKI: (i) the ability to create flexible trust models,
providing a different balance of power between CAs
and downstream users, (ii) simplified management,
especially regarding common PKI operations such
as key rollover and (iii) auditability: blockchain's
append-only ledger can detect possible co | [
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ss allo-
cation and delegation data. IPchain leverages some
of blockchain's properties to ease the deployment of
inter-domain routing security mechanisms. Three
of these properties stand out when compared to the
RPKI: (i) the ability to create flexible trust models,
providing a different balance of power between CAs
and downstream users, (ii) simplified management,
especially regarding common PKI operations such
as key rollover and (iii) auditability: blockchain's
append-only ledger can detect possible co | [
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"Del"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,911 |
nfigura-
tion errors even before a modification[13].
IP addresses share some fundamental character-
istics with coins, such as uniqueness or divisibility.
Taking advantage of this, IPchain allows its par-
ticipants to exchange IP prefixes just like in coins
are transferred in Bitcoin. This way, an ISP can
record in the chain its IP addresses and who can
advertise them. When another ISP receives a BGP
announcement with these addresses, it can deter-
mine if they come from the intended source.
We have bu | [
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",",
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"##rre",
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",",
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",",
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,912 |
nfigura-
tion errors even before a modification[13].
IP addresses share some fundamental character-
istics with coins, such as uniqueness or divisibility.
Taking advantage of this, IPchain allows its par-
ticipants to exchange IP prefixes just like in coins
are transferred in Bitcoin. This way, an ISP can
record in the chain its IP addresses and who can
advertise them. When another ISP receives a BGP
announcement with these addresses, it can deter-
mine if they come from the intended source.
We have bu | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,913 |
ilt a prototype to demonstrate
IPchain's suitability to this scenario, both from the
scalability and performance standpoints. The pro-
totype allows allocating and delegating IP prefixes
by means of blockchain transactions, and uses a
Proof of Stake consensus algorithm to randomly
select block signers among all the holders of IP ad-
dresses. In our experimental evaluation, we recre-
ated the real-life allocation hierarchy of IP ad-
dresses, storing around 50% of the total Internet
Registries' prefixes in | [
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",",
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"there",
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"##ys",
"-",
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"Re",
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".",
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",",
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"-",
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"##in",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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"##in",
",",
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"This",
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"##olate",
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"Regis",
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")",
".",
"This",
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"should",
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"(",
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"counted",
")",
"to",
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"I",
"##AN",
"##A",
"signing",
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"v"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,914 |
ilt a prototype to demonstrate
IPchain's suitability to this scenario, both from the
scalability and performance standpoints. The pro-
totype allows allocating and delegating IP prefixes
by means of blockchain transactions, and uses a
Proof of Stake consensus algorithm to randomly
select block signers among all the holders of IP ad-
dresses. In our experimental evaluation, we recre-
ated the real-life allocation hierarchy of IP ad-
dresses, storing around 50% of the total Internet
Registries' prefixes in | [
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"-",
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"128",
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")",
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"IP",
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")",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,915 |
a 1 GB chain.
2 Background: RPKI Archi-
tecture
IP addresses are allocated to Internet domains fol-
lowing a hierarchical scheme, typically conformed
of three tiers (figure 5). The Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA1), as the top-level reg-
ulator of Internet numbers, owns the entire ad-
dress space. First, IANA allocates large blocks of
addresses to the Regional Internet Registries (1).
Those, in turn, allocate or delegate blocks to its
customers, usually ISPs (2). Finally, ISPs can also
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,916 |
a 1 GB chain.
2 Background: RPKI Archi-
tecture
IP addresses are allocated to Internet domains fol-
lowing a hierarchical scheme, typically conformed
of three tiers (figure 5). The Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA1), as the top-level reg-
ulator of Internet numbers, owns the entire ad-
dress space. First, IANA allocates large blocks of
addresses to the Regional Internet Registries (1).
Those, in turn, allocate or delegate blocks to its
customers, usually ISPs (2). Finally, ISPs can also
assign | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,917 |
addresses to their users (3). Equivalently for
AS numbers.
