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It’s easy to become unmotivated to do our individual parts to help the climate crisis when all we hear is bad news. Why bother washing and recycling our tin cans when celebrities are taking private jets for short journeys? Why switch to paper straws when commercial fishing companies are dumping 640,000+ tonnes of plastic into the sea every year? Well, it turns out, there are many reasons why.
When people put pressure on governments to act, results happen. They may not always happen immediately. Some nations will drag their heels. Some will prioritise the economy over the environment. But there are almost eight billion of us on earth. Small changes and pressure from all of us can make a huge difference. Here are some positive bits of environmental news and innovations that have happened this year.
The UN declares that a healthy environment is a human right.
On 28th July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly declared that everyone on the planet has a right to a healthy environment. 161 of the UN Member States voted in favour of the change and there were only eight abstentions*.
Inger Andersen, the UN Environment Programme’s Executive Director, said:
“The United Nations General Assembly has truly made history. This resolution triggers environmental action. It provides safeguards. It helps people to have the right to stand up. To insist on having access. To breathe clean air. Access to safe and clean water. To healthy food. Healthy ecosystems. Non-toxic environments in which to live, to work, to study, and to play. No one can take nature or clean air or clean water or stable climate away from us. Not without a fight.”
UN regulations are not legally binding on member states, but the majority of UN member states already recognise the right to a healthy environment through a national constitution, international treaty or national legislation. For the 37 member states that did not recognise this right before now (including the UK), this will mean more pressure on governments to provide a healthy and clean environment for their citizens. This is a significant step in the right direction for recognising climate change as a current human issue rather than a future problem to tackle.
*Abstaining states: Belarus, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Russian Federation and Syria.
US Senate passes the Inflation Reduction Act – a landmark climate and spending bill.
At the time of writing (August 2022), the United States is the world’s second worst polluting country, responsible for around 14% of global emissions. But, on 7th August 2022, Biden’s Inflation Reduction Act was cleared by the Senate.
Amongst many measures to fight inflation is a pledge to invest $369 billion (c. £302 billion) into energy security and climate change. This will include financial incentives for electric vehicles and clean energy in the form of tax breaks. There will also be a fee penalising fossil fuel companies for excess methane emissions, billions of dollars for environmental justice initiatives in disadvantaged communities, and much more.
Moments before Vice President Harris cast her tie-breaking vote to send the bill to the House, Senate majority leader, Chuck Schumer, said:
“Today, after more than a year of hard work, the Senate is making history. I am confident the Inflation Reduction Act will endure as one of the defining legislative feats of the 21st century. To the tens of millions of young Americans, who spent years marching, rallying, demanding that Congress act on climate change, this bill is for you.”
The Act isn’t perfect. Biden has admitted that it was a compromise. Though, while watered down to gain the vote of previously opposed Senator Joe Manchin, founder of a multi-million-dollar coal brokerage business, whose decision not to sign off on the bill prevented it from passing in 2021, the bill sees the US take a big step in the right direction for climate change.
The world is innovating.
At the UN’s COP26 conference in November 2021, a whole day was dedicated to science and innovation. Countries across the world formed a new Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet, intending to invest billions into renewables and emission reduction innovations over the next decade. The great news is that innovations are already happening.
The global aviation industry is responsible for around 4% of all carbon emissions. This is because traditional jet fuel releases a large amount of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere. However, a huge amount of research is now going into sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs).
SAFs can be made from used cooking oil, municipal waste and woody biomass. There is even the potential to use bacteria as sustainable aviation fuel. This is great news because using SAFs can reduce emissions by up to 80%.
In June 2022, four companies in Germany said they would produce 10,000 tonnes of e-kerosene (a SAF) each year in a brand new production facility scheduled to run from 2026. Other scientists have even been able to make carbon-neutral e-kerosene. The only real issue with SAFs is that they are much more expensive to produce. But, as innovation continues into sustainable aviation fuels, we can hope for more readily-available SAFs and more alternatives to traditional jet fuel.
A team of young and talented engineers at the Finnish company Polar Night Energy spend their days designing and building heat storage for renewable energy. One of their recent innovations is a sand battery. But what is a sand battery?
News of the battery spread across the world in July 2022 after some great coverage from the BBC. The large sand battery – which looks similar to a grain silo – uses sand to store heat energy, acting as a reservoir for excess wind and solar energy. Finland experiences large dips in daylight in the winter, meaning solar power isn’t readily available in these months. Being able to store the summer’s solar energy as heat would mean a low-cost and low-impact solution to the country’s reliance on fossil fuels in the winter.
The great news is, so far, the sand battery is working well. The first commercial battery is thriving in Kankaanpää, a town in West Finland. There, it is connected to a district heating network where it’s successfully heating both residential and commercial properties including homes and a local swimming pool.
The technology is soon to be scaled up, and more research groups are now also looking into sand as a viable battery for green power. The future for the sand battery is looking promising.
Carbon capture cars
A student team based at the Eindhoven University of Technology have been very busy designing cars. But not just any cars. They have designed and built a car from waste, with the exterior made mostly from ocean plastic. They have built the world’s first fully circular car, sustainable in production, use and end-of-life recycling. Most exciting of all, in July 2022, they revealed their newest concept car, a car that removes carbon from the air while driving. This car, named Zem, captures carbon with a special filter designed by the students. These cars are just some of many that the team of students have come up with. While just prototypes at this stage, these cars showcase just what investment into sustainable solutions can achieve. We certainly hope to see Zems across the world in the future!
The Ocean Cleanup
The Ocean Cleanup was founded in 2013 by Dutch inventor, Boyan Slat. The charity now employs a team of 120 engineers, scientists, researchers and others who work to innovate technology that removes plastic from our world’s oceans and rivers.
Although the charity was founded almost a decade ago, results were not immediate. It’s been a long and carefully engineered journey for the charity, but on 25th July 2022, they announced that they had successfully removed 100,000 kilos of rubbish from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. They are now scaling up their operations to build an interceptor three times the size of their current flagship model.
The charity has also gained support all over the globe. Following on from the creator-lead #TeamTrees fundraiser, YouTube philanthropist Mr Beast (aka Jimmy Donaldson) and ex-NASA engineer turned YouTuber, Mark Rober, also launched #TeamSeas to support The Ocean Cleanup and Ocean Conservancy. The #TeamSeas project alone has funded the removal of c.33 million lbs of rubbish from the ocean. This proves both how powerful creator influence can be, and how much people all over the world truly do care about our oceans.
Biodegradable fishing nets
Fishing gear accounts for 27% of marine litter. Most of this is made of plastic, which causes havoc for ecosystems both in the water and on land. But hope is on the horizon. Happening right now, the INdIGO project is developing biodegradable fishing nets that, if successful, could make a massive impact on future ocean plastic. The project surveyed 200 French and English fishers, and a massive 94% said they would be willing to try biodegradable fishing gear, but the biodegradable nets must be as efficient, resistant and solid as traditional nets. INdIGO are not the only ones working on new fishing equipment too. Cypriot company SEALIVE is developing bio-based fishing nets made from materials such as micro-algae. Many more across the world are doing the same. With these innovations happening globally, the future of fishing could well be met with much-needed environmental reform.
These are just a handful of the many environmental innovations that are happening across the world right now. As more money is poured into science and innovation, we stand a better chance in the fight against global warming.
Nature is also joining the fight against climate change!
We could write for days about the wonderful ways nature has adapted to changing weather patterns, or about how much bees do for us without even realising it. But instead, we are going to focus on one of nature’s underappreciated heroes. One little creature has been very busy protecting environments from the impacts of the UK’s warm and dry weather… the beaver!
Beavers were previously hunted to extinction in the UK. However, they are now regarded as a “keystone species” and are carefully being reintroduced across the nation. In July and August 2022, we had some of the hottest weather on record in the UK. But, in areas where beavers have been reintroduced, wetland habitats are doing very well despite low river levels. Wetlands are vital for ecosystems and biodiversity, so the humble beavers are doing something quite remarkable. Beavers are so great in fact, that on October 1st 2022, new legislation will give beavers legal protection in England. It will then be an offence to deliberately capture, disturb, injure, kill, or damage the breeding sites or resting places of beavers (without a licence). As beaver populations increase, we could see more of these fascinating results.
As humans, we must help nature in any way we can. The Royal Horticultural Society has some great advice on how we can assist nature, even on a small scale. You don’t have to have acres of land to create a habitat where nature can thrive. Even a plant pot with some bee-friendly flowers and a bird feeder can make a difference.
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Learning From Disaster
Teesta River is a 315 km (196 mi) long river that rises in the eastern Himalayas, flows through the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal through Bangladesh and enters the Bay of Bengal. Teesta River is a crucial part of the state, culturally extremely important to the people of Sikkim, revered as one of the deities of the land. The land itself holds caves, mountains, lakes, and rivers that are objects of worship for the people of Sikkim, mainly the indigenous Lepcha people. Located in the northwest of Sikkim, since early 60’s Dzongu has been reserved for the Lepcha community and borders the Kanchendzonga Biosphere Reserve. The river is considered by the government as a literal “white-gold mine” and the vast hydropower resource has a potential estimated to about more than 6000 MW in power and thousands of crores (10 million) in capital (rupees).
Affected Citizens of Teesta, is a forum which consisted mainly of indigenous Sikkimese (Lepchas) have been advocating and fighting against the hydropower projects since early 2004, since the proposal of hydropower projects and dams near Dzongu. The hunger strike that went on in 2007, 2008 and 2009 which was historic in Sikkim led by ACT against the instalments of big Dams in the local rivers spoke in volumes that led the charge. After the long period of strike, the government decided to scrap 4 projects of the 6 most destructive ones in Dzongu. 510 MW Teesta HEP stage IV and the Panam HEP 300 MW was withheld for many years. The new government formed in Sikkim has announced the supposed approval of the Stage IV dam. To save the last free-flowing, untouched stretch of Teesta, the campaign Save Teesta has started.
Disastrous Flood of River Teesta in 2023
Since 1990, the number and size of the Glacial lakes have been increasing across the Himalayas. With 90 million people exposed to the impacts of the GLOF Disaster across 30 countries living in 1089 basins containing glacial lakes, these disasters are never quantified at a global scale. 62% (~9.3 million) of the globally exposed population are located in the HMA region. 1 million people living within 10 km of a glacial lake of High Mountains Asia are exposed to such disasters. GLOF events are set to become more common, particularly in Himalayan states like Sikkim which are vulnerable to the effects of global warming. In the early hours of October 4, the glacier-fed South Lhonak Lake in North Sikkim breached, causing a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) that destroyed the state’s largest hydropower plant and left at least 35 people dead and around 104 missing as of October 9. A second glacial lake, Shako Cho in northern Sikkim, was on high alert and nearby villages evacuated just a day after the flood, due to fears that it, too, would breach.
The persistent protest led particularly by the ACT (Affected Citizens of Teesta), which gained regional, national, and international attention had resulted in the scrapping of four hydropower projects in North Sikkim in the early 2000s, however, what stands out perplexing is the fact that despite such contestation and protests, hydropower development on Teesta, the projects continue to be consistently undertaken by the State Governments as well as the power companies.
“The Andes and HMA have the highest levels of corruption and social vulnerability and lowest levels of human development, while the contrary is true for the European Alps, PNW and High Arctic and Outlying Countries.” Located at the intersection of South, Central, and East Asia, the massive Tibetan Plateau is often considered to be Earth’s “Third Pole.” A land of large glaciers, permafrost, and heavy snow, the plateau feeds a vast network of rivers, including major waterways like the Ganges, Indus, Mekong, Yangtze, and Yellow. These rivers, which together make up Asia’s “water tower,” provide water to nearly 40% of the world’s population. Sikkim and Darjeeling form a part of Earth’s Third Pole and River Teesta is an important lifeline that merges with River Meghna in Bangladesh.
Rivers in the Himalayas call for careful reconsideration when constructing hydroelectric dams, emphasizing the need for thorough risk assessments during implementation. The story of the River Teesta is one of many water stories that have been adversely affected by hydro dams. Despite the claims by politicians and industry actors that hydro is “clean and green,” hydroelectric dam development has numerous environmental, social, economic, and political impacts on communities around the world.
With 47 dams either proposed or commissioned and 14 pharmaceutical companies mushrooming along the river belt of River Teesta, such disasters prompt reflection on potential hazards for downstream communities in this fragile ecosystem.
Hydropower Development and Its Consequences
Hydropower development has been a cornerstone of economic growth and energy production in many regions, including the states of Sikkim and West Bengal along the Teesta River. However, the construction of hydroelectric dams is associated with a range of negative impacts on local communities and the environment. The environmental impacts of hydropower are significant, including the destruction of forests, wildlife habitats, agricultural land, and scenic areas, which can sometimes force human populations to relocate.
The social implications are equally concerning. Displacement and dispossession of land due to dam construction are correlated with depression and other mental health issues. In some cases, such as in the Alto Bio region of Chile, the damages from the construction of hydropower projects played a role in rising suicide rates among the local population. The strain on local infrastructure and resources, including education, transportation, healthcare, electricity, and job opportunities, can lead to reductions in self-rated health and lower social capital, particularly trust, after the construction of dams.
Furthermore, hydropower projects can lead to involuntary migration and dislocation, causing socio-cultural and economic changes in the community. Indigenous populations are particularly vulnerable to the destructive displacement risks associated with hydropower development, which can include landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, and marginalization.
Mental Health and Disaster
The mental health impacts of disasters such as floods are profound, multifaceted, and often not identified. The environmental disaster is often related to infrastructure loss and human loss but the impact of the disaster, be it any disaster, leads to a trauma that is often not discussed like mitigating environmental disasters. The dialogues and narratives build around building infrastructure like houses and roads but the fear that such disasters cost is often a secondary issue. The Teesta River disaster, for example, has highlighted the urgent need for mental health support and trauma counseling as integral parts of the rehabilitation process. The prevalence of mental health issues among those affected by hydropower dams and related disasters is well-documented, with economic hardship linked to increased psychological stress, a sense of helplessness, insecurity, and social isolation.
The recent flood outburst in Sikkim's Teesta River, which led to the disappearance of 23 Army soldiers, underscores the mental health impact of such events. The uncertainty and distress caused by the disappearance of fellow soldiers can lead to profound psychological effects, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The importance of developing appropriate plans, policies, and community education to respond to extreme events is vital for managing the catastrophe more wisely.
Introducing the film, "Voices of Teesta"
The film "Voices of Teesta" was funded by the CCMCC-NWO project under 1.3, “How hydropower re-distributes water, energy and risks.” (Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research) Project in alliance with SOPPECOM under the guidance of Dr. Deepa Joshi in 2015 - 2016.
With hydro energy being one of the convenient and available energy source for the development of any given State, the film tries to understand the relationship between various groups and communities of Sikkim and West Bengal with River Teesta. This film tries to trace the faint and unheard voices of local people who are affected by these developments. It travels from the source of River Teesta till the tip of the plains of North Bengal, and traverses through mini and mega hydro projects to capture these naked voices and their bond, angst, adaptation and reconciliation with River Teesta.
The story particularly revolves around the unique practices and beliefs of mountain communities and they express the significance of the river through their folklore, sacred rituals and scriptures. Communities from downstream struggle to balance their faith and religion with such developments and others confess the helpless need of sustaining and adapting to the changing economic patterns and surmounting unemployment.
The director Minket Lepcha is an awardee of Young Green Filmmaker 2016 in Woodpecker International Film Festival and the film ‘Voices of Teesta’ earned second position in the all India indigenous film festival called “Samuday ke Saath Short Film Festival.” This film also earned 10th position amongst 110 films in World Water Forum in Brazil 2018. The film has travelled in more than 50 places in a span of 7 years from local to global level.
The film team consisted of the following
- Director Minket Lepcha
- Editor Wangyal Sherpa and Salil Mukhia
- Cinematographer: Anup Aadin Das
- Sound Hishey Bhutia
- Research Kachyo Lepcha and Minket Lepcha
With the recent disaster that has occurred in our area and the film deals closely with the River Teesta, the screening of the film has become urgent to educate local people and provide knowledge to the locals of the region. The screening of the same film has been happening around more than 10 places around India and likely to screen in Canada also. The idea behind the physical screening is for people to come and gather together to reflect on the disaster that these fragile mountains are going through. The proceeds of the fundraiser will go towards building a mental health counselling group for the victims who have lost their loved ones and houses in Teesta River. The audience who will come for the screening need not directly contribute in fundraising. The poster will have a link where the audience or well wishers can directly donate to the link. The screening is also to educate young generation as the disaster is still very raw in our minds and if we do not raise awareness, the environmental crisis around our region will be disastrous.
Voices of Teesta has acted as an archive of human voices speaking of the river Teesta. The film is used as a curriculum in Vanderbilt University in United States of America to study human geography. The film is also a part of the curriculum for Water Classrooms designed by Living Water Museum. These classrooms has developed pedagogical tools using place-based, visually engaging and interactive content for middle school students that would enable students to reimagine just, resilient and equitable water futures. The “Water Classrooms” were initiated in Pune and was a joint collaboration of Living Waters Museum at the Centre for Water Research, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Pune and Centre for Environment Education, Pune, Science Activity Centre (IISER Pune) and contributors from Punyache Paani – Stories of Pune’s Waters.
The film is also shown in many schools populated by tribals in India as a part of the initiatives for acquiring Second place in the Institutional Category in Samuday Ke Saath National Film Competition of Tata Steel Foundation.
The Film and Its Impact
The film captures the voices of local people affected by hydropower developments along the Teesta River. It highlights the unique practices and beliefs of mountain communities and their struggle to balance faith, tradition, and economic necessity in the face of these developments.
The film has been instrumental in raising awareness about the environmental and cultural issues surrounding the Teesta River. It has been screened in various locations in India and is expected to be screened in Canada and other countries. The screenings serve as a platform for reflection on the environmental crises these regions face and the urgent need for action.
In conclusion, the case study of the documentary film "Voices of Teesta" not only brings attention to the environmental and cultural issues associated with hydropower development but also emphasizes the critical need for community engagement, sustainable development practices, and mental health support in the face of environmental crises. It is essential to consider the long-term health and social impacts of dams and to ensure that mitigation efforts are in place to prevent catastrophic social and environmental consequences.
"Voices of Teesta" was produced in 2015 and 2016. The film has traveled and won awards during these years. However, following the October 2023 disaster on the River Teesta, which resulted in many casualties and left the mountains in a fragile condition after the flood, the film has been screened in smaller, local spaces where the film is based. Civil societies and café owners have been requesting voluntary screenings of the film in their spaces. These screenings are allowing communities and stakeholders to engage in deeper conversations about their respective relationships with water and rivers.
Communities from across the Himalayas, ranging from small villages in Sikkim to Arunachal Pradesh in Northern India to Nepal, have been showcasing this film to learn about the relationship between water and people. The objective of screening the film is mainly to encourage local communities to engage in discussions regarding their own relationships with issues surrounding water, hydropower, or developmental structures in the fragile Himalayan region. Their concerns and sense of helplessness toward these natural disasters are evident through their shared experiences, revealing that their connection with water and rivers goes beyond viewing these resources solely for human consumption. These shared experiences have been uploaded to an Instagram page called @riverandstories.
Screening the Film
After the 4th October 2023 GLOF disaster, the film was screened in various platforms to act as a catalyst to create conversations around their relationship with water and rivers around them.
Three questions were asked to the audience after the screening and their responses are highlighted in the links below:
- What does River Teesta mean to you? (places where River Teesta was the main river) What does River mean to you? (places which was screened outside River Teesta)
- What is the future of River Teesta? (places where River Teesta was the main river) What is the future of Rivers for you? (places which was screened outside River Teesta)
- Do you see your future generation playing in this River?
These screenings were to amplify the voices of the connection that humans have with the rivers and waters. We are so grateful to the entire Environmental Conservation Laboratory who provided a team to pull these screenings together in Canada and help amplify the voice. In India, many local cafes, schools and colleges came together to screen the film and reflect on their connection with water. We may not have the answers but our effort is to amplify the voices of water far and beyond and allow the film to be the catalyst for such conversations.
4th November in Himachal Pradesh, India
Bhuira Village Sirmaur District, Ritu-Ngapnon-Varuni, Mountainwind Programme
5th November in Siliguri, India
Veganation, Salbari, Opp. Union Bank Organiser: Sabina Saby Tamang of Borrowed Fragrances and VYDA Branding Co. Dr. Ringee Eden Wangdi and Arnab Bhattacharya from @NESPON gave a presentation on Teesta River.
5th November in Bijanbari, Darjeeling, India
Main Street of Bijanbari Town,
Organizer: Manprasad Subba and Chota Rangeet Bachao Abhiyan.
6th November in Kathmandu, Nepal
Ananda Bhumi Events, New Baneshwor Organiser: Shreshna Basnet. Dr. Khet Raj Dahal, Senior Research Fellow as one of the main speaker. Pani Satsang from Nepal Water Conservation Foundation for Academic Research
8th November in Arunachal Pradesh, India
Aakash Deep, Itanagar Bazaar
19th November in Gangtok, India
Echostream, Opposite Dukit Paan Dokan, Secretariat Road
Organizer: Blooming Sikkim
Tseten Lepcha, Dr. Kachyo Lepcha, Mr. Ian Christopher, Mr. Deoshish Mothey were speakers speaking on River Teesta.
21st November in New Delhi, India
Youth for Climate India, South Extension
21st November in Thailand
Presented by Dr. Reep Pandi Lepcha
22nd November in Kokrajhar, Assam, India
Bodoland University, Assam Organized by Morin Daimary, NERSWN and Gangjema Gateway Motorcycle Club - GGMC engaging with the Political Science and Geography Departments.
22nd November in Kalimpong, India
Worship Centre, 9th Mile, below New Bus Stand, Kalimpong, India Fresh Water Angling - F.W.A and H.A.C.T. (Himalayan Anglers Conservation Trust)
25th November in Darjeeling, India
Writers’ Club in collaboration with Department of English,
Darjeeling Government College
Organised by Reep Pandi Lepcha
November 25-26 in Pune, Maharashtra
India Rivers Week
Organized by the Steering committee of India Rivers Forum
December 1-3 in Arunachal Pradesh, India
Organized by Dibang Valley group
3rd December in Kurseong, India
72 hill cart road, Kurseong, Next to old Bata Shop
Organised by Oro Cafe and Living the Culture
6th Dec in Gangtok, India
The Travel Cafe, Development Area
Organized by Tag Along
16th Dec in Kholey Dai Festival
Organizer: Kholey Dai Team and Praveen Chettri
21st January in Kalimpong
LEST WE Forget – The Testa Valley Disaster of Oct 2023 event
Cafe Kalimpong, East Main Road
16th February in Winnipeg, Canada
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
Venue: Fklaus Hochheim Theatre, 5th floor, Wallace Building
Organizer: University of Manitoba Environment & Geography Student Association
Tyler Langos, the President of the Environment and Geography Graduate Studies Association (EGGSA) opened the session by introducing the filmmaker. Minket Lepcha narrated the folklore of River Teesta before the screening. The film screen allowed engagement among various audiences ranging from India, Nepal, and Bangladesh to First Nation communities. Dion Dick, a healer from Grand Rapids in Northern Manitoba was also present in the film screening. He found resonance with the film and stories of River Teesta and shared his stories from Grand Rapid and the Hydro Dams present in the region. He spoke of mental health issues in the community and shared a deep concern for his community. The Q&A round was posed to both Minket Lepcha and Dion Dick and it was an engaging and powerful conversation for whoever was present in the screening. The audience was asked to share a word or sentence about their relationship with water and many of them wrote on a white chart paper.
21st March in Thompson, Canada
University College of the North
Venue: 302 A Lecture Theatre, THOMPSON, Manitoba
Young People and Elder's Gathering 2023
20 March 2024, Mumbai
IDP in Climate Studies
Venue: Ground Floor Conference Room, Civil Engineering Department
Organized by: Climate Cafe Team
27th March in Winnipeg, Canada
Venue: 1M28, Manitoba Hall Winnipeg, Manitoba
Global College, University of Winnipeg
26th July in Amsterdam, Netherland
Critical Himalayan Collective and Rasa Collective effort
Brunel University, Ecology and Environment
London Himalayan Short Film Festival
Impacts of the Film Screenings
The screenings also helped us to collect funds through two crowdfunding platforms: Milaap.org for India and GoFundMe for Canada and abroad.
The total amount that has been raised so far is Rs 50,707.19:
- Mailaap: Rs 30,478.63
- GoFundMe: Rs 6,831.56
- Critical Himalaya Collective and Rasa Collective: Rs 8,897.00
- Fund collected from Ancient Storytelling session at Buddah Padha: Rs. 4,500
How the Funds were spent:
- Rs 21,000 on Torch lights in Naga Village Sikkim
- Rs 14,000 on Paddles for West Bengal Rafter
- Rs 9,207 on Medical aid for the bereaved family from West Bengal
- Rs 6,500 Drone Accessories
21 torch lights were distributed to the villagers from Naga, North Sikkim where the entire village was coming downhill and the roads were sinking towards the river. Schools and houses were evacuated while the filmmaker Minket Lepcha visited to distribute the torch lights. The torch lights cost around Rs 21000.
Rs 14000 was donated to the rafters from West Bengal Teesta Rangeet Rescue Centre to buy a paddle for their raft. They are solely responsible for taking out the dead bodies which come floating from the upstream. With help from Anugyalaya organization, they have received the support of life jackets also.
Trauma care workshop
Rs 9207 will be provided to an estranged family in Teesta Bazaar from West Bengal. An old age couple is looking after an ailing daughter and they are staying in a camp after the flood. Minket Lepcha met the mother in the Trauma Care workshop that was held in Malli.
Minket Lepcha along with Mutanchi Souls, Lakith Lepcha, Alyen Foning and Bipasha Miatra came togetehr to conduct a two day storytelling for the citizens who were interested in healing through the stories of River Teesta. The session was hosted by Buddha Padha. The fund collected was Rs 4500 and that fund was gifted to Save the Hills to purchase their accessories for the drone that Anugyalaya purchased for them to monitor the water levels in West Bengal region.
The additional amount was added to the bill - Rs 6035
"Join us in making a difference! Your participation in our fundraising efforts will help support the community, making a meaningful impact in our community."
Fundraising Link :
To get involved in this campaign, visit:
To listen to more stories about the Teesta River and its significance, follow the video links below:
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The Santa Fe Trail
A History of the Santa Fe Trail by Harry C. Myers – 2010
(Edited by Joanne VanCoevern)
Long before Europeans came to the North American continent, there was trading taking place across the Great Plains. As early as 1200 A.D., there is evidence of Southwestern Pueblo designs in the area of the Hopewellian Culture along the Ohio River valley. And, conversely, there is evidence of Hopewellian designs in the Pueblos of the Southwest. This trading may not have taken place with one person traveling across the plains to another village; trade goods may have been traded hand-to-hand and village-to-village. By the time Juan de Oñate arrived in New Mexico in 1598, trade was ongoing between the Pueblo Villages of the Rio Grande Valley and the people in the vicinity of the Texas panhandle, generally in the Amarillo, Texas, area. The people of the Texas panhandle and the Great Plains would trade buffalo meat and products of the buffalo with the Pueblos of New Mexico for agricultural products such as beans, corn, and squash. This interdependent trade, which had been ongoing for hundreds of years, was tapped into by the Spanish settlers of New Mexico.
They too settled along the Rio Grande because that was where the water for irrigation was and where the bulk of the people were. It provided better defense when the People of the Plains were in a stress situation and had to conduct raids into New Mexico to survive. Eventually, both the New Spanish settlers and the Pueblo Indians would head out onto the eastern plains and hunt buffalo. But this was dangerous because it was the job of the Plains People to provide the buffalo in trade. No doubt, other people were met as the New Mexicans explored outside of their territory and trade took place. But that trade was illegal. The mother country of Spain treated her colony of Mexico in a typical manner - the only trade that could take place had to benefit the mother country. Trade with the Indians was illegal. Thus, New Mexico at the far reaches of the Spanish empire, suffered for goods and any that came there were expensive.
In the Eastern part of North America the city of Santa Fe was mentioned and associated with visions of gold and riches. This city with the exotic name became the target of explorers and adventurers from the east who saw their glory there. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado and his band of explorers reached the center of the country (area of Lyons, Kansas) in 1542. Not until 1725 did the French, attempting to reach Santa Fe from the east come upon the same area. In the year 1739, brothers Pierre and Paul Mallet finally arrived on the plaza in Santa Fe. They had brought items for trade, but had lost them along the way. Officials in this provincial capital did not detain them or throw them in jail as they should have. Instead the Mallet brothers were allowed to stay in Santa Fe for about a year before they headed back to the Mississippi River country to attempt to return with more goods. They did not succeed, but other Frenchmen entered New Mexico with trade goods, were arrested, their goods were confiscated, and they were sent packing.
On the New Mexico side, realizing the potential value of trade within the empire, once Spain had bought the Louisiana Country from France in 1762, an itinerant gunsmith who was living with the Comanche was commissioned to open a trade route between San Antonio (Texas) and Santa Fe. Pedro Vial became the unofficial explorer for New Mexico. He led expeditions between Santa Fe and Natchitoches, (Louisiana), St. Louis (Missouri), and San Antonio, (Texas). Yet, because of conditions in the empire, these trade routes were never opened. But the people of colonial Mexico chafed under the colonial restrictions of Spain. Revolution broke out in 1810 in Mexico and was quickly squelched. But from then on resistance to the colonial policy grew.
And in the young United States of the early 1800s, fascination with the Southwest held strong. Lt. Zebulon Montgomery Pike was sent west in 1806, ostensively to find the headwaters of the Red River. He and his party were captured by New Mexican soldiers and detained, eventually released and sent home. Other parties from the states attempted to trade in New Mexico and were either arrested and held or quickly sent home. Thus, by 1821, a number of parties from the United States had reached Santa Fe.
By September, 1821, a revolt in Mexico against Spanish rule had succeeded. Mexico was a free country and could now trade with whomever they pleased. In Missouri in 1821 a panic (financial depression) gripped the state. The situation was so bad that in Franklin farmers could not sell their produce locally. They had to ship it down the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans to get any money. In sorry straits was a 31 year-old Saltmaker, in debt and on the verge of going to jail. What prompted William Becknell to plan a desperate trip to Santa Fe is not known, but it saved him from jail.
William Becknell Sets Out for Santa Fe:
William Becknell started from Franklin, MO with five other men in September of 1821. It took them almost two and a half long, cold, worrisome months to reach New Mexico, knowing that everyone else who had previously come to trade in New Mexico did not fare well.
In New Mexico, in November of 1821, Captain Don Pedro Ignacio Gallego and his Urban Militia from Abiquiu were directed to head west and campaign against the Navajo. When they reached Jemez Pueblo, ready to launch into Navajo country, they were re-directed to the east to San Miguel where “nations of the north” had raided the cattle herd. Gallego, and his men, were to get them back. By November 12 they were at San Miguel and other militia, Pueblo Indian Auxiliaries and Presidial soldiers, joined Captain Gallego and his force. Combined, they now totaled over 450 men as they headed east towards the “desierto” after the Indian raiders. On the afternoon of November 13th, just south of Las Vegas, New Mexico, Gallego’s soldiers saw six men heading their way. William Becknell and his five companions from Missouri had arrived in New Mexico.
Gallego sent Becknell and his party into Santa Fe the next day to meet with the Governor. On November 16 Governor Facundo Melgares, aware of Mexican Independence, welcomed Becknell and his men and asked them to return to Missouri and bring more goods into New Mexico. Legend has it that when William Becknell rode into Franklin on his return in January 1822, a rawhide bag of silver coins was slashed open and spilled to the cobblestone street, the profits of the meager goods taken to Santa Fe. This Missouri town, and indeed the whole state, caught the fever and the Santa Fe trade was off and running. Not to be outdone, there is evidence that within the next couple of years, New Mexicans also joined in the trade and made good profits.
The Santa Fe Trail is Established:
Over the next twenty-four years, countless men from the Missouri frontier purchased goods, hired hands and headed for Santa Fe. Profits were good, but by 1824 the little Mexican province of New Mexico was saturated with goods and the traders then continued down into Old Mexico to the states of Sonora, Sinaloa, and Chihuahua; to the towns of Chihuahua, Durango, San Juan de los Lagos, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, and Mexico City, and continued to make money. Merchants from New Mexico would travel over the trail from Santa Fe and Albuquerque to St. Louis and on to New York City and Philadelphia where they would purchase goods, to return home with, to sell. Some New Mexicans would continue over the Atlantic Ocean to London and Paris to get the latest goods for their customers in the Southwest.
Cloth of various kinds was the major item of trade taken to the Southwest. Calico, chambray, dimity, flannels, ginghams, linens, muslins, percales, and silks were some of the kinds of cloth included. Other goods taken included needles, thread, buttons, shawls, handkerchiefs, knives, files, axes, tools, and even in 1824 “green spectacles.” The wagons that carried the goods were also sold after being unloaded along with the oxen or mules that had pulled the wagons.
What was taken back to Missouri were silver coins, processed gold, wool, and a great number of mules. The silver coins and all the returns from the trade enabled Missouri to thrive when financial depression struck the rest of the country in the period from 1821 to 1848. The Spanish and Mexican 8 Reales coin was legal tender in the United States until 1857 because of its reliable silver content. Missouri became known for its mules which really came from the southwest.
War With Mexico and the Establishment of the U.S. Army:
The year 1846 brought war with Mexico and the Santa Fe Trail became a route of invasion. Colonel Stephen Watts Kearny led the so called “Army of the West” down the trail into New Mexico. The initial invasion was peaceful and successful and the trail then became a military supply route. Kearny assured the residents that their “Indian” problems would be taken care of by the army. Military posts were established in New Mexico and soldiers were stationed there. It was during this time that the Mountain Route, or Bent’s Fort Route, over Raton Pass became popular. First used in a major way by the Army of the West, Bent’s Fort in southeastern Colorado became a way point for the wagons and goods coming down the trail.
Because New Mexico had a subsistence economy, everyone raised just enough for their families and no extra. Whatever the military needed had to be brought over the Santa Fe Trail. The army accomplished this by hiring experienced teamsters and green farm boys from Missouri to take the supply-filled wagons to the southwest. Although this arrangement worked, it was awkward and inefficient. On the eastern side of the trail the departure point for most of the military goods became Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri River north of Kansas City. Here goods were received that had been shipped up the Missouri River by steamboat and then loaded on wagons for the trip to New Mexico.
With the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War, the southwest was purchased from Mexico by the United States. New Mexico, Arizona, and California now became territories of the United States The army now turned to professional civilian contractors to haul the freight. Some freighting firms became famous during this period. Russell, Majors, and Waddell, who would later institute the famous “Pony Express” between Missouri and California, got their start on the Santa Fe Trail. William Bullard, who had been freighting in New Mexico before the war, turned his business into a professional operation and contracted with the Army.
A Valuable Trade:
In 1843 one chronicler noted that the value of the trade in that year totaled $450,000. In 1846 on the eve of the Mexican War, 414 wagons had gone out carrying $1,752,250 worth of goods. In 1850, Kansas City alone sent 500 wagon loads, and in 1855 the total trade was estimated at $5,000,000. By 1860, a total of 16,439,000 pounds is said to have been carried, 9,084 men were employed, and 6,147 mules, 27,920 oxen and 3,033 wagons were used.
(The following chart is from Josiah Gregg's book Commerce of the Prairies. "Pro's" mean "proprietors" – the actual owners of wagon trains that went in the given year. "T'n to Ch'a" means the dollar amount of Missouri goods sent on from Santa Fe to Chihuahua - the figure given in this column is a portion of the figure in the column "Amt. Mdse." The chart is on page 332, with lots of explanatory footnotes. If you don't have a copy, you can access it full text, on line at: http://www.kancoll.org/books/gregg/ - look in "Volume II - Chapter 9".)
Changes for the Santa Fe Trail:
The Santa Fe Trail ran through the home lands of the Shawnee, Kansa, Osage, Pawnee, the Cheyenne and Arapaho, the Comanche and Kiowa, the Apache tribes of Mescalero and Jicarilla, through the lands of the Mouache Ute, into the lands of the Pueblo Peoples of New Mexico. These American Indians, for the most part, were content to let the caravans travel through their lands. But as more game was killed, as more of the buffalo began to disappear, and as the grass that sustained all animals on the Great Plains grew scarce where the caravans had traveled, the tribes became increasingly concerned. Their resistance to the wagons traveling the trail increased as lone hunters and small parties were attacked. Eventually, it was all in vain for the ever growing settlements and settlers put more pressure on the Army to subdue and place the Indian people on reservations. By the mid-1870s the great Indian nations of the plains had been placed on reservations or were under so much pressure that they would never again be a threat on the Santa Fe Trail.
The trade and use of the trail increased as the Civil War raged in the eastern United States and campaigns against the Navajo and Mescalero Apache were conducted in New Mexico. Those two tribes were subdued and then placed on the Bosque Redondo reservation. Because their crops continually failed, grain and other supplies were ordered from the east and those supplies came down the Santa Fe Trail. But by the mid-1860s, also heading east out of Kansas City were iron rails that would eventually supplant the trail. By 1865, the Union Pacific Railroad had a line to Lawrence, Kansas, and by 1870 the railroad had reached Kit Carson, Colorado Territory. Railroad trains could carry much more than animal drawn wagons ever could. To meet this new volume of traffic and goods, forwarding and commission houses became established to store goods, ship them by rail, then store and deliver them by wagon from the end of the rail line.
Old portions of the Santa Fe Trail were rediscovered and used as the railheads marched west. At Grenada, Colorado, the road to Fort Union and its big supply depot headed southwest. Otero, Sellar, and Company, and Chick, Browne, and Manzanares were the big forwarding and commission houses and dominated the ending period of the trail. In 1879, the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe (A.T.& SF) Railroad crept over Raton Pass and into Las Vegas. And in 1880 the A.T.& SF reached Lamy station south of Santa Fe, ending long distance freighting over the plains - the Santa Fe Trail was at an end.
For almost 60 years the Santa Fe Trail was the conduit which brought goods to New Mexico and the southwest and had sent back silver, furs, and mules. But ideas were also exchanged across this route along with culture. New Mexicans were exposed to “Yankees” and their way of doing business long before the invasion took place. Raw Missouri farm boys were fascinated with the exotic city of Santa Fe once they got over the shock of its appearance as a large brick kiln. They took back memories of a different world and even named towns after their adventures. There is a Mexico, Missouri, and fourteen miles away is Santa Fe. The Missouri traders married New Mexico daughters to gain advantage in the trade, but mainly because they were beautiful. And in many cases those traders stayed in New Mexico or took their wives back to Missouri. The Santa Fe Trail was a route of commerce but quickly became a route of cultural exchange that is still with us, and still benefits us, today.
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How do 12v Lithium Ion Battery compare with traditional batteries in terms of lifespan?
12v Lithium Ion Battery typically exhibit a significantly longer lifespan compared to traditional battery technologies, such as lead-acid batteries. Thanks to their ability to endure thousands of charge-discharge cycles with minimal degradation, they can provide reliable power for a considerably more extended period before requiring replacement.
Can these batteries be charged faster than other types of batteries?
Indeed, one of the notable advantages of 12volt Lithium-Ion Batteries is their rapid charging capability. They can be recharged much quicker than their lead-acid counterparts, reducing downtime and enhancing efficiency in applications where they are utilised.
Is there any safety concerns associated with using Lithium-Ion Batteries?
Safety has been a focal point in the development of lithium-ion technology. Modern lithium-ion batteries are equipped with advanced safety features, including Battery Management Systems and thermal runaway prevention mechanisms, making them exceedingly safe for a wide array of applications. However, like all batteries, proper handling and adherence to manufacturer guidelines are crucial.
Is it true that Lithium-Ion Batteries are better for the environment?
Lithium-ion batteries are considered more environmentally friendly compared too many traditional battery types, primarily because of their longer lifespan and the potential for recycling. While they do require resources for production, their efficiency and recyclability present a more sustainable option over the long term.
How versatile are 12volt Lithium-Ion Batteries in terms of applications?
These batteries boast an extraordinary versatility, finding utility in a diverse range of sectors, from consumer electronics and electric vehicles to renewable energy storage and medical devices. Their high energy density, lightweight nature, and adaptability make them suited for almost any application requiring reliable and efficient power storage.
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While fungi are responsible for many of our foliar disease problems, different fungal pathogens present as problems throughout the country, depending upon the host plant grown and the environmental conditions. This is a brief overview of several common types of fungal leaf diseases occur in Indiana and throughout North America (and Europe). Recognizing the symptoms and signs is an important first step to diagnose a disease problem, followed by how to manage these diseases by combining cultural and chemical controls.
Common fungal leaf diseases of deciduous trees and shrubs
Anthracnose. Anthracnose diseases probably are the best-known foliar fungal diseases of deciduous trees. They affect many ornamental trees including major shade-tree genera such as sycamore (Platanus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.) and ash (Fraxinus spp.) (Fig. 1). Anthracnose actually is a general term describing symptoms such as dead irregular areas that form along and between the main vein of the leaf. The leaves may also become curled and distorted and twigs may die back. The fungus overwinters in infected twigs and the petioles of fallen leaves, and the spores disseminate in the spring by wind and splashing rain. The disease, while unsightly, rarely results in the tree’s death. Sycamores and other trees often withstand many years of partial defoliation. However, one anthracnose disease is more serious. Dogwood anthracnose (Discula destructiva) is a devastating problem on the Eastern seaboard, but has not been a significant issue here in Indiana.
Leaf blisters result in the blistering, curling and puckering of leaf tissue. Oak leaf blister (Taphrina caerulescens) is a common blister disease of oaks (Fig. 2)., particularly the red oak subgenus, which includes Northern red oak (Q. rubra) and pin oak (Q. palustris) among others. The symptoms begin as a slight yellowing of the infected leaf followed by round, raised blisters. These turn brown, and the infected leaves fall prematurely. This fungus overwinters as spores on the buds.
Leaf spot is a general symptom caused by a multitude of pathogens and infect all deciduous trees and shrubs, and include dead spots with a defined boundary between living and dead tissue. The dead tissue often separates from the surrounding living tissue creating a “shot-hole” appearance on the infected leaves. Common hosts include dogwood, maples, hydrangea, rose, holly, and Indian-hawthorn.
Tar spot (Rhytisma spp.) is a leaf disease with initial symptoms similar to leaf spot. The disease is most common on red (Acer rubrum) and silver maple (A. saccharinum) (Fig.3), but it can occur on a wide range of maple species from sugar (A. saccharum) and Norway (A. platanoides) to bigleaf maple (A. macrophyllum). The symptoms begin in the spring as small greenish-yellow spots on the upper leaf surface that, by mid-summer, progress to black tar-like spots about 0.5 inch in size. The disease is not fatal to the tree, but the appearance of the tar spots alarms some tree owners. A major outbreak in New York about 10 years ago left many maples completely defoliated by mid-August.
Powdery mildew fungi infect most species of deciduous woody plants. The typical symptoms of this disease are small dusty-white or gray patches that develop by mid-summer. These patches continue to enlarge during the summer, and the entire leaf may eventually appear white. By late summer, tiny brown to black fruiting structures usually develop in these patches. The disease overwinters on the fallen leaves or as mycelium in infected buds. In spring, the fruiting structures release wind- and rain-dispersed spores from the leaves. This fungus grows best in warm, moist conditions. The mycelium, unlike most other foliar diseases, grows on the surface of the leaves rather than within the leaf. Infected leaves may have less photosynthetic capability, but the problem is generally aesthetic. Although this disease rarely results in sufficient injury to warrant treatments, its high visibility is a frequent cause of concern to tree and shrub owners.
Rusts are unusual fungi in that they may require two unrelated hosts to complete their life cycle. Rust fungi produce fruiting bodies on host species “A,”(think juniper) which releases spores that only infect host species “B”(rose family, like crabapple, hawthorn or serviceberry). The fungi in “B” produces spores that only infect “A,” and the cycle repeats. The fungi do cause some injury in both hosts, but often only one of the two species has any ornamental value. The rust disease that affects an ornamental tree may have an alternate host that is just an incidental plant in the landscape, or even a crop or a weed. Removal of the alternate host also is common recommendation for a rust that affects one of our most popular flowering trees, the crabapple (Malus spp.). However, here again, it generally proves to be impractical. Juniper rust (Gymnosporangium spp.) is a problem familiar to most people that have a hawthorn, serviceberry or crabapple in their yard. Although many tree owners are aware that the disease must spend part of its life on cedar, to break the cycle you would not only need to remove the redcedars in your yard but also all those within a radius of up to a mile-obviously an impractical task.
Sooty mold is a common concern to tree owners but it is not an infectious disease. The black soot that appears on leaves is a fungus that lives on the honeydew secreted by aphid and scale insects. The fungus does not live in the leaf, it lives on it. Any other symptoms such as yellowing or curling leaves are due to the insects that produce the honeydew, not the mold. While heavy levels of sooty mold can block enough light to reduce photosynthesis by up to 70 percent, this primarily is an aesthetic problem
Foliar diseases of conifers
Foliage problems on conifers are more serious than on deciduous trees. Conifers cannot refoliate during the same season so the impact can be great. And unlike deciduous trees, the needles are important sites of food reserves for conifers. Fortunately, most foliar diseases infect either the older needles or the new ones, so some foliage remains, and the trees rarely die from these diseases. However, an infected tree can look so bad that you may hope that it dies! Needle diseases are of three types: needle cast, needle blight and needle rust.
Needle casts are a common problem with many conifers throughout the country (Fig. 4). These diseases affect only the needles on newly formed shoots, but the symptoms are not evident until the following spring. The infected needles develop spots that turn tan to reddish-brown. The fungal fruiting structures emerge on these needles and are usually large enough to be visible to the eye. Rhizosphaera needle cast (Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii) is probably one of the most common cast diseases because it infects one of the most ubiquitous trees in the landscape, Colorado blue spruce (Picea pungens). A season after infection, the needles turn reddish brown to purple, with the fruiting structures appearing as rows of small dots running lengthwise along the needles. These infected needles are cast (dropped) in the fall. Trees infected with this disease for many years may only have the current year’s needles remaining rather than the 5- to 8-year complement of needles a healthy spruce maintains.
Diplodia blight (Diplodia pinea), also called Sphaeropsis twig blight, is one of the most common needle blights, though it is more damaging as a shoot blight. It infects the young, succulent shoots and needles on two-and three-needled pines with Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris) being the most susceptible. This disease typically does not show up until the trees reach maturity. Infected trees have stunted, twisted candle growth with the expanding needles becoming straw-colored and then brown. Diplodia twig blight produces small black fruiting structures on the cone scales and at the base of the infected needles.
Cultural control measures for common foliar diseases
Foliage must remain wet for a period of several hours or more for spores to germinate, so persistently cool, moist weather is ideal for fungal disease development. While you can do nothing about the weather, irrigating in the evening and maintaining overly dense plantings can achieve the same environmental conditions that favor disease. Therefore, focus on improving air circulation. Improve water management by irrigating in the morning so plants may dry completely. Pruning can allow for better air circulation, while removing dead, infected twigs that may serve as a source of infection in the spring. However, in most instances, pruning is more cosmetic than disease control.
Raking fallen leaves is a common recommendation for removing the primary source of next year’s infections. While this may be effective in certain instances, it is nearly impossible to eliminate all the infected leaves from a property, let alone the fallen leaves from adjacent properties. In addition, many fungal leaf diseases overwinter in the buds, twigs and cones remaining in the tree, so raking may have a minimal effect on the level of spore production. It helps, but it shouldn’t be confused with ‘curing’ the problem.
Are chemical treatments needed?
Fungal leaf diseases generally do not require chemical treatments because they usually are not life-threatening. Here are some of the questions you should consider before deciding to apply a treatment.
- Have you correctly identified the pathogen?
- Has the tree or shrub lost more than half its foliage more than three times in the last five years?
- Has the tree or shrub recently experienced additional stress from other pests, pathogens or disorders?
- Is the disease life-threatening to the tree?
- Is the host tree so valuable or visible that the loss of some foliage will concern the client?
- Is the client aware that several treatments may be necessary this growing season and that the disease may come back again next year?
If you answered “no” to any of these questions, obtain additional information prior to beginning any chemical management options.
Chemical treatments for common fungus problems
Fungicides are commonly used to control fungal foliar diseases problems (see the Table 1). Successful use of fungicides require maintaining a chemical barrier between the leaf and the fungus, which means repeated applications at fixed intervals-usually 7 to 14 days-beginning with bud break for deciduous trees or budbreak AND the formation of the candle for conifers. You typically need to make three applications, though more may be necessary if cool, moist conditions persist into the summer. Some foliar diseases, like rose blackspot, may require season-long applications of fungicides.
Fungal leaf diseases are a challenge to identify and manage. Avoid the temptation to quickly reach for the sprayer at the first appearance of leaf symptoms. First, identify the agent or agents responsible for the symptoms. Then, if it is a fungal leaf disease, determine the potential damage to the plant’s health and appearance. And finally, remember that it’s too late to do much right now, but it’s just about right to begin planning for spring treatments next year.
Table 1. List of registered fungicides and target diseases. Be sure to review the label on the fungicide you are using for rates and specific disease management guidelines.
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Aromatherapy, also known as ಸುವಾಸನಾ ಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ (Suvaasana Chikitsa) in Kannada, is a holistic healing treatment that uses natural plant extracts to promote health and well-being. In this article, we will delve into the history and use of essential oils, understanding its benefits on the mind and body, its application in traditional Kannada medicine, and the science behind how essential oils work on our senses and nervous system.
The use of essential oils for therapeutic purposes dates back thousands of years, with roots in ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Chinese. Aromatherapy has been used to treat a variety of physical and emotional ailments, promoting relaxation, improving mood, and enhancing overall health. The practice has evolved over time and is now recognized as a complementary therapy in modern medicine.
In traditional Kannada medicine, aromatherapy has been integrated into various healing practices for centuries. The rich cultural heritage of Karnataka has contributed to the development of unique aromatic blends that are valued for their medicinal properties. As we explore the meaning of aromatherapy in Kannada, we will unravel the concept and cultural significance of this ancient healing art within the local context.
Aromatherapy is a holistic healing treatment that uses natural plant extracts to promote health and well-being. Essential oils, the key ingredients in aromatherapy, are highly concentrated liquids that are extracted from flowers, leaves, stems, bark, roots, or other parts of a plant. These essential oils can be used for a variety of purposes, including improving physical and mental health, as well as altering one’s mood.
Aromatherapy is known for its many benefits and effects on the mind and body. The inhalation of essential oils stimulates the part of the brain that is linked to emotions and memories. This can have a profound impact on one’s emotional state, helping to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. Additionally, certain essential oils have been found to have antibacterial and antiviral properties, making them effective in fighting off illnesses and infections.
In traditional Kannada medicine, aromatherapy has been practiced for centuries as a natural way to heal the body and mind. Aromatherapy is deeply rooted in Kannada culture and is considered an important aspect of overall wellness.
Kannada practitioners have long utilized essential oils for their healing properties, incorporating them into massage oils, herbal preparations, and aromatherapeutic treatments. The cultural significance of aromatherapy in Kannada medicine highlights its enduring impact on the local community and the importance placed on maintaining balance and harmony within the body.
Aromatherapy in Traditional Kannada Medicine
Aromatherapy has been an integral part of traditional Kannada medicine for centuries, with the ancient practices still being relevant in modern applications. In Kannada culture, essential oils are used not only for their physical healing properties but also for their spiritual and emotional benefits. The practice of using aromatic plants and oils for medicinal and therapeutic purposes has been deeply rooted in Kannada tradition, with remedies passed down through generations.
One of the key aspects of aromatherapy in traditional Kannada medicine is the use of specific herbs and plants that are native to the region. For example, the use of sandalwood oil in Kannada aromatherapy is highly valued for its calming and cooling effects on both the mind and body. Additionally, herbs such as jasmine and rose are revered for their ability to uplift the spirit and enhance emotional well-being.
In modern applications, traditional Kannada aromatherapy practices have been integrated into wellness centers and spas, offering a unique blend of ancient wisdom and contemporary healing techniques. Practitioners combine age-old rituals with scientific knowledge to create therapeutic experiences that cater to both physical ailments and mental health concerns. As a result, aromatherapy has become an important aspect of holistic healthcare in Karnataka, promoting overall well-being in individuals seeking natural remedies.
Traditional Practice | Modern Application |
Use of specific native herbs and plants | Integrated into wellness centers and spas |
Sandalwood oil for calming effects | Therapeutic experiences combining ancient wisdom with modern techniques |
The Science Behind Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy is the use of essential oils extracted from plants to promote healing and well-being. These essential oils are known for their aromatic properties and have been used for centuries in various cultures around the world.
In Kannada, the meaning of aromatherapy can be described as “ಸುಗಂಧ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ” (sugandha shastra), which translates to “fragrance science” in English. The practice of aromatherapy in Kannada culture has deep roots and is intertwined with traditional medicine and spiritual rituals.
Essential oils used in aromatherapy are believed to work on the senses and nervous system through various mechanisms. When these oils are inhaled, they stimulate the olfactory system and send signals to the brain, which can impact emotions, memory, and other cognitive functions. The molecules of the essential oils also have the potential to directly affect certain neurotransmitters in the brain, which may contribute to their calming or uplifting effects.
In recent years, scientific research has delved into the physiological effects of aromatherapy on the body. Studies have shown that certain essential oils can have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties when applied topically or inhaled. Aromatherapy has also been found to reduce stress and anxiety levels, improve sleep quality, and enhance overall well-being. This growing body of evidence supports the use of aromatherapy as a complementary therapy for various health conditions.
Language | Translation |
Kannada | ಸುಗಂಧ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ (Sugandha Shastra) |
English | Fragrance Science |
Exploring the Meaning of Aromatherapy in Kannada
Aromatherapy, known as ಸುಗಂಧ ಔಷಧ or Sugandha Aushadha in Kannada, is the practice of using essential oils and aromatic plant compounds for improving a person’s psychological or physical well-being. In Kannada culture, the concept of aromatherapy has been deeply rooted in traditional medicine and has been used for centuries as a natural healing remedy. The translation of the term reflects the cultural significance and understanding of aromatherapy in the Kannada language.
In Kannada culture, aromatherapy has been an integral part of traditional medicine practices, with essential oils being used for various therapeutic purposes. The use of aromatic substances to promote health and well-being can be traced back to ancient Ayurvedic practices that have influenced Kannada medicine. The concept revolves around harnessing the natural fragrances and healing properties of plants to alleviate ailments and balance mental and emotional states.
The cultural significance of aromatherapy in Kannada goes beyond just its medicinal benefits. It is also deeply intertwined with spiritual and religious practices, where aromatic substances are used during religious ceremonies and rituals to create a sacred ambiance. This connection between aromatherapy and spirituality highlights how essential oils are not only valued for their physical healing properties but also for their ability to enhance spiritual experiences.
Aromatherapy Techniques and Practices
One of the most common techniques used in aromatherapy is diffusion. This method involves dispersing essential oils into the air, allowing their aromatic scent to fill a room or space. There are various ways to achieve diffusion, including using diffusers, humidifiers, or simply adding a few drops of essential oil to a bowl of hot water. The inhalation of these dispersed oils can have a calming effect on the mind and body.
Another popular practice in aromatherapy is topical application, which involves applying essential oils directly to the skin. When diluted with a carrier oil, such as coconut oil or almond oil, essential oils can be safely massaged into the skin for therapeutic purposes. This method allows for the absorption of the oils through the skin and into the bloodstream, where they can exert their healing effects.
Inhalation is another effective way to experience the benefits of aromatherapy. By inhaling the aroma of essential oils directly from the bottle or by adding them to hot water for steam inhalation, individuals can harness their powerful properties. Through inhalation, essential oils can stimulate the olfactory system and influence brain activity, leading to various physiological and emotional responses.
These three techniques form the foundation of aromatherapy practices and are widely used to promote relaxation, alleviate stress, and support overall well-being. In traditional Kannada medicine, these methods have been employed for centuries as part of holistic healing approaches tailored to individual needs.
Choosing the Right Essential Oils for Aromatherapy
When it comes to aromatherapy, choosing the right essential oils is essential for reaping the full benefits of this practice. There are a wide variety of essential oils available, each with its own unique scent and therapeutic properties. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore some of the most popular scents used in aromatherapy and their corresponding benefits.
One of the most well-known and widely used essential oils, lavender is cherished for its calming and relaxing properties. In aromatherapy, it is often used to promote relaxation, reduce stress and anxiety, and improve sleep quality. Its soothing aroma makes it a popular choice for diffusing in bedrooms or adding to bathwater for a peaceful soak.
Peppermint essential oil is known for its invigorating and refreshing scent. It is often used in aromatherapy to boost energy levels, alleviate fatigue, improve concentration, and relieve headaches. The cooling sensation of peppermint makes it a popular choice for topical application or inhalation during times of mental fatigue or physical exhaustion.
Renowned for its powerful antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties, tea tree essential oil is commonly used in aromatherapy to promote a healthy immune system and combat respiratory issues. Its fresh and medicinal aroma makes it an excellent choice for diffusing during times of illness or adding to homemade cleaning products for a natural disinfectant.
Understanding the specific benefits of each essential oil allows individuals to tailor their aromatherapy practice to suit their unique needs. Whether seeking relaxation, energy enhancement, immune support, or other therapeutic effects, choosing the right essential oils is crucial in embracing the healing power of aromatherapy.
Incorporating Aromatherapy Into Daily Life
Aromatherapy is the practice of using essential oils derived from plants to enhance physical and mental well-being. Incorporating aromatherapy into your daily life can be a simple and effective way to experience the benefits of these natural oils. Whether you are looking to relax, improve focus, or alleviate certain ailments, there are various ways to use essential oils at home and work.
Here are some tips for using essential oils in your daily routine:
– Diffusion: Using an essential oil diffuser is a popular method for enjoying the scent and therapeutic properties of essential oils at home or in the office. Simply add a few drops of your chosen oil to the water in the diffuser and let it permeate the air.
– Topical Application: Diluting essential oils with a carrier oil like coconut or almond oil allows you to apply them directly to your skin for massage or targeted relief. Always perform a patch test before applying essential oils topically to ensure that you do not have an adverse reaction.
– Inhalation: Inhaling the aroma of essential oils by placing a few drops on a tissue, cotton ball, or even directly from the bottle can provide quick relief and promote relaxation. This method is particularly effective for dealing with stress and anxiety.
By incorporating these simple techniques into your daily routine, you can experience the benefits of aromatherapy in Kannada both at home and at work.
Choosing the Right Essential Oils for Aromatherapy:
1. Lavender: Known for its calming properties, lavender essential oil is commonly used to promote relaxation and alleviate stress.
2. Peppermint: Peppermint oil is invigorating and can help improve concentration and relieve headaches when diffused or applied topically.
3. Eucalyptus: With its refreshing scent, eucalyptus oil is often used to clear congestion and ease respiratory issues when inhaled during cold or flu season.
Incorporating Aromatherapy into Your Daily Life:
With these tips, you can easily incorporate aromatherapy into your daily life, promoting overall wellness in Kannada culture by embracing this ancient practice.
In conclusion, understanding the meaning of aromatherapy in Kannada and its cultural significance is essential for embracing the healing power of this practice in the Kannada language and culture. Aromatherapy has a rich history and has been used for centuries in traditional Kannada medicine, with modern applications continuing to show its benefits on the mind and body.
By incorporating aromatherapy techniques and practices, such as diffusion, topical application, and inhalation, individuals can experience the therapeutic effects of essential oils in their daily lives.
The science behind aromatherapy also plays a crucial role in understanding how essential oils work on the senses and nervous system. This knowledge can help individuals choose the right essential oils for their specific needs, whether it be for relaxation, stress relief, or even boosting energy levels. Furthermore, by exploring the meaning of aromatherapy in Kannada, we can gain a deeper insight into the concept and cultural significance of this practice within the Kannada community.
Ultimately, by embracing the healing power of aromatherapy in the Kannada language and culture, individuals have the opportunity to enhance their overall well-being. Whether it’s at home or work, incorporating essential oils into daily life can provide numerous benefits for both physical and mental health. With a comprehensive understanding of aromatherapy’s history, modern applications, and cultural relevance in Kannada medicine, individuals can fully appreciate its significance while enjoying its therapeutic effects.
Frequently Asked Questions
What Is Aromatherapy in English?
Aromatherapy in English refers to the use of natural plant extracts, such as essential oils, to promote health and well-being. These aromatic oils are often used in massages, baths, and inhalation techniques to improve physical and emotional wellness.
What Is the Meaning of Aromatherapeutic?
The term “aromatherapeutic” relates to the practice or treatment of aromatherapy. It encompasses the use of essential oils and aromatic compounds to enhance a person’s psychological or physical well-being. Aromatherapeutic practices can range from topical applications to diffusing oils into the air.
What Is the Meaning of Aromatherapist?
An aromatherapist is a professional who specializes in using essential oils and other aromatic compounds to improve a person’s overall health and well-being. They are trained to assess individual needs and create personalized blends for each client based on their specific concerns, whether they be physical, emotional, or mental in nature.
An aromatherapist may work in wellness centers, spas, or independently with clients seeking natural healing methods.
Are you looking for a natural way to improve your health and wellbeing?
If so, aromatherapy may be the answer for you.
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Anemia and fibromyalgia are two common conditions that can cause a great deal of discomfort and disruption in a person’s life. Anemia is a condition in which a person’s red blood cell count is lower than normal, leading to fatigue, weakness, and other symptoms. Fibromyalgia is a disorder that causes widespread pain, fatigue, and other symptoms that can be difficult to manage.
Understanding the link between anemia and fibromyalgia is important for those who suffer from these conditions. Research has shown that people with fibromyalgia are more likely to also have anemia, and that anemia can worsen the symptoms of fibromyalgia. This link is not fully understood, but it is believed that the chronic inflammation associated with fibromyalgia may play a role in the development of anemia.
Treatment strategies for anemia and fibromyalgia can vary depending on the severity of the condition and the individual’s symptoms. In some cases, medications may be prescribed to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Psychological aspects of these conditions should also be considered, as anxiety and depression can often accompany chronic pain and fatigue. Special considerations, such as dietary changes, may also be recommended to help manage symptoms.
- Anemia and fibromyalgia are two common conditions that can cause a great deal of discomfort and disruption in a person’s life.
- Research has shown that people with fibromyalgia are more likely to also have anemia, and that anemia can worsen the symptoms of fibromyalgia.
- Treatment strategies for anemia and fibromyalgia can vary depending on the severity of the condition and the individual’s symptoms.
Anemia is a condition that occurs when the body does not have enough red blood cells or hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the body’s tissues. There are several types of anemia, each with its own specific causes and symptoms.
Types of Anemia
The most common types of anemia include iron deficiency anemia, vitamin deficiency anemia, and anemia of chronic disease. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type and occurs when the body does not have enough iron to produce hemoglobin.
The symptoms of anemia can vary depending on the severity of the condition. Common symptoms include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, dizziness, and headaches.
Iron Deficiency Anemia
Iron deficiency anemia occurs when the body does not have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including poor diet, blood loss, or an inability to absorb iron properly. Iron deficiency anemia is usually diagnosed through blood tests that measure the levels of hemoglobin, red blood cells, and ferritin (a protein that stores iron).
If someone is suspected of having anemia, their doctor may order a blood test to measure their hemoglobin and red blood cell levels. If the results of the blood test indicate anemia, further testing may be done to determine the underlying cause. This may include measuring the serum ferritin level to assess the body’s iron stores.
Treatment for anemia depends on the underlying cause. In cases of iron deficiency anemia, iron supplements may be prescribed to increase the body’s iron levels and improve the production of hemoglobin. It is important to work with a healthcare provider to determine the best course of treatment for anemia.
Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder that is characterized by musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and tenderness in localized areas. It is often referred to as fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) and can be a debilitating condition that affects a person’s quality of life.
The symptoms of fibromyalgia can vary from person to person, but the most common ones include musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and tender points. The pain can be widespread and can affect different parts of the body, including the neck, shoulders, back, and hips. The pain may also be accompanied by stiffness and aching in the muscles.
Fatigue is another common symptom of fibromyalgia. It can be severe and can interfere with a person’s ability to carry out daily activities. Sleep disturbances are also common in people with fibromyalgia, and they may experience difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Diagnosing fibromyalgia can be challenging because there is no single test that can confirm its presence. Doctors typically rely on a combination of symptoms, a physical exam, and medical history to make a diagnosis. They may also order blood tests or imaging studies to rule out other conditions that can cause similar symptoms.
Prevalence of Fibromyalgia
Fibromyalgia is a relatively common condition, affecting an estimated 2-4% of the population. It is more prevalent in women than men and tends to occur in middle age. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown, but it is thought to be related to changes in the way the brain processes pain signals.
In conclusion, fibromyalgia is a complex disorder that can be challenging to diagnose and manage. However, with the right treatment and support, people with fibromyalgia can lead productive and fulfilling lives.
Link Between Anemia and Fibromyalgia
Anemia and fibromyalgia are two distinct medical conditions, but they share some common symptoms, such as fatigue, brain fog, and headaches. Recent research has also suggested a link between the two conditions.
Impact of Iron on Fibromyalgia
Iron is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in the production of red blood cells. It also helps in the transportation of oxygen throughout the body. Studies have shown that iron deficiency is a common cause of anemia. However, recent research has also found that low levels of iron in the brain can contribute to the development of fibromyalgia.
Iron deficiency can cause fatigue and weakness, which are common symptoms of both anemia and fibromyalgia. However, research has also shown that low levels of iron in the brain can cause pain and sleep disorders, which are hallmark symptoms of fibromyalgia.
Shared Symptoms and Diagnosis
Anemia and fibromyalgia share many common symptoms, which can make it difficult to diagnose either condition. Both conditions can cause fatigue, weakness, and brain fog. They can also cause headaches and sleep disorders.
To diagnose anemia, doctors usually perform a blood test to check for low levels of hemoglobin, which is a protein found in red blood cells. To diagnose fibromyalgia, doctors usually perform a physical exam and check for tender points on the body.
In some cases, doctors may also perform blood tests to check for inflammation and rule out other conditions that can cause similar symptoms.
