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27580087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant-cell%20carcinoma%20of%20the%20lung | Giant-cell carcinoma of the lung | Giant-cell carcinoma of the lung (GCCL) is a rare histological form of large-cell lung carcinoma, a subtype of undifferentiated lung cancer, traditionally classified within the non-small-cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC).
The characteristic feature of this highly lethal malignancy is the distinctive light microscopic appearance of its extremely large cells, which are bizarre and highly pleomorphic, and which often contain more than one huge, misshapen, pleomorphic nucleus ("syncytia"), which result from cell fusion.
Although it is common in the lung cancer literature to refer to histologically mixed tumors containing significant numbers of malignant giant cells as "giant-cell carcinomas", technically a diagnosis of "giant-cell carcinoma" should be limited strictly to neoplasms containing only malignant giant cells (i.e. "pure" giant-cell carcinoma).
Aside from the great heterogeneity seen in lung cancers (especially those occurring among tobacco smokers), the considerable variability in diagnostic and sampling techniques used in medical practice, the high relative proportion of individuals with suspected GCCL who do not undergo complete surgical resection, and the near-universal lack of complete sectioning and pathological examination of resected tumor specimens prevent high levels of quantitative accuracy.
Classification
For several decades, primary lung cancers were consistently dichotomously classified for treatment and research purposes into small-cell lung carcinomas (SCLCs) and non-small-cell lung carcinomas (NSCLCs), based on an oversimplified approach that is now clearly outmoded. The new paradigm recognizes that lung cancers are a large and extremely heterogeneous family of malignant neoplasms, with over 50 different histological variants included in the 4th (2004) revision of the World Health Organization typing system, the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme ("WHO-2004"). These variants are increasingly appreciated as having different genetic, biological, and clinical properties, including prognoses and responses to treatment regimens, and therefore, that correct and consistent histological classification of lung cancers are necessary to validate and implement optimum management strategies.
About 1% of lung cancers are sarcomas, germ cell tumors, and hematopoietic tumors, while 99% of lung cancers are carcinoma. Carcinomas are tumors composed of transformed, abnormal cells with epithelial tissue architecture and/or molecular characteristics, and which derive from embryonic endoderm. Eight major taxa of lung carcinomas are recognized within the WHO-2004 classification:
Small-cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Large-cell carcinoma
Adenosquamous carcinoma
Sarcomatoid carcinoma
Carcinoid
Salivary gland-like carcinoma
The subclassification of GCCL among these major taxa has undergone significant changes in recent decades. Under the 2nd revision (1981) of the WHO classification, it was considered a subtype of large-cell carcinoma. In the 3rd (1999) revision, it was placed within a taxon called "Carcinomas with Pleomorphic, Sarcomatoid, or Sarcomatous Elements", along with pleomorphic carcinoma, spindle cell carcinoma, carcinosarcoma, and pulmonary blastoma, which are (arguably) related variants. While the 4th revision ("WHO-2004") retained the same grouping of lesions as the 3rd revision, the name of the major taxon was shortened to "sarcomatoid carcinomas".
The current rules for classifying lung cancers under WHO-2004, while useful and improved, remain to some extent fairly complex, ambiguous, arbitrary, and incomplete. Although it is fairly common for mixed tumors that are seen to contain malignant giant cells to be called "giant-cell carcinomas", accurate classification of a pulmonary tumor as a GCCL requires that the entire tumor consists only of malignant giant cells. Therefore, complete sampling of the entire tumor — obtained via a surgical resection — is absolutely necessary for a definitive diagnosis of GCCL to be made.
Cytology
The background contained numerous lymphocytes and neutrophils. The shape of the tumor cell was spindle or pleomorphic, and the sizes of the tumor cells varied by more than 5-fold. The tumor cells had an abundant, thick and well-demarcated cytoplasm. The location of the nucleus was centrifugal, and the nucleus was oval or irregularly shaped. Multinucleated giant cells were frequently observed. The size of the nucleus was more than 5 times that of normal lymphocytes, and its size also varied by more than 5-fold. The nuclear membrane was thin, and nuclear chromatin was coarsely granular, while the nucleolus was single and round.
In cytological preparations, giant cells typically appear as single cells or in flat loose clusters, and occasionally in fascicles.
GCCL are considered a member of the most common type of lung cancer, called "non-small-cell carcinomas". This group of lethal neoplasms make up approximately 85% of all lung cancers. By the definition of "large-vs.-small-cell carcinoma", the diameter of GCCL cells must be considerably greater than three times that of a resting (i.e. unstimulated) lymphocyte. Also by definition, GCCL do not contain any amount of these small, neurosecretory granule-containing, neuroendocrine cells that are characteristic of small-cell carcinomas — when they do, the tumor should be classified as a combined small-cell carcinoma.
Compared to most other lung cancer variants, cells comprising GCCL tend to be much larger (up to 150 micrometers diameter, or even larger), Both cells and nuclei show extreme variation in size distribution and shape. Carcinomatous giant cells carcinoma nuclei have been reported to average 5 times the size of lymphocyte nuclei.
The cells from giant-cell carcinomas are anaplastic, and show no evidence of cell maturation or differentiation, lacking the cytological and tissue architectural characteristics of squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, neuroendocrine carcinomas, or other more differentiated lung cancer cell types. They tend to be highly pleomorphic (i.e. variable in characteristics), but are most often round and/or polygonal in shape, with a relatively low nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio. When associated with spindle cells, as they very frequently are in tumors with mixed histology, malignant giant cells tend to form loosely cohesive aggregate structures on cytological examination. However, when a biopsy sample consists purely of malignant giant cells, the cells tend to be single and disaggregated.
Case series suggest that the relative number of giant cells in a given tumor are generally directly proportional to the size of the tumor, and to the relative amount of necrosis.
Giant cells in a lung cancer are highly associated with the presence of spindle cells.
The chromatin of malignant giant cells tends to be hyperchromatic and coarsely clumped. Nucleoli are usually multiple and prominent.
Subcellular characteristics often noted in the malignant giant cells of GCCL cases include abundant mitochondria, concentric whorls of tonofilament-like fibrils, and aggregates of several pairs of centrioles.
Both "tumor cell-tumor cell" and "leukocyte-tumor cell" emperipolesis (i.e. active penetration of the latter by the former) is very commonly seen in cases of GCCL.
Tissue architectural features
In mixed tumors, giant cells are more likely to be found in higher proportions at the edge of a tumor. When extensive necrosis is present, it is possible for a giant-cell tumor to have only a thin rim of viable cells remaining at the perimeter of the mass.
In one early case series, abundant production of loose malignant giant cells were noted to fill the alveoli of patients without destroying, infiltrating, or disturbing the normal underlying architecture, a pathologic behavior that bears some resemblance to the pneumonic variant of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma.
Extensive tumor necrosis and hemorrhage is extremely common in GCCL.
Although the issue has not been extensively studied in a controlled fashion, GCCLs have been noted to contain significantly elevated levels of VEGF. However, in one study where a giant-cell carcinoma tumor that had been completely excised was sectioned and examined, no qualitative or quantitative abnormalities in tissue vascularization were noted.
GCCL have been noted to be encapsulated, and to be divided via septa into "pseudolobules", by a highly fibrous stroma, suggested to be produced commensurately with tumor growth. The capsule is typically infiltrated with malignant giant cells.
Macroscopic features
Giant-cell carcinomas of the lung frequently show extensive necrosis and myxoid degeneration.
A trend toward less vascularity and tissue density (with lower contrast enhancement on CT) has been noted toward the center of these lesions, especially in larger tumors, and even in tumors without a significant volume of gross necrosis.
Grossly, the cut surfaces of these malignancies are often gray-white or tan, and frequently show myxoid, necrotic, and/or hemorrhagic foci. These sorts of areas often show low levels of contrast enhancement on CT scanning.
Low encapsularity and high levels of tissue collagen tend to be observed, with high contrast enhancement in these areas.
GCCL have been seen to develop from/in emphysematous bullae.
Staining and immunohistochemistry
A case of a brain metastasis from a giant-cell lung carcinoma (both "pure") tested positive for cytokeratins AE1/AE3, and negative for CK-7, CK-20, TTF-1, and GFAP.
GCCL cells often stain intensely by Periodic acid-Schiff reagent, suggesting the presence of significant amounts of glycogen in the cell cytoplasm.
Differential diagnosis
Under light microscopy, the giant malignant pleomorphic cells making up a GCCL resemble those found in choriocarcinoma, angiosarcoma, and some forms of true sarcoma, such as malignant fibrous histiocytoma and rhabdomyosarcoma. In some instances, they can also bear considerable resemblance to "activated" histiocytes seen in some inflammatory conditions.
A rare and potentially difficult differential diagnostic dilemma occurs when GCCLs must be separated from pulmonary or mediastinal choriocarcinomas, a critical distinction to be made because while there is a known standard of care for treating choriocarcinoma, as yet there is no generally accepted specific standard treatment for GCCL. Careful review of cell morphology is key to their delineation — while GCCLs show great variation in cell size distributions and morphologies in tumors, choriocarcinomas consistently contain only syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts. GCCL and primary pulmonary choriocarcinoma can also be differentiated on the basis of ultrastructural features by electron microscopy, although EM is not yet widely applicable.
Occasionally, a bone metastasis of a GCCL could potentially be mistaken for a primary giant-cell tumor of bone — the latter entity can behave as a neoplasm of benign, frankly malignant, or borderline in its clinical behavior.
Sites of metastasis
GCCLs are particularly notable among lung cancers for their extremely unusual tendency to metastasize to the small intestine, occasionally causing obstruction, severe bleeding, and/or intussusception. This clinical characteristic of GCCL has been seen in cases spanning over half a century in time.
Within the small bowel, the jejunum seems to be a preferred site for metastasis of GCCL.
GCCL also often metastasizes to bone, adrenal, brain, lung, liver, kidney,
Brain metastases from GCCL are particularly likely to cause significant cerebral hemorrhages as compared to other lung cancer variants, probably due to greatly increased rates of endothelial proliferation and neovascularization, tumor tissue growth, extensive necrosis, and aggressive local infiltrative character of GCCL cells.
Pathogenesis
Several studies, both in giant-cell tumor specimens and in cell lines, have identified rearrangement and amplification of the c-myc oncogene, sometimes in combination with mutations of the K-ras gene.
Overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been shown to occur in GCCL and is thought to be related to the high metastatic potential of this lung cancer variant.
Malignant giant cells identical to those found in GCCL commonly occur in lung cancer cases with a prominent major or minor clear-cell carcinoma pattern (for a discussion about this variant, see for example). They have been hypothesized to derive from an undifferentiated multipotent malignant stem cell precursor that is generated in distal bronchioles via an as yet unknown oncogenetic pathway or oncogenetic driver.
Ultrastructurally, malignant giant cells often contain accumulations of microfilaments arranged in whorls near the cell nucleus. These entities appear similar in structure to microfilaments and bundles found in the D1 cell of the gastro-entero-pancreatic endocrine system, and it has been proposed that these D1 cells may be the cancer stem cell for at least some GCCLs. Identically appearing whorled filament structures have also been produced in certain airway cells of animals after treatment with carcinogenic nitrosamines.
Ultrastructural studies have suggested that the malignant giant cells in GCCL are of endodermal lineage.
Remarkably fast growing tumors.
Combined/multiphasic tumors containing giant cells
Malignant giant cells are commonly found — and vary in relative proportion to a greater or lesser degree — in both primary tumors and metastatases of many different variants of lung carcinomas. A number of authors have noted that bizarre malignant giant cells occur more commonly in primary and secondary tumors — including any remaining tumor "deposits" — that have previously been treated with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy in adjuvant or neoadjuvant protocols.
Imaging characteristics
GCCL often presents as a large peripheral mass that is severely cavitated.
In a radiographic study of almost 2,000 lung cancer patients published 50 years ago, 3.4% of lung carcinomas proved to be cavitated masses, most of which were squamous cell carcinoma.
In a number of cases of severe cavitation, the resected tumor remnant consists of only a thin rim of proliferating cells.
Positron emission tomography scanning
On positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, GCCL has been found to have exceedingly high standardized uptake values (SUV) for radioactive glucose, values that are statistically significantly higher than in other histological variants of lung cancer.
Metabolic pathways
PET scanning suggests that GCCL are tumors with particularly rapid metabolism, and that the metabolic pathways of GCCL may be unusually dependent on, or interlinked to, glycolysis.
Paraneoplastic syndromes
GCCL have been long known for secretion of the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (beta-HCG), often in large amounts, which can lead to very high levels of estrogen and painful gynecomastia (breast enlargement) in males as paraneoplastic signs.
Giant-cell lung cancers are well known for their paraneoplastic production and secretion of granulopoietic colony stimulating factor (G-CSF)
GCCL has also been reported to produce plasminogen activator as a paraneoplastic phenomenon.
Treatment
Because of its rarity, there have been no randomized clinical trials of treatment of GCCL, and all information available derives from small retrospective institutional series or multicenter metadata.
Prognosis
Giant-cell lung cancers have long been considered to be exceptionally aggressive malignancies that grow very rapidly and have a very poor prognosis.
Many small series have suggested that the prognosis of lung tumors with giant cells is worse than that of most other forms of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), including squamous cell carcinoma, and spindle cell carcinoma.
The overall five-year survival rate in GCCL varies between studies but is generally considered to be very low. The (US) Armed Forces Institute of Pathology has reported a figure of 10%, and in a study examining over 150,000 lung cancer cases, a figure of 11.8% was given. However, in the latter report the 11.8% figure was based on data that included spindle cell carcinoma, a variant which is generally considered to have a less dismal prognosis than GCCL. Therefore, the likely survival of "pure" GCCL is probably lower than the stated figure.
In the large 1995 database review by Travis and colleagues, giant-cell carcinoma has the third-worst prognosis among 18 histological forms of lung cancer. (Only small-cell carcinoma and large-cell carcinoma had shorter average survival.)
Most GCCL have already grown and invaded locally and/or regionally, and/or have already metastasized distantly, and are inoperable, at the time of diagnosis.
Epidemiology
The true incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCCL is generally unknown due to a lack of accurate cancer data on a national level. It is known to be a very rare tumor variant in all populations examined, however. In an American study of a database of over 60,000 lung cancers, GCCL comprised between 0.3% and 0.4% of primary pulmonary malignancies, with an age-adjusted incidence rate of about 3 new cases per million persons per year. With approximately 220,000 total lung cancers diagnosed in the US each year, the proportion suggests that approximately 660 and 880 new cases are diagnosed in Americans annually.
However, in a more recent series of 4,212 consecutive lung cancer cases, only one (0.024%) lesion was determined to be a "pure" giant-cell carcinoma after complete sectioning of all available tumor tissue. While some evidence suggests GCCL may have been considerably more common several decades ago, with one series identifying 3.4% of all lung carcinomas as giant-cell malignancies, it is possible that this number reflect
Most published case series and reports on giant cell-containing lung cancers show that they are diagnosed much more frequently in men than they are in women, with some studies showing extremely high male-to-female ratios (12:1 or more). In a study of over 150,000 people with lung cancer in the US, however, the gender ratio was just over 2:1, with women actually having a higher relative proportion of giant-cell cancers (0.4%) than men (0.3%).
Giant-cell carcinomas have been reported to be diagnosed in a significantly younger population than all non-small-cell carcinomas considered as a group. Like nearly all lung carcinomas, however, GCCs are exceedingly rare in very young people: in the US SEER program, only 2 cases were recorded to occur in persons younger than 30 years of age between 1983 and 1987. The average age at diagnosis of these tumors has been estimated at 60 years.
The vast majority of individuals with GCCL are heavy smokers.
Although the definitions of "central" and "peripheral" can vary between studies, GCCL are consistently diagnosed much more frequently in the lung periphery. In a review of literature compiled by Kallenburg and co-workers, less than 30% of GCCLs arose in the hilum or other parts of the "central" pulmonary tree.
A significant predilection for genesis of GCCL in the upper lobes of patients has also been postulated.
History
Most sources credit Nash and Stout with publishing the first detailed report in the medical literature recognizing GCCL as a distinct clinicopathological entity in 1958. However, there is some evidence that suggests this tumor phenotype was described as early as 1951. In a report on 3 cases of giant-cell lung carcinoma published in 1961 by Z.M. Naib, the author cites 2 previous studies related to GCCL — one published in 1951 by M.M. Patton and co-workers, and one published in 1955 by Walton and Pryce. In 1969, Dr. Alexander Kennedy, in a case series of 3 GCCL Kennedy published in 1969, credited Hadley and Bullock with the first usage of the term "giant-cell carcinoma" 16 years prior.
GCCL was first confirmed as an epithelial tumor (and not a dedifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma) in 1961. In 1964–65, theories were postulated that GCCLs were dediffentiated adenocarcinomas and, in some cases, were thought to derive from clear-cell adenocarcinomas.
References
External links
(Download Page).
Lung cancer |
2633439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udayagiri%20Caves | Udayagiri Caves | The Udayagiri Caves are twenty rock-cut caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh primarily denoted to Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva from the early years of the 3rd century CE to 5th century CE. They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India. They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period monarch from its inscriptions. One of India's most important archaeological sites, the Udayagiri hills and its caves are protected monuments managed by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Udayagiri caves contain iconography of Hinduism and Jainism . They are notable for the ancient monumental relief sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the man-boar Varaha, rescuing the earth symbolically represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar's tusk as described in Hindu mythology. The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I (c. 415-55). In addition to these, Udayagiri has a series of rock-shelters and petroglyphs, ruined buildings, inscriptions, water systems, fortifications and habitation mounds, all of which remain a subject of continuing archaeological studies. The Udayagiri Caves complex consists of twenty caves, of which one is dedicated to Jainism and all others to Hinduism. The Jain cave is notable for one of the oldest known Jaina inscriptions from 425 CE, while the Hindu caves feature inscriptions from 401 CE.
There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Odisha.
Etymology
Udayagiri, literally means the 'sunrise mountain'. The region of Udayagiri and Vidisha was a Buddhist and Bhagavata site by the 2nd century BCE as evidenced by the stupas of Sanchi and the Heliodorus pillar. While the Heliodorus pillar has been preserved, others have survived in ruins. Buddhism was prominent in Sanchi, near Udayagiri, in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. According to Dass and Willis, recent archaeological evidence such as the Udayagiri Lion Capital suggests that there was a Sun Temple at Udayagiri. The Surya tradition in Udayagiri dates at least from the 2nd century BCE, and possibly one that predated the arrival of Buddhism. It is this tradition that gives it the 'sunrise mountain' name.
The town is referred to as Udaygiri or Udaigiri in some texts. The site is also referred to as Visnupadagiri, as in inscriptions at the site. The term means the hill at 'the feet of Vishnu'.
Location
Udayagiri Caves are set in two low hills near Betwa River, on the banks of its tributary Bes River. This is an isolated ridge about long, running from southeast to northwest, rising to about height. The hill is rocky and consists of horizontal layers of white sandstone, a material common in the region. They are about west of the town of Vidisha, about northeast of the Buddhist site of Sanchi, and northeast of Bhopal. The site is connected to the capital Bhopal by a highway. Bhopal is the nearest major railway station and airport with regular services.
Udayagiri is slightly north of the current Tropic of Cancer, but over a millennium ago it would have been nearer and directly on it. Udayagiri residents must have seen the sun directly overhead on the Summer solstice day, and this likely played a role in the sacred of this site for the Hindus.