The RPKI replicates this structure using digital
certificates that allow authenticating the allocation
of both IP prefixes and AS numbers (figure 2). A
party receives a them via a Resource Certificate
(RC), which binds an IP prefix or AS number to
a public key (1). It can then further allocate this
resource to other parties by means of issuing new
RCs (2, dashed line). It can also issue a Route
Origin Authorization (ROA), which authorizes an
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,918 |
umber to announce an IP prefix (3). Parties
that own RCs can issue one or more ROAs (4).
This way, network operators can download the
certificates and use them to verify BGP announce-
ments. If the (IP prefix, AS number) pair in the
BGP message does not match the corresponding
certificate in the RPKI, the announcement is con-
sidered invalid.
1https://www.iana.org/numbers
2
RC (Alice)
150/8
ROA 1
150/8 + AS 4
RC (Bob)
150.100/16
ROA 2
150.100/16 + AS 8
ROA 3
150.100/16 + AS 5
(1)
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,919 |
(4)
Figure 2: Sample RPKI certificate hierarchy.
3 Why blockchain?
Blockchains have many interesting advantages. In
this section we discuss why a blockchain suits the
requirements of secure allocation and delegation of
IP addresses.
Flexible trust models: Some researchers argue
that the centralized nature of the RPKI hinders its
deployment[6]. This is due to the fact that its users
(typically ISPs) have to trust the RPKI CA, which
can arbitrarily revoke any downstream certificate
[9]. Since IP addre | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,920 |
sses are an important economi-
cal asset for most ISPs, this situation is sometimes
judged as inappropriate.
On the contrary, the decentralized trust model
of blockchains can mitigate these concerns, since
the owner of the public-private key pair retains ul-
timate control over its resources.
Simplified management: the RPKI is cum-
bersome to manage, for example, users have to
choose between two operation modes. Some ac-
tions are complex, like key rollover (RFC 6489 is
specifically devoted to key rollo | [
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ver in the RPKI2),
because it requires re-signing all downstream cer-
tificates starting from the one being replaced. On
the contrary, a key rollover in a blockchain can
be easily performed transferring a coin/asset to a
new address (keypair). Other operations, such as
the revocation of a transaction, do not require a
dedicated sub-system (Certificate Revocation Lists
(CRLs) in a PKI), but only adding a new transac-
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Privacy: Blockchain transactions are not linked
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,922 |
ver in the RPKI2),
because it requires re-signing all downstream cer-
tificates starting from the one being replaced. On
the contrary, a key rollover in a blockchain can
be easily performed transferring a coin/asset to a
new address (keypair). Other operations, such as
the revocation of a transaction, do not require a
dedicated sub-system (Certificate Revocation Lists
(CRLs) in a PKI), but only adding a new transac-
tion.
Privacy: Blockchain transactions are not linked
2https://rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc648 | [
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"-",
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"##art",
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"me",
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"-",
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"T",
"##EC"
] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,923 |
9.txt
to the user's identity, just to a public key. It is
worth noting that the RPKI also offers privacy, be-
cause its certificates do not contain identity infor-
mation.
Consistent vision of the state : Exactly like
in Bitcoin, in the RPKI we need to keep track of
the owner of each IP prefix (coins), e.g. to avoid
the transfer of the same prefix to two different
users (double-spending). In other words, we need
to maintain a global vision of the state. Achiev-
ing this is easier in a blockchain when co | [
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other operators [13]. While this can be
engineered in a PKI4, blockchains have this feature
built-in.
4 Which consensus algo-
rithm?
Consensus algorithms are probably the most im-
portant building block of a blockchain. This sec-
tion details the motivations when deciding which
one to use for the use-case of securing IP address
allocation and delegation.
4.1 Proof of Work
In Proof of Work (PoW), nodes in the blockchain
have to solve a complex mathematical problem to
add a block, thus requiring some c | [
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omputational ef-
fort. The definitive chain is the one with most com-
puting power spent to create.
Despite its widespread usage, PoW is not suit-
able for our use case. In financial environments,
PoW suits quite well because it is easy to find a
large number of participants, either to create new
transactions (money transfer is a popular applica-
tion) or to add blocks (thanks to the block reward
3https://rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8181.txt
4https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/trans/about/
3
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ver, in our use case this does
not hold: the potential amount of members is lower
than in financial use-cases and it is unclear which
would be the reward.