In conclusion, while anemia and fibromyalgia are two distinct medical conditions, they share some common symptoms and may be linked through low levels of iron in the brain. If you experience any of the symptoms associated with either condition, it is important to talk to your doctor to get an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
The primary treatment for iron deficiency anemia is to replace the missing iron in the body. This can be done through iron supplements or by increasing the amount of iron-rich foods in the diet. Iron supplements are available over-the-counter and can be taken orally or intravenously. It is important to follow the recommended dosage and duration of treatment to avoid side effects such as constipation, nausea, and stomach pain.
There is currently no cure for fibromyalgia, but there are several treatment options available to manage the symptoms. Medications such as pain relievers, antidepressants, and anti-seizure drugs may be prescribed to help alleviate pain and fatigue. Exercise and physical therapy can also be beneficial in reducing pain and improving overall function.
Lifestyle and Home Remedies
In addition to medical treatments, lifestyle changes and home remedies can also help manage the symptoms of anemia and fibromyalgia. Eating a balanced diet rich in iron, vitamins, and minerals can help improve overall health and prevent anemia. Regular exercise can also help reduce pain and fatigue associated with fibromyalgia. Relaxation techniques such as meditation and yoga may also be helpful in managing stress and improving sleep quality.
Overall, treatment for anemia and fibromyalgia should be individualized and based on the specific needs and symptoms of each patient. It is important to work closely with a healthcare provider to develop a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses all aspects of these conditions.
Individuals with anemia and fibromyalgia often experience psychological symptoms such as anxiety and depression, which can further exacerbate their physical symptoms. Understanding the psychological aspects of these conditions is crucial in managing the overall well-being of patients.
Anxiety and Depression
Anemia and fibromyalgia can lead to anxiety and depression due to the chronic nature of the conditions and the impact on daily life. Patients may feel overwhelmed by the constant fatigue, pain, and difficulty performing routine tasks. Anxiety and depression can also be caused by the fear of not being able to manage the symptoms or the uncertainty of the future.
It is important for patients to seek professional help if they experience symptoms of anxiety and depression. Treatment options may include therapy, medication, or a combination of both. Patients should also consider support groups, which can provide a sense of community and understanding.
Stress can worsen the symptoms of anemia and fibromyalgia, making it important for patients to learn stress management techniques. This can include activities such as yoga, meditation, or deep breathing exercises. Patients should also prioritize self-care, such as getting enough sleep, eating a healthy diet, and engaging in activities that bring them joy.
In addition, patients should communicate with their healthcare provider about their stress levels and any difficulties they may be experiencing. Healthcare providers can provide guidance on stress management techniques and may also recommend additional resources such as counseling or support groups.
Overall, understanding the psychological aspects of anemia and fibromyalgia is crucial in managing the conditions and improving the overall quality of life for patients. By seeking professional help, practicing stress management techniques, and prioritizing self-care, patients can better manage their symptoms and improve their well-being.
Women and Anemia
Anemia is more common in women than in men, mainly due to blood loss during menstruation and pregnancy. Women with fibromyalgia are at an increased risk of developing anemia due to the chronic pain and fatigue associated with the condition. It is important for women with fibromyalgia to monitor their iron levels and to consume a diet rich in iron, such as lean meats, leafy greens, and fortified cereals.
Age and Fibromyalgia
Fibromyalgia is most commonly diagnosed in middle-aged individuals, but it can affect people of all ages. Older adults with fibromyalgia may also be at an increased risk of developing anemia due to age-related changes in the body. It is important for older adults with fibromyalgia to receive regular blood tests to monitor their iron levels and to discuss any concerns with their healthcare provider.
Overall, individuals with fibromyalgia and anemia should work closely with their healthcare provider to manage their conditions and to ensure they are receiving adequate treatment. A balanced diet, regular exercise, and proper medication management can help improve symptoms and overall quality of life.
Research and Statistics
Anemia is a common condition that affects millions of people worldwide. According to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 1.62 billion people, or 24.8% of the world’s population, suffer from anemia. The condition is more prevalent in developing countries, with an estimated 47.4% of preschool children and 42.6% of pregnant women affected.
Fibromyalgia, on the other hand, is a less common condition that affects approximately 2-4% of the general population. It is more prevalent in women, with a female-to-male ratio of 7:1.
A retrospective cohort study published in the Journal of Clinical Medicine in 2020 aimed to investigate the association between anemia and fibromyalgia. The study used data from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database and included 16,217 fibromyalgia patients and 64,868 matched controls. The results showed that the incidence density rate of anemia was higher in the fibromyalgia group than in the control group. The adjusted hazard ratio for anemia in fibromyalgia patients was 1.30 (95% confidence interval: 1.23-1.38) compared to the control group.
Another study published in the Journal of Rheumatology in 2018 investigated the prevalence of anemia in fibromyalgia patients in Spain. The study included 1,038 fibromyalgia patients and found that 20.5% of them had anemia. The study also found that anemia was associated with more severe symptoms of fibromyalgia, including pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbances.
Overall, these studies suggest that there is a significant association between anemia and fibromyalgia. However, more research is needed to determine the underlying mechanisms and to develop effective treatment strategies for these patients.
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Tomatoes are a popular choice for home gardeners, and container gardening offers an excellent option for growing them, especially for those with limited outdoor space. This comprehensive guide will walk you through the process of successfully planting tomatoes in a container, including selecting the right container, choosing the best tomato varieties, preparing the container, selecting the proper soil, and providing the necessary care for your container-grown tomatoes.
Selecting the right container is crucial for successfully growing tomatoes. When choosing a container, consider the following factors:
Tomatoes have extensive root systems, so the size of the container is critical. Choose a container that is at least 18 inches in diameter and 24 inches deep to provide ample space for the roots to grow.
Containers are available in various materials such as plastic, terracotta, wood, or fabric. Each material has its pros and cons. Plastic containers are lightweight and retain moisture well. Terracotta containers are porous and allow for better airflow to the roots. Wood containers offer excellent insulation for the roots. Fabric containers provide excellent drainage. Consider the advantages of each material and choose one that suits your specific needs and the growing conditions in your area.
Ensure that the container has proper drainage holes to prevent waterlogging, which can lead to root rot. If your chosen container does not have drainage holes, you can drill them yourself.
Consider the weight and mobility of the container, especially if you plan to move it around to take advantage of sunlight or protect the plants from extreme weather conditions.
Not all tomato varieties are well-suited for container growth. When selecting the best tomatoes for container gardening, consider the following factors:
Determinate tomato varieties are more compact and bushy, making them suitable for containers. They also tend to produce fruit within a specific timeframe, which can be advantageous for those with limited space. Indeterminate varieties, on the other hand, are more sprawling and may require larger and sturdier containers to support their growth.
Look for tomato varieties specifically bred for container gardening, as they are often more compact and better suited for confined spaces. Examples include ‘Patio’, ‘Balcony’, ‘Tiny Tim’, and ‘Tumbling Tom’.
Consider the size of the mature fruits when selecting tomato varieties. Smaller varieties, such as cherry or grape tomatoes, can be particularly well-suited for container growth due to their manageable size and yield.
Before planting your tomatoes, it’s essential to prepare the container properly to create an optimal growing environment. Follow these steps to prepare your container:
If you are using a container that has been previously used for planting, clean it thoroughly to remove any residues or pathogens that may harm the new tomato plants. Use a mild bleach solution to sanitize the container before rinsing it well with clean water.
Place a layer of small rocks or gravel at the bottom of the container to facilitate drainage and prevent the soil from becoming waterlogged. This layer should be about 1-2 inches thick.
To help retain moisture and prevent soil from escaping through drainage holes, you can place a layer of landscape fabric or a coffee filter over the gravel before adding the potting mix.
Selecting the appropriate soil is crucial for the success of container-grown tomatoes, as it provides the necessary nutrients and support for the plants. Consider the following factors when choosing soil for your tomato container:
Using a high-quality potting mix specifically designed for containers is highly recommended. Potting mixes are lightweight, well-draining, and provide a balanced blend of nutrients essential for potted plants. Garden soil is not suitable for containers, as it tends to become compacted and may not provide adequate aeration and drainage.
Tomatoes thrive in slightly acidic soil with a pH ranging from 6.0 to 6.8. Choose a potting mix with the appropriate pH, or amend the mix with lime to adjust the pH if necessary.
Look for a potting mix formulated for vegetables or tomatoes, as they typically contain the necessary nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Additionally, consider using a mix with added organic matter such as compost or peat moss to improve soil fertility and structure.
Now that your container is ready and you have chosen the right tomato variety and soil, it’s time to plant your tomatoes.
Tomatoes should be planted deeply to encourage a strong root system. Remove the lower leaves from the seedling and bury the stem, leaving only the top few sets of leaves above the soil. This will encourage the buried portion of the stem to develop roots, resulting in a sturdier and more productive plant.
If you are planting multiple tomato plants in a single container, ensure that you provide adequate spacing between them to prevent overcrowding. A general rule of thumb is to maintain a distance of at least 12-18 inches between each plant to allow for proper air circulation and prevent competition for nutrients.
Consider providing support for your tomato plants, especially if you have chosen indeterminate varieties. Install a stake or a tomato cage at the time of planting to prevent the plants from sprawling and to support the weight of the fruit as they mature.
After planting your tomatoes, it’s crucial to provide proper care to ensure healthy growth and abundant harvest. Here are essential care tips for container-grown tomatoes:
Tomatoes in containers require regular watering, especially during the hot summer months. Ensure that the soil remains consistently moist, but not waterlogged, as both underwatering and overwatering can lead to issues such as blossom end rot or splitting fruits. Water deeply, allowing the excess water to drain from the bottom of the container.
Container-grown tomatoes rely on the nutrients present in the potting mix, and these can become depleted over time. Consider using a balanced, water-soluble fertilizer designed for vegetables, or a specially formulated tomato fertilizer to provide the necessary nutrients throughout the growing season. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for application rates and frequency.
Tomatoes thrive in full sunlight, so ensure that your container is placed in a location that receives at least 6-8 hours of direct sunlight per day. If necessary, move the container to track the sun’s path and maximize exposure.
Regular pruning and maintenance are essential for optimizing the growth and yield of container-grown tomatoes. Remove suckers – the small shoots that develop in the crotches between the main stem and the branches – to promote better airflow and fruit production. Additionally, monitor the plants for any yellow or diseased leaves and promptly remove them to prevent the spread of diseases.
Keep an eye out for common tomato pests, such as aphids, whiteflies, and hornworms, as well as diseases like blight and powdery mildew. Consider applying organic pest control methods or using natural remedies to address pest and disease issues, and promptly remove any affected leaves or fruits to prevent the spread of diseases.
Successfully growing tomatoes in a container requires careful consideration of the container type, tomato variety selection, soil preparation, planting technique, and ongoing care. By following the guidelines outlined in this article, you can create an ideal growing environment for your container-grown tomatoes and enjoy a bountiful harvest of fresh, flavorful tomatoes right from your own patio or balcony. Remember to monitor the plants regularly, provide the necessary support, and enjoy the rewarding experience of growing your own tomatoes in a container.
Growing tomatoes in containers is a great option for those who have limited space or lack access to an outdoor garden. Container gardening allows you to enjoy the benefits of fresh, homegrown tomatoes without the need for a large plot of land. However, successfully growing tomatoes in containers requires careful planning and attention to detail.
When it comes to container gardening, proper spacing is essential for the healthy growth of tomato plants. Tomatoes require sufficient room for their roots to grow and develop. As a general rule, each tomato plant should be planted in a container that is at least 10-20 inches deep and 18-20 inches wide. This will provide enough space for the root system to establish and prevent overcrowding.
When positioning your tomato plants in a container, it’s important to consider the direction of sunlight. Tomatoes need a minimum of six hours of direct sunlight each day to thrive. Place your container in an area that receives ample sunlight, such as a patio, balcony, or near a sunny window. If your chosen location doesn’t receive enough sunlight, consider using artificial grow lights to supplement the light requirements.
Watering is a critical aspect of tomato plant care in containers. Since containers have limited space for soil, they can dry out quickly, especially during hot summer months. Proper watering techniques are essential to ensure the plants receive adequate moisture.
The frequency of watering will depend on various factors such as the size of the container, the type of soil mix, the season, and the weather conditions. Generally, tomato plants in containers should be watered deeply and slowly, allowing the water to penetrate the entire root zone. Avoid overhead watering, as it can lead to fungal diseases. Instead, water the soil at the base of the plant.
To determine when to water your tomatoes, check the moisture level of the soil. Stick your finger about an inch into the soil, and if it feels dry, it’s time to water. However, be cautious not to overwater, as this can lead to root rot and other issues. A good practice is to water your container-grown tomatoes in the morning, allowing excess moisture to evaporate throughout the day and preventing fungal growth.
Tomato plants require a steady supply of nutrients to thrive and produce a bountiful harvest. When planting tomatoes in containers, the nutrients in the soil can quickly become depleted, necessitating regular fertilization.
Before planting your tomatoes, it’s recommended to incorporate a slow-release fertilizer into the soil mix. This will provide a steady supply of nutrients over an extended period. Additionally, using compost or well-rotted manure as a soil amendment can enhance the fertility of the growing medium.
During the growing season, it’s important to replenish the nutrients in the container through regular fertilization. Use a balanced fertilizer that contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Start fertilizing once the tomato plants have established themselves and are actively growing, typically around two weeks after transplanting. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for dosage and application frequency.
In addition to traditional chemical fertilizers, organic options such as fish emulsion or compost tea can be used to provide a natural source of nutrients for your tomatoes. These organic fertilizers help improve soil health and promote microbial activity.
Proper support is crucial for indeterminate tomato varieties, which continue growing taller throughout the season. Without support, the plants can become unwieldy and prone to disease. By providing support, you prevent the plants from sprawling on the ground and improve airflow around the foliage, reducing the risk of fungal infections.
There are several types of supports you can use for container-grown tomato plants. One popular option is a tomato cage, which consists of a wire frame that surrounds the plant, providing support for the branches as they grow. Place the tomato cage around the plant at the time of planting to prevent damage to the roots later.
Another option is to use stakes made of bamboo or metal. Drive the stake into the container soil, ensuring it is deep enough to support the growing plant. Use soft plant ties or twine to loosely attach the tomato plant to the stake as it grows taller. Keep in mind that stakes may require periodic adjustment and tying as the plant grows.
Regardless of the support method you choose, it’s important to provide it as early as possible after planting. This allows the tomato plant to grow upward naturally without the need for excessive pruning or manipulation.
Pruning and trimming are essential practices to maintain the health and productivity of tomato plants in containers. While determinate tomato varieties naturally have a more compact growth habit and require less pruning, indeterminate varieties benefit from strategic pruning to encourage better airflow, reduce disease risk, and redirect energy towards fruit production.
Start by regularly removing the suckers that form in the crotch between the main stem and side branches. Suckers are small shoots that emerge from the leaf axils and can develop into additional branches if left unchecked. By removing these suckers, you promote a more focused growth pattern and reduce overcrowding.
Additionally, monitor the overall growth of the tomato plant and remove any non-essential branches or foliage that obstruct airflow or shade developing fruit. This improves sunlight penetration and reduces the risk of diseases such as blight or mold. Use clean and sharp pruners or scissors to make precise cuts, minimizing the risk of damage to the plant.
Regularly trim back excessive foliage to allow airflow and sunlight to reach the lower parts of the plant. This helps prevent the spread of diseases and encourages better fruit development. However, avoid excessive pruning, as it may reduce the overall yield of the plant.
Growing tomatoes in containers can be a rewarding experience for any gardener, regardless of their available space. By properly spacing and positioning the plants, understanding their watering needs, fertilizing appropriately, providing necessary support, and practicing appropriate pruning and trimming, you can ensure healthy and productive tomato plants. Remember to choose the right container size, provide ample sunlight, water deeply and regularly, fertilize appropriately, provide support as needed, and maintain proper pruning and trimming practices. With these techniques, you’ll be able to enjoy the taste of homegrown tomatoes from your very own container garden. Happy planting!
Growing tomatoes in containers is a great option for those with limited space or for those who want to have more control over their plant’s growing conditions. Container gardening allows you to plant tomatoes on balconies, patios, rooftops, or any small area with adequate sunlight.
While growing tomatoes in containers may seem challenging at first, with proper care and attention, you can enjoy a bountiful harvest of flavorful and juicy tomatoes.
Container-grown tomatoes are not immune to pests and diseases. However, with proper preventive measures, you can minimize the risks and keep your plants healthy.
1. Common Pests:
2. Common Diseases:
3. Preventive Measures:
Tomatoes thrive in warm weather and require ample sunlight to produce the best quality fruits. Here are some tips for maintaining proper temperature and sunlight for your container-grown tomatoes.
1. Temperature Requirements:
2. Sunlight Requirements:
3. Shade Protection:
Once your tomatoes have matured, it’s time to harvest and store them properly to maintain their flavor and quality. Here are some guidelines for harvesting and storing container-grown tomatoes.
Despite your best efforts, problems can arise during the growing process. Here are some common issues you may encounter when growing tomatoes in containers and how to troubleshoot them.
1. Blossom Drop:
2. Yellowing Leaves:
3. Wilting and Drooping:
4. Tomato Cracking:
5. Limited Fruit Production:
Growing tomatoes in containers is a rewarding and feasible option for those with limited space. By following the guidelines outlined in this article, you can successfully plant tomatoes in containers and enjoy a bountiful harvest of delicious homegrown tomatoes. Remember to maintain proper temperature and sunlight, prevent pests and diseases, and address any issues promptly. With patience and care, you can savor the taste of freshly picked, vine-ripened tomatoes right from your own container garden. Happy gardening!
The container used for planting tomatoes should be at least 18 inches deep and 20 inches wide to provide ample space for the plant’s roots to grow. Using a pot or container that is made of terra cotta, plastic, or glazed ceramic is recommended. Ensure that the pot has good drainage holes at the bottom to allow water to flow out.
A well-draining, nutrient-rich potting soil is recommended for planting tomatoes in containers. The soil should be a mix of peat moss, perlite or vermiculite, and compost, which will provide proper drainage and nutrition to the plant. Avoid using garden soil as it may contain pests and diseases that can infect the plant.
Tomato plants require at least 6-8 hours of direct sunlight per day to grow well. Place the container in a spot where it receives adequate sunlight, ideally in a south-facing location. If you live in a hot climate, consider providing partial shade during the hottest portion of the day to prevent the plant from getting sunburn.
Tomato plants grown in containers require frequent watering, especially during hot and dry weather conditions. Water the plants thoroughly, ensuring that the water drains through the holes at the bottom of the container. Avoid overwatering the plants, as it may cause the roots to rot. Check the soil moisture levels daily and water as required.
Fertilizing tomato plants grown in containers is crucial for their growth and fruit production. Use a balanced, water-soluble fertilizer that is formulated specifically for tomatoes. Apply the fertilizer according to the manufacturer’s instructions, ensuring that you do not over-fertilize the plant as this can lead to stunted growth and poor fruit quality.
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Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Leonard D Johnson and PG Distributed Proofreaders
ULRICH BONNELL PHILLIPS
A Survey of the Supply,
Employment and Control
Of Negro Labor
As Determined by the Plantation Regime
I. THE EARLY EXPLOITATION OF GUINEA II. THE MARITIME SLAVE TRADE
III. THE SUGAR ISLANDS
IV. THE TOBACCO COLONIES
V. THE RICE COAST
VI. THE NORTHERN COLONIES
VII. REVOLUTION AND REACTION
VIII. THE CLOSING OF THE AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE IX. THE INTRODUCTION OF COTTON AND SUGAR X. THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT
XI. THE DOMESTIC SLAVE TRADE
XII. THE COTTON REGIME
XIII. TYPES OF LARGE PLANTATIONS
XIV. PLANTATION MANAGEMENT
XV. PLANTATION LABOR
XVI. PLANTATION LIFE
XVII. PLANTATION TENDENCIES
XVIII. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF SLAVERY: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
XIX. BUSINESS ASPECTS OF SLAVERY
XX. TOWN SLAVES
XXI. FREE NEGROES
XXII. SLAVE CRIME
XXIII. THE FORCE OF THE LAW
AMERICAN NEGRO SLAVERY
THE DISCOVERY AND EXPLOITATION OF GUINEA
The Portuguese began exploring the west coast of Africa shortly before Christopher Columbus was born; and no sooner did they encounter negroes than they began to seize and carry them in captivity to Lisbon. The court chronicler Azurara set himself in 1452, at the command of Prince Henry, to record the valiant exploits of the negro-catchers. Reflecting the spirit of the time, he praised them as crusaders bringing savage heathen for conversion to civilization and christianity. He gently lamented the massacre and sufferings involved, but thought them infinitely outweighed by the salvation of souls. This cheerful spirit of solace was destined long to prevail among white peoples when contemplating the hardships of the colored races. But Azurara was more than a moralizing annalist. He acutely observed of the first cargo of captives brought from southward of the Sahara, less than a decade before his writing, that after coming to Portugal “they never more tried to fly, but rather in time forgot all about their own country,” that “they were very loyal and obedient servants, without malice”; and that “after they began to use clothing they were for the most part very fond of display, so that they took great delight in robes of showy colors, and such was their love of finery that they picked up the rags that fell from the coats of other people of the country and sewed them on their own garments, taking great pleasure in these, as though it were matter of some greater perfection.” These few broad strokes would portray with equally happy precision a myriad other black servants born centuries after the writer’s death and dwelling in a continent of whose existence he never dreamed. Azurara wrote further that while some of the captives were not able to endure the change and died happily as Christians, the others, dispersed among Portuguese households, so ingratiated themselves that many were set free and some were married to men and women of the land and acquired comfortable estates. This may have been an earnest of future conditions in Brazil and the Spanish Indies; but in the British settlements it fell out far otherwise.
[Footnote 1: Gomez Eannes de Azurara _Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea_, translated by C.R. Beazley and E.P. Prestage, in the Hakluyt Society _Publications_, XCV, 85.]
As the fifteenth century wore on and fleets explored more of the African coast with the double purpose of finding a passage to India and exploiting any incidental opportunities for gain, more and more human cargoes were brought from Guinea to Portugal and Spain. But as the novelty of the blacks wore off they were held in smaller esteem and treated with less liberality. Gangs of them were set to work in fields from which the Moorish occupants had recently been expelled. The labor demand was not great, however, and when early in the sixteenth century West Indian settlers wanted negroes for their sugar fields, Spain willingly parted with some of hers. Thus did Europe begin the coercion of African assistance in the conquest of the American wilderness.
Guinea comprises an expanse about a thousand miles wide lying behind three undulating stretches of coast, the first reaching from Cape Verde southeastward nine hundred miles to Cape Palmas in four degrees north latitude, the second running thence almost parallel to the equator a thousand miles to Old Calabar at the head of “the terrible bight of Biafra,” the third turning abruptly south and extending some fourteen hundred miles to a short distance below Benguela where the southern desert begins. The country is commonly divided into Upper Guinea or the Sudan, lying north and west of the great angle of the coast, and Lower Guinea, the land of the Bantu, to the southward. Separate zones may also be distinguished as having different systems of economy: in the jungle belt along the equator bananas are the staple diet; in the belts bordering this on the north and south the growing of millet and manioc respectively, in small clearings, are the characteristic industries; while beyond the edges of the continental forest cattle contribute much of the food supply. The banana, millet and manioc zones, and especially their swampy coastal plains, were of course the chief sources of slaves for the transatlantic trade.
Of all regions of extensive habitation equatorial Africa is the worst. The climate is not only monotonously hot, but for the greater part of each year is excessively moist. Periodic rains bring deluge and periodic tornadoes play havoc. The dry seasons give partial relief, but they bring occasional blasts from the desert so dry and burning that all nature droops and is grateful at the return of the rains. The general dank heat stimulates vegetable growth in every scale from mildew to mahogany trees, and multiplies the members of the animal kingdom, be they mosquitoes, elephants or boa constrictors. There would be abundant food but for the superabundant creatures that struggle for it and prey upon one another. For mankind life is at once easy and hard. Food of a sort may often be had for the plucking, and raiment is needless; but aside from the menace of the elements human life is endangered by beasts and reptiles in the forest, crocodiles and hippopotami in the rivers, and sharks in the sea, and existence is made a burden to all but the happy-hearted by plagues of insects and parasites. In many districts tse-tse flies exterminate the cattle and spread the fatal sleeping-sickness among men; everywhere swarms of locusts occasionally destroy the crops; white ants eat timbers and any other useful thing, short of metal, which may come in their way; giant cockroaches and dwarf brown ants and other pests in great variety swarm in the dwellings continuously–except just after a village has been raided by the great black ants which are appropriately known as “drivers.” These drivers march in solid columns miles on miles until, when they reach food resources to their fancy, they deploy for action and take things with a rush. To stay among them is to die; but no human being stays. A cry of “Drivers!” will depopulate a village instantly, and a missionary who at one moment has been combing brown ants from his hair will in the next find himself standing safely in the creek or the water barrel, to stay until the drivers have taken their leave. Among less spectacular things, mosquitoes fly in crowds and leave fevers in their wake, gnats and flies are always on hand, chigoes bore and breed under toe-nails, hook-worms hang themselves to the walls of the intestines, and other threadlike worms enter the eyeballs and the flesh of the body. Endurance through generations has given the people large immunity from the effects of hook-worm and malaria, but not from the indigenous diseases, kraw-kraw, yaws and elephantiasis, nor of course from dysentery and smallpox which the Europeans introduced. Yet robust health is fairly common, and where health prevails there is generally happiness, for the negroes have that within their nature. They could not thrive in Guinea without their temperament.
It is probable that no people ever became resident on or near the west coast except under compulsion. From the more favored easterly regions successive hordes have been driven after defeat in war. The Fangs on the Ogowe are an example in the recent past. Thus the inhabitants of Guinea, and of the coast lands especially, have survived by retreating and adapting themselves to conditions in which no others wished to dwell. The requirements of adaptation were peculiar. To live where nature supplies Turkish baths without the asking necessitates relaxation. But since undue physical indolence would unfit people for resistance to parasites and hostile neighbors, the languid would perish. Relaxation of mind, however, brought no penalties. The climate in fact not only discourages but prohibits mental effort of severe or sustained character, and the negroes have submitted to that prohibition as to many others, through countless generations, with excellent grace. So accustomed were they to interdicts of nature that they added many of their own through conventional taboo, some of them intended to prevent the eating of supposedly injurious food, others calculated to keep the commonalty from infringing upon the preserves of the dignitaries.
[Footnote 2: A convenient sketch of the primitive African regime is J.A. Tillinghast’s _The Negro in Africa and America_, part I. A fuller survey is Jerome Dowd’s _The Negro Races_, which contains a bibliography of the sources. Among the writings of travelers and sojourners particularly notable are Mary Kingsley’s _Travels in West Africa_ as a vivid picture of coast life, and her _West African Studies_ for its elaborate and convincing discussion of fetish, and the works of Sir A.B. Ellis on the Tshi-, Ewe- and Yoruba-speaking peoples for their analyses of institutions along the Gold Coast.]
No people is without its philosophy and religion. To the Africans the forces of nature were often injurious and always impressive. To invest them with spirits disposed to do evil but capable of being placated was perhaps an obvious recourse; and this investiture grew into an elaborate system of superstition. Not only did the wind and the rain have their gods but each river and precipice, and each tribe and family and person, a tutelary spirit. These might be kept benevolent by appropriate fetish ceremonies; they might be used for evil by persons having specially great powers over them. The proper course for common-place persons at ordinary times was to follow routine fetish observances; but when beset by witch-work the only escape lay in the services of witch-doctors or priests. Sacrifices were called for, and on the greatest occasions nothing short of human sacrifice was acceptable.
As to diet, vegetable food was generally abundant, but the negroes were not willingly complete vegetarians. In the jungle game animals were scarce, and everywhere the men were ill equipped for hunting. In lieu of better they were often fain to satisfy their craving for flesh by eating locusts and larvae, as tribes in the interior still do. In such conditions cannibalism was fairly common. Especially prized was an enemy slain in war, for not only would his body feed the hungry but fetish taught that his bravery would pass to those who shared the feast.
In African economy nearly all routine work, including agriculture, was classed as domestic service and assigned to the women for performance. The wife, bought with a price at the time of marriage, was virtually a slave; her husband her master. Now one woman might keep her husband and children in but moderate comfort. Two or more could perform the family tasks much better. Thus a man who could pay the customary price would be inclined to add a second wife, whom the first would probably welcome as a lightener of her burdens. Polygamy prevailed almost everywhere.
Slavery, too, was generally prevalent except among the few tribes who gained their chief sustenance from hunting. Along with polygamy, it perhaps originated, if it ever had a distinct beginning, from the desire to lighten and improve the domestic service. Persons became slaves through capture, debt or malfeasance, or through the inheritance of the status. While the ownership was absolute in the eyes of the law and captives were often treated with great cruelty, slaves born in the locality were generally regarded as members of their owner’s family and were shown much consideration. In the millet zone where there was much work to be done the slaveholdings were in many cases very large and the control relatively stringent; but in the banana districts an easy-going schedule prevailed for all. One of the chief hardships of the slaves was the liability of being put to death at their master’s funeral in order that their spirits might continue in his service. In such case it was customary on the Gold Coast to give the victim notice of his approaching death by suddenly thrusting a knife through each cheek with the blades crossing in his mouth so that he might not curse his master before he died. With his hands tied behind him he would then be led to the ceremonial slaughter. The Africans were in general eager traders in slaves as well as other goods, even before the time when the transatlantic trade, by giving excessive stimulus to raiding and trading, transformed the native economy and deranged the social order.
[Footnote 3: Slavery among the Africans and other primitive peoples has been elaborately discussed by H.J. Nieboer, _Slavery as an Industrial System: Ethnological Researches_ (The Hague, 1900).]
Apart from a few great towns such as Coomassee and Benin, life in Guinea was wholly on a village basis, each community dwelling in its own clearing and having very slight intercourse with its neighbors. Politically each village was governed by its chief and its elders, oftentimes in complete independence. In occasional instances, however, considerable states of loose organization were under the rule of central authorities. Such states were likely to be the creation of invaders from the eastward, the Dahomans and Ashantees for example; but the kingdom of Benin appears to have arisen indigenously. In many cases the subordination of conquered villages merely resulted in their paying annual tribute. As to language, Lower Guinea spoke multitudinous dialects of the one Bantu tongue, but in Upper Guinea there were many dialects of many separate languages.
Land was so abundant and so little used industrially that as a rule it was not owned in severalty; and even the villages and tribes had little occasion to mark the limits of their domains. For travel by land there were nothing but narrow, rough and tortuous foot-paths, with makeshift bridges across the smaller streams. The rivers were highly advantageous both as avenues and as sources of food, for the negroes were expert at canoeing and fishing.
Intertribal wars were occasional, but a crude comity lessened their frequency. Thus if a man of one village murdered one of another, the aggrieved village if too weak to procure direct redress might save its face by killing someone in a third village, whereupon the third must by intertribal convention make common cause with the second at once, or else coerce a fourth into the punitive alliance by applying the same sort of persuasion that it had just felt. These later killings in the series were not regarded as murders but as diplomatic overtures. The system was hard upon those who were sacrificed in its operation, but it kept a check upon outlawry.
A skin stretched over the section of a hollow tree, and usually so constructed as to have two tones, made an instrument of extraordinary use in communication as well as in music. By a system long anticipating the Morse code the Africans employed this “telegraph drum” in sending messages from village to village for long distances and with great speed. Differences of speech were no bar, for the tom tom code was interlingual. The official drummer could explain by the high and low alternations of his taps that a deed of violence just done was not a crime but a _pourparler_ for the forming of a league. Every week for three months in 1800 the tom toms doubtless carried the news throughout Ashantee land that King Quamina’s funeral had just been repeated and two hundred more slaves slain to do him honor. In 1806 they perhaps reported the ending of Mungo Park’s travels by his death on the Niger at the hands of the Boussa people. Again and again drummers hired as trading auxiliaries would send word along the coast and into the country that white men’s vessels lying at Lagos, Bonny, Loango or Benguela as the case might be were paying the best rates in calico, rum or Yankee notions for all slaves that might be brought.
In music the monotony of the tom tom’s tone spurred the drummers to elaborate variations in rhythm. The stroke of the skilled performer could make it mourn a funeral dirge, voice the nuptial joy, throb the pageant’s march, and roar the ambush alarm. Vocal music might be punctuated by tom toms and primitive wind or stringed instruments, or might swell in solo or chorus without accompaniment. Singing, however, appears not so characteristic of Africans at home as of the negroes in America. On the other hand garrulous conversation, interspersed with boisterous laughter, lasted well-nigh the livelong day. Daily life, indeed, was far from dull, for small things were esteemed great, and every episode was entertaining. It can hardly be maintained that savage life is idyllic. Yet the question remains, and may long remain, whether the manner in which the negroes were brought into touch with civilization resulted in the greater blessing or the greater curse. That manner was determined in part at least by the nature of the typical negroes themselves. Impulsive and inconstant, sociable and amorous, voluble, dilatory, and negligent, but robust, amiable, obedient and contented, they have been the world’s premium slaves. Prehistoric Pharaohs, mediaeval Pashas and the grandees of Elizabethan England esteemed them as such; and so great a connoisseur in household service as the Czar Alexander added to his palace corps in 1810 two free negroes, one a steward on an American merchant ship and the other a body-servant whom John Quincy Adams, the American minister, had brought from Massachusetts to St. Petersburg.
[Footnote 4: _Writings of John Quincy Adams_, Ford ed., III, 471, 472 (New York, 1914).]
The impulse for the enslavement of negroes by other peoples came from the Arabs who spread over northern Africa in the eighth century, conquering and converting as they went, and stimulating the trade across the Sahara until it attained large dimensions. The northbound caravans carried the peculiar variety of pepper called “grains of paradise” from the region later known as Liberia, gold from the Dahomey district, palm oil from the lower Niger, and ivory and slaves from far and wide. A small quantity of these various goods was distributed in southern Europe and the Levant. And in the same general period Arab dhows began to take slave cargoes from the east coast of Africa as far south as Mozambique, for distribution in Arabia, Persia and western India. On these northern and eastern flanks of Guinea where the Mohammedans operated and where the most vigorous of the African peoples dwelt, the natives lent ready assistance in catching and buying slaves in the interior and driving them in coffles to within reach of the Moorish and Arab traders. Their activities, reaching at length the very center of the continent, constituted without doubt the most cruel of all branches of the slave-trade. The routes across the burning Sahara sands in particular came to be strewn with negro skeletons.
[Footnote 5: Jerome Dowd, “The African Slave Trade,” in the _Journal of Negro History_, II (1917), 1-20.]
This overland trade was as costly as it was tedious. Dealers in Timbuctoo and other centers of supply must be paid their price; camels must be procured, many of which died on the journey; guards must be hired to prevent escapes in the early marches and to repel predatory Bedouins in the later ones; food supplies must be bought; and allowance must be made for heavy mortality among the slaves on their terrible trudge over the burning sands and the chilling mountains. But wherever Mohammedanism prevailed, which gave particular sanction to slavery as well as to polygamy, the virtues of the negroes as laborers and as eunuch harem guards were so highly esteemed that the trade was maintained on a heavy scale almost if not quite to the present day. The demand of the Turks in the Levant and the Moors in Spain was met by exportations from the various Barbary ports. Part of this Mediterranean trade was conducted in Turkish and Moorish vessels, and part of it in the ships of the Italian cities and Marseilles and Barcelona. Venice for example had treaties with certain Saracen rulers at the beginning of the fourteenth century authorizing her merchants not only to frequent the African ports, but to go in caravans to interior points and stay at will. The principal commodities procured were ivory, gold, honey and negro slaves.
[Footnote 6: The leading authority upon slavery and the slave-trade in the Mediterranean countries of Europe is J.A. Saco, _Historia de la Esclavitud desde los Tiempas mas remotas hasta nuestros Dias_ (Barcelona, 1877), vol. III.]
The states of Christian Europe, though little acquainted with negroes, had still some trace of slavery as an inheritance from imperial Rome and barbaric Teutondom. The chattel form of bondage, however, had quite generally given place to serfdom; and even serfdom was disappearing in many districts by reason of the growth of towns and the increase of rural population to the point at which abundant labor could be had at wages little above the cost of sustaining life. On the other hand so long as petty wars persisted the enslavement of captives continued to be at least sporadic, particularly in the south and east of Europe, and a considerable traffic in white slaves was maintained from east to west on the Mediterranean. The Venetians for instance, in spite of ecclesiastical prohibitions, imported frequent cargoes of young girls from the countries about the Black Sea, most of whom were doomed to concubinage and prostitution, and the rest to menial service. The occurrence of the Crusades led to the enslavement of Saracen captives in Christendom as well as of Christian captives in Islam.
[Footnote 7: W.C. Hazlitt, _The Venetian Republic_(London, 1900), pp. 81, 82.]
The waning of the Crusades ended the supply of Saracen slaves, and the Turkish capture of Constantinople in 1453 destroyed the Italian trade on the Black Sea. No source of supply now remained, except a trickle from Africa, to sustain the moribund institution of slavery in any part of Christian Europe east of the Pyrenees. But in mountain-locked Roussillon and Asturias remnants of slavery persisted from Visigothic times to the seventeenth century; and in other parts of the peninsula the intermittent wars against the Moors of Granada supplied captives and to some extent reinvigorated slavery among the Christian states from Aragon to Portugal. Furthermore the conquest of the Canaries at the end of the fourteenth century and of Teneriffe and other islands in the fifteenth led to the bringing of many of their natives as slaves to Castille and the neighboring kingdoms.
Occasional documents of this period contain mention of negro slaves at various places in the Spanish peninsula, but the number was clearly small and it must have continued so, particularly as long as the supply was drawn through Moorish channels. The source whence the negroes came was known to be a region below the Sahara which from its yield of gold and ivory was called by the Moors the land of wealth, “Bilad Ghana,” a name which on the tongues of European sailors was converted into “Guinea.” To open a direct trade thither was a natural effort when the age of maritime exploration began. The French are said to have made voyages to the Gold Coast in the fourteenth century, though apparently without trading in slaves. But in the absence of records of their activities authentic history must confine itself to the achievements of the Portuguese.
In 1415 John II of Portugal, partly to give his five sons opportunity to win knighthood in battle, attacked and captured the Moorish stronghold of Ceuta, facing Gibraltar across the strait. For several years thereafter the town was left in charge of the youngest of these princes, Henry, who there acquired an enduring desire to gain for Portugal and Christianity the regions whence the northbound caravans were coming. Returning home, he fixed his residence at the promontory of Sagres, on Cape St. Vincent, and made his main interest for forty years the promotion of maritime exploration southward. His perseverance won him fame as “Prince Henry the Navigator,” though he was not himself an active sailor; and furthermore, after many disappointments, it resulted in exploration as far as the Gold Coast in his lifetime and the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope twenty-five years after his death. The first decade of his endeavor brought little result, for the Sahara shore was forbidding and the sailors timid. Then in 1434 Gil Eannes doubled Cape Bojador and found its dangers imaginary. Subsequent voyages added to the extent of coast skirted until the desert began to give place to inhabited country. The Prince was now eager for captives to be taken who might inform him of the country, and in 1441 Antam Gonsalvez brought several Moors from the southern edge of the desert, who, while useful as informants, advanced a new theme of interest by offering to ransom themselves by delivering on the coast a larger number of non-Mohammedan negroes, whom the Moors held as slaves. Partly for the sake of profit, though the chronicler says more largely to increase the number of souls to be saved, this exchange was effected in the following year in the case of two of the Moors, while a third took his liberty without delivering his ransom. After the arrival in Portugal of these exchanged negroes, ten in number, and several more small parcels of captives, a company organized at Lagos under the direction of Prince Henry sent forth a fleet of six caravels in 1444 which promptly returned with 225 captives, the disposal of whom has been recounted at the beginning of this chapter.
[Footnote 8: The chief source for the early Portuguese voyages is Azurara’s _Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea_, already cited.]
In the next year the Lagos Company sent a great expedition of twenty-six vessels which discovered the Senegal River and brought back many natives taken in raids thereabout; and by 1448 nearly a thousand captives had been carried to Portugal. Some of these were Moorish Berbers, some negroes, but most were probably Jolofs from the Senegal, a warlike people of mixed ancestry. Raiding in the Jolof country proved so hazardous that from about 1454 the Portuguese began to supplement their original methods by planting “factories” on the coast where slaves from the interior were bought from their native captors and owners who had brought them down in caravans and canoes. Thus not only was missionary zeal eclipsed but the desire of conquest likewise, and the spirit of exploration erelong partly subdued, by commercial greed. By the time of Prince Henry’s death in 1460 Portugal was importing seven or eight hundred negro slaves each year. From this time forward the traffic was conducted by a succession of companies and individual grantees, to whom the government gave the exclusive right for short terms of years in consideration of money payments and pledges of adding specified measures of exploration. As new coasts were reached additional facilities were established for trade in pepper, ivory and gold as well as in slaves. When the route round Africa to India was opened at the end of the century the Guinea trade fell to secondary importance, but it was by no means discontinued.
Of the negroes carried to Portugal in the fifteenth century a large proportion were set to work as slaves on great estates in the southern provinces recently vacated by the Moors, and others were employed as domestic servants in Lisbon and other towns. Some were sold into Spain where they were similarly employed, and where their numbers were recruited by a Guinea trade in Spanish vessels in spite of Portugal’s claim of monopoly rights, even though Isabella had recognized these in a treaty of 1479. In short, at the time of the discovery of America Spain as well as Portugal had quite appreciable numbers of negroes in her population and both were maintaining a system of slavery for their control.
When Columbus returned from his first voyage in the spring of 1493 and announced his great landfall, Spain promptly entered upon her career of American conquest and colonization. So great was the expectation of adventure and achievement that the problem of the government was not how to enlist participants but how to restrain a great exodus. Under heavy penalties emigration was restricted by royal decrees to those who procured permission to go. In the autumn of the same year fifteen hundred men, soldiers, courtiers, priests and laborers, accompanied the discoverer on his second voyage, in radiant hopes. But instead of wealth and high adventure these Argonauts met hard labor and sickness. Instead of the rich cities of Japan and China sought for, there were found squalid villages of Caribs and Lucayans. Of gold there was little, of spices none.
Columbus, when planting his colony at Isabella, on the northern coast of Hispaniola (Hayti), promptly found need of draught animals and other equipment. He wrote to his sovereigns in January, 1494, asking for the supplies needed; and he offered, pending the discovery of more precious things, to defray expenses by shipping to Spain some of the island natives, “who are a wild people fit for any work, well proportioned and very intelligent, and who when they have got rid of their cruel habits to which they have been accustomed will be better than any other kind of slaves.” Though this project was discouraged by the crown, Columbus actually took a cargo of Indians for sale in Spain on his return from his third voyage; but Isabella stopped the sale and ordered the captives taken home and liberated. Columbus, like most of his generation, regarded the Indians as infidel foreigners to be exploited at will. But Isabella, and to some extent her successors, considered them Spanish subjects whose helplessness called for special protection. Between the benevolence of the distant monarchs and the rapacity of the present conquerors, however, the fate of the natives was in little doubt. The crown’s officials in the Indies were the very conquerors themselves, who bent their soft instructions to fit their own hard wills. A native rebellion in Hispaniola in 1495 was crushed with such slaughter that within three years the population is said to have been reduced by two thirds. As terms of peace Columbus required annual tribute in gold so great that no amount of labor in washing the sands could furnish it. As a commutation of tribute and as a means of promoting the conversion of the Indians there was soon inaugurated the encomienda system which afterward spread throughout Spanish America. To each Spaniard selected as an encomendero was allotted a certain quota of Indians bound to cultivate land for his benefit and entitled to receive from him tutelage in civilization and Christianity. The grantees, however, were not assigned specified Indians but merely specified numbers of them, with power to seize new ones to replace any who might die or run away. Thus the encomendero was given little economic interest in preserving the lives and welfare of his workmen.
[Footnote 9: R.H. Major, _Select Letters of Columbus_, 2d. ed., 1890, p. 88.]
In the first phase of the system the Indians were secured in the right of dwelling in their own villages under their own chiefs. But the encomenderos complained that the aloofness of the natives hampered the work of conversion and asked that a fuller and more intimate control be authorized. This was promptly granted and as promptly abused. Such limitations as the law still imposed upon encomendero power were made of no effect by the lack of machinery for enforcement. The relationship in short, which the law declared to be one of guardian and ward, became harsher than if it had been that of master and slave. Most of the island natives were submissive in disposition and weak in physique, and they were terribly driven at their work in the fields, on the roads, and at the mines. With smallpox and other pestilences added to their hardships, they died so fast that before 1510 Hispaniola was confronted with the prospect of the complete disappearance of its laboring population. Meanwhile the same regime was being carried to Porto Rico, Jamaica and Cuba with similar consequences in its train.
[Footnote 10: E. g. Bourne, _Spain in America_ (New York, 1904); Wilhelm Roscher, _The Spanish Colonial System_, Bourne ed. (New York, 1904); Konrad Habler, “The Spanish Colonial Empire,” in Helmolt, _History of the World_, vol I.]
As long as mining remained the chief industry the islands failed to prosper; and the reports of adversity so strongly checked the Spanish impulse for adventure that special inducements by the government were required to sustain any flow of emigration. But in 1512-1515 the introduction of sugar-cane culture brought the beginning of a change in the industrial situation. The few surviving gangs of Indians began to be shifted from the mines to the fields, and a demand for a new labor supply arose which could be met only from across the sea.
Apparently no negroes were brought to the islands before 1501. In that year, however, a royal decree, while excluding Jews and Moors, authorized the transportation of negroes born in Christian lands; and some of these were doubtless carried to Hispaniola in the great fleet of Ovando, the new governor, in 1502. Ovando’s reports of this experiment were conflicting. In the year following his arrival he advised that no more negroes be sent, because of their propensity to run away and band with and corrupt the Indians. But after another year had elapsed he requested that more negroes be sent. In this interim the humane Isabella died and the more callous Ferdinand acceded to full control. In consequence a prohibition of the negro trade in 1504 was rescinded in 1505 and replaced by orders that the bureau in charge of colonial trade promote the sending of negroes from Spain in large parcels. For the next twelve years this policy was maintained–the sending of Christian negroes was encouraged, while the direct slave trade from Africa to America was prohibited. The number of negroes who reached the islands under this regime is not ascertainable. It was clearly almost negligible in comparison with the increasing demand.
[Footnote 11: The chief authority upon the origin and growth of negro slavery in the Spanish colonies is J.A. Saco, _Historia de la Esclavitud de la Raza Africana en el Nuevo Mundo y en especial en los Paises Americo-Hispanos_. (Barcelona, 1879.) This book supplements the same author’s _Historia de la Esclavitud desde los Tiempos remotos_ previously cited.]
The policy of excluding negroes fresh from Africa–“bozal negroes” the Spaniards called them–was of course a product of the characteristic resolution to keep the colonies free from all influences hostile to Catholic orthodoxy. But whereas Jews, Mohammedans and Christian heretics were considered as champions of rival faiths, the pagan blacks came increasingly to be reckoned as having no religion and therefore as a mere passive element ready for christianization. As early as 1510, in fact, the Spanish crown relaxed its discrimination against pagans by ordering the purchase of above a hundred negro slaves in the Lisbon market for dispatch to Hispaniola. To quiet its religious scruples the government hit upon the device of requiring the baptism of all pagan slaves upon their disembarkation in the colonial ports.
The crown was clearly not prepared to withstand a campaign for supplies direct from Africa, especially after the accession of the youth Charles I in 1517. At that very time a clamor from the islands reached its climax. Not only did many civil officials, voicing public opinion in their island communities, urge that the supply of negro slaves be greatly increased as a means of preventing industrial collapse, but a delegation of Jeronimite friars and the famous Bartholomeo de las Casas, who had formerly been a Cuban encomendero and was now a Dominican priest, appeared in Spain to press the same or kindred causes. The Jeronimites, themselves concerned in industrial enterprises, were mostly interested in the labor supply. But the well-born and highly talented Las Casas, earnest and full of the milk of human kindness, was moved entirely by humanitarian and religious considerations. He pleaded primarily for the abolition of the encomienda system and the establishment of a great Indian reservation under missionary control, and he favored the increased transfer of Christian negroes from Spain as a means of relieving the Indians from their terrible sufferings. The lay spokesmen and the Jeronimites asked that provision be made for the sending of thousands of negro slaves, preferably bozal negroes for the sake of cheapness and plenty; and the supporters of this policy were able to turn to their use the favorable impression which Las Casas was making, even though his programme and theirs were different. The outcome was that while the settling of the encomienda problem was indefinitely postponed, authorization was promptly given for a supply of bozal negroes.
[Footnote 12: Las Casas, _Historio de las Indias_ (Madrid, 1875, 1876); Arthur Helps, _Life of Las Casas_ (London, 1873); Saco, _op. cit_., pp. 62-104.]
The crown here had an opportunity to get large revenues, of which it was in much need, by letting the slave trade under contract or by levying taxes upon it. The young king, however, freshly arrived from the Netherlands with a crowd of Flemish favorites in his train, proceeded to issue gratuitously a license for the trade to one of the Flemings at court, Laurent de Gouvenot, known in Spain as Garrevod, the governor of Breza. This license empowered the grantee and his assigns to ship from Guinea to the Spanish islands four thousand slaves. All the historians until recently have placed this grant in the year 1517 and have called it a contract (asiento); but Georges Scelle has now discovered and printed the document itself which bears the date August 18, 1518, and is clearly a license of grace bearing none of the distinctive asiento features. Garrevod, who wanted ready cash rather than a trading privilege, at once divided his license into two and sold them for 25,000 ducats to certain Genoese merchants domiciled at Seville, who in turn split them up again and put them on the market where they became an object of active speculation at rapidly rising prices. The result was that when slaves finally reached the islands under Garrevod’s grant the prices demanded for them were so exorbitant that the purposes of the original petitioners were in large measure defeated. Meanwhile the king, in spite of the nominally exclusive character of the Garrevod grant, issued various other licenses on a scale ranging from ten to four hundred slaves each. For a decade the importations were small, however, and the island clamor increased.
[Footnote 13: Georges Scelle, _Histoire Politique de la Traite Negriere aux Indes de Castille: Contrats et Traites d’Asiento_ (Paris, 1906), I, 755. Book I, chapter 2 of the same volume is an elaborate discussion of the Garrevod grant.]
In 1528 a new exclusive grant was issued to two German courtiers at Seville, Eynger and Sayller, empowering them to carry four thousand slaves from Guinea to the Indies within the space of the following four years. This differed from Garrevod’s in that it required a payment of 20,000 ducats to the crown and restricted the price at which the slaves were to be sold in the islands to forty ducats each. In so far it approached the asientos of the full type which became the regular recourse of the Spanish government in the following centuries; but it fell short of the ultimate plan by failing to bind the grantees to the performance of their undertaking and by failing to specify the grades and the proportion of the sexes among the slaves to be delivered. In short the crown’s regard was still directed more to the enrichment of courtiers than to the promotion of prosperity in the islands.
After the expiration of the Eynger and Sayller grant the king left the control of the slave trade to the regular imperial administrative boards, which, rejecting all asiento overtures for half a century, maintained a policy of granting licenses for competitive trade in return for payments of eight or ten ducats per head until 1560, and of thirty ducats or more thereafter. At length, after the Spanish annexation of Portugal in 1580, the government gradually reverted to monopoly grants, now however in the definite form of asientos, in which by intent at least the authorities made the public interest, with combined regard to the revenue and a guaranteed labor supply, the primary consideration. The high prices charged for slaves, however, together with the burdensome restrictions constantly maintained upon trade in general, steadily hampered the growth of Spanish colonial industry. Furthermore the allurements of Mexico and Peru drained the older colonies of virtually all their more vigorous white inhabitants, in spite of severe penalties legally imposed upon emigration but never effectively enforced.
[Footnote 14: Scelle, I, books 1-3.]
The agricultural regime in the islands was accordingly kept relatively stagnant as long as Spain preserved her full West Indian domination. The sugar industry, which by 1542 exported the staple to the amount of 110,000 arrobas of twenty-five pounds each, was standardized in plantations of two types–the _trapiche_ whose cane was ground by ox power and whose labor force was generally thirty or forty negroes (each reckoned as capable of the labor of four Indians); and the _inqenio_, equipped with a water-power mill and employing about a hundred slaves. Occasional slave revolts disturbed the Spanish islanders but never for long diminished their eagerness for slave recruits. The slave laws were relatively mild, the police administration extremely casual, and the plantation managements easy-going. In short, after introducing slavery into the new world the Spaniards maintained it in sluggish fashion, chiefly in the islands, as an institution which peoples more vigorous industrially might borrow and adapt to a more energetic plantation regime.
[Footnote 15: Saco, pp. 127, 128, 188; Oviedo, _Historia General de las Indias_, book 4. chap. 8.]
THE MARITIME SLAVE TRADE
At the request of a slaver’s captain the government of Georgia issued in 1772 a certificate to a certain Fenda Lawrence reciting that she, “a free black woman and heretofore a considerable trader in the river Gambia on the coast of Africa, hath voluntarily come to be and remain for some time in this province,” and giving her permission to “pass and repass unmolested within the said province on her lawfull and necessary occations.” This instance is highly exceptional. The millions of African expatriates went against their own wills, and their transporters looked upon the business not as passenger traffic but as trade in goods. Earnings came from selling in America the cargoes bought in Africa; the transportation was but an item in the trade.
[Footnote 1: U.B. Phillips, _Plantation and Frontier Documents_, printed also as vols. I and II of the _Documentary History of American Industrial Society_ (Cleveland, O., 1909), II, 141, 142. This publication will be cited hereafter as _Plantation and Frontier_.]
The business bulked so large in the world’s commerce in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that every important maritime community on the Atlantic sought a share, generally with the sanction and often with the active assistance of its respective sovereign. The preliminaries to the commercial strife occurred in the Elizabethan age. French traders in gold and ivory found the Portuguese police on the Guinea Coast to be negligible; but poaching in the slave trade was a harder problem, for Spain held firm control of her colonies which were then virtually the world’s only slave market.
The test of this was made by Sir John Hawkins who at the beginning of his career as a great English sea captain had informed himself in the Canary Islands of the Afro-American opportunity awaiting exploitation. Backed by certain English financiers, he set forth in 1562 with a hundred men in three small ships, and after procuring in Sierra Leone, “partly by the sword and partly by other means,” above three hundred negroes he sailed to Hispaniola where without hindrance from the authorities he exchanged them for colonial produce. “And so, with prosperous success, and much gain to himself and the aforesaid adventurers, he came home, and arrived in the month of September, 1563.” Next year with 170 men in four ships Hawkins again captured as many Sierra Leone natives as he could carry, and proceeded to peddle them in the Spanish islands. When the authorities interfered he coerced them by show of arms and seizure of hostages, and when the planters demurred at his prices he brought them to terms through a mixture of diplomacy and intimidation. After many adventures by the way he reached home, as the chronicler concludes, “God be thanked! in safety: with the loss of twenty persons in all the voyage; as with great profit to the venturers in the said voyage, so also to the whole realm, in bringing home both gold, silver, pearls, and other jewels in great store. His name therefore be praised for evermore! Amen.” Before two years more had passed Hawkins put forth for a third voyage, this time with six ships, two of them among the largest then afloat. The cargo of slaves, procured by aiding a Guinea tribe in an attack upon its neighbor, had been duly sold in the Indies when dearth of supplies and stress of weather drove the fleet into the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulloa. There a Spanish fleet of thirteen ships attacked the intruders, capturing their treasure ship and three of her consorts. Only the _Minion_ under Hawkins and the bark _Judith_ under the young Francis Drake escaped to carry the harrowing tale to England. One result of the episode was that it filled Hawkins and Drake with desire for revenge on Spain, which was wreaked in due time but in European waters. Another consequence was a discouragement of English slave trading for nearly a century to follow.
[Footnote 2: Hakluyt, _Voyages_, ed. 1589. This and the accounts of Hawkins’ later exploits in the same line are reprinted with a valuable introduction in C.R. Beazley, ed., _Voyages and Travels_ (New York, 1903), I, 29-126.]
The defeat of the Armada in 1588 led the world to suspect the decline of Spain’s maritime power, but only in the lapse of decades did the suspicion of her helplessness become a certainty. Meantime Portugal was for sixty years an appanage of the Spanish crown, while the Netherlands were at their heroic labor for independence. Thus when the Dutch came to prevail at sea in the early seventeenth century the Portuguese posts in Guinea fell their prey, and in 1621 the Dutch West India Company was chartered to take them over. Closely identified with the Dutch government, this company not only founded the colony of New Netherland and endeavored to foster the employment of negro slaves there, but in 1634 it seized the Spanish island of Curacao near the Venezuelan coast and made it a basis for smuggling slaves into the Spanish dominions. And now the English, the French and the Danes began to give systematic attention to the African and West Indian opportunities, whether in the form of buccaneering, slave trading or colonization.
The revolt of Portugal in 1640 brought a turning point. For a quarter-century thereafter the Spanish government, regarding the Portuguese as rebels, suspended all trade relations with them, the asiento included. But the trade alternatives remaining were all distasteful to Spain. The English were heretics; the Dutch were both heretics and rebels; the French and the Danes were too weak at sea to handle the great slave trading contract with security; and Spain had no means of her own for large scale commerce. The upshot was that the carriage of slaves to the Spanish colonies was wholly interdicted during the two middle decades of the century. But this gave the smugglers their highest opportunity. The Spanish colonial police collapsed under the pressure of the public demand for slaves, and illicit trading became so general and open as to be pseudo legitimate. Such a boom came as was never felt before under Protestant flags in tropical waters. The French, in spite of great exertions, were not yet able to rival the Dutch and English. These in fact had such an ascendency that when in 1663 Spain revived the asiento by a contract with two Genoese, the contractors must needs procure their slaves by arrangement with Dutch and English who delivered them at Curacao and Jamaica. Soon after this contract expired the asiento itself was converted from an item of Spanish internal policy into a shuttlecock of international politics. It became in fact the badge of maritime supremacy, possessed now by the Dutch, now by the French in the greatest years of Louis XIV, and finally by the English as a trophy in the treaty of Utrecht.
By this time, however, the Spanish dominions were losing their primacy as slave markets. Jamaica, Barbados and other Windward Islands under the English; Hayti, Martinique and Guadeloupe under the French, and Guiana under the Dutch were all more or less thriving as plantation colonies, while Brazil, Virginia, Maryland and the newly founded Carolina were beginning to demonstrate that slave labor had an effective calling without as well as within the Caribbean latitudes. The closing decades of the seventeenth century were introducing the heyday of the slave trade, and the English were preparing for their final ascendency therein.
In West African waters in that century no international law prevailed but that of might. Hence the impulse of any new country to enter the Guinea trade led to the project of a chartered monopoly company; for without the resources of share capital sufficient strength could not be had, and without the monopoly privilege the necessary shares could not be sold. The first English company of moment, chartered in 1618, confined its trade to gold and other produce. Richard Jobson while in its service on the Gambia was offered some slaves by a native trader. “I made answer,” Jobson relates, “we were a people who did not deal in any such commodities; neither did we buy or sell one another, or any that had our own shapes; at which he seemed to marvel much, and told us it was the only merchandize they carried down, and that they were sold to white men, who earnestly desired them. We answered, they were another kind of people, different from us; but for our part, if they had no other commodities, we would return again.” This company speedily ending its life, was followed by another in 1631 with a similarly short career; and in 1651 the African privilege was granted for a time to the East India Company.
[Footnote 3: Richard Jobson, _The Golden Trade_ (London 1623,), pp. 29, 87, quoted in James Bandinel, _Some Account of the Trade in Slaves from Africa_ (London, 1842), p. 43.]
Under Charles II activities were resumed vigorously by a company chartered in 1662; but this promptly fell into such conflict with the Dutch that its capital of L122,000 vanished. In a drastic reorganization its affairs were taken over by a new corporation, the Royal African Company, chartered in 1672 with the Duke of York at its head and vested in its turn with monopoly rights under the English flag from Sallee on the Moroccan coast to the Cape of Good Hope. For two decades this company prospered greatly, selling some two thousand slaves a year in Jamaica alone, and paying large cash dividends on its L100,000 capital and then a stock dividend of 300 per cent. But now came reverses through European war and through the competition of English and Yankee private traders who shipped slaves legitimately from Madagascar and illicitly from Guinea. Now came also a clamor from the colonies, where the company was never popular, and from England also where oppression and abuses were charged against it by would-be free traders. After a parliamentary investigation an act of 1697 restricted the monopoly by empowering separate traders to traffic in Guinea upon paying to the company for the maintenance of its forts ten per cent, on the value of the cargoes they carried thither and a percentage on certain minor exports carried thence.
[Footnote 4: The financial career of the company is described by W.R. Scott, “The Constitution and Finances of the Royal African Company of England till 1720,” in the _American Historical Review_, VIII. 241-259.]
The company soon fell upon still more evil times, and met them by evil practices. To increase its capital it offered new stock for sale at reduced prices and borrowed money for dividends in order to encourage subscriptions. The separate traders meanwhile were winning nearly all its trade. In 1709-1710, for example, forty-four of their vessels made voyages as compared with but three ships of the company, and Royal African stock sold as low as 2-1/8 on the L100. A reorganization in 1712 however added largely to the company’s funds, and the treaty of Utrecht brought it new prosperity. In 1730 at length Parliament relieved the separate traders of all dues, substituting a public grant of L10,000 a year toward the maintenance of the company’s forts. For twenty years more the company, managed in the early thirties by James Oglethorpe, kept up the unequal contest until 1751 when it was dissolved.
The company regime under the several flags was particularly dominant on the coasts most esteemed in the seventeenth century; and in that century they reached a comity of their own on the basis of live and let live. The French were secured in the Senegal sphere of influence and the English on the Gambia, while on the Gold Coast the Dutch and English divided the trade between them. Here the two headquarters were in forts lying within sight of each other: El Mina of the Dutch, and Cape Coast Castle of the English. Each was commanded by a governor and garrisoned by a score or two of soldiers; and each with its outlying factories had a staff of perhaps a dozen factors, as many sub-factors, twice as many assistants, and a few bookkeepers and auditors, as well as a corps of white artisans and an abundance of native interpreters, boatmen, carriers and domestic servants. The Dutch and English stations alternated in a series east and west, often standing no further than a cannon-shot apart. Here and there one of them had acquired a slight domination which the other respected; but in the case of the Coromantees (or Fantyns) William Bosman, a Dutch company factor about 1700, wrote that both companies had “equal power, that is none at all. For when these people are inclined to it they shut up the passes so close that not one merchant can come from the inland country to trade with us; and sometimes, not content with this, they prevent the bringing of provisions to us till we have made peace with them.” The tribe was in fact able to exact heavy tribute from both companies; and to stretch the treaty engagements at will to its own advantage. Further eastward, on the densely populated Slave Coast, the factories were few and the trade virtually open to all comers. Here, as was common throughout Upper Guinea, the traits and the trading practices of adjacent tribes were likely to be in sharp contrast. The Popo (or Paw Paw) people, for example, were so notorious for cheating and thieving that few traders would go thither unless prepared to carry things with a strong hand. The Portuguese alone bore their grievances without retaliation, Bosman said, because their goods were too poor to find markets elsewhere.But Fidah (Whydah), next door, was in Bosman’s esteem the most agreeable of all places to trade in. The people were honest and polite, and the red-tape requirements definite and reasonable. A ship captain after paying for a license and buying the king’s private stock of slaves at somewhat above the market price would have the news of his arrival spread afar, and at a given time the trade would be opened with prices fixed in advance and all the available slaves herded in an open field. There the captain or factor, with the aid of a surgeon, would select the young and healthy, who if the purchaser were the Dutch company were promptly branded to prevent their being confused in the crowd before being carried on shipboard. The Whydahs were so industrious in the trade, with such far reaching interior connections, that they could deliver a thousand slaves each month.
[Footnote 5: Bosman’s _Guinea_ (London, 1705), reprinted in Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, XVI, 363.]
[Footnote 6: _Ibid_., XVI, 474-476.]
[Footnote 7: _Ibid_., XVI, 489-491.]
Of the operations on the Gambia an intimate view may be had from the journal of Francis Moore, a factor of the Royal African Company from 1730 to 1735. Here the Jolofs on the north and the Mandingoes on the south and west were divided into tribes or kingdoms fronting from five to twenty-five leagues on the river, while tributary villages of Arabic-speaking Foulahs were scattered among them. In addition there was a small independent population of mixed breed, with very slight European infusion but styling themselves Portuguese and using a “bastard language” known locally as Creole. Many of these last were busy in the slave trade. The Royal African headquarters, with a garrison of thirty men, were on an island in the river some thirty miles from its mouth, while its trading stations dotted the shores for many leagues upstream, for no native king was content without a factory near his “palace.” The slaves bought were partly of local origin but were mostly brought from long distances inland. These came generally in strings or coffles of thirty or forty, tied with leather thongs about their necks and laden with burdens of ivory and corn on their heads. Mungo Park when exploring the hinterland of this coast in 1795-1797, traveling incidentally with a slave coffle on part of his journey, estimated that in the Niger Valley generally the slaves outnumbered the free by three to one. But as Moore observed, the domestic slaves were rarely sold in the trade, mainly for fear it would cause their fellows to run away. When captured by their master’s enemies however, they were likely to be sent to the coast, for they were seldom ransomed.
[Footnote 8: Francis Moore, _Travels in Africa_ (London, 1738).]
[Footnote 9: Mungo Park, _Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa_ (4th ed., London, 1800), pp. 287, 428.]
The diverse goods bartered for slaves were rated by units of value which varied in the several trade centers. On the Gold Coast it was a certain length of cowrie shells on a string; at Loango it was a “piece” which had the value of a common gun or of twenty pounds of iron; at Kakongo it was twelve- or fifteen-yard lengths of cotton cloth called “goods”; while on the Gambia it was a bar of iron, apparently about forty pounds in weight. But in the Gambia trade as Moore described it the unit or “bar” in rum, cloth and most other things became depreciated until in some commodities it was not above a shilling’s value in English money. Iron itself, on the other hand, and crystal beads, brass pans and spreadeagle dollars appreciated in comparison. These accordingly became distinguished as the “heads of goods,” and the inclusion of three or four units of them was required in the forty or fifty bars of miscellaneous goods making up the price of a prime slave. In previous years grown slaves alone had brought standard prices; but in Moore’s time a specially strong demand for boys and girls in the markets of Cadiz and Lisbon had raised the prices of these almost to a parity. All defects were of course discounted. Moore, for example, in buying a slave with several teeth missing made the seller abate a bar for each tooth. The company at one time forbade the purchase of slaves from the self-styled Portuguese because they ran the prices up; but the factors protested that these dealers would promptly carry their wares to the separate traders, and the prohibition was at once withdrawn.