History
The site at Udayagiri Caves was the patronage of Chandragupta II, who is widely accepted by scholars to have ruled the Gupta Empire in central India between c. 380-414 CE. The Udayagiri Caves were created in final decades of the 4th-century, and consecrated in 401 CE. This is based on three inscriptions:
A post-consecration Sanskrit inscription in Cave 6 by a Vaishnava minister, the inscription mentions Chandragupta II and "year 82" (old Indian Gupta calendar, c. 401 CE). This is sometimes referred to as the "inscription in Chandragupta cave" or the "Chandragupta inscription of Udayagiri".
A Shaiva devotee's Sanskrit inscription on the back wall of Cave 7, which does not mention a date but the information therein suggests it too is from 5th-century.
A Sanskrit inscription in Cave 20 by a Jainism devotee dated 425 CE. This is sometimes referred to as the "Kumaragupta inscription of Udayagiri".
These inscriptions are not isolated. There are a number of additional stone inscriptions elsewhere at the Udayagiri site and nearby which mention court officials and Chandragupta II. Further the site also contains inscriptions from later centuries providing a firm floruit for historical events, religious beliefs and the development of Indian script. For example, a Sanskrit inscription found on the left pillar at the entrance of Cave 19 states a date of Vikrama 1093 (c. 1037 CE), mentions the word Visnupada, states that this temple that was made by Chandragupta, and its script is Nagari both for alphabet and numerals. Many of the early inscriptions in this region is in Sankha Lipi, yet to be deciphered in a way that a majority of scholars would accept it.
Archaeological excavations of the 20th century on mounds between Vidisha rampart and Udayagiri have yielded evidence that suggests that Udayagiri and Vidisha formed a contiguous human settlement zone in the ancient times. Udayagiri hills would have been the suburb of Vidisha located near the confluence of two rivers The Udayagiri Caves are likely euphemistically mentioned in Kalidasa text Meghduta in section 1.25 as the "Silavesma on the Nicaih hill", or the pleasure spot of Vidisha elites on the caves filled hill.
Between the 5th-century and the 12th-century, the Udayagiri site remained important to Hindu pilgrims as sacred geography. This is evidenced by a number of inscriptions in scripts that have been deciphered. Some inscriptions between the 9th and the 12th centuries, for example, mention land grants to the temple, an ancient tradition that provided resources for the maintenance and operation of significant temples. These do not mention famous kings. Some of these inscriptions mention grant from people who may have been regional chiefs, while others read like common people who cannot be traced to any text or other inscriptions in Central India. One Sanskrit inscription, for example, is a pilgrim named Damodara's record from 1179 CE who made a donation to the temple.
Delhi Iron Pillar
Some historians have suggested that the iron pillar in the courtyard of Quwwat-ul-Islam at the Qutb Minar site in Delhi originally stood at Udayagiri. The Delhi pillar is accepted by most scholars as one brought to Delhi from another distant site in India, but scholars do not agree on which site or when this relocation happened. If the Udayagiri source proposal is true, this implies that the site was targeted, artifacts damaged and removed during an invasion of the region by Delhi Sultanate armies in or about the early 13th-century, possibly those of Sultan named Iltutmish. This theory is based on multiple pieces of evidence such as the closeness of its design and style with pillars found in Udayagiri-Vidisha region, the images found on Gupta era coins (numismatics), the lack of evidence for alternate sites so far proposed, the claims in Persian made by Muslim court historians of Delhi Sultanate about the loot brought to Delhi after invasions particularly related to the pillar and Quwwat-ul-Islam, and particularly the Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script on the Delhi Iron Pillar which mentions a Chandra's (Chandragupta II) devotion to Vishnu, and it being installed in Visnupadagiri. These proposals state that this Visnupadagiri is best interpreted as Udayagiri around 400 CE.
Archaeological scholarship
The Udayagiri Caves were first studied in depth and reported by Alexander Cunningham in the 1870s. His site and iconography-related report appeared in Volume 10 of Tour Reports published by the Archaeological Survey of India, while the inscriptions and drawings of the Lion Capital at the site appeared in Volume 1 of the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicum. His comments that Udayagiri is an exclusively Hinduism and Jainism-related site, it being close to the Buddhist site of Sanchi and the Bhagavata-related Heliodorus pillar, and his dating parts of the site to between 2nd century BCE and early 5th century CE brought it to scholarly attention.
The early Udayagiri Caves reports appealed to the prevailing conjecture about the rise and fall of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, the hypothesis that Buddhist art predated Hindu and Jaina arts, and that Hindus may have built their monuments by reusing Buddhist ones or on top of Buddhist ones. Cunningham presumed that the broken Lion Capital at the Udayagiri Caves may be an evidence for these, and he categorized Udayagiri as originally a Buddhist site converted into a Hindu and Jaina one by "Brahmanical prosecutors". However, nothing in or around the cave looked Buddhist, no Buddhist inscriptions or texts supported this, and it did not explain why these "Brahmanical prosecutors" did not demolish the nearby bigger Sanchi site. The working hypothesis then became that the Lion Capital platform stood on a Buddhist stupa, and that if excavations were done in and around the Udayagiri Caves hills then the evidence will emerge. Such an excavation was completed and reported by archaeologists Lake and Bhandarkar in early 1910s. No evidence was found. Bhandarkar, a strong proponent of the 'Buddhist converted to Hindu' site hypothesis, went further with excavations. He, state Dass and Willis, went so far as "to ransack the platform" at the Udayagiri Caves site, in an effort "to find the stupa he was certain lay below". However, after an exhaustive search, his team failed to find anything underneath the platform or nearby that was even vaguely Buddhist.
The archaeological excavations in the 1910s in the area of the nearby Heliodorus pillar yielded unexpected results, such as the inscription of Heliodorus, which confirmed that Vāsudeva and Bhagavatism (early forms of Vaishnavism) were influential by the 2nd century BCE, and which linked the Udayagiri-Besnagar-Vidisha region politically and religiously to the ancient Indo-Greek capital of Taxila.
In the 1960s, a team led by archaeologist Khare revisited a broader region, at seven mounds, which included the nearby Besnagar and Vidisha. The excavation data and results were never published, except for summaries in 1964 and 1965. No new evidence was found, but the layers excavated suggested that the site was a significant town already by 6th-century BCE, and likely a major city by the 3rd-century BCE.
Michael Willis – an archaeologist and Curator of early South Asian collections at the British Museum, and other scholars revisited the site in the early 2000s. Once again no Buddhist evidence was found at the Udayagiri Caves, but more artifacts related to Hinduism and Jainism. According to Julia Shaw, the evidence collected so far has led to a "major revision" about presumptions about the Udayagiri Caves archaeological site as well as the wider archaeological landscape of this region. Willis and team have proposed that, perhaps Udayagiri was a Hindu and Jaina site all along, and that the evidence collected so far suggests that the Saura tradition of Hinduism may have preceded the arrival of Buddhism in this region.
Many of the artifacts found in the area are now located in the Gwalior Fort Archaeological Museum.
Description
The caves were produced on the northeast face of the Udayagiri hills. They generally have a square or near-square plans. Many are small, but according to Cunningham, they were likely more substantial because their front showed evidence that each had a structural mandapa on pillars in their front.
The caves at Udayagiri were numbered in the nineteenth century from south to north by Alexander Cunningham, and he reported only 10 lumping some of the caves together. He called the Jain cave as number 10. Later studies identified the caves separately, and their number swelled to 20. A more detailed system was introduced before mid 20th century by the Department of Archaeology, Gwalior State, with Jain cave being number 20. Due to these changes, the exact numbering sequence in early reports and later publications sometimes varies. The complex has seven caves dedicated to Shaivism related caves, nine to Vaishnavism, and three to Shaktism. However, a few of these caves are quite small. The significant caves include iconography of all three major traditions of Hinduism. Some of the caves have inscriptions. Caves 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 13 have the most number of sculptures. The largest is Cave 19. In addition, there are rock-cut water tanks at various locations, as well as platforms and shrine monuments on the top of the hill related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism. There were more of these before the excavations of 1910s, but these were destroyed in the attempt to find evidence of Buddhist monuments underneath.
Cave 1
Cave 1 is the southernmost cave and a false one because one of the side and its front is not of the original rock but added in. Its roof is integrated from the natural ledge of the rock. It moulding style is similar to those found in Tigawa Hindu temple. The mandapa inside the temple is a square with side, while the sanctum is 7 feet by 6 feet. Outside, Cunningham reported four square pillars. The back wall of the cave has a deity carved into the rock wall, but this was damaged by chiseling later at some point. The iconographic markers are gone and the deity is unknown.
Cave 2
Cave 2 is to the north of Cave 1, but still on the southern foothill isolated from the main cluster of caves. Its front wall was damaged at some point, and the interior has been eroded by weather. It is about in area and the only traces of two pilasters are visible, along with evidence underneath its roof of a structural mandapa. The doorjamb has some reliefs, but these are only partially visible.
Cave 3: Shaivism
Cave 3 is the first of the central group or cluster of shrines and reliefs. It has a plain entrance and a sanctum. Traces of two pilasters are seen on both sides of the entrance and there is a deep horizontal cutting above which shows that there was some sort of portico (mandapa) in front of the shrine. Inside there is a rock-cut image of Skanda, the war god, on a monolithic plinth. The mouldings and spout of the plinth are now damaged. The Skanda sculpture is desecrated, with his staff or club and parts of limbs broken and missing. The surviving remnants show an impressive muscular torso, with Skanda's weight distributed equally on both legs.
Cave 3 is sometimes called the Skanda temple.
Cave 4: Shaivism and Shaktism
Cave 4 was named the Vina cave by Cunningham. It presents both Shaiva and Shakti themes. It is an excavated temple of about 14 feet by 12 feet. The cave has a style that suggests that it was completed with the other caves. The doorway frame is plain but it is surrounded by three bands of rich carvings. In one of these bands, in a circular boss to the left of the door is depicted a man playing the lute, while another boss to the right shows another man playing the guitar. River goddesses Ganga and Yamuna flank the doorway on two short pilasters with bell capitals.
The temple sanctum is dedicated to Shiva, with the sanctum containing an ekamukha linga, or a linga with a face carved on it. Outside its entrance, in what was a mandapa and now is eroded remnants of a courtyard are matrikas (mother goddesses), eroded likely because of weathering. This is one of the three groups of matrikas found at Udayagiri site in different caves. The prominent presence of the matrikas in a cave dedicated to Shiva suggests that the divine mothers had been accepted within the Shaivism tradition by about 401 CE. Some scholars speculate that there may have been Skanda here, but others state the evidence is unclear.
The cave is also notable for depicting a harp player on its lintel, putting a floruit of 401 CE for this musical instrument in India.
Cave 5: Vaishnavism
Cave 5 is a shallow niche more than a cave and contains the much-celebrated colossal Varaha panel of Udayagiri Caves. It is the narrative of Vishnu in his Varaha or man-boar avatar rescuing goddess earth in crisis. Willis has described the relief as the "iconographic centre-piece of Udayagiri".
The Hindu legend has roots in the Vedic literature such as Taittariya Samhita and Shatapatha Brahmana, and is found in many post-Vedic texts. The legend depicts goddess earth (Bhudevi, Prithivi) in an existential crisis after she has been attacked and kidnapped by oppressive demon Hiranyaksha, where neither she nor the life she supports can survive. She is drowning and overwhelmed in the cosmic ocean. Vishnu emerges in the form of a man-boar avatar. He, as the hero in the legend, descends into the ocean, finds her, she hangs onto his tusk, he lifts her out to safety. The good wins, the crisis ends, and Vishnu once again fulfills his cosmic duty. The Varaha legend has been one of many historic legends in the Hindu text embedded with right versus wrong, good versus evil symbolism, and of someone willing to go to the depths and do what is necessary to rescue the good, the right, the dharma. The Varaha panel narrates this legend. The goddess earth is personified as the dangling woman, the hero as the colossal giant. His success is cheered by a galaxy of the divine as well as human characters valued and revered in the 4th-century. Their iconography of individual characters is found in Hindu texts.
The panel shows (the number corresponds to the attached image):
Vishnu as Varaha
Goddess earth as Prithivi
Brahma (sitting on lotus)
Shiva (sitting on Nandi)
Adityas (all have solar halos)
Agni (hair on fire)
Vayu (hair airy, puffed up)
Eight Vasus (with 6&7, Vishnu Purana)
Eleven Rudras (ithyphalic, third eye)
Ganadevatas
Rishis (Vedic sages, wearing barks of trees, a beard, carrying water pot and rosary for meditation)
Samudra (Ocean)
Gupta Empire minister Virasena
Gupta Empire king Chandragupta II
Nagadeva
Lakshmi
More Hindu sages (incomplete photo; these include the Vedic Saptarishis)
Sage Narada playing Mahathi (Tambura)
Sage Tumburu playing Veena
The characters are dressed in traditional dress. The gods wear dhoti, while the goddess is in a sari, in the Varaha panel.
Cave 6: Shaktism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism
Cave 6 is directly beside Cave 5 and consists of rock-cut sanctum entered through an elaborate T-shaped door.
The sanctum door is flanked by guardians. Beside them, on either side, are figures of Vishnu and of Shiva Gangadhara. The cave also has Durga slaying Mahishasura – the deceptive shape-shifting buffalo demon. This is one of the earliest representations of this Durga legend in a cave temple. Of special note also is the figure of seated Ganesha in this cave, to the left of the entrance, and the rectangular niche with seated goddesses, located to the right. The Ganesha is potbellied, has modaka (laddu or rice balls, sweetmeat) in his left hand and his trunk is reaching out to get one. This makes the cave notable as it sets the floruit for the widespread acceptance and significance of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon to about 401 CE. The presence of all three major traditions within the same temple is also significant and it presages the norm for temple space in subsequent centuries.
In addition to Durga, Cave 6 depicts the Hindu matrikas (mother goddesses from all three traditions). One group of these divine mothers are so "badly destroyed", states Sara L. Schastok, that only limited information can be inferred. The matrikas are prominent because they are placed immediately to the right of Visnu. The outline of the seated matrikas in Cave 6 suggests that they are similar to early Gupta era iconography for matrikas such as those found in Badoh-Pathari and Besnagar archaeological sites.
Outside the cave is a panel with an inscription that mentions Gupta year 82 (401 CE), and that the Gupta king Chandragupta II and his minister Virasena visited this cave. In the ceiling of the cave is an undated pilgrim record of somebody named Śivāditya.
Cave 7: Shaktism
Cave 7 is located a few steps east of Cave 6. It consists of a large niche containing damaged figures of the eight mother goddesses, each with a weapon above their head, carved on the back wall of the cave. The cave is flanked by shallow niches with abraded figures of Kārttikeya and Gaṇeśa, now visible only in outline.
The Passage
A passage prior to Cave 8. It consists of a natural cleft or canyon in the rock running approximately east to west. The passage has been subject to modifications, the sets of steps cut into the floor being the most conspicuous feature. The lowest set of steps on the right-hand side are eroded. Sankha Lipi or shell inscriptions – so-called because of their shell-like shape, are found on the upper walls of the passage. These are quite large. Those inscriptions have been cut through to make the caves, which means they existed before the caves were created around 401 CE. The inscriptions had not been deciphered, and proposed interpretations have been controversial. The upper walls of the passage have large notches at several places, indicating that stone beams and slabs were used to roof over parts of the passage, giving it a significantly different appearance from what can be seen today.
Cave 8
Cave 8 was named the "Tawa Cave" by Cunningham, after its crown that looks like the Indian griddle which locals use to bake their daily bread and call the baking plate as Tawa. The cave is a bit to the right of the passage. It is excavated into a hemispherical dome-shaped rock and has a large nearly flat rock crown. It is about 14 feet long and 12 feet broad. The cave is badly damaged, but contains a historically significant inscription. Outside the cave, the empty hollow remnants provide the evidence that there was a mandapa outside this cave. To the sides of the entrance are eroded dvarapalas (guardian reliefs) with a bushy hairstyle found for dvarapalas in other caves. The cave is notable for its lotus carving on the ceiling.
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The famed early 5th-century Sanskrit inscription in this cave is on its back wall. It is five lines long, in a Vedic meter. Some parts of the inscription are damaged or have peeled off. The inscription links the Gupta king Chandra Gupta II and his minister Virasena to this cave. It has been translated as follows:
The inner light which resembles the sun, which pervades the heart of the learned,
but which is difficult find among men upon the earth, that is the wonder called Chandragupta,
Who * * * (damaged),
Of him, like a saint among great kings became the minister [...], whose name was Virasena,
He was a poet, resident of Pataliputra, and knew grammar, law and logic,
Having come here with his king, who is desirous of conquering the whole world,
he made this cave, through his love to Sambhu.
– Cave 8 inscription; Translators: Michael Willis / Alexander Cunningham
The inscription does not give a date, but the inscription in Cave 6 does. The "love to Shambhu (Shiva)" is notable given the Varaha panel and royal sponsors of the Gupta era also revere Vishnu.
Caves 9-11
The three caves are small excavations to the side of Cave 8. All three are next to each other. Their entrance opens north-northwest, and all have damaged Vishnu carvings. Cave 9 and 10 are rectangular niche like openings, while Cave 11 is a bit bigger and has a square plan. Cave 10, the middle one is a bit higher in its elevation.
Cave 12: Vaishnavism
Cave 12 is a Vaishnavism-related cave known for its niche containing a standing figure of Narasimha or the man-lion avatar of Vishnu. The Narasimha carving is flanked below by two standing images of Vishnu.
Cave 12 is notable for having the clearest evidence that the cave was excavated into a rock with pre-existing inscriptions. The script is Sankha lipi, probably several versions of it given the different styles, all of which remain undeciphered. It is this which confirms that Udayagiri and Vidisha were inhabited and an active site of literate people before these caves were produced. Further, it also establishes 401 CE as the floruit for the existence and the use of Sankha lipi. The cave also has a flat top with evidence that there was likely a structure above, but this structure has not survived into the modern era.
Cave 13: Vaishnavism
Cave 13 contains a large Anantasayana panel, which depicts a resting figure of Vishnu as Narayana. Below the leg of Vishnu are two men, one larger kneeling devotee in namaste posture, and another smaller standing figure behind him. The kneeling figure is generally interpreted as Chandragupta II, symbolising his devotion to Vishnu. The other figure is likely his minister Virasena.
Cave 14
Cave 14, the last cave on the left hand side at the top of the passage. It consists of a recessed square chamber of which only two sides are preserved. The outline of the chamber is visible in the floor, with a water channel pierced through the wall on one side as in the other caves at the site. One side of the doorjamb is preserved, showing jambs with receding faces but without any relief carving.
Caves 15-18
Cave 15 is small square cave without separate sanctum and pitha (pedestal).
Cave 16 is a Shaivism related cave based on the pitha and iconography. The sanctum and the mukha-mandapa are both squares.
Cave 17 has a square plan. To the left of its entrance is single dvarapala. Further left is a niche with Ganesha image. On the right of the entrance is a niche with Durga in her Mahishasura-mardini form. The cave has an intricate symmetric lotus set in a geometric pattern on the ceiling.
Cave 18 is notable for including a four armed Ganesha. With him is a devotee who is shown carrying a banana plant.
Cave 19: Shaivism
Cave 19 is also called the "Amrita Cave". It is close the Udayagiri village. It is the largest cave in Udayagiri Caves group, being long by broad. It has four massive square cross-section, high pillars which support the roof. The pillars have intricately decorated capitals with four horned and winged animals standing on their hind legs, and touching their forefeet touch their mouths. The roof of the cave, states Cunningham, is divided "into nine square panels by the architraves crossing over the four pillars". The temple was likely much larger with its mandapa in front, given the structural evidence in the form of ruins.