In addition, PoW blockchains (typically) decou-
ple its users from the management of the chain, i.e.,
we can transfer money in Bitcoin without having to
create blocks. This user-miner separation can im-
pact negatively on the chain, since the capability to
add new blocks and the security of the chain itself
depend on the computing power of the particip | [
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ver, in our use case this does
not hold: the potential amount of members is lower
than in financial use-cases and it is unclear which
would be the reward.
In addition, PoW blockchains (typically) decou-
ple its users from the management of the chain, i.e.,
we can transfer money in Bitcoin without having to
create blocks. This user-miner separation can im-
pact negatively on the chain, since the capability to
add new blocks and the security of the chain itself
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,929 |
ants
(miners), which is not always aligned with their in-
terest in the well-being of the blockchain (users).
Depending on the objectives of an attacker, certain
attacks can become profitable. Namely, buying a
large quantity of hardware to be able to rewrite the
blockchain with false data (e.g., incorrect delega-
tions of IP addresses). This is very costly in block-
chains with a high amount of participants such as
Bitcoin or Ethereum (in the order of millions), but
in a blockcahin for IP addresses it bec | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,930 |
omes feasible
(the current number of Autonomous Systems in the
Internet is around 60k5).
4.2 Proof of Stake for IP prefix allo-
cation and delegation
In a Proof of Stake (PoS [14]) blockchain, partici-
pants with more assets/coins are more likely to add
blocks. In essence, PoS algorithms randomly select
one of the users to sign the next block. The selec-
tion is randomly weighted according to the num-
ber of coins of each participant, thus ensuring that
users with more interest (stake) in the chain con- | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,931 |
tribute proportionally more to it.
With this premise, we advocate that PoS is the
most convenient consensus algorithm for our sce-
nario. First, in PoS the capability to alter the
blockchain remains within it. This aspect is of
particular importance in the context of IPchain:
users holding a large number of IP addresses are
more likely to add blocks. A key insight of this
paper (and a uniqueness of our scenario) is that
participants have a reduced incentive in tampering
the blockchain because they would | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,932 |
tribute proportionally more to it.
With this premise, we advocate that PoS is the
most convenient consensus algorithm for our sce-
nario. First, in PoS the capability to alter the
blockchain remains within it. This aspect is of
particular importance in the context of IPchain:
users holding a large number of IP addresses are
more likely to add blocks. A key insight of this
paper (and a uniqueness of our scenario) is that
participants have a reduced incentive in tampering
the blockchain because they would | [
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,933 |
suffer the con-
sequences: an insecure Internet. Typically entities
that hold large blocks of IP address space have their
business within the Internet and as such, have clear
5http://www.cidr-report.org/as2.0/
From: Registry-1
To: Registry-1
(1) Allocation
From: Registry-1
To: ISP A
(2) Allocation
(3) Delegation
From: ISP A
To: Customer 1
(4) Binding
From: Customer 1
To: Customer 1
I have all
prefixes
Prefix 1/8 for
ISP A
Customer 1
has 1.2/16
Bind 1.2/16 to
AS # 12345
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] | IPchain Securing IP Prefix Allocation and Delega | 1,934 |
suffer the con-
sequences: an insecure Internet. Typically entities
that hold large blocks of IP address space have their
business within the Internet and as such, have clear
5http://www.cidr-report.org/as2.0/
From: Registry-1
To: Registry-1
(1) Allocation
From: Registry-1
To: ISP A
(2) Allocation
(3) Delegation
From: ISP A
To: Customer 1
(4) Binding
From: Customer 1
To: Customer 1
I have all
prefixes
Prefix 1/8 for
ISP A
Customer 1
has 1.2/16
Bind 1.2/16 to
AS # 12345
Figure 3: Tr | [
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ansaction workflow example
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BID: Blockchaining for IoT Devices
AUTHORS
ABSTRACT
The growth of technology has brought upon a slew of devices that have the ability to connect to the internet. This has led to much more opportunistic and easier ways to perform tasks but it also opens the doors for new attacks. Blockchaining is a new technology that was introduced with the creation of Bitcoin in 2008. Blockchaining has mostly been implemented in the field of cryptocurrency but there are many other useful applications | [
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".",
"Block",
"##cha",
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"I",
"##o",
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".",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
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"are",
"linked",
"in",
"some",
"way",
"through",
"the",
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"."
] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,937 |
of blockchaining. It allows for a decentralized ledger of data that can securely keep a network honest and prevent from possible attacks. Blockchains are based on a consensus algorithm and the proof of stake algorithm bases consensus between nodes based on the stake that the nodes have in the system.
KEYWORDS
Internet of Things, Blockchain, Proof of Stake, Network Security, Consensus Algorithm, 50% Attack, Nothing at Stake Attack
SECTION: I. INTRODUCTION
Since 2012, | [
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"The",
"problem",
"is",
"that",
"each",
"device",
"could",
"have",
"several",
"differences",
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"security",
"protocols",
"hard",
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"for",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
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"many",
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".",
"Our",
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"##cha",
"##ins",
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"secure",
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"I",
"##o",
"##T",
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"B",
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"##cha",
"##ining",
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"I",
"##o",
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"##ake",
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"##S",
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"##ral",
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"a",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
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"##mu",
"##ta",
"##bility",
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"ledge",
"##r",
"to",
"track",
"all",
"transactions",
"that",
"have",
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".",
"The",
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"of",
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"and",
"Private",
"keys",
"also",
"allows",
"for",
"a",
"secure",
"way",
"to",
"keep",
"information",
"private",
".",
"Also",
"using",
"smart",
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"as",
"stake",
"in",
"the",
"system",
"means",
"that",
"it",
"can",
"only",
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".",
"This",
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"attackers",
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"gain",
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"the",
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"be",
"difficult",
".",
"§",
"The",
"remainder",
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"as",
"follows",
":",
"section",
"II",
"will",
"discuss",
"our",
"motivation",
",",
"section",
"III",
"will",
"discuss",
"the",
"key",
"components",
"to",
"the",
"system",
"and",
"briefly",
"explain",
"what",
"each",
"part",
"is",
",",
"section",
"IV",
"explains",
"the",
"methodology",
"to",
"the",
"development",
"of",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"section",
"V",
"will",
"review",
"literature",
"related",
"to",
"our",
"research",
",",
"section",
"VI",
"will",
"provide",
"an",
"analysis",
"and",
"evaluation",
"of",
"the",
"efficiency",
"of",
"our",
"system",
",",
"and",
"section",
"VII",
"will",
"state",
"our",
"conclusion",
"and",
"guidelines",
"for",
"future",
"work",
".",
"SEC",
"##TI",
"##ON",
":",
"II",
".",
"M",
"##OT",
"##I",
"##VI",
"##AT",
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"made",
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"their",
"information",
"more",
"vulnerable",
"than",
"ever",
".",
"An",
"attack",
"on",
"a",
"person",
"or",
"their",
"identity",
"could",
"come",
"at",
"any",
"time",
".",
"With",
"the",
"increase",
"in",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"connected",
"devices",
",",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"attacks",
"also",
"increases",
".",
"In",
"[",
"2",
"]",
",",
"the",
"authors",
"describe",
"the",
"four",
"layers",
"of",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"and",
"how",
"each",
"one",
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"with",
"solutions",
"to",
"solve",
"these",
"v",
"##ul",
"##ner",
"##abi",
"##lities",
".",
"Technology",
"is",
"also",
"becoming",
"more",
"complex",
"as",
"time",
"goes",
"on",
".",
"This",
"can",
"be",
"overwhelming",
"for",
"someone",
"who",
"is",
"not",
"as",
"used",
"to",
"technology",
"and",
"thus",
"it",
"may",
"lead",
"to",
"download",
"##ing",
"ma",
"##lic",
"##ious",
"content",
"[",
"3",
"]",
".",
"This",
"paper",
"focuses",
"on",
"all",
"four",
"layers",
"of",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"and",
"how",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ining",
"can",
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"use",
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"create",
"a",
"secure",
",",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
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"to",
"handle",
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"all",
".",
"SEC",
"##TI",
"##ON",
":",
"III",
".",
"CO",
"##RE",
"CO",
"##MP",
"##ON",
"##EN",
"##TS",
"OF",
"B",
"##L",
"##OC",
"##K",
"##CH",
"##A",
"##IN",
"##ING",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##ining",
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"first",
"introduced",
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"the",
"creation",
"of",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"back",
"in",
"2008",
".",
"It",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"create",
"a",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
"system",
"in",
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"to",
"keep",
"data",
"more",
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".",
"A",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"uses",
"public",
"and",
"private",
"keys",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"verify",
"transactions",
"that",
"form",
"a",
"block",
".",
"A",
"block",
"is"
] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,938 |
of blockchaining. It allows for a decentralized ledger of data that can securely keep a network honest and prevent from possible attacks. Blockchains are based on a consensus algorithm and the proof of stake algorithm bases consensus between nodes based on the stake that the nodes have in the system.