[Footnote 10: The Abbe Proyart, _History of Loango_ (1776), in Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, XVI, 584-587.]
[Footnote 11: Francis Moore, _Travels in Africa_, p.45.]
The company and the separate traders faced different problems. The latter were less easily able to adjust their merchandise to the market. A Rhode Island captain, for instance, wrote his owners from Anamabo in 1736, “heare is 7 sails of us rume men, that we are ready to devour one another, for our case is desprit”; while four years afterward another wrote after trading at the same port, “I have repented a hundred times ye lying in of them dry goods”, which he had carried in place of the customary rum. Again, a veteran Rhode Islander wrote from Anamabo in 1752, “on the whole I never had so much trouble in all my voiges”, and particularized as follows: “I have Gott on bord 61 Slaves and upards of thirty ounces of Goold, and have Gott 13 or 14 hhds of Rum yet Left on bord, and God noes when I shall Gett Clear of it ye trade is so very Dull it is actuly a noof to make a man Creasey my Cheef mate after making foor or five Trips in the boat was taken Sick and Remains very bad yett then I sent Mr. Taylor, and he got not well, and three more of my men has [been] sick…. I should be Glad I coold Com Rite home with my slaves, for my vesiel will not Last to proceed farr we can see Day Lite al Roond her bow under Deck…. heare Lyes Captains hamlet, James, Jepson, Carpenter, Butler, Lindsay; Gardner is Due; Ferguson has Gone to Leward all these is Rum ships.”
[Footnote 12: _American Historical Record_, I (1872), 314, 317.]
[Footnote 13: Massachusetts Historical Society _Collections_, LXIX, 59, 60.]
The separate traders also had more frequent quarrels with the natives. In 1732 a Yankee captain was killed in a trade dispute and his crew set adrift. Soon afterward certain Jolofs took another ship’s officers captive and required the value of twenty slaves as ransom. And in 1733 the natives at Yamyamacunda, up the Gambia, sought revenge upon Captain Samuel Moore for having paid them in pewter dollars on his previous voyage, and were quieted through the good offices of a company factor. The company suffered far less from native disorders, for a threat of removing its factory would bring any chief to terms. In 1731, however, the king of Barsally brought a troop of his kinsmen and subjects to the Joar factory where Moore was in charge, got drunk, seized the keys and rifled the stores. But the company’s chief trouble was with its own factors. The climate and conditions were so trying that illness was frequent and insanity and suicide occasional; and the isolation encouraged fraudulent practices. It was usually impossible to tell the false from the true in the reports of the loss of goods by fire and flood, theft and rapine, mildew and white ants, or the loss of slaves by death or mutiny. The expense of the salary list, ship hire, provisions and merchandise was heavy and continuous, while the returns were precarious to a degree. Not often did such great wars occur as the Dahomey invasion of the Whidah country in 1726 and the general fighting of the Gambia peoples in 1733-1734 to glut the outward bound ships with slave cargoes. As a rule the company’s advantage of steady markets and friendly native relations appears to have been more than offset by the freedom of the separate traders from fixed charges and the necessity of dependence upon lazy and unfaithful employees.
[Footnote 14: Moore, pp. 112, 164, 182.]
[Footnote 15: _Ibid_., p. 82.]
[Footnote 16: William Snelgrave, _A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade_ (London, 1734), pp. 8-32.]
[Footnote 17: Moore, p. 157.]
Instead of jogging along the coast, as many had been accustomed to do, and casting anchor here and there upon sighting signal smokes raised by natives who had slaves to sell, the separate traders began before the close of the colonial period to get their slaves from white factors at the “castles,” which were then a relic from the company regime. So advantageous was this that in 1772 a Newport brig owned by Colonel Wanton cleared L500 on her voyage, and next year the sloop _Adventure_, also of Newport, Christopher and George Champlin owners, made such speedy trade that after losing by death one slave out of the ninety-five in her cargo she landed the remainder in prime order at Barbados and sold them immediately in one lot at L35 per head.
[Footnote 18: Snelgrave, introduction.]
[Footnote 19: Massachusetts Historical Society _Collections_, LXIX, 398, 429.]
In Lower Guinea the Portuguese held an advantage, partly through the influence of the Catholic priests. The Capuchin missionary Merolla, for example, relates that while he was in service at the mouth of the Congo in 1685 word came that the college of cardinals had commanded the missionaries in Africa to combat the slave trade. Promptly deciding this to be a hopeless project, Merolla and his colleagues compromised with their instructions by attempting to restrict the trade to ships of Catholic nations and to the Dutch who were then supplying Spain under the asiento. No sooner had the chiefs in the district agreed to this than a Dutch trading captain set things awry by spreading Protestant doctrine among the natives, declaring baptism to be the only sacrament required for salvation, and confession to be superfluous. The priests then put all the Dutch under the ban, but the natives raised a tumult saying that the Portuguese, the only Catholic traders available, not only paid low prices in poor goods but also aspired to a political domination. The crisis was relieved by a timely plague of small-pox which the priests declared and the natives agreed was a divinely sent punishment for their contumacy,–and for the time at least, the exclusion of heretical traders was made effective. The English appear never to have excelled the Portuguese on the Congo and southward except perhaps about the close of the eighteenth century.
[Footnote 20: Jerom Merolla da Sorrente, _Voyage to Congo_ (translated from the Italian), in Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, XVI, 253-260.]
The markets most frequented by the English and American separate traders lay on the great middle stretches of the coast–Sierra Leone, the Grain Coast (Liberia), the Ivory, Gold and Slave Coasts, the Oil Rivers as the Niger Delta was then called, Cameroon, Gaboon and Loango. The swarm of their ships was particularly great in the Gulf of Guinea upon whose shores the vast fan-shaped hinterland poured its exiles along converging lines.
The coffles came from distances ranging to a thousand miles or more, on rivers and paths whose shore ends the European traders could see but did not find inviting. These paths, always of single-file narrowness, tortuously winding to avoid fallen trees and bad ground, never straightened even when obstructions had rotted and gone, branching and crossing in endless network, penetrating jungles and high-grass prairies, passing villages that were and villages that had been, skirting the lairs of savage beasts and the haunts of cannibal men, beset with drought and famine, storm and flood, were threaded only by negroes, bearing arms or bearing burdens. Many of the slaves fell exhausted on the paths and were cut out of the coffles to die. The survivors were sorted by the purchasers on the coast into the fit and the unfit, the latter to live in local slavery or to meet either violent or lingering deaths, the former to be taken shackled on board the strange vessels of the strange white men and carried to an unknown fate. The only consolations were that the future could hardly be worse than the recent past, that misery had plenty of company, and that things were interesting by the way. The combination of resignation and curiosity was most helpful.
It was reassuring to these victims to see an occasional American negro serving in the crew of a slaver and to know that a few specially favored tribesmen had returned home with vivid stories from across the sea. On the Gambia for example there was Job Ben Solomon who during a brief slavery in Maryland attracted James Oglethorpe’s attention by a letter written in Arabic, was bought from his master, carried to England, presented at court, loaded with gifts and sent home as a freeman in 1734 in a Royal African ship with credentials requiring the governor and factors to show him every respect. Thereafter, a celebrity on the river, he spread among his fellow Foulahs and the neighboring Jolofs and Mandingoes his cordial praises of the English nation. And on the Gold Coast there was Amissa to testify to British justice, for he had shipped as a hired sailor on a Liverpool slaver in 1774, had been kidnapped by his employer and sold as a slave in Jamaica, but had been redeemed by the king of Anamaboe and brought home with an award by Lord Mansfield’s court in London of L500 damages collected from the slaving captain who had wronged him.
The bursting of the South Sea bubble in 1720 shifted the bulk of the separate trading from London to the rival city of Bristol. But the removal of the duties in 1730 brought the previously unimportant port of Liverpool into the field with such vigor that ere long she had the larger half of all the English slave trade. Her merchants prospered by their necessary parsimony. The wages they paid were the lowest, and the commissions and extra allowances they gave in their early years were nil. By 1753 her ships in the slave traffic numbered eighty-seven, totaling about eight thousand tons burthen and rated to carry some twenty-five thousand slaves. Eight of these vessels were trading on the Gambia, thirty-eight on the Gold and Slave Coasts, five at Benin, three at New Calabar, twelve at Bonny, eleven at Old Calabar, and ten in Angola. For the year 1771 the number of slavers bound from Liverpool was reported at one hundred and seven with a capacity of 29,250 negroes, while fifty-eight went from London rated to carry 8,136, twenty-five from Bristol to carry 8,810, and five from Lancaster with room for 950. Of this total of 195 ships 43 traded in Senegambia, 29 on the Gold Coast, 56 on the Slave Coast, 63 in the bights of Benin and Biafra, and 4 in Angola. In addition there were sixty or seventy slavers from North America and the West Indies, and these were yearly increasing. By 1801 the Liverpool ships had increased to 150, with capacity for 52,557 slaves according to the reduced rating of five slaves to three tons of burthen as required by the parliamentary act of 1788. About half of these traded in the Gulf of Guinea, and half in the ports of Angola. The trade in American vessels, particularly those of New England, was also large. The career of the town of Newport in fact was a small scale replied of Liverpool’s. But acceptable statistics of the American ships are lacking.
[Footnote 21: Francis Moore, _Travels in Africa_, pp. 69, 202-203.]
[Footnote 22: Gomer Williams, _History of the Liverpool Privateers, with an Account of the Liverpool Slave Trade_ (London, 1897), pp. 563, 564.]
[Footnote 23: _Ibid_., p. 471, quoting _A General and Descriptive History of Liverpool_ (1795).]
[Footnote 24: _Ibid_., p. 472 and appendix 7.]
[Footnote 25: Edward Long, _History of Jamaica_ (London, 1774), p. 492 note.]
[Footnote 26: Corner Williams, Appendix 13.]
The ship captains in addition to their salaries generally received commissions of “4 in 104,” on the gross sales, and also had the privilege of buying, transporting and selling specified numbers of slaves on their private account. When surgeons were carried they also were allowed commissions and privileges at a smaller rate, and “privileges” were often allowed the mates likewise. The captains generally carried more or less definite instructions. Ambrose Lace, for example, master of the Liverpool ship _Marquis of Granby_ bound in 1762 for Old Calabar, was ordered to combine with any other ships on the river to keep down rates, to buy 550 young and healthy slaves and such ivory as his surplus cargo would purchase, and to guard against fire, fever and attack. When laden he was to carry the slaves to agents in the West Indies, and thence bring home according to opportunity sugar, cotton, coffee, pimento, mahogany and rum, and the balance of the slave cargo proceeds in bills of exchange. Simeon Potter, master of a Rhode Island slaver about the same time, was instructed by his owners: “Make yr Cheaf Trade with The Blacks and little or none with the white people if possible to be avoided. Worter yr Rum as much as possible and sell as much by the short mesuer as you can.” And again: “Order them in the Bots to worter thear Rum, as the proof will Rise by the Rum Standing in ye Son.” As to the care of the slave cargo a Massachusetts captain was instructed in 1785 as follows: “No people require more kind and tender treatment: to exhilarate their spirits than the Africans; and while on the one hand you are attentive to this, remember that on the other hand too much circumspection cannot be observed by yourself and people to prevent their taking advantage of such treatment by insurrection, etc. When you consider that on the health of your slaves almost your whole voyage depends–for all other risques but mortality, seizures and bad debts the underwriters are accountable for–you will therefore particularly attend to smoking your vessel, washing her with vinegar, to the clarifying your water with lime or brimstone, and to cleanliness among your own people as well as among the slaves.”
[Footnote 27: Ibid., pp. 486-489.]
[Footnote 28: W.B. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_ (Boston ), II, 465.]
[Footnote 29: G.H. Moore, _Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts_ (New York, 1866), pp. 66, 67, citing J.O. Felt, _Annals of Salem_, 2d ed., II, 289, 290.]
Ships were frequently delayed for many months on the pestilent coast, for after buying their licenses in one kingdom and finding trade slack there they could ill afford to sail for another on the uncertain chance of a more speedy supply. Sometimes when weary of higgling the market, they tried persuasion by force of arms; but in some instances as at Bonny, in 1757, this resulted in the victory of the natives and the destruction of the ships. In general the captains and their owners appreciated the necessity of patience, expensive and even deadly as that might prove to be.
[Footnote 30: Gomer Williams, pp. 481, 482.]
The chiefs were eager to foster trade and cultivate good will, for it brought them pompous trappings as well as useful goods. “Grandy King George” of Old Calabar, for example, asked of his friend Captain Lace a mirror six feet square, an arm chair “for my salf to sat in,” a gold mounted cane, a red and a blue coat with gold lace, a case of razors, pewter plates, brass flagons, knives and forks, bullet and cannon-ball molds, and sailcloth for his canoes, along with many other things for use in trade.
[Footnote 31: _Ibid_., pp. 545-547.]
The typical New England ship for the slave trade was a sloop, schooner or barkentine of about fifty tons burthen, which when engaged in ordinary freighting would have but a single deck. For a slaving voyage a second flooring was laid some three feet below the regular deck, the space between forming the slave quarters. Such a vessel was handled by a captain, two mates, and from three to six men and boys. It is curious that a vessel of this type, with capacity in the hold for from 100 to 120 hogsheads of rum was reckoned by the Rhode Islanders to be “full bigg for dispatch,” while among the Liverpool slave traders such a ship when offered for sale could not find a purchaser. The reason seems to have been that dry-goods and sundries required much more cargo space for the same value than did rum.
[Footnote 32: Massachusetts Historical Society, _Collections_, LXIX, 524.]
[Footnote 33: _Ibid_., 500.]
The English vessels were generally twice as great of burthen and with twice the height in their ‘tween decks. But this did not mean that the slaves could stand erect in their quarters except along the center line; for when full cargoes were expected platforms of six or eight feet in width were laid on each side, halving the ‘tween deck height and nearly doubling the floor space on which the slaves were to be stowed. Whatever the size of the ship, it loaded slaves if it could get them to the limit of its capacity. Bosnian tersely said, “they lie as close together as it is possible to be crowded.” The women’s room was divided from the men’s by a bulkhead, and in time of need the captain’s cabin might be converted into a hospital.
[Footnote 34: Bosnian’s _Guinea_, in Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, XVI, 490.]
While the ship was taking on slaves and African provisions and water the negroes were generally kept in a temporary stockade on deck for the sake of fresh air. But on departure for the “middle passage,” as the trip to America was called by reason of its being the second leg of the ship’s triangular voyage in the trade, the slaves were kept below at night and in foul weather, and were allowed above only in daylight for food, air and exercise while the crew and some of the slaves cleaned the quarters and swabbed the floors with vinegar as a disinfectant. The negro men were usually kept shackled for the first part of the passage until the chances of mutiny and return to Africa dwindled and the captain’s fears gave place to confidence. On various occasions when attacks of privateers were to be repelled weapons were issued and used by the slaves in loyal defense of the vessel. Systematic villainy in the handling of the human cargo was perhaps not so characteristic in this trade as in the transport of poverty-stricken white emigrants. Henry Laurens, after withdrawing from African factorage at Charleston because of the barbarities inflicted by some of the participants in the trade, wrote in 1768: “Yet I never saw an instance of cruelty in ten or twelve years’ experience in that branch equal to the cruelty exercised upon those poor Irish…. Self interest prompted the baptized heathen to take some care of their wretched slaves for a market, but no other care was taken of those poor Protestant Christians from Ireland but to deliver as many as possible alive on shoar upon the cheapest terms, no matter how they fared upon the voyage nor in what condition they were landed.”
[Footnote 35: _E. g_., Gomer Williams, pp. 560, 561.]
[Footnote 36: D.D. Wallace, _Life of Henry Laurens_ (New York, 1915), pp. 67, 68. For the tragic sufferings of an English convict shipment in 1768 see _Plantation and Frontier_, I, 372-373]
William Snelgrave, long a ship captain in the trade, relates that he was accustomed when he had taken slaves on board to acquaint them through his interpreter that they were destined to till the ground in America and not to be eaten; that if any person on board abused them they were to complain to the interpreter and the captain would give them redress, but if they struck one of the crew or made any disturbance they must expect to be severely punished. Snelgrave nevertheless had experience of three mutinies in his career; and Coromantees figured so prominently in these that he never felt secure when men of that stock were in his vessel, for, he said, “I knew many of these Cormantine negroes despised punishment and even death itself.” In one case when a Coromantee had brained a sentry he was notified by Snelgrave that he was to die in the sight of his fellows at the end of an hour’s time. “He answered, ‘He must confess it was a rash action in him to kill him; but he desired me to consider that if I put him to death I should lose all the money I had paid for him.'” When the captain professed himself unmoved by this argument the negro spent his last moments assuring his fellows that his life was safe.
[Footnote 37: Snelgrave, _Guinea and the Slave Trade_ (London, 1734), pp. 162-185. Snelgrave’s book also contains vivid accounts of tribal wars, human sacrifices, traders’ negotiations and pirate captures on the Grain and Slave Coasts.]
The discomfort in the densely packed quarters of the slave ships may be imagined by any who have sailed on tropic seas. With seasickness added it was wretched; when dysentery prevailed it became frightful; if water or food ran short the suffering was almost or quite beyond endurance; and in epidemics of scurvy, small-pox or ophthalmia the misery reached the limit of human experience. The average voyage however was rapid and smooth by virtue of the steadily blowing trade winds, the food if coarse was generally plenteous and wholesome, and the sanitation fairly adequate. In a word, under stern and often brutal discipline, and with the poorest accommodations, the slaves encountered the then customary dangers and hardships of the sea.
[Footnote 38: Voluminous testimony in regard to conditions on the middle passage was published by Parliament and the Privy Council in 1789-1791. Summaries from it may be found in T.F. Buxton, _The African Slave Trade and the Remedy_ (London, 1840), part I, chap. 2; and in W.O. Blake, _History of Slavery and the Slave Trade_ (Columbus, Ohio, 1859), chaps, 9, 10.]
Among the disastrous voyages an example was that of the Dutch West India Company’s ship _St. John_ in 1659. After buying slaves at Bonny in April and May she beat about the coast in search of provisions but found barely enough for daily consumption until at the middle of August on the island of Amebo she was able to buy hogs, beans, cocoanuts and oranges. Meanwhile bad food had brought dysentery, the surgeon, the cooper and a sailor had died, and the slave cargo was daily diminishing. Five weeks of sailing then carried the ship across the Atlantic, where she put into Tobago to refill her leaking water casks. Sailing thence she struck a reef near her destination at Curacao and was abandoned by her officers and crew. Finally a sloop sent by the Curacao governor to remove the surviving slaves was captured by a privateer with them on board. Of the 195 negroes comprising the cargo on June 30, from one to five died nearly every day, and one leaped overboard to his death. At the end of the record on October 29 the slave loss had reached 110, with the mortality rate nearly twice as high among the men as among the women. About the same time, on the other hand, Captain John Newton of Liverpool, who afterwards turned preacher, made a voyage without losing a sailor or a slave. The mortality on the average ship may be roughly conjectured from the available data at eight or ten per cent.
[Footnote 39: E.B. O’Callaghan ed., _Voyages of the Slavers St. John and Arms of Amsterdam_ (Albany, N.Y., 1867), pp. 1-13.]
[Footnote 40: Corner Williams, p. 515.]
Details of characteristic outfit, cargo, and expectations in the New England branch of trade may be had from an estimate made in 1752 for a projected voyage. A sloop of sixty tons, valued at L300 sterling, was to be overhauled and refitted, armed, furnished with handcuffs, medicines and miscellaneous chandlery at a cost of L65, and provisioned for L50 more. Its officers and crew, seven hands all told, were to draw aggregate wages of L10 per month for an estimated period of one year. Laden with eight thousand gallons of rum at 1_s. 8_d_. per gallon and with forty-five barrels, tierces and hogsheads of bread, flour, beef, pork, tar, tobacco, tallow and sugar–all at an estimated cost of L775–it was to sail for the Gold Coast. There, after paying the local charges from the cargo, some 35 slave men were to be bought at 100 gallons per head, 15 women at 85 gallons, and 15 boys and girls at 65 gallons; and the residue of the rum and miscellaneous cargo was expected to bring some seventy ounces of gold in exchange as well as to procure food supplies for the westward voyage. Recrossing the Atlantic, with an estimated death loss of a man, a woman and two children, the surviving slaves were to be sold in Jamaica at about L21, L18, and L14 for the respective classes. Of these proceeds about one-third was to be spent for a cargo of 105 hogsheads of molasses at 8_d_. per gallon, and the rest of the money remitted to London, whither the gold dust was also to be sent. The molasses upon reaching Newport was expected to bring twice as much as it had cost in the tropics. After deducting factor’s commissions of from 2-1/2 to 5 per cent. on all sales and purchases, and of “4 in 104” on the slave sales as the captain’s allowance, after providing for insurance at four per cent. on ship and cargo for each leg of the voyage, and for leakage of ten per cent. of the rum and five per cent. of the molasses, and after charging off the whole cost of the ship’s outfit and one-third of her original value, there remained the sum of L357, 8s. 2d. as the expected profits of the voyage.
[Footnote 41: “An estimate of a voyage from Rhode Island to the Coast of Guinea and from thence to Jamaica and so back to Rhode Island for a sloop of 60 Tons.” The authorities of Yale University, which possesses the manuscript, have kindly permitted the publication of these data. The estimates in Rhode Island and Jamaica currencies, which were then depreciated, as stated in the document, to twelve for one and seven for five sterling respectively, are here changed into their approximate sterling equivalents.]
As to the gross volume of the trade, there are few statistics. As early as 1734 one of the captains engaged in it estimated that a maximum of seventy thousand slaves a year had already been attained. For the next half century and more each passing year probably saw between fifty thousand and a hundred thousand shipped. The total transportation from first to last may well have numbered more than five million souls. Prior to the nineteenth century far more negro than white colonists crossed the seas, though less than one tenth of all the blacks brought to the western world appear to have been landed on the North American continent. Indeed, a statistician has reckoned, though not convincingly, that in the whole period before 1810 these did not exceed 385,500
[Footnote 42: Snelgrave, _Guinea and the Slave Trade_, p. 159.]
[Footnote 43: H.C. Carey, _The Slave Trade, Domestic and Foreign_ (Philadelphia, 1853), chap. 3.]
In selling the slave cargoes in colonial ports the traders of course wanted minimum delay and maximum prices. But as a rule quickness and high returns were not mutually compatible. The Royal African Company tended to lay chief stress upon promptness of sale. Thus at the end of 1672 it announced that if persons would contract to receive whole cargoes upon their arrival and to accept all slaves between twelve and forty years of age who were able to go over the ship’s side unaided they would be supplied at the rate of L15 per head in Barbados, L16 in Nevis, L17 in Jamaica, and L18 in Virginia. The colonists were for a time disposed to accept this arrangement where they could. For example Charles Calvert, governor of Maryland, had already written Lord Baltimore in 1664: “I have endeavored to see if I could find as many responsible men that would engage to take 100 or 200 neigros every year from the Royall Company at that rate mentioned in your lordship’s letter; but I find that we are nott men of estates good enough to undertake such a buisnesse, but could wish we were for we are naturally inclined to love neigros if our purses could endure it.” But soon complaints arose that the slaves delivered on contract were of the poorest quality, while the better grades were withheld for other means of sale at higher prices. Quarrels also developed between the company on the one hand and the colonists and their legislatures on the other over the rating of colonial moneys and the obstructions placed by law about the collection of debts; and the colonists proceeded to give all possible encouragement to the separate traders, legal or illegal as their traffic might be.
[Footnote 44: E.D. Collins, “Studies in the Colonial Policy of England, 1672-1680,” in the American Historical Association _Report_ for 1901, I, 158.]
[Footnote 45: Maryland Historical Society _Fund Publications_ no. 28, p. 249.]
[Footnote 46: G.L. Beer, _The Old Colonial System_ (New York, 1912), part I, vol. I, chap. 5.]
Most of the sales, in the later period at least, were without previous contract. A practice often followed in the British West Indian ports was to advertise that the cargo of a vessel just arrived would be sold on board at an hour scheduled and at a uniform price announced in the notice. At the time set there would occur a great scramble of planters and dealers to grab the choicest slaves. A variant from this method was reported in 1670 from Guadeloupe, where a cargo brought in by the French African company was first sorted into grades of prime men, (_pieces d’Inde_), prime women, boys and girls rated at two-thirds of prime, and children rated at one-half. To each slave was attached a ticket bearing a number, while a corresponding ticket was deposited in one of four boxes according to the grade. At prices then announced for the several grades, the planters bought the privilege of drawing tickets from the appropriate boxes and acquiring thereby title to the slaves to which the numbers they drew were attached.
[Footnote 47: Lucien Peytraud, _L’Esclavage aux Antilles Francaises avant 1789_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 122, 123.]
In the chief ports of the British continental colonies the maritime transporters usually engaged merchants on shore to sell the slaves as occasion permitted, whether by private sale or at auction. At Charleston these merchants charged a ten per cent commission on slave sales, though their factorage rate was but five per cent. on other sorts of merchandise; and they had credits of one and two years for the remittance of the proceeds. The following advertisement, published at Charleston in 1785 jointly by Ball, Jennings and Company, and Smiths, DeSaussure and Darrell is typical of the factors’ announcements: “GOLD COAST NEGROES. On Thursday, the 17th of March instant, will be exposed to public sale near the Exchange (if not before disposed of by private contract) the remainder of the cargo of negroes imported in the ship _Success_, Captain John Conner, consisting chiefly of likely young boys and girls in good health, and having been here through the winter may be considered in some degree seasoned to this climate. The conditions of the sale will be credit to the first of January, 1786, on giving bond with approved security where required–the negroes not to be delivered till the terms are complied with.” But in such colonies as Virginia where there was no concentration of trade in ports, the ships generally sailed from place to place peddling their slaves, with notice published in advance when practicable. The diseased or otherwise unfit negroes were sold for whatever price they would bring. In some of the ports it appears that certain physicians made a practise of buying these to sell the survivors at a profit upon their restoration to health.
[Footnote 48: D.D. Wallace, _Life of Henry Laurens_, p. 75.]
[Footnote 49: _The Gazette of the State of South Carolina_, Mch. 10, 1785.]
[Footnote 50: C. C. Robin, _Voyages_ (Paris, 1806), II, 170.]
That by no means all the negroes took their enslavement grievously is suggested by a traveler’s note at Columbia, South Carolina, in 1806: “We met … a number of new negroes, some of whom had been in the country long enough to talk intelligibly. Their likely looks induced us to enter into a talk with them. One of them, a very bright, handsome youth of about sixteen, could talk well. He told us the circumstances of his being caught and enslaved, with as much composure as he would any common occurrence, not seeming to think of the injustice of the thing nor to speak of it with indignation…. He spoke of his master and his work as though all were right, and seemed not to know he had a right to be anything but a slave.”
[Footnote 51: “Diary of Edward Hooker,” in the American Historical Association _Report_ for 1906, p. 882.]
In the principal importing colonies careful study was given to the comparative qualities of the several African stocks. The consensus of opinion in the premises may be gathered from several contemporary publications, the chief ones of which were written in Jamaica. The Senegalese, who had a strong Arabic strain in their ancestry, were considered the most intelligent of Africans and were especially esteemed for domestic service, the handicrafts and responsible positions. “They are good commanders over other negroes, having a high spirit and a tolerable share of fidelity; but they are unfit for hard work; their bodies are not robust nor their constitutions vigorous.” The Mandingoes were reputed to be especially gentle in demeanor but peculiarly prone to theft. They easily sank under fatigue, but might be employed with advantage in the distillery and the boiling house or as watchmen against fire and the depredations of cattle. The Coromantees of the Gold Coast stand salient in all accounts as hardy and stalwart of mind and body. Long calls them haughty, ferocious and stubborn; Edwards relates examples of their Spartan fortitude; and it was generally agreed that they were frequently instigators of slave conspiracies and insurrections. Yet their spirit of loyalty made them the most highly prized of servants by those who could call it forth. Of them Christopher Codrington, governor of the Leeward Islands, wrote in 1701 to the English Board of Trade: “The Corramantes are not only the best and most faithful of our slaves, but are really all born heroes. There is a differance between them and all other negroes beyond what ’tis possible for your Lordships to conceive. There never was a raskal or coward of that nation. Intrepid to the last degree, not a man of them but will stand to be cut to pieces without a sigh or groan, grateful and obedient to a kind master, but implacably revengeful when ill-treated. My father, who had studied the genius and temper of all kinds of negroes forty-five years with a very nice observation, would say, noe man deserved a Corramante that would not treat him like a friend rather than a slave.”
[Footnote 52: Edward Long, _History of Jamaica_ (London, 1774), II, 403, 404; Bryan Edwards, _History of the British Colonies in the West Indies_, various editions, book IV, chap. 3; and “A Professional Planter,” _Practical Rules for the Management and Medical Treatment of Negro Slaves in the Sugar Colonies_ (London, 1803), pp. 39-48. The pertinent portion of this last is reprinted in _Plantation and Frontier_, II, 127-133. For the similar views of the French planters in the West Indies see Peytraud, _L’Esclavage aux Antilles Francaises_, pp. 87-90.]
[Footnote 53: _Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies_, 1701, pp. 720, 721.]
The Whydahs, Nagoes and Pawpaws of the Slave Coast were generally the most highly esteemed of all. They were lusty and industrious, cheerful and submissive. “That punishment which excites the Koromantyn to rebel, and drives the Ebo negro to suicide, is received by the Pawpaws as the chastisement of legal authority to which it is their duty to submit patiently.” As to the Eboes or Mocoes, described as having a sickly yellow tinge in their complection, jaundiced eyes, and prognathous faces like baboons, the women were said to be diligent but the men lazy, despondent and prone to suicide. “They require therefore the gentlest and mildest treatment to reconcile them to their situation; but if their confidence be once obtained they manifest as great fidelity, affection and gratitude as can reasonably be expected from men in a state of slavery.”
The “kingdom of Gaboon,” which straddled the equator, was the worst reputed of all. “From thence a good negro was scarcely ever brought. They are purchased so cheaply on the coast as to tempt many captains to freight with them; but they generally die either on the passage or soon after their arrival in the islands. The debility of their constitutions is astonishing.” From this it would appear that most of the so-called Gaboons must have been in reality Pygmies caught in the inland equatorial forests, for Bosman, who traded among the Gaboons, merely inveighed against their garrulity, their indecision, their gullibility and their fondness for strong drink, while as to their physique he observed: “they are mostly large, robust well shaped men.” Of the Congoes and Angolas the Jamaican writers had little to say except that in their glossy black they were slender and sightly, mild in disposition, unusually honest, but exceptionally stupid.
[Footnote 54: Bosman in Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, XVI, 509, 510.]
In the South Carolina market Gambia negroes, mainly Mandingoes, were the favorites, and Angolas also found ready sale; but cargoes from Calabar, which were doubtless comprised mostly of Eboes, were shunned because of their suicidal proclivity. Henry Laurens, who was then a commission dealer at Charleston, wrote in 1755 that the sale of a shipload from Calabar then in port would be successful only if no other Guinea ships arrived before its quarantine was ended, for the people would not buy negroes of that stock if any others were to be had.
[Footnote 55: D.D. Wallace, _Life of Henry Laurens_, pp. 76, 77.]
It would appear that the Congoes, Angolas and Eboes were especially prone to run away, or perhaps particularly easy to capture when fugitive, for among the 1046 native Africans advertised as runaways held in the Jamaica workhouses in 1803 there were 284 Eboes and Mocoes, 185 Congoes and 259 Angolas as compared with 101 Mandingoes, 60 Chambas (from Sierra Leone), 70 Coromantees, 57 Nagoes and Pawpaws, and 30 scattering, along with a total of 488 American-born negroes and mulattoes, and 187 unclassified.
[Footnote 56: These data were generously assembled for me by Professor Chauncey S. Boucher of Washington University, St. Louis, from a file of the _Royal Gazette_ of Kingston, Jamaica, for the year 1803, which is preserved in the Charleston, S.C. Library.]
This huge maritime slave traffic had great consequences for all the countries concerned. In Liverpool it made millionaires, and elsewhere in England, Europe and New England it brought prosperity not only to ship owners but to the distillers of rum and manufacturers of other trade goods. In the American plantation districts it immensely stimulated the production of the staple crops. On the other hand it kept the planters constantly in debt for their dearly bought labor, and it left a permanent and increasingly complex problem of racial adjustments. In Africa, it largely transformed the primitive scheme of life, and for the worse. It created new and often unwholesome wants; it destroyed old industries and it corrupted tribal institutions. The rum, the guns, the utensils and the gewgaws were irresistible temptations. Every chief and every tribesman acquired a potential interest in slave getting and slave selling. Charges of witchcraft, adultery, theft and other crimes were trumped up that the number of convicts for sale might be swelled; debtors were pressed that they might be adjudged insolvent and their persons delivered to the creditors; the sufferings of famine were left unrelieved that parents might be forced to sell their children or themselves; kidnapping increased until no man or woman and especially no child was safe outside a village; and wars and raids were multiplied until towns by hundreds were swept from the earth and great zones lay void of their former teeming population.
[Footnote 57: Gomer Williams, chap. 6.]
[Footnote 58: C.B. Wadstrom, _Observations on the Slave Trade_ (London, 1789); Lord Muncaster, _Historical Sketches of the Slave Trade and of its Effects in Africa_ (London, 1792); Jerome Dowd, _The Negro Races_, vol. 3, chap. 2 (MS).]
The slave trade has well been called the systematic plunder of a continent. But in the irony of fate those Africans who lent their hands to the looting got nothing but deceptive rewards, while the victims of the rapine were quite possibly better off on the American plantations than the captors who remained in the African jungle. The only participants who got unquestionable profit were the English, European and Yankee traders and manufacturers.
THE SUGAR ISLANDS
As regards negro slavery the history of the West Indies is inseparable from that of North America. In them the plantation system originated and reached its greatest scale, and from them the institution of slavery was extended to the continent. The industrial system on the islands, and particularly on those occupied by the British, is accordingly instructive as an introduction and a parallel to the continental regime.
The early career of the island of Barbados gives a striking instance of a farming colony captured by the plantation system. Founded in 1624 by a group of unprosperous English emigrants, it pursued an even and commonplace tenor until the Civil War in England sent a crowd of royalist refugees thither, together with some thousands of Scottish and Irish prisoners converted into indentured servants. Negro slaves were also imported to work alongside the redemptioners in the tobacco, cotton, ginger, and indigo crops, and soon proved their superiority in that climate, especially when yellow fever, to which the Africans are largely immune, decimated the white population. In 1643, as compared with some five thousand negroes of all sorts, there were about eighteen thousand white men capable of bearing arms; and in the little island’s area of 166 square miles there were nearly ten thousand separate landholdings. Then came the introduction of sugar culture, which brought the beginning of the end of the island’s transformation. A fairly typical plantation in the transition period was described by a contemporary. Of its five hundred acres about two hundred were planted in sugar-cane, twenty in tobacco, five in cotton, five in ginger and seventy in provision crops; several acres were devoted to pineapples, bananas, oranges and the like; eighty acres were in pasturage, and one hundred and twenty in woodland. There were a sugar mill, a boiling house, a curing house, a distillery, the master’s residence, laborers’ cabins, and barns and stables. The livestock numbered forty-five oxen, eight cows, twelve horses and sixteen asses; and the labor force comprised ninety-eight “Christians,” ninety-six negroes and three Indian women with their children. In general, this writer said, “The slaves and their posterity, being subject to their masters forever, are kept and preserved with greater care than the (Christian) servants, who are theirs for but five years according to the laws of the island. So that for the time being the servants have the worser lives, for they are put to very hard labor, ill lodging and their dyet very light.”
[Footnote 1: Richard Ligon, _History of Barbados_ (London, 1657).]
As early as 1645 George Downing, then a young Puritan preacher recently graduated from Harvard College but later a distinguished English diplomat, wrote to his cousin John Winthrop, Jr., after a voyage in the West Indies: “If you go to Barbados, you shal see a flourishing Iland, many able men. I beleive they have bought this year no lesse than a thousand Negroes, and the more they buie the better they are able to buye, for in a yeare and halfe they will earne (with God’s blessing) as much as they cost.” Ten years later, with bonanza prices prevailing in the sugar market, the Barbadian planters declared their colony to be “the most envyed of the world” and estimated the value of its annual crops at a million pounds sterling. But in the early sixties a severe fall in sugar prices put an end to the boom period and brought the realization that while sugar was the rich man’s opportunity it was the poor man’s ruin. By 1666 emigration to other colonies had halved the white population; but the slave trade had increased the negroes to forty thousand, most of whom were employed on the eight hundred sugar estates. For the rest of the century Barbados held her place as the leading producer of British sugar and the most esteemed of the British colonies; but as the decades passed the fertility of her limited fields became depleted, and her importance gradually fell secondary to that of the growing Jamaica.
[Footnote 2: Massachusetts Historical Society _Collections_, series 4, vol. 6, p. 536.]
[Footnote 3: G.L. Beer, _Origins of the British Colonial System_ (New York, 1908), P. 413.]
[Footnote 4: G.L. Beer, _The Old Colonial System_, part I, vol. 2, pp. 9, 10.]
The Barbadian estates were generally much smaller than those of Jamaica came to be. The planters nevertheless not only controlled their community wholly in their interest but long maintained a unique “planters’ committee” at London to make representations to the English government on behalf of their class. They pleaded for the colony’s freedom of trade, for example, with no more vigor than they insisted that England should not interfere with the Barbadian law to prohibit Quakers from admitting negroes to their meetings. An item significant of their attitude upon race relations is the following from the journal of the Crown’s committee of trade and plantations, Oct. 8, 1680: “The gentlemen of Barbados attend, … who declare that the conversion of their slaves to Christianity would not only destroy their property but endanger the island, inasmuch as converted negroes grow more perverse and intractable than others, and hence of less value for labour or sale. The disproportion of blacks to white being great, the whites have no greater security than the diversity of the negroes’ languages, which would be destroyed by conversion in that it would be necessary to teach them all English. The negroes are a sort of people so averse to learning that they will rather hang themselves or run away than submit to it.” The Lords of Trade were enough impressed by this argument to resolve that the question be left to the Barbadian government.
[Footnote 5: _Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies_, 1677-1680, p. 611.]
As illustrating the plantation regime in the island in the period of its full industrial development, elaborate instructions are extant which were issued about 1690 to Richard Harwood, manager or overseer of the Drax Hall and Hope plantations belonging to the Codrington family. These included directions for planting, fertilizing and cultivating the cane, for the operation of the wind-driven sugar mill, the boiling and curing houses and the distillery, and for the care of the live stock; but the main concern was with the slaves. The number in the gangs was not stated, but the expectation was expressed that in ordinary years from ten to twenty new negroes would have to be bought to keep the ranks full, and it was advised that Coromantees be preferred, since they had been found best for the work on these estates. Plenty was urged in provision crops with emphasis upon plantains and cassava,–the latter because of the certainty of its harvest, the former because of the abundance of their yield in years of no hurricanes and because the negroes especially delighted in them and found them particularly wholesome as a dysentery diet. The services of a physician had been arranged for, but the manager was directed to take great care of the negroes’ health and pay special attention to the sick. The clothing was not definitely stated as to periods. For food each was to receive weekly a pound of fish and two quarts of molasses, tobacco occasionally, salt as needed, palm oil once a year, and home-grown provisions in abundance. Offenses committed by the slaves were to be punished immediately, “many of them being of the houmer of avoiding punishment when threatened: to hang themselves.” For drunkenness the stocks were recommended. As to theft, recognized as especially hard to repress, the manager was directed to let hunger give no occasion for it.
[Footnote 6: Original MS. in the Bodleian Library, A. 248, 3. Copy used through the courtesy of Dr. F.W. Pitman of Yale University.]
Jamaica, which lies a thousand miles west of Barbados and has twenty-five times her area, was captured by the English in 1655 when its few hundreds of Spaniards had developed nothing but cacao and cattle raising. English settlement began after the Restoration, with Roundhead exiles supplemented by immigrants from the Lesser Antilles and by buccaneers turned farmers. Lands were granted on a lavish scale on the south side of the island where an abundance of savannahs facilitated tillage; but the development of sugar culture proved slow by reason of the paucity of slaves and the unfamiliarity of the settlers with the peculiarities of the soil and climate. With the increase of prosperity, and by the aid of managers brought from Barbados, sugar plantations gradually came to prevail all round the coast and in favorable mountain valleys, while smaller establishments here and there throve more moderately in the production of cotton, pimento, ginger, provisions and live stock. For many years the legislature, prodded by occasional slave revolts, tried to stimulate the increase of whites by requiring the planters to keep a fixed proportion of indentured servants; but in the early eighteenth century this policy proved futile, and thereafter the whites numbered barely one-tenth as many as the negroes. The slaves were reported at 86,546 in 1734; 112,428 in 1744; 166,914 in 1768; and 210,894 in 1787. In addition there were at the last date some 10,000 negroes legally free, and 1400 maroons or escaped slaves dwelling permanently in the mountain fastnesses. The number of sugar plantations was 651 in 1768, and 767 in 1791; and they contained about three-fifths of all the slaves on the island. Throughout this latter part of the century the average holding on the sugar estates was about 180 slaves of all ages.
[Footnote 7: Edward Long, _History of Jamaica_, I, 494, Bryan Edwards, _History of the British Colonies in the West Indies_, book II, appendix.]
When the final enumeration of slaves in the British possessions was made in the eighteen-thirties there were no single Jamaica holdings reported as large as that of 1598 slaves held by James Blair in Guiana; but occasional items were of a scale ranging from five to eight hundred each, and hundreds numbered above one hundred each. In many of these instances the same persons are listed as possessing several holdings, with Sir Edward Hyde East particularly notable for the large number of his great squads. The degree of absenteeism is indicated by the frequency of English nobles, knights and gentlemen among the large proprietors. Thus the Earl of Balcarres had 474 slaves; the Earl of Harwood 232; the Earl and Countess of Airlie 59; Earl Talbot and Lord Shelborne jointly 79; Lord Seaford 70; Lord Hatherton jointly with Francis Downing, John Benbow and the Right Reverend H. Philpots, Lord Bishop of Exeter, two holdings of 304 and 236 slaves each; and the three Gladstones, Thomas, William and Robert 468 slaves jointly.
[Footnote 8: “Accounts of Slave Compensation Claims,” in the British official _Account: and Papers, 1837-1838_, vol. XLVIII.]
Such an average scale and such a prevalence of absenteeism never prevailed in any other Anglo-American plantation community, largely because none of the other staples required so much manufacturing as sugar did in preparing the crops for market. As Bryan Edwards wrote in 1793: “the business of sugar planting is a sort of adventure in which the man that engages must engage deeply…. It requires a capital of no less than thirty thousand pounds sterling to embark in this employment with a fair prospect of success.” Such an investment, he particularized, would procure and establish as a going concern a plantation of 300 acres in cane and 100 acres each in provision crops, forage and woodland, together with the appropriate buildings and apparatus, and a working force of 80 steers, 60 mules and 250 slaves, at the current price for these last of L50 sterling a head. So distinctly were the plantations regarded as capitalistic ventures that they came to be among the chief speculations of their time for absentee investors.
[Footnote 9: Bryan Edwards, _History of the West Indies_, book 5, chap. 3.]
When Lord Chesterfield tried in 1767 to buy his son a seat in Parliament he learned “that there was no such thing as a borough to be had now, for that the rich East and West Indians had secured them all at the rate of three thousand pounds at the least.” And an Englishman after traveling in the French and British Antilles in 1825 wrote: “The French colonists, whether Creoles or Europeans, consider the West Indies as their country; they cast no wistful looks toward France…. In our colonies it is quite different; … every one regards the colony as a temporary lodging place where they must sojourn in sugar and molasses till their mortgages will let them live elsewhere. They call England their home though many of them have never been there…. The French colonist deliberately expatriates himself; the Englishman never.” Absenteeism was throughout a serious detriment. Many and perhaps most of the Jamaica proprietors were living luxuriously in England instead of industriously on their estates. One of them, the talented author “Monk” Lewis, when he visited his own plantation in 1815-1817, near the end of his life, found as much novelty in the doings of his slaves as if he had been drawing his income from shares in the Banc of England; but even he, while noting their clamorous good nature was chiefly impressed by their indolence and perversity. It was left for an invalid traveling for his health to remark most vividly the human equation: “The negroes cannot be silent; they talk in spite of themselves. Every passion acts upon them with strange intensity, their anger is sudden and furious, their mirth clamorous and excessive, their curiosity audacious, and their love the sheer demand for gratification of an ardent animal desire. Yet by their nature they are good-humored in the highest degree, and I know nothing more delightful than to be met by a group of negro girls and to be saluted with their kind ‘How d’ye massa? how d’ye massa?'”
[Footnote 10: Lord Chesterfield, _Letters to his Son_ (London, 1774), II, 525.]
[Footnote 11: H.N. Coleridge, _Six Months in the West Indies_, 4th ed. (London, 1832), pp. 131, 132.]
[Footnote 12: Matthew G. Lewis, _Journal of a West Indian Proprietor, kept during a Residence in the Island of Jamaica_ (London, 1834).]
[Footnote 13: H.N. Coleridge, p. 76.]
On the generality of the plantations the tone of the management was too much like that in most modern factories. The laborers were considered more as work-units than as men, women and children. Kindliness and comfort, cruelty and hardship, were rated at balance-sheet value; births and deaths were reckoned in profit and loss, and the expense of rearing children was balanced against the cost of new Africans. These things were true in some degree in the North American slaveholding communities, but in the West Indies they excelled.
In buying new negroes a practical planter having a preference for those of some particular tribal stock might make sure of getting them only by taking with him to the slave ships or the “Guinea yards” in the island ports a slave of the stock wanted and having him interrogate those for sale in his native language to learn whether they were in fact what the dealers declared them to be. Shrewdness was even more necessary to circumvent other tricks of the trade, especially that of fattening up, shaving and oiling the skins of adult slaves to pass them off as youthful. The ages most desired in purchasing were between fifteen and twenty-five years. If these were not to be had well grown children were preferable to the middle-aged, since they were much less apt to die in the “seasoning,” they would learn English readily, and their service would increase instead of decreasing after the lapse of the first few years.
The conversion of new negroes into plantation laborers, a process called “breaking in,” required always a mingling of delicacy and firmness. Some planters distributed their new purchases among the seasoned households, thus delegating the task largely to the veteran slaves. Others housed and tended them separately under the charge of a select staff of nurses and guardians and with frequent inspection from headquarters. The mortality rate was generally high under either plan, ranging usually from twenty to thirty per cent, in the seasoning period of three or four years. The deaths came from diseases brought from Africa, such as the yaws which was similar to syphilis; from debilities and maladies acquired on the voyage; from the change of climate and food; from exposure incurred in running away; from morbid habits such as dirt-eating; and from accident, manslaughter and suicide.
[Footnote 14: Long, _Jamaica_, II, 435; Edwards, _West Indies_, book 4, chap. 5; A Professional Planter, _Rules_, chap. 2; Thomas Roughley, _Jamaica Planter’s Guide_ (London, 1823), pp. 118-120.]
The seasoned slaves were housed by families in separate huts grouped into “quarters,” and were generally assigned small tracts on the outskirts of the plantation on which to raise their own provision crops. Allowances of clothing, dried fish, molasses, rum, salt, etc., were issued them from the commissary, together with any other provisions needed to supplement their own produce. The field force of men and women, boys and girls was generally divided according to strength into three gangs, with special details for the mill, the coppers and the still when needed; and permanent corps were assigned to the handicrafts, to domestic service and to various incidental functions. The larger the plantation, of course, the greater the opportunity of differentiating tasks and assigning individual slaves to employments fitted to their special aptitudes.
The planters put such emphasis upon the regularity and vigor of the routine that they generally neglected other equally vital things. They ignored the value of labor-saving devices, most of them even shunning so obviously desirable an implement as the plough and using the hoe alone in breaking the land and cultivating the crops. But still more serious was the passive acquiescence in the depletion of their slaves by excess of deaths over births. This decrease amounted to a veritable decimation, requiring the frequent importation of recruits to keep the ranks full. Long estimated this loss at about two per cent. annually, while Edwards reckoned that in his day there were surviving in Jamaica little more than one-third as many negroes as had been imported in the preceding career of the colony. The staggering mortality rate among the new negroes goes far toward accounting for this; but even the seasoned groups generally failed to keep up their numbers. The birth rate was notoriously small; but the chief secret of the situation appears to have lain in the poor care of the newborn children. A surgeon of long experience said that a third of the babies died in their first month, and that few of the imported women bore children; and another veteran resident said that commonly more than a quarter of the babies died within the first nine days, of “jaw-fall,” and nearly another fourth before
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Amlodipine may also be used ‘off-label’ (in a manner not approved by the FDA or your country’s equivalent regulatory body) to treat conditions including Raynaud’s disease and congestive heart failure.
What is amlodipine besylate?
As with many drugs, amlodipine is produced in its salt form to improve solubility in water, which helps absorption into your bloodstream and makes the drug more effective. Besylate refers to the specific salt form for amlodipine. Other salts can also be used, including maleate and mesylate.
There is no evidence that the salt form used affects the therapeutic effects of amlodipine. To avoid confusion, therefore, it is usually simply referred to as ‘amlodipine’ regardless of the salt form.
How does amlodipine work?
Amlodipine, like other calcium channel blockers, selectively prevents the release of calcium from entering the muscle cells of your heart and artery walls. It effectively shuts the door (ion channel) through which calcium enters these cells. Because calcium plays a key role in contracting the muscles that line your heart and artery walls, clocking its entry helps relax the muscles.
This, subsequently, widens your blood vessels and improves blood flow, which is how your blood pressure is reduced.
Amlodipine is also believed to reduce the workload of your heart and the energy and oxygen it needs, while simultaneously increasing oxygen supply by widening your coronary arteries and arterioles (the small branches of an artery). This increased oxygen supply is believed to be key in reducing chest pain (angina) related to coronary artery disease.
Amlodipine belongs to a subcategory of calcium channel blockers called dihydropyridines. The other class of calcium channel blockers, called non-dihydropyridines (including diltiazem and verapamil), have the additional effect of slowing your heart rate down. Unlike amlodipine, non-dihydropyridines can be used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as atrial fibrillation and supraventricular tachycardia.
How long does it take for amlodipine to lower blood pressure?
Amlodipine starts working within hours of your first dose. However, it can take a few weeks for it to have its full effect. If you are taking amlodipine for high blood pressure, you might not feel any different, especially if you were not experiencing any symptoms (as is common with high blood pressure). Even if you do not feel any different, that does not mean the medicine is not working. You should continue taking it as prescribed. If you have any concerns about how well amlodipine is working, you should speak to your doctor.
If you are taking amlodipine for angina or other conditions, it may take a few weeks for your symptoms to improve.
What are the side effects of amlodipine?
In rare cases, when you start taking amlodipine or increase your dosage, it can cause a heart attack or make angina symptoms worse. If this happens, contact your doctor immediately or visit a hospital emergency room.
Other common side effects include:
- Pounding heartbeat
- Swollen feet or ankles
These side effects are often mild and will often go away as your body gets used to amlodipine. However, if they are more severe, don’t go away, or get worse, you should contact your doctor at once.
More serious symptoms include:
- Severe stomach pain, sometimes with bloody diarrhea and/or nausea and vomiting
- Yellowing of your skin or the white of your eyes
- New or worsening chest pain (as mentioned above)
If you experience any of these symptoms, you should contact your doctor immediately.
Allergic reactions to amlodipine are rare but can occur. Signs of a serious allergic reaction should be treated as a medical emergency. They include:
- Skin rash – for example itchy, red, or swollen skin
- Tightness in the chest or throat
- Trouble breathing or talking
- Swollen mouth, face, lips, tongue, or throat
This is not an extensive list of possible side effects of amlodipine. For more information about side effects, please read the information leaflet that comes with the medication or speak to your doctor or pharmacist.
Does amlodipine interact with other drugs?
Amlodipine can interact with many different other drugs. Some of the potentially severe interactions include:
- Several cancer treatments, including apalutamide, ceritinib, enzalutamide, mitotane
- Several epilepsy treatments, including carbamazepine, fosphenytoin, phenytoin
- Rifabutin, rifampin, and rifapentine (antibiotics used to treat tuberculosis)
- Siponimod (used to treat multiple sclerosis)
This is far from an extensive list of the drugs that can interact with amlodipine. You should inform your doctor about every medication you take (prescription and over the counter). If the risk of a serious interaction outweighs the benefits of amlodipine, your doctor may consider a different medication.
Similarly, you should inform your doctor of any supplements or herbal remedies you take, including multivitamins and St. John’s wort, as they can also interact with amlodipine.
Should I take amlodipine in the morning or at night?
It does not matter whether you take amlodipine in the morning or evening (or any other time during the day), nor does it matter whether you take it with or without food.
However, it is highly recommended that you take it at the same time every day. You can coincide taking your medication with another consistent activity, such as brushing your teeth, or use a medication reminder app.
What should I do if I miss a dose of amlodipine?
If you realize you have missed your dose of amlodipine within 12 hours of the time you usually take it, take it as soon as possible and continue with your next dose at the regular time.
If you realize you have missed your dose of amlodipine after 12 hours or longer, skip the dose and take your next dose at the regular time. Do not double your dosage to make up for the one you missed.
What should I do if I overdose on amlodipine?
If you take too much amlodipine, you should contact your doctor or a poison control center immediately or go straight to a hospital emergency room. Do not drive yourself.
Can I drive while taking amlodipine?
Some of the side effects of amlodipine, such as dizziness or headaches, can impair your ability to drive. When you first start taking amlodipine, it is therefore recommended that you see how your body reacts before driving or operating machinery.
If you do not experience side effects, or they subside over time, it is generally considered safe to drive while taking amlodipine.
Can I drink alcohol while taking amlodipine?
Alcohol does not directly interact with amlodipine, so it is usually safe to drink in moderation.
However, a possible short-term effect of alcohol – even in small amounts – is lowering your blood pressure. Combined with the therapeutic blood pressure-lowering effects of amlodipine, the risk of side effects such as dizziness or sleepiness may increase.
If this happens, it is recommended that you avoid drinking alcohol while taking amlodipine.
Can I take amlodipine when pregnant or breastfeeding?
Studies have shown that amlodipine has adverse effects on pregnant rats when given at a dose equivalent to 10 mg per day for humans. However, no reliable human studies have investigated the effects of amlodipine on pregnant women or nursing mothers.
Due to the lack of evidence, most doctors will prescribe an alternative treatment with a more defined safety profile. Amlodipine is normally used only if the benefits of the treatment outweigh the risk of harm to the mother and/or baby, and if no preferable alternative is available.
If you are taking amlodipine and are pregnant or you are planning on having a baby, you should speak to your doctor about the safest option.
Can my child take amlodipine?
Amlodipine has been approved for use in children aged six years old and above. Doctors will usually prescribe a lower starting dosage for children than adults, often 2.5 mg per day. The maximum recommended dosage for children is 5 mg per day.
The content on this page is provided for informational purposes only. If you have any questions or concerns about your treatment, you should talk to your doctor, pharmacist, or healthcare professional. This is particularly important if you are taking multiple medications or have any existing medical conditions.
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Each day we hear more about the benefits of taking a probiotic supplement. The most common reason for supplementing with these beneficial bacteria is to support digestive health and boost immunity.
But, you may be surprised to learn that an emerging area of research is exploring the relationship between probiotics and weight loss. In fact, future treatments for obesity may involve modifying the mix of gut microbiota using probiotics for women or prebiotics.
Read below to learn more about probiotics and weight loss and how these beneficial bugs may help you to reach your weight management goal.
What are Probiotics?
As a Greek word, probiotic means "for life." Probiotics are live microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts confer health benefits to us. Probiotics balance and restore intestinal microbiota or protect against an upset in the equilibrium of the intestinal tract. Most, but not all probiotics are bacteria.
What are Prebiotics?
Prebiotics act as a food source for the beneficial bacteria, allowing them to replicate and flourish in the intestinal tract. VitaMedica’s Probiotic-8 combines both probiotics and prebiotics into what is referred to as a synbiotic.
How are Probiotics Acquired?
Prior to birth, a baby does not have any bacteria in his/her digestive tract. The newborn acquires beneficial flora while being delivered through the birth canal. Another source of friendly bacteria for a newborn is mother’s breast milk. Not surprisingly, babies born via Caesarean section and who are bottle fed miss out on these two important opportunities to acquire beneficial bacteria from their mother.
Breast fed babies have higher levels of the beneficial Bifidobacteria than bottle fed babies. As you will read later on, this may help explain why breast fed babies are at a lower risk for developing obesity later in life.
During the first 2 years of life, environment and nutrition influence a person’s microbiome or intestinal flora. After this period, an individual’s predominant gut microbiota remains remarkably stable throughout adulthood. However, temporary changes in the intestinal flora occur due to dietary modifications, surgery, infection and antibiotic use.
What are the Predominant Probiotics?
New techniques have allowed researchers to identify what bacterial families and species reside in the human gut. They have found that the human intestinal tract is teeming with bacteria – harboring 100 trillion microorganisms! These beneficial organisms are collectively referred to as the microbiome and are primarily made up of bacteria.
While each individual’s microbiome is unique – similar to a fingerprint - the microflora of the intestinal tract is dominated by two bacterial groups: Bacteroidetes (48%) and Firmicutes (51%). As you will learn later, the mix of these two divisions differs in lean and obese individuals.
Probiotic Functions & Benefits
The microbiota in our intestinal tract is critical to maintaining normal digestive and immune function.
Probiotics assist in the breakdown of food, particularly carbohydrates and fats. They also synthesize vitamin K and some B-vitamins. Given that probiotics play a role in metabolism, an intense area of interest is understanding the relationship between our gut microbiota and obesity.
With 70% of the body’s immune system located in the digestive tract, it’s not surprising that probiotics play a key role in immune system function. Friendly bacteria ward off “unfriendly visitors” through a variety of mechanisms including lowering the pH of the intestines and preventing unfriendly bacteria from adhering to intestinal walls.
Studies on Probiotics and Obesity
Why is it that some people eat very little yet gain weight easily while others eat much more and don't gain an ounce? Certainly a high-fat diet, increased consumption of sugars and physical inactivity contribute to weight gain. However, exciting new research indicates that the composition of bacteria in our GI tract may protect or predispose an individual to obesity. Given their role in energy balance and metabolism, this implies that the microflora play a critical role in the development of obesity.
Based on animal and human studies, researchers believe that the microbiome may contribute to obesity in several ways including increasing energy harvest (more calories are extracted from food ingested) and promotion of fat deposition (more fat calories are stored versus used up). Let’s take a look at studies conducted on probiotics and obesity.
Increasing Energy Harvest
Like humans, mice have beneficial organisms that reside in their gut which aid in digestion. To better understand the role of obesity and probiotics, researchers bred mice to have no innate gut microbiota. What they found is that these “germ-free” mice had 42% less body fat than their normal counterparts even though they consumed 29% more food.
In a similar experiment, germ-free mice were fed a Western-style, high-calorie diet. After 8 weeks, the germ-free mice gained significantly less weight than their normal counterparts.
Promoting Fat Deposition
Next, researchers transplanted beneficial bacteria from the normal mice into the germ-free mice. This resulted in a 57% increase in body fat (and insulin resistance) despite any changes in what the previously germ free mice ate or how much they exercised.
Does this mean you should eliminate all the beneficial bacteria from your GI tract? Of course not! We need these microorganisms to extract nutrients from the foods we eat. The problem is that our digestive system adapted during a time when food was relatively scarce and extracting the maximum amount of nutrients was critical to survival. Unfortunately, our bodies are not designed to thrive in an obesogenic environment where not only too much food but the wrong types of food are widely available.
Differences in Bacterial Divisions
In a study, researchers found that obese mice had 50% fewer Bacteroidetes (think beneficial) and correspondingly more Firmicutes (think fat) than their lean counterparts. Despite alterations in diet, these distinctions remained fairly constant over time. This suggests that the differences in bacterial composition can’t be explained by diet alone.
Likewise, in a small human study, researchers found obese individuals had fewer Bacteroidetes and more Firmicutes than their lean counterparts. However, when the obese participants were placed on a fat-restricted or carbohydrate-restricted diet for over a year, the proportion of Bacteroidetes increased while the Firmicutes decreased. This indicates that alterations in our gut bacteria occur as a result of a changes in the diet.
Why is the presence of more Firmicutes associated with obesity? Cells in the colon derive most of their energy requirements from complex carbohydrates that Firmicutes break down. The greater prevalence of this bacterial division may make it easier for cells to uptake energy from otherwise indigestible carbohydrate sources (starches and sugars).
You may be surprised to learn that high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS is the sweetener used in soft drinks and other foods) is a prebiotic. Firmicutes thrive on this type of “food”. The rise in obesity over the past 20 years may be related to our increased consumption of HFCS via soft drinks. Perhaps, unwittingly, through increased consumption of HFCS, our microbiota has shifted away from Bacteroidetes to more Firmicutes.
What does all of this mean? The type and balance of beneficial flora in your intestines may push your body toward either obesity or leanness. As a result, manipulating these microbe populations may potentially help change your weight.
Microbiota Differs in Overweight Children
Researchers selected a group of 7 year olds who were overweight or obese and compared them to a group of 7 year olds who were of normal weight. At 6 months and 12 months of age, the microbiota of each kid was evaluated. These children were then followed for 7 years and classified according to BMI. What they found is that normal weight 7 year olds had higher levels of beneficial bacteria at 6 and 12 months than the 7 year olds who were becoming overweight.
Unlike their lean counterparts, the kids becoming overweight also had a greater number of S. aureus (known as “staph” – this species can cause a number of diseases). This bacterium may trigger low-grade inflammation which may also contribute to obesity. The findings imply that the mix of bacteria in a young child’s gut could influence whether they are prone to obesity later in life.
Studies on Probiotics and Weight Loss
A few studies have examined whether taking a probiotic supplement influences our ability to lose weight.
In a 2010 Japanese study, 87 overweight participants either took a Lactobacillus probiotic or a placebo. After 12 weeks, the probiotic group reduced abdominal fat by 4.6% and subcutaneous fat by 3.3%.
In another study, women were less likely to become obese after giving birth if they had taken probiotics (Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium) during pregnancy. One year after childbirth, women who got the probiotics had the lowest levels of central obesity (the prevalence of belly fat or central obesity was just 25% in women taking probiotics compared with 43% in women taking a placebo) as well as the lowest body fat percentage.
Prebiotics, the food source for probiotics, may also play a role in weight management. Some studies indicate the prebiotics can promote satiety or a feeling of fullness, by increasing levels of a satiety hormone or by reducing the production of ghrelin, a hormone that stimulates the appetite.
These studies indicate that taking a probiotic or prebiotic supplement could play a supportive role in a weight management program.
The Bottom Line
Clearly more research is needed in the area of probiotics and weight loss. At this time, it’s not clear whether the balance of microbiota causes weight gain or is a result of it. Additionally, it is not clear which particular strains of bacteria promote obesity or leanness. What is certain that cutting calories and losing weight can favorably change the ratio of bacteria in your bowel.
If you want to be healthy, have energy and look your best, then our advice is to eat a health-promoting diet which features plenty of colored fruits and vegetables, lean protein and unsaturated fats (nuts and seeds; non-fat dairy, olive oil, fish oil or flax seed oil). To ensure that your digestive system works at its peak, we also recommend taking a probiotic supplement like our Probiotic-8. When combined with regular physical activity, your body will naturally maintain a normal weight.
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Many autism and ADHD traits are different manifestations of the same phenomenon
Monotropism is an attention and interest pattern, or a cognitive strategy, posited to be the central underlying feature in people on the neurodivergence spectrum. In one of the videos, monotropism was named as the cause of autism. Although this statement sounds like bombastic rhetoric, there is a great deal of truth in it. Of course, monotropism is not the root cause since it itself has its own reason (peculiarities of the physiological structure and operation of the neurodivergent brain).
So what is it, in simple terms?
Since the resource of attention available to a person is limited, cognitive processes are forced to compete for it. In the monotropic mind, attention is divided between fewer tasks than in most people, and the interest that is active at any given moment tends to consume most of the available attention resource (as opposed to a more even distribution in the neuro-majority). The term "monotropism" describes a restricted "attention tunnel" - focusing narrowly and intensely on a limited number of topics, or even one topic, at a time, and missing things outside of this tunnel. The attention, instead of being distributed across multiple interests or stimuli, is deeply engaged in a very limited range of subjects, filling the entire consciousness. So, monotropic people have difficulty processing multiple information streams simultaneously. Monotropism can lead to a highly specialized perspective and introduce challenges where a broad or flexible view is required, and make it harder to redirect attention. But at the same time, it provides benefits as well.
"Monotropism" means "tendency to one" in Greek. Yes, it could be just a tendency to focus on one object of interest, but very often it's a physical inability to focus on many, or an ability, but limited, with tremendous effort and energy consumption.
Conversely, polytropism is a more all-encompassing attentional pattern which uses many information processing channels simultaneously. It would be the ability (and the tendency!) to distribute attention over a wider range of interests or stimuli, which is inherent in most neurotypical individuals. It's hypothesized by some that this polytropic attention model is evolutionary advantageous for social species like humans. By attending to a wide range of stimuli, people can better navigate complex social environments, pick up on a variety of cues, and respond to changing circumstances including danger.
This is not to say that monotropic mind doesn't have its advantages. The deep focus can lead to profound insights and expertise in specific areas. Monotropic people, when engrossed in their area of interest, might dive deeper into a subject than polytropic individuals. This can lead to a profound understanding and mastery of a particular domain. Anyway, monotropism is not an abnormality or a medical condition, and it can have both challenges and strengths. Human society as a whole only benefits from diversity of methods of processing and making sense of the surrounding world.
While the concept of monotropism offers a lens to understand some behaviors in autism and ADHD, it's essential to remember that they are spectrum phenomena. Not everyone on these spectrums will experience attention in the same way or to the same degree. As with all generalizations, individual variations abound. However, while there are even people on the spectrum who have a very polytropic mindset, monotropism is still very common and even typical in neuro-minorities.