The doorway of Cave 19 is more extensively ornamented than other caves. The pilasters are of the same pattern as the pillars inside. River goddesses Ganga and Yamuna flank the doorway. Above is a long deeply carved sculpture representing the samudra manthan mythology, depicting Suras and Asuras churning the cosmic ocean. It is this narrative of this Hindu myth that led Cunningham to propose the name of the cave to be "Amrita cave". There is a carving near Cave 19 that shows Parvati's family, that is Shiva, Ganesha and Kartikeya. The cave has two Shiva lingas, of which one is a mukhalinga (linga with face). This cave had a Sahastralinga (main linga with many subsidiary lingas), which was moved to the ASI museum in Sanchi.
Cave 19 has a Sanskrit inscription in Nagari script dated 1036 CE by a common pilgrim name Kanha, who donated resources to the temple, and the inscription expresses his devotion to Visnu.
Cave 20: Jainism
Cave 20 is the only cave in the Udayagiri Caves complex that is dedicated to Jainism. It is in the northwestern edge of the hills. At the entrance is the image of the Jain tirthankara Parshvanatha sitting under a serpent hood. The cave is divided into five rectangular rooms with stones stacked, the total length of that is about deep. The southern room connects to another excavated section consisting of three rooms. In the northern rooms is an eight-line inscription in Sanskrit. It praises the Gupta kings, for bringing prosperity to all, then notes that a Sangkara has set up a statue of Parshva Jina in this cave after commanding a cavalry, later giving up his passions, withdrawing from the world and becoming a yati (monk).
The cave has other reliefs, such as those of the Jinas. These are significant because they have chattras (umbrella-like cover) carved over them, an iconography that is found in Jain caves built centuries later in many parts of India. These are generally not found in Jain statues carved before the 4th-century. The cave also includes a somewhat damaged image of Ganesha on its floor, where is depicted carrying an axe while looking in his left direction.
Significance
According to Willis, Udayagiri's Hindu history long predates the 4th-century. It was a center of astronomy and Hindu calendar-related activity, given its sculptures, sundials, and inscriptions. These made Udayagiri a sacred space and gave it its name that means "sunrise mountain". It was likely first modified by the king Samudragupta in mid 4th-century. His descendant Chandragupta II reworked these caves a few decades later, to revitalize the Hindu king concept to be both the paramount sovereign (cakravartin) and the supreme devotee of the god Vishnu (paramabhāgavata). This evolved the role of Udayagiri from it being the historic center for Hindu astronomy into an "astro-political node". Chandragupta II thereafter came to be titled as Vikramaditya – literally, "he who is the sun of prowess – in Indian texts, states Willis. According to Patrick Olivelle – an Indologist and a professor of Sanskrit, Udayagiri was important to the Gupta Hindu kings who were "polytheistic with remarkable tolerance" in an era where the popular religion was "basically henotheistic".
According to Heinrich von Stietencron - an Indologist and professor of Comparative Religion, the Udayagiri Caves narrates Hindu thought and legends with far deeper roots in the Vedic tradition. These roots are found in many forms, of which Vishnu avatars are particularly well formulated. He is the god who descends to bring order and equilibrium when chaos and injustice of one or more forms thrives in the world. Some of his avatars such as Narasimha, Varaha, Vamana/Trivikrama, and Rama are templates for kings. Their respective legends are well structured for a discussion of right and wrong, justice and injustice, rights and duties, of dharma in its various dimensions. The man-boar Varaha avatar found in Udayagiri itself is a story found in various forms, starting with the Vedic text Taittiriya Samhita section VII.1, where Prajapati takes the form of boar to rescue earth first before creating gods and lifeforms that earth could support. The story's popularity was well spread, as the symbolic boar saving the earth goddess is also found in the Shatapatha Brahmana XVI.1, the Taittiriya Brahmana, Taittiriya Aranyaka and others, all these Vedic era texts are estimated to have been complete by 800 BCE. The Varaha iconography has been historic symbolism of someone willing to go to the depths and do what is necessary to rescue earth and dharma, and this has had an obvious appeal and parallels to the role of king in the Hindu thought. Udayagiri caves narrate this legend, but go one step further. The Varaha relief in Udayagiri does not revitalize Hindu kingship, according to Heinrich von Stietencron, rather it is a tribute to his victories that was likely added to the cave temples complex as a shallow niche between 410 and 412 CE. It signifies his success and with his success, the return of dharma. It may have marked the year when Chandragupta II assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
The Stietencron proposal does not explain the presence of a bowing figure in front of the Vishnu Varaha. The royally dressed man has been broadly interpreted as king Chandragupta II acknowledging dharma and duty symbolized by Vishnu Varaha as above the king. Stietencron states that it indeed is a norm in the Hindu sculptural art tradition to not represent transitory achievements of mortal kings or any individual, rather they predominantly emphasize spiritual quest and narrate ahistoric, symbolic legends from Hindu texts. The Udayagiri Caves are significant, states Stietencron, because they are likely a political statement.
According to Julia Shaw, the Udayagiri sculptures are significant because they suggest that the avatara concept was fully developed by about 400 CE. The full display of iconography across multiple caves for Vishnu, Shiva and Durga suggests that Hinduism was thriving along with Buddhism in post-Mauryan era in ancient India. The Udayagiri temples represent, state Francis Ching and other scholars, the "earliest intact Hindu architecture" and display the "essential attributes of a Hindu temple" in the form of sanctum, mandapa and a basic plan. According to James Harle, the Udayagiri caves are significant for being "a common denominator of the early Gupta style". He states that Udayagiri temples are, along with those as Tigawa and Sanchi, probably the earliest of surviving Hindu temples. The Udayagiri temples are the only that can be confidently linked to the Gupta Empire, states George Michell. While new ancient temples are being identified every year on the Indian subcontinent but their dating remains uncertain. the Udayagiri Caves can be dated and they are earliest accepted examples of surviving rock-based north Indian temple.
See also
Bhumara
Nachna Hindu temples
Tigawa
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
British Association for South Asian Studies
Caves of Madhya Pradesh
Vidisha
History of Madhya Pradesh
Hindu cave temples in India
Archaeological sites in Madhya Pradesh
Rock shelters
4th-century Hindu temples
Monuments and memorials in Madhya Pradesh
4th-century Jain temples
Gupta art
Tourist attractions in Vidisha district
Jain caves in India |
58758115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doraemon%3A%20Nobita%27s%20Chronicle%20of%20the%20Moon%20Exploration | Doraemon: Nobita's Chronicle of the Moon Exploration | is an anime epic science fiction film directed by Shinnosuke Yakuwa and screenplay provided by Mizuki Tsujimura. It was premiered in Japan on 1 March 2019.
The film was later premiered on Hong Kong, Indonesia, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan on 25 March 2020, and in India on 22 January 2023. It marks the final Heisei-era Doraemon film released two months before the 2019 Japanese imperial transition.
Plot
One morning, Nobita learns about the mysterious happenings on the Moon, where he tells his classmates that it was the Moon Rabbit, but nobody believes him. He tries to prove by imitating the rabbits by making ricecakes and hits his teacher in the process, where he gets punished. When Nobita tells Doraemon about this, who relucantly takes out "Divergent View Badge" gadget and creates an atmosphere on the Moon. Using the animal clay, they creates Moonbit and returns to their home. Later, Nobita's mother tells him to bring Susuki grass for Moon Viewing Ceremony, where he sees a boy and calls him, but the boy suddenly disappeares. The next day, a new student named Luca arrives, and Nobita gets surprised to see that it is the same boy he had seen yesterday.
As soon as Nobita reaches home, he asks Doraemon to take him to the Kingdom. Upon reaching there, they find that the bamboo plants were glowing which was the effect of the "Shining Moss", spread by them earlier. Nobita is in the playground with Shizuka, Gian, and Suneo, where he gives them the badge and invites them to the Kingdom. Luca joins them and they are given a grand welcome at the rabbit kingdom, and they meet a rabbit that looked like Nobita and named it as Nobit, and teases Nobita. Shizuka requests Nobit to give them a good tour of the place. Doraemon reveals that they can see this kingdom because of the badge they are wearing and warns them not to remove it as it is only due to the badge, they are able to breathe. Within a few seconds, a huge rabbit monster (made by Nobita while making Moonbit) arrives and wreaks havoc.
Nobita chases him and later falls into a deep abyss without the badge. Soon the group arrives, and Nobit, who had seen everything tells them that Nobita had fallen. Doraemon gets worried about Nobita, but hears Nobita's voice from below rang out, and the group discovered that Nobita is safe and soon learned that Luca is not an Earthling, but an Espal from the planet Kaguya who has special powers, known as Ether. Luca introduced his friends to his sister Luna, but suddenly they hear a loud noise and heads towards the place and discoveres that it is his little brother Al's song. Luca tells everyone that his power is quite different from the other Espal and also that Al can see the future. The group decides to hold a Space Kart Race on Moon's surface. Gian, Suneo, and Al are in the lead. When their cart is about to crash with a huge rock, Al uses its power to destroy the rock.
The others arrive there and Luca reveals that they are trying to hide from the people of Kaguya planet and that Diabolo had previously used the Ether power to destroy the Moon of the Kaguya planet to show-off his power, but the particles of the Moon covered the whole Kaguya Planet and it had become a dark planet due to which, his parents used a ship to send all the Espal to space to avoid being taken advantage of doing disastrous things again. Suddenly, an unknown raid force arrive out of nowhere and tries to capture Espal, where the other Espal also came out from their hiding to the surface to enquire about the explosion. The Kaguya beings uses "Ether Distortion" to weaken the Espal. The Kaguya beings had captured all Espal, except Luca while Doraemon tells everyone to run towards the "Anywhere Door" to escape, but Luca gets kidnapped.
The anywhere door explodes due to the attack of the Kaguya beings. Nobita tells Doraemon to use "Bamboo Copter" to fly to Moon, but Doraemon denies this. Mozo, the Kaguya turtle comes out of Shizuka's shirt and tells them to use the emergency ship which he and Luca had used to come to Earth. Doraemon tells everyone to gather here at 7 pm. At 7pm, the group flies towards the Moon. Upon reaching there, they find Moonbit, who was trying to say something, they decide to follow him and finds Luna, who reveals that Luca had given his badge to her due to which, she managed to escape. Nobita, Doraemon, Suneo, Mozo, and Gian decide to leave for Kaguya and Doraemon gives Shizuka his spare pocket and the "Danger Alarm".
Meanwhile, Commander Godat takes Luca to Diabolo, who reveals his plans to leave Kaguya and attack Earth. Later, Godat frees Luca from the handcuffs, and is filled with rage to know that he was being used. The royal servants reach there and arrests Godat and Luca. Upon arriving there, the friends decides to ask the residents of the planet about the Espal. The residents reveals that they do not know anything about them, but all the important people on the planet lives in the Royal Palace. The gang enters the palace and starts searching for Luca and his friends. In the prison, Godat reveals to Luca that he was the descendant of Dr. Godal (the person who created Espal) and gives him a blue orb which he inherited from his ancestors, and Luca kept in his pocket. The gang arrives there and frees the Espal. Luca tells them that Godat is their ally.
Gian and Suneo decide to handle the royal soldiers while Godat, Luca, Nobita, and Doraemon advance to fight Diabolo, whose true form is revealed to be a robot. Diabolo attacks the four and became unconscious while Gian and Suneo's guns had finished and are also captured. On the Moon, Shizuka sees Nobit working on something and she starts thinking that as soon as she removes the badge, Nobit and all of the Rabbit Kingdom vanishes. She removes it and is shocked to still be able to see Nobit. It is because of the Reality Badge made by Nobit. Nobita and the team wake up and find themselves in a cage. Diabolo tells them that he is going to use the Ether to become young again. Soon after, he becomes a bit young. Nobita provokes him to take out a gadget but Doraemon says that his pocket is not there.
Diabolo had taken his pocket away when he was unconscious. Suddenly, Shizuka and Luna along with the Moonbit come out of Doraemon's pocket and they free the Espal, where they tell them that it was due to Nobit's badge. The whole tables have turned against Diabolo and is about to be destroyed, but manages to capture Luna and escape. He says that he is going to Earth and will destroy it. Mozo tells that his shell is the hardest in the universe and they put it in the Air Cannon. Luca gives a Power Boost to Nobita, and Mozo goes straight through the ship, destroying it completely. Suneo catches Luna and saves her from falling. Suddenly, the blue orb starts shining and the light of the planet is restored. Doraemon investigates the orb and tells them that it is a kind of Shining Moss that was built to multiply and explode, when in contact with Ether.
Nobita tells that Luca's ancestors knew that he would come back and restore the light of the planet. Godat requests Luca to stay with him, but refuses to say that for a peaceful life, it would be better than Espal remains a myth. Back on Moon, Luca requests Doraemon to create a theory that Espal are just normal beings and the rabbit ears vanish off, where they become normal beings. Doraemon and their friends arrive back to earth, where they bury their badges, to ensure a peaceful life for the Espal.
Soundtrack
The theme song is “THE GIFT” by Dai Hirai.
A separate soundtrack was released on February 27, 2019, with music composed by Takayuki Hattori.
Cast
Box office
Debuting on 383 screens with Toho distributing, Doraemon the Movie: Nobita's Chronicle of the Moon Exploration earned $6.2million on 586,000 admissions in its first weekend and ranked number-one on Japanese box office. The film has grossed ¥5.02 billion () in Japan, and $19,855,318 in China and Vietnam, for a total box office of in Asia.
The film was released in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan on 5 February 2019 marking Chinese New Year and in Japan on 1 March 2019.
Here is a table which shows the box office of this movie of all the weekends in Japan:
References
External links
Official movie : Nobita's Chronicle of the Moon Exploration
Nobita's Chronicle of the Moon Exploration
2019 films
2019 anime films
2019 animated films
2010s children's animated films
2010s dystopian films
Japanese animated science fiction films
2010s science fiction films
Japanese science fiction films
Animated films set on fictional planets
Animated films about cats
Animated films about rabbits and hares
Robot films
2010s adventure films
Films scored by Takayuki Hattori
Films set on the moon |
13124489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saucedilla | Saucedilla | Saucedilla () is a municipality located in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain.
It belongs to the Campo Arañuelo County (Comarca del Campo Arañuelo), the capital of which is Navalmoral de la Mata.
According to the 2010 census (INE), it had a population of 859 inhabitants.
Geography and nature
The situation of Saucedilla is impressive. In the north, the vast bulk of the Sierra de Gredos and the Tiétar River; in the south and west, the Miravete Sierra (Casas de Miravete), the Tagus River (Tajo in Spanish) and the Serrejón Sierra.
The climate is Mediterranean. The village stands in an extensive plain of clayey grounds.
Dehesa
The municipality is surrounded by immense dehesas. A dehesa is a light wood of holm oaks (Quercus ilex) or cork oaks (Quercus suber). There, the breeding (animal husbandry) of cattle, sheep (for meat and wool), goats (for meat and cheese), and pigs, (Iberian pig) for meat like jamón ibérico (Iberian ham) and jamón serrano, are common. The breeding of fighting bulls (toro bravo in Spanish) is also widespread. There are some ganaderías of these wild bulls in Saucedilla (Cerro Alto, La Anguila) and others nearby villages like Casatejada or Toril.
Arrocampo Reservoir
Arrocampo Reservoir was created at 1976 to cool the turbines of the Almaraz nuclear power plant, which is near Saucedilla. With a system of dams and dikes, the water, taken from Tagus river, covers a circuit of 11 km which allow the cooling of these turbines.
Biomass (ecology): there are a considerable masses of phytoplankton and zooplankton thanks to the eutrophication and oxygenation of waters. The bulrush (Typha latifolia) vegetation is dominant in Arrocampo. It allows the proliferation of birds and little mammals.
Fishes: barbels (Barbus barbus), common carps (Cyprinus carpio), tenches (Tinca tinca), big largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) (almost 50 cm).
Actually, it is an important Special Protection Area (SPA) for wild birds. (In Spanish: Zona Especial de Protección para las Aves, ZEPA.) Many migrating as well as permanent birds can be watched in the reservoir waters and their vicinity: white stork (Ciconia ciconia), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), purple heron (Ardea purpurea), squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides), black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), purple swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio). This is, perhaps, the bird symbol of Arrocampo Reservoir SPA). The list is practically endless.
Cañada Real Leonesa Occidental (main droveway of Western León)
Saucedilla was always a land of sheep. (Its coat of arms has a head of ram.) Extremadura (and Saucedilla), was a passing and transhumance land from the Middle Age. In medieval Spain, there were droving flocks of sheep on the largest scale, which were carefully organized by the system of the Mesta, crossing Extremadura and other Spanish regions. These long distance movements of sheep and cattle were made along drovers road called cañadas reales in Castile, cabañeras in Aragon, carreradas in Catalonia. The Cañada Real Leonesa Occidental cross Saucedilla by the south, near the cemetery. There is a country house, close the graveyard, for shepherds and cowherds who cover the droveway still today.
Irrigated lands
Long ago, the economic activity of Saucedilla was based only on traditional agriculture. During centuries, there was a subsistence farming (dry farming), with also the breeding of sheep, goats, cattle and pigs. This agriculture has produced cereals for years and years in Saucedilla lands: wheat, barley, oats, rye, chickpeas, broad beans and root vegetables like turnips. Also olives and wine.
The new irrigation farming: the Valdecañas Reservoir upon the Tagus (on southeast of the municipality), and the construction of many channels, were made possible to irrigate many farmlands of Saucedilla. Fodder for cows and sheep, fruits like tomatoes, pimientos, bell peppers, peaches, etc., are produced because of the arrival of water in the 1980s.
Special Protection Areas
There are two Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in Saucedilla. They were created in 2005.
Arrocampo Reservoir Special Protection Area. The list of wild birds of Arrocampo Reservoir SPA is really very large.
Lesser Kestrel Colonies of Saucedilla Special Protection Area: it is located on the parish church of Saucedilla. 17 pairs of lesser kestrels (Latin name Falco naumanni, in Spanish cernícalos) were recorded in 2005 in the putlog holes of its walls.
Arrocampo Ornithological Park
There are two ornithological routes marked with wooden blazes and an Information Office near the municipal swimming pools in the south entry of the village.
Route 1: Arrocampo Reservoir Route. This route has 4 bird hides.
Route 2: Cerro Alto Route: 1 hide
Pictures of the area around Saucedilla
Demography
End of 15th century: Saucedilla had 900 inhabitants. There were a small community of Jews lived in Saucedilla before its expulsion of Spain in 1492.
Between 1528 and 1653: the municipality lost many people (great demographic crisis in all regions of Spain)
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, the evolution between 1900 and 2010 is:
1960s: the emigration years. Many people (and their families) left the village at the beginning of the sixties to earn their living in Madrid, Barcelone, Bilbao, France, Germany...
Foreign population, actually: community of Moroccan people . They work in regional o local agriculture (tobacco, harvests, fruits picking), domestic service...
History
14th century: foundation of the municipality. Colons of Collado de la Vera (see Collado (Cáceres)) (little village of the Comarca La Vera located in the foothills of the Sierra de Gredos mountain range) founded Saucedilla in middle of 14th century.
15th century: development of the municipality.
16th century: building of the church (gothic and renaissance styles) under Bishop Gutierre de Vargas Carvajal mandate. The church construction terminated under the bishopric of Pedro Ponce de León.
17th century:
Lord of Saucedilla: Francisco Tuttavilla.