KEYWORDS
Internet of Things, Blockchain, Proof of Stake, Network Security, Consensus Algorithm, 50% Attack, Nothing at Stake Attack
SECTION: I. INTRODUCTION
Since 2012, | [
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the number of connected devices to the internet has increased from 15.41 billion to 20.35 billion in 2017. Additionally that number is expected to exponentially increase to 75.44 billion by 2025 [1]. The Internet of Things (IoT) is made up of all devices that are connected to the internet and that have the ability to send data to one another. Devices on the IoT can range from kitchen appliances to vehicles and the growing number of connected devices leaves the IoT more vulnerab | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,940 |
the number of connected devices to the internet has increased from 15.41 billion to 20.35 billion in 2017. Additionally that number is expected to exponentially increase to 75.44 billion by 2025 [1]. The Internet of Things (IoT) is made up of all devices that are connected to the internet and that have the ability to send data to one another. Devices on the IoT can range from kitchen appliances to vehicles and the growing number of connected devices leaves the IoT more vulnerab | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,941 |
le to attack than ever.
FIGURE 1. Number of Connected Devices in Billions [1]
The vulnerabilities in the IoT stem mostly from the heterogeneous nature of devices that communicate. Devices on the IoT have multiple different functions and the amount of computing power that each device has varies. This makes it tough to find a common security protocol that could be applied to all devices. Blockchaining could solve the problems with securing IoT devices.
IoT is a | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,942 |
le to attack than ever.
FIGURE 1. Number of Connected Devices in Billions [1]
The vulnerabilities in the IoT stem mostly from the heterogeneous nature of devices that communicate. Devices on the IoT have multiple different functions and the amount of computing power that each device has varies. This makes it tough to find a common security protocol that could be applied to all devices. Blockchaining could solve the problems with securing IoT devices.
IoT is a | [
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growing industry for people all around the world. The increase of smart devices and appliances has led to a dramatic increase in connected devices, as shown in Fig 1. IoT has amazing potential to bring a slew of devices together and allow them to communicate. All of these devices are linked in some way through the internet. The problem is that each device could have several differences that make security protocols hard to develop for IoT and therefore there are many exploits that exist.
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,944 |
Our proposal is to use blockchains to secure the IoT network. We call our system BID (Blockchaining for IoT devices) and it uses a Proof of Stake (PoS) algorithm in order to achieve security. The decentralized nature of a blockchain is perfect to keep attackers at bay. The immutability of the blocks also allows for a permanent ledger to track all transactions that have been made. The use of Public and Private keys also allows for a secure way to keep information private. Also usi | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,945 |
Our proposal is to use blockchains to secure the IoT network. We call our system BID (Blockchaining for IoT devices) and it uses a Proof of Stake (PoS) algorithm in order to achieve security. The decentralized nature of a blockchain is perfect to keep attackers at bay. The immutability of the blocks also allows for a permanent ledger to track all transactions that have been made. The use of Public and Private keys also allows for a secure way to keep information private. Also usi | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,946 |
ng smart appliances as stake in the system means that it can only have one owner. This makes it tough for attackers to gain control of the devices since transferring devices will be difficult. §
The remainder of the paper is as follows: section II will discuss our motivation, section III will discuss the key components to the system and briefly explain what each part is, section IV explains the methodology to the development of the blockchain, section V will | [
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review literature related to our research, section VI will provide an analysis and evaluation of the efficiency of our system, and section VII will state our conclusion and guidelines for future work.