Some of the autism and ADHD traits associated with monotropism
This section is written by ChatGPT (with a little editing by me).
Immersion in Activity and Intolerance to Multitasking (Autistic Inertia):
- Special interests:
Monotropic people tend to delve deeply into narrow interests and tasks. For example, they may be very passionate about one topic and collect detailed information and facts about it. This may involve hours of study, collecting, creating articles and websites, socializing with like-minded people, or other forms of deep engagement with an interest. As a result of intense hobbies, autistic people may possess unique knowledge and skills, and become experts in their field. Because of monotropy, people on the spectrum may have a more limited range of interests than neurotypicals. This can manifest itself in the form of RRB - Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors.
- Deep Focus and Shifting Attention:
Autistic inertia can be understood as a state where an individual finds it difficult to start, stop, or change activities. This is not due to a lack of motivation or unwillingness to put in the effort but is inherent to how neurodivergent people process and allocate their attention. When a monotropic person is engrossed in a task or interest, they're deeply involved. Multitasking, by its nature, requires shifting attention between tasks frequently and rapidly, which requires people to continually break their deep immersion in the current task and re-establish their focus on something different. Switching between tasks or trying to attend to multiple tasks can be jarring, inefficient and mentally exhausting, and may lead to sensory or information overload, increased stress or anxiety.
Creating predictable and structured environments can help minimize the need for sudden shifts in focus, reducing the impact of inertia. Providing clear, advance notice of transitions between activities can help prepare an individual for the change, making the shift in focus easier to manage. Recognizing the value and intensity of a neurodivergent person's focus can lead to more effective strategies for engagement and learning, acknowledging that this focus is a strength, even if it comes with challenges in shifting attention.
- Special interests:
Intolerance to Uncertainty:
- Need for Clear Instructions:
Vague, imprecise or ambiguous instructions can be confusing and disruptive, pull out of the focused state, and lead to misunderstandings or unexpected outcomes. People with a monotropic mindset may deeply immerse themselves in a specific interest or task. That can be challenging for them to switch to another "attention tunnel" to fill in the gaps or intuit the expected outcome. Precise instructions help in avoiding unnecessary attention shifts (which can be energy-draining), and ensure that the focus remains uninterrupted. Less room for ambiguity allows individuals to continue their engagement without the need for frequent context switching to clarify a misunderstanding. This facilitates the correct completion of the task quickly and right the first time. - Routine and Predictability:
Autistic people often find comfort in routine and predictability. Precise instructions help to maintain this predictability and avoid anxiety-inducing switch of the single "attention tunnel" to another context.
- Need for Clear Instructions:
Limited Abstract Thinking and Holistic Perception ("Seeing the Big Picture"):
- Literal Thinking:
Many autistic individuals can be quite literal in their thinking. They perceive only what they see "in the here and now". This tendency might, at times, pose challenges when it comes to interpreting abstract concepts. - Focus on Details Overshadows the Overarching Theme:
Holistic perception involves the ability to integrate and synthesize information from various sources to form a comprehensive understanding. Monotropism may make it challenging since monotropic individuals are highly detail-oriented - they might dive too deeply into one separate nuance of a situation and become so absorbed that there is no room left in the consciousness for anything else. While this is very advantageous in tasks that require precision or in-depth analysis of a particular minute detail, it might cause these people to inadvertently overlook other crucial aspects of a situation, neglect the interconnections between various elements and fail to see how individual details fit into the broader context. That impedes the abstract conceptualization of the bigger picture and limits effective analytical and strategic thinking. Based only on narrow, isolated information, without consideration of the more general context, a person makes an incomplete assessment of a situation, which can lead to inaccurate conclusions and making wrong decisions. - Difficulty in Identifying of Complex Cause and Effect Relationships:
Despite increased logical thinking, some autists find it difficult to determine what has led to a given outcome if a whole chain of events has occurred. Even if each individual event is concrete and monotropism does not interfere with comprehension (and even helps), the entire sequence is an abstract set of many stimuli. The desire to delve deeply into a single sub-problem reduces flexibility of thinking, i.e. the ability to see the interrelationships between different elements and to understand how changes in one part of the system can affect other parts. This makes it difficult to analyze and understand complex systems that may involve many variables and factors, and to solve technical problems that are the indirect result of remote root causes. Many neurodivergent people also have difficulty anticipating the consequences that an event may lead to, which interferes with everyday life (e.g., when planning personal finances or predicting the reactions of others to certain words and actions). - Not Necessarily!
Not every autistic or ADHD individual experiences challenges with abstract thinking or holistic perception. Abilities and experiences vary widely within these populations. While the process of understanding abstract concepts or seeing the big picture might differ from neurotypical ways, it doesn't mean that all neurodivergent people are incapable of abstract thinking. Many of them might just take different cognitive paths to arrive there, which could possibly require more time or effort. In fact, many can reach the same or even deeper understanding. While the immediate perception might be too concentrated on small elements, many people on the spectrum can construct a holistic understanding by meticulously piecing together the details they've focused on. Some of them might even excel in abstract thought and see broader patterns than are apparent to neurotypicals. There are many examples of autistic workers offering very unexpected while working solutions.
- Literal Thinking:
Limited working memory and difficulties in oral business communication:
- Limited working memory
Humans have two kinds of memory:
Working memory: short-term storage of a small amount of active information that either comes from the environment or is retrieved from long-term memory. This information is directly used for ongoing thinking activities such as reasoning, solving logical problems, comprehending complex information, and decision making.
Long-term memory: passive information storage, which is activated only when necessary. It provides long-term storage of information received from the working memory, and is reloaded into the working memory at a later time.
These terms were introduced in the 1960s in the context of theories that compared a brain to a computer.
Working memory is a system of very limited capacity. Because monotropic individuals can focus intensely on a narrow range of interests, their working memory can quickly fill up with information related only to those interests. This can lead to difficulties in perceiving, retaining, and processing new information. - Problem with memorizing a sequence of actions
When a monotropic person focuses on the current step of a multi-step process, that step fills the entire working memory. This leads to losing the overall context, i.e. the connection to the process as a whole, and forgetting the next steps. To cope with this challenge at work or in everyday life, it can be helpful to create detailed instructions or checklists with step-by-step descriptions of the algorithms of actions. - Difficulties in oral business communication
Business communication often requires rapid processing of incoming information and adaptation to changes in the evolving topic. In the course of a discussion, new information may "erase" ("overwrite") previous information, making it difficult to follow the flow of the conversation and leading to a loss of the narrative thread. Or new information may not be perceived at all because the brain is still busy processing the previous information. For a person with monotropism, remembering several aspects of a discussion can be painful and exhausting, or even impossible.
It is difficult to simultaneously listen, process information by overlaying it on previous information, apply it to a problem and formulate an answer. The realization that this may become visible to interlocutors and affect professional reputation is not only traumatizing, but is itself an additional channel of information processing that needs a place in the working memory, which only aggravates the situation. - Recommendations
Direct participation in discussions that require analyzing a situation and seeking possible solutions can be difficult for individuals with monotropism, and the need to respond "in real time" is often a highly traumatic experience. Exemption from such meetings respects their natural communication needs and preferences.
If attendance at a meeting is unavoidable, it may be helpful to provide information in writing in advance, including the agenda. This will allow the person to review the information in a relaxed environment, prepare for the conversation and think about their issues.
After the meeting, it is highly desirable to provide a written summary of the meeting, the conclusions reached and clear instructions for action. Analyzing the outcome of the meeting in a relaxed environment without having to immediately respond to verbal information can greatly facilitate planning the next steps. This will allow monotropic workers to contribute to projects and tasks more productively, drawing on their unique ability to focus deeply on aspects of work that interest them. This approach helps retain the valuable insights and observations they can offer.
- Limited working memory
- The material has grown so much that it had to be allocated on a separate page. Firstly, it describes decidophobia, and then its link with monotropism.
- Reduced Awareness of Surroundings:
Some monotropic individuals may be less aware of their immediate environment or social cues because of their intense focus on their current thought. This can hinder their ability to understand broader social dynamics.
Social gathering neglect is an example of such behavior - people may fail to notice social cues around them. They might not recognize when other people are trying to join the conversation or when someone is trying to introduce them to new acquaintances. As a result, they may miss out on valuable social interactions and fail to perceive the broader social dynamics at play in the gathering. There have been many cases where people have found themselves uninvolved in the neurotypical "social dance", causing them to be considered rude, even though they didn't mean to offend anyone (this is a perfect example of judging others by themselves, and prejudging and disrespecting people with a different type of brain).
There can be also a problem with workplace interaction oversights. Consider monotropic people working in an office environment. They are highly focused on their specific tasks and are known for their deep expertise in a particular area, like software development. They often engage in detailed technical discussions with colleagues. However, in their pursuit of excellence in their specialized field, they may neglect to pay attention to broader workplace dynamics. They might not notice subtle changes in team dynamics, office politics, or shifting project priorities. This can lead to difficulties in adapting to changes in the workplace or collaborating effectively with colleagues who have a broader perspective. The narrow monotropic focus on their expertise may limit their awareness of the holistic workplace environment.
- Avoiding eye contact:
For some autistic people, eye gazing can be unpleasant or intrusive and they prefer to avoid it. How is this related to monotropism? The fact is that eye contact is an important non-verbal element that conveys a lot of information, including emotion, level of engagement, and intentions. So, it's a separate "attention tunnel" in and of itself. The autistic person looks away or down so as not to take resources away from the main communication channel of in the conversation, concentrating fully on it.
- Slow and intermittent speech:
People can process information deeply and intensively within their focus of attention. This means that when they express their thoughts or ideas, they may carefully weigh every word to convey information accurately and completely because they feel that every detail is important for the other person to understand. Accuracy and diligence in speech requires additional resources, which can lead to slower conversations and even micropauses for thinking, giving the uninformed interlocutor the mistaken impression that the person is unsure of what he or she is saying. The tendency to talk "like everyone else" (i.e., quickly and confidently) is an example of autistic masking (as is forced eye contact). But monitoring your speech is a separate "attention tunnel", for which you may not have resources due to monotropism.
The term describes a situation where a person "loads" people with information about his or her special interests regardless of whether it is of interest to anyone else - without picking up on the signals of interlocutors that they are not eager to listen and don't interrupt the monologue just out of politeness. As mentioned above, monotropic people can have difficulty shifting attention from one task to another and can be slow. This can lead to the fact that when they begin to talk about their interests, they may continue to share information without considering how interesting or relevant it is to the listener. Autistic people may also have social difficulties, including difficulty in assessing the interests and needs of others. They may not always pick up on non-verbal cues that indicate their information may be annoying or inappropriate in the moment, because the "attention tunnel" is occupied by someone else.
Autistic people have a natural need to talk about their special interests, it's an autistic way of communicating. So infodumping is not just about "loading" people with information that is not interesting to them, but is often a way of showing your desire to communicate with these people, form a connection with them and find a "common ground".
- Reduced Awareness of Surroundings:
Being monotropic can make daily life feel demanding and impact mental health. If you are using so much energy on a single task, it can feel like you need to constantly weigh up and balance your energy resources throughout the day to manage other tasks /channels of attention. If you are highly monotropic, life may feel even more intense as you become fully immersed in your attention tunnels/various tasks/sensory experiences and your entire bodymind energy flow is engaged. Moving in and out of channels of attention can feel challenging, each time costing more energy. If you are in burnout, you are in survival mode; you will likely need to use more energy to meet your basic authentic needs to get through the day; you may not have enough energy left to mask consciously or even subconsciously.
If you care about the wellbeing of autistic people, you need to try to understand autism. If you want to understand autism, you need to understand monotropism
As a trait, monotropism is a tendency to focus on relatively few things, relatively intensely, and to tune out or lose track of things outside of this attention tunnel.
Monotropic minds tend to have their attention pulled more strongly towards a smaller number of interests at any given time, leaving fewer resources for other processes. We argue that this can explain nearly all of the features commonly associated with autism, directly or indirectly. However, you do not need to accept it as a general theory of autism in order for it to be a useful description of common autistic experiences and how to work with them.
Monotropism is just a different strategy for allocating attention, or processing resources, with advantages and disadvantages. There could be good reasons why humankind evolved to feature many people who are quite polytropic – prone to spreading their processing resources widely, better at keeping track of disparate things – while a few people are monotropic, tending to focus intensely and for prolonged periods, at least under the right circumstances.
Most human communication is based on several channels going on simultaneously. People use words, prosody [a set of such phonetic features as tone, volume, tempo, general timbre coloring of speech], eye contact, facial expressions (large and small) and body language, all at once – and they expect us to do the same. All at the same time! And all while keeping track of what it means that you are interacting with this particular person, in this particular capacity, all while resolving ambiguities in each of these channels, often by reference to the others!
If your processing style lends itself to using a small selection of channels at any given time, communication is naturally going to be different. Autistic people tend to miss some of the subtleties, and those of us who use words tend to rely on them much more heavily than many others – saying exactly what we mean, rather than leaving it to our faces and bodies to do most of the talking, or assuming subtext.
All of this means that sometimes, we miss things that seem totally obvious to our conversational partners – and vice versa. What's obvious to you is not necessarily obvious to me!
Eye contact, for example, is not something we're just randomly bad at; it can capture too much of our attention, using up processing resources we could be using to follow your words or notice your facial expressions. Those of us who have 'flat affect' [a reduced emotional expressiveness] might find that modulating our voices and arranging our faces would be too much to handle along with all the other things we're trying to keep track of. If we are 'literal-minded', it's likely to be thanks to a combination of expecting people to communicate more like us (saying what they mean!) and struggling to find the processing power to resolve ambiguities, while simultaneously keeping on top of all the information channels people expect us to be using.
A lot of the difficulty autistic people tend to have with task-switching and initiation is best understood in terms of inertia, which I see as a natural result of monotropism. Flow, or monotropic absorption, means giving yourself over to an activity more-or-less completely – really investing your mental resources in it. Because of that, it takes time to get into gear, and it takes time to get back out of it again. We need to shift a greater load of mental resources, because it is so much harder for us to divide them.
Most of the problems autistic people have with 'executive functioning' can be understood through this lens, and I think it does much more to explain them and suggest strategies than the label of 'executive functioning', which I've always seen as a useful but woolly concept.
There are many things that could help to make life easier for people with spiky skill sets who tend to throw themselves wholeheartedly into what interests them. Unfortunately, none of them are easy to achieve in a neoliberal society.
Employers could come to understand that neurodivergent people can be extremely good at their actual jobs, and that they are losing out by discriminating against people who don't also have a wide range of barely-relevant skills, or who don't fit with their idea of a “team player”. I don't know what it would take for this to come about though, and I think we're probably moving in the opposite direction.
Whilst most people will subsequently spend their day mentally juggling what to pay attention to, the theory of monotropism proposes that, when the autistic mind reaches maximum capacity, we disassociate, throw up a 'do not disturb' sign and become intensely preoccupied with what we have set our minds to.
According to the theory's founders: Dr Dinah Murray, Wenn Lawson and Mike Lesser, this way of thinking is best illustrated if you imagine that an autistic person has the 'mind of a hunter'; an unquestionably awesome analogy which states that, when in the moment, distractions are not an option.
If it is indeed true that all autistic actions are brought about by an unbreakable concentration of limited priorities, then this fascinating theory provides solid evidence behind some of the most recommended techniques of how to support autistic people.
If autistic people are unlikely to shift from a task once it is set, then it only makes sense that you don't overload us with more jobs than a high school employment fair. This means that, when it comes to organising our workload, longer tasks are preferred over short ones as, speaking from experience, it's exhausting when we have to constantly shift from one chore to another.
You can find more details in Me and Monotropism: A unified theory of autism.
Autism (Part 1) • Autism (Part 2) • Autism and job • ADHD • Monotropism • Questions to AI
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About the Digital Collection
This collection of photographs of daily life in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is drawn from the personal papers of Robert L. Eichelberger and Frank Whitson Fetter, two ordinary Americans who found themselves in an extraordinary place and time.
Eichelberger (1886–1961), a career military officer, was stationed in Eastern Siberia during the Russian Civil War (1918–1921) alongside other members of the American Expeditionary Force, which was sent to protect the world from Russian Communism and Japanese militarism.
Fetter (1889–1991), a professional economist, toured southern Russia in the summer of 1930, during the height of the force-draft industrialization and collectivization campaigns that accompanied the promulgation of the First Five Year Plan (1928–1932).
Both men left unique photos of their encounter with ordinary individuals of the self-proclaimed first socialist country in the world. Their images of life in the Soviet provinces between the World Wars reveal an agrarian, multi-ethnic country, still reeling under the impact of the revolutionary forces unleashed at the beginning of the 20th-century.
Images from the Robert L. Eichelberger Collection
This digital collection of photographs and photo-postcards from the Robert L. Eichelberger Collection at Duke University's David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library provide unique visual documentation of both American involvement in the Russian Civil War (1918–1921) and daily life during war-time in an ethnically and religiously diverse region on the border of three major 20th-century powers (Russia, Japan, and China).
General Robert L. Eichelberger (1886–1961), a 1909 West Point graduate, served with distinction in the U.S. Army, and is perhaps most famous for his role in the occupation of Japan after World War II. Although the bulk of the 30,000 item collection of personal papers does indeed date from that era, a series of unique and heretofore little-known photographic images of the Russian Civil War in eastern Siberia recall one of the general's earliest assignments.
Eichelberger was posted to Siberia in 1918 to serve as assistant chief of staff, Operations Division, and chief intelligence officer with the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), which was dispatched to Russia by President Woodrow Wilson on a mission that constituted America's first attempt to use its armed forces for peacekeeping purposes. Over the course of Eichelberger's two-year tour of duty, he oversaw an intelligence network that extended over 5,000 miles into the Ural Mountains. In his official capacity as America's chief intelligence officer in Siberia, he interviewed (frequently over a bottle of vodka) hundreds of Russians from all walks of life, including "everything from a Baron to a prostitute." The intelligence gathered through his efforts and the reports generated through his examination of the data, allowed his commanding officer, Lieutenant-General William S. Graves, to determine a consistent American policy amidst "competing signals" from both Washington and the Inter-Allied Military Council, the ten-nation committee composed of American, British, French, and Japanese officers that debated, formulated, and tried to implement a coherent Allied policy for Siberia and eastern Russia between 1918 and 1920.
Materials in the Eichelberger Papers that pertain to his participation in the AEF's incursion into Siberia are grouped into two series. The Military Papers Series includes typed letters, handwritten notes, intelligence summaries, memoranda and reports, and leaflets as well as maps. The Picture Series, which is comprised of both photographs and photo-postcards, not only complements the written record of Eichelberger's tour of duty in eastern Siberia, but serves as an important primary source in its own right. This collection includes two albums of panoramic landscapes and official AEF photos, as well as a much larger assortment of images shot with a small portable camera by Eichelbergerand his fellow officers. Unlike the album photos, these are much less romanticized images of everyday life in eastern Siberia. Despite their seemingly more ethnographic nature, however, this second set of photos and photo-postcards is no less ideological than any of the other images in the Eichelberger collection. Although the temptation to treat them as a somehow more authentic representation of the past is very great, it would be a mistake to do so. Instead, these photos can be seen as Eichelberger's commentary on the situation in which the American Expeditionary Force in general, and Eichelberger in particular, found himself.
Almost from the start, the situations in which the troops of the American Expedition found itself was very complicated, if not completely untenable. As soon as they arrived in eastern Siberia, American troops realized that the most proximate reason for the White House-initiated incursion, namely, helping the Allies to re-establish an eastern front by providing military assistance to the so-called "Czech Legion" was a fraud. After only a few months on the ground, Eichelberger came to disagree with the assessment of the mission of American troops in Siberia (that is, the idea that guarding the Siberian railroads would provide economic relief to the Russian people, ensure domestic stability, and increase the changes for the triumph of democracy in Russia). He reported that the anti-Communist "White" forces used the railroad for their periodic "recruiting expeditions," during which they killed, branded, or tortured any peasant who refused to join their ranks. Needless to say, these punitive expeditions drove the Russian peasants into the ranks of the Bolsheviks — a result that "American troops contributed to" by guarding the railroad that made this "oppression" possible. Eichelberger concluded that the US presence in Siberia provided support to "a rotten, monarchistic" government that "has the sympathy of only a very few of the people." As early as Oct. 1919, he recommended withdrawal of US troops from Russia because it was a "hot bed of murder and oriental intrigue" and "a dirty place for Americans to be."
To a certain extent, this orientalizing discourse about the supposedly-inherent corruption and inferiority of Russian society also found its way into the visual language of some of Eichelberger's photos, particularly those depicting the diverse peoples of eastern Siberia or their exotic modes of transportation (junks, camels, droshki). In effect, if not in intention, Eichelberger's photos did much more than merely document the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional "reality" of life during the Russian Civil War in eastern Siberia. By directing his camera at only certain racial types or social situations, Eichelberger took the opportunity to re-assert the superiority of his own nation, gender, and race, if only in the photos that he took, annotated, and included in the letters that he sent home to his adoring wife. Eichelberger's ability to photograph and thereby to objectify the Oriental "other" allowed him (and other members of the American ExpeditionaryForce) to do nothing less than snatch a symbolic victory out of the jaws of defeat.
All the quotes from Eichelberger's correspondence are taken from the 1991 Duke University doctoral dissertation of Paul Chwialkowski, entitled "A 'Near Great' General: The Life and Career of Robert L. Eichelberger" (Ph. D., Duke University, 1991), published under the title In Caesar's Shadow: The Life of General Robert Eichelberger [= Contributions in military studies, no. 141] (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993).
Images from the Frank Whitson Fetter Collection
Frank Whitson Fetter's photographs of daily life in the Soviet provinces represent an untapped resource to scholars working on a variety of topics, including Russian visual culture, the history of Soviet childhood and everyday life, as well as Russian-American cultural relations in the twentieth-century.
Frank Whitson Fetter (1899–1991), an American economist, university professor, and government advisor, traveled extensively throughout his lifetime, primarily on matters of business. In the summer of 1930, he visited two major cities in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. His first stop was Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union and the Russian Soviet Socialist Federation, from which the Communist Party launched its First Five-Year Plan to industrialize the country and collectivize agriculture, irrespective of the massive social dislocation and organized state violence required to achieve its over-ambitious goals. However, after only two days in Moscow, "turning over stones <…> to no avail," Fetter decided to ditch his Intourist guides and venture beyond the usual cities and towns on the official itinerary for foreign visitors. Instead, Fetter spent the bulk of his two-month trip in and around the city of Kazan, which was then the capitol of the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and is today the capital city of the Russian Republic of Tatarstan.
William Henry Chamberlin, a prominent historian of Russia, had warned Fetter in 1930 "that with the increasing severity of the Stalin regime, the Russians, even Communists in good standing, fearful for their own safety, were beginning to avoid social contacts with foreigners." Undaunted, the forty-one-year-old American economist persevered and appears to have had little trouble befriending ordinary Soviet citizens. During his stay in the Soviet Union, he spent "six weeks with a Russian family in Kazan on the Upper Volga," as he wrote, "in a very livable, although not pretentious room all to myself <…>, and with arrangements to take my meals at a boarding house next door and to take Russian lessons <…>. Of course there isn't a radio in every room, or hot or cold running water by the bedside, but the place has electric lights, I can see the Volga from the drawing room of the boarding house, and Kazan is a quiet, and at the same time an almost interesting place." He noted that "[t]he days in Kazan fly by rapidly and far from suffering from boredom in a place where I am the only American within several hundred miles, I find that when these long summer evenings come there are many things I meant to do that I didn't do."
Although Fetter arrived in Kazan precisely ten years after the official establishment of a Autonomous Tatar Soviet Socialist Republic, he appears to have had no firm itinerary or discernible purpose, besides a desire to record everything he could about his stay in first Socialist country in the world. An accomplished amateur photographer, Fetter eagerly documented his surroundings. He toured a veneer factory, a worker's sanatorium, and the recently-organized "Voskhod" collective farm (photo below); visited parks, walked in the woods, swam in the Volga, and studied Russian with a private tutor. He was even able to take "a week's trip down the Volga sharing a stateroom with a young Ukrainian journalist and his wife, who later made me one of the three principal characters in a somewhat fictionalized book about the trip." Fetter also wrote many letters and saved notebooks and clippings. Like a good economist, he noted the prices and availability of goods such as strawberries and candy in the market lines for sugar and cigarettes, as well as the fact that Chinese women made paper toys for children in Kazan.
But it was photography that really excited Fetter. He fretted over his photos and told his wife that he would only feel he had reached his destination "when I and my photographic material get safely across the frontier." It is these amateur photos — taken by an American economist in Kazan in 1930 and preserved at the David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Duke University — that can be seen in this digital collection of images from the papers of Frank Whitson Fetter.
Text adapted from "Images of Soviet Children in the Frank Whitson Fetter Collection" — an unpublished paper delivered at the 2008 Southern Conference on Slavic Studies by Dr. Jacqueline Olich, Associate Director of the UNC Center for Slavic, Eurasian, and East European Studies. Quotations selected from Fetter's unpublished personal correspondence and his article, "Russia Revisited: Impressions After Forty Years," The South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. LXXI, No. 1, Winter, 1972, pp. 62–74.
The preservation of the Duke University Libraries Digital Collections and the Duke Digital Repository programs are supported in part by the Lowell and Eileen Aptman Digital Preservation Fund
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Why are we here? What’s the meaning of life? Where are we all heading to? Of course, these are all huge questions to ask. While many people look to faith and religion for answers, many also look towards science for physical evidence as to how our universe first began. The fact is, even decades on from intensive research into space and the very phenomenon of life itself, we still know so little about the vast expanse around us. Take a look below for 22 fun and interesting facts about the Bing Bang theory.
1. Of all scientific theories regarding the start of the universe, the Big Bang theory remains the most prevalent, and therefore may be the most prescribed-to. This is to such an extent that some creationist believers feel that the Big Bang may have been the creation of a higher power. However, it is still just a theory, as – obviously – no one was around to grab any evidence or to corroborate it for everyone else!
2. The Big Bang model has roots back in the 20th century, and we largely have Milton Humason and Edwin Hubble to thank. They proposed that, through ongoing research, galaxies they spied in the vast expanse of space actually seemed to be gradually drifting away from our own. The scientists proposed that the universe was constantly expanding, and that its inception, it would have been much smaller.
3. Humason and Hubble also believed that the origins of the universe were much hotter and much denser, too. This would lend towards a theory that would presume an explosion of sorts took place to disperse galaxies and bodies across space. This is the very basis of the Big Bang theory.
4. No one is really sure when the Big Bang may have happened, and therefore there are some schools of thought which differ regarding the actual age of the universe. It’s thought that the universe is likely to be at least 14 billion years old, with some scientists believing that it is slightly older, and with some erring on the side of younger. We’ve been able to learn more about the age of the universe thanks to advances in radiation imaging. This ties in nicely with the Big Bang theory in that scientists have been able to pinpoint an effective start or ‘bang’ point for the universe.
5. The Big Bang theory, when extended, also believes that all the forces we witness on Earth and in the universe at large right now will have all combined together to make one big super-force! For example, it’s proposed that forces such as nuclear, gravity and electromagnetism will have all been pieces of the same puzzle at the point of the universe exploding outwards.
6. But what came before the Big Bang? This again, no one is too sure about, but if we are to subscribe to the theory in full, we would assume that there would be nothing – just a black void. It’s quite hard to imagine, but pre-explosion, not even the smallest of molecules or atoms will have existed in the universe. The idea of there being absolutely nothing is difficult to imagine – so what caused the Big Bang in the first place? Naturally, we’re still fairly unsure on this, too!
7. However, we could look at this in a slightly different way. While we could safely assume that there was absolutely nothing in the universe or in existence at the point before the Big Bang, we could also propose that things were simply different before this point. Essentially, we could assume that pre-Big Bang, everything that exists now before 14 billion years ago was simply completely different to how we know it right now. Again, there is no way of knowing for sure. It is still just a theory.
8. Believe it or not, some of the most popular and revered theorists and scientists have, invariably, refuted the Big Bang theory over the years. Amongst them, surprisingly, was Albert Einstein. Einstein did not subscribe to the theory at all when presented with the concept, despite the fact that he helped to build a clear idea of how matter operates in the wider universe. When Georges Lemaitre first approached Einstein with workings on the Big Bang theory, Einstein responded directly with ‘your calculations are correct, but your physics are abominable’.
9. Anyone who believes that there is no such evidence available for the Big Bang may be surprised to hear that we have been able to piece together available data from cosmic microwaves, which were analysed around the 1960s. It is these cosmic waves which have helped researchers and scientists learn more about how the universe may have changed over time.
10. There have been multiple theories put forward about the start of the universe again and again over the decades, however, more often than not, they add onto and into the Big Bang theory. That’s how popular and how powerful this simple theory is – it’s been used as the blueprint for theories all the way back to the start of the 20th century, long before we were even able to come up with much in the way of evidence to back it up!
11. The theory goes into incredible detail. One of the key takeaways from the Big Bang theory is that radiation throughout the universe is not uniform and will therefore vary across the millions of miles. This was thought to be part of the assumptive theory until evidence actually emerged in the early 1990s to show that irregularities in radiation were in fact clear to spot through simple exploration. It’s safe to say that advances in technology have been helping to build on the theory, and to help cement its status, for decades and decades.
12. In fact, it’s said that we can use these irregularities to actually better detail how old the universe is, and what its exact nature may have been when the Big Bang first took place. These irregularities may also be used to tell us the exact nature of the radiation’s uniformity at the time of the explosion, meaning that we can actively pinpoint when irregularities started to emerge throughout the universe. This is all very fascinating stuff which can get pretty involved if you look deeply enough into it!
13. The Big Bang theory, as stated, is likely to be the marker for all universe theories as we know them today. However, that’s not to say that scientists are treating it as the be all and end all. In fact, it’s used as a foundation, or template, to look closely into more theories and to better develop our understanding of the big, impossible void around us.
14. There have, for example, been multiple theories and suggestions put forward which could explain the origins of the universe in different ways, still using the Bang as a template of sorts. For example, some believe that a Big Bounce was more likely. What’s more, Professor Stephen Hawking proposed that such a reaction as the Big Crunch would arise at some point in future, as the opposite reaction to the Big Bang, should it be true. This led to all manner of theories abound that time, and life itself, would start running backwards. However, the theory is a little more in depth and precise than that!
15. Bizarrely, some believe that the Big Bang may not refer to the active start point of the universe anymore. The very idea that there was nothing before the event has proven confusing for many scientists and theorists. So much so, that some researchers believe that there will have been a very different state of energy in the universe altogether prior to the Big Bang taking place. This means that we may have seen something more akin to cosmic inflation, rather than an active explosion of the universe out of nothingness – quite literally. This means that, as time goes by, scientists may continue to keep rolling things back until we simply can’t go any further back in time. Research will likely never cease into the phenomenon, though it’s fascinating to think that this simple theory still holds so much weight and so much purpose in the modern age.
16. The Big Bang is sometimes referred to, in its expanded form, as Hubble’s Law, named after one of the original theorists. Hubble believed that an object’s distance away from the Milky Way was relative to speed, meaning that farther objects appeared to be moving quicker. It is a rather simple proposal, at least compared to some of the more outlandish and in-depth theories out there, and it even led to a major telescope being named after Hubble in the years to come.
17. Many scientists and researchers have used the basic Big Bang model to help explain how stars and planets form and behave in general. This is because the initial proposition that things start off hot and dense before exploding outwards can be applied to a near endless array of celestial bodies and stars out there in the wider, unknown universe.
18. Many people studying the Big Bang actually prefer to not think of it as the very beginning of matter as we know it. Rather, many people believe that it is a great theory which clearly shows how states change. However, it will still likely give us plenty of food for thought as to how things may have begun, especially as we really don’t have any other concretes ideas or evidence to suggest otherwise. Sadly, we may never really know the truth.
19. It took some time for people – even those who didn’t believe in creationism – to warm to the theory. It was thought that when the initial proposal was made, it was widely discredited for many years. A great example of this is Einstein’s rebuttal listed above, though he was not alone in his feelings about the theory.
20. Believe it or not, bird poop seems to have a firm place in studying the theory. That is, it seems that the leftover glow or noise from the Big Bang may have been evident in bird mess on an antenna. Specifically, this phenomenon arose when Bob Wilson and Arno Penzias were trying to study the skies but found a uniform signal coming from just about everywhere. This was as a result of there being bird mess on their external antenna. Strange but true!
21. Believe it or not, the science surrounding the origins of the universe may have started with a Catholic priest. It was the early work of Georges Lemaitre which led to theories of relativity becoming commonplace, and therefore, his initial studies have a firm place in helping to form much of the Big Bang theoretics as we know them to this day.
22. Believe it or not, the solar system actually came around much later than the Big Bang actually took place. It’s thought that our system came into being around 9 billion years after the Big Bang took place. Therefore, we really are newcomers to this game we call life!
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The Harmonious Benefits of Singing for People with Diabetes Living with diabetes can be challenging, but did you know that singing can be a powerful tool in managing this condition? Beyond its artistic and emotional value, singing offers a range of physical and mental health benefits that can significantly contribute to the well-being of individuals with diabetes. In this blog, we’ll explore how singing can help reduce hyperglycaemia, alleviate stress, lower cortisol levels, enhance focused attention, and improve working memory. Living with diabetes can be challenging, requiring careful management of blood sugar levels to maintain optimal health. While medical interventions and lifestyle modifications are commonly recommended, there may be an unexpected, enjoyable way to complement diabetes management: singing. Recent studies have revealed a surprising connection between singing and improved glycaemic control, offering a potential alternative or supplementary approach for individuals with diabetes. In this blog post, we’ll explore the fascinating relationship between singing and hyperglycaemia, highlighting the potential benefits it can bring to those living with diabetes. 1. Reducing Hyperglycaemia Through Song Hyperglycaemia, the condition of elevated blood sugar levels, is a primary concern for individuals with diabetes. Engaging in physical activities can help regulate blood sugar levels, and singing is a unique form of exercise that often involves controlled breathing and muscle engagement. These factors contribute to improved blood circulation and glucose uptake by cells, thereby helping to maintain more stable blood sugar levels. 2. Harmony in Stress Reduction Stress can wreak havoc on blood sugar levels. Singing has been shown to activate the parasympathetic nervous system, triggering the relaxation response. This, in turn, helps to reduce stress and anxiety, both of which can negatively impact blood glucose control. When you sing, your body releases endorphins, which are natural mood elevators that promote a sense of calm and well-being. 3. Cortisol Control Through Melody Cortisol, commonly known as the stress hormone, can lead to increased blood sugar levels when its production is elevated. Singing has the remarkable ability to lower cortisol levels, thereby aiding in blood sugar management. The act of singing engages the breath and activates the vagus nerve, which helps regulate the body’s stress response. 4. Tuning into Focused Attention Maintaining focused attention is crucial for diabetes management, as it involves making mindful choices about diet, exercise, and medication. Singing requires concentration on lyrics, melody, and rhythm, which can enhance cognitive engagement and mindfulness. This focused attention can spill over into other aspects of life, leading to better diabetes self-care. 5. Melodic Enhancement of Working Memory Working memory is the mental workspace where information is temporarily stored and processed. Singing challenges the brain by requiring the recall of lyrics, melody, and rhythm in real-time. Regularly exercising working memory through singing can enhance cognitive abilities, potentially assisting in managing the cognitive challenges that some people with diabetes face. The Link Between Singing and Hyperglycaemia: Numerous research studies have explored the impact of singing on various aspects of human health. One intriguing finding is the effect of singing on glucose metabolism in individuals with diabetes. Singing involves controlled deep breathing and increased oxygen intake, leading to improved lung function and enhanced respiratory control. These physiological changes, coupled with the release of endorphins during singing, contribute to positive effects on glucose regulation. Enhanced Respiratory Control and Glucose Metabolism: Singing is known to improve respiratory control and lung function. The deep, diaphragmatic breathing required during singing engages the abdominal and intercostal muscles, allowing individuals to inhale more deeply and exhale more fully. This controlled breathing pattern enhances the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs, leading to improved oxygenation of body tissues, including those responsible for glucose metabolism. Endorphin Release and Glucose Regulation: Singing stimulates the release of endorphins, also known as “feel-good” hormones. These chemicals create a sense of pleasure, relaxation, and overall well-being. Endorphins play a vital role in modulating stress levels and reducing anxiety, both of which can impact blood glucose levels. By alleviating stress and promoting emotional well-being, singing indirectly contributes to better glycaemic control. The Psychological Impact: The benefits of singing extend beyond physiological effects. Engaging in group singing activities, such as choirs or vocal ensembles, provides social interaction, support, and a sense of belonging. Psychosocial factors, including reduced stress, improved self-esteem, and enhanced emotional resilience, have been linked to better diabetes management. Singing can serve as an outlet for emotional expression, fostering a positive mindset that can directly impact glycaemic control. Embracing Singing as Part of Diabetes Management: While singing alone cannot replace traditional diabetes management strategies, it can be a valuable adjunct. Consider the following ways to incorporate singing into your routine: 1. Join a choir or singing group: Participating in a choir or vocal ensemble can provide an enjoyable way to engage in regular singing sessions and connect with others who share similar interests. 2. Sing at home: Incorporate singing into your daily routine. Set aside dedicated time to sing along with your favourite songs or explore new musical genres. This can be done individually or with family and friends. 3. Explore virtual singing opportunities: In an increasingly digital world, virtual choirs and singing communities have emerged. These platforms allow individuals to participate in group singing activities remotely, providing an opportunity to connect with others while staying in the comfort of your home. Conclusion: Singing, with its multifaceted benefits, offers a promising avenue for improving hyperglycaemia and overall well-being in individuals with diabetes. By engaging in regular singing sessions, you can enhance respiratory control, promote emotional well-being, and potentially achieve better glycaemic control. Remember to consult with your healthcare team to integrate singing into your overall diabetes management plan. Embrace the joy of singing and discover the positive impact it can have on your health and diabetes journey. In conclusion, the therapeutic power of singing goes beyond its artistic beauty. For individuals with diabetes, singing offers a holistic approach to managing the condition by reducing hyperglycaemia, alleviating stress, lowering cortisol levels, enhancing focused attention, and improving working memory. Incorporating singing
The Healing Power of Song: Singing and its Impact on Chronic Osteoarthritis Chronic osteoarthritis, a degenerative joint disease that affects millions worldwide, can take a significant toll on one’s physical and mental well-being. While medical interventions and therapies play a crucial role in managing the condition, there’s a lesser-known ally in the fight against osteoarthritis: singing. Recent research suggests that engaging in singing can have a profound impact on individuals suffering from chronic osteoarthritis, offering benefits that go beyond the realms of music. From improving motivation and elevating mood to increasing feelings of control, reducing pain, and even mitigating preoperative hypertension in hip and knee replacements, the healing power of song is increasingly recognized. Living with chronic osteoarthritis can be a constant battle, affecting both physical and emotional well-being. However, there may be a surprising solution to boost motivation and enhance the overall quality of life for individuals with this condition: singing. Music has long been recognized for its therapeutic benefits, and recent studies suggest that singing can have a profound impact on individuals with chronic osteoarthritis. In this blog, we will explore how singing can improve motivation, reduce pain, increase social connections, and provide a much-needed respite from the challenges of living with chronic osteoarthritis. 1. Boosting Motivation: Chronic osteoarthritis often comes with physical limitations that can lead to feelings of helplessness and demotivation. Engaging in singing, whether alone or in a group setting, provides a positive and enjoyable activity that can counteract these feelings. The act of singing itself requires focus and effort, giving individuals a sense of purpose and accomplishment. Music has a remarkable ability to uplift our spirits and evoke emotions, making it a powerful tool in improving motivation. Singing, in particular, can stimulate the release of endorphins, the brain’s natural feel-good chemicals. This surge of endorphins helps reduce pain and increases feelings of happiness and motivation. Moreover, singing engages multiple regions of the brain, including those responsible for memory and attention, enhancing cognitive function and focus. Research has shown that singing can activate the brain’s reward system, leading to increased motivation. When we sing, our brains release dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and motivation. This release of dopamine creates a positive feedback loop, making individuals more likely to engage in activities that provide a sense of accomplishment, even in the face of chronic pain caused by osteoarthritis. 2. Elevating Mood: Music, including singing, has a direct impact on mood regulation. Participating in singing releases endorphins, the “feel-good” hormones, which can uplift mood and alleviate feelings of anxiety and depression often associated with chronic pain conditions like osteoarthritis. 3. Increasing Feelings of Control: Chronic osteoarthritis can lead to a perceived loss of control over one’s body and daily life. Singing empowers individuals by giving them a sense of agency and control over their vocal abilities. This newfound control can extend beyond music, positively influencing how individuals perceive their ability to manage their condition. 4. Reducing Pain: Research has shown that engaging in singing can trigger the release of natural pain-relieving chemicals, such as endorphins and oxytocin. These chemicals can help alleviate pain and discomfort associated with chronic osteoarthritis. Moreover, the deep breathing techniques involved in singing promote relaxation, which can further reduce pain perception. Chronic osteoarthritis often brings persistent pain, making daily activities challenging. Singing offers a unique avenue to alleviate pain and improve physical well-being. The act of singing promotes deep breathing, which helps oxygenate the body and reduces muscle tension. This can lead to decreased pain sensitivity and improved overall comfort. Additionally, singing exercises the muscles involved in respiratory control, improving lung capacity and strengthening the diaphragm. Enhanced lung function can result in better cardiovascular health and overall physical stamina. By improving physical capabilities and reducing pain, singing empowers individuals with osteoarthritis to engage in activities they might have otherwise felt unable to pursue, fostering a sense of motivation and accomplishment. 5. Therapeutic Escape: Living with chronic osteoarthritis demands resilience and coping strategies. Singing can serve as a therapeutic escape from the challenges of the condition. Immersing oneself in the melody and lyrics of a favourite song provides a temporary respite from pain, allowing individuals to focus on something positive and uplifting. Music has the power to transport us to a different emotional state, evoking memories and emotions associated with certain songs. Singing familiar tunes can trigger positive memories and emotions, providing an emotional boost during difficult times. This emotional release can help individuals with chronic osteoarthritis maintain their motivation, as they find solace and rejuvenation through the power of song. 6. Mitigating Preoperative Hypertension: In individuals preparing for hip and knee replacement surgeries due to osteoarthritis, preoperative hypertension can be a concern. Singing, particularly in a group setting, has been linked to lowering blood pressure and reducing stress. This effect can contribute to better preoperative outcomes for patients with osteoarthritis. 7. Social Connections and Emotional Well-being Chronic osteoarthritis can often lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness. Singing, however, provides a means to forge meaningful social connections and combat these emotional challenges. Participating in singing groups, choirs, or vocal classes creates a supportive community where individuals with osteoarthritis can share their experiences, struggles, and triumphs. Through collective singing, individuals develop a sense of belonging and camaraderie, which can significantly improve emotional well-being. Sharing a common passion for music and overcoming challenges together fosters a supportive environment that helps combat feelings of depression and anxiety, often associated with chronic illnesses. Conclusion Singing is a multifaceted tool that holds immense potential in improving motivation, reducing pain, fostering social connections, and providing emotional respite for individuals living with chronic osteoarthritis. By harnessing the power of music, those with osteoarthritis can find strength, inspiration, and a renewed sense of purpose. Whether belting out a tune or harmonizing in a choir, singing can transform the lives of individuals with chronic osteoarthritis, empowering them to embrace life’s challenges with resilience and motivation. In conclusion, the benefits of singing for individuals with chronic osteoarthritis extend far beyond the
The Therapeutic Power of Singing: A Melodic Journey for Dementia Patients **Introduction** Dementia is a challenging condition that affects millions of people worldwide, robbing them of their memory, cognitive abilities, and sometimes even their emotional well-being. While there is no cure for dementia, there are various therapeutic approaches that can significantly improve the quality of life for those living with this condition. One such powerful and uplifting approach is singing. This blog explores the myriad benefits of singing for dementia patients, encompassing physical health, mental well-being, heart disease, stroke risk, depression, behavioural problems, and overall quality of life. **1. Boosts Physical Health** Singing is not only an enjoyable pastime but also an excellent exercise for the body. Engaging in singing helps improve respiratory and cardiovascular functions, as it encourages deep breathing and increased lung capacity. This can be particularly beneficial for individuals with dementia, as it helps maintain or improve physical fitness, keeping them active and enhancing overall well-being. **2. Enhances Mental Health** Music has a profound impact on the brain, and singing is no exception. Studies have shown that when dementia patients participate in singing activities, it can stimulate various areas of the brain responsible for memory and emotional processing. This stimulation can lead to improved cognitive function, enhanced memory retention, and increased emotional connection, which can be incredibly valuable in managing the symptoms of dementia. **3. Reduces Heart Disease Risk and Stroke** Heart disease and stroke are significant concerns for individuals with dementia. Engaging in regular singing sessions can have a positive effect on heart health by reducing stress and anxiety levels. Stress reduction, in turn, can contribute to lower blood pressure and a decreased risk of heart disease and stroke, providing a potential protective effect for those with dementia. **4. Alleviates Depression** Depression is a common co-occurring condition in dementia patients, leading to a further decline in their overall health. Singing has been shown to release endorphins, the “feel-good” hormones, promoting a sense of happiness and joy. This natural mood enhancement can help alleviate depressive symptoms and improve the emotional well-being of individuals with dementia. **5. Addresses Behavioural Problems** Behavioural problems, such as agitation and aggression, are often observed in dementia patients. Singing can serve as a non-pharmacological intervention to manage such challenging behaviours. When dementia patients participate in group singing, it fosters a sense of community and reduces feelings of isolation, which, in turn, can lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviours. **6. Improves Overall Quality of Life** The combination of physical activity, cognitive stimulation, emotional connection, and reduced behavioural problems offered by singing culminates in an enhanced overall quality of life for individuals with dementia. Engaging in regular singing sessions can bring joy, purpose, and a sense of achievement to patients, making their lives more meaningful despite the challenges they face. **Conclusion** Singing is an incredibly powerful tool that can significantly benefit individuals living with dementia. Its positive impact on physical health, mental well-being, heart disease, stroke risk, depression, behavioural problems, and overall quality of life makes it an invaluable therapeutic approach. Caregivers, family members, and healthcare professionals should consider incorporating singing activities into dementia care plans to enrich the lives of those affected by this condition. Let the melody be the guide on this transformative journey for dementia patients, spreading joy and harmony amidst the challenges they face.
The Therapeutic Power of Singing for Individuals Battling Cancer Cancer is a formidable adversary, affecting not only the body but also the mind and spirit of those it afflicts. Alongside medical treatments, there’s a growing recognition of the importance of complementary therapies to enhance the well-being of cancer patients. One such remarkably powerful tool is singing, which has shown promise in alleviating a range of physical and emotional symptoms associated with cancer. Let’s explore how singing can make a profound impact on individuals facing the challenges of cancer. 1. Reducing Fatigue: Cancer-related fatigue is a common and debilitating symptom. Singing engages multiple muscle groups, increases oxygenation, and triggers the release of endorphins, which can combat fatigue. 2. Managing Pain: Music therapy, including singing, has been linked to the release of natural painkillers in the body, offering relief to cancer patients experiencing chronic pain. 3. Easing Anxiety and Depression: Singing releases oxytocin and dopamine, chemicals that promote feelings of relaxation and happiness. Engaging in group singing fosters a sense of belonging, reducing feelings of isolation and anxiety. 4. Addressing Anorexia: Singing encourages deep breathing and stimulates the vagus nerve, which can help normalize digestion and potentially alleviate anorexia-related symptoms. 5. Enhancing Mobility: Cancer and its treatments can lead to limited range of motion and gait disturbances. Singing involves coordinated movements of the diaphragm and other muscles, which can contribute to improved overall mobility. 6. Aiding Activities of Daily Living: By enhancing respiratory and muscular strength, singing can help individuals regain independence in performing daily tasks. 7. Combating Edema: The deep, controlled breathing required for singing can aid in lymphatic flow, potentially reducing swelling (edema) in certain cases. 8. Assisting Pulmonary Rehabilitation: Singing strengthens respiratory muscles, improves lung capacity, and encourages proper breathing techniques, all of which are crucial aspects of pulmonary rehabilitation. 9. Improving Swallowing Therapy: Cancer treatments often lead to difficulty in swallowing. Singing exercises can strengthen the muscles involved in swallowing, potentially aiding in swallowing therapy. 10. Enhancing Movement and Gait: Singing involves rhythm and coordinated movements, which can contribute to improved motor skills and gait patterns for individuals dealing with cancer-related movement issues. 11. Empowerment and Mind-Body Connection: Singing empowers cancer patients by giving them a sense of control and expression. It establishes a positive mind-body connection, fostering resilience during the healing journey. 12. Facilitating Emotional Expression: Cancer can stir up a whirlwind of emotions. Singing provides a safe outlet for emotional expression, helping individuals process their feelings and find solace. Incorporating singing into cancer care requires thoughtful planning and collaboration between medical professionals, music therapists, and patients themselves. It’s important to note that while singing can offer various benefits, it’s not a replacement for conventional medical treatments. Instead, it complements these treatments and enhances overall well-being. Whether through group singing sessions, one-on-one music therapy, or even individual vocal exercises, the healing power of singing holds immense potential for cancer patients. As we continue to unravel the therapeutic benefits of music, embracing singing as an integral part of holistic cancer care could pave the way for improved quality of life, emotional resilience, and physical well-being.
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Quite rightly, China prides itself of its long history, impressively evidenced by the Chinese monetary tradition that took a different route than our western one. Learn more about the cash.
In 221 B. C., the king of Qin accepted the imperial title. He had managed to unite the entire country under his control so that he deemed the title hitherto used by kings, ‘wang’, not suitable anymore. Qin Shi Huangdi means nothing less than Shining Divine First Emperor of Qin, the eponymous dynasty of China.
Group of soldiers of the terracotta army of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi in his tomb of Xi’an. Photograph: Nee / Wikipedia. CC 3.0
This ruler we today in the west primarily know thanks to his terracotta warriors, the Chinese revered as founder of their state. They consider him a tyrant, on the one hand, and the initiator of a great unification, on the other hand. He is credited with having built a major part of the Great Wall of China. He divided the empire into equal units that were subordinated to him and controlled by his officials. He introduced a hierarchy for the civil servants where the individual could work his way up to the top. The Chinese say that he had a virtual regulation mania that resulted not only in the unification of the Chinese script and the standardization of all measures and weights but likewise in a a rigid ordinance regarding the hairdo of his soldiers and the regulation that the square official caps of his civil servants had to be exactly six fingers high, the carriages exactly 1.82 m long.
China. Qin Dynastie. Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (221-210 B. C.), Banliang (= weighing half liang) or – as we today would refer it to – cash. © MoneyMuseum, Zurich.
With that said, it is hardly surprising that Qin Shi Huangdi was credited for a long time for having invented the first cash with a weight of half a liang (i.e. about 8 g). The archaeological finds, however, tell us that the first of these coins had been produced as early as the Warring States Period (453-221 B. C.). Their shape derives from the ring-shaped jade discs that served as ritual presents during the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1027-256 B. C.). There were given to the lieges when they visited the emperor’s palace to deliver the annual tribute.
China. Qing Dynasty. Emperor Puyi (1875-1908), cash. © MoneyMuseum, Zurich.
Qin Shi Huangdi declared the coins used in Qin, where they were called ‘ban liang‘ (= half liang), the only currency allowed to circulate in his empire. And the cash became the most important coin of China indeed, and was minted until the end of the empire under Emperor Puyi.
A cash is a round-shaped bronze coin with a rectangular hole that exhibits characters which state the weights and/or the issuing authority. This coin was a perfect embodiment of the imperial power. Both – coin as well as emperor – connected heaven and earth, yin and yang. The coin, after all, had two sides, and its shape likewise mirrors the principles of male and female: the Chinese philosophers thought that heaven was a dome, simplified as a circle, whereas earth was symbolized by the square. The emperor’s task was to establish peace between heaven and earth with his laws and ask the divine emperor for heavy crop and prosperity.
Temple of Heaven / Beijing. Photograph: Fioshoot / Wikipedia. CC-by-2.0.
The central sanctuary of China, the Temple of Heaven, was a circular building in a square-shaped court – and this symbolism is clearly mirrored in the imperial coins: they are round-shaped with a square hole. The Chinese belief system, therefore, is reflected in the cash which constituted the most important of Chinese money until the 19th century.
Just like our present money, these coins were a ‘fiat currency’, hence a means of exchange whose value wasn’t backed by any noble metal but was valuable only thanks to a joint convention. The way in which these coins were used is explained in a legal document that was found in a tomb in 1975. The regulation, written on bamboo, contains some provisions on economic and currency affairs. And here we read that the ‘round-shaped coins’ were to be used without any distinction, regardless if they were ‘beautiful’ or ‘ugly’ (in plain terms, if they were heavy or light). In addition, it was prohibited to sort these coins according to weight when doing business. That means that this first cash already was a currency that was designed solely as a means of barter, regardless of its intrinsic value, and this was a development that Europe ultimately completed as late as 1968. –
As a matter of fact, other materials than bronze were used for manufacturing money in China, too, – we know specimens made of the inferior metals lead and iron, even made of fabric and paper, in some cases of bamboo or wood.
Let’s get back to the above mentioned law. It informs about the ‘bu’ being used as currency as well, simultaneously with the cash, fabric measuring exactly 188 x 58 centimeters. ‘Bu’ was only accepted as currency when it came in precisely this size. Its value was defined with 11 unsorted coins.
For large sums, in addition, the unit ‘pen’ was used. One ‘pen’ equaled a clay vessel containing exactly 1,000 coins – in 1962, a clay container was found in Zhangpu (Shaanxi Province) actually filled with 1,000 coins which, additionally, still possessed the seal of the market administration of a small community.
At last, a word about the term ‘cash’. Contrary to expectations, it didn’t originate in China, but in India where the word ‘karsha’ meant ‘bronze coin’.
Coining and coin tree
The cash weren’t minted like the western coins but were cast in an expandable mould. First, an important calligrapher created the layout of the new coin that wasn’t decorated with figural representations but with characters only. Even the emperor is said to have designed coins from time to time. Once the model was approved of officially, it was carved in wood, bone or ivory.
The casting moulds for the cash are made with an imprint of a coin in moist clay. From A. Schroeder-Annam, Études numismatiques, Paris (1905), pl. 21.
It served as basic raw material for the first casting mould used to produce the so-called ancestor coins. They were the master moulds, the ones every further coin of the emission was produced with. As a result, they had to be reworked carefully. From these master moulds, new moulds were manufactured from which ‘mother moulds’ were made. These ‘mother moulds’ were sent to local workshops throughout China where yet another moulds were produced used to cast circulation coins.
The finished casting moulds are examined and piled. From A. Schroeder-Annam, Études numismatiques, Paris (1905), pl. 24.
These casting moulds consisted of clay plates piled with several coin moulds that were connected with a cast channel.
Molten bronze is filled in the casting moulds. From A. Schroeder-Annam, Études numismatiques, Paris (1905), pl. 35.
By that, one single casting produced as many coins as were connected by a small strip of solidified metal. And so, the model coin tree was created, symbol of luck and wealth that was a requisite in every burial ceremony to guarantee prosperity to the deceased in the afterlife, too.
The coins are broken off the ‚coin trees‘. From A. Schroeder-Annam, Études numismatiques, Paris (1905), pl. 38.
For every-day use these coin trees of course were taken to pieces, and the single cash coins carefully broken off the strip.
The cash coins are counted and strung together on slings by which they became easy to handle. From A. Schroeder-Annam, Études numismatiques, Paris (1905), pl. 40.
After that, they were slung together on slings with which bigger sums would be paid much easier.
By the way, cash wasn’t produced in the official mints exclusively. In those areas that were short on coins, private individuals used circulated specimens to produce cash coins in exactly the same way, and these coins were accepted on the market like any officially sanctioned piece. Already the first Han emperor after the fall of the Qin Dynasty had legalized this custom in 206 B. C.
This large-scale production was needed in order to produce the vast amount of coins China demanded. After all, the single cash coin had lost nearly its entire value. While in the Han Dynasty (206 B. C.-A. D. 220) a horse had cost 4,500 cash, the price rose to 25,000 cash in the 7th century, and during the Mongolian dominion in the 13th century, it had finally arrived at 90,000 cash coins – for just one horse.
Money in Chinese popular belief
In China, cash wasn’t just a means of payment, but played an important role in popular belief as well. The Chinese considered particular coins especially auspicious. Good examples are the so-called ‘Zhou Yuan Tong Bao’.
Originally, they had been cast from the bronze of the statues taken from 3,000 Buddhist temples. The Chinese characters written on them meant ‘everywhere new beginning’ and ‘circulating treasure’. Their owners considered this auspicious to such an extent that they withdrew the coins from circulation and used them as charm or remedy. When, eventually, no real ‘Zhou Yuan Tong Bao’ were circulating anymore, new ones were produced – likewise other lucky charms in coin-shape with special inscriptions were designed. Not everything that looks like a Chinese cash coin in fact is one.
Entire swords were built from coins. They were used to shoo away evil ghosts and illnesses. In the funerary cult, too, coins and later banknotes played an important part. They were given to the deceased as means of payment in the afterlife. FYI, that custom retains until the present day. At present, however, no real banknote is being burnt at the great burial ceremonies but hell money printed by private companies in the name of Hell Bank or Bank of Hades for this purpose only. The printing houses in Hong Kong, by the way, have real fun in giving the king of hell, as the traditional motif on these notes, the facial features of those politicians from west and east that are particularly unpopular at the moment.
The third episode of our trip through the history of Chinese money will take us from the invention of paper money until today.
Numerous examples of the history of Chinese coinage you will find informatively explained on the website of the MoneyMuseum.
Many of these objects in the MoneyMuseum are part of the Kuhn Collection.
You can find all parts of this series here.
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Having personally navigated through the confusion surrounding whether a car battery can recharge itself overnight, I understand the uncertainties drivers face. In my journey, I’ve appreciated the importance of offering clear and accurate information to fellow drivers.
Will a car battery recharge itself overnight? (Short Answer)
No, a dead car battery cannot recharge itself. External intervention is required to restore its charge. Options include removing and charging the battery separately, jumpstarting it, or using a dedicated battery charger.
Please stick with us; we will discuss the factors behind car battery charging and whether a completely dead battery can be recharged overnight.
Table of Contents
Understanding the Basics of Car Batteries:
Although lithium-ion batteries are used in more recent electric and hybrid vehicles, lead-acid batteries are still commonly used in cars.
Rechargeable lead-acid batteries are made of lead dioxide and sponge lead plates dissolved in sulfuric acid. These batteries supply the electrical energy required to turn on a car’s engine, run its lights, and run its numerous electrical systems.
Also Read: Car Battery Making Hissing Noise
Car Battery Charging:
The alternator helps charge the car batteries while the car is operating. The alternator replenishes the battery’s lost charge by converting the engine’s mechanical energy into electrical energy.
To guarantee that the battery has a constant source of electricity, this operation takes place while the automobile is moving.
Will A Car Battery Recharge Itself Overnight?
Do batteries recharge themselves? No, a car battery cannot recharge itself overnight. Even if driving recovers some energy, it is insufficient to fully charge the battery, particularly if it has been severely low.
On the other hand, “idle-stop” or “stop-start” technology is a function found in many current cars that automatically switches off the engine when the vehicle is immobile, like at traffic signals. This technology lowers pollution and conserves gasoline. When the engine is switched off, the alternator stops charging the battery, yet some charge remains.
Also Read: How To Fix Reverse Polarity On A Car Battery
Will Car Battery Recharge Itself Without Jump?
No, a car battery can’t charge itself without help from someone else, even if the generator works. There will be no way for the alternator to make electricity to charge the battery if the car doesn’t start because the battery is dead.
In this case, the battery needs to be charged from the outside, like by jump-starting the car or using a special battery charger.
Options For Charging A Car Battery Overnight:
You can use external charging to ensure your car battery is fully charged before sleep. A battery charger is the most usual way to do it.
The circuitry in these chargers lets them slowly charge the battery by sending it a controlled amount of electricity. But it’s important to use a charger that works with your battery type and follow the directions that came with the charger.
A home charging station is another way to charge electric and hybrid cars with lithium-ion batteries. The car’s battery can be charged overnight at these stations, making sure that the car is ready to use the next day easily and quickly.
Can A Dead Car Battery Recharge Itself?
No, a dead car battery cannot recharge itself. If the battery is completely drained and the car fails to start, the alternator cannot work, and there is no mechanism for the battery to receive additional energy.
External interventions, such as jump-starting the vehicle or using a dedicated battery charger, are necessary to recharge a dead car battery.
Factors That Affect Car Battery Recharge:
Before answering whether a car battery can recharge itself overnight, it is important to understand the many factors affecting battery recharge.
1. Battery Capacity:
The capacity of a car battery is measured in amp-hours (Ah). It speaks of how much power a battery is capable of holding. However, a battery with a bigger capacity will take longer to empty and longer to recharge.
Also Read: Why Is My Car Battery Showing 15 Volts
2. Battery Age:
Batteries lose capacity as they get older and take more time to recharge. Batteries over 5 years old are more likely to require external interference to recharge.
3. Alternator Output:
While the car is running, the alternator is in charge of charging the battery. Its output is measured in amps, and a higher output alternator will recharge the battery faster.
4. Electrical Load:
The amount of power used when the engine runs is called the electrical load. A slower rate of battery recharge will result from a greater electrical load.
5. Engine Speed:
Engine speed depends on the performance of the alternator output. Therefore, as engine speed increases, alternator output increases, and the battery recharges faster.
car battery dies overnight:
Is the car battery not holding charge overnight? Here are some common reasons why a car battery may die overnight. How can a car battery die overnight?
Parastic Drain: Some electrical parts of a car keep using power even when the key is not in the ignition. This is called a parasitic drain, and it can happen when the wire is bad, an electrical part isn’t working right, or an accessory isn’t turned off properly.
Old or Faulty Battery: Car batteries only last a certain amount, usually 3 to 5 years. Your battery may not hold a charge well if it is old or broken so it will drain overnight.
Charging System Problems: If the alternator, voltage regulator, or other parts of the charging system aren’t working right, the battery might not get charged enough while the car is going.
Short Circuits or Bad Wiring: If there are short circuits or broken wiring, electricity can flow continuously, draining the battery even when the car is unused.
Electronic Components Left On: If you leave the radio, lights, or other electronics on overnight, the battery will die fast.
To address the issue of a car battery dying overnight, consider the following steps:
- Perform a Battery Test: Check the health of your battery. If it’s old or failing, it may need replacement.
- Inspect for Parasitic Drain: Use a multimeter to measure the current draw when the car is off. Identify and address any excessive parasitic drain by consulting with a mechanic.
- Check the Charging System: Ensure the alternator, voltage regulator, and other components function correctly. A professional mechanic can perform tests to identify any issues.
- Inspect Wiring and Connections: Look for signs of damaged or corroded wiring and ensure that all connections are secure.
- Turn Off Electronic Components: Ensure all lights, radio, and other electronic components are turned off when the car is not in use.
How To Tell That It’s Time For A New Battery?
Several signs indicate it’s time for a new car battery, including:
- Slow Engine Crank: If the engine cranks slowly or struggles to start, it may be a sign of a weak battery.
- Dim Headlights: A failed battery may cause dim, flickering, or non-functioning headlights.
- Warning Light: If the battery warning light on the dashboard is turned on, it indicates that the battery needs attention.
- Corrosion: If there’s visible corrosion on the battery terminals, it indicates a battery problem.
- Age: The battery will soon need to be changed because it has been used for over three years and is likely nearing the end of its useful life.
If you notice any of these signs, a professional should check your battery to see whether it needs replacement.
1. If A Car Battery Dies Can It Be Recharged?
If your battery dies, will it recharge itself? When your car battery is depleted but still retains a decent voltage, driving the vehicle can often resolve the issue. The alternator actively replenishes the battery’s charge while the car is in motion, serving as an autonomous mechanism for future starts.
2. How many times can a car battery be recharged?
Most car batteries can be charged and discharged 500 to 1,000 times, which is about three to five years, based on how much you drive and the weather. There is no way to make your car battery last forever, but by taking good care of it, you can make it last as long as possible.
3. How Long Does It Take For A Dead Battery To Recharge By Itself?
It depends on the battery’s capacity, age, and discharge level. Recharging a car battery can take several hours or even a whole day. The battery, however, cannot recharge if it is fully dead and needs an outside energy source.
4. Is It Ok To Let A Car Battery Charge Overnight?
Yes, if the charger is appropriate for the battery and its safety features are functional, leaving a car battery to recharge overnight is safe. Following the maker’s advice, choose your battery charger.
5. Can An Alternator Drain A Battery Overnight?
Of course.! No. An alternator does not drain a car battery overnight. However, a faulty diode in the alternator or leaving electrical parts on in the car can cause the battery to drain. Regular maintenance and checkout can help prevent issues.
6. Will Car Battery Recharge After Leaving the Lights On?
There isn’t a car battery out there that can recharge without assistance. Even the alternator won’t help recharge your battery if you’ve left the lights on and your battery is dead. Jump-starting your car battery and then running the engine for a bit is another option for charging it up.
7. Does A Car Battery Recharge Itself While Driving?
Yes, Your car battery is continually recharged while driving, either by a generator in old cars or an alternator in more recent vehicles. Driving it will recharge the battery if it is empty, and you can jump-start it.
8. Will A Trickle Charger Charge A Dead Battery?
Yes, a trickle charger can complete a battery charge, but it will take a long time. You should plan on waiting days for a completely charged battery because trickle chargers only output 1-3 amps. For instance, a dead Battle Born 100 ah Batteries will require 100 hours to recharge fully using a 1-amp trickle charger.
9. How can I minimize the risk of a dead battery overnight?
Ensure all of the car’s lights and electronics are off when unused. This will lower the chance of the battery dying overnight. Check for signs of a parasitic drain regularly, keep the charging system in good shape, and replace an old battery to avoid sudden breakdowns.
10. How can I extend the lifespan of my car battery?
To make your car battery last longer, check the charge level, look for corrosion on the terminals, and fix any problems immediately as part of normal maintenance. Please don’t leave the electronic parts of the car on when they’re not being used, and make sure to change an old battery when it’s due.