Construction of the jurisdiction column (rollo jurisdiccional in Spanish).
18th century: Creation of Saucedilla County. The Counts of Saucedilla.
The Independence War ("Guerra de Independencia")
Monuments
St John the Baptist Church (16th century). Gothic and Renaissance styles
Jurisdiction Column (17th century)
Plasencia Cross
Pictures of the monuments
References
Bibliography
Saucedilla: santo y seña de un pueblo extremeño, Juan Carlos RUBIO MASA & José Luis RUBIO MASA; Ed. Saucedilla, Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Saucedilla, 1994
Saucedilla: costumbres, casas y familias, Ángel Marzal González; Navalmoral de la Mata, Ed. Publisher Navalmoral,1999
External links
www.saucedilla.es (in Spanish)
Birding in Extremadura: Arrocampo Reservoir (in English)
Municipalities in the Province of Cáceres
Special Protection Areas of Extremadura |
3369181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharpe%27s%20Triumph | Sharpe's Triumph | Sharpe's Triumph is the second historical novel in the Richard Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell, first published in 1998. Sharpe is a sergeant in the army who attracts the attention of General Arthur Wellesley at Ahmednagar.
Plot summary
Sergeant Richard Sharpe and a small detachment arrive at an isolated East India Company fort to transport 80,000 recovered rounds of stolen ammunition to the armory at Seringapatam. While Sharpe and his men rest, a company of East India Company sepoys arrive under the command of Lieutenant William Dodd. Dodd abruptly has his men massacre the unsuspecting, outnumbered garrison. Sharpe is wounded and feigns death, allowing him to escape Dodd's determination to leave no witnesses.
Back in Seringapatam, Sharpe's friend, Colonel McCandless, whom Sharpe met four years earlier during the siege of Seringapatam (Sharpe's Tiger), questions him about Dodd. Dodd deserted the East India Company, taking with him his sepoys, and McCandless has been tasked with bringing him to justice, lest it give others similar ideas. McCandless orders Sharpe to accompany him since he can identify Dodd.
Dodd joins Colonel Anthony Pohlmann, commander of Scindia's army, at the city of Ahmednuggur and is rewarded with a promotion to major and command of his own battalion. Since the Mysore Campaign, the British have been pushing further north into the Maratha Confederacy's territory. Scindia is one of the Maratha rulers who have decided to resist the British advance. Scindia orders Pohlmann to assign a regiment to defend Ahmednuggur, so Pohlmann gives Dodd command of the unit and instructions to inflict casualties on the British, but most importantly, withdraw and keep the regiment intact, as the city cannot be held.
Meanwhile, Sergeant Obadiah Hakeswill correctly guesses that Sharpe killed the Tippoo Sultan four years earlier at Seringapatam and looted the corpse. Hakeswill frames him for an attack on his former company commander, Captain Morris. Given a warrant to arrest Sharpe, Hakeswill recruits six cutthroats to help him murder Sharpe, so they can steal the treasure.
Sharpe and McCandless travel to the British army, escorted by Syud Sevajee, the Maratha leader of a band of mercenary cavalrymen working for the East India Company. They reach the army, under the command of Major General Arthur Wellesley, Sharpe's former regimental commander and the future Duke of Wellington. Upon arrival at Ahmednuggur, Wellesley quickly launches a risky escalade without the usual days-long artillery bombardment, in a bid to take the enemy by surprise. He quickly captures the poorly fortified town, to the amazement of Dodd, who has a poor opinion of Wellesley. Despite this, Dodd manages to extract his troops from the rout and retreats to Pohlmann's army. In the chaos of the battle, Sharpe rescues Simone Joubert, the wife of a French captain in Dodd's regiment. Under the pretext of returning Madame Joubert to her husband, McCandless hopes to be able to reconnoitre the Maratha army. They do not leave immediately, however, and Sharpe spends the night with Simone, though she regrets her decision the next day.
The next day, they reach the Maratha army. Pohlmann deduces McCandless's real intentions, but knowing that his army vastly outnumbers the British, allows McCandless to see everything he wants. At the same time, Pohlmann tries to recruit Sharpe, offering to make him a lieutenant. He tells Sharpe of the various successes that other lowly European soldiers have had in India, including his own rise from East India Company sergeant. That evening, Sharpe considers defecting, but, before he can make a decision, his and McCandless's horses are stolen and McCandless is shot in the thigh. Sharpe apprehends one of the thieves, who turns out to be one of Dodd's men. Everyone is certain that Dodd ordered the theft, but Pohlmann only has the thief executed by being trampled by an elephant. Meanwhile, Hakeswill takes his request to arrest Sharpe to Wellesley, who informs him that Sharpe will not return for some time. He assigns Hakeswill to the baggage train in the meantime, infuriating the impatient sergeant.
The Maratha army moves on, leaving McCandless behind at his own request. Sharpe decides to look after the wounded colonel, thereby turning down Pohlmann's offer. Nevertheless, he begins to wonder about how he might become an officer. Recognizing the ambition Pohlmann has stoked in the sergeant, McCandless cautions Sharpe. At the time, almost all of the officers in the British Army come from wealthy families and pay for their commissions. Those exceptional few who rise from the ranks are resented and have little chance of advancement. While McCandless recovers, Syud Sevajee locates them and delivers McCandless's report to Wellesley.
When McCandless is recovered enough, he and Sharpe rejoin the army as it advances towards Borkardan. Using one of the Tippoo's emeralds, Sharpe buys one of Wellesley's horses for McCandless, though he pretends to Wellesley that McCandless is the purchaser. The surprised McCandless learns about Sharpe and the Tippoo's death. The next day, Hakeswill attempts to arrest Sharpe, but McCandless smudges the ink on the warrant so that it reads "Sharp", not "Sharpe", and refuses to let him take Sharpe.
After weeks of aimless marching, the Maratha leaders meet and finally decide to engage the British near Assaye. Pohlmann is given overall command. The British have two forces, one under the command of Wellesley and the other under Colonel Stevenson. Pohlmann plans to fight and defeat them separately, before they can join forces. Wellesley discovers that the enemy is closer than he thought and fully aware of the situation, but is still determined to attack.
Pohlmann sets a trap. He deploys his army at what he is told are the only usable fords of the River Kaitna, but Wellesley deduces that there must be another one between two villages on opposite banks of the river. Using this ford, Wellesley crosses the river to try to launch a flank attack, but Pohlmann redeploys to face him. Wellesley's aide is killed, and Sharpe takes his place. Back with the baggage, McCandless confronts Hakeswill about the warrant and warns Hakeswill that he knows he lied and that he will inform his commander. On the British left, the 78th Highland Regiment and the sepoys advance through heavy artillery fire and rout much of the Pohlmann's infantry. On the right, however, the 74th and some picquets advance too far towards the village of Assaye and are forced to form square against attack from Maratha light cavalry. Dodd's regiment then attacks the two pinned-down units.
Meanwhile, some Maratha gunners retake their guns and fire them into the rear of Wellesley's men, so Wellesley orders a cavalry charge. During the fight, he is unhorsed alone amidst the enemy. Sharpe launches a savage attack, saving his commander and single-handedly killing many men. Friendly troops arrive, and a shaken Wellesley leaves. With the collapse of the Maratha right, Dodd is forced to retreat. During the fighting, Hakeswill finds McCandless alone and kills him.
As the Maratha forces flee in disarray, Sharpe comes across Pohlmann, but does not apprehend him. He also finds Simone Joubert. Dodd killed her husband during the retreat, so Sharpe takes her under his protection again. Eventually, he catches up to Wellesley's staff and is astonished when Wellesley rewards him by giving him a battlefield promotion, making him an ensign in the 74th. Afterward, Hakeswill tries again to arrest Sharpe, but Sharpe's new commanding officer points out that the warrant for Sergeant Sharpe is useless against Ensign Sharpe. Sharpe triumphantly forces Hakeswill, who initially refuses to acknowledge Sharpe's new rank, to address him as "sir".
Characters
Richard Sharpe – British Army Sergeant, protagonist
Major General Arthur Wellesley – commander of British and Indian Allied Forces in South Central India
Lieutenant Colin Campbell - who led the storming of the walls of Ahmednaghar
Sergeant Obadiah Hakeswill – Sharpe's enemy in the British Army
Simone Joubert – wife to the Frenchman Joubert
Colonel Hector McCandless – Scottish intelligence officer for the British East India Company
Colonel Anthony Pohlmann – the defected Hanoverian sergeant who became Scindia's army commander
Major William Dodd – the traitorous British East India Company lieutenant now serving Scindia, he commands a specialize Sepoy company known as Dodd's Cobras
Daulat Scindia – the Indian raja of Gwalior, a state within the Maratha Confederacy
Raghji Bhonsle – the raja of Berar, an ally of Scindia
Captain Morris – the commanding officer of the 33rd Light Company
Release details
1998, UK, HarperCollins , Pub date 26 February 1998, hardback (First edition)
1998, UK, HarperCollins , Pub date 1 June 1998, Audio book cassette
1999, UK, HarperCollins , Pub date 5 July 1999, paperback
2000, USA, HarperCollins , Pub date August 2000, paperback
2001, UK, Chivers Audio Books , Pub date December 2001, Audio book CD
2005, USA, HarperTorch , Pub date June 2005, paperback
2006, UK, HarperCollins , Pub date 18 April 2006, paperback (recent TV tie-in)
External links
Section from Bernard Cornwell's website on Sharpe's Triumph
1998 British novels
Triumph
Second Anglo-Maratha War
Novels set in Maharashtra
Fiction set in 1803
Jalna district
HarperCollins books |
12911474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsham | Chelsham | Chelsham is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Chelsham and Farleigh and the Tandridge district of Surrey, England. It is located in the Metropolitan Green Belt, from London, from Oxted and from Guildford. In 1961 the parish had a population of 1285.
History
Early history
Flint implements and flakes are not uncommon in Warlingham and Chelsham: evidence of a neolithic population frequenting the area.
Near Chelsham Court Farm are the foundations and walls of a Romano-British villa.
Dark, Middle Ages and post-Reformation
The village lay within the Anglo-Saxon feudal division of Tandridge hundred when Chelsham appeared in Domesday Book as Celesham held by Robert de Wateville from Richard de Clare, just one of his many local pseudonyms. Its domesday assets were: 1 church, 11 ploughs, from customary dues 1 hog. It rendered £15.
Three manors existed at times: Chelsham Watevile; Chelsham, also known as Chelsham Court; and Chelsham Le Holt, also known as Rowholt. Medieval earthworks in Holt Wood and Henley Wood are thought to be associated with these.
On 1 April 1969 the parish was abolished to form "Chelsham and Farleigh".
Chelsham Watervile
From first being held by Robert de Watevile of de Clare (in return for a rent and fealty) its tenancy passed to Walter de Godstone in 1284. The overlordship remained in the Clare family until the death of Gilbert de Clare Earl of Gloucester without issue in 1314; one third of the estates taken by Hugh le Despenser (from one of Gilbert's three sisters) included this manor, passing down the family Beauchamps and Nevills to King Richard III through his wife. To this manor, the manors of Chelsham Court and Titsey paid annual rents of 4s. and 6s. respectively with suits of court, reliefs and heriots, and Bardolf's Court paid yearly a bushel of grain called Park Corn as at 1428. In 1455 a sale took place to Sir Thomas Cook, a draper and Alderman of the City of London, who mortgaged it to Robert Harding, goldsmith, could not pay most and who then became lord of this manor; his son who inherited William Harding, merchant of London, died in 1549. His daughter Helen who married Richard Knyvett may have passed it to Helen's sister husband, that is Katherine Harding's husband Richard Onslow, who was not Richard Onslow (Parliamentarian). In any case, it became united in the 17th century with the Uvedales who ran Chelsham Court.
Chelsham Court
In 1306 Reginald de Chelsham and Dionisia his wife were holding the manor. Andrew Peverel inherited it from next owner John de Ifield. In 1428 John Uvedale had already acquired Chelsham Court. Knight Sir William Uvedale died here 1525. Four younger sons shared a £20 per year annuity each as an elder Uvedale brother inherited, one of these was Richard Uvedale, one of these younger sons, described as of Chilling, Hampshire and Chelsham Court, Surrey was implicated in the Dudley conspiracy in Mary I of England's reign. A great-grandson gave what remained to Sir Edward Banister to pay his debts after his death, from whom two male trustees held for Harman Atwood of Sanderstead, whose family held it for over a three centuries, despite making Sanderstead their principal estate; thereafter on male heirs failing, their heirs the Wigsells held it. Esmé Francis Wigsell Arkwright held it in 1911.
Rowholt
This small manor passed, by heirs' confirmation of their father's gift, in 1243–4 to Tonbridge Priory. They ran this small estate but the priory was suppressed by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey under a bull of Pope Clement VII dated September 1524 for the endowment of his foundation of Cardinal College, Oxford and this manor was granted to him by Henry VIII in January 1526. On Wolsey's fall from grace, for a brief period Henry granted it in a land-swap to Sheen Priory, until he dissolved that priory in 1539; when its tenant William Hardyng, who paid a rent of 13s. 4d. and a red rose. In 1539 this rent was granted by the king to John Gresham, and in 1545 the manor of Rowholt was sold to Gresham, now Sir John Gresham of London. On his death in 1556 it passed to his wife Katherine and their son William, Beatrice widow of the latter holding it in 1604. By a deed dated 9 January 1598 she had settled it after her death on her daughter Cicely, wife of Sir Henry Woodhouse, for life, with remainder to Cicely's son Gresham Woodhouse. Later the estate was sold in parcels to various people, about 120 acres being now part of Chelsham Court Farm. The house formerly known as Rowholt is now called Ledgers Park or Ledgers Farm. The present house is Victorian, but close to it are the remains of a moat round the site of an older house.
Post-Industrial Revolution
Warlingham Common, a large tract of common land was inclosed in 1866 and extended into Chelsham.
A small estate of detached and semi-detached houses now occupy that land that was once the site of Warlingham Park Hospital, built as Croydon Mental Hospital in 1903 on the borders of the north of the parish. It cost £200,000 to lay out grounds and erect the buildings, including the iconic central tower which is the only edifice that still stands. In 1911 gravel diggings were present as a form of small industry within the Worms Heath and Elmes & Son had plant nurseries at Langhurst. Its most important homes were Ledgers Park and Chelsham Lodge, as by 1911 Chelsham Place had become a farmhouse.
Geography
Together with Farleigh the total population of the civil parish was 356 as measured by the 2001 census.
Chelsham lies high and commands views for a long distance, including over London, from the centre of which it is south by south-east. Though in parts well wooded, the area is generally somewhat barren and featureless in the nearer landscape. The administrative centre of the district, Oxted, is due south, below the uplands upon which Chelsham lies, and Guildford, the county town, is west by south-west. Croydon is NNW. The highest point of the North Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty is a slight, gentle rise, about three miles south of the village along Croydon Road at Botley Hill.
A large triangular village green, bounded by two roads, named Bull Green, is managed by the parish council and hosts annual events.
Elevations
Elevations vary from 251m AOD towards the south-east, highest on the border with Titsey to the middle of a deep crevasse/ravine in the east, traversed by Hester's Hill/Beddlestead Leane at 145m AOD
Local government
Five of the seven parish councillors represent Chelsham and the clerk is Michelle Richards.
Surrey County Council, headquartered in Kingston, elected every four years, has one representative of the area. Becky Rush, Deputy leader of the county council is its representative as Chelsham and Farleigh are within the Surrey Council Council ward of Warlingham.
Chelsham and Farleigh share in three representative on Tandridge District Council, headquartered in Oxted:
Landmarks
St Leonards Church
Other than the historic manors mentioned, there are more than 10 other listed buildings and monuments across the village. The Church of St Leonard is a 13th-century church largely rebuilt in the 19th century. It was built to serve the farms in Chelsham, and still sits in farmland in the centre of the roads and bridle ways of the parish. In addition to the regular services, there is a yearly cycle of services celebrating the farming year and creation, starting with a Plough Sunday service in January, and including services for Rogation, Lammas and Harvest.
During the year there are other special services, including services to remember all those who have been baptized and married at the church, an Animal Blessing service, a service to remember the departed, and the Kelly service to remember the charitable giving of a local man who became Lord Mayor of London and who is buried in the churchyard. There are also Taize services on some evenings. The rector is the Revd Michelle Edmonds.
References
Notes
References
External links
History of Chelsham Village
Chelsham & Farleigh Parish Council website
Villages in Surrey
Former civil parishes in Surrey
Tandridge |
21227807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20demethylation | DNA demethylation | For molecular biology in mammals, DNA demethylation causes replacement of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in a DNA sequence by cytosine (C) (see figure of 5mC and C). DNA demethylation can occur by an active process at the site of a 5mC in a DNA sequence or, in replicating cells, by preventing addition of methyl groups to DNA so that the replicated DNA will largely have cytosine in the DNA sequence (5mC will be diluted out).
Methylated cytosine is frequently present in the linear DNA sequence where a cytosine is followed by a guanine in a 5' → 3' direction (a CpG site). In mammals, DNA methyltransferases (which add methyl groups to DNA bases) exhibit a strong sequence preference for cytosines at CpG sites. There appear to be more than 20 million CpG dinucleotides in the human genome (see genomic distribution). In mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated, though the level of methylation varies with different tissues. Methylated cytosines often occur in groups or CpG islands within the promoter regions of genes, where such methylation may reduce or silence gene expression (see gene expression). Methylated cytosines in the gene body, however, are positively correlated with expression.
Almost 100% DNA demethylation occurs by a combination of passive dilution and active enzymatic removal during the reprogramming that occurs in early embryogenesis and in gametogenesis. Another large demethylation, of about 3% of all genes, can occur by active demethylation in neurons during formation of a strong memory. After surgery, demethylations are found in peripheral blood mononuclear cells at sites annotated to immune system genes. Demethylations also occur during the formation of cancers. During global DNA hypomethylation of tumor genomes, there is a minor to moderate reduction of the number of methylated cytosines (5mC) amounting to a loss of about 5% to 20% on average of the 5mC bases.
Embryonic development
Early embryonic development
The mouse sperm genome is 80–90% methylated at its CpG sites in DNA, amounting to about 20 million methylated sites. After fertilization, the paternal chromosome is almost completely demethylated in six hours by an active process, before DNA replication (blue line in Figure).
Demethylation of the maternal genome occurs by a different process. In the mature oocyte, about 40% of its CpG sites in DNA are methylated. While somatic cells of mammals have three main DNA methyltransferases (which add methyl groups to cytosines at CpG sites), DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B, in the pre-implantation embryo up to the blastocyst stage (see Figure), the only methyltransferase present is an isoform of DNMT1 designated DNMT1o. DNMT1o has an alternative oocyte-specific promoter and first exon (exon 1o) located 5' of the somatic and spermatocyte promoters. As reviewed by Howell et al., DNMT1o is sequestered in the cytoplasm of mature oocytes and in 2-cell and 4-cell embryos, but at the 8-cell stage is only present in the nucleus. At the 16 cell stage (the morula) DNMT1o is again found only in the cytoplasm. It appears that demethylation of the maternal chromosomes largely takes place by blockage of the methylating enzyme DNMT1o from entering the nucleus except briefly at the 8 cell stage. The maternal-origin DNA thus undergoes passive demethylation by dilution of the methylated maternal DNA during replication (red line in Figure). The morula (at the 16 cell stage), has only a small amount of DNA methylation (black line in Figure).