SECTION: II. MOTIVIATION
The rise of the technological age has made people and their information more vulnerable than ever. An attack on a person or their identity could come at any time. With the increase in the amount of connected devices, the number of attacks also increases. In [2], the | [
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",",
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,948 |
authors describe the four layers of IoT and how each one is vulnerable with solutions to solve these vulnerabilities. Technology is also becoming more complex as time goes on. This can be overwhelming for someone who is not as used to technology and thus it may lead to downloading malicious content [3]. This paper focuses on all four layers of IoT and how blockchaining can be use to create a secure, decentralized system to handle it all.
SECTION: III. CORE COMPONENTS OF BLOCKCHAINING
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,949 |
authors describe the four layers of IoT and how each one is vulnerable with solutions to solve these vulnerabilities. Technology is also becoming more complex as time goes on. This can be overwhelming for someone who is not as used to technology and thus it may lead to downloading malicious content [3]. This paper focuses on all four layers of IoT and how blockchaining can be use to create a secure, decentralized system to handle it all.
SECTION: III. CORE COMPONENTS OF BLOCKCHAINING
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ockchaining was first introduced with the creation of Bitcoin back in 2008. It is used to create a decentralized system in order to keep data more secure. A blockchain uses public and private keys in order to verify transactions that form a block. A block is made up of a hash, several transactions and the hash of the previous block, and a nonce. Blockchains use the 256 bit secure hashing algorithm (SHA-256) [4] hash algorithm in order to create hashes based on the data | [
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that is contained within that blockchain. Transactions are objects that have several different properties that include sender key, receiver key, time stamp, and signature. The blockchain also uses a consensus algorithm that verifies the validity of a blockchain. The following sections will further explain the elements of a block on a blockchain.
SUBSECTION: A. Hashes and Previous Hashes
The blockchain hashing function uses SHA-256 algorithm in order to create hash | [
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] | BID Blockchaining for IoT Devices | 1,953 |
have been pushed to the blockchain. This also protects from replay attacks. Replay attacks are when valid data transmissions are replayed or delayed in order to be used for malicious intent [5]. The hash and previous hash in combination with the nonce makes it so that blocks cannot be repeated.
SUBSECTION: B. Nonce
The nonce is a number that is only ever used once in a system. The nonce helps the hashing algorithm create unique hashes for all of the blocks on the blockcha | [
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in. This is done by adding a number only never seen before in the system. That allows blocks with the same types of transactions to have different hashes. Though it is fairly uncommon, it is possible to have two blocks with the exact same transaction history. The nonce adds to that by making the SHA-256 algorithm less likely to calculate similar hashes.
SUBSECTION: C. Transactions
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untitled
2017 International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS -2017), Jan. 06 – 07, 2017, Coimbatore, INDIA
Survey of Consensus Protocols on Blockchain
Applications
Lakshmi Siva Sankar
TIFAC-CORE in Cyber Security
Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amrita University, India
[email protected]
Sindhu M.
TIFAC-CORE in Cyber Security
Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amrita University, India | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,956 |
untitled
2017 International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS -2017), Jan. 06 – 07, 2017, Coimbatore, INDIA
Survey of Consensus Protocols on Blockchain
Applications
Lakshmi Siva Sankar
TIFAC-CORE in Cyber Security
Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amrita University, India
[email protected]
Sindhu M.