In conclusion, a car battery’s ability to recharge overnight depends on several variables: capacity, age, alternator power, electrical load, and engine speed. While a car battery cannot recharge itself overnight without external interference, it is essential to follow basic maintenance tips to ensure that it works correctly and has a longer lifespan. Regular use, proper storage, cleaning, and maintenance can help keep your car battery healthy and working correctly.
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Most medieval tales are steeped in mystery and valor, but the story of the Black Knight intertwines heroism and dread unlike any other. You may find this enigmatic figure depicted as a protector or a menacing force, depending on the version of the legend you encounter. Throughout history, the Black Knight has sparked your imagination with tales of bravery, betrayal, and redemption. In this article, you will explore the origins, significance, and enduring fascination surrounding this iconic character.
Historical Context of the Black Knight
Before delving into the tales of chivalry and heroism, it’s necessary to understand the backdrop against which the Black Knight legend emerged. This legendary figure, often shrouded in mystery, originates from the rich tapestry of European folklore intertwined with the realities of medieval life.
Origins of the Black Knight Legend
Before the Black Knight became a symbol of darkness and valor, his story likely began among the tales of valiant warriors and mythical battles. Over time, these narratives evolved, influenced by local customs and the fascination with the supernatural, that painted him as both a hero and a specter haunting the night.
Influence of Medieval Society
Against the backdrop of a society structured by feudalism, the Black Knight reflects the ideals and challenges faced by nobility and commoners alike. Knights were both symbols of hope and terror, often embodying the harsh realities of life in a world where loyalty and betrayal intertwined at every turn.
The medieval social fabric was deeply intertwined with the stories of heroes like the Black Knight. As knights ventured on quests to defend their realms or pursue honor, their tales inspired the common folk, reinforcing the notions of valor, loyalty, and the often grim realities of war. The Black Knight, as a figure embodying both light and darkness, serves as a reminder of the conflict inherent in human nature during those tumultuous times.
The Role of Knighthood in Ghost Stories
Among the many tales woven into medieval folklore, the role of knighthood frequently appeared in ghost stories, illustrating the ever-present fear and fascination with the spectral. These stories often depict knights who have met untimely ends, returning to wander the earth, encapsulating the morbid curiosity of the era.
It is through these narratives of ghostly knights that you can witness the complexity of knighthood. Reflecting both honor and tragedy, these tales reveal how such figures, previously synonymous with valor and bravery, could also embody the supernatural elements of dread and moral reckoning. The Black Knight, with his ominous presence, encapsulates this duality, reminding us of the fine line between heroism and villainy in the rich lore of medieval history.
Key Characteristics of the Black Knight
Now, let’s research into the defining traits that make the Black Knight a figure of both intrigue and fear. Each characteristic contributes to the captivating image of this legendary warrior, and understanding these traits can enhance your appreciation of this mythic archetype.
Iconic Attire and Armor
Around the legend, the Black Knight is often depicted wearing dark, imposing armor that glistens ominously in battle. This attire is typically made from black iron or steel, adorned with intricate designs that add an air of mystery. The helmet, covering the face with a visor, only amplifies his intimidating presence, making you sense both strength and secrecy in his approach.
The Black Knight’s Symbolism
Against the backdrop of myth, the Black Knight embodies the complexities of darkness and nobility. He often represents the duality of human nature, reflecting both the struggles against evil and the potential for redemption. In your exploration of this character, you can see how he navigates the fine line between hero and villain.
Black symbolizes power, mystery, and the unknown, leading you to ponder the choices that shape a person’s destiny. With his formidable presence, the Black Knight challenges traditional notions of heroism, prompting you to question whether a warrior can emerge from darkness to stand for justice. This exploration of symbolism enriches your understanding of the character’s role within folklore.
Variations in Depictions Across Cultures
Cultures across the globe have their interpretations of the Black Knight, often mirroring their unique values and beliefs. In some stories, he is a valiant protector, while in others, he may serve as a harbinger of doom. These variations invite you to consider how different societies have grappled with the themes of morality and angst represented by the Black Knight.
But even as a common thread runs through these stories, the portrayals can shift dramatically depending on cultural context. Some depictions focus on the Black Knight as a tragic hero, whose honor wrestles with his dark reputation. Other cultures may emphasize his role as an antagonist, a symbol of chaos and destruction. By examining these variations, you can appreciate the complexity and depth of the Black Knight, linking him to universal human experiences.
Popular Myths and Stories
Unlike many mythical figures whose stories have become heavily commercialized, the legend of the Black Knight remains rich with mystique and intrigue. This figure has inspired countless tales across different cultures, each adding depth to the lore surrounding this shadowy warrior.
The Black Knight in Arthurian Legend
Any discussion of the Black Knight often invokes the tales of King Arthur’s court. This character is frequently portrayed as a mysterious challenger, representing both a formidable foe and a complex ally. His appearances often serve to test the nobility and honor of those who encounter him.
Folklore and Tales Across Regions
Behind the Black Knight’s presence lies a tapestry of folklore that varies from one region to another. You may find tales depicting him as a protector, while in others, he serves as a harbinger of doom. This duality adds to his enigmatic nature, captivating audiences wherever his stories are told.
Another significant aspect of these tales is how they reflect local values and fears. In places such as England and France, the Black Knight might symbolize the struggles against tyranny, serving as a rallying figure in folk stories. Meanwhile, in Eastern European traditions, he could represent the challenges of confronting one’s inner darkness or the battle against evil forces.
Modern Adaptations in Literature
Regions around the world have also embraced the Black Knight in their modern literary adaptations. Authors have reimagined this figure, sometimes as a heroic character and other times as the embodiment of darkness itself, allowing you to explore his complexities in diverse contexts.
In addition to literature, the Black Knight’s influence stretches into films and video games, where he often embodies themes of redemption, bravery, and tragedy. Through these adaptations, you can appreciate his role in shaping narratives that resonate with contemporary audiences while still holding onto the essence of the age-old tales.
The Black Knight’s Influence in Pop Culture
Your fascination with the Black Knight transcends time, as the legend continues to leave its mark on various facets of pop culture. This enigmatic figure has inspired countless films, television shows, video games, and graphic novels, showcasing the diverse ways in which the Black Knight archetype resonates with audiences across generations.
Film and Television Representations
Television and film adaptations have brought the Black Knight to life in striking narratives. Often portrayed as a brooding hero or a sinister antagonist, the character’s mystique and gallantry captivate viewers, making them unforgettable embodiments of courage and conflict.
Video Games Featuring the Black Knight
Before submerging into the captivating realm of video games, it’s noteworthy that the Black Knight has become a staple character in various gaming narratives, embodying the themes of adventure, valor, and moral ambiguity.
Culture has embraced the Black Knight through numerous video games, drawing inspiration from the timeless legend. Players encounter this character wielding powerful weapons, facing treacherous quests, and navigating complex moral dilemmas. Titles often depict the Black Knight as a formidable foe or an invaluable ally, enhancing gameplay through thrilling encounters and rich storytelling.
The Black Knight in Graphic Novels
After the success of films and games, graphic novels have also explored the intricate layers of the Black Knight’s character, showcasing his struggle with identity and destiny in visually striking artistry and complex narratives.
Another notable aspect of graphic novels featuring the Black Knight involves their depiction of his moral dilemmas and personal conflicts. These stories often explore deeply into the character’s psyche, illustrating the nuanced battle between light and darkness, and presenting a more relatable and multifaceted view of a legendary figure. Elements of heroism and tragedy interweave, giving you an enriched understanding of the Black Knight’s legacy and his enduring impact on storytelling.
The Psychology of the Black Knight Legend
After delving into the tales of the Black Knight, you may find yourself pondering the psychological aspects that contribute to the legend’s enduring nature. The Black Knight is not merely a character in folklore but embodies deep-seated human emotions and societal concerns that resonate through time.
Fear and Fascination: The Dual Nature of the Legend
Around the world, the Black Knight evokes both fear and fascination in those who hear its tale. This duality captivates the imagination, inviting interpretations that range from horror to allure, reflecting your internal conflicts and desires.
Archetypes and their Psychological Implications
Legend has it that the Black Knight is an archetype of the shadow self. This representation of the darker aspects of your personality can lead to profound inner conflict as you grapple with elements like fear, guilt, and desire. Recognizing the implications of such archetypes can foster self-awareness and personal growth.
Archetype | Psychological Implication |
The Hero | Confrontation of fears |
The Villain | Understanding opposition |
The Mentor | Seeking guidance |
The Trickster | Challenging norms |
The Shadow | Dealing with suppressed feelings |
In fact, the Black Knight’s representation can help you confront various archetypes within your psyche. Some may find a sense of empowerment by acknowledging their inner strength, while others may face darker revelations. Engaging with these archetypes can lead to transformative experiences, revealing imperative truths about your nature and facilitating deeper personal connections.
The Black Knight as a Reflection of Societal Fears
Around every corner of history, the Black Knight serves as a mirror for the societal fears prevalent at the time. This character symbolizes the unknown, allowing you to explore collective anxieties surrounding war, loss, and death.
Also, examining the Black Knight as a reflection of societal fears showcases not only your instinctive apprehensions but also a fascination with the heroic and the tragic. This storytelling highlights how fear can manifest in your lives, and how confronting these fears is a path to understanding your own human condition. Through delving into this legend, you may gain insights into your motivations and those of society as a whole.
The Enduring Legacy of the Black Knight
Keep in mind that the legend of the Black Knight transcends time, weaving itself into the tapestry of cultural narratives. Its themes of honor, bravery, and mystery captivate audiences today, shaping the way modern folklore is understood and interpreted.
The Black Knight in Modern Folklore
Before delving deeper into its impact, take note that the Black Knight has found a resurgence in contemporary stories, films, and video games. This figure often embodies the archetype of the misunderstood hero, navigating struggles between darkness and light, which resonates with a growing audience seeking complexity in characters.
Comparison with Other Legendary Figures
Folklore has gifted humanity numerous iconic figures, and the Black Knight stands alongside them. Here’s a comparison of his legacy with other legendary characters:
Comparison with Other Legendary Figures
Legendary Figure | Key Traits |
Black Knight | Mysterious, noble, misunderstood |
King Arthur | Brave, just, leading figure |
Robin Hood | Outlaw, champion of the poor |
Beowulf | Heroic, strong, monster-slayer |
Indeed, the Black Knight shares imperative characteristics with these legendary figures. Each hero reflects societal values, allowing you to explore various facets of human nature. For instance, the Black Knight’s struggles showcase not only his strength but also the deep-seated fears and desires that make him relatable and human.
Future of the Black Knight Legend
Black Knight narratives continue to evolve, reflecting modern themes and cultural shifts. New interpretations will likely emerge, resonating with contemporary values and offering fresh perspectives on his enigma and bravery.
And as you look ahead, consider how the Black Knight might morph in various forms. Adaptations in media, literature, and art suggest he will endure, consistently offering you tales that challenge perceptions and illuminate the struggles between good and evil. The richness of his legend ensures that he will forever be ingrained in the collective imagination, capturing your heart and igniting your curiosity.
To wrap up, the legend of the Black Knight serves as a captivating tale that merges folklore with mystery, inviting you to explore themes of honor, bravery, and the darker sides of heroism. As you research into this intriguing narrative, you’ll uncover how its timeless elements resonate in modern culture, shaping narratives of valor and the complexities of human nature. This legend not only entertains but also encourages you to reflect on your own perceptions of greatness and heroism in the face of adversity.
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Future Trends of Emerging Technology
The world of technology is evolving at an unprecedented pace, and emerging technologies are set to transform our lives in ways we can only begin to imagine. As we look towards the future, several key trends stand out that promise to shape the technological landscape in significant ways.
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) continue to be at the forefront of technological advancement. These technologies are becoming more sophisticated, enabling machines to perform tasks that once required human intelligence. From autonomous vehicles to personalised medicine, AI and ML are poised to revolutionise numerous industries by increasing efficiency and unlocking new possibilities.
Internet of Things (IoT)
The Internet of Things is rapidly expanding, with billions of devices expected to be connected in the coming years. This network of interconnected devices will lead to smarter homes, cities, and industries. IoT technology will enable real-time data collection and analysis, improving decision-making processes and enhancing quality of life through automation and increased connectivity.
The rollout of 5G networks promises faster internet speeds and more reliable connections. This next generation of wireless technology will support a wide range of applications, from augmented reality experiences to smart city infrastructure. 5G is expected to drive innovation across sectors by providing the high-speed connectivity necessary for advanced technological solutions.
Blockchain technology is gaining traction beyond its initial association with cryptocurrencies. Its potential for secure and transparent transactions makes it an attractive solution for various applications such as supply chain management, voting systems, and digital identity verification. As blockchain evolves, it may fundamentally change how we conduct business and interact online.
As concerns about climate change grow, there is an increasing focus on developing sustainable technologies. Innovations in renewable energy sources like solar panels and wind turbines are becoming more efficient and cost-effective. Additionally, advancements in battery storage technology are crucial for harnessing renewable energy effectively.
Quantum computing remains a nascent but promising field with the potential to solve complex problems that are currently beyond the reach of traditional computers. Although still in its early stages, quantum computing could revolutionise fields such as cryptography, materials science, and drug discovery by providing unprecedented computational power.
The Road Ahead
The future trends in emerging technology hold immense promise but also present challenges that must be addressed responsibly. Ethical considerations around privacy, security, and the impact on employment need careful attention as these technologies develop further.
As we move forward into this exciting era of technological innovation, collaboration between governments, businesses, researchers, and society at large will be essential in ensuring that these advancements benefit humanity as a whole.
Future Trends in Emerging Technology: Driving Efficiency, Innovation, and Growth
- Enhanced efficiency and productivity across industries.
- Improved healthcare outcomes through personalised medicine and advanced diagnostics.
- Greater connectivity and convenience in everyday life.
- Increased automation leading to streamlined processes and cost savings.
- Innovative solutions for environmental sustainability and renewable energy.
- Potential for groundbreaking discoveries in scientific research and development.
- Enhanced user experiences through immersive technologies like augmented reality and virtual reality.
- Opportunities for economic growth and job creation in emerging tech sectors.
Challenges of Emerging Technologies: Privacy, Security, and Societal Impacts
- Privacy concerns may escalate as emerging technologies collect and analyse vast amounts of personal data.
- Cybersecurity threats could increase with the proliferation of interconnected devices in the Internet of Things.
- Job displacement is a risk as automation and AI may replace certain human roles in various industries.
- Technological inequality could widen, with access to advanced technologies limited to certain groups or regions.
- Ethical dilemmas may arise regarding the use of AI, particularly in decision-making processes with significant consequences.
- Environmental impact should be considered, as the production and disposal of tech devices contribute to electronic waste and energy consumption.
- Dependency on technology may lead to social issues such as decreased face-to-face interactions and reliance on digital platforms for essential services.
Enhanced efficiency and productivity across industries.
One significant advantage of future trends in emerging technology is the enhanced efficiency and productivity they bring to various industries. Through automation, data analytics, and streamlined processes, technologies such as artificial intelligence and Internet of Things enable businesses to operate more effectively and make better-informed decisions. This increased efficiency not only saves time and resources but also allows for greater output and innovation, ultimately driving growth and competitiveness in the global market.
Improved healthcare outcomes through personalised medicine and advanced diagnostics.
The advancement of emerging technology offers a significant pro in the realm of healthcare by enhancing patient outcomes through personalised medicine and advanced diagnostics. With the integration of technologies such as AI, genomics, and precision medicine, healthcare professionals can tailor treatment plans to individual patients based on their unique genetic makeup and medical history. This personalised approach not only improves the effectiveness of treatments but also reduces the risk of adverse reactions, ultimately leading to better health outcomes for patients. Additionally, advanced diagnostic tools powered by technology enable early detection of diseases, allowing for timely intervention and more successful treatment strategies. The future trends in healthcare technology hold great promise for revolutionising patient care and fostering a healthier society.
Greater connectivity and convenience in everyday life.
The advancement of emerging technologies offers a significant pro of greater connectivity and convenience in our everyday lives. With the proliferation of smart devices and interconnected systems through the Internet of Things (IoT), individuals can enjoy seamless integration and control over various aspects of their daily routines. From smart homes that adjust temperature settings based on preferences to wearable devices that track health metrics in real-time, the convenience brought about by increased connectivity enhances efficiency and improves overall quality of life. This trend not only simplifies tasks but also fosters a more interconnected world where information and services are readily accessible at our fingertips, shaping a future where technology seamlessly integrates into our daily experiences for greater ease and comfort.
Increased automation leading to streamlined processes and cost savings.
The pro of increased automation resulting from future trends in emerging technology is the potential to streamline processes and achieve significant cost savings for businesses across various industries. By automating repetitive tasks and leveraging technologies such as artificial intelligence and robotics, organisations can enhance efficiency, accuracy, and productivity. This streamlined approach not only reduces human error but also frees up employees to focus on more strategic and creative aspects of their work. Moreover, by cutting down on manual labour and optimising workflows, businesses can realise substantial cost savings in the long run, leading to improved profitability and competitiveness in the market.
Innovative solutions for environmental sustainability and renewable energy.
Innovative solutions arising from future trends in emerging technology offer a beacon of hope for environmental sustainability and the advancement of renewable energy sources. Technologies such as smart grids, energy-efficient devices, and advanced monitoring systems are revolutionising the way we harness and utilise energy. From solar panels that capture sunlight more effectively to wind turbines that generate power more efficiently, these innovations are paving the way towards a greener and more sustainable future. By leveraging technology to address environmental challenges, we can work towards a cleaner planet and a more sustainable way of living for generations to come.
Potential for groundbreaking discoveries in scientific research and development.
The future trends of emerging technology offer the exciting potential for groundbreaking discoveries in scientific research and development. Advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and biotechnology are pushing the boundaries of what is possible in various fields. These cutting-edge tools enable researchers to explore complex problems, analyse vast amounts of data, and simulate intricate systems with unprecedented accuracy. With the aid of emerging technologies, scientists have the opportunity to make significant strides in understanding the universe, developing new medicines, and addressing pressing global challenges. The potential for transformative breakthroughs in scientific discovery is immense, paving the way for a future where innovation knows no bounds.
Enhanced user experiences through immersive technologies like augmented reality and virtual reality.
Enhanced user experiences through immersive technologies like augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) represent a significant pro of future trends in emerging technology. These technologies have the power to transport users to new and interactive digital worlds, providing unparalleled levels of engagement and immersion. From virtual tours of real estate properties to interactive training simulations in various industries, AR and VR offer innovative ways for users to interact with content and information. By blurring the lines between the digital and physical realms, these immersive technologies have the potential to revolutionise entertainment, education, healthcare, and more, creating unforgettable experiences that were once only possible in science fiction.
Opportunities for economic growth and job creation in emerging tech sectors.
The rapid advancement of emerging technologies presents a significant pro in the form of opportunities for economic growth and job creation in new tech sectors. As industries embrace innovations such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and IoT, they create demand for skilled workers to develop, implement, and manage these technologies. This not only leads to the creation of new job roles but also stimulates economic growth through increased productivity and efficiency. By investing in emerging tech sectors, countries can position themselves at the forefront of innovation, attracting investment and fostering a dynamic workforce that drives sustainable economic development.
Privacy concerns may escalate as emerging technologies collect and analyse vast amounts of personal data.
Privacy concerns are a significant con associated with the future trends of emerging technology. As these technologies continue to advance, the collection and analysis of vast amounts of personal data raise serious questions about data security and individual privacy. The potential for misuse or unauthorized access to sensitive information underscores the importance of implementing robust data protection measures and regulatory frameworks to safeguard individuals’ privacy in an increasingly interconnected digital world.
Cybersecurity threats could increase with the proliferation of interconnected devices in the Internet of Things.
As future trends of emerging technology continue to unfold, one concerning con that looms is the heightened cybersecurity threats brought about by the widespread adoption of interconnected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT). The proliferation of IoT devices creates a vast attack surface for cybercriminals to exploit, potentially leading to breaches of sensitive data, privacy violations, and disruptions to critical infrastructure. As more devices become interconnected and collect vast amounts of data, ensuring robust cybersecurity measures will be paramount to safeguarding individuals, organisations, and society as a whole from malicious cyber threats.
Job displacement is a risk as automation and AI may replace certain human roles in various industries.
Job displacement poses a significant con in the realm of future trends of emerging technology. The rapid advancements in automation and artificial intelligence bring forth the risk of replacing certain human roles across diverse industries. As machines become more capable of performing tasks traditionally carried out by humans, there is a looming concern about the potential loss of jobs and the need for upskilling or reskilling to adapt to the evolving job market. This shift towards automation raises questions about the societal impact on employment and highlights the importance of thoughtful planning and policies to mitigate the risks associated with job displacement in the face of technological progress.
Technological inequality could widen, with access to advanced technologies limited to certain groups or regions.
One concerning con of the future trends of emerging technology is the potential widening of technological inequality. As advanced technologies continue to evolve, there is a risk that access to these innovations may be restricted to specific groups or regions, exacerbating existing disparities. This could create a digital divide where those with limited access to cutting-edge technologies are left at a significant disadvantage in terms of education, employment opportunities, and quality of life. Addressing this issue will be crucial to ensure that the benefits of technological progress are equitably shared across society.
Ethical dilemmas may arise regarding the use of AI, particularly in decision-making processes with significant consequences.
As emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence become increasingly integrated into decision-making processes, significant ethical dilemmas are likely to arise. AI systems, while capable of processing vast amounts of data and making decisions more efficiently than humans, may inadvertently perpetuate biases present in their training data or lack the nuanced understanding required in complex situations. This is particularly concerning in areas like criminal justice, healthcare, and employment, where AI-driven decisions can have profound impacts on individuals’ lives. The challenge lies in ensuring that these systems operate transparently and fairly, with appropriate oversight to prevent unintended harm. As society continues to adopt AI technologies, it is crucial to address these ethical considerations proactively to safeguard against potential negative consequences.
Environmental impact should be considered, as the production and disposal of tech devices contribute to electronic waste and energy consumption.
It is crucial to acknowledge the environmental implications of the future trends in emerging technology. The production and disposal of tech devices are significant contributors to electronic waste and energy consumption, posing a threat to our planet’s sustainability. As we embrace technological advancements, it is imperative to adopt eco-friendly practices, promote recycling initiatives, and develop more energy-efficient solutions to mitigate the environmental impact of our digital evolution.
Dependency on technology may lead to social issues such as decreased face-to-face interactions and reliance on digital platforms for essential services.
In the midst of the rapid advancement of emerging technologies, a significant concern arises regarding our increasing dependency on these innovations. This reliance on technology has the potential to exacerbate social issues, leading to a decline in face-to-face interactions and a growing dependence on digital platforms for crucial services. As individuals become more accustomed to communicating through screens and relying on automated systems, the fabric of traditional human connections may weaken, impacting interpersonal relationships and community cohesion. Moreover, an overreliance on digital platforms for essential services like healthcare or banking could marginalise those who lack access to or proficiency with technology, widening existing societal divides. It is imperative to address these consequences proactively to ensure that as we embrace technological progress, we do not sacrifice the fundamental elements of human connection and inclusivity.
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Written by: Rachel Wellendorf
Decarboxylation, commonly referred to as decarbing, turns THCA into THC. You’ve probably heard of activated THC and non-activated THCA, but what does that actually mean? THC gets you high and THCA does not. THCA is a non-psychoactive molecule found in cannabis. THC is psychoactive.
Besides psychotropic effects, these molecules also differ by size and acidity. THCA needs heat to turn into THC, is larger and more acidic (the ‘A’ stands for carboxylic acid group in chemistry). THC is smaller and does not contain the acidic ‘A’ group. Researchers at University Medical Centre Freiburg in Germany have observed a slower rate of absorption for acidic molecules, which could be why THC is found in higher concentrations in the body than THCA.
Furthermore, you need heat to decarb THCA. These molecules are not the same and should never be added together for “total THC” content.
This process creates a product that is further purified by removing the fats and waxes from the plant. Winterizing entails dissolving the extract (non-polar) in a polar liquid (usually ethanol), freezing the mixture at sub-zero temps, then removing the waxes through a low-micron filter.
Winterizing makes the concentrate more stable because the lipids (fats) are removed. Removing the fats prevents the extract from softening and reduces the tendency to butter. If the fats are not removed, the product is referred to as wax.
Short path distillation is currently the most common technique. With short path distillation, the oil is exposed to heat and deep vacuum, which are used to separate various cannabinoids and terpenes from concentrate.
In the diagram below, heat is introduced in step 1 via the mantle to evaporate the cannabinoids and terpenes. Unlike liquid, vapors will rise, which allows the separation to happen within the condenser (5). Cannabinoids travel through the short path and end up re-condensing into a liquid in the last step. Only the cannabinoids get isolated from the rest of the “crude” concentrate.
Distilled products do not need to be winterized because the waxes do not vaporize and stay in the crude concentrate. Distillation typically yields a higher concentration of cannabinoids than other methods.
Typically, cannabis is dead (cured) and dried before getting processed into extract. Cryogenic freezing sets this method apart. Freezing the plant shortly after harvest is the key here. It gives the extract a flavor that closely resembles a living cannabis plant. A living plant is cut, frozen with freezantas (like liquid nitrogen) and the final product is made within hours. A Closed-Loop Hydrocarbon Extraction Machine is generally used to make live resin.
One downfall to this method is price. Because the cost of production is high, the cost for consumers is going to be higher than average. More terpenes stay in tact in this process which also contributes to higher market prices for live resin.
A live plant is cut then cryogenically frozen hours after to achieve live resin. The end product is pictured on the right.
Hash/Honey Oil (BHO + PHO)
Hash oil is made by using a Closed Loop Extraction. It is a system of stainless steel vessels that “wash” cannabis material with liquid butane or propane solvent.
The process starts with filling a column with broken-down cannabis and “washing” it with liquid hydrocarbons (butane or propane). Hydrocarbon just means the compound is made-up solely of Carbon and Hydrogen molecules. Butane and Propane are hydrocarbon solvents. After being collected, the concentrate/solvent mixture is put inside a vacuum oven where excess solvent is removed from the mixture at a much lower temperature than if it were at regular atmospheric pressure.
After the extraction is complete, the product is poured to eventually become slabs of shatter. The end product is depicted on the right.
Propane is very similar to BHO. The main difference between these two hydrocarbons is pressure that is released at boiling point. Butane has a higher boiling point (30°F) because it is one carbon longer than propane, with a boiling point of -44°F. It is worth noting that BHO and PHO are referred to as shatter when waxes and fats are not in the end product.
State laws set legal parts per million (ppm) standards for these solvents. As of January 2017, these limits were raised. Now, instead of hundreds of ppm’s of solvent being allowed in extracts it is thousands. Rightfully so, this raise in ppm allowance got backlash from cannabis industry. Mike Van Dyke of the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment stated that the “numbers came from the international harmonized guidelines for residual solvents in pharmaceuticals.”
As someone with a background in biology and chemistry, I do not agree with the raise in parts per million (ppm) allowance for solvents. These guidelines apply to pharmaceuticals, ingested by mouth and should not apply to cannabis, commonly consumed by smoking or vaporizing. Butane expands 200:1 when combusted, which could lead to dangerous amounts of butane for the human body. To keep consumers safe, there should be more than 5 years of clinical trials before just passing a law without seeing the effects. Colorado passed medical cannabis legalization in 2010. 7 years is a small amount of time for clinical trials, as most last a minimum of 8 years. Beware consumers, we could be the guinea pigs here.
Budder does not have a specific process, as the final product can be obtained in many different ways. When shatter is unstable, it will turn into a budder. If a cannabis extract is made with highly resinous plant material, the waxes will cause the shatter to turn into budder.
Budder tends to have waxes and fats still present, giving it the unstable texture you see pictured above. The picture on the right is an example of a “live budder” which is whipped live resin (notice the brighter color due to fresh material).
Rosin and Bubble Hash are end products of solventless extractions. One reason solventless methods are more desirable is because only heat and pressure are used and there is no chance of having any residual solvent in the final product. Water is also used in solventless methods.
The materials you need for bubble hash are simple: cannabis, ice, water and filters. This method claims to be solventless- one reason it can be called solventless still is because water (a very weak solvent) isn’t harmful and ppm detections for water aren’t necessary. Making rosin can be even simpler than making bubble hash.
For rosin, the only materials needed are cannabis, heat and pressure. For small-scale production, people often use a hair straightener, parchment paper, and gloves for safety to press rosin. For those that have the money or access to a lab, an industrial sanitary press can be used in place of a hair straightener. A press utilizes higher pressure and therefore a lower temperature, which keeps more terpene content in the extract (remember: more heat = more degradation). If an extract is ‘pressed’ there is a good chance it is rosin, but you can also press bubble hash and dry sift hash to get a product that more closely resembles shatter.
A Thermodynamics Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Chicago stated that organic solvents currently on the market can have negative long-term effects. Why does this matter? Because organic solvents have a wide array of uses including decaffeinating coffee and making pharmaceutical drugs. The less hazardous chemicals we use in these processes, the less exposure humans and animals will have. One solution researchers pose is to use supercritical fluids (SCFs) instead of common, commercial solvents.
CO2 oil is commonly sold in a syringe. Right: Charlotte’s Web is commonly extracted into CO2 oil, as the high CBD content is desirable for patients treating seizure disorders, cancer and more
In English, SCFs are compounds that behave as both a gas and a liquid, so they diffuse more easily than solvents. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is one SCF that has shown promise as a replacement to other solvents. Because diffusion happens more efficiently with CO2 and other supercritical fluids, the final product will have more potency. CO2 oil allows for more high-driving compounds (like terpenes) to be present in the final product because of the lower volatility of the compound.
Patients treating seizure disorders and cancer tend to be drawn to this product because of the potency and purity. For these patients, CO2 oil is more desirable than a distillate because of the terpene content.
To ingest this product, you first want to know if it is decarbed/activated or not. If it is a decarbed product, it is ready to ingest and you can either dab it or consume it by mouth. Consuming it with a fatty substance like coconut oil or butter will make the oil have higher bioavailability, meaning it can be absorbed into the body more easily. If the oil has not been activated (THCA instead of THC) simply eating it won’t get you high, but your body still gets the health benefits of a non-psychoactive cannabinoid, similar to ingesting CBD or CBN. If you want the high, just dab the oil and the heat will decarb it.
Essential oils and terpenes are the same thing, the words are interchangeable.
Research is still being done to learn more about how terpenes drive your high. Some would even argue that a cannabis plant’s terpene profile is more responsible for your high than THC content. With that being said, when shopping for cannabis, looking only at THC content can be a bad representation of the high. One theory I personally have is that when a plant has lower THC, it is because the THC is being compensated for something else like terpenes. Adding terpene content back into other extracts creates a more diverse, well-rounded high when compared to just having the isolated THC alone. Terpenes are commonly re-introduced into distillates for the reasons above and also to “thin out” viscous distillate for cartridges and syringes.
Terpenes are essential oils and exist not only in cannabis, but in all plants.
Editing Thanks to:
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The term “organic” has increasingly permeated our daily lives, influencing various aspects of our choices, from food and farming to beauty and beyond. With its growing presence, it’s essential to grasp what organic truly means, its implications, and its benefits. This article aims to provide an in-depth exploration of the concept of organic, its principles, benefits, and common questions associated with it.
At its essence, “organic” signifies a commitment to natural processes and systems. Initially, this term was most commonly associated with farming techniques that eschew synthetic chemicals and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Over time, however, its application has broadened to include a range of products and practices that prioritize natural ingredients and sustainable methods.
Organic farming, for instance, revolves around principles that align with nature’s processes rather than working against them. This approach extends beyond mere agricultural techniques to encompass environmental stewardship, ethical treatment of animals, and the well-being of consumers. The overarching goal of organic practices is to produce goods in a way that supports ecological balance and promotes health.
The Principles of Organic Farming
Organic farming is grounded in several core principles designed to enhance environmental health and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. Central to these principles is the idea of maintaining and improving soil fertility. Organic farmers employ practices such as crop rotation, green manuring, and composting to replenish soil nutrients and improve soil structure. By enhancing soil health, these methods foster the growth of robust crops and reduce erosion, thereby contributing to the long-term sustainability of the land.
Biodiversity is another critical component of organic farming. Organic farms often cultivate a variety of crops and support diverse ecosystems. This diversity helps create a balanced environment that can naturally manage pests and diseases, reducing the need for synthetic pesticides and herbicides. By encouraging beneficial insects, birds, and other wildlife, organic farms support natural pest control mechanisms and enhance overall farm resilience.
Organic farmers also emphasize natural pest management strategies. Rather than relying on synthetic chemicals, they use techniques such as biological controls—introducing natural predators of pests—or physical barriers to protect crops. These methods aim to maintain ecological balance and reduce the environmental impact of pest management.
Sustainability is a fundamental aspect of organic farming practices. Organic farms typically use renewable resources, minimize pollution, and promote animal welfare. This approach strives to create a more resilient agricultural system that can adapt to environmental changes and contribute to the health of the planet.
Organic Food: Labels and Standards
When it comes to organic food, understanding the labels and standards can help consumers make informed choices. Organic certification is a rigorous process that involves adhering to specific standards set by regulatory bodies or independent certifiers. In many countries, including the United States and European Union, organic food must meet stringent criteria to earn certification.
In the United States, the USDA Organic label is a prominent certification that indicates a product has been produced and processed according to established organic standards. For a product to carry the USDA Organic seal, it must be grown without synthetic pesticides, GMOs, or artificial fertilizers. Additionally, the production process must avoid the use of artificial additives and processing aids.
Products labeled as “100% Organic” must contain only organic ingredients, whereas those labeled simply as “Organic” must contain at least 95% organic ingredients. Foods with the label “Made with Organic Ingredients” must contain at least 70% organic ingredients, but these products cannot display the USDA Organic seal.
Understanding these labels helps consumers distinguish between products that genuinely adhere to organic principles and those that may only partially meet organic standards. It’s also important to be aware that the term “organic” can vary by country, and different regions may have their own certification processes and standards.
The Benefits of Organic Food
Organic food offers several benefits, both from a health and environmental perspective. One of the primary advantages is the reduced exposure to synthetic chemicals. Organic farming practices eliminate or significantly reduce the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. This reduction in chemical exposure can be particularly important for individuals concerned about the potential health effects of these substances.
Another benefit of organic food is its contribution to environmental sustainability. Organic farming practices prioritize soil health, water conservation, and biodiversity. By avoiding synthetic chemicals and promoting natural processes, organic farming helps reduce pollution and minimize the impact on ecosystems. Additionally, organic farming methods often focus on conserving water resources and reducing waste, further contributing to environmental stewardship.
Organic food also supports ethical and humane practices. Organic standards typically require that animals are raised in conditions that allow for natural behaviors and provide access to outdoor spaces. This focus on animal welfare aligns with the broader principles of organic farming, which prioritize the well-being of all living creatures involved in the production process.
The Expansion of Organic Practices: Beauty and Beyond
The concept of organic has expanded beyond food and farming into other areas, such as beauty and personal care products. Organic beauty products are formulated with natural ingredients that are grown without synthetic chemicals or GMOs. These products often emphasize sustainability and ethical practices in their production and packaging.
Organic beauty products offer several benefits. They are typically free from harsh chemicals and synthetic additives, which can be beneficial for individuals with sensitive skin or allergies. Additionally, organic beauty products often use eco-friendly packaging and adopt sustainable production practices, aligning with the broader principles of environmental responsibility.
However, it’s important to note that not all organic beauty products are created equal. The term “organic” in the beauty industry can vary, and products may not always meet the same standards as organic food. Consumers should carefully review ingredient lists and choose products from reputable brands that adhere to recognized organic certification standards.
Addressing Common Myths About Organic Products
As the popularity of organic products has grown, so too have misconceptions about what organic truly entails. Addressing these myths can help consumers make more informed decisions about organic products.
One common myth is that organic food is always more nutritious than conventional food. While some studies suggest that organic food may contain higher levels of certain nutrients, the differences are often minimal. The primary benefits of organic food are more related to the absence of synthetic chemicals and the environmental impact rather than significant nutritional advantages.
Another myth is that organic products are completely free from chemicals. Organic products avoid synthetic chemicals, but they can still contain naturally occurring substances or organic-approved pesticides. For example, organic farming may use naturally derived pest control methods, which are considered safe and acceptable within organic standards.
A third myth is that organic farming is inherently inefficient. While organic farming can sometimes result in lower yields compared to conventional methods, it is not necessarily inefficient. Many organic farms use innovative practices and technologies to improve productivity while maintaining sustainability. The focus on long-term soil health and environmental stewardship can lead to more resilient and sustainable farming systems.
Lastly, there is a misconception that all organic products are created equal. Not all organic products meet the same standards or practices. It’s important for consumers to research and choose products from reputable sources to ensure they meet recognized organic certification criteria and align with their values.
The Future of Organic: Challenges and Opportunities
As the demand for organic products continues to rise, the organic industry faces both challenges and opportunities. One challenge is the need to balance increased production with sustainability. Organic farming often involves higher labor costs and lower yields compared to conventional farming. Addressing these challenges while maintaining the core principles of organic practices requires ongoing innovation and adaptation.
Another challenge is ensuring consistency and transparency in organic certification. As the organic market grows, there is a need for clear and consistent standards to prevent greenwashing and ensure that products labeled as organic genuinely adhere to recognized criteria. Strengthening certification processes and promoting transparency can help build consumer trust and support the integrity of organic claims.
Despite these challenges, the future of organic presents numerous opportunities. Advances in technology and research can enhance organic farming practices, improve yields, and reduce costs. Additionally, increased consumer awareness and demand for sustainable and ethical products can drive innovation and support the growth of the organic industry.
The expansion of organic practices into new areas, such as sustainable packaging and alternative protein sources, offers exciting possibilities for the future. By continuing to embrace the principles of organic and addressing emerging challenges, the organic industry can contribute to a more sustainable and health-conscious future.
The Rise of Organic Certifications and Standards
Organic certification is a crucial component in ensuring that products meet specific organic standards. Various certifying bodies around the world, such as the USDA Organic in the United States, the EU Organic logo in Europe, and other regional organizations, set rigorous criteria for organic products. These certifications involve comprehensive inspections and audits to ensure compliance with organic farming and production practices. As consumer demand for organic products grows, the certification process becomes increasingly important in maintaining the integrity and credibility of organic claims.
Organic Farming Practices and Techniques
Beyond basic principles, organic farming incorporates a range of specific practices designed to maintain and enhance soil health, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainability. Techniques such as cover cropping, which involves planting specific crops to improve soil fertility, and agroforestry, which integrates trees and shrubs into agricultural systems, contribute to the overall health of organic farms. Additionally, organic farmers often use composting and vermicomposting to recycle organic matter and enhance soil nutrients.
The Impact of Organic Farming on Local Economies
Organic farming can have a significant impact on local economies. Organic farms often rely on local markets and direct-to-consumer sales, which can strengthen community ties and support local economies. By fostering relationships with local consumers and businesses, organic farms contribute to economic development and promote sustainable practices within their communities.
Organic Food Supply Chains and Transparency
Transparency in the organic food supply chain is essential for maintaining consumer trust. From farm to table, each step in the organic food supply chain must adhere to organic standards. This includes processing, packaging, and distribution. Ensuring transparency and traceability helps consumers make informed choices and verifies that products labeled as organic are genuine. Some companies provide detailed information about their sourcing and production practices, further enhancing transparency.
The Role of Organic Agriculture in Climate Change Mitigation
Organic agriculture plays a role in mitigating climate change through various practices. Organic farming methods, such as reducing reliance on fossil fuels, enhancing soil carbon sequestration, and promoting biodiversity, contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, healthy, well-managed soils in organic farms can store more carbon dioxide, which helps offset emissions and combat climate change.
The Relationship Between Organic and Non-GMO
While organic farming inherently avoids GMOs, the term “organic” is not synonymous with “non-GMO.” Organic standards explicitly prohibit the use of genetically modified organisms, but not all non-GMO products are necessarily organic. Understanding this distinction helps consumers make informed choices about their food and supports their preferences for both organic and non-GMO options.
The Growth of Organic Markets and Consumer Trends
The organic market has seen significant growth over the past decades, driven by increasing consumer awareness and demand for healthier, sustainable products. Trends in the organic market include the rise of organic packaged foods, beverages, and even pet products. Consumers are increasingly seeking organic options across a wide range of categories, reflecting a broader shift towards health-conscious and environmentally friendly choices.
The Benefits and Limitations of Organic Agriculture
Organic agriculture offers numerous benefits, such as reducing exposure to synthetic chemicals, promoting biodiversity, and enhancing soil health. However, there are limitations to consider, including potential challenges related to yield levels, higher production costs, and the need for extensive land management. Balancing these benefits and limitations is crucial for advancing organic agriculture and ensuring its continued growth and impact.
Advances in Organic Research and Technology
Ongoing research and technological advancements play a vital role in the evolution of organic farming practices. Innovations in areas such as organic pest management, soil health monitoring, and sustainable crop breeding contribute to improved productivity and efficiency in organic agriculture. Research institutions and organizations are continuously exploring new methods and technologies to enhance the effectiveness of organic practices and address emerging challenges.
Organic Food and Health Considerations
While organic food is often associated with health benefits, it is essential to consider individual health needs and preferences. Some consumers may choose organic food due to concerns about pesticide residues, potential health effects of synthetic additives, or personal dietary preferences. However, it’s important to note that organic food is not a guaranteed solution for all health issues, and consumers should consider a balanced approach to nutrition and overall wellness.
Ethical and Social Implications of Organic Practices
Organic practices often align with ethical and social considerations, such as fair labor practices and animal welfare. Organic certification standards typically include provisions for humane treatment of animals and safe working conditions for farmworkers. Supporting organic products can contribute to more equitable and ethical practices within the agricultural industry.
The Future of Organic: Trends and Innovations
Looking ahead, the future of organic agriculture and products is likely to be shaped by emerging trends and innovations. These may include advancements in organic technology, new certification standards, and the integration of organic practices into new areas such as urban agriculture and vertical farming. As the organic industry continues to evolve, staying informed about these trends can help consumers and producers navigate the dynamic landscape of organic practices.
By exploring these additional points, a more comprehensive understanding of the keyword “organic” can be achieved, encompassing its principles, benefits, challenges, and future prospects.
The concept of “organic” encompasses a broad range of practices and products that prioritize natural processes, environmental sustainability, and ethical considerations. From organic farming and food to beauty products and beyond, the principles of organic practices are rooted in a commitment to reducing environmental impact and promoting health.
While organic products offer numerous benefits, including reduced exposure to synthetic chemicals and support for sustainable practices, it is important for consumers to stay informed and critically evaluate the products they choose. Understanding the principles behind organic practices, addressing common myths, and making educated choices can help individuals make decisions that align with their values and needs.
As the organic industry continues to evolve, ongoing innovation and adaptation will play a crucial role in addressing challenges and seizing opportunities. By supporting organic practices and products, consumers can contribute to a more sustainable and health-conscious future.
Also read this: Preventing Backflow with Reliable Check Valves
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Geoengineering and Conspiracy Theories
We are told that the climate is changing rapidly. Anything that is ‘out of the ordinary’ is now blamed on climate change. And by the way, what is ‘the ordinary’? Is it an average, and if so, an average of what? Is it what we expect it should be? Is ‘the ordinary’ everything that entails nature? Only by defining the ordinary can we establish what falls outside of that. What would you consider ‘out of the ordinary’?
- Something that only happens once every fifty years? – But that would mean that it is perfectly normal when we take the fifty year cycle into account.
- Something ‘we haven’t seen before’, meaning since records began? – In the UK, earliest observation records date back less than 250 years ago, and uninterrupted observation records are only 200 years old. Climate, on the other hand, exists already 4 billion years. Maybe in the last 200 years we haven’t seen ‘everything’ yet? Have we ‘seen’, and do we have observation records of, an ice age?
- Something that deviates from the average we have calculated, maybe over a period of ten years, or twenty, or even fifty or one hundred years? – An average is, per definition, ‘a number expressing the central value in a set of data’. The real value can lie far below or far above the average and the average is no guideline for what is normal. In fact, every value obtained is a ‘normal’ value, because it is real. The only value that isn’t real, that isn’t a ‘normal’ value, is the average value. For instance, you can’t have 2.5 children!
Normal is what would be expected, the ordinary or the usual. Something that conforms to a general, a standard, or an average pattern. In other words, if we don’t expect it, we call it abnormal! This means that when a meteorological institute predicts the weather, they create an expectation, which, when the reality deviates from the expected, is then called ‘abnormal’. However, abnormal also refers to ‘not conforming to the norm’. So, when we refer to the weather being ‘abnormal’, we actually mean that it isn’t what we expected it to be. It is not conforming to what we consider to be the norm, which we have created at will. Weather as such cannot be abnormal as, to nature, which produces the weather, anything within its capabilities is considered normal. When I observe a contortionist I consider his movements to be abnormal for a human being, but to him these are normal, simply because he can do it. Whatever you can achieve – so whatever you can expect from yourself – is, to you, normal. Hence, nature considers all weather types as normal.
We can also ask the question whether it is the climate that is changing or the weather. What, in fact, is the climate? The climate is ‘the general weather conditions usually found in a particular place’. There is that word ‘usually’ again. The ‘ordinary’, the ‘normal’, the ‘usual’ weather in one specific place is considered to be the climate in that place. The climate is, as such, a concept, a map that tells us what to expect from the weather. And if the weather turns out to be different from our expectations we blame nature for not being normal. We never ask ourselves if, possibly, our expectations need to be adjusted given the new information, just gained through our own observation, that shows us our expectations were wrong. No, to the contrary, because we have deemed it to be ‘out of the ordinary’, to be abnormal, we feel compelled to help it to return to normal.
Changing the weather to meet our expectations is not something new. Weather modification programmes – that is what it is called – have been utilised since the 1940’s. Humans have long sought to purposefully alter such atmospheric phenomena as clouds, rain, snow, hail, lightning, thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, and cyclones. The modern era of scientific weather modification began in 1946 with work by Vincent J. Schaefer and Irving Langmuir at the General Electric Research Laboratories in Schenectady, New York. – Note: it’s a research laboratory for electricity! - Schaefer discovered that when dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) pellets were dropped into a cloud composed of water droplets in a deep-freeze box, the droplets were rapidly replaced by ice crystals, which increased in size and then fell to the bottom of the box. Certain substances other than dry ice can be used to seed clouds. For example, when silver iodide and lead iodide are burned, they create a smoke of tiny particles. These particles produce ice crystals in super-cooled clouds below temperatures of about −5° C as the super-cooled cloud droplets evaporate. The water vapour is then free to deposit onto the silver iodide or lead iodide crystals. Although many other materials can cause ice crystals to form, the above-mentioned are the most widely used.
- Silver iodide is one of the most common nucleating materials used in cloud seeding. A study published by the National Institute of Health (USA) in November 2016 showed that the ‘accepted’ level of silver iodide in the air induced a significant decrease in photosynthetic activity that is primarily associated with the respiration (80% inhibition) and, to a lesser extent, to the net photosynthesis (40% inhibition) in both strains of phytoplankton and a moderate decrease in soil bacteria viability. In other words, it dramatically diminished the capacity for oxygen production in bacteria.
- Certain prominent statisticians have taken the position that because these projects have not purposefully incorporated ‘randomised’ or other control procedures to reduce the effects of bias by the operators, the data they have yielded cannot be used to test the efficacy of cloud seeding. Reports concluded that precipitation increased by some 10 to 15 percent as a result of silver iodide seeding.
- In April 2018, a report in ‘Nature’ stated: “Atmospheric iodine causes tropospheric ozone depletion and aerosol formation, both of which have significant climate impacts. The levels of iodine tripled from 1950 to 2010. (North Atlantic region)”
- The Environment Agency, the leading public body protecting and improving the environment in England and Wales, stated the following. “The data available concerning the toxicity of hydrogen iodide is extremely limited. Inhalation of hydrogen iodide is reported to cause irritation of the upper respiratory tract, and causes irritation of the throat after short exposure. More severe exposures result in pulmonary oedema, and often in laryngeal oedema. However, no further details are available. An extensive literature search revealed no toxicological studies for humans or laboratory animals.” – In other words, the harmful effects of iodide inhalation are not being investigated!
- In 2007, the World Health Organisation warned about the toxic effects of heavy metals in the air. “Lead exposures have developmental and neuro-behavioural effects on foetuses, infants and children, and elevate blood pressure in adults.” And in September 2024, they continued: “Lead can lead to a spectrum of injury across multiple body systems. In particular, lead can permanently affect children’s brain development, resulting in reduced intelligence quotient (IQ), behavioural changes including reduced attention span and increased antisocial behaviour, and reduced educational attainment. Lead exposure also causes anaemia, hypertension, renal impairment, immunotoxicity and toxicity to the reproductive organs.”
- The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry issued a public health statement in December 1990, in which they said: “Exposure to dust containing relatively high levels of silver compounds such as silver nitrate or silver oxide may cause breathing problems, lung and throat irritation and stomach pain.”
- It is further known that silver is toxic to all living cells and that it contributes to antibiotic resistance.
In spite of the poor results of cloud seeding (10 to 15%), lots of private companies rent out planes equipped for this purpose, and they are a huge financial success. One of those companies is Weather Modification Incorporation (USA). They present themselves as follows: “The proven success of Weather Modification, Inc., in atmospheric and weather operations is evident by our lengthy and impressive client listing that speaks for itself. Our reputation for successful cloud seeding and meteorological services leads our veteran pilots, experienced meteorologists and radar engineers around the world. Our valued clients include private and public insurance companies, water resource management organisations, as well as federal and state government research organisations.”
These projects are funded by international organisations such as the EU, the UN, the military. On August 1, 1996, the Defence Technical Information Center (USA) published a report, which had the following opening statement: “In 2025, US aerospace forces can own the weather by capitalising on emerging technologies and focusing development of those technologies to war fighting applications. Such a capability offers the war fighter tools to shape the battlespace in ways never before possible. It provides opportunities to impact operations across the full spectrum of conflict and is pertinent to all possible futures.” They go on to say: “From enhancing friendly operations or disrupting those of the enemy via small scale tailoring of natural weather patterns to complete dominance of global communications and counterspace control (also known as negative space, and co-space), weather modification offers the war fighter a wide range of possible options to defeat or coerce an adversary.” So, plenty of interest and world domination is at stake here.
In December 1965, the Special Commission on Weather Modification, a department of the National Science Foundation (USA), published a report on Weather and Climate Modification. In it, they state: “The weather modification events of the late 40's and early 50's in the United States encouraged cloud seeding programmes in Australia, France and South Africa to increase precipitation and renewed the scientific interest in hail suppression that had been practiced in Alpine Europe since the mid 30's. The dozen nations experimenting with cloud seeding during the late 1940's more than doubled by 1951, from 12 up to 30 countries, representing every continent.” The Advisory Committee on Weather Control (USA) recommended: “The development of weather modification must rest on a foundation of fundamental knowledge that can be obtained only through scientific research into all the physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere. The Committee recommends the following:
- That encouragement be given for the widest possible competent research in meteorology and related fields. Such research should be undertaken by Government agencies, universities, industries, and other organisations.
- That the Government sponsors meteorological research more vigorously than at present. Adequate support is particularly needed to maintain continuity and reasonable stability for long-term projects.
- That the administration of Government-sponsored research provide freedom and latitude for choosing methods and goals. Emphasis should be put on sponsoring talented men as well as their specific projects.
- That an agency be designated to promote and support research in the needed fields, and to coordinate research projects. It should also constitute a central point for the assembly, evaluation, and dissemination of information. This agency should be the National Science Foundation.
- That whenever a research project has the endorsement of the National Science Foundation and requires facilities to achieve its purpose, the agency having jurisdiction over such facilities should provide them.”
It must be obvious by now that weather modification has been a government endorsed and encouraged field of technology that has been in operation for nearly a century. Governments in all five continents are sponsoring private companies to influence the weather, in their opinion to improve the local weather conditions. And then there is the term ‘geoengineering’. Geoengineering is often reserved for those actions which attempt to curb the greatest impacts of climate change, while weather modification is usually taken to refer to those actions, such as cloud-seeding, to alter the weather in local areas across short time scales.
Within their own literature, we find statements like these. “Although weather modification schemes have caused significant impacts to communities such as inducing droughts or causing flooding, they usually don’t intend to alter the climate more broadly and, for that reason, they aren’t considered to be geoengineering. However, there is significant overlap between many geoengineering and weather modification methods, and weather modification technologies are also important precursors particularly to Solar Radiation Modification (SRM) schemes. This includes their development being highly linked to the military-industrial complex and risk of militarisation, such as the use of weather warfare by the US military in Vietnam. Furthermore, as weather modification projects scale up in geographical scope, so too do their impacts and likelihood of causing more wide-spread changes to weather systems.”
Outdoor weather modification research has taken place in 50 countries spanning 70 years, and the resulting body of published work shows that the effectiveness of weather modification techniques cannot be statistically proven. The most recent large-scale assessment of weather modification projects that aimed to enhance precipitation was carried out by the World Meteorological Organisation’s (WMO) World Weather Research Programme Expert Team on Weather Modification. Its Report on Global Precipitation Enhancement Activities cites that there are knowledge gaps between, on the one hand, the formation of clouds and precipitation and, on the other hand, major deficiencies in the models used for cloud seeding simulations. These are key reasons for the ineffectiveness of most weather modification attempts.
The Expert Team on Weather Modification from the World Weather Research Programme (WxMOD), all under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organisation, aims to promote scientific practices in weather modification research through its activities and through the organisation of scientific conferences or sessions on weather modification.
- WxMOD should promote research related to microphysics and aerosols that can be leveraged by and related to the activities of the WWRP (World Weather Research Programme) such as hydrology and precipitation, tropical cyclones, and urban prediction.
- WxMOD should provide necessary expertise in chemical, dynamical, and physical processes involving cloud and precipitation evolution impacting weather and climate.
- WxMOD should assist in the drafting of WMO documents on the status of weather modification and guidelines for providing advice to Members and to propose revisions to these documents where necessary.
- WxMOD should promote research and education about weather modification through organising scientific workshops, developing training materials, etc.
Lots of effort goes into promoting and controlling all activities surrounding weather modification and geoengineering. Another important player in this field, and also to give you some idea of the need for government control, seen all over the world, is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the US. They boast: “Our agency holds key leadership roles in shaping international ocean, fisheries, climate, space and weather policies. NOAA’s many assets — including research programs, vessels, satellites, science centres, laboratories and a vast pool of distinguished scientists and experts — are essential, internationally recognized resources. We work closely with other nations to advance our ability to predict and respond to changes in climate and other environmental challenges that imperil earth’s natural resources, human life and economic vitality.”
This is how it works.
Considered a promising science, weather modification has the goals of preventing damaging weather and has been utilised since the 1940s & 1950s. As part of Public Law 92-205 (1972), all non-Federal weather modification activities must be reported to the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, via the NOAA Weather Program Office.
The Weather Modification Reporting Act of 1972, 15 U.S.C. § 330 et seq. requires that all persons who conduct weather modification activities within the United States or its territories report such activities to the U.S. Secretary of Commerce at least 10 days prior to and after undertaking the activities. Failure to report can result in fines of up to $10,000.
Activities subject to reporting.
Weather modification activities are defined as “Any activity performed with the intention of producing artificial changes in the composition, behaviour, or dynamics of the atmosphere” (see 15 CFR § 908.1). The following, when conducted as weather modification activities, shall be reported (see 15 CFR § 908.3):
- Seeding or dispersing of any substance into clouds or fog, to alter drop size distribution, produce ice crystals or coagulation of droplets, alter the development of hail or lightning, or influence in any way the natural development cycle of clouds or their environment;
- Using fires or heat sources to influence convective circulation or to evaporate fog;
- Modifying the solar radiation exchange of the earth or clouds, through the release of gases, dusts, liquids, or aerosols into the atmosphere;
- Modifying the characteristics of land or water surfaces by dusting or treating with powders, liquid sprays, dyes, or other materials;
- Releasing electrically charged or radioactive particles, or ions, into the atmosphere;
- Applying shock waves, sonic energy sources, or other explosive or acoustic sources to the atmosphere;
- Using aircraft propeller downwash, jet wash, or other sources of artificial wind generation;
- Using lasers or other sources of electromagnetic radiation; or
- Other activities undertaken with the intent to modify the weather or climate, including solar radiation management activities and experiments
All these methods are currently being used, otherwise there would be no point in demanding that they need to be reported!
The requirement to report does not apply to activities of a purely local nature that can reasonably be expected not to modify the weather outside of the area of operation. This exception is presently limited to the use of lightning deflection or static discharge devices in aircraft, boats, or buildings, and to the use of small heat sources, fans, fogging devices, aircraft downwash, or sprays to prevent the occurrence of frost in tracts or fields planted with crops susceptible to frost or freeze damage. Also, the requirement to report does not apply to religious activities or other ceremonies, rites and rituals intended to modify the weather.
All activities noted in the earlier paragraph must be reported at least 10 days before the commencement of such project or activity. However, after the Administrator has received initial notification of a planned activity, he may waive some of the subsequent reporting requirements. This decision to waive certain reporting requirements will be based on the general acceptability, from a technical or scientific viewpoint, of the apparatus and techniques to be used.
In other words, they may decide that you can proceed with your activity to alter the weather without any further need for them to know what you are doing!
International cooperation is a key factor to establish world control. And manipulating the weather, whether the claim is about local or global interference, is a very important tool to control life, and human life in particular, by bringing about major and catastrophic changes to living conditions and to economic conditions. On December 9, 2023, a conference on Climate Change through Weather Modification was held in Dubai. This event, hosted by the UAE National Centre of Meteorology (NCM), featured a diverse array of speakers, including experts and researchers from global entities like the WMO's Weather Modification Expert Team, the US Weather Modification Association, the European Geosciences Union (EGU), as well as NCM and its UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science (UAEREP). As a case study, UAEREP provided financial funding and technical support to approximately 11 pioneering research projects worldwide. These projects have involved over 64 researchers from 35 research centres spanning 11 countries. Lots of money being spread across the globe to further the goal of climate change through weather modification. Whether you call it cloud seeding or geoengineering, it is a serious effort to change the weather and the climate, all being done to save the planet, even though profiteering by making effective use of private investments and extremely generous grants from public funds is a nice beneficial side-effect.
Geoengineering techniques include directly removing CO2 emissions from the atmosphere. The first plants to do this are already in operation, capturing CO2 in tiny quantities compared with countries' emissions. A high level of CO2 in the atmosphere makes plants grow better. Ask the food producers who have received government grants to install CO2-generators in their greenhouses. Plants that grow faster and produce more leaves produce more oxygen, which they release into the atmosphere. Plants are far more efficient in capturing CO2 from the atmosphere than any devise we are capable of constructing. Furthermore, the intention of human authorities is ‘to store’ the captured CO2 deep in the earth’s crust, while plants convert it into oxygen, released back into the atmosphere. I leave you to decide which is the better, the more sensible, the more healthy option.
More controversial is solar radiation modification (SRM), which would cut the amount of sunlight reaching the earth's surface by, for example, spraying sulphate aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect more light back into space. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause at about 10 to 17km (about 6 to 11 miles) altitude to its upper boundary (the stratopause) at about 50km (30 miles), and it also contains the ozone layer. One idea involves pumping sun-blocking particles into the upper atmosphere. Stratospheric aerosol injection would involve flying aircrafts into the stratosphere, or between 10 miles and 30 miles skyward, and spraying a fine mist that would hang in the air, reflecting some of the sun’s radiation back into space.
- Hence, aircrafts are flown into the stratosphere. Commercial flights are at the higher altitudes of the troposphere, as the flight height for commercial planes typically ranges from 31,000 to 38,000 feet, equivalent to approximately 5.9 to 7.2 miles (9.5km to 11.5km) above the ground.
- However, research and military aeroplanes can get up to 150,000 feet (45.7km or 28.4 miles), with some exceptions reaching up to 300,000 feet (91.4km or 56.8 miles).
- These planes release aerosols at a very high altitude into the atmosphere. This can be seen from the ground when planes, much higher than the clouds or any other aircraft you may spot, paint white straight lines into the sky that slowly spread to create a sheet, reflecting the sunlight. Conspiracy theorists call these chemtrails, while authorities everywhere insist they are simply contrails, exhaust fumes from aeroplanes, at a height where there is no regular air traffic.
- The fact that only research and military aircraft are capable of reaching the necessary heights also explains why people have been unsuccessful in obtaining the flight plans for the planes they were observing. These flights simply ‘never existed’.
- Interesting! In April 2024, Tennessee lawmakers have passed a bill banning the release of airborne chemicals that are known as "chemtrails" by conspiracy theories. The bill forbids "intentional injection, release, or dispersion" of chemicals into the air.
In spite of governments everywhere denying that they are actively involved in climate modification, the following announcement hit the news in October 2022. “The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy is coordinating a five-year research plan to study ways of modifying the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth in order to temporarily temper the effects of global warming. There are several kinds of sunlight-reflection technology being considered, including stratospheric aerosol injection, marine cloud brightening and cirrus cloud thinning. Stratospheric aerosol injection involves spraying an aerosol like sulphur dioxide into the stratosphere, and because it has the potential to affect the entire globe, often gets the most attention.”
Some of the techniques, such as spraying sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, are known to have harmful effects on the environment and human health. But scientists and climate leaders, who are concerned that humanity will overshoot its emissions targets, say research is important to figure out how best to balance these risks against a possibly catastrophic rise in the earth’s temperature.
The scientists and climate leaders – who are ‘the leaders’ of the climate? – referred to are the drivers of the narrative that the earth is rapidly warming up and that it is all to blame on high CO2 emissions.
Harvard professor David Keith, who first worked on the topic in 1989, said it’s being taken much more seriously now. He points to formal statements of support for researching sunlight reflection from the Environmental Defense Fund, the Union of Concerned Scientists, and the Natural Resources Defense Council, and the creation of a new group he advises, called the Climate Overshoot Commission, an international group of scientists and lawmakers that’s evaluating climate interventions in preparation for a world that warms beyond what the Paris Climate Accord recommended. He says: “To be clear, nobody is saying sunlight-reflection modification is the solution to climate change. Reducing emissions remains the priority.”
“The idea of sunlight reflection first appeared prominently in a 1965 report to President Lyndon B. Johnson, entitled 'Restoring the Quality of Our Environment',” so David Keith told CNBC. The report floated the idea of spreading particles over the ocean at a cost of $100 per square mile. A one percent change in the reflectivity of the earth would cost $500 million per year. The report said, “This doesn’t seem excessive, considering the extraordinary economic and human importance of climate.” The estimated price tag has gone up since then. The current estimate is that it would cost $10 billion per year to run a programme that cools the earth by 1 degree Celsius, said Edward A. Parson, a professor of environmental law at UCLA’s law school. “But that figure is seen to be remarkably cheap compared to other climate change mitigation initiatives”, he added.
There’s also a precedent for releasing sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Factories that burn fossil fuels, especially coal, do so as well. Coal has some sulphur that oxidises when burned, creating sulphur dioxide. That sulphur dioxide goes through other chemical reactions in the atmosphere and eventually falls to the earth as sulfuric acid in rain. But during the time that the sulphur pollution sits in the air, it does serve as a kind of insulation from the heat of the sun. Ironically, as the world reduces coal burning to curb the carbon dioxide emissions that so-called cause global warming, we’ll also be eliminating the sulphur dioxide emissions that mask some of that warming. And so we devise a plan with a huge price tag to the tax payer, to replace that sulphur. This is not a new concept, but a well-practised one. Remember the drive to remove all fat from your diet, so it could be replaced by capsules of fat (omegas)? We all use soaps to wash ourselves with, including our hair. Soaps remove the oil from the skin and the hairs, which then needs to be replaced by manufactured oil (skin moisturising creams and lotions and hair conditioner).
There are significant and well-known risks to some of these techniques — sulphur dioxide aerosol injection, in particular.
- First, spraying sulphur into the atmosphere will ‘mess with the ozone chemistry in a way that might delay the recovery of the ozone layer,’ Edward Parson told CNBC.
- Also, sulphates injected into the atmosphere eventually come down as acid rain, which affects soil, water reservoirs, and local ecosystems. Increase the sulphates and you destroy earth’s living conditions.
- Third, the sulphur in the atmosphere forms very fine particulates that can cause respiratory illness.
One example came to light in May 2015. “Four employees of Spain’s Meteorological Agency have confessed that Spain is being sprayed nationwide by aircraft that are spreading lead dioxide, silver iodide and diatomite through the atmosphere. The objective is to keep rain away and allow temperatures to rise, which creates a summer climate for tourism while benefiting corporations in the agricultural sector. In turn this is causing very severe instances of the extreme weather phenomenon known in Spanish as ‘gota fría’. The autonomous communities of Murcia and Valencia and the province of Almeria are the most affected, to the extent that not a drop of rain falls in over seven months, catastrophic ‘gota fría’ storms are generated, and respiratory diseases are caused among the population due to the inhalation of the lead dioxide and other toxic compounds. These aircraft are taking off from San Javier military airport in Murcia.”
And the plans to change the weather locally and globally don’t end with chemical interference. There is more in the pipeline.
- Space-based techniques such as introducing a space mirror into orbit to reflect incoming sunlight, dispersing sunlight before it reaches earth with diffraction gratings or lenses, etc. These options are the least feasible because of their costs.
- Ocean mirror. A fleet of sea vessels would spread lots of long-lasting microbubbles in the ocean, forming an artificial seafoam. This artificial seafoam would be whiter and, therefore, more reflective.
- Cirrus cloud thinning. Cirrus is a type of high cloud made of ice crystals that reflect sunlight but also trap heat from infrared radiation. Thus, if we were able to thin them or reduce them, that could have a cooling effect on earth.
Now I leave you to ponder the question which actions have had, and still are having, the most impact on the weather and the climate: driving your car and heating your home with a coal fire, the breathing and farting of the life stock, the industry, or cloud seeding and geoengineering?