DNMT3b begins to be expressed in the blastocyst. Methylation begins to increase at 3.5 days after fertilization in the blastocyst, and a large wave of methylation then occurs on days 4.5 to 5.5 in the epiblast, going from 12% to 62% methylation, and reaching maximum level after implantation in the uterus. By day seven after fertilization, the newly formed primordial germ cells (PGC) in the implanted embryo segregate from the remaining somatic cells. At this point the PGCs have about the same level of methylation as the somatic cells.
Gametogenesis
The newly formed primordial germ cells (PGC) in the implanted embryo devolve from the somatic cells. At this point the PGCs have high levels of methylation. These cells migrate from the epiblast toward the gonadal ridge. As reviewed by Messerschmidt et al., the majority of PGCs are arrested in the G2 phase of the cell cycle, while they migrate toward the hindgut during embryo days 7.5 to 8.5. Then demethylation of the PGCs takes place in two waves. At day 9.5 the primordial germ cells begin to rapidly replicate going from about 200 PGCs at embryo day 9.5 to about 10,000 PGCs at day 12.5. During days 9.5 to 12.5 DNMT3a and DNMT3b are repressed and DNMT1 is present in the nucleus at a high level. But DNMT1 is unable to methylate cytosines during days 9.5 to 12.5 because the UHRF1 gene (also known as NP95) is repressed and UHRF1 is an essential protein needed to recruit DNMT1 to replication foci where maintenance DNA methylation takes place. This is a passive, dilution form of demethylation.
In addition, from embryo day 9.5 to 13.5 there is an active form of demethylation. As indicated below in "Molecular stages of active reprogramming," two enzymes are central to active demethylation. These are a ten-eleven translocation methylcytosine dioxygenase (TET) and thymine-DNA glycosylase (TDG). One particular TET enzyme, TET1, and TDG are present at high levels from embryo day 9.5 to 13.5, and are employed in active demethylation during gametogenesis. PGC genomes display the lowest levels of DNA methylation of any cells in the entire life cycle of the mouse at embryonic day 13.5.
Learning and Memory
Learning and memory have levels of permanence, differing from other mental processes such as thought, language, and consciousness, which are temporary in nature. Learning and memory can be either accumulated slowly (multiplication tables) or rapidly (touching a hot stove), but once attained, can be recalled into conscious use for a long time. Rats subjected to one instance of contextual fear conditioning create an especially strong long-term memory. At 24 hours after training, 9.17% of the genes in the genomes of rat hippocampus neurons were found to be differentially methylated. This included more than 2,000 differentially methylated genes at 24 hours after training, with over 500 genes being demethylated. Similar results to that in the rat hippocampus were also obtained in mice with contextual fear conditioning.
The hippocampus region of the brain is where contextual fear memories are first stored (see figure of the brain, this section), but this storage is transient and does not remain in the hippocampus. In rats contextual fear conditioning is abolished when the hippocampus is subjected to hippocampectomy just one day after conditioning, but rats retain a considerable amount of contextual fear when hippocampectomy is delayed by four weeks. In mice, examined at 4 weeks after conditioning, the hippocampus methylations and demethylations were reversed (the hippocampus is needed to form memories but memories are not stored there) while substantial differential CpG methylation and demethylation occurred in cortical neurons during memory maintenance. There were 1,223 differentially methylated genes in the anterior cingulate cortex of mice four weeks after contextual fear conditioning. Thus, while there were many methylations in the hippocampus shortly after memory was formed, all these hippocampus methylations were demethylated as soon as four weeks later.
Demethylation in Cancer
The human genome contains about 28 million CpG sites, and roughly 60% of the CpG sites are methylated at the 5 position of the cytosine. During formation of a cancer there is an average reduction of the number of methylated cytosines of about 5% to 20%, or about 840,00 to 3.4 million demethylations of CpG sites.
DNMT1 methylates CpGs on hemi-methylated DNA during DNA replication. Thus, when a DNA strand has a methylated CpG, and the newly replicated strand during semi-conservative replication lacks a methyl group on the complementary CpG, DNMT1 is normally recruited to the hemimethylated site and adds a methyl group to cytosine in the newly synthesized CpG. However, recruitment of DNMT1 to hemimethylated CpG sites during DNA replication depends on the UHRF1 protein. If UHRF1 does not bind to a hemimethylated CpG site, then DNMT1 is not recruited and cannot methylate the newly synthesized CpG site. The arginine methyltransferase PRMT6 regulates DNA methylation by methylating the arginine at position 2 of histone 3 (H3R2me2a). (See Protein methylation#Arginine.) In the presence of H3R2me2a UHRF1 can not bind to a hemimethylated CpG site, and then DNMT1 is not recruited to the site, and the site remains hemimethylated. Upon further rounds of replication the methylated CpG is passively diluted out. PRMT6 is frequently overexpressed in many types of cancer cells. The overexpression of PRMT6 may be a source of DNA demethylation in cancer.
Molecular stages of active reprogramming
Three molecular stages are required for actively, enzymatically reprogramming the DNA methylome. Stage 1: Recruitment. The enzymes needed for reprogramming are recruited to genome sites that require demethylation or methylation. Stage 2: Implementation. The initial enzymatic reactions take place. In the case of methylation, this is a short step that results in the methylation of cytosine to 5-methylcytosine. Stage 3: Base excision DNA repair. The intermediate products of demethylation are catalysed by specific enzymes of the base excision DNA repair pathway that finally restore cystosine in the DNA sequence.
Stage 2 of active demethylation
Demethylation of 5-methylcytosine to generate 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) very often initially involves oxidation of 5mC (see Figure in this section) by ten-eleven translocation methylcytosine dioxygenases (TET enzymes). The molecular steps of this initial demethylation are shown in detail in TET enzymes. In successive steps (see Figure) TET enzymes further hydroxylate 5hmC to generate 5-formylcytosine (5fC) and 5-carboxylcytosine (5caC). Thymine-DNA glycosylase (TDG) recognizes the intermediate bases 5fC and 5caC and excises the glycosidic bond resulting in an apyrimidinic site (AP site). This is followed by base excision repair (stage 3). In an alternative oxidative deamination pathway, 5hmC can be oxidatively deaminated by APOBEC (AID/APOBEC) deaminases to form 5-hydroxymethyluracil (5hmU). Also, 5mC can be converted to thymine (Thy). 5hmU can be cleaved by TDG, MBD4, NEIL1 or SMUG1. AP sites and T:G mismatches are then repaired by base excision repair (BER) enzymes to yield cytosine (Cyt). The TET family of dioxygenases are employed in the most frequent type of demethylation reactions.
TET family
TET dioxygenase isoforms include at least two isoforms of TET1, one of TET2 and three isoforms of TET3. The full-length canonical TET1 isoform appears virtually restricted to early embryos, embryonic stem cells and primordial germ cells (PGCs). The dominant TET1 isoform in most somatic tissues, at least in the mouse, arises from alternative promoter usage which gives rise to a short transcript and a truncated protein designated TET1s. The isoforms of TET3 are the full length form TET3FL, a short form splice variant TET3s, and a form that occurs in oocytes and neurons designated TET3o. TET3o is created by alternative promoter use and contains an additional first N-terminal exon coding for 11 amino acids. TET3o only occurs in oocytes and neurons and is not expressed in embryonic stem cells or in any other cell type or adult mouse tissue tested. Whereas TET1 expression can barely be detected in oocytes and zygotes, and TET2 is only moderately expressed, the TET3 variant TET3o shows extremely high levels of expression in oocytes and zygotes, but is nearly absent at the 2-cell stage. It is possible that TET3o, high in neurons, oocytes and zygotes at the one cell stage, is the major TET enzyme utilized when very large scale rapid demethylations occur in these cells.
Stage 1 of demethylation - recruitment of TET to DNA
The TET enzymes do not specifically bind to 5-methylcytosine except when recruited. Without recruitment or targeting, TET1 predominantly binds to high CG promoters and CpG islands (CGIs) genome-wide by its CXXC domain that can recognize un-methylated CGIs. TET2 does not have an affinity for 5-methylcytosine in DNA. The CXXC domain of the full-length TET3, which is the predominant form expressed in neurons, binds most strongly to CpGs where the C was converted to 5-carboxycytosine (5caC). However, it also binds to un-methylated CpGs.
For a TET enzyme to initiate demethylation it must first be recruited to a methylated CpG site in DNA. Two of the proteins shown to recruit a TET enzyme to a methylated cytosine in DNA are OGG1 (see figure Initiation of DNA demethylation at a CpG site) and EGR1.
OGG1
Oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1) catalyses the first step in base excision repair of the oxidatively damaged base 8-OHdG. OGG1 finds 8-OHdG by sliding along the linear DNA at 1,000 base pairs of DNA in 0.1 seconds. OGG1 very rapidly finds 8-OHdG. OGG1 proteins bind to oxidatively damaged DNA with a half maximum time of about 6 seconds. When OGG1 finds 8-OHdG it changes conformation and complexes with 8-OHdG in its binding pocket. OGG1 does not immediately act to remove the 8-OHdG. Half maximum removal of 8-OHdG takes about 30 minutes in HeLa cells in vitro, or about 11 minutes in the livers of irradiated mice. DNA oxidation by reactive oxygen species preferentially occurs at a guanine in a methylated CpG site, because of a lowered ionization potential of guanine bases adjacent to 5-methylcytosine. TET1 binds (is recruited to) the OGG1 bound to 8-OHdG (see figure). This likely allows TET1 to demethylate an adjacent methylated cytosine. When human mammary epithelial cells (MCF-10A) were treated with H2O2, 8-OHdG increased in DNA by 3.5-fold and this caused about 80% demethylation of the 5-methylcytosines in the MCF-10A genome.
EGR1
The gene early growth response protein 1 (EGR1) is an immediate early gene (IEG). EGR1 can rapidly be induced by neuronal activity. The defining characteristic of IEGs is the rapid and transient up-regulation—within minutes—of their mRNA levels independent of protein synthesis. In adulthood, EGR1 is expressed widely throughout the brain, maintaining baseline expression levels in several key areas of the brain including the medial prefrontal cortex, striatum, hippocampus and amygdala. This expression is linked to control of cognition, emotional response, social behavior and sensitivity to reward. EGR1 binds to DNA at sites with the motifs 5′-GCGTGGGCG-3′ and 5'-GCGGGGGCGG-3′ and these motifs occur primarily in promoter regions of genes. The short isoform TET1s is expressed in the brain. EGR1 and TET1s form a complex mediated by the C-terminal regions of both proteins, independently of association with DNA. EGR1 recruits TET1s to genomic regions flanking EGR1 binding sites. In the presence of EGR1, TET1s is capable of locus-specific demethylation and activation of the expression of downstream genes regulated by EGR1.
DNA demethylation intermediate 5hmC
As indicated in the Figure above, captioned "Demethylation of 5-methylcytosine," the first step in active demethylation is a TET oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). The demethylation process, in some tissues and at some genome locations, may stop at that point. As reviewed by Uribe-Lewis et al., in addition to being an intermediate in active DNA demethylation, 5hmC is often a stable DNA modification. Within the genome, 5hmC is located at transcriptionally active genes, regulatory elements and chromatin associated complexes. In particular, 5hmC is dynamically changed and positively correlated with active gene transcription during cell lineage specification, and high levels of 5hmC are found in embryonic stem cells and in the central nervous system. In humans, defective 5-hydroxymethylating activity is associated with a phenotype of lymphoproliferation, immunodeficiency and autoimmunity.
Stage 3 base excision repair
The third stage of DNA demethylation is removal of the intermediate products of demethylation generated by a TET enzyme by base excision repair. As indicated above in Stage 2, after 5mC is first oxidized by a TET to form 5hmC, further oxidation of 5hmC by TET yields 5fC and oxidation of 5fC by TET yields 5caC. Both 5fC and 5caC are recognized by a DNA glycosylase, TDG, a base excision repair enzyme, as an abnormal base. As shown in the Figure in this section, TDG removes the abnormal base (e.g. 5fC) while leaving the sugar-phosphate backbone intact, creating an apurinic/apyrimidinic site, commonly referred to as an AP site. In this Figure, the 8-OHdG is left in the DNA, since it may have been present when OGG1 attracted TET1 to the CpG site with a methylated cytosine. After an AP site is formed, AP endonuclease creates a nick in the phosphodiester backbone of the AP site that was formed when the TDG DNA glycosylase removed the 5fC or 5caC. The human AP endonuclease incises DNA 5′ to the AP site by a hydrolytic mechanism, leaving a 3′-hydroxyl and a 5′-deoxyribose phosphate (5' dRP) residue. This is followed by either short patch or long patch repair. In short patch repair, 5′ dRP lyase trims the 5′ dRP end to form a phosphorylated 5′ end. This is followed by DNA polymerase β (pol β) adding a single cytosine to pair with the pre-existing guanine in the complementary strand and then DNA ligase to seal the cut strand. In long patch repair, DNA synthesis is thought to be mediated by polymerase δ and polymerase ε performing displacement synthesis to form a flap. Pol β can also perform long-patch displacement synthesis. Long-patch synthesis typically inserts 2–10 new nucleotides. Then flap endonuclease removes the flap, and this is followed by DNA ligase to seal the strand. At this point there has been a complete replacement of the 5-methylcytosine by cytosine (demethylation) in the DNA sequence.
Demethylation after exercise
Physical exercise has well established beneficial effects on learning and memory (see Neurobiological effects of physical exercise). BDNF is a particularly important regulator of learning and memory. As reviewed by Fernandes et al., in rats, exercise enhances the hippocampus expression of the gene Bdnf, which has an essential role in memory formation. Enhanced expression of Bdnf occurs through demethylation of its CpG island promoter at exon IV and this demethylation depends on steps illustrated in the two figures.
Demethylation after exposure to traffic related air pollution
In a panel of healthy adults, negative associations were found between total DNA methylation and exposure to traffic related air pollution. DNA methylation levels were associated both with recent and chronic exposure to Black Carbon as well as benzene.
Peripheral sensory neuron regeneration
After injury, neurons in the adult peripheral nervous system can switch from a dormant state with little axonal growth to robust axon regeneration. DNA demethylation in mature mammalian neurons removes barriers to axonal regeneration. This demethylation, in regenerating mouse peripheral neurons, depends upon TET3 to generate 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) in DNA. 5hmC was altered in a large set of regeneration-associated genes (RAGs), including well-known RAGs such as Atf3, Bdnf, and Smad1, that regulate the axon growth potential of neurons.
References
Molecular biology |
4749165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398%20UEFA%20Cup | 1997–98 UEFA Cup | The 1997–98 UEFA Cup was won by Internazionale in an all-Italian final against Lazio. It was their third title in eight years in the competition.
It was the first instance of the UEFA Cup final being a one-game contest at a neutral stadium, having previously being decided over two legs with each team having one home game.
For first time, one nation (France) was represented by seven teams: Strasbourg, Auxerre, Bastia, Nantes, Lyon, Bordeaux and Metz.
Format
According to 1996 UEFA ranking, Spain took a slot to Germany (but this one took the place of the holders), the Netherlands took a place from Russia, while Ukraine, Czech Republic, and Hungary took a slot from Israel, FR Yugoslavia and Poland (but this one took the place of troubled Albania).
The access list was finally decreased to 102 clubs, because only the 16 best national champions excluded from the Champions League group stage entered in the UEFA Cup.
Teams
The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:
TH: Title holders
LC: League Cup winners
Nth: League position
IC: Intertoto Cup winners
FP: Fair play
CL Q2: Losers from the Champions League second qualifying round
Notes
First qualifying round
|}
First leg
Second leg
2–2 on aggregate; Dinamo Minsk won on away goals.
Hapoel Petah Tikva won 3–1 on aggregate.
Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk won 8–1 on aggregate.
Boby Brno won 7–4 on aggregate.
Apollon Limassol won 4–1 on aggregate.
Celtic won 8-0 on aggregate.
Neuchâtel Xamax won 10–1 on aggregate.
Hajduk Split won 6–1 on aggregate.
Grasshoppers won 10–1 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate; Viking won 5–4 on penalties.
KR Reykjavík won 4–1 on aggregate.
Ferencváros won 6–0 on aggregate.
FK Jablonec 97 won 8–0 on aggregate.
Spartak Trnava won 4–1 on aggregate.
Odra Wodzisław won 4–2 on aggregate.
Vorskla Poltava won 5–2 on aggregate.
4–4 on aggregate; Brann won on away goals.
Dundee United won 17-0 on aggregate.
4–4 on aggregate; Gorica won on away goals.
Újpest won 9–2 on aggregate.
Second qualifying round
|}
First leg
Second leg
Hajduk Split won 5–2 on aggregate.
Anderlecht won 4–0 on aggregate.
Neuchâtel Xamax won 4–2 on aggregate.
Rotor Volgograd won 6–3 on aggregate.
Trabzonspor won 2–1 on aggregate.
Rapid Wien won 6–3 on aggregate.
Celtic won 7–5 on aggregate.
1–1 on aggregate; Ferencváros won 4–3 on penalties.
Hapoel Petah Tikva won 1–0 on aggregate.
Grasshoppers won 3–2 on aggregate.
Club Brugge won 8–3 on aggregate.
PAOK won 6–3 on aggregate.
OFI Crete won 3–1 on aggregate.
1–1 on aggregate; Örebro won on away goals.
Excelsior Mouscron won 3–0 on aggregate.
Lillestrøm won 3–0 on aggregate.
AGF Aarhus won 3–2 on aggregate.
Alania Vladikavkaz won 6–2 on aggregate.
First round
|}
First leg
Second leg
Auxerre won 2–1 on aggregate.
Anderlecht won 7–6 on aggregate.
PAOK won 2–1 on aggregate.
Udinese won 3–1 on aggregate.
Ajax won 10–2 on aggregate.
Lyon won 7–3 on aggregate.
Dinamo Tbilisi won 2–1 on aggregate.
Real Valladolid won 2–1 on aggregate.
Lazio won 6–1 on aggregate.
Strasbourg won 4–2 on aggregate.
MTK Hungária won 4–1 on aggregate.
Schalke won 5–2 on aggregate.
Bastia won 1–0 on aggregate.
Spartak Moscow won 6–1 on aggregate.
The original 2nd leg game finished 2–2 (scorers: Shirko, Alenichev – Lota 2x) on 30 September (Report), but had to be replayed because the goal posts were 8 cm short of the prescribed height.
OFI Crete won 4–2 on aggregate.
Athletic Bilbao won 4–1 on aggregate.
Aston Villa won 1–0 on aggregate.
Steaua București won 2–1 on aggregate.
Rotor Volgograd won 6–1 on aggregate.
1860 Munich won 7–1 on aggregate.
Bochum won 6–5 on aggregate.
Croatia Zagreb won 9–4 on aggregate.
Braga won 3–2 on aggregate.
Rapid Wien won 2–1 on aggregate.
Internazionale won 4–0 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate; Liverpool won on away goals.
Metz won 6–1 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate; Twente won on away goals.
Club Brugge won 4–2 on aggregate.
Atlético Madrid won 4–1 on aggregate.
AGF Aarhus won 3–2 on aggregate.
Karlsruhe won 3–2 on aggregate.
Second round
|}
First leg
Second leg
Strasbourg won 3–2 on aggregate.
Internazionale won 4–3 on aggregate.
Braga won 5–0 on aggregate.
Schalke 04 won 3–1 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate; Ajax won on away goals.
Bochum won 4–2 on aggregate.
Karlsruhe won 3–1 on aggregate.
Spartak Moscow won 4–1 on aggregate.
Croatia Zagreb won 2–1 on aggregate.