TIFAC-CORE in Cyber Security
Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amrita University, India | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,957 |
[email protected]
M. Sethumadhavan
TIFAC-CORE in Cyber Security
Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amrita University, India
[email protected]
Abstract— Blockchain is a distributed,
transparent, immutable ledger. Consensus protocol
forms the core of blockchain. They decide how a
blockchain works. With the advent of new possibilities
in blockchain technology, researchers are keen to find
a well-optimized Byzantine fault tolerant consensus
protocol. Cre | [
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ating a global consensus protocol or
tailoring a cross-platform plug and play software
application for implementation of various consensus
protocols are ideas of huge interest. Stellar Consensus
Protocol (SCP) is considered to be a global consensus
protocol and promises to be Byzantine Fault Tolerant
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and federated byzantine fault tolerance. This
consensus's working and its comparison with other
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,959 |
ating a global consensus protocol or
tailoring a cross-platform plug and play software
application for implementation of various consensus
protocols are ideas of huge interest. Stellar Consensus
Protocol (SCP) is considered to be a global consensus
protocol and promises to be Byzantine Fault Tolerant
(BFT) by bringing with it the concept of quorum slices
and federated byzantine fault tolerance. This
consensus's working and its comparison with other
protocols that were earlier proposed are analyze | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,960 |
d
here. Also, hyperledger an open-source project by
Linux Foundation which includes implementing the
concept of practical byzantine fault tolerance and also
a platform where various other consensus protocols
and blockchain applications can be deployed in a plug
and play manner is also being discussed here. This
paper focuses on analyzing these consensus protocols
already proposed and their feasibility and efficiency in
meeting the characteristics they propose to provide.
Keywords—Blockchain; Byz | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,961 |
d
here. Also, hyperledger an open-source project by
Linux Foundation which includes implementing the
concept of practical byzantine fault tolerance and also
a platform where various other consensus protocols
and blockchain applications can be deployed in a plug
and play manner is also being discussed here. This
paper focuses on analyzing these consensus protocols
already proposed and their feasibility and efficiency in
meeting the characteristics they propose to provide.
Keywords—Blockchain; Byz | [
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".",
"A",
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".",
"The",
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"head",
"will",
"make",
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"that",
"the",
"consensus",
"that",
"is",
"followed",
"is",
"the",
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".",
"This",
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"more",
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"having",
"a",
"centralized",
"body",
"like",
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"in",
"different",
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".",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"##j",
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"##ly",
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"##rda",
"[",
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"is",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"implementation",
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"is",
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"to",
"auto",
"##mate",
"financial",
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".",
"There",
"are",
"also",
"other",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"applications",
"like",
"Te",
"##zo",
"[",
"7",
"]",
"that",
"claims",
"to",
"be",
"self",
"-",
"am",
"##ending",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"application",
".",
"The",
"consensus",
"protocol",
"in",
"this",
"application",
"is",
"not",
"just",
"for",
"valid",
"##ation",
"but",
"also",
"for",
"up",
"##grading",
"the",
"system",
"itself",
".",
"Music",
"artists",
"can",
"record",
"their",
"work",
"into",
"a",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
"music",
"platform",
"U",
"##jo",
".",
"This",
"is",
"a",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"recorded",
"as",
"smart",
"contracts",
"[",
"6",
"]",
".",
"III",
".",
"CO",
"##NS",
"##EN",
"##SU",
"##S",
"AL",
"##G",
"##OR",
"##IT",
"##H",
"##M",
"Li",
"##teral",
"##ly",
"consensus",
"mean",
"is",
"agreement",
".",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"algorithms",
"are",
"those",
"algorithms",
"that",
"help",
"a",
"distributed",
"or",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
"network",
"to",
"unanimously",
"take",
"a",
"decision",
"whenever",
"necessary",
".",
"Its",
"features",
"include",
"ass",
"##uring",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
"governance",
",",
"q",
"##uo",
"##rum",
"structure",
",",
"authentic",
"##ation",
",",
"integrity",
",",
"non",
"-",
"re",
"##pu",
"##diation",
",",
"by",
"##zan",
"##tine",
"fault",
"tolerance",
"and",
"performance",
"[",
"11",
"]",
".",
"The",
"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"uses",
"the",
"concept",
"of",
"\"",
"proof",
"of",
"work",
"\"",
".",
"There",
"are",
"other",
"forms",
"of",
"consensus",
"protocols",
"applying",
"the",
"concept",
"of",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
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"##ake",
"(",
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")",
",",
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")",
",",
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"##of",
"of",
"Ex",
"##ist",
"##ence",
"(",
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"##E",
")",