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https://activehealthcare.co.uk/literature/science/255-climate-and-weather
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2024-12-07T02:46:18Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066422909.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20241207010938-20241207040938-00576.warc.gz
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This content will become publicly available on May 1, 2025
Streamflow prediction is crucial for planning future developments and safety measures along river basins, especially in the face of changing climate patterns. In this study, we utilized monthly streamflow data from the United States Bureau of Reclamation and meteorological data (snow water equivalent, temperature, and precipitation) from the various weather monitoring stations of the Snow Telemetry Network within the Upper Colorado River Basin to forecast monthly streamflow at Lees Ferry, a specific location along the Colorado River in the basin. Four machine learning models—Random Forest Regression, Long short-term memory, Gated Recurrent Unit, and Seasonal AutoRegresive Integrated Moving Average—were trained using 30 years of monthly data (1991–2020), split into 80% for training (1991–2014) and 20% for testing (2015–2020). Initially, only historical streamflow data were used for predictions, followed by including meteorological factors to assess their impact on streamflow. Subsequently, sequence analysis was conducted to explore various input-output sequence window combinations. We then evaluated the influence of each factor on streamflow by testing all possible combinations to identify the optimal feature combination for prediction. Our results indicate that the Random Forest Regression model consistently outperformed others, especially after integrating all meteorological factors with historical streamflow data. The best performance was achieved with a 24-month look-back period to predict 12 months of streamflow, yielding a Root Mean Square Error of 2.25 and R-squared (R2) of 0.80. Finally, to assess model generalizability, we tested the best model at other locations—Greenwood Springs (Colorado River), Maybell (Yampa River), and Archuleta (San Juan) in the basin.
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Streamflow prediction plays a vital role in water resources planning in order to understand the dramatic change of climatic and hydrologic variables over different time scales. In this study, we used machine learning (ML)-based prediction models, including Random Forest Regression (RFR), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Seasonal Auto- Regressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA), and Facebook Prophet (PROPHET) to predict 24 months ahead of natural streamflow at the Lees Ferry site located at the bottom part of the Upper Colorado River Basin (UCRB) of the US. Firstly, we used only historic streamflow data to predict 24 months ahead. Secondly, we considered meteorological components such as temperature and precipitation as additional features. We tested the models on a monthly test dataset spanning 6 years, where 24-month predictions were repeated 50 times to ensure the consistency of the results. Moreover, we performed a sensitivity analysis to identify our best-performing model. Later, we analyzed the effects of considering different span window sizes on the quality of predictions made by our best model. Finally, we applied our best-performing model, RFR, on two more rivers in different states in the UCRB to test the model’s generalizability. We evaluated the performance of the predictive models using multiple evaluation measures. The predictions in multivariate time-series models were found to be more accurate, with RMSE less than 0.84 mm per month, R-squared more than 0.8, and MAPE less than 0.25. Therefore, we conclude that the temperature and precipitation of the UCRB increases the accuracy of the predictions. Ultimately, we found that multivariate RFR performs the best among four models and is generalizable to other rivers in the UCRB.more » « less
Thenkabail, Prasad S. (Ed.)
Physically based hydrologic models require significant effort and extensive information for development, calibration, and validation. The study explored the use of the random forest regression (RFR), a supervised machine learning (ML) model, as an alternative to the physically based Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for predicting streamflow in the Rio Grande Headwaters near Del Norte, a snowmelt-dominated mountainous watershed of the Upper Rio Grande Basin. Remotely sensed data were used for the random forest machine learning analysis (RFML) and RStudio for data processing and synthesizing. The RFML model outperformed the SWAT model in accuracy and demonstrated its capability in predicting streamflow in this region. We implemented a customized approach to the RFR model to assess the model’s performance for three training periods, across 1991–2010, 1996–2010, and 2001–2010; the results indicated that the model’s accuracy improved with longer training periods, implying that the model trained on a more extended period is better able to capture the parameters’ variability and reproduce streamflow data more accurately. The variable importance (i.e., IncNodePurity) measure of the RFML model revealed that the snow depth and the minimum temperature were consistently the top two predictors across all training periods. The paper also evaluated how well the SWAT model performs in reproducing streamflow data of the watershed with a conventional approach. The SWAT model needed more time and data to set up and calibrate, delivering acceptable performance in annual mean streamflow simulation, with satisfactory index of agreement (d), coefficient of determination (R2), and percent bias (PBIAS) values, but monthly simulation warrants further exploration and model adjustments. The study recommends exploring snowmelt runoff hydrologic processes, dust-driven sublimation effects, and more detailed topographic input parameters to update the SWAT snowmelt routine for better monthly flow estimation. The results provide a critical analysis for enhancing streamflow prediction, which is valuable for further research and water resource management, including snowmelt-driven semi-arid regions.
Abstract In the Colorado River Basin (CRB), ensemble streamflow prediction (ESP) forecasts drive operational planning models that project future reservoir system conditions. CRB operational seasonal streamflow forecasts are produced using ESP, which represents climate using an ensemble of meteorological sequences of historical temperature and precipitation, but do not typically leverage additional real‐time subseasonal‐to‐seasonal climate forecasts. Any improvements to streamflow forecasts would help stakeholders who depend on operational projections for decision making. We explore incorporating climate forecasts into ESP through variations on an ESP trace weighting approach, focusing on Colorado River unregulated inflows forecasts to Lake Powell. The k‐nearest neighbors (kNN) technique is employed using North American Multi‐Model Ensemble one‐ and three‐month temperature and precipitation forecasts, and preceding three‐month historical streamflow, as weighting factors. The benefit of disaggregated climate forecast information is assessed through the comparison of two kNN weighting strategies; a basin‐wide kNN uses the same ESP weights over the entire basin, and a disaggregated‐basin kNN applies ESP weights separately to four subbasins. We find in general that climate‐informed forecasts add greater marginal skill in late winter and early spring, and that more spatially granular disaggregated‐basin use of climate forecasts slightly improves skill over the basin‐wide method at most lead times.
RCMs produced at ~0.5° (available in the NA-CORDEX database esgf-node.ipsl.upmc.fr/search/cordex-ipsl/) address issues related to coarse resolution of GCMs (produced at 2° to 4°). Nevertheless, due to systematic and random model errors, bias correction is needed for regional study applications. However, an acceptable threshold for magnitude of bias correction that will not affect future RCM projection behavior is unknown. The goal of this study is to evaluate the implications of a bias correction technique (distribution mapping) for four GCM-RCM combinations for simulating regional precipitation and, subsequently, streamflow, surface runoff, and water yield when integrated into Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) applications for the Des Moines River basin (31,893 km²) in Iowa-Minnesota, U.S. The climate projections tested in this study are an ensemble of 2 GCMs (MPI-ESM-MR and GFDL-ESM2M) and 2 RCMs (WRF and RegCM4) for historical (1981-2005) and future (2030-2050) projections in the NA-CORDEX CMIP5 archive. The PRISM dataset was used for bias correction of GCM-RCM historical precipitation and for SWAT baseline simulations. We found bias correction improves historical total annual volumes for precipitation, seasonality, spatial distribution and mean error for all GCM-RCM combinations. However, improvement of correlation coefficient occurred only for the RegCM4 simulations. Monthly precipitation was overestimated for all raw models from January to April, and WRF overestimated monthly precipitation from January to August. The bias correction method improved monthly average precipitation for all four GCM-RCM combinations. The ability to detect occurrence of precipitation events was slightly better for the raw models, especially for the GCM-WRF combinations. Simulated historical streamflow was compared across 26 monitoring stations: Historical GCM-RCM outputs were unable to replicate PRISM KGE statistical results (KGE>0.5). However, the Pbias streamflow results matched the PRISM simulation for all bias-corrected models and for the raw GFDL-RegCM4 combination. For future scenarios there was no change in the annual trend, except for raw WRF models that estimated an increase of about 35% in annual precipitation. Seasonal variability remained the same, indicating wetter summers and drier winters. However, most models predicted an increase in monthly precipitation from January to March, and a reduction in June and July (except for raw WRF models). The impact on hydrological simulations based on future projected conditions was observed for surface runoff and water yield. Both variables were characterized by monthly volume overestimation; the raw WRF models predicted up to three times greater volume compared to the historical run. RegCM4 projected increased surface runoff and water yield for winter and spring by two times, and a slight volume reduction in summer and autumn. Meanwhile, the bias-corrected models showed changes in prediction signals: In some cases, raw models projected an increase in surface runoff and water yield but the bias-corrected models projected a reduction of these variables. These findings underscore the need for more extended research on bias correction and transposition between historical and future data.more » « less
Abstract Snowpack provides the majority of predictive information for water supply forecasts (WSFs) in snow-dominated basins across the western United States. Drought conditions typically accompany decreased snowpack and lowered runoff efficiency, negatively impacting WSFs. Here, we investigate the relationship between snow water equivalent (SWE) and April–July streamflow volume (AMJJ-V) during drought in small headwater catchments, using observations from 31 USGS streamflow gauges and 54 SNOTEL stations. A linear regression approach is used to evaluate forecast skill under different historical climatologies used for model fitting, as well as with different forecast dates. Experiments are constructed in which extreme hydrological drought years are withheld from model training, that is, years with AMJJ-V below the 15th percentile. Subsets of the remaining years are used for model fitting to understand how the climatology of different training subsets impacts forecasts of extreme drought years. We generally report overprediction in drought years. However, training the forecast model on drier years, that is, below-median years (
P 15,P 57.5], minimizes residuals by an average of 10% in drought year forecasts, relative to a baseline case, with the highest median skill obtained in mid- to late April for colder regions. We report similar findings using a modified National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) procedure in nine large Upper Colorado River basin (UCRB) basins, highlighting the importance of the snowpack–streamflow relationship in streamflow predictability. We propose an “adaptive sampling” approach of dynamically selecting training years based on antecedent SWE conditions, showing error reductions of up to 20% in historical drought years relative to the period of record. These alternate training protocols provide opportunities for addressing the challenges of future drought risk to water supply planning.Significance Statement Seasonal water supply forecasts based on the relationship between peak snowpack and water supply exhibit unique errors in drought years due to low snow and streamflow variability, presenting a major challenge for water supply prediction. Here, we assess the reliability of snow-based streamflow predictability in drought years using a fixed forecast date or fixed model training period. We critically evaluate different training protocols that evaluate predictive performance and identify sources of error during historical drought years. We also propose and test an “adaptive sampling” application that dynamically selects training years based on antecedent SWE conditions providing to overcome persistent errors and provide new insights and strategies for snow-guided forecasts.
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CC-MAIN-2024-51
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https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10509313-enhancing-monthly-streamflow-prediction-using-meteorological-factors-machine-learning-models-upper-colorado-river-basin
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2024-12-06T20:04:05Z
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| 0.918257 | 2,713 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Understanding Bone Metastases - When Cancer spread to the bones
Cancer that has developed in one place can spread and invade other parts of the body. This process of spreading is called If a tumor spreads to the bone, it is called bone metastasis.
Cancer cells that have metastasized to the bone can damage the bone and cause symptoms. Various treatments are available to control the symptoms and the spread of bone metastases. To better understand what happens i it helps to know the anatomy of the bones.
Bone is a type of connective tissue made up o such as calcium and phosphate, and the protein collagen. The outer layer of bone is called the cortex. The spongy center of bone is called bone marrow. Bone tissue is porous, with blood vessels running through it.
Bone is alive and constantly repairs and renews itself through a process called remodeling. There are two kinds of cells involved in this process.
• Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells. • Osteoclasts are cells that break down, or resorb, bone.
Here are some of the functions that bones have in the body.
• The skeleton provides structural support.
• Bones store and release as needed minerals that the body needs to function, such as
• Bone marrow produces and stores blood cells. These include red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. White blood cells fight infections. Platelets help the blood clot.
When cancer cells invade the bone, any or all of the functions of the bone may be affected.
How Cancer Spreads to the Bone
When cells break away from a cancerous tumor, they can travel through the bloodstream or lymph vessels to other parts of the body. Cancer cells can lodge in an organ at a distant location and establish a new tumor. The original tumor that cells break away from is called the primary tumor. The new tumor that the traveling cells create is called the Secondary tumors in the bone are called bone metastases.
Different types of tumors seem to prefer to spread to particular sites in the body. For example, many types of cancer commonly spread to the bone. The bone is a common site of metastasis for these cancers:
• Breast • Kidney • Lung • • Prostate • Thyroid
Bone metastases are not the same as cancer that starts in the bone. Cancer that starts in the bone is called primary bone cancer o Sarcomas are tumors made of bone cells. A tumor that has metastasized to bone is not made of bone cells. Bone metastases are made up of abnormal cancer cells that arise from the original tumor site. For example,that spreads to the bone is made of lung cancer cel s. In this case, bone metastasis would be called metastatic lung cancer.
Cancer cells that spread to the bone commonly lodge in these places.
• Limbs • Pelvis • Rib cage • Skull • Spine
Cancer cells that spread to bone can cause damage in these two ways.
• The tumor may eat away areas of bone. That creates holes called osteolytic lesions. This
process can make bones fragile and weak so that they break oeasily. These areas may be painful.
• The tumor may stimulate bone to form and build up abnormally. These areas of new
bone are called osteosclerotic lesions. They are weak and unstable and may break or collapse. They can also be painful.
Symptoms of Bone Metastases
Bone metastases can cause these symptoms.
• Bone pain. Pain is the most common symptom of bone metastasis. It’s usually the first
symptom that people notice. At first, the pain may come and go. It tends to be worse at night or with bed rest. Eventually, the pain may increase and become severe. Not al pain indicates metastasis. The doctor can help distinguish between pain from metastasis and aches and pains from other sources.
• Broken bones. Bone metastasis can weaken bones, putting them at risk for breaking. In
some cases, a fracture is the first sign of bone metastasis. The long bones of the arms and legs and the bones of the spine are the most common sites of fracture. A sudden pain in the middle of the back may indicate a cancerous bone breaking and collapsing.
• Numbness or weakness in the legs, trouble urinating or having a bowel movement, or numbness in the abdomen. These are all signs that the spinal cord may be compressed. When cancer metastasizes to the spine, it can squeeze the spinal cord. The pressure on the spinal cord may cause these symptoms, as well as back pain. These symptoms should be told to a doctor or nurse right away. If untreated, they can cause paralysis.
• Loss of appetite, nausea, thirst, constipation, tiredness, or confusion. These are all
signs that there are high levels of calcium in the blood. Bone metastases can cause calcium to be released from the bones and into the bloodstream. This condition is called These symptoms should be told to a doctor or nurse right away. If untreated, they may cause a coma.
• Other symptoms. If bone metastasis affects the bone marrow, people may have other
symptoms related to decreased blood cell counts. For instance, red blood cell levels may drop, causing Signs of anemia are tiredness, weakness, and shortness of breath. If white blood cells are affected, people may develop infections. Signs of infection include fevers, chills, fatigue, or pain. If the number of platelets drops,or abnormal bleeding may occur.
It is important for people to discuss any of these symptoms with their doctor. Detecting and treating this condition early can help reduce complications.
How Doctors Find and Diagnose Bone Metastasis
In some cases, a doctor may find bone metastasis before a person has symptoms. In some cancers, where bone metastasis is common, the doctor may order tests to make sure the cancer has not spread to the bones before recommending treatment. When a person has symptoms of bone metastasis, doctors can do these tests to find the cause.
Bone scan. A bone scan can detect bone metastasis earlier than an X-ray can. Because the scan is more global than an X-ray, it also allows the doctor to monitor the health of all the bones in the body, including how they are responding to treatment.
In a bone scan, the patient is given an injection of a low amount of radioactive material. The amount is much lower than that used i The radioactive substance is attracted to diseased bone cells throughout the body. Diseased bone appears on the bone scan image as darker, dense areas. Conditions other than metastasis, such a infections, or previous fractures that have healed, may also be picked up on a bone scan, although the patterns they produce are often different from those produced by cancer. Additional tests can help distinguish among these other conditions.
Computed tomography (CT) scan. The CT scan provides X-ray images to look at cross sections of organs and bones in the body. Whereas an X-ray results in only one perspective per image, the CT scanner takes many pictures as it rotates around the body. A computer combines the images into one picture to show if
cancer has spread to the bones. It is particularly helpful in showing bone metastases that may be missed with a bone scan. Laboratory tests. Bone metastasis can cause a number of substances to be released into the blood in amounts that are higher than normal. Two such substances are calcium and an enzyme called Blood tests for these substances can help diagnose bone metastasis. Doctors can also measure the levels of these chemicals over time to monitor a person’s response to treatment. Elevated levels of these substances can indicate other medical conditions besides metastasis. Magnetic resonance imagin.
An MRI scan uses radio waves and strong magnets instead of X-rays to provide pictures of bones and tissues. It is particularly useful in looking at the spine. X-rays. Radiographic examination, called X-rays, can show where in the skeleton the cancer has spread. X-rays also show the general size and shape of the tumor or tumors. It’s common for more than one metastasis to be found. How Bone Metastasis Is Treated In addition to treating the cancer, these treatment options are available for bone metastasis.
• Bisphosphonates • Radiation therapy • and• Surgery • Other treatments, includingand drugs
Each of these is described below. Bisphosphonates. These are drugs that slow the abnormal bone destruction and formation caused by bone metastases. They are used to:
• Decrease the risk for fractures • Reduce bone pain • Lower hig• Slow bone damage caused by metastases
Different types of bisphosphonates are available. Here a re some of them.
• Didronel(etidronate) • Bonefos (clodronate)
Each has somewhat different effects. Bisphosphonates are usual y given through an intravenous (IV) line since the oral forms are not well absorbed and can irritate the gastrointestinal tract. The side effects of bisphosphonates are usually mild and do not last long. Here are some of the common side effects, listed from the most to the least common.
• Tiredness • Nausea • Vomiting • Lack of appetite • Bone pain
Early studies with bisphosphonates focused on the use of the drugs in people withand multiple myeloma. Researchers are examining bisphosphonates in treating bone metastases from other types of cancer. Researchers are also looking at whether bisphosphonates can prevent the development or recurrence of bone metastases. Radiation therapy. Radiation is useful in easing pain and killing tumor cells in the bone metastases. It may be used to prevent a fracture. It can also trea Radiation therapy uses high-energy ionizing radiation to injure or destroy cancer cells. Typically radiation is administered once a day in 10 treatments over a 2-week period. Full effects of this treatment may take 2 to 3 weeks to occur. Side effects of radiation may include skin changes in the area being treated and, rarely, a temporary increase in symptoms of bone metastasis. Another type of radiation is calledtherapy. This approach involves injecting a radioactive substance such as strontium-89 into a vein. This substance is attracted to areas of bone containing cancer. Providing radiation directly to the bone in this way destroys active cancer cells in the bone and can ease symptoms. Two important side effects are decreasedwith increased risk for bleeding, and, rarely, leukemia.1 Chemotherapy and hormone therapy. Chemotherapy drugs are used to kill cancer cells throughout the body. They may be taken orally or given intravenously. Hormone therapy uses drugs to prevent hormones from forming or acting on cells to promote cancer growth. For example, hormones such as estrogen in women can promote the growth of some cancers, such as breast cancer. The goals of either of these treatments in people with bone metastases are to control the tumor’s growth, reduce pain, and reduce the risk for skeletal fractures. Surgery.
Surgery for bone metastases is done to prevent or treat a bone fracture. It can involve removing most of the tumor or stabilizing the bone to prevent or manage a fracture, or both. Metal rods, plates, screws, wires, nails, or pins may be surgically inserted to strengthen or provide structure to the bone damaged by metastasis. Other therapies. Other treatments for bone metastases and their symptoms include physical therapy and drug and nondrug approaches to control pain. Many different drugs or combinations of drugs can be used to treat pain from bone metastases. The principal drug type used to treat bone metastases is They stop prostaglandins, the substances that seem to be responsible for much of the bone pain. It is important to take these medicines with food or milk to protect the stomach. Nondrug approaches toinclude the use of heat and cold, and therapeutic beds or mattresses. Clinical trials are exploring the ways to better manage bone metastases
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Last Updated on September 19, 2024 by Chen
Journal bearings and thrust bearings serve different purposes in mechanical systems. Journal bearings primarily support radial loads (perpendicular to the axis of rotation) and are ideal for rotary motion systems, providing support to rotating shafts while reducing friction. They can handle higher speeds but require more maintenance. Thrust bearings, on the other hand, are designed to absorb axial loads (along the axis of rotation), making them suitable for applications like elevators or wind turbines. Thrust bearings offer longer service life but are limited by speed restrictions. The choice between the two depends on the specific load direction, speed requirements, and maintenance considerations of the application.
Now that you know a bit about each type of bearing, let’s take a closer look at their individual qualities and compare them side-by-side!
What is Journal Bearings
Journal bearings have been used in a variety of applications, from automotive parts to heavy-duty industrial machines. Despite the fact that they are not as commonly found as thrust bearings, journal bearings can be just as effective at reducing friction and wear on rotating components. Let’s take a closer look at the characteristics of journal bearing design, construction, applications, and maintenance.
A key feature of journal bearings is their design; typically made from high-grade steel or other durable materials such as bronze alloys, these devices provide optimal support for turning axles while minimizing friction between them and the surrounding environment. When it comes to construction, there are three main types of journal bearing; split type (which separates into two pieces), sleeve type (designed with grooves around its circumference) and solid type (where one piece fits over the shaft). Each has its own advantages depending on the application demands.
In terms of usage scenarios, Journal Bearings are ideal for slow-speed operations such as pumps and compressors where lubrication systems cannot be installed due to space constraints or environmental concerns. Their low cost also makes them suitable for use in less critical settings like household appliances where longevity is not an issue. In addition, they require minimal maintenance compared to other forms of bearing technology which reduces downtime and repair costs associated with more complex assemblies.
To ensure maximum efficiency however regular inspections should still be conducted so any signs of wear can be identified before damage occurs. This includes checking for loose screws, damaged surfaces and worn seals all factors which could impede performance if left unchecked. With proper care and attention these issues can easily be resolved while allowing users to benefit from smooth operation without compromising safety standards. By understanding the different characteristics associated with journal bearing design we can better appreciate their role in reducing friction on rotational machinery and increase overall productivity across many industries. Moving on let’s now consider how thrust bearings compare in this regard…
What is Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings have a different construction, materials, and geometry than journal bearings. They are designed to handle axial loads, whereas journal bearings carry radial loads. In terms of thrust bearing construction, they typically consist of two identical rings with grooves that contain ball or roller elements between them. The balls or rollers allow the inner ring to rotate on its axis relative to the outer ring while carrying heavy loads in one direction.
The material used for thrust bearings is usually steel or an alloy suitable for high temperatures and wear resistance. Special coatings can also be applied to reduce friction and increase service life. Furthermore, the geometry of these components must provide adequate strength and stiffness to handle the load-carrying requirements placed on it by the application.
When considering characteristics that differentiate thrust from journal bearings, such as rigidity, speed capability, start/stop performance, temperature range limitations and lubrication needs; thrust bearings offer higher rigidity due to their inherently stiff design which enables them to maintain form even under heavier loading conditions compared to journal bearings. Additionally, they often require less frequent maintenance because they operate at lower speeds than most other forms of bearings. This makes them ideal for applications where there is limited access for servicing or replacement parts availability is restricted.
In comparison to journal bearings then, thrust bearings possess unique advantages when used in specific operations requiring axial forces only along a single axis. These include better load-carrying capacity over longer periods of time without significant degradation in performance due to heat build-up or fatigue resulting from shock-loads experienced during operation.
Benefits Of Using Journal Bearings
Journal bearings bring a number of advantages to a variety of applications. They are known for their high efficiency, superior performance and low cost. Journal bearings also provide excellent load capacity and can operate in both radial and thrust directions.
The main advantage of journal bearings is that they require less maintenance than other types of bearing designs. This makes them the ideal choice for places where frequent lubrication or servicing may not be possible. Their design helps reduce friction between moving parts which results in smoother operation and longer life spans when compared with other types of bearings. Additionally, these bearings have an adjustable clearance so they can be used to accommodate different levels of wear.
In addition to being reliable and durable, journal bearings offer good vibration dampening characteristics due to its ability to evenly distribute loads over larger contact areas on the shafts surface. Due to this feature, journal bearing systems run quieter than many other bearing designs making them suitable for use in environments where noise control is important such as medical facilities or music studios.
Overall, journal bearing systems offer several benefits that make them worth considering for many applications. With their reliability, durability, reduced maintenance requirements and good vibration dampening qualities, it’s no wonder why these bearings are so popular in many industries today.
Benefits Of Using Thrust Bearings
Although journal bearings provide numerous benefits, thrust bearings offer their own advantages in the power transmission and load capacity categories. To illustrate this concept, consider a factory that manufactures large pieces of machinery with powerful rotating components. The necessary precision and speed require strong support from a bearing system capable of dealing with high loads while minimizing vibration. Thrust bearings are an ideal solution because they can handle both axial and radial loads while also providing dampening against fluctuations caused by external forces.
Thrust bearings operate differently than journal bearings but still provide superior power handling capabilities as well as increased safety for delicate systems like those found in factories or other industrial settings. They use cross-axis contact rather than single point contact to reduce friction between surfaces, resulting in improved energy efficiency and less wear on the parts over time. Additionally, because thrust bearings have fewer moving parts than most journal bearing designs, maintenance costs tend to be lower too.
In terms of specific applications, thrust bearings are often utilized when extreme dynamic loading is needed such as during heavy acceleration or deceleration cycles. They also come in various types depending on the needs of each individual situation including tapered roller type which work particularly well for higher speeds and cylindrical type which works best for heavier loads at slower rates of rotation. In any case, whether it’s rapid acceleration or extended periods under heavy load conditions, thrust bearings will always ensure maximum performance without sacrificing reliability or accuracy along the way.
From these examples, it’s clear that thrust bearings offer many unique benefits over traditional journal bearing designs. Whether you need to manage vibrations due to external forces or accommodate a wide range of speeds and weights within your system design; trust bearings are sure to meet all requirements while helping to minimize overall cost throughout the lifetime of your equipment. Now we’ll discuss some important design considerations when choosing between different types of journalbearings for optimal performance.
Design Considerations For Journal Bearings
Design considerations for journal bearings vary according to the application. When selecting a bearing, each element of design must be considered carefully. These elements include size, load capacity, material and lubrication requirements.
When it comes to sizing, journal bearing diameter should always exceed shaft diameter by at least 10%. This prevents contact between them during operation which can cause wear or other problems. The distance between the shaft centerline and housing wall should also be greater than 1/10th of the bearing’s diameter. Furthermore, proper clearances must be maintained throughout operation in order to ensure optimum performance from the bearing.
Load capacity is another important consideration when selecting a journal bearing. It is essential that the selected bearing can support the required loads without any issues such as excessive friction or premature failure due to high temperatures. Additionally, materials used for both components – shaft and bearing – need to match in terms of hardness and strength so that they don’t experience mismatched wear over time. Lastly, adequate lubrication needs to be provided for long term reliability of these types of bearings.
With all these factors taken into account, appropriate selection criteria can be determined for any given application involving journal bearings. An experienced engineer or technical specialist will have an understanding of how each element impacts the overall performance and durability of these components in order to make informed decisions about their use. Armed with this knowledge, companies can confidently move forward with confidence in their choice of journal bearing designs for various applications ensuring reliable operations for years to come.
Design Considerations For Thrust Bearings
The design considerations for thrust bearings are often quite different from those of journal bearings. When designing a thrust bearing, the first thing to consider is its load capacity. This will determine if it can handle the expected loads that need to be supported and how much space is needed for installation. The construction of the thrust bearing should also be considered when selecting the right type of bearing, as some materials may not be suitable for certain applications.
When choosing a lubricant for a thrust bearing, there are several factors to consider such as temperature range, viscosity and compatibility with other components in the system. It’s important to select an appropriate lubricant that will reduce friction while providing adequate protection against wear and corrosion. In addition, regular maintenance checks should be performed on all thrust bearing equipment to ensure proper functioning and safety.
High temperatures can cause significant damage to a thrust bearing over time so it is important to monitor operating temperatures regularly and take action when necessary. Cooling systems may need to be installed or upgraded in order to maintain acceptable levels of operation which can help extend the life span of any thrust bearing system significantly. With these design considerations in mind, you’ll have more confidence about installing effective trust bearings into your system.
Maintenance Requirements For Journal Bearings
Journal bearings are an essential component of many machines, and proper maintenance is key to their longevity. Maintenance for journal bearings includes lubrication, inspection, temperature control, and wear monitoring.
- Proper Lubrication: Lubricants help protect parts from corrosion and reduce friction between surfaces; this extends the life of the bearing as well as any other components it interacts with. Regular application or replacement of lubricant can also prevent mechanical failure due to heat buildup.
- Inspection Procedures: Periodic inspections should be conducted to check on the condition of the bearing – look for signs of damage such as cracking or discoloration in addition to abnormalities in operation such as vibrations that could indicate a problem. If issues arise during inspection, immediate repair or replacement may be necessary.
- Temperature Control: High temperatures caused by overloading or lack of lubrication can cause rapid deterioration and early failure of journal bearings. This can be prevented through regular checks on oil levels and operating conditions as well as using cooling systems when applicable.
- Wear Monitoring: As journal bearings age they will experience natural wear; this should be monitored closely so that damaged components can be replaced before further damage occurs due to increased stress put on remaining parts. Keeping up with regular maintenance schedules is important for preventing excessive wear and tear on these bearings which could lead to costly repairs down the line.
With proper care, journal bearings can provide reliable service for years while reducing downtime due to unexpected mechanical failures. Next we’ll discuss how to maintain thrust bearings effectively
Maintenance Requirements For Thrust Bearings
Maintaining a thrust bearing is like taking care of an engine: it needs regular maintenance to keep running smoothly. When it comes to thrusting bearing maintenance, there are certain requirements that must be met in order to ensure its long-term performance and reliability. This includes following a specific maintenance schedule, performing regular inspections, and using the right tips for proper lubrication and cleanliness.
To start, having a regularly scheduled thrust bearing maintenance plan is essential for keeping the bearing’s performance at peak levels. Inspections should take place after every few months or so and more often for bearings used in high-temperature environments. During these inspections, check for any signs of wear or damage such as cracks, chips, corrosion, etc., which can indicate poor lubricant quality or incorrect installation procedures. In addition, make sure that all bolts and other components are securely tightened according to manufacturer specifications.
When it comes to lubrication and cleaning, use only recommended products approved by the manufacturer as an improper application could lead to serious problems with your thrust bearing’s operation. It’s also important to periodically replace seals or other parts if they have become worn out over time due to exposure to extreme temperatures or contaminants. Finally, perform preventative measures before installing new bearings apply grease on the outer surfaces and inspect each part closely prior to installation since even minor defects can cause major issues down the line.
By following these steps carefully during routine maintenance checks and adhering strictly to manufacturer instructions when replacing components or applying lubricants/cleaners, you will help extend the life of your thrust bearing while minimizing downtime caused by unexpected breakdowns or malfunctions.
Cost Comparison Between Journal And Thrust Bearings
When it comes to cost comparison between journal and thrust bearings, the long-term cost of both is relatively similar. However, installation costs can vary significantly depending on which type of bearing you choose. Journal bearings tend to be more expensive initially due to their complex design, but this complexity also means that they require less maintenance over time and have a longer lifespan than most thrust bearings. Thrust bearings are generally cheaper upfront because of their simpler build, but they typically need to be replaced sooner than journal bearings due to wear and tear from regular use.
It’s important to factor in the total cost difference when deciding which type of bearing to purchase for your application. If you’re looking for something with minimal initial investment yet still reliable performance, then a thrust bearing might be right for you; however, if you prioritize durability and longevity above all else, then a journal bearing may better suit your needs.
The selection process should take into account not only the price tag but also how each type performs under different conditions and applications. It’s essential to weigh up these pros and cons before settling on either option so that you end up making an informed decision that best suits your project requirements. With careful consideration of both cost factors as well as performance criteria, you can ensure that whichever choice you make will meet your goals while staying within budget. Moving forward we’ll look at some advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of bearing.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Each Type
When it comes to choosing between a journal bearing and a thrust bearing, there are several factors that must be taken into consideration. From advantages to disadvantages, the decision can be tricky. So, what’s the difference? Let’s take a closer look at both types of bearings and their respective pros and cons.
Journal bearings provide superior performance in terms of low friction when used for slow-speed applications such as motors and pumps. Additionally, they have a relatively high load capacity with minimal maintenance required. On the other hand, these bearings do require lubrication or some kind of oil film in order to prevent metal-to-metal contact from occurring during operation which adds additional cost over time.
Thrust bearings on the other hand offer excellent wear resistance and are well-suited for higher-speed applications including automotive transmissions and engines. They also enable greater efficiency due to their ability to work without lubrication since metal-to-metal contact is avoided through the use of a rolling element interface. However, thrust bearings tend to generate more heat than journal bearings so cooling systems may need to be utilized in certain applications because overheating can lead to premature failure.
Overall, when comparing journal vs thrust bearing options each type has its own set of distinct benefits as well as potential drawbacks depending on intended application requirements making selection an important factor when deciding which will best suit your needs.
Selection Factors To Consider When Choosing Between The Two
Journal bearings and thrust bearings are two different types of bearing assemblies used in various applications. When selecting a bearing, it is important to consider the selection criteria that best suits your application’s requirements. In order to make an informed decision about which type of bearing should be utilized, there are several factors to take into consideration when comparing journal and thrust bearings.
The first factor to consider when evaluating a bearing comparison between journal and thrust types is load capacity. Journal bearings typically provide higher radial loads than comparable thrust bearings, while providing lower axial loads. Therefore, if high axial loads are required for the application, then a thrust bearing would be more suitable than its journal counterpart. Additionally, journal bearings tend to have longer service life due to their lubricated design whereas thrust bearings may require additional maintenance over time as they experience abrasion from the contact surfaces with rotation relative motion.
Another factor to keep in mind when choosing between these two types of bearing assemblies is operating speed. Generally speaking, journal bearings can handle greater speeds since they use oil or grease lubrication; however, some applications may require special designs that allow higher speeds for both types of bearing systems depending on the system parameters such as temperature range and environmental conditions. Furthermore, size availability must also be taken into account when making a final selection between these two types of bearings because certain sizes and configurations may not exist for one type but could be available for another type of assembly.
Considering all these elements together will help you determine which type of bearing assembly works better for your specific needs so you can choose wisely based on relevant information rather than assumptions or guesses. The next section discusses common misconceptions about both types of Bearings Selection Criteria which can further guide your decision-making process..
Common Misconceptions About Both Types
When it comes to bearings, there are many misconceptions about the journal and thrust bearing types. Some assume that a journal bearing is only used for radial loads, while others believe all thrust bearings can withstand high-speed applications. However, these myths don’t hold true when selecting between the two options.
First off, a journal bearing is not limited to handling only radial loads; some designs can be used in both axial and radial directions. Furthermore, with proper lubrication and maintenance, they can work well in higher-speed applications too. On the other hand, although some thrust bearings may have lower load capacities compared to the equivalents of other designs, this does not mean they cannot handle high speeds—some specific models are designed specifically for such tasks.
Misunderstandings also exist regarding the differences between each type’s ability to reduce friction or vibration levels. While journal bearings do tend to provide better performance than their counterparts in terms of low noise production and vibration dampening capabilities, this doesn’t necessarily mean that thrust bearings lack these features altogether – depending on the design type you choose, certain styles offer similar benefits as those found with journal bearing selections.
It’s easy to see why people might get confused by the nuances between journal vs thrust bearings; however, understanding how each works best under different conditions will help make an informed decision that fits your needs perfectly.
In conclusion, it’s important to understand the differences between journal bearings and thrust bearings before making a decision about which one is best for your application. Both types of bearing have their own pros and cons, so careful consideration should be given when deciding which one will work best for you. Journal bearings are often more cost-effective than thrust bearings and can provide smoother operation in many applications. On the other hand, thrust bearings require less maintenance due to their design and can handle higher levels of axial load with ease. Ultimately, choosing between the two depends on what your individual needs are.
When selecting either type of bearing, there are several factors that should be taken into account: cost, environment, speed requirements, size constraints, etc. Additionally, it’s crucial to dispel any common misconceptions regarding both types – something that this article has aimed to help readers do! By doing a thorough research and considering all available options carefully, customers can make an informed choice that meets their specific needs while also staying within budget.
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As a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, India is committed to reducing its land degradation and desertification. In fact, India’s goal is to achieve land degradation neutral status by 2030 whereby increases in land degradation would be offset by gains in land reclamation
To address this issue, ISRO’s Space Applications Centre in Ahmedabad had released the results of a project in 2016 in the form of an Atlas mapping the extent of land degradation and desertification across the country, including the processes involved, the severity, and the changes in degradation. Not only does this Atlas facilitate India’s reporting to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, it also highlights vulnerable areas for mitigation to policy makers, managers, planners, and researchers.
The report-cum-atlas showed that during 2011-2013, the most recent time period to be quantified, 29.3% of the country was undergoing land degradation. Compared with 2003-2005, the country experienced a 0.57% increase in land degradation and more land has been degraded than reclaimed. A few states were afflicted with more than 50% of their area under desertification. The increase in degradation compared with 2003-2005, was high for Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and the northeastern states while four states showed a drop in degradation.
Better regulation of lands and stepping up watershed management initiatives will help combat the rising trend of degradation, experts say.
What is land degradation?
According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, land degradation is the “reduction or loss of biological or economic productivity..resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including…human activities.” When land degradation occurs in dryland areas, more specifically arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, it is referred to as desertification. Around 69% of India falls under drylands.
“The universal definition is the processes of land degradation that varies with the time and space,” explained Milap Sharma, a professor at the Centre for the Study of Regional Development at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, who was part of the project. “The basic definition of land degradation which we used to prepare the Atlas is deterioration of the original quality of land and deterioration or total loss of the production capacity of the soil.”
Land degradation is driven by both by changes in climate or human activities. S Dharumarajan, a scientist at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research-National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning in Bengaluru, who was involved in the project, pointed out. “Overexploitation of natural resources is the main reason for increasing land degradation in India,” he said.
The cost of land degradation can be substantial for India where agriculture is a large contributor to the country’s Gross Domestic Product. As a result, lost productivity can weigh heavily on the economy. A study by Delhi-based The Energy and Resources Institute or TERI estimated that the economic losses from land degradation and change of land use in 2014-’15 stood at 2.54% of India’s GDP or Rs 3,177.39 billion (Rs 317,739 crore or $46.9 billion) for that year. Land degradation alone accounted for 82% of those costs.
ISRO’s Atlas maps degradation and desertification from Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Advanced Wide Field Sensor or AWiFS data at a scale of 1:500,000 during 2003-2005 and 2011-2013 for all Indian states including the processes of degradation (ie water erosion, wind erosion, etc), their severity levels, and the changes between the two time frames – a period of eight years.
Funded by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and led by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre, the project involved a team of almost 100 scientists and staff members from 19 state government departments and academic institutes throughout the country.
The Atlas classifies the type of land cover, which included forest or plantation, agriculture, grassland, scrubland, barren, rocky area, sandy area, glacial, periglacial, and others. In addition, ground truthing or field observations were performed to ascertain that the satellite images were consistent with features on the ground.
In the Atlas, the processes of degradation/desertification are listed as vegetation degradation from deforestation, forest-blanks, shifting cultivation and grazing or grassland; water erosion resulting in the loss of soil cover mainly due to rainfall and surface runoff water; wind erosion causing the spread of sand which can erode soil; salinity of soils in cultivated areas due to excess evapotranspiration, drought, excess irrigation, and overuse of fertilisers; waterlogging or the accumulation of standing water for long periods caused by floods, excess irrigation, and incorrect planning of drainage; frost shattering referring to the breakdown of rocks because of differences in temperature; frost heaving where ice lens form under the soil; mass movement delineating the movement of masses of soil and rock due to gravity; and manmade causes such as mining, quarrying, brick kilns, industrial effluents, city waste, and urban agglomeration. These are further classified into their level of severity, either high or low.
Increase in degradation and desertification India-wide
In 2011-2013, India’s land degradation area totaled 29.3% of India’s total land area, representing an area of 96.4 million hectares. This is an increase of 0.57% compared with 2003-2005, which amounts to 1.87 mha – an area larger than the state of Nagaland. Although 1.95 mha of land was reclaimed or restored between 2003-2005 and 2011-2013, 3.63 mha of productive land degraded during this period.
“Land reclamation is bringing back the degraded land into its former state by adopting suitable management practices,” explained Dharumarajan.
The top processes leading to degradation/desertification in the country in both time periods were water erosion (10.98% in 2011-2013) followed by vegetation degradation (8.91%) and wind erosion (5.55%). Overall, the areas affected by vegetation and water erosion increased by 1.02 mha and 0.49 mha respectively in 2011-2013, while there was a slight drop in the total area degraded due to wind erosion and salinity, indicating improvement.
The area under desertification (dryland areas) was 82.64 mha in 2011-2013, which rose by 1.16 mha from 2003-2005. While wind erosion was the main process leading to desertification in the arid regions, vegetation degradation and water erosion dominated in the semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions.
Land degradation increased in most states
In terms of India’s total geographical area, the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir, and Karnataka have the highest area of lands undergoing degradation/desertification, amounting to 18.4% (out of India’s total 29.3%) while all the other states each had less than 2% of degraded lands.
But when considering the area within the states, Jharkhand followed by Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat, and Goa, had the highest area of degraded lands, representing more than 50% of their area. In comparison, the land area undergoing degradation/desertification in Kerala, Assam, Mizoram, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Arunachal Pradesh was less than 10%.
Sharma explained that Rajasthan and Gujarat are large states with desert regions featuring an arid climate while “Delhi and Goa are comparatively smaller states, but overexploitation leads to a higher area under desertification.”
Overall, land degradation/desertification in 87% of 30 states increased from 2003-2005 to 2011-2013. Four states, however, improved slightly in their degradation status over the eight-year period. Among these, Uttar Pradesh had the highest restoration of 1.27%, mainly due to a drop in salinity, while the other three – Rajasthan, Odisha, and Telangana – improved by less than 1%.
Delhi had the third highest level of desertification (60.60% of the state) in the country and it also experienced the highest increase in land degradation (+11.03% ) over the eight-year period from 2003-2005. “In the case of Delhi it is not strictly desertification, but prime land degradation arising from settlement growth, which turns productive areas into non-productive ones,” explained Sharma.
Desertification in the northern states such as Himachal Pradesh (+4.55%) and Jammu & Kashmir (+1.94% ) rose more compared with the eastern states such as Bihar and West Bengal both of which experienced an increase of less than 1% in land degradation. According to Sharma, the “harsh climate and hilly terrains in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir are dominated by physical processes” such as slope erosion, mass-movement, and frost shattering.
The northeast part of the country had notably large increases in land degradation over the eight years from 2003-2005. Land degradation in the states of Nagaland, Tripura, and Mizoram shot up by 8.71%, 10.47%, and 4.34% respectively. In fact, Tripura and Nagaland had the second and third highest increase in degradation country-wide. The driving force for the sharp rise in these states was mainly because of a surge in vegetal degradation of forests.
This may be linked to “low or lack of watershed management interventions in the region from the beginning,” said V Ratna Reddy, Director of Livelihoods and Natural Resource Management Institute who was the author of a 2003 article on land degradation in India.
In contrast to the north and northeast, degradation/desertification in the southern states rose by less than 1% from 2003-2005 to 2011-2013. Dharumarajan explains that “unlike the northern states like Rajasthan or Gujarat” that feature arid climates, “southern states are mostly under semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions where the land degradation process is low.” But he warns that recently “due to overexploitation of land resources and mismanagement, desertification/land degradation processes in the southern states are growing at a faster rate.”
Among the southern states, Telangana showed an improvement in the area undergoing degradation/desertification by 0.52%. This is mainly because of a drop in the area of un-irrigated agricultural lands featuring low severity of water erosion, which is influenced by land management practices, says Dharumarajan. “But the main problem in Telangana is increasing salinity which is due to bringing non-conventional areas into irrigated agriculture,” he adds.
Varying degradation estimates and definitions
Surinder S. Kukal, a professor and dean of the College of Agriculture at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, said that the current estimation of land degradation at 29.3% is much lower compared with an earlier 1994 estimate of 57% by the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning.
This variation, according to Dharumarajan, arises due to differences in methodologies and definitions. The earlier estimate was likely based on extrapolation of sample surveys but the most recent figure is based on high-resolution remote sensing data, he points out.
Kukal has some concerns about the classification of the processes of degradation. He points out that the process of vegetation degradation leads to water and wind erosion. In other words, “the water and wind erosion are the outcomes of vegetation depletion.” And, although manmade degradation is stated separately in the Atlas, he believes that most land degradation is manmade.
“It all started when nomad humans started animal and crop husbandry by destroying natural vegetation to pave the way for present-day agricultural lands,” he stated. The best example, he says, is the practice of shifting cultivation in the northeast. Man-made degradation continues until today, he asserts, with agricultural lands being converted into settlements, industries, and highways.
“The impact of land degradation varies with time and space. It depends on the intensity and amount of rains which cause soil erosion by water,” Kukal says. “The increase/decrease in area under land degradation does not matter anymore because of the severity of various components of land degradation. The mudslides in Jammu & Kashmir (Ladakh) and Uttarakhand during the last few years are sufficient to remind us that things are going from bad to worse every year,” he said.
One of the reasons for the mudslides, explained Kukal, is “deforestation in the catchment areas of many natural and manmade reservoirs,” which “has led to their decreased capacity to hold water in them due to unabated soil erosion by water in the catchment areas.”
Reclaiming degraded lands
So what needs to be done to reclaim degraded lands?
According to Reddy, to combat soil loss by water erosion, which is the largest process leading to land degradation in India, and to restore degraded lands, there is a need to initiate watershed interventions immediately. Watershed management initiatives include afforestation and other programmes aimed at conserving soil and water.
“Watershed management has been dropped from the priority of natural resource management initiatives over the past five years at the national and state levels,” Reddy noted. “This is not a good sign for NRM [natural resource management], given that water erosion is on the rise. Systematic implementation of watershed interventions should be a long-term priority in order to check soil erosion, improve soil moisture, increase recharge, stabilise river basins (catchments) and making agriculture and communities climate resilient.”
Indeed, “watershed management programmes have greatly helped restore degraded lands in Himachal Pradesh,” noted Sharma, citing a case where the state forest department along with the panchayat-level watershed development group planted trees in vulnerable areas, which have resulted in large positive changes over the past two to three decades.
According to Dharumarajan, reducing the severity of degradation/desertification can be achieved by establishing a “proper land use policy, protection of prime agricultural lands and regular monitoring of highly vulnerable areas.”
Kukal also stressed the importance of implementing a strict “land use change policy” at the state level. “Anybody can convert agricultural land into a settlement colony, anybody can install a factory on agricultural land,” he stated, noting that this problem was rampant in Punjab.
In order to reduce soil erosion by water, he proposed harvesting of rain/runoff water – a watershed management practice – stressing that “this needs to be a part of our policy both in urban as well as rural areas.”
“The harvested water could be stored in reservoirs at the individual or community level or used for recharging the groundwater depending on the situation. Every household needs to be sensitised for rooftop rainwater harvesting. The best example of this is Junagarh area of Gujarat, where even the small houses have rainwater harvesting reservoirs, the water of which is used for all household chores including drinking purposes,” he elaborates.
The period of time required to reclaim degraded lands can be lengthy. “If restoration work is scientifically initiated and properly executed, it will take approximately 25-30 years for a visible restoration. But in some areas such as housing colonies may not be possible to restore within such time limits,” said Sharma.
“This Atlas was prepared using visual image interpretation that may vary from eye to eye,” said Sharma. “Therefore, there is some inconsistency in mapping and identification in terms of intensity.”
Also, Dharumarajan points out that the Atlas “only helps for state-level planning.” To prepare a degradation combating plan at the district or village-level, he says, we need to map land degradation at a finer scale.
Around 78 vulnerable districts were selected for detailed mapping at a scale of 1: 50,000, which Dharumarajan says is better for preparing combating plans aimed at afforestation and conserving soil and water. These districts have already been mapped. Semiautomatic techniques were used for mapping the districts, said Sharma. In the next step, such high-resolution mapping and analysis would be carried out for all districts in India, he adds.
This article first appeared on Mongabay.
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The Mysteries of the Greco-Roman world were secret cults that offered to individuals religious experiences not provided by the official public religions. They originated in tribal ceremonies that were performed by primitive peoples in many parts of the world. Whereas in these tribal communities almost every member of the clan or the village was initiated, initiation in Greece became a matter of personal choice. Etymologically, the word mystery is derived from the Greek verb myein (“to close”), referring to the lips and the eyes. Mysteries were always secret cults into which a person had to be “initiated” (taken in). The common features of a mystery society were common meals, dances, and ceremonies, especially initiation rites. These common experiences strengthened the bonds between the members of each cult.
Expansion brought Rome into contact with many diverse cultures. The most important of these was the Greek culture that was brought to Rome in the aftermath of military victories, as Roman soldiers returned home not only with works of art, but also with learned Greeks who had been enslaved. The Greeks influenced nearly every facet of Roman culture, and it was a Greco-Roman culture that the Roman Empire bequeathed to later European civilization. The influence of Greek high culture was felt principally in a small circle of elite Romans who had the wealth to acquire Greek art and slaves, and also had the time and education to read Greek authors. A far wider audience perceived the influence of religions from the eastern Mediterranean as potentially subversive. Romans were famous for their extreme precision in recitation of vows and performance of sacrifices to the gods, meticulously repeating archaic words and actions centuries after their original meanings had been forgotten. Guiding these state cults were priestly colleges. In earlier centuries, Rome’s innate religious conservatism was, however, counterbalanced by openness to foreign gods and cults. As Rome incorporated new peoples of Italy into its citizen body, it accepted their gods and religious practices. The new cults were integrated into the traditional structure of the state religion, and their “foreignness” was controlled. The openness, never complete or a matter of principle, tilted toward resistance in the early 2nd century. In 186 Roman magistrates, on orders from the Senate, brutally suppressed Bacchic worship in Italy. Associations of worshipers of the Greek god Bacchus (Dionysus) had spread across Italy to Rome. Their members, numbering in the thousands, were initiated into secret mysteries, knowledge of which promised life after death; they also engaged in orgiastic worship. According to Livy, more than 7,000 were implicated in the wrongdoing; many of them were tried and executed, and the consuls destroyed the places of Bacchic worship throughout Italy. The senatorial decree prohibited men from acting as priests in the cult, banned secret meetings, and required the praetor’s and Senate’s authorization of ceremonies to be performed by gatherings of more than five people. The decree did not aim to eliminate Bacchic worship but to bring it under the supervision of senatorial authorities. The following centuries witnessed sporadic official actions against foreign cults.
The great period of the mystery religions began when the Romans imposed peace upon the Mediterranean world. The Dionysiac, or Bacchic, societies flourished in the whole empire. Hundreds of inscriptions attest to Bacchic Mysteries. In some circles, Orphic and Dionysiac ideas were blended, as in the community that met in the underground basilica near the Porta Maggiore at Rome. Their rite consisted of a bloodless sacrifice and included the use of incense, prayer, and hymns. In addition to the mystery cults that were familiar from earlier times, the national religions of the peoples of the Greek Orient, in their Hellenised versions, began to spread. A faintly exotic flavour surrounded these religions and made them particularly attractive to the Greeks and Romans. The most popular of the Oriental mysteries was the cult of Isis. It was already in vogue at Rome in the time of the emperor Augustus, at the beginning of the Christian era. The Emperor, who wanted to restore the genuine Roman religious traditions, disliked the Oriental influences. Isis, the goddess of love, was the patroness of many of the elegant Roman courtesans. The religion of Isis became widespread in Italy during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. To a certain extent, the expansion of Judaism and Christianity over the Roman world coincided with the expansion of the Egyptian cults. Far less important was the influence of cults from Asia Minor. By 200 BC the Great Mother of the Gods (Magna Mater) and her consort Attis were introduced into the Roman pantheon and were considered as Roman gods. The mysteries symbolized, through her relationship to Attis, the relations of Mother Earth to her children and were intended to impress upon the mystes the subjective certainty of having been united in a special way with the goddess. There was a strong element of hope for an afterlife in this cult. The Persian god Mithra, the god of light, was introduced much later, probably not before the 2nd century. The cult of Mithra was concerned with the origin of life from a sacred bull that was caught and then sacrificed by Mithra. According to Persian sources, the bull by its death gave birth to the sky, the planets, the earth, the animals, and the plants; thus Mithra became the creator of life. Adonis (a god of vegetation) of Byblos (in modern Lebanon) was often considered to be closely related to Osiris. Adonis’ female partner was Atargatis (Astarte), whom the Greeks identified with Aphrodite. The height of Syrian influence was in the 3rd century AD when Sol, the Syrian sun god, was on the verge of becoming the chief god of the Roman Empire. The emperor Aurelian (270-275) elevated Sol to the highest rank among the gods. Even the emperor Constantine the Great, some 50 years later, wavered between Sol and Christ.
Western Mystery religions and Christianity
Western Mystery religions and Christianity originated during the time of the Roman Empire, which was also the time when the mysteries reached their height of popularity. The simultaneousness of the propagation of the mystery religions and of Christianity and the striking similarities between them, demand some explanation concerning their relationship. The similarities can be explained by parallel developments from similar origins. The parallel development was fostered by the new conditions prevailing in the Roman Empire, in which the old political units were dissolved, and one monarch ruled the whole civilized world. The ideas of Greek philosophy penetrated everywhere in this society. Thus, under identical conditions, new forms of religious communities sprang from similar roots. The mystery religions and Christianity had many similar features -a time of preparation before initiation and periods of fasting; baptism and banquets; vigils and early-morning ceremonies; pilgrimages and new names for the initiates. The purity demanded in the worship of Sol and in the Chaldean fire rites was similar to Christian standards. The first Christian communities resembled the mystery communities in big cities and seaports by providing social security and the feeling of brotherhood. In the Christian congregations of the first two centuries, the variety of rites and creeds was almost as great as in the mystery communities; few of the early Christian congregations could have been called orthodox according to later standards. The Christian representations of the Madonna and child are clearly the continuation of the representations of Isis and her son suckling her breast. In theology the differences between early Christians, Gnostics, and pagan Hermetists were slight. In the large Gnostic library discovered in 1945 at Naj’Hammadi, in Upper Egypt, Hermetic writings were found side by side with Christian Gnostic texts. The doctrine of the soul taught in Gnostic communities was almost identical to that taught in the mysteries: the soul emanated from the Father, fell into the body, and had to return to its former home. There are also great differences between Christianity and the mysteries. Mystery religions, as a rule, can be traced back to tribal origins, Christianity to a historical person. The holy stories of the mysteries were myths; the Gospels of the New Testament, however, relate historical events. The books that the mystery communities used in Roman times cannot possibly be compared to the New Testament. The essential features of Christianity were fixed once and for all in this book; the mystery doctrines always remained in a much greater state of fluidity. The theology of the mysteries was developed to a far lesser degree than the Christian theology. There are no parallels in Christianity to the sexual rites in the Dionysiac and Isiac religion, with the exception of a few aberrant Gnostic communities. The cult of rulers in the manner of the imperial mysteries was impossible in Jewish and Christian worship. The mysteries declined quickly when the emperor Constantine raised Christianity to the status of the state religion. After a short period when they were tolerated, the pagan religions were prohibited. The property of the pagan gods was confiscated, and the temples were destroyed. To show the beginning of a new era, the capital of the empire was transferred to the new Christian city of Constantinople. Only remnants of the mystery doctrines, amalgamated with Platonism, were transmitted by a few philosophers and individualists to the religious thinkers of the Byzantine Empire. The mystery religions exerted some influence on the thinkers of the Middle Ages and the philosophers of the Italian Renaissance.
Common features in Roman imperial times
For the first three centuries of the Christian era, the different mystery religions existed side-by-side in the Roman Empire. They had all developed out of local and national cults and later became cosmopolitan and international. The mystery religions would never have developed and expanded as they did, however, without the new social conditions brought about by the unification of the Mediterranean world by the Romans. In the large cities and seaports, men from the remotest parts of the empire met. They longed for new acquaintances and for assimilation, and they needed the assurance that only the knowledge of belonging to a community can give. Economic and political conditions in the Roman Empire also accelerated the growth of the mysteries. Members of a mystery society helped one another. The mystery societies, thus, commonly satisfied both a taste for individualism and a longing for brotherhood. In principle, the members of the communities were considered equal: one man was the other man’s brother, irrespective of his origin, social rank, or nationality. Because membership in each of the mystery communities was a matter of personal choice, propaganda and missionary work were inevitable.
Rites and festivals
A period of preparation preceded the initiation in each of the mysteries. In the Isis religion, for example, a period of 11 days of fasting, including abstinence from meat, wine, and sexual activity, was required before the ceremony. The candidates were segregated from the common folk in special apartments in the holy precinct of the community centre; they were called “the chastely living ones” (hagneuontes). In all the mystery religions the candidates swore an oath of secrecy. Before initiation, a confession of sins was expected. It was believed that the rite of baptism would wash away all the candidate’s sins, and, from that point on, his life would be changed for the better, because he had enrolled himself in the service of the saviour god. The initiation ceremonies usually mimed death and resurrection. This was done in the most extravagant manner. In some ceremonies, candidates were buried or shut up in a sarcophagus; they were even symbolically deprived of their entrails and mummified (an animal’s belly with entrails was prepared for the ceremony). Alternatively, the candidates were symbolically drowned or decapitated. In imitation of the Orphic myth of Dionysus Zagreus, a rite was held in which the heart of a victim, supposedly a human child, was roasted and distributed among the participants to be eaten. The baptism could be either by water or by fire, and the rites often included actions that had an exotic flavour. In the Dionysus and Isis mysteries, the initiation was sometimes accomplished by a “sacred marriage,” a sacral copulation. The initiation ceremonies were usually accompanied by music and dance and often included a large cast of actors. In the Dionysiac societies, especially elaborate provisions were made for mimic representations. The ceremonies always contained a prayer for the welfare of the emperor and for the good fortune of the whole Roman Empire. In fact, the amalgamation of religion and politics was sometimes so close that the designation “imperial mysteries” is used. The pattern of imperial mystery ceremonies could vary widely.
The religions of Dionysus and Demeter and of Isis and the Great Mother had something of an ecclesiastical year. The seasonal festivals were inherited from old tribal ceremonies that had been closely associated with the sowing and reaping of corn, and with the production of wine. Dionysiac festivals were held in all four seasons; vintage and tasting of the new wine were the most important occasions. But the religion of Dionysus was closely associated with that of Demeter, and, thus, sowing and reaping were also celebrated in Dionysiac festivals. In the religion of the Great Mother, a hilarious spring festival celebrating the renewal of life was enacted in Rome. The festivals of the Isis religion were connected with the three Egyptian seasons caused by the cycle of the Nile River (inundation, sowing, and reaping). About July 19 was the sacred New Year’s Day for the Egyptians, and the festival of the Nile flood was their greatest festival. There were, in addition, the festivals of sowing and reaping. In Roman times, important Isis festivals were held on December 25, January 6, and March 5. The greatest festival was held on December 24-25, at the time of the winter solstice. Because from this date the length of the day began to increase, it was regarded as the day of the rebirth of the god and of the renovation of life.
Nature and significance
The Romans, according to the orator and politician Cicero, excelled all other peoples in the unique wisdom that made them realize that everything is subordinate to the rule and direction of the gods. Yet Roman religion was based not on divine grace, but instead on mutual trust (fides) between god and man. The object of Roman religion was to secure the cooperation, benevolence, and “peace” of the gods (pax deorum). The Romans believed that this divine help would make it possible for them to master the unknown forces around them that inspired awe and anxiety (religio), and thus they would be able to live successfully. Roman religion laid almost exclusive emphasis on cult acts, endowing them with all the sanctity of patriotic tradition. In a sense, there is no Roman mythology, or scarcely any. Although discoveries in the 20th century confirm that Italians were not entirely un-mythological, their mythology was very limited.
Though Roman religion never produced a comprehensive code of conduct, its early rituals engendered a feeling of duty and unity. Its idea of reciprocal understanding between man and god not only imparted the sense of security that Romans needed in order to achieve their successes but stimulated, by analogy, the concept of mutual obligations and binding agreements between one person and another. Roman religion was unspoiled by orgiastic rites and savage practices. Moreover, unlike ancient philosophy, it was neither sectarian nor exclusive. It was a tolerant religion.
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The mass incarceration of Black people in the United States is gaining attention as a public health crisis with extreme mental-health implications. Despite Black Americans making up just 13% of the general U.S. population, Black people constitute about 38% of people in prison or jail. What does this have to do with psychological science? Well, historical efforts to oppress and control Black people in the United States helped shape definitions of crime but also mental illness. And, through its research and clinical practices, the field of psychological science might even have contributed to the perpetuation of anti-Blackness.
To speak about psychology’s contributions to anti-Blackness, this conversation features Evan Auguste, a researcher and professor at the University of Massachusetts, Boston, and Steven Kasparek, a graduate student at Harvard University, talking with APS’s Ludmila Nunes. Auguste and Kasparek co-authored a recent article published in Perspectives on Psychological Science that explored how psychology has contributed to anti-Blackness within psychological research, criminal justice, and mental health, and what scientists and practitioners can do to interrupt the criminalization of Blackness and redefine psychology’s relationship with justice.
[00:00:11.970] – Ludmila Nunes
The mass incarceration of black people in the United States is gaining attention as a public health crisis with extreme mental health implications. Despite representing only 5% of the world’s population, the United States is responsible for 22% of the incarcerated population globally. What’s even more striking is that the percentage of black Americans in the general US. Population is 13%, whereas the percentage of people in prison or jail who are black is about 38%. What does this have to do with psychological science? Well, historical efforts to oppress and control black people in the United States helped shape definitions of crime, but also mental illness. And through research and clinical practices, the field of psychological science might even have contributed to the perpetuation of antiblackness. This is Under the Cortex. I am Ludmila Nunes with the Association for Psychological Science. To speak about psychology’s contributions to antiblackness in the United States within psychological research, criminal justice, and mental health. I have with me. Evan Auguste, researcher and professor at, UMass, Boston, and Steven Kasparek, graduate student at Harvard. They were coauthors in a recent article published in Perspectives on Psychological Science that explored how psychological science has contributed to anti-Blackness and what can scientists and practitioners do to interrupt the criminalization of blackness and redefine psychology’s relationship with justice.
[00:01:52.930] – Ludmila Nunes
Welcome to Under the Cortex. Thank you for joining me today.
[00:01:57.190] – Evan Auguste
Of course, thank you. Thank you for having us.
[00:01:59.700] – Steven Kasparek
Yeah, it’s a pleasure to be here. Excited to chat with you.
[00:02:03.670] – Ludmila Nunes
So I had the pleasure to read your article in Perspectives on Psychological Science. And I would like to start by asking you. Maybe start with the end, what is the main takeaway from your work, from the facts you put together?
[00:02:23.710] – Evan Auguste
Of course, I could take this one of my favorite psychologists named Amos Wilson, and he has this idea that when you frame history as progress, you risk erasing the harms, the damages that are going on in contemporary society. When I think about the project that we embarked on, it was, what are the harms? What are these harms based in that we’re erasing when we frame psychology as this force of progress and justice in society, when in actuality, it often serves and continues to serve as this kind of carceral punitive force in a lot of places, especially when you’re thinking about black people within the context of the United States. So that’s what we were hoping people would walk away with.
[00:03:15.230] – Steven Kasparek
Yeah. And for me, I would say my takeaway from working on this project is that interdisciplinary research and science is extremely important. Oftentimes in our academic work, we are in silos. And so moving forward from here, I feel like I have this awareness that interdisciplinary research is so important, and particularly when you’re trying to address some of these social ills that have plagued us for so long and definitely want to.
[00:03:46.030] – Evan Auguste
Shout out the people we worked with on this article, right? Jeanne McPhee, Molly Bowdring, Alexandra Tabachnick, Irene Tung, and Chardée Galan and the whole seed group, the Scholars for Elevating, Equity and Diversity. Again, it was a really collaborative project.
[00:04:04.670] – Ludmila Nunes
So would you tell us more about the history of anti blackness and how psychological science has contributed to this general sentiment?
[00:04:17.490] – Evan Auguste
Yeah, of course. I’m thinking about a disabilities black study scholar by the name of Alyce Pickens who said within the United States cultural zeitgeist, there’s no blackness without madness and no madness without blackness. The very ideas of mental health, disorder, of mental disease defect in many ways, especially in the context of the United States, are based in these ideas of innate inferiority that was formed by how specifically white European peoples thought about African peoples. Throughout the articles, we briefly go over how some of the theoretical basis of psychology of psychodynamic theory is based in that. For example, Carl Young, who went to I believe it might have been Uganda, was observing the populations there, those African populations there, and saw that as a complete lack of consciousness. As we know now, these peoples are guided by deep, intricate philosophies based in impart, bantu understandings of the world and spirit. And he saw that and could not reconcile that, saw that as unconscious. What becomes our idea now of the collective unconscious that’s rooted, that really serves as a root for a lot of psychodynamic theory. You look at G. Stanley hall, his idea that it was actually unhealthy for black people to experience and have freedom, that enslavement was the healthier condition for black people.
[00:05:48.980] – Evan Auguste
As we move to the article, we show that these are not just ideas. We have institutions that are built based on these understandings, psychiatric hospitals that house people. And while people’s ideas and understandings of mental health might evolve, those institutions and their functions still remain. So you see those same populations if forcibly institutionalized at these places.
[00:06:12.150] – Steven Kasparek
So, for example, a lot of us in psychology, as we go through our training, we become familiar with some of the more hallmark studies that represent kind of psychological research. Malpractice, like the Tuskegee Is Syphilis study being an example of that. But there are a lot of kind of lesser known studies, many of them actually, that we’re unaware of, that have systematically tried to find characterological flaws in black individuals specifically, or biological or genetic flaws that predispose us to believing that those individuals are more likely to be hostile or aggressive or more likely to use drugs. As some examples. And then when we think about how research is represented and where it gets published and how it is disseminated there was a really compelling paper by Dr. Roberts at Stanford, I believe it was published in 2020 showing the kind of systematic exclusion of psychological research that actually focuses on and reports findings on race. Those studies are oftentimes relegated to specialty journals and they’re not often included in journals that have a broader readership, which also would happen to be the readerships that most need the information.
[00:07:30.610] – Ludmila Nunes
It’s interesting what you’re mentioning, because we just published another article in Current Directions in Psychological Science, actually, that talks about how the emphasis on universalisms, finding these universal cognitive processes has helped to shape a very racist field. So I think this is connected to what you’re saying.