Atlético Madrid won 9–6 on aggregate.
3–3 on aggregate; Steaua București won on away goals.
Aston Villa won 2–1 on aggregate.
Rapid Wien won 4–2 on aggregate.
Lazio won 3–0 on aggregate.
1–1 on aggregate; Twente won on away goals.
Auxerre won 5–4 on aggregate.
Third round
The draw for the third round was held on 7 November 1997.
|}
First leg
Second leg
Internazionale won 3–2 on aggregate.
Schalke 04 won 2–0 on aggregate.
Ajax won 6–4 on aggregate.
Spartak Moscow won 1–0 on aggregate.
Atlético Madrid won 2–1 on aggregate.
Aston Villa won 3–2 on aggregate.
Lazio won 3–0 on aggregate.
Auxerre won 3–0 on aggregate.
Quarter-finals
|}
First leg
Second leg
Internazionale won 2–1 on aggregate.
Spartak Moscow won 4–1 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate; Atlético Madrid won on away goals.
Lazio won 3–2 on aggregate.
Semi-finals
|}
First leg
Second leg
Internazionale won 4–2 on aggregate.
Lazio won 1–0 on aggregate.
Final
Top goalscorers
See also
1997–98 UEFA Champions League
1997–98 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
1997 UEFA Intertoto Cup
References
External links
1997–98 All matches UEFA Cup – season at UEFA website
Official Site
Results at RSSSF.com
All scorers 1997–98 UEFA Cup according to (excluding preliminary round) according to protocols UEFA + all scorers preliminary round
1997/98 UEFA Cup - results and line-ups (archive)
UEFA Cup seasons
2 |
3471186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect%20%28psychology%29 | Affect (psychology) | Affect, in psychology, refers to the underlying experience of feeling, emotion, attachment, or mood. In psychology, "affect" refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. It encompasses a wide range of emotional states and can be positive (e.g., happiness, joy, excitement) or negative (e.g., sadness, anger, fear, disgust). Affect is a fundamental aspect of human experience and plays a central role in many psychological theories and studies. It can be understood as a combination of three components: emotion, mood (enduring, less intense emotional states that are not necessarily tied to a specific event), and affectivity (an individual's overall disposition or temperament, which can be characterized as having a generally positive or negative affect). In psychology, the term "affect" is often used interchangeably with several related terms and concepts, though each term may have slightly different nuances. These terms encompass: emotion, feeling, mood, emotional state, sentiment, affective state, emotional response, affective reactivity, disposition. Researchers and psychologists may employ specific terms based on their focus and the context of their work.
History
The modern conception of affect developed in the 19th century with Wilhelm Wundt. The word comes from the German Gefühl, meaning "feeling".
A number of experiments have been conducted in the study of social and psychological affective preferences (i.e., what people like or dislike). Specific research has been done on preferences, attitudes, impression formation, and decision-making. This research contrasts findings with recognition memory (old-new judgments), allowing researchers to demonstrate reliable distinctions between the two. Affect-based judgments and cognitive processes have been examined with noted differences indicated, and some argue affect and cognition are under the control of separate and partially independent systems that can influence each other in a variety of ways (Zajonc, 1980). Both affect and cognition may constitute independent sources of effects within systems of information processing. Others suggest emotion is a result of an anticipated, experienced, or imagined outcome of an adaptational transaction between organism and environment, therefore cognitive appraisal processes are keys to the development and expression of an emotion (Lazarus, 1982).
Dimensions
Affective states vary along three principal dimensions: valence, arousal, and motivational intensity.
Valence is the subjective spectrum of positive-to-negative evaluation of an experience an individual may have had. Emotional valence refers to the emotion's consequences, emotion-eliciting circumstances, or subjective feelings or attitudes.
Arousal is objectively measurable as activation of the sympathetic nervous system, but can also be assessed subjectively via self-report.
Motivational intensity refers to the impulsion to act; the strength of an urge to move toward or away from a stimulus and whether or not to interact with said stimulus. Simply moving is not considered approach (or avoidance) motivation
It is important to note that arousal is different from motivational intensity. While arousal is a construct that is closely related to motivational intensity, they differ in that motivation necessarily implies action while arousal does not.
Affect display
Affect is sometimes used to mean affect display, which is "a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect" (APA 2006).
Cognitive scope
In psychology, affect defines the organisms' interaction with stimuli. It can influence the scope of the cognitive processes. Initially, researchers had thought that positive affects broadened the cognitive scope, whereas negative affects narrowed it. Thereafter, evidences suggested that affects high in motivational intensity narrow the cognitive scope, whereas affects low in motivational intensity broaden it. The construct of cognitive scope could be valuable in cognitive psychology.
Affect tolerance
According to a research article about affect tolerance written by psychiatrist Jerome Sashin, "Affect tolerance can be defined as the ability to respond to a stimulus which would ordinarily be expected to evoke affects by the subjective experiencing of feelings." Essentially it refers to one's ability to react to emotions and feelings. One who is low in affect tolerance would show little to no reaction to emotion and feeling of any kind. This is closely related to alexithymia.
"Alexithymia is a subclinical phenomenon involving a lack of emotional awareness or, more specifically, difficulty in identifying and describing feelings and in distinguishing feelings from the bodily sensations of emotional arousal" At its core, alexithymia is an inability for an individual to recognize what emotions they are feeling—as well as an inability to describe them. According to Dalya Samur and colleagues, people with alexithymia have been shown to have correlations with increased suicide rates, mental discomfort, and deaths.
Affect tolerance factors, including anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, and emotional distress tolerance, may be helped by mindfulness. Mindfulness refers to the practice of being hyper aware of one's own feelings, thoughts, sensations, and the stimulus of the environment around you—not in an anxiety-inducing way, but in a gentle and pleasant way. Mindfulness has been shown to produce "increased subjective well-being, reduced psychological symptoms and emotional reactivity, and improved behavioral regulation."
Relationship to behavior and cognition
The affective domain represents one of the three divisions described in modern psychology: the other two being the behavioral, and the cognitive. Classically, these divisions have also been referred to as the "ABC's of psychology", However, in certain views, the cognitive may be considered as a part of the affective, or the affective as a part of the cognitive; it is important to note that "cognitive and affective states … [are] merely analytic categories."
Instinctive and cognitive factors in causation of affect
"Affect" can mean an instinctual reaction to stimulation that occurs before the typical cognitive processes considered necessary for the formation of a more complex emotion. Robert B. Zajonc asserts this reaction to stimuli is primary for human beings and that it is the dominant reaction for non-human organisms. Zajonc suggests that affective reactions can occur without extensive perceptual and cognitive encoding and be made sooner and with greater confidence than cognitive judgments (Zajonc, 1980).
Many theorists (e.g. Lazarus, 1982) consider affect to be post-cognitive: elicited only after a certain amount of cognitive processing of information has been accomplished. In this view, such affective reactions as liking, disliking, evaluation, or the experience of pleasure or displeasure each result from a different prior cognitive process that makes a variety of content discriminations and identifies features, examines them to find value, and weighs them according to their contributions (Brewin, 1989). Some scholars (e.g. Lerner and Keltner 2000) argue that affect can be both pre- and post-cognitive: initial emotional responses produce thoughts, which produce affect. In a further iteration, some scholars argue that affect is necessary for enabling more rational modes of cognition (e.g. Damasio 1994).
A divergence from a narrow reinforcement model of emotion allows other perspectives about how affect influences emotional development. Thus, temperament, cognitive development, socialization patterns, and the idiosyncrasies of one's family or subculture might interact in nonlinear ways. For example, the temperament of a highly reactive/low self-soothing infant may "disproportionately" affect the process of emotion regulation in the early months of life (Griffiths, 1997).
Some other social sciences, such as geography or anthropology, have adopted the concept of affect during the last decade. In French psychoanalysis a major contribution to the field of affect comes from André Green. The focus on affect has largely derived from the work of Deleuze and brought emotional and visceral concerns into such conventional discourses as those on geopolitics, urban life and material culture. Affect has also challenged methodologies of the social sciences by emphasizing somatic power over the idea of a removed objectivity and therefore has strong ties with the contemporary non-representational theory.
Psychometric measurement
Affect has been found across cultures to comprise both positive and negative dimensions. The most commonly used measure in scholarly research is the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS is a lexical measure developed in a North American setting and consisting of 20 single-word items, for instance excited, alert, determined for positive affect, and upset, guilty, and jittery for negative affect. However, some of the PANAS items have been found either to be redundant or to have ambiguous meanings to English speakers from non-North American cultures. As a result, an internationally reliable short-form, the I-PANAS-SF, has been developed and validated comprising two 5-item scales with internal reliability, cross-sample and cross-cultural factorial invariance, temporal stability, convergent and criterion-related validities.
Mroczek and Kolarz have also developed another set of scales to measure positive and negative affect. Each of the scales has 6 items. The scales have shown evidence of acceptable validity and reliability across cultures.
Non-conscious affect and perception
In relation to perception, a type of non-conscious affect may be separate from the cognitive processing of environmental stimuli. A monohierarchy of perception, affect and cognition considers the roles of arousal, attention tendencies, affective primacy (Zajonc, 1980), evolutionary constraints (Shepard, 1984; 1994), and covert perception (Weiskrantz, 1997) within the sensing and processing of preferences and discriminations. Emotions are complex chains of events triggered by certain stimuli. There is no way to completely describe an emotion by knowing only some of its components. Verbal reports of feelings are often inaccurate because people may not know exactly what they feel, or they may feel several different emotions at the same time. There are also situations that arise in which individuals attempt to hide their feelings, and there are some who believe that public and private events seldom coincide exactly, and that words for feelings are generally more ambiguous than are words for objects or events. Therefore, non-conscious emotions need to be measured by measures circumventing self-report such as the Implicit Positive and Negative Affect Test (IPANAT; Quirin, Kazén, & Kuhl, 2009).
Affective responses, on the other hand, are more basic and may be less problematic in terms of assessment. Brewin has proposed two experiential processes that frame non-cognitive relations between various affective experiences: those that are prewired dispositions (i.e. non-conscious processes), able to "select from the total stimulus array those stimuli that are causally relevant, using such criteria as perceptual salience, spatiotemporal cues, and predictive value in relation to data stored in memory" (Brewin, 1989, p. 381), and those that are automatic (i.e. subconscious processes), characterized as "rapid, relatively inflexible and difficult to modify... (requiring) minimal attention to occur and... (capable of being) activated without intention or awareness" (1989 p. 381).
But a note should be considered on the differences between affect and emotion.
Arousal
Arousal is a basic physiological response to the presentation of stimuli. When this occurs, a non-conscious affective process takes the form of two control mechanisms: one mobilizing and the other immobilizing. Within the human brain, the amygdala regulates an instinctual reaction initiating this arousal process, either freezing the individual or accelerating mobilization.
The arousal response is illustrated in studies focused on reward systems that control food-seeking behavior (Balleine, 2005). Researchers have focused on learning processes and modulatory processes that are present while encoding and retrieving goal values. When an organism seeks food, the anticipation of reward based on environmental events becomes another influence on food seeking that is separate from the reward of food itself. Therefore, earning the reward and anticipating the reward are separate processes and both create an excitatory influence of reward-related cues. Both processes are dissociated at the level of the amygdala, and are functionally integrated within larger neural systems.
Motivational intensity and cognitive scope
Measuring cognitive scope
Cognitive scope can be measured by tasks involving attention, perception, categorization and memory. Some studies use a flanker attention task to figure out whether cognitive scope is broadened or narrowed. For example, using the letters "H" and "N" participants need to identify as quickly as possible the middle letter of 5 when all the letters are the same (e.g. "HHHHH") and when the middle letter is different from the flanking letters (e.g. "HHNHH"). Broadened cognitive scope would be indicated if reaction times differed greatly from when all the letters were the same compared to when the middle letter is different. Other studies use a Navon attention task to measure difference in cognitive scope. A large letter is composed of smaller letters, in most cases smaller "L"'s or "F"'s that make up the shape of the letter "T" or "H" or vice versa. Broadened cognitive scope would be suggested by a faster reaction to name the larger letter, whereas narrowed cognitive scope would be suggested by a faster reaction to name the smaller letters within the larger letter. A source-monitoring paradigm can also be used to measure how much contextual information is perceived: for instance, participants are tasked to watch a screen which serially displays words to be memorized for 3 seconds each, and also have to remember whether the word appeared on the left or the right half of the screen. The words were also encased in a colored box, but the participants did not know that they would eventually be asked what color box the word appeared in.
Main research findings
Motivation intensity refers to the strength of urge to move toward or away from a particular stimulus.
Anger and fear affective states, induced via film clips, resulted in more selective attention on a flanker task compared to controls as indicated by reaction times that were not very different, even when the flanking letters were different from the middle target letter. Both anger and fear have high motivational intensity because propulsion to act would be high in the face of an angry or fearful stimulus, like a screaming person or coiled snake. Affects which are high in motivational intensity, and thus are narrow in cognitive scope, enable people to focus more on target information. After seeing a sad picture, participants were faster to identify the larger letter in a Navon attention task, suggesting more global or broadened cognitive scope. Sadness is thought to sometimes have low motivational intensity. But, after seeing a disgusting picture, participants were faster to identify the component letters, indicative of a localized and narrower cognitive scope. Disgust has high motivational intensity. Affects which are high in motivational intensity narrow one's cognitive scope, enabling people to focus more on central information, whereas affects which are low in motivational intensity broadened cognitive scope, allowing for faster global interpretation. The changes in cognitive scope associated with different affective states is evolutionarily adaptive because high motivational intensity affects elicited by stimuli that require movement and action should be focused on, in a phenomenon known as goal-directed behavior. For example, in early times, seeing a lion (a fearful stimulus) probably elicited a negative but highly motivational affective state (fear) in which the human being was propelled to run away. In this case the goal would be to avoid getting killed.
Moving beyond just negative affective states, researchers wanted to test whether or not negative or positive affective states varied between high and low motivational intensity. To evaluate this theory, Harmon-Jones, Gable and Price created an experiment using appetitive picture priming and the Navon task, which would allow them to measure the attentional scope with detection of the Navon letters. The Navon task included a neutral affect comparison condition. Typically, neutral states cause broadened attention with a neutral stimulus. They predicted that a broad attentional scope could cause faster detection of global (large) letters, whereas a narrow attentional scope could cause faster detection of local (small) letters. The evidence proved that the appetitive stimuli produced a narrowed attentional scope. The experimenters further increased the narrowed attentional scope in appetitive stimuli by telling participants they would be allowed to consume the desserts shown in the pictures. The results revealed that their hypothesis was correct, in that the broad attentional scope led to quicker detection of global letters, while narrowed attentional scope led to quicker detection of local letters.
Researchers Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert and Lang wanted to further examine the emotional reactions in picture priming. Instead of using an appetitive stimulus they used stimulus sets from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). The image set includes various unpleasant pictures such as snakes, insects, attack scenes, accidents, illness, and loss. They predicted that an unpleasant picture would stimulate a defensive motivational intensity response, which would produce strong emotional arousal such as skin gland responses and cardiac deceleration. Participants rated the pictures based on valence, arousal and dominance on the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) rating scale. The findings were consistent with the hypothesis and proved that emotion is organized motivationally by the intensity of activation in appetitive or defensive systems.
Prior to research in 2013, Harmon-Jones and Gable performed an experiment to examine whether neural activation related to approach-motivation intensity (left frontal-central activity) would trigger the effect of appetitive stimuli on narrowed attention. They also tested whether individual dissimilarities in approach motivation are associated with attentional narrowing. In order to test the hypothesis, the researchers used the same Navon task with appetitive and neutral pictures in addition to having the participants indicate how long since they had last eaten in minutes. To examine neural activation, the researchers used electroencephalography and recorded eye movements in order to detect what regions of the brain were being used during approach motivation. The results supported the hypothesis that the left frontal-central brain region is related to approach-motivational processes and narrowed attentional scope. Some psychologists were concerned that the individuals who were hungry had an increase in activity in the left frontal-central region due to frustration. This statement was proved false because the research showed that dessert pictures increased positive affect even in hungry individuals. The findings revealed that narrowed cognitive scope has the ability to assist us in goal accomplishment.
Clinical applications
Later on, researchers connected motivational intensity to clinical applications and found that alcohol-related pictures caused narrowed attention for persons who had a strong motivation to consume alcohol. The researchers tested the participants by exposing them to alcohol and neutral pictures. After the picture was displayed on a screen, the participants finished a test evaluating attentional focus. The findings proved that exposure to alcohol-related pictures led to a narrowing of attentional focus to individuals who were motivated to use alcohol. However, exposure to neutral pictures did not correlate with alcohol-related motivation to manipulate attentional focus. The Alcohol Myopia Theory (AMT) states that alcohol consumption reduces the amount of information available in memory, which also narrows attention so only the most proximal items or striking sources are encompassed in attentional scope. This narrowed attention leads intoxicated persons to make more extreme decisions than they would when sober. Researchers provided evidence that substance-related stimuli capture the attention of individuals when they have high and intense motivation to consume the substance. Motivational intensity and cue-induced narrowing of attention has a unique role in shaping people's initial decision to consume alcohol. In 2013, psychologists from the University of Missouri investigated the connection between sport achievement orientation and alcohol outcomes. They asked varsity athletes to complete a Sport Orientation Questionnaire which measured their sport-related achievement orientation on three scales—competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation. The participants also completed assessments of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. The results revealed that the goal orientation of the athletes were significantly associated with alcohol use but not alcohol-related problems.
In terms of psychopathological implications and applications, college students showing depressive symptoms were better at retrieving seemingly "nonrelevant" contextual information from a source monitoring paradigm task. Namely, the students with depressive symptoms were better at identifying the color of the box the word was in compared to nondepressed students. Sadness (low motivational intensity) is usually associated with depression, so the more broad focus on contextual information of sadder students supports that affects high in motivational intensity narrow cognitive scope whereas affects low in motivational intensity broaden cognitive scope.
The motivational intensity theory states that the difficulty of a task combined with the importance of success determine the energy invested by an individual. The theory has three main layers. The innermost layer says human behavior is guided by the desire to conserve as much energy as possible. Individuals aim to avoid wasting energy so they invest only the energy that is required to complete the task. The middle layer focuses on the difficulty of tasks combined with the importance of success and how this affects energy conservation. It focuses on energy investment in situations of clear and unclear task difficulty. The last layer looks at predictions for energy invested by a person when they have several possible options to choose at different task difficulties. The person is free to choose among several possible options of task difficulty. The motivational intensity theory offers a logical and consistent framework for research. Researchers can predict a person's actions by assuming effort refers to the energy investment. The motivational intensity theory is used to show how changes in goal attractiveness and energy investment correlate.
Mood
Mood, like emotion, is an affective state. However, an emotion tends to have a clear focus (i.e., its cause is self-evident), while mood tends to be more unfocused and diffuse. Mood, according to Batson, Shaw and Oleson (1992), involves tone and intensity and a structured set of beliefs about general expectations of a future experience of pleasure or pain, or of positive or negative affect in the future. Unlike instant reactions that produce affect or emotion, and that change with expectations of future pleasure or pain, moods, being diffuse and unfocused and thus harder to cope with, can last for days, weeks, months or even years (Schucman, 1975). Moods are hypothetical constructs depicting an individual's emotional state. Researchers typically infer the existence of moods from a variety of behavioral referents (Blechman, 1990). Habitual negative affect and negative mood is characteristic of high neuroticism.