",",
"Del",
"##eg",
"##ated",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"St",
"##ake",
"(",
"D",
"##P",
"##o",
"##S",
")",
",",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Act",
"##ivity",
"(",
"hybrid",
"of",
"proof",
"of",
"work",
"and",
"proof",
"of",
"stake",
")",
",",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"I",
"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
",",
"proof",
"of"
] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,962 |
antine Fault
Tolerance; Consensus Protocol; Quorum Slice
I.INTRODUCTION
Trade has been a part of our day-to-day activities
even before the time of industrialization. The famous
Barter system, which was to sell or exchange
commodities according to ones need. But trade is not just
that, it is also based on trust among those who take part in
it. Barter system proved to be impractical, as people did
not know whom to trust. Thus evolved the system of
Triple- entry book keeping [1], where a trusted | [
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"a"
] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,963 |
antine Fault
Tolerance; Consensus Protocol; Quorum Slice
I.INTRODUCTION
Trade has been a part of our day-to-day activities
even before the time of industrialization. The famous
Barter system, which was to sell or exchange
commodities according to ones need. But trade is not just
that, it is also based on trust among those who take part in
it. Barter system proved to be impractical, as people did
not know whom to trust. Thus evolved the system of
Triple- entry book keeping [1], where a trusted | [
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"In",
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",",
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"Each",
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"(",
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,964 |
third party,
equally trusted upon by either of those who are involved
in the trade will keep record of the transaction details
along with the participants of trade. This could provide
authenticity, non-repudiation and integrity. But too much
trust on third-party did not seem to be a secured way of
trade. This is solved cryptographically with the
introduction of digital signatures. Authenticity and
integrity are provided using elliptic curve digital signature
algorithm, thus providing security. B | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,965 |
third party,
equally trusted upon by either of those who are involved
in the trade will keep record of the transaction details
along with the participants of trade. This could provide
authenticity, non-repudiation and integrity. But too much
trust on third-party did not seem to be a secured way of
trade. This is solved cryptographically with the
introduction of digital signatures. Authenticity and
integrity are provided using elliptic curve digital signature
algorithm, thus providing security. B | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,966 |
ut that could not
prevent the system from double spending attacks. Double
spending occurs when, say a party A exchanges one of his
"share Y", with a party B in exchange for a "share X". A
being a malicious user cunningly exchanges the same
"share Y" with a party C for a "share Z". Since party C is
unaware of the transaction between A and B it agrees for
this transaction with A. Now A has shares X and Z. This
occurred because C did not know about the transaction
between A and B.
The solution to t | [
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"2017",
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"Conference"
] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,967 |
ut that could not
prevent the system from double spending attacks. Double
spending occurs when, say a party A exchanges one of his
"share Y", with a party B in exchange for a "share X". A
being a malicious user cunningly exchanges the same
"share Y" with a party C for a "share Z". Since party C is
unaware of the transaction between A and B it agrees for
this transaction with A. Now A has shares X and Z. This
occurred because C did not know about the transaction
between A and B.
The solution to t | [
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his problem was to provide replicas
of the transaction and distribute it to all, so that everybody
gets to know who all have traded what all. This is the
concept of distributed systems, maintains replicas of a
data distributed over a network, thus providing integrity.
This required the entities of the system to be available all
the time a transaction is made. Hurdles like geographical
location of various systems, varied time zones etc. also
made the proposed idea next to impractical. This brought | [
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",",
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".",
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",",
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,969 |
his problem was to provide replicas
of the transaction and distribute it to all, so that everybody
gets to know who all have traded what all. This is the
concept of distributed systems, maintains replicas of a
data distributed over a network, thus providing integrity.
This required the entities of the system to be available all
the time a transaction is made. Hurdles like geographical
location of various systems, varied time zones etc. also
made the proposed idea next to impractical. This brought | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,970 |
in the idea of peer-to-peer networks into consideration.
Now all the peers could get information on all
transactions and also validate them. And the number of
peers required to validate could be decided as zero, where
the traders validate transaction (they trust each other) or n-
transaction where minimum of n peers must validate the
transaction to be confirmed.
But there is a possibility for an attacker to create n
number of false peers and validate his in valid transaction.
This is called the S | [
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] | Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications | 1,971 |