[00:07:54.390] – Evan Auguste
Exactly. And so I would dig up the field of black psychology. It’s played a consistent and a forceful role in tackling that idea that psychology has ever been a universalist project. It has been based in very specific ideas of sanity, of community, of civilization that for a lot of people we know it doesn’t work. We can see the fallout of that. So to your point, this very idea of universalism has cast aside so many brilliant thinkers, so many brilliant healers and removed so many useful strategies we have for guiding community.
[00:08:34.070] – Ludmila Nunes
That’s absolutely true. Going back to what you described earlier about how certain theories, certain researchers basically created dysfunctions that they could attribute to black people. You give an example in your article of a fake disease, basically a fake mental illness. Do you want to tell our listeners about it?
[00:09:01.710] – Evan Auguste
There’s a couple snuck in there, right? We have Cartwright, who I believe the late 18 hundreds, has drapedomania the very idea that to desire and pursue freedom is a mental health disorder because, again, as the theory would say, no enslavement is a better situation for these African people. Their biology is more suited for labor. Civilization, in fact, would render them, as they would say, insane. So the idea of a draper Tamini becomes a disorder used exclusively for African peoples. And we push forward and we look at the protest psychosis, the idea that to participate in civil rights, black liberatory movements, again, was evidence of a specific type of psychosis. And again, I think there’s this tendency within psychology for people to say, okay, of course there’s racist, everybody has racist, but we’ve moved on from that. But this has shaped our practice. And so the book, The Protest Psychosis shows not only that disorder, but how that disorder then shaped our understanding of schizophrenia. And so when we look at today, everybody’s well aware now that black people tend to get misdiagnosed over diagnosed with psychotic disorders as opposed to mood disorders. People try to act like it’s a distinction and symptom profile.
[00:10:21.020] – Evan Auguste
But I think the research would show it’s happening at the intersection of culture, the type of culture, the type of practice that people think of, again, as worthy of institutionalization.
[00:10:30.730] – Ludmila Nunes
And you also mentioned a study about connecting biology and criminality.
[00:10:38.550] – Steven Kasparek
[00:10:39.290] – Ludmila Nunes
And the findings were not very surprising given this framework, right?
[00:10:44.160] – Steven Kasparek
Yes, absolutely. There have been many studies, and in the paper we pick out just a few as exemplars to kind of highlight the larger issue of these well established researchers and labs at prestigious institutions. That have been able to publish these works that have clear methodological biases and flaws. So, for example, there’s been several studies, many studies actually attempting to link the presence of a genetic anomaly, the X-Y-Y anomaly, so an extra Y chromosome with a kind of hyper maleness, particularly in black males, young black males. The idea being that of course, there would be a higher prevalence in young black males who are naturally more aggressive, more violent, more prone to those types of behaviors. And of course, they didn’t find a higher prevalence in black males. In fact, they found a higher prevalence in white males, but they didn’t end up publishing those studies because they weren’t in support of their original hypotheses. So that’s one example. There have also been examples where they have targeted younger brothers of kind of older male siblings who were incarcerated to try to study risk for juvenile delinquency. But that sample, again, was about 90% black, almost 100% black, actually.
[00:12:04.570] – Steven Kasparek
And they were administering drugs to those youth that had not been administered to children ever before. They caused really kind of severe side effects. And so there were many things being done in the context of the study that were harmful, but the welfare of the children was disregarded in the process. And so it just kind of showed the lengths that people historically have been willing to go to to make these associations, even despite evidence to the contrary that they don’t exist. And at the same time, there have been many, many studies, of course, seeking to validate treatments for broad populations, psychological treatments such as things like CBT, for example. And those studies that would benefit, in theory, the population have systematically excluded black people. So at the same time that you have many studies historically seeking to showcase violent traits or risk for juvenile delinquency in black people, you have other studies that are systematically excluding black people from research that would be able to validate treatments for use to help improve the well being of those people. So this just highlights like another kind of cycle throughout history in the research space that has contributed to the same issues that I was talking about earlier.
[00:13:22.690] – Ludmila Nunes
Yes. So basically, researchers are using samples composed almost exclusively of black people if they are researching criminality behaviors that are considered nonoptimal, but then when they are investigating how to address any type of issue, mental health issues, then they completely ignore black people in their samples. It’s almost like they’re trying to find these treatments only for white people.
[00:13:49.150] – Steven Kasparek
[00:13:51.130] – Ludmila Nunes
But in your article, you also identify some steps that researchers and practitioners can take to improve the field.
[00:14:01.310] – Evan Auguste
We actually have a lot of recommendations. We have several tables of recommendations, and by no means is that list exhaustive. One of the things that we do mention right, as Steven had mentioned previously, the importance of interdisciplinary work, some people would frame it as almost antidisciplinary work. We almost can’t hope to do this work effectively, authentically, without considering the complexities of history, philosophy, sociology that frame all these conditions. As researchers in psychology, we can’t be so myopic as to think our measures, our assessments, our MRIs effectively capture the full weight of somebody’s sociocultural and historical context.
[00:14:47.210] – Steven Kasparek
And to that , one thing that we discussed when we presented this work at the American Psychology Law Society conference in March was that there tends to be a lot of gatekeeping, particularly at the PhD level. There tends to be a lot of gatekeeping around who deserves a seat at the table when we’re designing these studies, when we’re deciding on components of these interventions that we want to test, and so that mentality of gatekeeping has to really be shed in order to facilitate the type of interdisciplinary work that Evan’s talking about. Because we’re not just talking about working with other PhDs from other fields. That’s part of it. We’re also talking about working with community and cultural leaders, people who are experienced in some of these treatment modalities that Evan referenced earlier that have roots in kind of African history. And so that gatekeeping mentality is another big barrier that we have to work on overcoming as a field as well.
[00:15:45.710] – Ludmila Nunes
What this means is, if we want to dismantle systems that are perpetuating racism and other issues, we cannot work just within academia, for example, because these systems are transversal to many aspects of our society.
[00:16:03.970] – Evan Auguste
Exactly. And I think that’s a really important point. I’m sure we’ve all seen those conversations. But even among people who want to do antiracist work, who want to do antiracist research, who are giving keynotes on antiracism, who have the book, a lot of this work staged in academia, it has to be direct service. It has to uplift exactly as Stephen was talking about, right? The people that are actually being impacted, because often those people with lived experience have the dreams of freedom needed to guide us towards better, more effective communities of care.
[00:16:38.270] – Steven Kasparek
Some of the other recommendations that we make at kind of the research level because that is ultimately the space that a lot of us are in. We try to break it down by both the individual or, like, departmental level as well as the broader level of a journal or funding agency because really these things can be addressed at all of those levels and ultimately need to be to really create changes in the academy. But at the level of the individual or academic departments, we have recommendations such as diversifying course materials. How many of us have been in a history of psychology course only to find the kind of classic articles, not a lot of articles written by diverse authors or not a lot of diverse perspectives? And I think that awareness of the fact that this is happening is really important. First step for any psychologist in training and even just for myself, like working on this project, I felt like at times a veil was being lifted because I didn’t know so much of this information that we were able to kind of collate in this paper. And I feel like I know a lot more now and there’s so much to learn.
[00:17:43.500] – Steven Kasparek
So that’s a first step. And at the level of journals and funding agencies, there have to be structures that are created to really promote equitable research practices. For example, minimum standards of equity. Journals and funding agencies can outline these things and they ultimately do get to dictate like, what papers they’re accepting, what projects they’re funding. And so they have to set the standard. And then there also has to be an acknowledgment at some point of past harms. So at the level of a journal, some of the things that we cite in the paper as these past studies that have been harmful and that have kind of leveraged harmful conclusions and discussions, they still just exist out there. And you can go read it and download it. And if you don’t have that context or if you don’t have that discipline to check, like, has this been debunked or has this been corrected, then you can take that at face value. So some kind of disclaimer or some kind of indicator that maybe this article is not being retracted, but there’s counter evidence to some of the claims made in this article would maybe be a good starting place as well.
[00:18:52.410] – Ludmila Nunes
And besides these strategies and recommendations, I would like to end with a question about applications. So I started by talking about the percentage of Black people who are incarcerated in the United States, which is much higher than what you’d expect given the percentages of black people in the general population. So what can we researchers and scientific societies, and even the common people who might be listening to us, what can we do to start making a difference. And changing these patterns?
[00:19:31.750] – Evan Auguste
Yeah, of course. And I’ve thought about it, right. Like often as researchers, again, especially within the academy, we go to think like, okay, we need more and more and more robust studies, more and more robust evidence at this point. We have a lot of evidence. Over the last several decades, people have done the work. We’ve seen the alternate models in the paper. We mentioned all the different alternatives to policing for mental health that exist and have documented efficacy. So at a certain point, it’s like, okay, can continue to refine, continue to optimize. But here’s where the scholar activist piece comes in too. We have the evidence. It’s not enough to go to your local conference where you’re going to have a room full of maybe 20 people who are going to nod vigorously. It’s about like, reaching those other audiences, reaching public audiences, reaching political audiences to help shift and shape that. As a brief example, we referenced that I think some of the maybe like the 31st APA presidents were involved at some level in the leadership of eugenics organizations. That’s people who are leaders in the field making one of their primary societal interventions eugenics.
[00:20:48.110] – Evan Auguste
So when we think about, okay, what should our calling be, what should our commitments be? I can count on my hands the number of psychologists I know that are engaged in the reparations movement, like creating material substance for the people who’ve been harmed by this history. So that’s where I think we move, right? We have research. People can continue to do research, but making that advocacy, that activism a substantial part of their scholarship.
[00:21:15.750] – Steven Kasparek
Yeah, I was going to say the same thing, and I would just add, you might be the only person in your department or your lab group to listen to this episode of this podcast, but now you know, and now you have a resource and you can be the one to spread that within your small circle. And that’s how this ultimately takes hold and leads to the types of action that Evan’s talking about, leads to the political arena where those people ultimately end up deciding a lot of these policies. And so I think that is another crucial level of intervention that we can all take on for ourselves.
[00:21:51.490] – Ludmila Nunes
This is Ludmila Nunes with APS. And I’ve been speaking to Evan August from, UMass, Boston, and Steven Kasparek from Harvard. Contributions to Antiblackness in the United States Within Psychological Research, Criminal Justice and Mental Health is the title of their article.
[00:22:09.410] – Ludmila Nunes
In perspectives on Psychological Science, and it was my pleasure to talk to them today. I’d like to thank you both for joining me.
[00:22:17.370] – Evan Auguste
[00:22:18.590] – Steven Kasparek
Thanks so much for having us.
[00:22:20.210] – Ludmila Nunes
If anyone is interested in reading this article or learning more, please visit our website, psychologicalscience.org. You can also follow us on Instagram and Twitter at @psychscience.
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Disclaimer: This post may contain affiliate links. As Amazon Associates we earn commission from qualifying purchases.
In this article, we will explore the fascinating origin and history of the name Donaven. From its meaning to its cultural significance, geographical distribution, and variations, we will delve into every aspect of this unique name.
Understanding the Name Donaven
Donaven is a captivating name that has captured the attention of many over the years. To truly grasp its significance, we must first understand its meaning and etymology.
Donaven carries a powerful meaning that reflects strength and determination. It is believed to be derived from the Irish and Gaelic languages, where “Donn” means “brown” or “dark” and “Daven” means “little one” or “child.”
Combining these elements, Donaven can be interpreted as “dark-haired child” or “brown-haired little one.” This meaningful combination of words paints a vivid picture of someone with unique characteristics and a distinct personality.
When we delve deeper into the etymology of Donaven, we are able to trace its roots and explore its linguistic origins. The name draws inspiration from ancient Gaelic and Irish traditions, reflecting the rich heritage of these cultures.
Throughout history, names have often undergone changes and adaptations as they spread across different regions and languages. Donaven is no exception. As it traveled across borders, it found its way into various literature, media, and personal stories, adding to its cultural significance.
Donaven’s journey through time and space has allowed it to become a name that is recognized and appreciated by people from diverse backgrounds. Its unique blend of Irish and Gaelic origins, combined with its evolving nature, make it a name that stands out and captures the imagination.
When we encounter the name Donaven, we are reminded of the rich tapestry of human history and the power that names hold in shaping our identities and connecting us to our roots. It serves as a reminder of the beauty and complexity of language and the stories it carries.
The Cultural Significance of Donaven
Donaven’s cultural significance extends beyond its linguistic origins, influencing various aspects of society. From literature and media to notable individuals bearing the name, it has left an indelible mark.
Donaven, a name that carries a sense of mystique and individuality, has captivated the hearts and minds of people throughout history. Its allure can be found in the pages of literature, the screens of cinemas, and the melodies of songs, making it a name that resonates with audiences worldwide.
Donaven in Literature and Media
Throughout history, literature and media have embraced the name Donaven, using it to create memorable characters and narratives. It has been featured in books, films, and even songs, capturing the imaginations of audiences worldwide.
In the realm of literature, Donaven has become synonymous with characters who possess an air of mystery, strength, and individuality. From the brooding protagonist in a gothic novel to the enigmatic hero in a fantasy epic, the name Donaven has the power to transport readers into captivating worlds.
On the silver screen, Donaven has been brought to life by talented actors who embody the complexities of the name. Whether portrayed as a charismatic villain or a conflicted anti-hero, Donaven’s presence in films leaves a lasting impression on viewers, sparking conversations and debates about the character’s motivations and impact.
Furthermore, the name Donaven has even found its way into the realm of music, where it has been immortalized in lyrics and melodies. From soulful ballads to energetic anthems, songs bearing the name Donaven resonate with listeners, evoking emotions and creating connections that transcend language and culture.
Famous People Named Donaven
Several famous individuals share the name Donaven, further adding to its cultural significance. From athletes to actors and musicians, these individuals have achieved great success and brought recognition to the name.
One such notable figure is Donaven Dorsey, a talented basketball player who has made significant contributions to the sport. With his exceptional skills and unwavering determination, Dorsey has become a role model for aspiring athletes around the world. His achievements on the court have solidified the name Donaven as a symbol of excellence and athleticism.
In the world of entertainment, actors named Donaven have graced the stage and screen, captivating audiences with their performances. Their talent and dedication have brought the name Donaven into the spotlight, contributing to its cultural significance and inspiring future generations of artists.
Not limited to sports and entertainment, Donaven has also made its mark in various fields, including business, academia, and philanthropy. Individuals bearing the name Donaven have achieved remarkable success in their respective domains, leaving a lasting legacy that further enhances the name’s cultural significance.
In conclusion, the cultural significance of Donaven can be felt in literature, media, and through the achievements of notable individuals who bear the name. Its ability to evoke mystery, strength, and individuality has made it a name that resonates with people from all walks of life, leaving an indelible mark on society.
The Geographical Distribution of Donaven
Understanding how Donaven is distributed geographically provides valuable insight into its popularity and prevalence in different regions of the world.
Donaven, a name that has captured the attention of many, has a fascinating story behind its geographical distribution. Let’s take a closer look at how this unique name has gained popularity in different parts of the world.
Popularity of Donaven in the United States
In the United States, Donaven has gained traction as a distinctive and appealing name. It has seen a steady rise in popularity in recent years, captivating parents seeking an uncommon yet meaningful name for their children.
Donaven’s journey in the United States is a testament to the ever-evolving landscape of baby names. While its popularity varies by state, Donaven has garnered attention nationwide, with parents drawn to its uniqueness and rich heritage. The name’s rise in popularity can be attributed to its melodic sound and the sense of individuality it conveys.
As Donaven continues to make its mark in American culture, it has become a symbol of creativity and innovation. The name’s growing presence showcases the enduring appeal of Donaven and its ability to resonate with parents across the country.
Global Presence of the Name Donaven
Beyond the United States, the name Donaven has also found its place in various countries around the world. Its global presence signifies its cross-cultural appeal and its ability to transcend borders.
Europe, a continent known for its rich history and diverse cultures, has embraced the name Donaven. From the vibrant streets of London to the romantic canals of Venice, there are individuals named Donaven who proudly carry the name and contribute to its international reach. In Europe, Donaven has become a symbol of cultural exchange and a bridge between different nations.
Asia, a continent known for its ancient traditions and modern innovations, has also welcomed the name Donaven. From the bustling streets of Tokyo to the serene temples of Bali, individuals named Donaven have left their mark on the Asian landscape. The name’s popularity in Asia reflects the region’s openness to embracing new ideas and its appreciation for diversity.
As Donaven continues to make its way around the globe, its popularity knows no bounds. From North America to South America, from Africa to Australia, individuals with the name Donaven are shaping their communities and leaving a lasting impact.
The geographical distribution of Donaven is a testament to the power of names in shaping our identities and connecting us to different cultures. As we continue to explore the world, we will undoubtedly encounter more individuals named Donaven, each with their own unique story to tell.
Variations and Nicknames of Donaven
As with many names, Donaven has evolved over time, giving rise to variations and nicknames that add further depth and personalization.
Donaven, a name with a rich history, has garnered a variety of endearing nicknames that have become popular among friends and loved ones. These nicknames not only create a sense of closeness and familiarity but also offer a unique way to address someone named Donaven within their social circle.
Common Nicknames for Donaven
Donaven lends itself to various endearing nicknames. Some popular options include Don, Dony, or even Ven, providing a shorter, more familiar option for friends and loved ones.
Don, a simple yet affectionate nickname, has been embraced by many Donavens. It carries a sense of warmth and camaraderie, allowing friends to feel an even stronger bond with their Donaven.
Dony, a playful and lighthearted nickname, adds a touch of whimsy to the name Donaven. It brings a sense of joy and cheerfulness to the relationship, making every interaction with a Dony-filled with laughter and happiness.
Ven, a unique and distinctive nickname, offers a fresh perspective on the name Donaven. It brings a sense of individuality and personalization, allowing the Donaven to stand out among their peers.
These nicknames not only enhance the personal connection between friends and loved ones but also showcase the versatility and adaptability of the name Donaven.
International Variations of Donaven
As the name Donaven traveled across different countries and cultures, it naturally underwent variations in pronunciation, spelling, and even meaning.
In Nordic countries, Donaven may be modified to “Dounaven” to reflect local linguistic norms. This variation adds a touch of Scandinavian charm to the name, infusing it with a sense of cultural diversity.
In Spanish-speaking countries, Donaven may take on a slightly different pronunciation, emphasizing the “o” and “e” sounds. This variation adds a melodic quality to the name, making it roll off the tongue with a rhythmic cadence.
These international variations of Donaven not only showcase the global reach of the name but also highlight the beauty of cultural diversity and linguistic nuances.
Overall, the variations and nicknames of Donaven add depth and personalization to an already remarkable name. Whether it’s through endearing nicknames or international variations, Donaven continues to captivate and inspire individuals around the world.
The Evolution of the Name Donaven
The name Donaven has a storied history, with its usage evolving over time. Understanding its historical and modern usage sheds light on its enduring appeal.
Historical Usage of Donaven
While Donaven’s historical usage may vary, its roots can be traced back to ancient Gaelic and Irish traditions. It was likely popular within specific clans or families, carrying with it a sense of lineage and heritage.
Over the years, Donaven may have been predominantly used in certain regions or communities, further solidifying its connection to specific cultures and traditions.
Modern Usage of Donaven
Today, Donaven continues to gain popularity, as parents seek unique and meaningful names for their children. Its modern usage reflects a desire to stand out while honoring the rich history behind the name.
Donaven’s modern usage spans diverse backgrounds and communities, illustrating its ability to resonate with individuals from various walks of life. It has become a name that embodies individuality, strength, and a connection to cultural heritage.
Examining the origin and history of the name Donaven reveals a captivating journey that spans languages, cultures, and generations. From its powerful meaning and etymology to its cultural significance and global presence, Donaven is a name that remains timeless and cherished. Whether it is in literature, media, or personal narratives, Donaven continues to make an impact, leaving a lasting impression on those who encounter it.
Our content harnesses the power of human research, editorial excellence, and AI to craft content that stands out.
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Arbitration in India is gaining importance given the overstressed judicial system with the huge pendency of cases. With a lot of commercial disputes, it’s necessary to have a proper arbitration mechanism in place for faster resolution of issues.
In this article, we discuss topics like the importance of arbitration, the present status of arbitration in India, problems afflicting Indian arbitration mechanism, various arbitration mechanisms and their pros and cons, key recommendations of B N Srikrishna Committee, etc.
What is arbitration?
In simple words, arbitration is the act of dispute settlement through an arbitrator, i.e. a third party, who is not involved in the dispute.
It is an alternative dispute settlement mechanism, aiming at settlement outside the court.
What are the advantages arbitration?
- It minimizes the court intervention.
- It brings down the costs of dispute settlement.
- It fixes timelines for expeditious disposal.
- It ensures the neutrality of arbitrator and enforcement of awards.
- Having an arbitration law encourages foreign investments to a country. It projects the country as an investor friendly one having a sound legal framework and ease of doing business.
- Having an arbitration law facilitate effective conduct of international and domestic arbitrations raised under various agreements.
What is the mechanism of arbitration in India?
Arbitration in India is regulated by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
The Act is based on the 1985 UNCITRAL (The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration and the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules 1976.
In 2015, Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act was enacted to improve the arbitration in India.
Prior to 2015 Amendment |
After 2015 Amendment |
Applicability of certain provisions related to interim orders by a court, the order of the arbitral tribunal, appealable orders, etc. to international commercial arbitration |
Provisions only applied to matters where the place of arbitration was India. |
Provisions also apply to international commercial arbitrations even if the place of arbitration is outside India |
Powers of the court to refer a party to arbitration if an agreement exists |
If any matter is the subject of an arbitration agreement, parties will be referred to the arbitration |
The Court must refer the parties to arbitration unless it thinks that a valid arbitration agreement does not exist |
Interim order by a court |
Party to arbitration may apply to a court for interim relief before the arbitration is complete |
If the court passes an interim order before the commencement of arbitral proceedings, the proceedings must commence within 90 days from the making of the order, or within a time specified by the Court. Further, the Court must not accept such an application, unless it thinks that the arbitral tribunal will not be able to provide a similar remedy. |
Public policy as grounds for challenging an award |
Court to set aside an arbitral award if it is in conflict with the public policy of India. Includes awards affected by (i) fraud or corruption, and (ii) those in violation of confidentiality and admissibility of evidence provisions in the act. |
In addition, includes awards that are (i) in contravention of the fundamental policy of Indian Law or (ii) conflict with the notions of morality or justice. |
Appointment of arbitrators |
Parties to appoint arbitrators. If they are unable to appoint arbitrators within 30 days, the matter is referred to the court to make such appointments. |
Court to confine itself to the examination of the existence of a valid arbitration agreement. |
The time period for arbitral awards |
Requires an arbitral tribunal to make its award within 12 months. This may be extended by a six month period. If an award is made within six months, the arbitral tribunal will receive additional fees. If it is delayed beyond the specified time because of the arbitral tribunal, the fees of the arbitrator will be reduced, up to 5%, for each month of delay. |
The time period for disposal of cases by a court |
Award that is made before a court, must be disposed of within a period of one year |
Fast track procedure for arbitration |
Permits parties to choose to conduct arbitration proceedings in a fast track manner. The award would be granted within six months |
The 2015 amendments tried to ensure quick enforcement of contracts, easy recovery of monetary claims, reduce the pendency of cases in courts and hasten the process of dispute resolution through arbitration, so as to encourage foreign investment by projecting India as an investor friendly country having a sound legal framework and ease of doing business in India.
However, arbitration in India is still not a preferred means of dispute settlement. The reason behind the same can be noted in the negatives of arbitration systems in the next section.
What are the types of arbitration in India?
There are two types of arbitration in India: Ad-hoc arbitration and Institutional arbitration.
Ad-hoc Arbitration can be defined as a procedure of arbitration where a tribunal will conduct arbitration between the parties, following the rules which have been agreed by the parties beforehand or by following the rules which have been laid down by the tribunal, in case the parties do not have any agreement between them.
Positives of Ad-Hoc Arbitration |
Negatives of Ad-Hoc Arbitration |
Institutional arbitration refers to the administration of arbitration by an institution in accordance with its rules of procedure. The institution provides appointment of arbitrators, case management services including oversight of the arbitral process, venues for holding hearings, etc.
Presently there are over 35 arbitral institutions in India, which are domestic, international arbitral institutions, arbitration facilities by PSUs, trade and merchant associations, and city-specific chambers of commerce and industry. Many have their own rules and some follow the arbitration rules of the UNCITRAL.
Indian institutions that administer arbitrations have an increasing popularity but insufficient workload. Many arbitrations involving Indian parties are administered by the international arbitral institutions such as the Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce (“ICC Court”), the Singapore International Arbitration Centre (“SIAC”) and the London Court of International Arbitration (“LCIA”),
Positives of Institutional Arbitration |
Negatives of Institutional Arbitration |
What are the challenges of institutional arbitration in India?
In addition to the above-mentioned negatives of Institutional arbitration, following are the challenges of the institutional arbitration in India.
- Issues relating to administration and management of arbitral institutions.
- Perceptions regarding arbitrators and expertise issues relating to resources and government support, lack of initial capital, poor and inadequate infrastructure, lack of properly trained administrative staff, lack of qualified arbitrators, etc.
- Issues in developing India as an international arbitration seat.
To address the challenges and shortcoming of the Institutional arbitration, a High-Level Committee (HLC) to Review the Institutionalisation of Arbitration Mechanism in India under Mr Justice B N Srikrishna was constituted in 2016. The committee submitted its report on 3 August 2017.
Recommendations of B N Srikrishna Committee
In relation to institutional arbitration landscape in India
- Set up an autonomous body, styled the Arbitration Promotion Council of India (APCI), having representatives from all stakeholders for grading arbitral institutions in India.
- The APCI may
- recognize professional institutes providing for accreditation of arbitrators.
- hold training workshops and interact with law firms and law schools to train advocates with interest in arbitration.
- create a specialist arbitration bar comprising of advocates dedicated to the field.
- A good arbitration bar could help in the speedy and efficient conduct of arbitral proceedings.
- Creation of a specialist Arbitration Bench to deal with such commercial disputes, in the domain of the Courts.
- Changes suggested in various provisions of the 2015 Amendments of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act with a view to making arbitration speedier and more efficacious and incorporate international best practices (immunity to arbitrators, confidentiality of arbitral proceedings, etc.).
- The Committee is also of the opinion that the National Litigation Policy (NLP) must promote arbitration in government contracts.
- Government’s role: The Central Government and various state governments may stipulate in arbitration clauses/agreements in government contracts that only arbitrators accredited by any such recognised professional institute may be appointed as arbitrators under such arbitration clauses/agreements.
Working and performance of the International Centre For Alternative Dispute Resolution (ICADR)
- International Centre for Alternative Dispute Resolution (ICADR) was established in 1995 for the promotion and development of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) facilities and techniques to facilitate early resolution of disputes and to reduce the increasing burden of arrears in Courts. (For more details, refer: ICADR)
- The committee recommended declaring the ICADR as an Institution of national importance and takeover of the institution by a statute as revamped ICADR has the potential be a globally competitive institution.
The reasons for choosing ICADR as the arbitral institution to be developed are:
- It was set up in 1995 (under the aegis of the Ministry of Law and Justice) with the object of promoting ADR in India.
- It has received substantial funding by way of grants and other benefits from the Government.
- It has some benefits like an excellent location (Headquarters at New Delhi and Regional Centres at Hyderabad and Bangalore), good infrastructure and facilities which make it ideal for development as an arbitral institution.
Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) arbitrations involving the Union of India
India presently involved in 20-odd BIT disputes. The committee recommendations on Bilateral Investment Treaty Arbitrations are:
- Create an Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) constituting officials from Ministries of finance, external affairs and law.
- Hire external lawyers having expertise in BIT.
- Designated fund to fight BIT claims.
- Appoint counsels having BIT expertise.
- Boosting capacity of central and state governments to better understand the implications of their policy decisions on India’s BIT obligation.
- Create a post of international law adviser – responsible for day-to-day management of BIT arbitration.
- Consider the possibility of establishing a BIT appellate mechanism and a multilateral investment court.
- Investor- state dispute settlement mechanism as given in article 15 of the Indian model BIT is an effective mechanism.
The committee’s recommendation for the creation of the new post of legal advisor and treaty’s division of External Affairs Ministry mandated to offer advice to government on all international law matters may increase red-tapism and turf wars between ministries. The committee focuses only on procedural aspect of BIT arbitration ignores jurisdictional and substantive (provision on expropriation) aspects. The critical issues such as the appointment of arbitrators, transparency provisions, enforcement of awards, the standard of review, etc were also overlooked by the committee.
Along with these, there can be more improvements like:
- Legal and Treaties division could be designated to deal with all BIT arbitrations – coordinator of the proposed IMC.
- Commerce Ministry should also be included in IMC.
These reforms aim to make India an international hub of arbitration and a Centre of robust ADR mechanism catering to international and domestic arbitration, at par with international standards. Also, reducing the workload of the judicial system, arbitration mechanism will ensure that justice is attained by all at shortest time span possible.
Article by: Sangeeta Dhiman
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By David E. Schroeder
Special to NKyTribune
Part 49 of our series, “Resilience and Renaissance: Newport, Kentucky, 1795-2020.”
In the 1800s, the arrival of vast numbers of immigrants to Newport brought many Catholics. Beginning with a single church, Catholicism in Newport grew to five parishes by the 20th Century, each operating a parish elementary school. In addition, there were several Catholic high schools. Today, one Catholic parish remains, as well as one high school, indicative of the movement of many Catholics to surrounding suburbs.
The history of Catholicism in Newport can be traced back to the year 1844 and a missionary priest named Father Charles Boeswald. Boeswald, from Louisville, began organizing Catholics in Newport with the hope of establishing a congregation. In 1844, a lot was acquired on Chestnut Street in the city’s West End for the future site of a church and school. The Catholics of Newport began raising funds, and the construction of a small church commenced. The first Mass in the new church, which had been named Corpus Christi, was held on January 19, 1845. The building was officially dedicated on June 15th of that same year. Corpus Christi was the first Catholic parish to be established in Campbell County and from this small beginning, numerous congregations, schools and other charitable institutions followed.
Father Boeswald remained in Newport until early 1846 when he returned to Louisville. A number of priests succeeded him, including several Jesuits from Cincinnati. During this time, the Catholic laity of the congregation sacrificed greatly to expand their parish and to also assist in the mission work that was developing in other parts of the county. It was under the guidance of the Jesuits that the first parish school was established in 1848. A seminarian, fluent in German and English, became the first teacher. A permanent brick school building and rectory followed in 1849.
Much of the early development in the parish was made under the direction of Father John Voll, who served from 1853 until 1875. In 1853 the Diocese of Covington was established, and the people of Corpus Christi welcomed their new bishop, George A. Carrell. That same year, plans were underway for a new church to accommodate the rapidly growing immigrant population. The new Gothic Revival building, with a central bell tower and tall spire, was dedicated on December 24, 1854. The growth of the parish was so rapid that an addition of thirty-seven feet was constructed in 1876.
The people of the parish were very dedicated to the parish school, and enrollment increased dramatically. A German-American sisterhood, the Ursuline Sisters of Louisville, agreed to take over Corpus Christi School in 1863. A new three-story brick school building soon followed. In 1869, a parish cemetery was established under the name St. Joseph in John’s Hill (now Wilder).
As the city of Newport grew and more immigrant Catholics arrived, Corpus Christi Church and School could no longer accommodate their needs. In 1854, St. Stephen Parish was established to serve the growing German Catholic population, and Immaculate Conception Parish was established the following year to meet the needs of the English-speaking (primarily Irish) people.
In 1853, a group of parishioners living on Newport’s eastside met to discuss the establishment of a new parish. They identified about fifty Catholic families living in the neighborhood, almost entirely German-speaking. The leaders of this group approached Bishop Carrell for permission to establish St. Stephen Parish at the corner of Ninth and Saratoga Streets. The Bishop assented, and work on a new frame combination church, school and rectory began. The building was dedicated on May 28, 1854. In 1861, the Sisters of St. Francis of Oldenburg, Indiana, took over instruction at the parish school. They were replaced by the Sisters of Notre Dame in 1876. That same year, the congregation purchased property on Alexandria Pike in present-day Ft. Thomas for cemetery purposes.
St. Stephen Parish grew quickly and by 1857, a new church had become a necessity. This time the congregation built in brick in the Gothic Style. The new church was dedicated on July 25, 1858. In 1869 the church was expanded with a new sanctuary. Two years later a new façade, tower and steeple were added. A new brick school for boys followed in 1870, with the girls taking over the original frame building. A rectory was constructed in 1872. A three-story brick girl’s school was added to the complex in 1896.
In 1855, the English-speaking Catholics of Newport approached the bishop for permission to build a parish of their own. A lot was purchased on West Fifth Street and the new church was dedicated on December 23, 1855. Father Patrick Guilfoyle, a native of Kilkenny, Ireland, was appointed pastor of Immaculate Conception in 1857. His tenure marked a period of both growth and near financial ruin. In 1857, the first parish school was constructed for boys, which was under the direction of lay teachers. That same year, the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth (Kentucky) arrived in the city to teach in the girl’s school which was located on York Street. At the same time, the Sisters of Charity established Immaculata Academy just east of the church building.
Father Guilfoyle, with the best of intentions, began a land development project that he hoped would provide housing for the working class in Newport. Over time, this venture resulted in the construction of perhaps 500 homes in the city. The project was financed with investor and parish funds. Initially, the project seemed successful. As a result, the parish was able to construct a new church, designed by architects Anthony Piket and Son, in the Gothic Style between 1869 and 1873. Before the façade could be constructed, the land development project became insolvent due to the national financial collapse of 1873. Many investors in the plan lost all their funds, and the entire parish plant was set for foreclosure. Only the financial assistance of parishioners Peter O’Shaughnessy and James Walsh saved the parish. Investors filed suit to try and recover their assets. These suits lasted for more than a decade.
Father Guilfoyle left the diocese and was replaced by Father James Bent. Under Bent’s leadership, the façade of the church was completed. A new parish school was completed in 1893, with both boys and girls being instructed by the Sisters of Charity.
The 20th Century brought many changes to the Catholic churches in Newport. In 1911, the people living in the Cote Brilliante neighborhood (southeast of the city and later annexed by Newport), began plans for a parish of their own. (See NKyTribune History column here.)
Ground was broken for a combination church and school building in 1911, and the completed brick St. Francis de Sales building was dedicated on October 13, 1912. A school opened that same autumn. The first pastor was Father Edward Klosterman. Under his guidance, a rectory was built.
In 1921, Father Carl Merkle received permission to add a second story to the parish convent which housed the Sisters of Divine Providence. The original structure contained only two rooms for the four sisters. At the same time, a two-classroom addition was made to the school to accommodate the upper grades.
As St. Francis de Sales Parish grew and flourished, the need for a fifth parish in the nearby city of Clifton (later annexed by Newport) emerged. The residents of the neighborhood, a mixture of German, Irish and Italian immigrants and their descendants, were initially members of St. Stephen Parish. However, as their numbers grew, they desired a church and school in their own community. (See NKyTribune history column here.)
Residents began meeting in 1913 to make plans. They approached Bishop Camillus P. Maes for permission to establish a new parish. The bishop consented and placed the congregation under the patronage of St. Vincent de Paul. Progress was slow. It was not until 1916 that construction on a combination church and school was underway on Main Street. The building was dedicated on September 17, 1916, and the Sisters of Divine Providence were placed in charge of the school.
During the 1920’s, St. Vincent de Paul parish grew quickly. In 1922 a parish rectory was constructed. A year later, the basement level of a new church was completed with a seating capacity of 420, and in 1927, a wing was added to the new school and a convent was constructed. The new upper church was not completed until 1960. Designed by the architectural firm of Betz and Bankemper, the building featured a laminated wood ceiling, as well as stained-glass windows imported from Europe.
Meanwhile, Corpus Christi Parish experienced significant growth and major building projects in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1900, the Ursuline Sisters returned to Louisville and were replaced by the Sisters of Divine Providence. At that same time, the pastor and people of the parish were raising funds to relocate the entire parish plant to higher ground. The floods of the 1880s had severely damaged the original buildings, and this coupled with their age, resulted in the need for more stable facilities. Property was purchased at the corner of Ninth and Isabella Streets for the construction of a new combination church, school and rectory. The new stone structure was dedicated on October 4, 1903. In 1922, a high school building was constructed across the street from the church. The parish high school operated from 1923 until 1933, first as a four-year coeducational school and for the last several years as a commercial school for boys. It was under the direction of the Sisters of Divine Providence. When the high school was closed, the building was turned over to the parish elementary school.
St. Stephen also underwent dramatic change during this time. In 1910, property was purchased on Washington Street for the construction of a new school, which was dedicated on July 7, 1913. The old St. Stephen Church was showing its age by the 1930s. The building was deteriorating, and estimates for repairs were exorbitant. Property was purchased across Washington Street from the parish school for a site for the new church. The parish commissioned architect Edward J. Schulte to execute plans for a new church, with attached rectory and convent wings. Ground was broken for the new structure in 1937, and the magnificent new edifice was dedicated on March 12, 1939. The brick exterior featured a beautiful rose window and art deco spire, and the colonnaded interior was finished with a splendid altar and carved wooden reredos.
Despite the construction of the new St. Stephen Church, the 1930s were difficult for two of Newport’s Catholic parishes. The Great Depression and the 1937 flood took a devastating toll on Corpus Christi and Immaculate Conception. At the height of the flood, seven feet of water entered Corpus Christi Church and School, completely destroying the pews and other furnishings. At Immaculate Conception Church, eleven feet of muddy water inundated the parish church and school, resulting in tens of thousands of dollars in damage.
At St. Frances de Sales, the school grew quickly in the years following World War II. Eventually, a frame schoolhouse was added to accommodate the growing school enrollment. This structure was replaced by a brick school and gymnasium in 1950. This growth, however, was short-lived. Newport, like most urban areas in the region, was being impacted by the flight of residents to the suburbs. These departures would result in a slow but steady decline in the Catholic population of the city.
Parish school enrollment in Newport began a significant decline in the late 1960s as large areas of the city were cleared for urban renewal. Immaculate Conception parish suffered greatly due to these changes. As a result, parish membership declined at a rapid rate. In 1967, the state fire marshal declared the school building unsafe. In January of the following year, the pastors of the five Newport parishes gathered to discuss the fate of Immaculate Conception School. The clergy not only recommended the closing of the school, but also the suppression of Immaculate Conception Parish. The school closed at the end of the 1967-1968 academic year. Immaculate Conception Church was officially closed on July 31, 1969. The historic parish church, school and rectory were all demolished.
In the spring of 1984, a proposal was brought before the Diocesan School Board to merge the four Newport Catholic schools into one. Newport’s remaining four Catholic elementary schools officially merged at the beginning of the 1984-1985 academic year. The lower grades were housed in the former St. Stephen School and the middle school grades at the former St. Francis de Sales School. The new institution was given the name of Holy Spirit Elementary and Junior High School. In 2002, Holy Spirit School merged with St. Michael School in Bellevue and St. Bernard in Dayton to form Holy Trinity School. Two campuses were maintained, one in Newport at St. Stephen and one in Bellevue until the 2019-2020 school year when the entire school was moved to the Bellevue location.
The Catholic parishes in Newport suffered lower attendance, along with the schools. Within a two-year period, three of the four pastors in Newport retired. The diocese simply did not have an adequate number of clergy to replace them. In 1996, Bishop Robert Muench requested the leadership of the four Newport parishes to plan for a future with one resident priest in the city. The outcome of these discussions was the decision to merge the four parishes into one under the patronage of the Holy Spirit in 1997. The facilities of the former St. Stephen Parish were utilized by the new congregation. The three remaining church complexes were sold.
Holy Spirit Parish has been committed to community outreach for decades. Originally a food pantry was located in the former Corpus Christi building. When that structure was sold, the pantry moved to the rectory of Holy Spirit Parish in 2018. The operation quickly took over a significant portion of the first floor. The Outreach ministry provides food, some of which is grown in the parish garden, and funds for utilities and other necessities to the people of the community. More recently, the parish purchased property near the church and constructed the new Holy Spirit Outreach Ministry building on the site. This new facility opened to the public in July 2020 (Messenger, July 3, 2020, p. 7).
David E. Schroeder is Director of the Kenton County Public Library. He is the author of Life Along the Ohio: A Sesquicentennial History of Ludlow, Kentucky (2014), coeditor of Gateway City: Covington, Kentucky, 1815-2015 (2015), and co-author of Lost Northern Kentucky (2018)
We want to learn more about the history of your business, church, school, or organization in our region (Cincinnati, Northern Kentucky, and along the Ohio River). If you would like to share your rich history with others, please contact the editor of “Our Rich History,” Paul A. Tenkotte, at [email protected]. Paul A. Tenkotte, PhD is Professor of History at Northern Kentucky University (NKU) and the author of many books and articles.
For further information, see:
The First Century of Corpus Christi Church, Newport, Kentucky (Published by the Parish, 1944); St. Stephen Centennial History, 1954 (Published by the Parish, 1954); Paul A. Tenkotte and James C. Claypool, eds. The Encyclopedia of Northern Kentucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2009), pp. 227, 473, 780, 798; Messenger, October 25, 1964, p. 12A, October 7, 1984, p. 3, February 15, 2002, p. 1 and March 8, 2002, p. 1; Kentucky Post, November 11, 1996, p. 1K; Kentucky Times-Star, February 12, 1957, p. 1A and April 15, 1958, p. 2A; Catholic Telegraph, December 30, 1854, p. 5, October 31, 1857, p. 4 and February 19, 1959, p. 5; Kentucky Enquirer, April 20, 1969, p. 1; The Seminary Alumnus (A publication of St. Mary Seminary of the West, Cincinnati, Ohio) Vol. III, No. 2; Paul E. Ryan, History of the Diocese of Covington, Kentucky, on the Occasion of the Centenary of the Diocese, 1853-1953 (Published by the Diocese, 1954).
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COVID-19 vaccines for Ontario
- Vaccines are safe, effective and the best way to protect you and those around you from serious illnesses like COVID-19.
- The coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccine does not cause a coronavirus infection. It helps to build up your immunity.
- Vaccines work with your immune system so your body will be ready to fight the virus if you are exposed. This can reduce your risk of developing COVID-19 and make your symptoms milder if you do get it.
- After independent and thorough scientific reviews, Health Canada has approved two vaccines for use in Canada:
- Pfizer-BioNTech– approved on December 9, 2020.
- Moderna – approved on December 23, 2020. Moderna vaccine is easier to transport and store safely. Because of this, the government plans to administer the Moderna vaccine in long-term care homes, congregate settings that provide care for seniors and more rural and remote communities.
- Both vaccines require two doses.
- After two doses, they are expected to be 94-95% effective.
- Only vaccines that Health Canada determines to be safe and effective will be approved for use in Canada.
- This means the vaccines:
- were tested on a large number of people through extensive clinical trials
- have met all the requirements for approval
- will be monitored for any adverse reactions
- Ontario’s plan to make sure vaccines remain safe includes:
- securely and safely transporting and storing vaccines at required conditions and temperatures
- establishing safe clinic spaces to give people immunizations, including providing the required training to those administering vaccines
- monitoring for any adverse reactions or side effects
- Read more information on vaccines and vaccine authorization updates from the Government of Canada.
- Check Ontario.ca/covidvaccine regularly for up-to-date information on the vaccine and implementation phases.
What you should know about the COVID-19 vaccines
With Health Canada approval of some COVID-19 vaccines, we know that many people have questions about the vaccines and what this means for them. Here are answers to some of the commonly asked questions to help you make an informed decision about getting the COVID-19 vaccine.
How do the COVID-19 vaccines work?
Vaccines tell your body how to make a harmless protein found in the virus and
start building antibodies that know how to fight the real virus if you come in
contact with it.
How well does the vaccines work? Can I still get COVID-19?
The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines are given in two doses using a needle in your upper arm. The same vaccine is used for your first and second dose. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines are expected to be 94-95% effective after two doses.
Do I still need to wear a mask after I’ve been vaccinated?
Yes. Studies are still underway to determine the effectiveness of the vaccine in preventing asymptomatic infection and reducing the transmission of COVID-19. For now, and until scientific experts say it’s safe to stop, it is important to continue to follow the advice of public health officials including maintaining a physical distance of two metres from people outside of your household, wearing a mask, practicing proper hand hygiene and limiting non-essential travel. These measures will help keep you, your loved ones and your community safe.
How long will the vaccine last? Do I need to get it each year?
Studies are still underway to determine how long the vaccine will provide immunity. The government will keep the public informed as new data becomes available.
Is there a microchip in the vaccine?
How is the COVID-19 vaccine different from the flu vaccine?
The COVID-19 vaccine and the flu vaccine are very different and cannot be directly compared. They target different viruses: the flu vaccine has to combat several influenza viruses which mutate, while the COVID-19 vaccine targets just one virus, SARS-CoV-2.
What if I don’t take the second dose of the Pfizer or Moderna vaccines?
It is important to receive both doses. Protection offered by the first dose is lower than what is achieved after the second dose. The vaccines are 94-95% effective after two doses.
What ingredients are in the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine?
Non-medical ingredients in the vaccine include:
- ALC-0315 = (4-hydroxybutyl)azanediyl)bis(hexane-6,1-diyl)bis(2-hexyldecanoate)
- ALC-0159 = 2-[(polyethylene glycol)-2000]-N,N-ditetradecylacetamide
- dibasic sodium phosphate dihydrate
- monobasic potassium phosphate
- potassium chloride
- sodium chloride
- water for injection
See the Ontario Ministry of Health’s Information Sheet on Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccines for further information.
What ingredients are in the Moderna vaccine?
Non-medical ingredients in the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine include:
- 1, 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC)
- acetic acid
- lipid SM-102
- PEG2000 DMG 1,2-dimyristoyl-rac-glycerol, methoxy-polyethyleneglycol
- sodium acetate
- tromethamine hydrochloride
- water for injection
See the Ontario Ministry of Health’s Information Sheet on Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccines for further information.
COVID-19 vaccine safety
Are COVID-19 vaccines safe?
Yes. Only vaccines that Health Canada has approved and determined are safe and effective will be administered in Ontario. Health Canada has one of the most rigorous scientific review systems in the
world. Health Canada only approves a vaccine if it is safe, it works, it meets manufacturing standards, and the benefits of being vaccinated outweigh the risks.
What was the approval process for the vaccine?
Canada’s best independent scientists thoroughly reviewed all the data before approving the vaccines as safe and effective for Canadians. All safety steps were followed in approving these vaccines. The development of the COVID-19 vaccines progressed quickly for several reasons including: reduced time delays in the vaccine approval process, quick adaptation of existing research programs, international collaboration among scientists and governments, increased dedicated funding and quick recruitment of clinical trial participants.
View the Ministry of Health’s summary of the COVID-19 Vaccine Approval Process and Safety for further information.
Should I be worried about a vaccine that was developed so quickly?
No. Only vaccines that Health Canada has approved and determined are safe and effective will be administered in Ontario.
These vaccines were developed faster than before because of the never-before- seen levels of collaboration and funding invested in this effort around the world.
The technology behind the vaccines has been around for more than 10 years and have already been used in animal models for influenza, zika virus, rabies virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV) and others. Because this advanced technology already existed, scientists were able to work quickly.
Can the vaccine give me COVID-19?
No, the COVID-19 vaccine cannot give you COVID-19 or any other infectious disease. None of the Health Canada approved vaccines so far are live vaccines, meaning that they do not contain the virus that causes COVID-19. It is important to remember that it typically takes a few weeks for the human body to build immunity after vaccination. That means it is possible for a person to become infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 just before or just after vaccination. This is because the vaccine has not had enough time to provide protection. Even if you receive the vaccine, please continue to follow the public health measures to keep you, your loved ones and your community safe.
Will I experience side effects?
Similar to medications and other vaccines, the COVID-19 vaccines can cause side effects. The most common side effects include soreness at the injection site on your arm, a bit of tiredness, chills and/or a mild headache as the vaccine starts to work. During the clinical trials, the most frequent side effects were mild and resolved within a few days after vaccination. These types of side effects are expected and simply indicate the vaccine is working to produce protection.
As with any medicines and vaccines, allergic reactions are rare but can occur after receiving a vaccine. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include hives (bumps on the skin that are often very itchy), swelling of your face, tongue or throat, or difficulty breathing. Most serious reactions will occur shortly after injection, and clinic staff are prepared to manage an allergic reaction should it occur. If you are
concerned about any reactions you experience after receiving the vaccine, contact your health care provider. You can also contact your local public health unit to ask questions or to report an adverse reaction.
Serious side effects after receiving the vaccine are rare. However, should you develop any of the following reactions within three days of receiving the vaccine, seek medical attention right away or call 911:
- swelling of the face or mouth
- trouble breathing
- very pale colour and serious drowsiness
- high fever (over 40°C)
- convulsions or seizures
- other serious symptoms (e.g., “pins and needles” or numbness)
What are the longer-term side effects of this vaccine?
Ongoing studies on the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines indicate no serious side effects found to date. People who have received the vaccine in
studies continue to be monitored for any longer-term side effects.
For more information on adverse events following immunization (AEFIs) or to report an AEFI visit Public Heath Ontario’s vaccine safety web page.
Are side effects from the second dose worse than the first dose?
Side effects are more likely to occur after your second dose of the vaccine. Since side effects are the result of your immune system building protection, once your immune system has been primed with the first dose then there is a much stronger immune response to the second dose (this is a good thing!).
Has anyone died from taking a COVID-19 vaccine?
No one is known to have died as a direct result of the COVID-19 vaccine. Nearly two million people have died globally from COVID-19.
Should I get a COVID-19 vaccine?
Why should I get a COVID-19 vaccine?
A vaccine is the only foreseeable way to end the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic will not end until the majority of Canadians are vaccinated. You can protect yourself, your loved ones, and your community by getting vaccinated. While the vaccine will protect each of us individually, the primary goal of a vaccine program is to immunize the majority of the population so that COVID-19
can no longer spread.
The percentage of people that need to be vaccinated depends on how infectious the disease is and how effective the vaccine is at preventing spread of the disease. The sooner a majority of Ontarians are vaccinated, the sooner our lives can return to normal.
I’m not high risk. COVID-19 isn’t that bad. I don’t need a vaccine.
Globally, nearly two million people have died of COVID-19 in less than a year. COVID-19 does not discriminate, and anyone can become sick from the virus. Even if a healthy person does not die of COVID-19 infection, they may have long-term complications that impact their ability to experience normal life, such as shortness of breath, fatigue, headaches, muscle/joint pain, cognitive impairment,
cough and loss of taste and/or smell.
Even if you are not high-risk, there are other individuals in your community who may be high-risk and immunocompromised, which means their immune systems are not strong enough to receive a vaccine. When a majority of the community is vaccinated, this protects individuals who are immunocompromised because it reduces the chances that a virus can spread throughout the community and infect that immunocompromised individual who could not receive the vaccine.
I think I should wait and see what happens to others
The sooner a majority of Ontarians are vaccinated, the sooner our lives can return to normal. We need a majority of Ontarians to be vaccinated to end the pandemic. We are working to distribute the vaccine to every corner of the province as soon as we receive sufficient supply. To ensure that everyone who wants to be vaccinated can be vaccinated safely and quickly, it is important that people who
have access the vaccine are vaccinated the first time it is offered to them.
What if I’m pregnant or trying to get pregnant?
People who are pregnant may be able to get the COVID-19 vaccine.
People who were pregnant were excluded from the Phase III trials for the Pfizer BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines. Therefore, there is limited data on the safety of the vaccines during pregnancy.
Pregnant individuals in the authorized age group may choose to receive the vaccine after counselling and informed consent that includes:
- a review of the risks and benefits of the vaccine
- a review of the potential risks/consequences of a COVID-19 infection in pregnancy
- a review of the risk of acquiring a COVID-19 infection in pregnancy
- an acknowledgment of the insufficiency of evidence for the use of current COVID-19 vaccines in the pregnant population
If after this counselling by their treating provider the pregnant individual feels the potential benefits of vaccination outweigh the potential harms, they should be able to access the vaccine.
Individuals planning on becoming pregnant should speak with their primary care provider. For additional information, consult the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada Statement on COVID-19 Vaccination in Pregnancy.
What if I’m breastfeeding?
Breastfeeding individuals may be able to get the COVID-19 vaccine. Breastfeeding individuals were excluded from the Phase III trials for the Pfizer BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines. Therefore, there is no data on the safety of the vaccines in lactating individuals or the effects of mRNA vaccines on the breastfed infant or on milk production.
For any individuals who are breastfeeding, the COVID-19 vaccine should be offered after counselling and informed consent that includes recognizing the insufficiency of evidence for the use of COVID-19 vaccine in the breastfeeding population.
For additional information, consult the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada Statement on COVID-19 Vaccination in Pregnancy.
When can my kids get the vaccine?
So far, a vaccine has not been approved for children. Research is underway to determine when those under the authorized ages can receive the vaccine.
Can my employer force me to take the vaccine?
The vaccine is not mandatory in Ontario.
If I don’t take it now, will I get a chance later? Or will I be placed at the end of the line?
Our goal is to ensure that everybody across Ontario who is eligible and who wants the vaccine can get it. The sooner the majority of Ontarians are vaccinated, the sooner our lives can return to normal. The pandemic will not be under control until the majority of Canadians are vaccinated. To ensure we can vaccinate everyone who wants to be vaccinated as safely and as quickly as possible, it is important that people who have access to the vaccine are vaccinated the first time it is offered to them.
What if I’m behind on my regular immunization schedule? Can I still get it?
Yes. We also encourage those who are behind on their immunizations to contact their health care provider to get up to date.
Why am I not in a priority group?
As recommended by the COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution Task Force and aligned with the National Advisory Committee on Immunization, the province has adopted an approach for identifying the next groups to receive the vaccination as early as March 2021. As part of phase one, we are vaccinating the most vulnerable populations first, who have higher risk outcomes from contracting the virus and are at a higher risk of being exposed to and spreading the virus.
As Ontario gets more vaccine supply, the program will further expand to include additional groups. You can find more details about Ontario’s COVID-19 vaccination program, including the various phases of the program at Ontario’s COVID-19 vaccine web page.
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Have you ever thought about how crucial watersheds are for tarantulas? These spiders live in riparian ecosystems and show how diverse life thrives in the world’s biggest drainage basins. By looking into the importance of watersheds as habitat, we learn about the deep connections in nature and how these creatures live in balance.
The Amazon basin covers 34% of South America and is home to over 10% of the world’s life forms. This includes more than 40,000 plant species, 1,300 bird species, and millions of insects and other invertebrates. Tarantulas live here, in a complex ecosystem that depends on the watershed. By studying their relationship with their habitats, we can learn how to protect these ecosystems.
Tarantulas in Catchments: Overlooked Inhabitants of Riparian Ecosystems
The Amazon basin is famous for its vast rainforests and wetlands. It also has many tarantulas, which are key to the health of riparian ecosystems. These spiders help keep the balance in catchment areas. Knowing where and how tarantulas live is crucial for protecting environmental conservation and biodiversity monitoring.
Riparian communities depend a lot on aquatic-derived subsidies. Spiders, including tarantulas, thrive where there are many emergent aquatic insects. In fact, some spiders get almost all their food from aquatic-derived organic matter. This shows how important tarantulas are in watershed management systems.
Key Statistic | Value |
Riparian spiders rich in EPA, reflecting Σω3/Σω6 ratio comparable to aquatic organisms | – |
Emergent aquatic insect consumption by spiders highest in spring | – |
Riparian lizards without access to aquatic insects show reduced growth rates | – |
Low amounts of aquatic-derived subsidies linked with reduced immune function in riparian spiders | – |
Studying species distribution and biogeography of tarantulas helps us understand riparian ecosystems better. Invertebrate surveys and biodiversity monitoring can spot threats early. This info helps make plans to protect these vital arachnid habitats.
Watershed Biodiversity: The Vital Role of Tarantulas
Tarantulas are key to the health of watershed ecosystems. They help keep the balance of other invertebrates, which is vital for the food web in riparian areas.
Tarantulas as Indicators of Environmental Health
Researchers use tarantulas to check on the health of watersheds. They look at how many tarantulas there are to see how human actions like deforestation and pollution affect these ecosystems. Tarantulas are very sensitive to changes in their arachnid habitats. This makes them great indicators of environmental conservation and biodiversity monitoring in watersheds.
Predator-Prey Dynamics in Riverine Habitats
Tarantulas are predators in riparian ecosystems. They help control the numbers of other invertebrates. Their numbers tell us a lot about the spider ecology and species distribution in watershed management areas. By studying these predator-prey dynamics, researchers can keep an eye on the health and biodiversity of the catchment area.
Tarantulas are important signs of the environmental health and biodiversity in watershed ecosystems. By watching these arachnids, researchers can learn a lot about the balance of these important riparian habitats. They can also see how human actions affect invertebrate surveys and biogeography studies in the watershed.
Tarantula Biogeography: Mapping Species Distribution in Watersheds
Understanding tarantulas in watershed regions is key for protecting the environment. By mapping where different tarantula species live, researchers can find areas rich in biodiversity. This helps them track population changes and protect these spiders and their homes.
The 10 most colorful tarantulas in the worldSurveys of tarantulas in riparian ecosystems give us insights into their lives. Scientists use invertebrate surveys and biogeography studies to see where tarantulas live and how they connect with their environments. This info helps protect these spiders and keep track of their spider ecology.
Researchers map tarantula species across catchment areas to find diversity hotspots. This helps them focus conservation efforts. It also leads to the creation of protected areas and sustainable watershed practices. These actions help protect tarantulas and their riparian ecosystems.
Using biogeographic data on tarantulas helps us understand ecosystems better. It shows how these spiders act as indicators of environmental health. By tracking tarantulas, scientists learn about the health of the watershed. This info guides conservation and watershed management.
Threats to Tarantula Populations in Catchment Areas
Tarantulas live in riparian ecosystems and face many threats. Habitat loss and deforestation are big worries. So are water pollution and harmful substances.
Habitat Fragmentation and Deforestation
Humans clearing land for farms or cities harms riparian ecosystems. This breaks up tarantula homes. It makes it hard for them to find mates and have babies. Deforestation is especially bad since tarantulas need forests for shelter and food.
Water Pollution and Environmental Contaminants
Pollutants like pesticides hurt tarantulas and other creatures in catchment areas. These substances mess with the watershed ecosystem. They can reduce food and harm tarantulas.
We need to act to save tarantulas and protect watershed ecosystems. This means using land wisely and controlling pollution.
Threat | Impact on Tarantula Populations | Potential Mitigation Strategies |
Habitat Fragmentation and Deforestation | Loss of critical habitats, isolation of populations, disruption of breeding and feeding grounds | Establishment of protected areas, implementation of riparian buffer zones, sustainable forestry practices |
Water Pollution and Environmental Contaminants | Disruption of food webs, direct toxicity to tarantulas, degradation of overall ecosystem health | Stricter regulations on industrial and agricultural waste management, deployment of water treatment technologies, promotion of organic farming |
Conservation Strategies for Tarantulas in Watershed Ecosystems
Protecting tarantulas in watershed areas means keeping their homes safe. We can do this by setting up protected areas like national parks. These places help keep tarantulas and other animals safe. Also, making riparian buffer zones along rivers helps reduce harm from human activities.
Protected Areas and Riparian Buffer Zones
These conservation steps help tarantulas and their homes last a long time. Protected areas are safe spots for tarantulas to live and have babies. Riparian buffer zones protect these areas from pollution and other human damage.
By setting up protected areas and riparian zones, we can save tarantulas and many other species. Keeping their homes safe helps keep the balance in these important ecosystems.
Conservation Measure | Benefits for Tarantulas | Ecosystem Impacts |
Protected Areas | Safeguards tarantula populations and habitats | Preserves overall biodiversity in watersheds |
Riparian Buffer Zones | Mitigates human-induced disturbances to tarantula habitats | Maintains the health and integrity of riparian ecosystems |
Invertebrate Surveys: Monitoring Tarantula Populations in Catchments
It’s key to watch the numbers of tarantulas and other invertebrates in watershed areas. This helps us understand how healthy these ecosystems are and how diverse they are. By doing invertebrate surveys, scientists can see how many tarantulas there are, find new kinds, and learn about where they live and how they live. This info is super important for conservation efforts and helping us manage watershed environments so tarantulas and other species can keep living there.
These surveys look closely at the spider ecology in these riparian ecosystems. They’ve found that more bugs coming out of the water means more spiders in the area. This shows how important these arachnid habitats are for keeping an eye on biodiversity in watershed systems.
Selvas Tropicales como Hábitat de las TarántulasBy seeing where tarantulas and other invertebrates live, scientists can learn a lot about their biogeography and what they need for environmental conservation. This helps us make better plans for watershed management. It’s all about keeping these riparian ecosystems safe for the long run.
Metric | Findings |
Reliance on Aquatically Derived Energy (ADE) | Positive correlation between emergent aquatic insect biomass/emergence rate and riparian spider biomass/web density |
Trophic Position (TP) | Associations between urban stream characteristics and hydrogeomorphic conditions |
Emergent Insect Flux | Impact of flow regime on aquatic-to-terrestrial subsidies, with low flows leading to decreased biomass of emergent aquatic insects and riparian spiders |
By doing invertebrate surveys in catchment areas, researchers get important data. This data helps us protect tarantula populations and the watershed ecosystems they live in. This research is key for keeping these special arachnid habitats safe and supporting the biodiversity they have.
Watershed Management and Tarantula Habitat Preservation
Managing watersheds well is key to keeping tarantula habitats safe and healthy. This means using sustainable forestry and agricultural practices that don’t harm arachnid habitats.
Sustainable Forestry and Agricultural Practices
Using selective logging and keeping buffer zones by water helps protect tarantula populations. It also keeps the biodiversity of watershed regions safe. Working together, researchers, policymakers, and local people can make these conservation-minded approaches work in watershed management.
Conservation Measure | Impact on Tarantulas |
Selective Logging | Preserves essential arachnid habitats within riparian ecosystems |
Riparian Buffer Zones | Protects tarantula populations and biodiversity monitoring in watershed areas |
Integrated Pest Management | Minimizes the use of harmful chemicals, safeguarding spider ecology and invertebrate surveys |
By using these sustainable methods, land managers can keep the balance right in tarantula habitats within watershed ecosystems. This helps protect these amazing arachnids and the biodiversity of these important catchment areas.
Tarantula Ecology: Adaptations to Riverine Environments
The dynamic environments of watershed ecosystems have shaped the remarkable adaptations of tarantulas. These arachnid habitats within riparian ecosystems have led to the development of specialized features. These features help these creatures thrive in seasonal floods, changing water levels, and other environmental challenges.
Tarantulas have water-repellent setae, or tiny hairs, on their legs. These help them move in damp, often flooded areas of watershed management areas. These hairs provide traction and prevent the arachnids from getting waterlogged. This lets them move quickly across water or crawl to higher ground when water is high.
Another key adaptation is their ability to burrow deep into the soil. They create intricate underground tunnels and nesting chambers. This behavior offers shelter from the elements and lets them escape rising waters during environmental stress. By burrowing, they can regulate their body temperature, conserve moisture, and avoid predators. This ensures their survival in the dynamic riverine environments.
. It helps protect these captivating invertebrate surveys within watershed ecosystems. By studying the biogeography and specialized traits of these arachnids, researchers can better protect and manage their species distribution within riparian habitats. This contributes to the overall environmental conservation of these vital biodiversity monitoring zones.Adaptation | Description | Benefit |
Water-repellent setae | Specialized, water-resistant hairs on the legs | Enables movement across water and protection from waterlogging |
Burrowing behavior | Ability to construct intricate underground tunnels and nesting chambers | Provides shelter, temperature regulation, moisture conservation, and predator avoidance |
By understanding the remarkable adaptations of tarantulas to riverine environments, we can better protect and manage these invertebrate populations. This ensures the long-term health and resilience of watershed ecosystems across the globe.
Arachnid Habitats: The Importance of Watersheds Beyond Tarantulas
Watersheds are key habitats for many arachnids, not just tarantulas. These areas are full of spiders, scorpions, and other invertebrates. They are crucial for the health of our ecosystems. We must protect these areas to keep the arachnid diversity thriving.
Streams and their banks connect the water and land worlds. They help move living things, materials, and energy back and forth. This is especially true for riparian spiders and the aquatic insects they eat. These spiders need these insects to survive and do well.
Supervivientes silenciosos: Adaptaciones de las Tarántulas en el DesiertoKeeping watersheds healthy is vital for arachnids and the whole ecosystem. Things like city growth, pollution, and losing natural areas can harm these habitats. This can hurt the food web and the arachnids that live there. By studying and caring for these habitats, we can help protect arachnids and the nature they support.
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Have you ever wondered how diabetes impacts your body’s ability to process sugar? In this article, we will explore the intricate relationship between diabetes and the body’s ability to regulate sugar levels. Understanding this connection is crucial for anyone living with diabetes or seeking to gain insights into this prevalent medical condition. So, let’s delve into the subject and shed light on how diabetes affects your body’s ability to process sugar.
What is Diabetes
Definition of Diabetes
Diabetes is a chronic medical condition that affects the body’s ability to process sugar, also known as glucose. It occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin or is unable to effectively use the insulin it produces. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels and allows glucose to enter cells, where it is converted into energy. Without sufficient insulin or proper insulin function, glucose builds up in the blood, leading to high blood sugar levels. This can have significant impacts on various body systems and increase the risk of complications.
Types of Diabetes
There are several types of diabetes, including type 1, type 2, gestational diabetes, and prediabetes.
- Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. This results in little to no insulin production, requiring individuals to rely on insulin injections for life.
- Type 2 diabetes is the most common type and often develops later in life. It occurs when the body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin or does not produce enough insulin. This can be managed with oral medications, lifestyle changes, and, in some cases, insulin injections.
- Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and usually resolves after childbirth. It occurs when the body cannot produce enough insulin to meet the demands of pregnancy.
- Prediabetes refers to higher than normal blood sugar levels that are not yet in the diabetic range. It is a warning sign and an opportunity to make lifestyle changes to prevent the development of type 2 diabetes.
Blood Sugar Regulation
Role of Insulin
Insulin plays a crucial role in the regulation of blood sugar levels. When you eat carbohydrates, your body breaks them down into glucose, which is then absorbed into the bloodstream. In response to rising blood sugar levels, the pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin acts as a key that unlocks cells, allowing glucose to enter and be used for energy production. It also signals the liver to store excess glucose as glycogen for later use. This process helps maintain stable blood sugar levels.