Positive affect and negative affect (PANAS) represent independent domains of emotion in the general population, and positive affect is strongly linked to social interaction. Positive and negative daily events show independent relationships to subjective well-being, and positive affect is strongly linked to social activity. Recent research suggests that high functional support is related to higher levels of positive affect. In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner found support for the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins. The exact process through which social support is linked to positive affect remains unclear. The process could derive from predictable, regularized social interaction, from leisure activities where the focus is on relaxation and positive mood, or from the enjoyment of shared activities. The techniques used to shift a negative mood to a positive one are called mood repair strategies.
Social interaction
Affect display is a critical facet of interpersonal communication. Evolutionary psychologists have advanced the hypothesis that hominids have evolved with sophisticated capability of reading affect displays.
Emotions are portrayed as dynamic processes that mediate the individual's relation to a continually changing social environment. In other words, emotions are considered to be processes of establishing, maintaining, or disrupting the relation between the organism and the environment on matters of significance to the person.
Most social and psychological phenomena occur as the result of repeated interactions between multiple individuals over time. These interactions should be seen as a multi-agent system—a system that contains multiple agents interacting with each other and/or with their environments over time. The outcomes of individual agents' behaviors are interdependent: Each agent's ability to achieve its goals depends on not only what it does but also what other agents do.
Emotions are one of the main sources for the interaction. Emotions of an individual influence the emotions, thoughts and behaviors of others; others' reactions can then influence their future interactions with the individual expressing the original emotion, as well as that individual's future emotions and behaviors. Emotion operates in cycles that can involve multiple people in a process of reciprocal influence.
Affect, emotion, or feeling is displayed to others through facial expressions, hand gestures, posture, voice characteristics, and other physical manifestation. These affect displays vary between and within cultures and are displayed in various forms ranging from the most discrete of facial expressions to the most dramatic and prolific gestures.
Observers are sensitive to agents' emotions, and are capable of recognizing the messages these emotions convey. They react to and draw inferences from an agent's emotions. The emotion an agent displays may not be an authentic reflection of his or her actual state (See also Emotional labor).
Agents' emotions can have effects on four broad sets of factors:
Emotions of other persons
Inferences of other persons
Behaviors of other persons
Interactions and relationships between the agent and other persons.
Emotion may affect not only the person at whom it was directed, but also third parties who observe an agent's emotion. Moreover, emotions can affect larger social entities such as a group or a team. Emotions are a kind of message and therefore can influence the emotions, attributions and ensuing behaviors of others, potentially evoking a feedback process to the original agent.
Agents' feelings evoke feelings in others by two suggested distinct mechanisms:
Emotion contagion – people tend to automatically and unconsciously mimic non-verbal expressions. Mimicking occurs also in interactions involving textual exchanges alone.
Emotion interpretation – an individual may perceive an agent as feeling a particular emotion and react with complementary or situationally appropriate emotions of their own. The feelings of the others diverge from and in some way complement the feelings of the original agent.
People may not only react emotionally, but may also draw inferences about emotive agents such as the social status or power of an emotive agent, his competence and his credibility. For example, an agent presumed to be angry may also be presumed to have high power.
See also
Affect consciousness
Affect control theory
Affect heuristic
Affect infusion model
Affect labeling
Affect measures
Affect theory
Affective neuroscience
Affective science
Affective spectrum
Feeling
Negative affectivity
Reduced affect display
Reversal theory
Social neuroscience
Subjective well-being
Vedanā
References
Bibliography
APA (2006). VandenBos, Gary R., ed. APA Dictionary of Psychology Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, page 26.
Batson, C.D., Shaw, L. L., Oleson, K. C. (1992). Differentiating Affect, Mood and Emotion: Toward Functionally based Conceptual Distinctions. Emotion. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Blechman, E. A. (1990). Moods, Affect, and Emotions. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ
Damasio, A., (1994). *Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, Putnam Publishing
Griffiths, P. E. (1997). What Emotions Really Are: The Problem of Psychological Categories. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago
Hommel, Bernhard (2019). "Affect and control: A conceptual clarification". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 144 (10): 1–6.
Nathanson, Donald L. Shame and Pride: Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self. London: W.W. Norton, 1992
Schucman, H., Thetford, C. (1975). A Course in Miracle. New York: Viking Penguin
Weiskrantz, L. (1997). Consciousness Lost and Found. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
External links
Personality and the Structure of Affective Responses
Circumplex Model of Affect
Affect and Memory
Evolutionary psychology
Feeling |
4628389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucson%20Symphony%20Orchestra | Tucson Symphony Orchestra | The Tucson Symphony Orchestra, or TSO, is the primary professional orchestra of Tucson, Arizona. Founded in 1928, when the season consisted of just two concerts, the TSO is the oldest continuously running performing arts organization in the Southwest. The TSO's season now runs from September to May and consists of over 60 concerts, including a Classics Series of eight programs, a Pops Series of four programs, a Masterworks series of five chamber orchestra programs, a number of one-night only specials, and run-out concerts to surrounding areas, such as Oro Valley, Green Valley, Bisbee, Safford, Thatcher, and Nogales. The TSO also provides educational programming that reaches over 40,000 school children each season. Within the TSO are a number of standing chamber ensembles, including a string quartet, string quintet, piano trio, harp trio, brass quintet, and woodwind quintet. These ensembles help provide educational programming through school visits, perform recitals annually, and also perform at private and community events.
The TSO performs music of a variety of styles, including classical, big-band, folk, jazz, pop, mariachi, and also commissions and performs new works by living composers.
History of the TSO
The TSO performed its first concert on January 13, 1929 with Camil Van Hulse at the podium. The program, performed at the Tucson High School auditorium, featured 60 volunteer musicians from throughout the community (including co-founder Juliani on double bass).
The Orchestra played Schubert’s Rosamunde Overture and Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. Local papers hailed the debut as a monumental achievement and said the audience greeted the Symphony’s performance with “surprise, admiration and bursts of enthusiasm.”
Though there were only two concerts the first season, the second offered three concerts and featured a new conductor, Joseph De Luca, who remained with the Symphony for five years. Concerts were held on Sunday evenings at 8:30. The early concert programs were all-orchestral; on March 16, 1930, soprano Mary Margaret Fischer appeared as the orchestra’s first soloist.
Midway through the third season, the TSO moved to the Temple of Music and Art, first playing there on January 25, 1931.
1930s – 1950s
In the late 1930s, the TSO’s financial situation was tenuous, prompting a decision to merge with the University of Arizona. From 1939-1950, the TSO existed under the auspices of the university, sharing access to music, offering credit to students who performed with the orchestra, and financial support. The orchestra performed under George C. Wilson from 1939 until his retirement in 1946, and then with Professor Samuel Fain from 1946 through his retirement in 1950.
Concerts were held in the UArizona Auditorium (now known as Centennial Hall).
As the 1950s opened, the orchestra was faced with a dilemma. Until this time, the musicians of the orchestra had not been paid. The Local 771 Union suggested payment of $15 a concert, but was met with opposition. After a yearlong standoff (which included 19 musicians and the conductor walking out), a coup de grace was found with a performance by John Charles Thomas, the most famous baritone at the time. By raising ticket prices (to $10, from $5) and filling 2200 seats, the TSO went into the black and proved that it was possible to pay the musicians. A budget was agreed upon in 1951 that included musician pay.
1952 saw the arrival of Frederic Balazs, the TSO’s first full-time, paid conductor and the debut of the Tucson Symphony Women’s Association, the first organization formed to support the TSO.
In 1958, the Tucson Symphony Youth Orchestra was founded, and it was also the first year of the annual Cotillion fundraiser.
1960s-1970s
Through the 1960s, the orchestra continued to expand in size and in budget. The decade brought the first-ever grant from the Tucson City Council ($2500, in 1965), the first performance with the Tucson City Chorus (a sold-out 1966 event), the first sold-out concert season (1967), and the first year that the operating budget surpassed $100,000 (1968).
In 1971, the TSO, under the direction of Music Director Gregory Millar moved to its current performance space- The Tucson Music Hall (now known as the Linda Ronstadt Music Hall). The opening performance was led by Arthur Fiedler (who also participated in a parade on a fire truck as part of the festivities the following day).
The TSO celebrated its 50th anniversary in the 1978-79 season, which included a concert featuring 99 musicians conducted by Music Director Dr. George Trautwein. Camil Van Hulse also returned to conduct the Rosamunde overture, a special nod to the orchestra’s first performance.
1980's-1990s
By the early 1980s the budget surpassed $500,000, earning the status of regional orchestra from the American Symphony Orchestra League. Music Director William McGlaughlin (now well known as the host of Exploring Music on National Public Radio) arrived in 1982 and established the Joy of Music series for families with young children. He was succeeded by Robert Bernhardt in 1987, who became a fixture in the community (and a frequent guest conductor following his departure).
During the 1990s, the organization was also able to purchase an administrative and rehearsal space that it still occupies today: The Tucson Symphony Center. Its outreach and education programs expanded, including the launch of the Young Composers Project. Thanks in part to grant funding, the TSO performed in communities throughout Southern Arizona, including Ajo, Bisbee, and Nogales.
George Hanson, the TSO’s longest-serving Music Director, arrived in 1996. Under his leadership, the TSO began performances in 2000 at the acoustically excellent Catalina Foothills High School auditorium, which has since become a firm favorite as the TSO’s second home. In 2003 the TSO Chorus was formed under the direction of Dr. Bruce Chamberlain, and continues to perform with the orchestra today for Handel’s Messiah and other orchestral choral masterworks.
Present
Maestro José Luis Gomez was appointed in 2016, the TSO’s first-ever Spanish-speaking music director. Under his artistic leadership, the TSO has expanded the quality and breadth of its programming, with a special focus on southern Arizona’s cultural heritage. In his first season, the orchestra performed to 150,000 people at the iconic All Soul’s Procession in downtown Tucson. Most recently, the TSO launched ¡Celebration latina!, a series of concerts embracing the large Hispanic and Latinx community. Maestro Gomez has also invested his energies in the Young Composers Project, commissioning several alumni for works on the main series. The TSO presents a number of new collaborations annually, including performances with Mariachi Aztlán de Pueblo High School, the Tucson Girls Chorus, the Tucson Arizona Boys Chorus, the Tucson International Mariachi Festival, Orkesta Mendoza, and Calexico.
In 2022, the TSO’s home downtown was renamed as the Linda Ronstadt Music Hall.
In the 2023-24 season the TSO celebrates its 95th anniversary. The organization is a member of the League of American Orchestra’s Group 3 with an annual budget of 6 million dollars. Over forty concerts a year are performed across the Classic, Masterworks, and Special Events series.
Mission
The mission of the Tucson Symphony Orchestra is to engage, educate and transform our community through live musical experiences of the highest quality.
Music Directors
The Orchestra has played under the leadership of the following music directors:
See also
Compositions by Bill McGlaughlin
Bill McGlaughlin
References
External links
Official website
Musical groups established in 1928
Musical groups from Tucson, Arizona
American orchestras
Performing arts in Arizona
1928 establishments in Arizona |
10945253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales%20in%20the%20Early%20Middle%20Ages | Wales in the Early Middle Ages | Wales in the early Middle Ages covers the time between the Roman departure from Wales c. 383 until the middle of the 11th century. In that time there was a gradual consolidation of power into increasingly hierarchical kingdoms. The end of the early Middle Ages was the time that the Welsh language transitioned from the Primitive Welsh spoken throughout the era into Old Welsh, and the time when the modern England–Wales border would take its near-final form, a line broadly followed by Offa's Dyke, a late eighth-century earthwork. Successful unification into something recognisable as a Welsh state would come in the next era under the descendants of Merfyn Frych.
Wales was rural throughout the era, characterised by small settlements called trefi. The local landscape was controlled by a local aristocracy and ruled by a warrior aristocrat. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the tud) and individual status (braint). Christianity had been introduced in the Roman era, and the Celtic Britons living in and near Wales were Christian throughout the era.
The semi-legendary founding of Gwynedd in the fifth century was followed by internecine warfare in Wales and with the kindred Brittonic kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland (the Hen Ogledd) and structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of Dumnonia known to the Welsh as Cernyw prior to its eventual absorption into Wessex. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, Cymry, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of the kindred kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant Northumbria.
History
Wales as a nation was defined in opposition to later English settlement and incursions into the island of Great Britain. In the early middle ages, the people of Wales continued to think of themselves as Britons, the people of the whole island, but over the course of time one group of these Britons became isolated by the geography of the western peninsula, bounded by the sea and English neighbours. It was these English neighbours who named the land Wallia, and the people Welsh. The people of Wallia, medieval Wales, remained divided into separate kingdoms that fought with each other as much as they fought their English neighbours. Neither were the communities homogenously Welsh. Place name and archeological evidence point to Viking/Norse settlement in places such as Swansea, Fishguard and Anglesey, and Saxons settled amongst the Welsh in places such as Presteigne. It was the Norman invasion of England in 1066, which led soon after to incursions into Wales that overcame these rivalries, encouraging Welsh rulers to attempt to develop Wales into a unified state that could oppose this new threat. It was only in the final stages of conquest that Wales finally achieved this unity. It was the threat of invasion and conquest that created the nation of Wales.
After the Roman withdrawal, Wales remained a rural landscape, controlled by warlords that formed a local aristocracy. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the tud) and individual status (braint).
The Roman era had brought Christianity, and the Celtic Britons living in the land that would become Wales, and elsewhere in Britain, were Christian throughout the era, and their legacy is found in the many place names of Wales that are prefixed by , meaning a holy enclosure or church. The Welsh kingdoms arose in this period, in which the chieftains clashed with one another in internecine warfare, both in the territory that would become Wales (kingdoms such as Gwynedd) and across the Brittonic kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland (the Hen Ogledd).This was also a time of structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of Dumnonia known to the Welsh as Cernyw prior to its eventual absorption into Wessex. Cernyw would become Cornwall and their language would become Cornish. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, Cymry, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of the kindred kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant Northumbria.
One king, Hywel Dda, came close to uniting Wales as a single nation. He was king of Deheubarth but in 942 he intervened when Idwal Foel of Gwynedd was defeated in battle by Edmund, King of England. He thus took control of Gwynedd and Powys, making him ruler of all Wales except Morgannwg and Gwent. Hywel Dda instituted Welsh law, which was adopted across Wales, even after his kingdom was divided after his death.
Irish settlement
In the late fourth century there was an influx of settlers from southern Ireland, the Uí Liatháin and Laigin (with Déisi participation uncertain), arriving under unknown circumstances but leaving a lasting legacy especially in Dyfed. It is possible that they were invited to settle by the Welsh. There is no evidence of warfare, a bilingual regional heritage suggests peaceful coexistence and intermingling, and the Historia Brittonum written c. 828 notes that a Welsh king had the power to settle foreigners and transfer tracts of land to them. That Roman-era regional rulers were able to exert such power is suggested by the Roman tolerance of native hill forts where there was local leadership under local law and custom. Whatever the circumstances, there is nothing known to connect these settlers either to Roman policy, or to the Irish raiders (the Scoti) of classical Roman accounts.
Roman-era legacy
Forts and roads are the most visible physical signs of a past Roman presence, along with the coins and Roman-era Latin inscriptions that are associated with Roman military sites. There is a legacy of Romanisation along the coast of southeastern Wales. In that region are found the remains of villas in the countryside. Caerwent and three small urban sites, along with Carmarthen and Roman Monmouth, are the only "urbanised" Roman sites in Wales. This region was placed under Roman civil administration (civitates) in the mid-second century, with the rest of Wales being under military administration throughout the Roman era. There are a number of borrowings from the Latin lexicon into Welsh, and while there are Latin-derived words with legal meaning in popular usage such as pobl ("people"), the technical words and concepts used in describing Welsh law in the Middle Ages are native Welsh, and not of Roman origin.
There is ongoing debate as to the extent of a lasting Roman influence being applicable to the early Middle Ages in Wales, and while the conclusions about Welsh history are important, Wendy Davies has questioned the relevance of the debates themselves by noting that whatever Roman provincial administration might have survived in places, it eventually became a new system appropriate to the time and place, and not a "hangover of archaic practices".
Earliest kingdoms
The exact origins and extent of the early kingdoms are speculative. The conjectured minor kings of the sixth century held small areas within a radius of perhaps , probably near the coast. Throughout the era there was dynastic strengthening in some areas while new kingdoms emerged and then disappeared in others. There is no reason to suppose that every part of Wales was part of kingdom even as late as 700.
Dyfed is the same land of the Demetae shown on Ptolemy's map c. 150 during the Roman era. The fourth century arrival of Irish settlers intertwined the royal genealogies of Wales and Ireland, with Dyfed's rulers appearing in The Expulsion of the Déisi, Harleian MS. 5389 and Jesus College MS. 20. Its king Vortiporius was one of the kings condemned by Gildas in his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, c. 540.
While the better documented southeast shows a long and slow acquisition of property and power by the dynasty of Meurig ap Tewdrig in connection with the kingdoms of Glywysing, Gwent and Ergyng, there is a near-complete absence of information about many other areas. The earliest known name of a king of Ceredigion was Cereticiaun, who died in 807, and none of the mid-Welsh kingdoms can be evidenced before the eighth century. There are mentions of Brycheiniog and Gwrtheyrnion (near Buellt) in that era, but for the latter it is difficult to say whether it had either an earlier or a later existence.
The early history in the north and east are somewhat better known, with Gwynedd having a semi-legendary origin in the arrival of Cunedda from Manau Gododdin in the fifth century (an inscribed sixth century gravestone records the earliest known mention of the kingdom). Its king Maelgwn Gwynedd was one of the kings condemned by Gildas in his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, c. 540. There may also have been sixth-century kingdoms in Rhos, Meirionydd and Dunoding, all associated with Gwynedd.
The name of Powys is not certainly used before the ninth century, but its earlier existence (perhaps under a different name) is reasonably inferred by the fact that Selyf ap Cynan (d. 616) and his grandfather are in the Harleian genealogies as the family of the known later kings of Powys, and Selyf's father Cynan ap Brochwel appears in poems attributed to Taliesen, where he is described as leading successful raids throughout Wales. Seventh-century Pengwern is associated with the later Powys through the poems of Canu Heledd, which name sites from Shropshire to Dogfeiling to Newtown in lamenting the demise of Pengwern's king Cynddylan; but the poem's geography probably reflects the time of its composition, around the ninth or tenth century rather that Cynddylan's own time.
Geography
The total area of Wales is . Much of the landscape is mountainous with treeless moors and heath, and having large areas with peat deposits. There is approximately of coastline and some 50 offshore islands, the largest of which is Anglesey. The present climate is wet and maritime, with warm summers and mild winters, much like the later medieval climate, though there was a significant change to cooler and much wetter conditions in the early part of the era.<ref>, Wales in the Early Middle Ages", "Land, Landscape and Environment".</ref> The southeastern coast was originally a wetland, but reclamation has been ongoing since the Roman era.
There are deposits of gold, copper, lead, silver and zinc, and these have been exploited since the Iron Age, especially so in the Roman era. In the Roman era some granite was quarried, as was slate in the north and sandstone in the east and south.
Native fauna included large and small mammals, such as the brown bear, wolf, wildcat, rodents, several species of weasel, and shrews, voles and many species of bat. There were many species of birds, fish and shellfish.
The early medieval human population has always been considered relatively low in comparison to England, but efforts to reliably quantify it have yet to provide widely acceptable results.
Subsistence
Much of the arable land is in the south, southeast, southwest, on Anglesey, and along the coast. However, specifying the ancient usage of land is problematic in that there is little surviving evidence on which to base the estimates. Forest clearance has taken place since the Iron Age, and it is not known how the ancient people of Wales determined the best use of the land for their particular circumstances, such as in their preference for wheat, oats, rye or barley depending on rainfall, growing season, temperature and the characteristics of the land on which they lived. Anglesey is the exception, historically producing more grain than any other part of Wales.
Animal husbandry included the raising of cattle, pigs, sheep and a lesser number of goats. Oxen were kept for ploughing, asses for beasts of burden and horses for human transport. The importance of sheep was less than in later centuries, as their extensive grazing in the uplands did not begin until the thirteenth century. The animals were tended by swineherds and herdsmen, but they were not confined, even in the lowlands. Instead open land was used for feeding, and seasonal transhumance was practised. In addition, bees were kept for the production of honey.
Society
Kindred family
The importance of blood relationships, particularly in relation to birth and noble descent, was heavily stressed in medieval Wales. Claims of dynastic legitimacy rested on it, and an extensive patrilinear genealogy was used to assess fines and penalties under Welsh law. Different degrees of blood relationship were important for different circumstances, all based upon the cenedl (kindred). The nuclear family (parents and children) was especially important, while the pencenedl (head of the family within four patrilinear generations) held special status, representing the family in transactions and having certain unique privileges under the law. Under extraordinary circumstances the genealogical interest could be stretched quite far: for the serious matter of homicide, all of the fifth cousins of a kindred (the seventh generation: the patrilinear descendants of a common great-great-great-great-grandfather) were ultimately liable for satisfying any penalty.
Land and political entities
The Welsh referred to themselves in terms of their territory and not in the sense of a tribe. Thus there was Gwenhwys ("Gwent" with a group-identifying suffix) and gwyr Guenti ("men of Gwent") and Broceniauc ("men of Brycheiniog"). Welsh custom contrasted with many Irish and Anglo-Saxon contexts, where the territory was named for the people living there (Connaught for the Connachta, Essex for the East Saxons). This is aside from the origin of a territory's name, such as in the custom of attributing it to an eponymous founder (Glywysing for Glywys, Ceredigion for Ceredig).
The Welsh term for a political entity was gwlad ("country") and it expressed the notion of a "sphere of rule" with a territorial component. The Latin equivalent seems to be regnum, which referred to the "changeable, expandable, contractable sphere of any ruler's power". Rule tended to be defined in relation to a territory that might be held and protected, or expanded or contracted, though the territories themselves were specific pieces of land and not synonyms for the gwlad.
Throughout the Middle Ages the Welsh used a variety of words for rulers, with the specific words used varying over time, and with literary sources generally using different terms than annalistic ones. Latin language texts used Latin language terms while vernacular texts used Welsh terms. Not only did the specific terms vary, the meaning of those specific terms varied over time as well. For example, brenin was one of the terms used for a king in the twelfth century. The earlier, original meaning of brenin was simply a person of status.
Kings are sometimes described as overkings, but the definition of what that meant is unclear, whether referring to a king with definite powers, or to ideas of someone considered to have high status.
Kingship
Wales in the early Middle Ages was a society with a landed warrior aristocracy, and after c. 500 Welsh politics were dominated by kings with territorial kingdoms. The legitimacy of the kingship was of paramount importance, the legitimate attainment of power was by dynastic inheritance or military proficiency. A king had to be considered effective and be associated with wealth, either his own or by distributing it to others, and those considered to be at the top level were required to have wisdom, perfection, and a long reach. Literary sources stressed martial qualities such as military capability, bold horsemanship, leadership, the ability to extend boundaries and to make conquests, along with an association with wealth and generosity. Clerical sources stressed obligations such as respect for Christian principles, providing defence and protection, pursuing thieves and imprisoning offenders, persecuting evildoers, and making judgements.
The relationship among people that is most appropriate to the warrior aristocracy is clientship and flexibility, and not one of sovereignty or absolute power, nor necessarily of long duration. Prior to the tenth century, power was held on a local level, and the limits of that power varied by region. There were at least two restraints on the limits of power: the combined will of the ruler's people (his "subjects"), and the authority of the Christian church. There is little to explain the meaning of "subject" beyond noting that those under a ruler owed an assessment (effectively, taxes) and military service when demanded, while they were owed protection by the ruler.
Kings
For much of the early medieval period kings had few functions except military ones. Kings made war and gave judgements (in consultation with local elders) but they did not govern in any sense of that word. From the sixth to the eleventh centuries the king moved about with an armed, mounted warband, a personal military retinue called a teulu that is described as a "small, swift-moving, and close-knit group". This military elite formed the core of any larger army that might be assembled. The relationships among the king and the members of his warband were personal, and the practice of fosterage strengthened those personal bonds.
Aristocracy
Power was held at a local level by families who controlled the land and the people who lived on that land. They are differentiated legally by having a higher sarhaed (the penalty for insult) than the general populace, by the records of their transactions (such as land transfers) by their participation in local judgements and administration, and by their consultative role in judgements made by the king.
References to the social stratification that defines an aristocracy are widely found in Welsh literature and law. A man's privilege was assessed in terms of his braint (status), of which there were two kinds (birth and office), and in terms of his superior's importance. Two men might each be an uchelwr (high man), but a king is higher than a breyr (a regional leader), so legal compensation for the loss to a king's bondsman (aillt) was higher than the equivalent loss to the bondsman of a breyr. Early sources stressed birth and function as the determinators of nobility, and not by the factor of wealth that later became associated with an aristocracy.
Populace
The populace included a hereditary tenant peasantry who were not slaves or serfs, but were less than free. Gwas ("servant", boy) referred to a dependent in perpetual servitude, but who was not bound to labour service (i.e., serfdom). Nor can the person be considered a vassal except perhaps as a clerical self-description, as in the 'vassal of a saint'. The early existence of the concept suggests a stratum of bound dependents in the post-Roman era. The proportion of the medieval population that consisted of freemen or free peasant proprietors is undetermined, even for the pre-Conquest period.
Slavery existed in Wales as it did elsewhere throughout the era. Slaves were in the bottom stratum of society, with hereditary slavery more common than penal slavery. Slaves might form part of the payment in a transaction made between those of higher rank. It was possible for them to buy their freedom, and an example of manumission at Llandeilo Fawr is given in a ninth-century marginalia note of the Lichfield Gospels. Their relative numbers is a matter of guess and conjecture.
Christianity
The religious culture of Wales was overwhelmingly Christian in the early Middle Ages. Pastoral care of the laity was necessarily rural in Wales, as it was in other Celtic regions. In Wales the clergy consisted of monks, orders and non-monastic clergy, all appearing in different periods and in different contexts. There were three major orders consisting of bishops (episcopi), priests (presbyteri) and deacons, as well as several minor ones. Bishops had some temporal authority, but not necessarily in the sense of a full diocese.
Communities
Monasticism is known in Britain in the fifth century though its origins are obscure. The Church seemed episcopally dominated and largely consisting of monasteries. The size of the religious communities is unknown (Bede and the Welsh Triads suggest they were large, the Lives of the Saints suggest they were small, but these are not considered credible sources on the matter). The different communities were pre-eminent within small spheres of influence (ie, within physical proximity of the communities). The known sites are mostly coastal, situated on good land. There are passing references to monks and monasteries in the sixth century (for example, Gildas said that Maelgwn Gwynedd had originally intended to be a monk). From the seventh century onward there are few references to monks but more frequent references to 'disciples'.
Institutions
Archaeological evidence consists partly of the ruined remains of institutions, and in finds of inscriptions and the long cyst burials that are characteristic of post-Roman Christian Britons.
The records of transactions and legal references provide information on the status of the clergy and its institutions. Landed proprietorship was the basis of support and income for all clerical communities, exploiting agriculture (crops), herding (sheep, pigs, goats), infrastructure (barns, threshing floors), and employing stewards to supervise the labour. Lands that were not adjacent to the communities provided income in the form of (in effect) a business of landlordship. Lands under clerical proprietorship were exempt from the fiscal demands of kings and secular lords. They had the power of nawdd (protection, as from legal process) and were noddfa (a "nawdd place" or sanctuary). Clerical power was moral and spiritual, and this was sufficient to enforce recognition of their status and to demand compensation for any infringement on their rights and privileges.
Bede's Ecclesiastical History
The notion of a separate Anglo-Saxon and British approach to Christianity dates back at least to Bede. He portrayed the Synod of Whitby (in 664) as a set-piece battle between competing Celtic and Roman religious interests. While the synod was an important event in the history of England and brought finality to several issues in Anglo-Saxon Britain, Bede probably overemphasised its significance so as to stress the unity of the English Church.
Bede's characterisation of Saint Augustine's meeting with seven British bishops and the monks of Bangor Is Coed (in 602–604) portrays the bishop of Canterbury as chosen by Rome to lead in Britain, while portraying the British clergy as being in opposition to Rome. He then adds a prophecy that the British church would be destroyed. His apocryphal prophecy of destruction is quickly fulfilled by the massacre of the Christian monks at Bangor Is Coed by the Northumbrians (c. 615), shortly after the meeting with Saint Augustine. Bede describes the massacre immediately following his delivery of the prophecy.
'Celtic' vs. 'Roman' myth
One consequence of the Protestant Reformation and subsequent ethnic and religious discord in Britain and Ireland was the promotion of the idea of a 'Celtic' church that was different from and at odds with the 'Roman' church, and that held to certain offensive customs, especially in the dating of Easter, the tonsure, and the liturgy. Scholars have noted the partisan motives and inaccuracy of the characterisation,, The Myth of the Celtic Church (1992). as has The Catholic Encyclopedia, which also explains that the Britons using the 'Celtic Rite' in the early Middle Ages were in communion with Rome.
Cymry: Welsh identity forms
The early Middle Ages saw the creation and adoption of the modern Welsh name for themselves, Cymry, a word descended from Common Brittonic combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen". Celtic Britain, Notes, p. 281 It appears in Moliant Cadwallon (In Praise of Cadwallon), a poem written by Cadwallon ap Cadfan's bard Afan Ferddig c. 633, and probably came into use a self-description before the seventh century. Historically the word applies to both the Welsh and the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland, the peoples of the Hen Ogledd, and emphasises a perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people, exclusive of all others. Universal acceptance of the term as the preferred written one came slowly in Wales, eventually supplanting the earlier Brython or Brittones. The term was not applied to the Cornish people or the Bretons, who share a similar heritage, culture and language with the Welsh and the Men of the North. Rhys adds that the Bretons sometimes give the simple brô the sense of compatriot.
All of the Cymry shared a similar language, culture and heritage. Their histories are stories of warrior kings waging war, and they are intertwined in a way that is independent of physical location, in no way dissimilar to the way that the histories of neighboring Gwynedd and Powys are intertwined. Kings of Gwynedd campaigned against Brythonic opponents in the north.
Sometimes the kings of different kingdoms acted in concert, as is told in the literary Y Gododdin. Much of the early Welsh poetry and literature was written in the Old North by northern Cymry.
All of the northern kingdoms and people were eventually absorbed into the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and their histories are now mostly a footnote in the histories of those later kingdoms, though vestiges of the Cymry past are occasionally visible. In Scotland the fragmentary remains of the Laws of the Bretts and Scotts show Brythonic influence, and some of these were copied into the Regiam Majestatem, the oldest surviving written digest of Scots law, where can be found the 'galnes' (galanas'') that is familiar to Welsh law.
See also
Matter of Britain
Medieval Welsh literature
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales pages on Early Middle Ages
.01
Sub-Roman Britain
Wales |
41756968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20Records | President Records | President Records is a British independent record label. It is one of the oldest independent record companies in the UK, originally launched in 1957 by Edward Kassner. During the 1960s and 1970s the label, and its subsidiary Jay Boy, had hits with artists including the Equals, George McCrae and KC & the Sunshine Band, Paintbox, and later focused on releasing back-catalogue compilations as well as occasional new albums by artists such as Robots In Disguise. President Records remains part of the Kassner Music Group.
Beginnings
President Records Inc, with which song publisher Edward Kassner became involved through one of his publishing contacts, was a record label founded on 6 June 1955 in the midst of the burgeoning independent music scene in New York. A corresponding British company was established by Kassner in May 1957, when he acquired the full company, initially to license some of the productions made in the name of the US company to major UK record labels such as Decca.
Kassner launched his own Seville Records label in the US with the idea of publishing a song and recording it, thus keeping control of the record's destiny by releasing on an owned label. Seville Records scored hits in 1961 with "Shout! Shout! (Knock Yourself Out)", a song written and performed by Ernie Maresca, and in 1962 with "Bobby's Girl", written by two college students (Hank Hoffman and Gary Klein), a chart success for Marcie Blane in the US. After his initial success with Seville Records, Kassner revitalised the President label. The US release schedule followed with a series of rock'n'roll acts, notably Charlie Gracie and the Jodimars (formerly Bill Haley’s backing group, the publishing arm of Kassner Music having earlier bought rights to the song "Rock Around The Clock").
UK launch
Encouraged by the success of Kassner Music’s publishing business with the signing of Ray Davies of the Kinks, the UK label, President Records Ltd., was launched in the summer of 1966 to pick up on the developing trend in the music business of popular groups and singers who wrote their own material, centring on the scene in London at the time. Early highlights of the UK label included harmony group the Symbols, who broke through with covers of "Bye Bye Baby" and "The Best Part of Breaking Up", and Felice Taylor, whose top 20 UK chart hit "I Feel Love Comin On", licensed in from US label Mustang Records, represented a first success for songwriter and arranger Barry White.
The label’s first number 1 came in 1968, as British mixed-race band the Equals hit with "Baby, Come Back", written by the teenage leader of the band, Eddy Grant. The song was originally a single B-side to "Hold Me Closer"; a radio DJ in Germany flipped the single and it took off. The Equals scored two more top ten hits on President with "Viva Bobby Joe" and "Black Skin Blue Eyed Boys".
President was also successful with a series of top 30 hits by Welsh vocalist Dorothy Squires, who charted with "For Once in My Life", "Till" and "My Way".
In addition many psychedelic pop records released by President in the late 1960s have become collectable, notably Hat and Tie's "Finding It Rough", and Rhubarb Rhubarb's "Rainmaker"; latter day mod/sixties club favourites such as Watson T. Browne & the Explosive's "I Close My Eyes", and Lloyd Alexander Real Estate Band's "Whatcha Gonna Do", featuring future members of the progressive rock band Audience; and "Pawnbroker Pawnbroker" by the songwriter turned performer Barbara Ruskin. Paintbox also recorded for the label making two singles, "Come On Round" written by Harry Vanda and George Young, from the band 'The Easybeats', and a second entitled "Let Your Love Go", written by David Gates of the American band 'Bread'.
Jay Boy
Identifying the burgeoning nightclub scene in Britain that began in the late 1960s and gathered momentum in the early 1970s, Kassner set up a subsidiary label, Jay Boy, specifically to cater for the market for R&B and classic soul music (later termed "Northern soul"). Already well established in the practice of bringing American songs to Europe, Kassner followed a similar pattern for his record label by licensing recordings from the United States. Doris Duke launched the JayBoy label under the name Doris Willingham with "You Can’t Do That" in 1968. The label imprint subsequently became a respected player on the Northern Soul scene with UK releases of records such as Bob & Earl's "My Little Girl", Ray Merrell's "Tears Of Joy" and Donald Height's "Three Hundred And Sixty-Five Days". UK productions were added to Jayboy and the label was simultaneously launched in the US via Marvin Holtzman who had earlier produced "Bobby's Girl" by Marcie Blane for Ed Kassner's Seville label.
Seeking to find more of this type of music, Kassner met with his former distributor from the Seville Records days, TK Records owner Henry Stone, based in Florida. Henry’s big artists, Timmy Thomas and Betty Wright, were signed to a major label but the major had passed on his other acts. Kassner did a deal for the rejects, and these included the husband and wife team George and Gwen McCrae. Within a few months "Rock Your Baby" by George McCrae went to number 1 in the UK in July 1974, with a further six chart hits following over the next two years. Kassner followed up with another Miami club act introduced by Stone, KC and the Sunshine Band, whose single "Queen Of Clubs" reached the top ten in the UK in August 1974. A string of KC hits on Jayboy followed, including "Get Down Tonight", "That's the Way (I Like It)" and "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty". The label had successfully crossed over from the clubs to the mainstream as with just these two acts alone President commanded 5% of the UK singles market at the time, on a par with the major MCA Records.
Other labels
The April 24, 1976 issue of Music Week wrote that President was handling the Aquarius label. Aquarius belonged to the J.A.C.K.S. group of companies which were French. The first release for the label in the UK was "You Got It" on Aquarius AQ 3 by Judd & Miss Munro, the husband-and-wife team of Judd Hamilton and Caroline Munro. Prior to that was "Cumba Cumba" by The Monstars on Aquarius AQ 2.
Restructure and present day
Such success brought with it significant pressures to maintain the new business level. Without the resources of a major record company, however, President restructured in the late 1970s and early 1980s, ceasing to release new recordings, and concentrated on marketing back catalogue, reissues and compilations.
The label increased its activities again in 1984, when a chance meeting between Edward Kassner’s son, David, who had joined the business in 1972, and American producer Tommy Boyce heralded the next term for President. Boyce’s idea was to start a label with its own studio and an all-star line up of established rock artists. The first album on the subsidiary label TBG/President was Silent Nights from ex-Yes keyboard player Rick Wakeman in 1984 (recorded at Herne Place in Sunningdale, the studio owned by Eddie Hardin, also signed to the label), followed by Live at Hammersmith in 1985. Although Boyce left the project early on, President continued with it and Wakeman went on to make 30 albums for the company. President Records also oversaw the first record releases by his sons, Adam and Oliver.
During the late 1980s President did good business with the albums made by Ray Fenwick as Forcefield, featuring, by turns, vocals from Pete Prescott, Tony Martin (Black Sabbath) and Graham Bonnet (Rainbow).
Over the course of the 1990s releases of new recordings through President again became infrequent. Nonetheless an ear and an eye for opportunities always remained open. As recently as April 2010, President achieved indie singles chart success with the track "Wake Up!" recorded by electro-punk band, Robots in Disguise, which followed three successful albums with the group, Disguises, Get RID! and We're In The Music Biz. The band and the label came together after Coca-Cola specifically requested the use of the band’s version of the Kassner-published, Ray Davies-penned song "You Really Got Me" for an advertising campaign.
President Records continued to diversify into various music markets with the acquisition in 1991 of the Dansan Records catalogue, set up by Tommy Sanderson in the late 1970s and renowned for having produced some of the best recordings ever made for ballroom dancing. Sanderson had a role there of producer and A&R man as well. He had also led his own group at one stage, Tommy Sanderson & The Sandmen. Recordings by Andy Ross & His Orchestra, Bryan Smith & the Dixieland Seven and the Eric Winstone Orchestra (amongst others) are still popular sellers.
President Records is part of the Kassner Music Group, controlling in excess of eight thousand masters which touch upon virtually every genre of music. Exploitation of these masters is now the core of the company’s business. Recent placements of President masters have included Millie Foster "Love Wheel" on ABC TV show Pan-Am and in an online advertisement for shoe manufacturer Stuart Weitzman, and Yellow Taxi "Anna Laura Lee" in independent French film release Comment j'ai détesté les maths.
David Kassner is now Managing Director of President Records. Veronique (Marie Letizia) Kassner is Finance Manager, and Alex Kassner (Edward's grandson) is Business Affairs/International.
References
British independent record labels
Record labels established in 1955
British companies established in 1955 |
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