Glucose transporters, also known as GLUT proteins, are responsible for transporting glucose across cell membranes. These proteins are found in various types of cells throughout the body and facilitate the movement of glucose into cells. In the absence or malfunction of glucose transporters, glucose cannot effectively enter cells and remains in the bloodstream, leading to high blood sugar levels. Diabetes can impair the function of these transporters, contributing to insulin resistance and reduced glucose uptake by cells.
Impact of Diabetes on Sugar Processing
Insulin resistance is a common feature of type 2 diabetes. It occurs when the body’s cells become less responsive to the effects of insulin, making it difficult for glucose to enter cells. As a result, the pancreas compensates by producing more insulin to overcome this resistance. Over time, the pancreas may not be able to keep up with the increased demand for insulin, leading to elevated blood sugar levels. Insulin resistance is often associated with obesity and sedentary lifestyles, but it can also occur in individuals with normal body weight.
Impaired Insulin Production
In type 1 diabetes, insulin production is significantly reduced or completely absent due to the destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. This results in a complete dependence on external insulin sources, such as injections or insulin pumps. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas initially produces an adequate amount of insulin, but the body’s cells may become less responsive to its effects. This leads to a decrease in insulin production over time. Impaired insulin production further exacerbates high blood sugar levels and the difficulty in processing sugar.
Effects on Different Body Systems
Diabetes can have a significant impact on the cardiovascular system. High blood sugar levels can damage blood vessels, leading to atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries), which increases the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular complications. Additionally, diabetes is often associated with high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, further increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Diabetes can damage the nerves throughout the body, leading to a condition called diabetic neuropathy. This condition primarily affects the peripheral nerves, resulting in symptoms such as numbness, tingling, and pain in the hands and feet. Diabetic neuropathy can also affect the digestive system, urinary tract, and sexual function. Furthermore, uncontrolled diabetes can increase the risk of developing nerve damage in key organs such as the heart, eyes, and kidneys.
Diabetes can negatively impact the digestive system, leading to gastrointestinal issues such as gastroparesis. Gastroparesis occurs when the nerves that control the muscles in the stomach become damaged, causing delayed gastric emptying. This can result in symptoms like nausea, vomiting, bloating, and heartburn. Poor blood sugar control can also affect the liver’s ability to regulate glucose production and contribute to fatty liver disease.
The immune system plays a crucial role in defending the body against infections and diseases. However, diabetes can weaken the immune response, making individuals more susceptible to infections. High blood sugar levels can impair the function of white blood cells, which are responsible for fighting off harmful bacteria and viruses. As a result, individuals with diabetes may experience more frequent and severe infections, such as urinary tract infections, skin infections, and respiratory infections.
Higher Risk of Complications
People with diabetes have a significantly higher risk of developing heart disease compared to those without diabetes. The combination of high blood sugar levels, insulin resistance, elevated blood pressure, and abnormal cholesterol levels increases the likelihood of atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and other cardiovascular complications. It is essential for individuals with diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels and adopt heart-healthy lifestyle habits to reduce the risk of heart disease.
Diabetes is one of the leading causes of kidney disease, also known as diabetic nephropathy. Persistent high blood sugar levels can damage the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys, impairing their ability to filter waste from the blood. As a result, protein and other substances may leak into the urine, and kidney function gradually declines. If left untreated, diabetic nephropathy can progress to end-stage kidney disease, requiring dialysis or kidney transplantation.
Nerve damage, or diabetic neuropathy, is a common complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. It can affect various nerves throughout the body and lead to symptoms such as numbness, tingling, pain, and muscle weakness. Diabetic neuropathy can significantly impact the quality of life, particularly when it affects the hands and feet. Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels, proper foot care, and early detection and management of neuropathy symptoms are essential in preventing further nerve damage.
Diabetes can also affect the eyes, leading to a condition called diabetic retinopathy. Elevated blood sugar levels can damage the blood vessels in the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. This can result in vision problems, including blurred vision, difficulty seeing at night, and even blindness if left untreated. Routine eye examinations and tight control of blood sugar levels are crucial in preserving vision and preventing the progression of diabetic retinopathy.
Long-Term Effects of Uncontrolled Diabetes
Uncontrolled diabetes can have long-term impacts on the cardiovascular system. The combination of persistent high blood sugar levels, insulin resistance, and hypertension can accelerate the development of atherosclerosis and significantly increase the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular diseases. It is essential to manage blood sugar levels, adopt a heart-healthy lifestyle, and closely monitor blood pressure and cholesterol levels to mitigate these risks.
Uncontrolled diabetes can cause severe damage to the kidneys, leading to chronic kidney disease and potentially requiring dialysis or kidney transplantation. Elevated blood sugar levels and high blood pressure can collectively contribute to the deterioration of kidney function over time. Early detection, regular monitoring, and proper management of blood sugar and blood pressure levels are critical in preserving kidney health and preventing long-term complications.
Persistent high blood sugar levels can progressively damage nerves throughout the body, leading to debilitating symptoms and reduced quality of life. Long-term nerve damage can cause chronic pain, loss of sensation, muscle weakness, and autonomic nerve dysfunction. Proper diabetic management, including maintaining blood sugar levels within a target range, can help slow the progression of nerve damage and alleviate symptoms.
Uncontrolled diabetes increases the risk of developing various eye disorders, including diabetic retinopathy, cataracts, and glaucoma. These conditions can cause visual impairment and, if left untreated, lead to permanent vision loss. Regular eye examinations and optimal blood sugar control are crucial in detecting and managing eye disorders associated with diabetes.
Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to foot complications, including poor circulation, nerve damage, and impaired wound healing. Reduced blood flow and nerve damage can make it difficult for foot injuries to heal, increasing the risk of infections and non-healing ulcers. Proper foot care, regular foot inspections, and timely treatment of any foot issues are essential in preventing more severe complications, such as foot amputation.
Managing Diabetes and Sugar Processing
Blood Sugar Monitoring
Regular blood sugar monitoring is a vital component of diabetes management. It allows individuals to track their blood sugar levels and make appropriate adjustments to their medication, diet, and physical activity levels. Monitoring methods include self-monitoring using glucose meters, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and periodic laboratory tests to assess long-term blood sugar control.
Medications are often used to manage diabetes and optimize sugar processing. The specific medications prescribed depend on the type of diabetes and individual needs. For type 1 diabetes, insulin injections or insulin pumps are necessary to replace the insulin that the body cannot produce. Type 2 diabetes can be managed with oral medications that help improve insulin sensitivity or stimulate insulin production. In some cases, insulin injections may also be required in type 2 diabetes.
A healthy diet is a cornerstone of managing diabetes and promoting optimal sugar processing. The focus should be on consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of whole foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. Limiting the intake of refined sugars, processed foods, and sodas is essential to avoid blood sugar spikes. It is also advisable to work with a registered dietitian or certified diabetes educator to develop a personalized meal plan that fits individual needs and blood sugar goals.
Regular physical activity is crucial in managing diabetes and improving sugar processing. Exercise helps lower blood sugar levels and improve insulin sensitivity, allowing glucose to enter cells more effectively. It also helps control weight, reduce blood pressure, and improve cardiovascular health. Engaging in a combination of aerobic exercises, strength training, and flexibility exercises is recommended. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional before starting or modifying an exercise program, especially for individuals with pre-existing complications.
Preventing Type 2 Diabetes
Maintaining a Healthy Weight
Maintaining a healthy weight is one of the most effective ways to prevent type 2 diabetes. Excess body weight, particularly around the waist, increases the risk of insulin resistance and diabetes. Incorporating healthy eating habits and regular physical activity into daily routines can help achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Losing just a small amount of weight, such as 5-7% of total body weight, can have significant benefits in preventing or delaying the onset of type 2 diabetes.
Eating a Balanced Diet
A balanced diet that is low in processed sugars and rich in whole foods is essential in preventing type 2 diabetes. Consuming a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats can help maintain blood sugar levels and promote overall health. Limiting the intake of sugary drinks, snacks, and foods high in refined sugars is particularly important. Portion control and mindful eating are also beneficial in preventing excessive calorie intake and weight gain.
Regular Physical Activity
Engaging in regular physical activity is a key component of diabetes prevention. Exercise helps improve insulin sensitivity, lower blood sugar levels, and maintain a healthy weight. Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity, such as brisk walking or cycling, per week, along with muscle-strengthening activities on two or more days. Even small bouts of physical activity throughout the day, such as taking the stairs instead of the elevator, can contribute to overall health and diabetes prevention.
Diabetes significantly impacts the body’s ability to process sugar, leading to high blood sugar levels and potential complications. Understanding the role of insulin, glucose transporters, and the effects of diabetes on different body systems is essential in managing the condition effectively. Regular blood sugar monitoring, medications, a balanced diet, and regular physical activity are key components of diabetes management. Additionally, adopting healthy lifestyle habits, maintaining a healthy weight, and preventing type 2 diabetes can help minimize the risk of long-term complications and improve overall quality of life. By taking control of your diabetes and prioritizing your health, you can navigate the challenges of living with this condition and maintain optimal sugar processing. Remember, you are not alone, and there are resources and support available to help you on your journey towards a healthier and happier life with diabetes.
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Do you ever need to measure out a specific quantity of liquid, but don’t know how many ounces are in a cup? Don’t worry, you’re not alone! This is a common question that many people have. In this blog post, we will provide a comprehensive guide on how many ounces are in a cup. We will also discuss other common liquid measurements, such as tablespoons and milliliters. Stay tuned for more information!
Table of Contents
What is an Ounce?
An ounce is a unit of measurement for weight and mass. It is equal to 28.34 grams, or about 0.96 ounces avoirdupois (the standard unit of measurement for weight). The common ounce you are familiar with is actually the international avoirdupois ounce. This is the type of ounce that is used in the United States.
There are other types of ounces, however. The troy ounce, for example, is used to measure precious metals like gold and silver. It is equal to 31.103 grams, or about 0.91 troy ounces. There is also the apothecaries’ ounce which is used to measure medicine. It is equal to 28.35 grams, or about 0.96 apothecaries’ ounces.
How Many Ounces in a Cup?
The short answer is: There are eight fluid ounces in a cup.
How many grams in a cup?
This is a question that I get asked a lot. The answer, unfortunately, is not as simple as you might think.
There are actually two different types of cups that you need to take into account when asking this question – the metric cup and the imperial cup. A metric cup holds 250ml (or approximately 0.26 quarts) of liquid, while an imperial cup holds 284.131ml (or approximately 0.30 quarts).
This means that there are different conversion factors for each type of cup. Using the metric cup, we know that there are 250 grams in a cup. However, using the imperial cup, we know that there are only 227.3045 grams in a cup.
How many ounces in a cup and a half?
A cup and a half is equal to 24 fluid ounces. So, if you’re looking to know how many ounces are in a cup and a half, simply multiply 24 by the number of cups and a half you have. For example, two cups and a half would be equal to 48 fluid ounces. Easy peasy!
How many ounces in a cup dry?
This is a question that often comes up, especially when baking. The answer is actually quite simple – there are eight ounces in a cup dry. So, if you need to measure out a cup of flour for your recipe, you would use eight ounces of flour.
How many ounces in a cup of butter?
This is a question that I am often asked, and it can be a bit tricky to answer. The reason being is that there are actually two different types of cups when it comes to measuring ingredients – dry measure cups and liquid measure cups.
Dry measure cups are typically used for measuring things like flour, sugar, and other baking ingredients, and they are designed to hold a precise amount. One cup of flour, for example, will always weigh the same no matter how it is packed into the measuring cup.
Liquid measure cups, on the other hand, are used for measuring liquids like milk, water, and oil. They are not as precise as dry measure cups, and the amount of liquid they can hold will depend on how full they are.
How many ounces in a cup of cheese?
This is a question that often comes up, especially when cooking or baking. The answer can actually vary depending on the type of cheese. For example, shredded cheese generally weighs less than cubed cheese.
In general, however, there are about eight ounces in a cup of cheese. This means that there are two cups in a pound of cheese. So, if a recipe calls for one pound of shredded cheese, you would need to use two cups.
How many ounces in a cup of coffee?
This is a question that many coffee drinkers have. The answer is actually quite simple. There are eight ounces in a cup of coffee. This means that there are two tablespoons in a cup of coffee. Thus, if you want to make a stronger cup of coffee, you can simply add more coffee grounds to your brew. If you want a weaker cup of coffee, you can add less coffee grounds. It’s really that simple!
How many ounces in a cup of flour?
There are a few different ways to answer this question, as the conversion rate can depend on whether you’re measuring by weight or volume.
Generally speaking, there are about eight ounces in a cup of flour. However, if you’re measuring by weight, the conversion rate is slightly different. In this case, there are approximately four and a half ounces in a cup of flour.
No matter how you measure it, a cup of flour is generally equivalent to eight ounces. However, if you’re measuring by weight, the conversion rate is slightly different. In this case, there are approximately four and a half ounces in a cup of flour. This means that there are slightly more than eight ounces in a cup of flour when measuring by weight.
How many ounces in a cup of rice?
This is a question that many people ask, especially when they are first learning to cook. The answer is actually quite simple – there are eight ounces in a cup of rice.
Now, this doesn’t mean that you should just go and measure out eight ounces of rice every time you want to make a cup. The amount of water that you use will also affect the final outcome.
For example, if you use too much water, your rice will be mushy. On the other hand, if you use too little water, your rice will be hard and dry.
So how do you know how much water to use? A good rule of thumb is to add enough water so that it comes up to about an inch above the level of the rice.
Once you’ve added the water, give it a stir and then put a lid on the pot. Bring the pot to a boil over high heat.
Once it reaches a boiling point, reduce the heat to low and let it simmer for about 20 minutes. After 20 minutes, turn off the heat and let the pot sit for another five minutes.
How many ounces in a cup of shredded cheese?
The answer may surprise you – there is no definitive answer! The amount of cheese in a cup can vary depending on the type of cheese and how tightly it is packed.
For example, one cup of loosely packed shredded cheddar cheese can weigh anywhere from four to six ounces. So if you’re looking for an exact measurement, it’s best to go by weight rather than volume.
How many ounces in a cup of water?
This is a question that often comes up, particularly when people are trying to measure out precise amounts of water for cooking or baking.
There are actually two different types of measurements for cups – the U.S. customary cup and the metric cup. A U.S. customary cup is equivalent to 0.23 liters, while a metric cup is equivalent to 0.25 liters.
How many ounces in a gallon?
There are 128 ounces in a gallon. This means that there are 16 ounces in a pint, 32 ounces in a quart, and 64 ounces in a half-gallon.
When converting from gallons to other units, it is important to remember this relationship. For example, if you want to know how many pints are in a gallon, you would divide 128 by 16 to get the answer: eight pints.
Similarly, if you want to know how many quarts are in a gallon, you would divide 128 by 32 to get the answer: four quarts. Finally, if you want to know how many half-gallons are in a gallon, you would divide 128 by 64 to get the answer: two half-gallons.
Knowing how many ounces are in a gallon is important for many reasons. For instance, when you are baking, it is often necessary to measure ingredients by the ounce.
Therefore, if a recipe calls for one gallon of milk, you would need to use 128 ounces of milk. Similarly, if you are making a pot of soup that calls for one gallon of broth, you would need to use 128 ounces of broth.
In addition, many people like to drink water throughout the day and may want to know how many ounces they should aim to drink in order to reach their daily recommended intake. For example, if you need to drink eight cups of water per day, and there are eight ounces in a cup, then you would need to drink 64 ounces of water per day.
There are many other applications for knowing how many ounces are in a gallon. For instance, if you are filling up a gas tank that holds 15 gallons, you would need to use 1920 ounces of gasoline.
Similarly, if you are buying laundry detergent by the gallon, you would need to use 128 ounces of detergent. Ultimately, whether you are baking, cooking, or simply trying to stay hydrated, it is important to know how many ounces are in a gallon. After all, this conversion is one of the most basic and essential conversions there is.
How many ounces in a pound?
There are 16 ounces in a pound. This means that there are 28 grams in an ounce, and 45359237 grams in a pound.
To convert from pounds to ounces, divide the number of pounds by 16. For example, if someone weighs 120 pounds, they would have 120/16 = 75 ounces.
Conversely, to convert from ounces to pounds, multiply the number of ounces by 16. So, if someone has 75 ounces of something, they have 75*16 = 1200 grams.
Is 16 oz same as 1 pound?
No, 16 oz is not the same as one pound. One pound equals 16 ounces, but that doesn’t mean that every 16 ounce object weighs one pound. The weight of an object depends on its density, which is the amount of mass per unit of volume. So, an object with a higher density will weigh more than an object with a lower density, even if they have the same volume.
For example, one pound of feathers will take up a lot more space than one pound of lead. But since lead is much more dense than feathers, it actually weighs less. So 16 ounces of feathers will weigh more than 16 ounces of lead, even though they both have the same volume.
This is why it’s important to know the density of an object when you’re trying to determine its weight. The denser an object is, the more mass it has for a given volume. And that means it will weigh more than a less dense object of the same size.
How many fl oz are in a pound?
This is a question that many people have. The answer may surprise you. There are actually 16 fluid ounces in a pound. This means that there are 128 tablespoons in a pound or 768 teaspoons. So, if you ever need to know how many tablespoons or teaspoons are in a pound, now you know!
How much does 16 oz of milk weigh?
This is a question that I get asked a lot, and it’s one that doesn’t have a straightforward answer. The weight of milk depends on a few factors, including the type of milk (whole, skim, etc.), the fat content, and whether or not the milk has been homogenized.
Generally speaking, 16 oz of whole milk will weigh between one and two pounds. Skim milk is typically lighter, with 16 oz usually weighing around one pound. Homogenized milk falls somewhere in the middle, with a weight of 16 oz usually being around one and a half pounds.
Which is heavier a gallon of milk or water?
Many people believe that a gallon of milk is heavier than a gallon of water, but this is not actually the case. A gallon of water weighs about eight and a half pounds, while a gallon of milk only weighs about eight pounds.
So, while milk is certainly denser than water, it is not actually heavier. This misconception likely arises from the fact that milk is often sold in heavier containers than water.
A gallon of milk is typically sold in a plastic jug that weighs about two pounds, while a gallon of water is usually sold in a one-pound bottle. So, when you compare the weight of the container to the weight of the liquid, it appears as though milk is heavier.
Of course, this is all relative. A gallon of milk is still much lighter than a gallon of gasoline, which weighs about six and a half pounds. And a gallon of milk is also lighter than a gallon of honey, which weighs about 12 pounds. So, if you’re ever in need of some extra weight for your car or your pantry, milk is not the way to go. Water is still the heaviest liquid you can find.
How much does one gallon of jet fuel weigh?
This is a question that many people ask, especially those who are interested in aviation. The answer may surprise you – jet fuel weighs less than water! A gallon of jet fuel weighs about six and a half pounds, while a gallon of water weighs close to eight pounds. This means that jet fuel is actually lighter than water.
The reason jet fuel is so light is because it is a type of aviation gasoline. Aviation gasoline is made up of lighter hydrocarbons than regular gasoline. This makes it easier for planes to take off and fly.
How much does 8 oz of water weigh?
The short answer is that one ounce of water weighs about 28.35 grams. So, to answer the question, eight ounces of water weigh about 226.80 grams. Of course, this assumes that we’re talking about pure water. If you’re measuring something like seawater, which is saltwater, then the weight will be slightly higher.
In conclusion, there are 16 ounces in a cup. This is a simple conversion to remember and is very useful when you’re baking or cooking. Now that you know how many ounces are in a cup, you can measure out your ingredients with ease! Thanks for reading and happy cooking!
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Health Benefits of Cashew Milk
When you think of milk, you probably think of cow's milk. And yet, despite being a popular addition to our food and drink, there are a number of reasons why dairy could do you more harm than good. From lactose intolerance and allergies, to intestinal bleeding and heart disease, the evidence against cow's milk is growing, especially for small children.
Because of this, more people are turning to innovative non-dairy milks made from rice, soy, or nuts. These non-dairy milk options are increasing in popularity, with cashew milk being one of the front-runners. Cashew milk is an excellent low-calorie option with a creamier uniformity than other types of nut milk.
What is Cashew Milk?
Cashew milk is one of the fastest growing plant-based dairy alternatives with low-calorie content and creamy consistency. Cashew milk is prepared from a blend of whole cashews with water and is the best non-dairy product since it is more versatile, sweeter, and creamier.
You can choose to prepare homemade cashew milk or buy the ready-made type. Cashew milk is rich in vitamin E but lacks protein and fiber. As a result, cashew milk has lower calories than dairy milk, oat milk, and coconut milk. However, store-bought cashew milk is fortified with vitamin D, vitamin A, calcium, and iron to offer you more health benefits. Either way, cashew milk is a perfect alternative for dairy milk allergies and lactose intolerance.
What is the difference between almond milk, cashew milk, oat milk, regular cow’s milk?
Dairy milk contains natural sugars, proteins, and fats. For instance, 1 cup of whole milk has about 150 calories while fat-free milk has 83 calories. Whole milk has 8g of protein and 8g of fat per serving, while low-fat milk has 1.5g of fat. Note that 5g of the 8g of fat in whole milk is saturated fat.
It is important to remember that the naturally existing sugars in dairy milk can trigger a blood sugar increase. At the same time, saturated fats can raise your risk of heart disease.
Despite being rich in vitamin E, almond milk has a lower calorie content than dairy milk. For instance, 1 cup of unsweetened almond milk contains about 30-45 calories and 2g fat. You can also use almond milk for your cooking purposes or add it to your morning coffee.
Almond milk provides small amounts of protein and fiber, so you’ll need to use something else to compensate for the lacking nutrients. When buying almond milk, it is advisable to choose the unsweetened since the sweetened version contains plenty of added sugar. Also, it is best to avoid almond milk if you have a nut allergy; you can use other alternatives such as rice milk, soy milk, etc.
Oat milk is plant-based milk naturally free of lactose, dairy, soy, and nuts. Oat milk is prepared by mixing oats and water, then gums, thickeners, and oil are added. Into the mixture, vitamin D, vitamin A, calcium, and riboflavin are added to strengthen or fortify the oat milk.
Oat milk has more protein and fiber than other non-dairy options, with 1 cup containing 3-5 grams of protein. However, unlike other plant-based options, oat milk has more carbs and calories, with 1 cup containing about 100 calories or more. You can use oat milk if you have food sensitivities or dietary restrictions.
Cashew milk is the best plant-based alternative for vegans or lactose intolerant individuals. It is nut-based milk with a creamy taste. It is also rich in vitamin E but low in calories. Thus, 1 cup of unsweetened cashew milk can provide 25-35 calories and a fat content of 2 grams.
Plant-based alternatives (almond, oat, and cashew milk) are dairy-free and lactose-free, making them ideal for people with dairy allergies and lactose intolerance.
Nut-based alternatives contain fewer proteins, fats, and fiber than dairy milk. Therefore, people with diet and weight issues should opt for a plant-based alternative rather than dairy.
How to Make Cashew Milk
Making cashew milk at home is easy. First, soak the cashews overnight. Then, drain excess water, grind the cashews into a paste and blend with more added water. After mixing with a powerful blender, no pulp remains. Your cashew milk is ready! Here are the steps;
- Measure 1 cup (you can toast them lightly) and soak them overnight.
- Drain and rinse the cashews
- Put the soaked cashews and maple syrup or honey into a high-powered blender and add 4 cups of water.
- Blend for one minute.
- The cashew milk is ready to drink.
- You can also pour it into a storage vessel and refrigerate it.
The refrigerated cashew milk can last for 3-4 days, but it would be best to consume it in the first 2-3 days after preparation.
Store-Bought Cashew Milk
Store-bought cashew milk is fortified with vitamins and calcium. However, depending on the manufacturer, the cashew milk may contain added sugars, small amounts of proteins, thickeners, stabilizers, flavors, and other extras. These make store-bought cashew milk last longer than the homemade version.
It is best to read the ingredients of different manufacturers before buying. You can choose unsweetened options if you don’t like additional sugars.
Benefits of Drinking Cashew Milk
Aids in losing weight
The low-caloric content of cashew milk ensures that you don’t gain weight. Thus, you will lose weight without skipping the milk as you continue your workouts.
You can improve your digestive functions with fiber content for homemade cashew milk. The improved digestive system will help you lose weight more significantly.
Cashew milk contains vitamins and minerals
Cashew milk provides your body with Calcium, Vitamin A, Vitamin D, and Vitamin K. It also has several benefits, including better bone structure, improved eyesight, and blood clotting activities.
It contains healthy fats and eliminates free radicals
Cashew milk does not contain unhealthy saturated fats. Instead, it contains unsaturated fats, good for your heart health since your body can easily break them down. Cashew milk is also rich in vitamin E and anacardic acid which helps to eliminate free radicals. Free radicals are potential causes of skin anomalies and other disastrous conditions like cancer.
Improves nerve function
Cashew milk contains B vitamins, especially riboflavin (B6), and magnesium which improve nerve functions, among other roles.
Promotes eye health
By regularly consuming cashew milk, you may increase the lutein and zeaxanthin levels in your blood which is contained in the milk. Lutein and zeaxanthin help prevent advanced macular degeneration the disease that triggers vision loss. Thus, cashew milk lowers the risk of old-age cataracts and promotes your eyes' health.
Lower risk of anemia
The iron in cashew milk helps support red blood cells production. Red blood cells circulate oxygen throughout the body with the help of hemoglobin. Inadequate production of red blood cells can cause anemia, a condition that denies your body enough oxygen leading to dizziness, fatigue, and other symptoms.
Help prevent heart disease and cancer
Cashew milk comprises monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Consumption of these fatty acids lowers the risk of heart disease. In addition, cashew milk is rich in potassium and magnesium, minerals that improve your heart’s health and avert heart disease.
Because of its high anacardic acid content, cashew milk may help prevent the growth of some cancer cells. For instance, anacardic acid limits the spread of breast cancer cells and enhances anticancer drugs’ efficiency against skin cancer cells.
Cashew milk may help boost your immunity due to its concentration in antioxidants and zinc. Antioxidants counter inflammation and keep off diseases. Zinc is a vital mineral in forming immune cells, preventing diseases and infections. Zinc also reduces inflammation and stops cell damage.
Tips in Adding Cashew Milk to your Diet
- You can replace dairy milk with cashew milk in many recipes, such as baked goods, smoothies, and cereals.
- Since it has a creamy texture, you can add it to sauces for a creamier taste or make ice cream with it.
- You can add cashew milk to your morning coffee, tea, or hot chocolate for a creamier and delicious taste.
- You can also add cashew milk in your vegetable or chicken stock for a tasty and creamier soup.
- Cashew milk can also make a nice dairy-free salad dressing.
- You can also grab a cup of cashew milk between your meals and stay healthy.
- You can also make cashew-based cream sauces, cashew-based cheese, and sour cream.
- We've added organic cashew milk powder to our collection of organic superfood lattes as well!
Cashew milk is one of the healthiest beverages you can consume every day, and it's adaptable to fit in your diet in various creative ways. The health benefits of cashew milk outweigh those of other plant-based kinds of milk, making it the best option for a healthy diet.
- Cleveland Clinic https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-you-need-to-know-when-choosing-milk-and-milk-alternatives/
- IFAS Extension. University of Florida. Plant-Based Milks: Cashew https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf/FS/FS41300.pdf
- Nourish by WebMD. Cashew Milk: Are There Health Benefits https://www.webmd.com/diet/health-benefits-cashew-milk#2
- 10 Nutrition and Health Benefits of Cashew Milk https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/cashew-milk-benefits
- How to Make Cashew Milk https://downshiftology.com/how-to-make-cashew-milk/
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NFC, or Near Field Communication, has become an increasingly pervasive technology in various industries, offering convenience and security in our daily lives. This comprehensive guide explores the diverse applications and uses of NFC cards, from contactless payments and access control systems to public transportation and data exchange, revealing the immense potential of this technology in revolutionizing how we interact with the world around us.
The Basics: Understanding NFC Technology And Cards
NFC, or Near Field Communication, is a wireless communication technology that allows devices to transfer data over short distances. NFC cards, also known as smart cards, are equipped with embedded chips that store and transfer data when in close proximity to an NFC-enabled device.
These cards are widely used in various industries due to their convenience, security, and versatility. They rely on electromagnetic field induction to enable communication between devices, making them ideal for quick and secure transactions.
NFC cards are commonly used for contactless payments, where users can simply tap their cards or mobile devices against an NFC-enabled payment terminal to complete transactions. This technology has revolutionized the way we make purchases, making it faster, easier, and more secure.
Furthermore, NFC cards find applications in access control and security systems, enabling secure entry into buildings and facilities. They can also be utilized in transport and ticketing systems, allowing users to simply tap their cards to access public transit services.
Overall, NFC technology and cards offer endless possibilities for enhancing customer experiences, improving efficiency, and enabling seamless connectivity in various domains.
Contactless Payments: How NFC Cards Revolutionize Transactions
Contactless payments have completely revolutionized the way we make transactions, and NFC cards play a crucial role in this transformation. With NFC technology embedded in these cards, making a payment has become faster, simpler, and more secure than ever before.
NFC cards, also known as tap-and-go cards, allow users to make payments by simply tapping their cards on NFC-enabled payment terminals. This eliminates the need for physical contact or swiping cards, reducing transaction time significantly. Moreover, this technology is built with robust security features, making it extremely difficult for fraudsters to replicate or intercept card data.
One of the key advantages of NFC cards in contactless payments is the convenience they offer. Users no longer need to carry excessive cash or multiple credit cards as a single NFC card can store multiple payment options. This allows for seamless transactions across a variety of merchants and services.
Additionally, NFC cards often come with additional security layers, such as biometric authentication or PIN verification, providing an extra level of protection against unauthorized usage. This reassures consumers about the safety of using NFC cards for payments.
Overall, NFC cards have revolutionized transactions by providing a faster, more convenient, and secure payment method. As this technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative applications and widespread adoption in the future.
Access Control And Security: NFC Cards In Buildings And Facilities
Access control and security are crucial aspects of managing buildings and facilities. NFC cards have become increasingly popular in these settings due to their convenience and enhanced security features.
NFC cards can be programmed to grant or restrict access to specific areas within a building, such as offices, rooms, or even parking lots. By simply tapping the card on a reader, authorized personnel can gain entry without the need for keys or physical contact. This eliminates the hassle of carrying multiple keys or remembering complex access codes.
Moreover, NFC cards offer advanced security measures to prevent unauthorized access. They can be encrypted and embedded with unique identifiers, making them extremely difficult to clone or counterfeit. In the event of a lost or stolen card, access rights can be easily revoked, ensuring the safety of the premises.
Furthermore, NFC cards can be integrated with other security systems, such as surveillance cameras or alarms, providing comprehensive monitoring and control. This helps organizations maintain a secure environment and protect valuable assets.
Overall, NFC cards have revolutionized access control and security measures in buildings and facilities, offering a reliable and efficient solution that prioritizes convenience and safety.
Transport And Ticketing: NFC Cards Transforming Public Transit
Transport and ticketing systems have undergone a significant transformation thanks to NFC cards. These cards are revolutionizing the way people access and use public transportation.
NFC cards in public transit eliminate the need for physical tickets or tokens. Passengers can simply tap or swipe their NFC cards to gain access to buses, trains, and subways. This not only provides a seamless and efficient experience for commuters but also reduces waiting times and congestion at ticket counters.
NFC cards also offer the convenience of easy reload and top-up options. Users can easily add credit or purchase passes online or at dedicated kiosks, eliminating the hassle of carrying cash or waiting in long queues.
Furthermore, NFC technology enables contactless transactions for fare payments. Users can simply tap their NFC cards on validators to pay for their fares without the need for physical contact or swiping. This not only speeds up the boarding process but also enhances security by reducing the risk of theft or fraud associated with traditional ticketing systems.
Overall, NFC cards are transforming public transit by providing a convenient, secure, and efficient way for passengers to access and pay for transportation services. As technology continues to advance, we can expect even more innovative applications of NFC cards in the transportation sector.
Loyalty Programs: Enhancing Customer Experience With NFC Cards
Loyalty programs have become an integral part of customer retention strategies for businesses across industries. And NFC cards have emerged as a game-changer in enhancing the effectiveness of these programs.
NFC cards enable businesses to offer personalized rewards and discounts to their loyal customers. With just a tap or a wave of the card, customers can easily collect and redeem their loyalty points. This not only simplifies the process but also eliminates the need for carrying multiple loyalty cards or remembering account numbers.
Moreover, NFC cards allow businesses to gather valuable data about their customers’ shopping habits and preferences. By analyzing this data, businesses can gain insights into their customers’ behaviors, allowing for targeted marketing campaigns and customized offerings. This personalized approach helps in building stronger relationships with customers and enhances their overall experience.
Furthermore, NFC cards also enable businesses to integrate additional features such as fast-track checkouts, birthday offers, and exclusive promotions. These added benefits incentivize customers to remain loyal and continue patronizing the brand.
Overall, loyalty programs powered by NFC cards provide a win-win situation for both businesses and customers, enhancing customer satisfaction while driving repeat business and brand loyalty.
NFC In Healthcare: Applications And Benefits Of NFC Cards
NFC technology is paving its way into the healthcare industry, revolutionizing the way patient information is managed and improving overall patient care. NFC cards play a crucial role in healthcare by streamlining processes, enhancing accessibility, and ensuring the security of medical data.
One of the primary applications of NFC cards in healthcare is patient identification. By storing patient information on NFC cards, healthcare providers can easily access vital data, such as medical history, allergies, and current medications. This eliminates the need for manual record-keeping and reduces the chances of errors.
NFC cards also enable secure access control within medical facilities. With these cards, doctors, nurses, and staff can easily authenticate themselves, ensuring that only authorized personnel can access restricted areas. This enhances the security of sensitive medical equipment and patient records while safeguarding against unauthorized entry.
Moreover, NFC technology enables seamless transfer of data between medical devices. For instance, NFC-enabled glucose meters can transmit blood glucose readings to NFC cards, allowing healthcare professionals to monitor patients’ conditions remotely and make informed decisions regarding their treatment plans.
In conclusion, NFC cards have emerged as a valuable tool in healthcare. By simplifying patient identification, improving access control, and facilitating secure data transfer, they enhance efficiency, accuracy, and patient care in the healthcare sector. As technology continues to advance, the potential of NFC cards in healthcare is only expected to expand further.
Smart Homes And IoT: NFC Cards For Seamless Connectivity
In our fast-paced, interconnected world, the concept of a smart home has become increasingly popular. NFC cards play a crucial role in enabling seamless connectivity within these smart homes and the broader Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem.
NFC technology allows homeowners to connect various devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and smart appliances, to their homes effortlessly. By simply tapping an NFC card to a designated reader, users can control and automate their home’s lighting, temperature, security systems, and more.
NFC cards also facilitate convenient data transfer between devices, eliminating the need for cumbersome setup processes. For instance, users can transfer Wi-Fi network credentials from their smartphones to smart devices just by tapping the NFC card against them.
Moreover, NFC-enabled smart homes enhance security by enabling personalized settings. Users can program their NFC cards to unlock doors, disarm security systems, or activate personal preferences, fostering a highly secure and personalized living environment.
With the rise of IoT, NFC cards are expected to play an even more significant role in smart homes. They hold the potential to enable seamless connectivity between not only household devices but also outside services, creating a truly interconnected and intuitive living experience.
Future Trends: Expanding Applications And Potential Of NFC Cards
With the rapid advancement of NFC technology, the potential applications for NFC cards continue to expand, paving the way for exciting future trends. NFC cards offer great convenience and security, making them a popular choice in various industries. Here are some of the emerging trends that highlight the expanding potential of NFC cards:
1. Wearable Devices: NFC technology is being integrated into wearable devices such as smartwatches, fitness bands, and even jewelry, allowing users to make seamless contactless payments or access control with a simple tap. This trend is expected to gain significant traction in the coming years.
2. Internet of Things (IoT) Integration: NFC cards can easily be integrated into IoT devices, enabling users to interact with objects in their environment effortlessly. For instance, NFC-enabled refrigerators can automatically reorder groceries by scanning NFC tags on product packaging.
3. Digital IDs and Passports: NFC technology can be used to securely store digital identification and passport information. This has the potential to simplify travel procedures, enhance security, and reduce the risk of identity theft.
4. Event Tickets and E-tickets: NFC cards can be utilized as electronic event tickets, eliminating the need for physical tickets. Attendees can simply tap their NFC cards to gain entry, providing a seamless and efficient access control solution.
As NFC technology continues to advance, the range of potentials for NFC cards is poised to grow even further. From wearable devices to IoT integration, the future of NFC cards looks promising as they become an integral part of our everyday lives.
1. What are NFC cards?
NFC cards, short for Near Field Communication cards, are contactless smart cards that use radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. They enable seamless communication between two devices when placed in close proximity, typically within a few centimeters. These cards are equipped with an embedded chip and antenna, allowing them to securely store and transmit data.
2. How are NFC cards used in everyday life?
NFC cards have a wide range of applications in our daily lives. They are commonly utilized for contactless payment methods, allowing users to make secure transactions by simply tapping their card on a compatible payment terminal. NFC cards also enable easy access to public transportation systems, eliminating the need for physical tickets or cards. Moreover, they have been integrated into various loyalty programs and access control systems, providing convenience and enhanced security in areas such as hotels, offices, and events.
3. Can NFC cards be used for more than just payments?
Absolutely! NFC cards have extended beyond payment capabilities. They can be utilized for sharing information such as contact details or website links with other NFC-enabled devices, simply by touching the cards together. Furthermore, NFC cards can be programmed to trigger certain actions on smartphones, known as “smart tags.” For example, by tapping an NFC card against an enabled phone, users can instantly switch on/off Wi-Fi, launch applications, or adjust device settings. This versatility makes NFC cards an increasingly popular tool in enhancing user experiences across various industries.
The Bottom Line
In conclusion, NFC cards have become increasingly popular and widely used due to their convenience and versatility. They can be utilized for a variety of purposes such as contactless payments, access control systems, transportation tickets, and loyalty programs. With numerous benefits like faster transactions, enhanced security, and seamless integration with smartphones, NFC cards are undoubtedly revolutionizing the way we interact with technology and simplifying our daily lives. As this technology continues to evolve, we can expect even more applications and innovation in the future.
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Version 11 (modified by 7 months ago) ( diff ) | ,
Table of Contents
A Venux Operating System is something very simple to create and without much effort because it will be based on its own evolution just like things in nature. I wrote some concepts of design on this page that I think are the best way to create a functional VOS, evolutive and non-destructive. If you want to read the functional/real example, go to the History Example section.
This document describes how we can actually build a Venux system. Just don't be impatient, start with something basic and let the computational evolution do the rest.
First of all, you need an operating system to install the software (Venux is only a software, it requires an operating system to work in and with). We have it: GNU/Linux
When I discovered modularity in the software, I then understood that it is the real key to making good software. The modularity principles should be applied always and every time we write big software. All my ideas are based on modularity. Do not forget that.
The idea of modularity is basically to connect things between themselves. Why is this good? Imagine a car in a single piece. If something breaks or needs to be changed, you need to trash the entire car. But by using modularity (pieces), you can change only the required piece. You can create a better piece, but you need to maintain the compatibility to plug it with the other ones. And if you need to strictly change the method of how it is plugged, then you need to change the piece where it is plugged in too. With modular software, the same thing can happen.
We can make all the pieces of the puzzle of Venux in, for example, a big C application. C is good, stable, portable, and is the best-optimized language, but we don't need optimization yet. The system is very new, and to write pieces in C is something pretty time-consuming compared to writing them in other languages.
So, the pieces need to be simply applications, different applications. Every application (piece) does a different type of task. For example, one application retrieves the data, another one adds the data, another parses the data, another does special calculations, etc. Every application returns data as a result of what was asked.
Plug in Pieces
Like in a car, to plug piece A into piece B, it needs to be compatible. For that, every application needs to have a header data of how it works (data asked, data returned, options, etc.) and a version number. Think about it like individual programs that understand if they are compatible with each other.
Example: Plug in Pieces
Piece B knows the version number of piece C before it connects to it. If the version number of piece C is higher than that of B, then piece B checks if it is available for an update. If there's an update, then update it and ask its parent if it has an update available too. When there are no updates available, piece B checks if the specs of piece C (header of how it works -> data management) are compatible with it. If not, then it uses the old version of piece C that is still available on the system.
The version number is simply the actual date (day + time + microseconds). By doing this, we ensure that every time a bigger number means a newer version, never the inverse.
An update is a package. They are done automatically and very fast when required. Old updates are never deleted; they are stored in a historical archive that can be accessed by Venux if needed. Historical versions will only be deleted if they have been inactive for a minimum number of years.
Packages need to use the NIX packaging technology. This is a package system that includes the features of both static and shared libraries, so anything that is compiled and packaged with NIX will NEVER be deprecated. It will always work even if a thousand years pass, and you have multiple versions of a package (application) running in the same system. You can use any of these versions at the same time. Never can a conflict between versions or libraries happen with this technology.
Evolution is very simple: Somebody has a better idea for a piece—more efficient, faster, etc.—then writes it and presents the proposal/result to the Venux Operating System. Venux, like all other things on the Venus world, evaluates the proposal. It does a thousand different calculations of the good things and the bad things to know if it is "good" or "bad" compared with the actual system, the specs, the resources required, and maybe even the votes from the humans about if they like it or not. If it is accepted, then the operating system includes a new version that will be updated automatically by the system itself. The rest of the pieces will connect to this one if it is compatible, and there is no need to wait for an update too. But everything continues working thanks to the packaging technology, simple as evolution.
The pieces need to use a standard method of communication. The communication is also just another piece of the modularity. When the communication system evolves to something better, its version changes and its specification changes too if needed. Then all the pieces that use communication (almost all of the Venux system) know that they need to be updated before they can use the new communication protocol.
As explained in the Packages Technology section, the Venux system can work with both communication protocols at the same time while there are any pieces that still need to use the old protocol and have not been updated yet.
The interface is just another piece. It is a layer between the computer and the human to communicate in the best way possible. This piece is connected with the pieces that communicate with the data by the communication and also by using the communication it is shown to the human.
The Evolution rule will use the best interface too. For example, first it will exist in a command-line interface, then somebody will propose a better one graphically. The evolution of the system will use the graphical one after the required pieces are connected to the new one. Then later, an interface that is easier to manage or with more possibilities appears, same process... etc.
First version of the Venux system: there are 3 bash scripts that were written by somebody in less than a day. They are:
They are very basic and work in a very simple way. Running the interface, you will have 2 options: to get data and to add data. For example, we add the data gold, then we add its specs (composition, category, atomic weight, heat fusion, etc.), and we also add silver. Then later we want to know the specs of the gold and we use data-get. It works, very simple and functional.
Later, somebody adds a new piece that gets all the data stored on Wikipedia, parsing the HTML pages and getting the values of every element of this world.
Later, somebody adds a new piece that calculates the impact of every piece with nature.
With this idea, somebody creates a piece of choices calculation. For example, we need the best material to use in the sea. The Venux system will calculate the best choice, an abundant material for the actual needs. It also does calculations of future probability needs that are considered too. It checks the resistance of the material with the salted sea, the impact on nature, etc. So this piece shows the best choice possible, a lot better, faster, and more efficient than a human with studies.
Later, we see that the system becomes very slow by retrieving data because we have a lot of data and we have made data-get in a very fast way. We just wanted it working. Then somebody creates a better way to store data, compressed data, sorted alphabetically, etc. At the same time, someday somebody will present again a new version of data-get with a lot more optimized algorithms for faster searches. Then again, a future day, somebody will present a better algorithm that uses probability and usage statistics to retrieve the data even faster, etc.
Somebody creates a piece to back up all the data, just like the pieces and everything.
The interface changes to something better. We can now use tags and other special features. But for that, we need to update also data-get and data-add to use tags too. The interface is presented and accepted, but until there are data-add and data-get compatible with the new version of the interface using tags, it will not be used. Somedays later, somebody finds that the tags are added to the new elements but not to the old elements and writes a new version of interface that requests to add tags when the element doesn't have any yet. This version of the interface is updated but has not changed its compatibility, so it is directly used by Venux.
The data is stored in XML, which is slow to parse. Then somebody writes a piece that converts all the XML data to something more binary, faster to search by data-get. Someone also writes a feature in data-get to be compatible with the new structure of the data, and some days later, writes another piece that manages the XML as the original ones, updating the binary versions when the XML is updated.
Some time later, it is found that the binary form can't manage some special features of the XML version. We can still go back to the XML version while the new version of the binary form is being rewritten.
Main Feature Concepts
- Filesystem: BTRFS or an
equivalent filesystem with a lot of special features like snapshots, subvolumes, object-level mirroring and striping, checksums (integrity) of data, incremental backup, fs mirroring, etc.
- Development: Use GIT because it is a lot more advanced than the other ones as a distributed version control system.
- Database: We need, in the start, a good way to manage the data. I recommend using just plain text files since it is the easiest to manage, hack, and convert. We can migrate it to databases or other things in the future when required.
- Languages: Since everything is modular at the application level, we can use any kind of language. Sometimes we need optimization (C) and sometimes we need to code it quickly (Python). The evolution will do the rest.
When creating the Venux system, we need to remember the rules of the Art of Unix Programming. Don't take it as a joke. These rules are full of wisdom and essential for a correctly made Venux system. If you like them, the full book is a good read too.
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Painting is dead, long live the dustjacket. Alvin Lustig brought modern art into American bookshops
Alvin Lustig believed that painting was dead and that design would emerge as a primary art form. In his poetic book covers of the 1940s, he remade the visual languages of Dada, the Bauhaus and Surrealism.
The history of graphic design is replete with paradigmatic works – as opposed to merely interesting artefacts – that define the various design disciplines and are at the same time works of art. For a design to be so placed, it must overcome the vicissitudes of fashion and be accepted as an integral part of the visual language. Such is Alvin Lustig’s 1953 paperback cover for Lorca: 3 Tragedies. A masterpiece of symbolic acuity, compositional strength and typographic ingenuity, it forms the basis of many contemporary book jackets and covers.
The current preference among American book jacket designers for fragmented images, minimal typography and rebus-like compositions must be traced directly to Lustig’s stark black and white cover for Lorca (which is still in print) – a grid of five symbolic photographs tied together through poetic disharmony. This and other distinctive, though lesser known, covers for the New Directions publishing house transformed an otherwise realistic medium – the photograph – into a tool for abstraction though the employment of reticulated negatives, photograms and set-ups. New Directions publisher James Laughlin hired Lustig in the early 1940s and gave him the latitude to experiment with covers for the New Directions non-mainstream list, which featured authors such as Henry Miller, Gertrude Stein, D.H. Lawrence and James Joyce. While achieving higher sales was a consideration, Lustig believed it was unnecessary to “design down” to the potential buyer.
Lustig’s approach developed from an interest in montage as practised by the European Moderns of the 1920s and 1930s. When he introduced this technique to American book publishing in the late 1940s, covers and jackets tended to be painterly, cartoony or typographic – decorative or literal. Art-based approached were considered too radical, perhaps even foolhardy, in a marketplace in which hard-sell conventions were rigorously adhered to. Unlike in the recording industry, where managers regarded the abstract record covers developed at about the same time as potential boost to sales, most mainstream book publishers were reluctant to embrace abstract approaches at the expense of the vulgar visual narratives and type treatments they insisted captured the public’s attention.
Lustig rejected the typical literary solution of summarising a book thought a single, usually simplistic, image. “His method was to read a text and get the feel of the author’s creative drive, then to restate it in his own graphic terms,” wrote Laughlin in Print in October 1956. Although mindful of the fundamental marketing precept that a book jacket must attract and hold the buyer’s eye from a distance of as much as 10 feet, Lustig entered taboo territory through his uses of abstractions and small, discreet titles. His first jacket for Laughlin, a 1941 edition of Henry Miller’s Wisdom of the heart, eclipsed previous New Directions titles, which Laughlin described as jacketed in a “conservative, ‘booky,’ way”. At the time, Lustig was experimenting with non-representational constructions made from slugs of metal typographic material that reveal the influence of Frank Lloyd Wright, with whom he briefly studied. Though Wisdom of the Heart was unconventional for the early 1940s, Laughlin was to dismiss it some years later as “rather stiff and severe…It scarcely hinted at the extraordinary flowering which was to follow.”
Laughlin was referring to the New Directions New Classics series, designed by Lustig between 1945 and 1952. With few exceptions, the New Classics titles appear as fresh and inventive today as when they were introduced almost 50 years ago. Lustig had switched from typecase compositions such as his masterpiece of futuristic typography, The Ghost in the Underblows (Ward Ritchie Press, 1940), to drawing distinctive symbolic “marks” which owed more to the renderings of his favourite artists, Paul Klee and Joan Miro, than to any accepted commercial art style. Indeed, Lustig was a sponge who borrowed liberally from painters he admired. He believed that after Abstract Expressionism, painting was dead, and design would emerge as a primary art form – hence his jackets were not only paradigmatic examples of how Modern art could successfully be incorporated into commercial art, but showed other designers how the dying (plastic) arts could be harnessed for mass communications. He also believed that the book jacket should become the American equivalent of the glorious European poster tradition, and so used it as a tabula rasa for the expression of new ideas.
Each of Lustig’s New Classics jackets is a curious mix of expressionistic and analytical forms which interpret rather than narrate the novels, plays or poetry contained within. For Franz Kafka’s Amerika, he used a roughly rendered five-pointed star divided in half by red stripes, out of which emerge childlike squiggles of smoke that represent the author’s harsh critique of a mythic America. Compared to an earlier jacket by montagist John Heartfield for the German publisher Malik Verlag, which shows a more literal panorama of New York skyscrapers, Lustig’s approach is subtle but not obtuse. For E.M. Forster’s The Longest Journey, Lustig formed a labyrinthian maze from stark black bars; while the jacket does not illustrate the author’s romantic setting, the symbolism alludes to the tension that underscores the plot. “In these as in all Lustig’s jackets the approach is indirect,” wrote C.F.O Clarke in Graphis in 1948, “but through its sincerity and compression has more imaginative power than direct illustration could achieve.”
The New Classics design succeeded where other popular literary series such as the Modern Library and Everyman’s Library, with their inconsistent art direction and flawed artwork (including some lesser works by E. McKnight Kauffer for the Modern Library), failed. Although each New Classics jacket has its own character, Lustig maintained unity through strict formal consistency. Yet at no time did the overall style overpower the identity of the individual book.
Lustig was a form-giver, not a novelty-maker. The style he chose for the New Classics was not a conceit but a logical solution to a design problem. This did not become his signature style any more than his earlier typecase compositions: using the marketplace as his laboratory, he varied approaches within the framework of Modernism. “I have heard people speak of the ‘Lustig Style,’” wrote Laughlin in Print, “but no one of them has been able to tell me, in fifty words or five hundred what it was. Because each time, with each new book, there was a new creation. The only repetitions were those imposed by the physical media.”
This creative versatility is best characterised in the jacket for Lorca: 3 Tragedies, one of the many covers for New Directions that tested the effectiveness of inexpensive black and white printing in a genre routinely known for garish colour artwork. Another superb jacket in this suite of photographic work is The Confessions of Zeno (New Directions, 1947), for which Lustig combined a reticulated self-portrait that resembles a flaming face with a smaller-scale image of a doll and coffin. The background is cut in half by black and white bands, with an elegant, wedding-script type (reminiscent of the Surrealist graphics of the 1930s he admired in arts magazines such as View) dropped out of the black portion.
In addition to being unlike any other American jacket of its time (although it looks as though it could have been designed today), The Confessions of Zeno pushed back the accepted boundaries of Modern design. With this and other photo-illustrations (done in collaboration with photographers with whom he routinely shared credit), Lustig reinterpreted and polished the visual language of the Bauhaus, Dada and Surrealism and inextricably wedded them to contemporary avant-garde literature. He was not alone: Paul Rand, Lester Beall and other American Moderns also produced art-based book jackets. But Lustig’s distinction, as described by Laughlin in Print, “lay in the intensity and purity with which he dedicated his genius to his idea vision”. While the others were graphic problem-solvers, Lustig was a visual poet whose work was rooted as much in emotion as in form.
Lustig once claimed that he was “born modern” and made an early decision to practise as a “modern” rather than “traditional” designer. Yet he had a conservative upbringing. Born in 1915 in Denver, Colorado, to a family which he described as having “absolutely no pretentions to culture” (The Collected Writings of Alvin Lustig, 1955), he moved at age five to Los Angeles, where he found “nothing around me, except music or literature, could give a clue to the grandeur that had been European civilization”. He was a poor student who avoided classes by becoming an itinerant magician for various school assemblies. But it was in high school that he was introduced by “an enlightened teacher” to modern art, sculpture and French posters. “This art hit a fresh eye, unencumbered by any ideas of what art was or should be, and found an immediate sympathetic response,” he wrote in 1953 in the AIGA Journal. “This ability to ‘see’ freshly, unencumbered by preconceived verbal, literary or moral ideas, is the first step in responding to most modern art.”
Lustig embraced Modernism and turned his attention to Europe, which further exacerbated his antipathy towards American conventions. “The inability to respond directly to the vitality of forms is a curious phenomenon and one that people of our country suffer from to a surprising degree,” he wrote. Since his first exposure was to art that challenged tradition, he was to find that, “For me, when tradition was finally discovered, and understood with more maturity, it was always measured against the vitality of the new forms; and when it was found lacking, it was rejected.”
Lustig’s introduction to Modernism, his espousal of utopianism and his passion for making magic converged at an early age. He fervently believed design could change the world and began his design career at age 18 while a student at Los Angeles City College. At this time he also took a job (1933-34) as art director of Westways, the monthly journal of the Automobile Club of Southern California. Next he studied for three months with Frank Lloyd Wright at Taliesen East. In 1936 he became a freelance printer and typographer, doing jobs on a press he kept in the back room of a drugstore. It was here that he began to create purely abstract geometric designs using type ornaments – what Laughlin termed “queer things with type”. A year or so later he retired from printing to devote himself exclusively to designing. He became a charter member of the Los Angeles Society for Contemporary Designers – a small and intrepid group of Los Angelenos (including Saul Bass, Rudolph de Harak, John Folis and Louis Danzinger) whose members had adopted the Modern canon and were frustrated by the dearth of creative vision exhibited by West Coat businesses.
Lustig was a leader of “the group of young American graphic artists who have made it their aim to set up a new and more confident relationship between art and the general public,” wrote C.F.O Clarke. Yet lack of work forced him to move in 1944 to New York, where he became visual research director of Look magazine’s design department. While in New York he took up interior design and began to explore industrial design. In 1946 he returned to Los Angeles, where for five years he ran an office specialising in architectural, furniture and fabric design, while continuing his book and editorial work. But to hire Lustig, notes his former wife Elaine Lustig Cohen, was to get more than a cosmetic make-over. He wanted to be totally involved in every aspect of the design programme – from business card to office building. Cohen speculates that this need for total control scared potential clients, so the profitable commissions came in erratically and the couple often lived from hand to mouth. In 1951 they returned to New York.
Lustig is known for his expertise in virtually all the design disciplines (he very much wanted to be an architect, but lacked the training). He designed record albums, magazines, advertisements and annual reports, as well as office spaces and textiles. He even designed the opening sequence for the popular animated cartoon series Mr Magoo. He was passionate about design education, and conceived of design courses and workshops for Black Mountain College in North Carolina, the University of Georgia, and Yale. Yet of all of these accomplishments, it is his transformation of both book cover and interior design that lives on today.
While the early Moderns vehemently rejected the sanctity of the classical frame and the central axis, Lustig sought to reconcile old and new. He understood that the tradition of fine book-making was closely aligned with scholarship and humanism, and yet the primacy of the word, the key principle in classical book design, required re-evaluation. “I think we are learning slowly how to come to terms with tradition without forsaking any of our own new basic principles,” he wrote, prefiguring certain ideas of post-modernism. “As we become more mature we will learn to master the interplay between the past and the present and not be so self-conscious of our rejection or acceptance of any tradition. We will not make the mistake that both rigid modernists and conservatives make, of confusing the quality of form with the specific forms themselves.” A book like Thomas Merton’s Bread in the Wilderness (New Directions, 1953), which uses both asymmetrical and symmetrical type composition, should not be seen as a rejection of past verities, but as an attempt to build a new tradition, or in Lustig’s words, “the basic esthetic concepts peculiar to our time”.
Although Lustig’s work appeared revolutionary (an unacceptable) to the guardians of tradition at the AIGA and other book-dominated graphic organisations, he was not the radical his critics feared. His design stressed the formal aspects of a problem, and even his most radical departures should not be considered mere experimentation: “The factors that produce quality are the same in the traditional and contemporary book. Wherein, then lies difference? Perhaps the single most distinguishing factor in the approach of the contemporary designer is his willingness to let the problem act upon him freely and without preconceived notions of the forms it should take.” (Design Quarterly, 1954). Lustig’s covers for Noonday Press (Meridian Books) produced between 1953 and 1954 avoid the rigidity of both traditional and Modern aesthetics. At the time American designers were obsessed with the new types being produced in Europe – not just the Modern sans serifs, but recuts of old gothics and slab serifs – that were unavailable in the US. Lustig ordered specimen books from England and Germany which, like many of his colleagues, he would photostat and either piece or redraw. Rather than being severely Modern, these faces became the basis for more eclectic compositions.
At the same time, Lustig also became interested in, and to a certain extent adopted, the systematic Swiss approach, which perhaps accounts for the decidedly quieter look of the Noonday line. To distinguish these books – which focused on literary and social criticism, philosophy and history – from his New Directions fiction covers, he switched from pictorial imagery to pure typography set against flat colour backgrounds. While the Noonday covers are not as visually stimulating as the New Directions work, they were unique in their context. At the time, the typical paperback cover was characterised by overly rendered illustrations or thoughtlessly composed type. Lustig’s format used the flat colour background as a frame (or anchor) against which various eclectic type treatments were offset. The covers were designed to be seen together as a patchwork. Lustig’s subtle economy was a counterpoint to the industry’s propensity for clutter and confusion.
A study of Lustig’s jackets reveals an evolution from total abstraction to symbolic typography. One cannot help but speculate about how he might have continued had he lived past his 40th year. In 1950 diabetes began to erode his vision and by 1954 he was virtually blind. This did not prevent him from designing: Cohen recalls that he would direct her and his assistants in meticulous detail to produce the work he could no longer see. These strongly geometric designs were “some of his finest pieces”, claimed Laughlin, but were not as inventive as his earlier covers and jackets that in Lustig’s words transformed “personal art into public symbols”.
Lustig died in 1955, leaving a number of uncompleted assignments to be finished by his wife, who developed into a significant graphic designer in her own right. He left a unique body of book covers and jackets that not only stand up to the scrutiny of time, but continue to serve as models for how Modern form can be effectively applied in the midst of today’s aesthetic chaos.
First published in Eye no. 10 vol. 3, 1993
Eye is the world’s most beautiful and collectable graphic design journal, published for professional designers, students and anyone interested in critical, informed writing about graphic design and visual culture. It is available from all good design bookshops and online at the Eye shop, where you can buy subscriptions and single issues.
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From an edited transcription of an 1956 article.
John Brimmell of Broad Street, Launceston on April 19th, 1856, ran the first print of ‘The Launceston Weekly News and Cornwall and Devon Advertiser.’ This was not the town’s first newspaper, but it was the first successful one. The first ever paper for Launceston was ‘The Launceston Journal,’ published on Tuesday, January 26th, 1784, according to the tenor of the Bye-Laws of the Corporation from the Press of H. Lawrence under the sanction of a worthy Patriot of unblemished Character. This, however, was in fact a sham newspaper, one issue only, composed simply of ‘burlesque’ intelligence and personal attacks on local figures. Another Newspaper, ‘The Reformer,’ (below) was printed by Thomas Eyre and produced for the hard fought election of 1832, revolving around the agitation for the great Reform Bill of that year. A week after ‘The Reformer’ appeared the Tories published their rival, ‘The Guardian,’ printed by the brothers Theodore and William Roe Bray. These two weekly papers were small in content and were published to publicise the personalities of the election campaign and were generally no more than election propaganda. The contest which, incidentally, ended with the defeat, by seven votes, of the Liberal candidate, David Howell, by the Duke of Northumberland’s nominee, Sir Henry Hardinge. Once the election was completed both the fledgling papers were closed.
The first actual newspaper was ‘The Launceston Examiner,’ published by Thomas William Maddox, which appeared weekly for about six months in 1844. This was a four page sheet, of small sized pages. Its failure was due to the fact that it followed the practise of so many other country newspapers of that time in that the main content was of foreign intelligence and Court and London news, with a few scattered pieces of local news.
So it was to be another twelve years before Launceston had its own local newspaper. Even then though its reach was only into the homes of the landed gentry and clergy for the balance of the districts population was largely illiterate, and in the lower echelons of what was a very carefully stratified society, that inability to read or write was almost universal. But the repeal of the Stamp Act, an infamous ‘Tax of Knowledge,’ which had rendered the purchase of a newspaper prohibitive to any other than the rich, and the improvement in education paved the way for a wider readership. The shopkeepers and traders of Launceston were prospering sufficiently to send their children to school, even at the payment of some pence per week which was a substantial sum in those days when a labourers wage for a week was only a few schillings. The National School had been opened in 1841, and there were other educational establishments predominantly of a private nature setting up. There was an awakening in the public with interest in the affairs of the day particularly in the Reform Movement that was eventually to bring about the universal franchise, compulsory education and all the other things we take for granted today.
It was a time that Britain was in the throes of her first war since Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, with the Crimean War. The public conscience was awakening and its interest in such matters was a boon to a fledgling newspaper. At the time the Newspaper Society proudly stated “The local newspaper is the lifeblood of the community.”
In 1856, the townspeople were most certainly in the dark as to borough affairs, with meetings often held behind closed doors and word of mouth campaigns the only opposition which could be raised to selfish measures. The Member of Parliament was virtually chosen by one man (The Duke of Northumberland) and the town police force consisted of one constable (employed by the Town Council), if harsh to the poor then respectful to his betters; with the policy of might (or money) being right generally enforced if no longer timidly accepted. So it was to this scene at a cost of 1d. per copy that ‘The Launceston Weekly News and Cornwall and Devon Advertiser’ made its appearance.
An early sensation was the murder of an old man at Langore. Roger Drew, who carried on the business as a carpenter as well as running a small grocers shop, and who lived alone, was found as the paper put it at the time, “weltering in his blood” one Sunday morning by a villager going to buy sweets. Apprehended almost immediately was a 30 year old ex-Marine, John Doidge who was subsequently charged and found guilty of the murder. His execution at Bodmin Gaol was the last to be held publicly.
Life was hard in its lesser occasions, too, a master, not satisfied with the way in which his youthful employees were working, could have them sent to prison and whipped for being ‘idle and disorderly apprentices.’ Another report from the same time detailed the diet of the time; Meat twice a week; the other days, rice and treacle; dry bread and milk and water in the mornings and evenings. This was also the time when the ‘buildings’, tenements that were to be labelled as slum property were being erected, not by speculative developers, but by philanthropic organisations, with hundreds of applications pouring in to rent them, an indication of what previous housing conditions were like.
The first local case of any importance reported was indicative of the savage punishment handed out at that time was the prosecution of a 19 year old labourer for killing a sheep belonging to a tenant of Squire Lethbridge at Tregeare. Sent for trial at Bodmin assizes and there found guilty, the youth was sentenced to 15 years transportation.
The paper was originally published as a four page sheet, the front page being given over to local news and advertisements, and the remaining three being of national and international news. In fact, those three pages would have been printed, probably in London, before the papers arrived in Launceston; it then remained for the local publisher to set up his type, print the blank front page with local matter, and issue his paper. That first front page contained but little local news; nearly a column was given over to a poem about spring by E. Capern, Rural Postman, of Bideford, and to anecdotes. A report of a Congregational anniversary at Penryn; a report of the Parliamentary Committee’s deliberations on the Adulteration of Food Bill. There were two columns of advertisements, largely of John Brimmell’s own wares such as stationary, school-books, printing, bookbinding,paper hangings, and all the many and varied types of goods which each tradesman seemed to stock in those days. Another advertiser, a C. Bounsall, of Church Street, Launceston, was not only a glass and china dealer, sculptor and glazier; but also made furniture on the premises, erected greenhouses, kept a nice line in tombstones and was an insurance agent. Besides this, his advertisement in that issue pointed out, the board and lodging to be had at his temperance hotel was most satisfactory and only two minutes walk from the coach and omnibus offices. To make sure his net was spread wide enough, he added in a postscript to his advertisement that he was also ‘Agent for superior Drain Pipes, etc., etc.’
The early issue had the following tradesmen mentioned; T. Stephens, draper of Church Street, Mr. Langdon,of the Northumberland Foundry, St. Thomas, W. Coad, draper of High Street, J. Hodge and Son and Messrs James and Ball, coaching and posting contractors, R. Robbins, of the Golden Boot, Broad Street, J. Phillips, baker and refreshment house proprietor, opposite the White Hart Hotel in Broad Street (Now the betting shop), John Dawe, auctioneer of Lewannick, and J. Geake, travel and insurance agent, of St. Thomas.
John Brimmell soon found competition. He had started, as he recorded in the first issue, ‘a newspaper…pledged to the political partizanship of no party. But within eleven months, either from political or business rivalry, his competitor, the ancestor of ‘The Cornish and Devon Post,’ had made its appearance. That was in March, 1857, and it was very clear that the two papers were in opposite camps politically. John Brimmell was the Conservative and his rival on the Liberal side.
The rival began its life as a supplement to ‘The Cornish Times’ which was also priced at 1d. with it being published and printed by E. Philp of Callington and J. Philp of Liskeard. It made its first appearance on January 3rd, 1857 and it soon had a circulation of nearly 1,200 weekly, and in March of 1857 (coinciding with the dissolution of Parliament, an indication of the mainly political role played by papers in those days) it extended to Launceston, with a third brother, William Philp of Broad Street, Launceston, publishing a single sheet printed on one side only and headed ‘Supplement to the Cornish Times.’ The three brothers were soon claiming a circulation of upwards of 1,500 weekly. At the next Dissolution of Parliament, in May, 1859, the supplement developed into an independent paper as ‘The East Cornwall Times,’ this independence did not refer to its politics, however, as it remained with its sister paper as a staunch supporter of the Liberal cause.
William Philp had been apprenticed to the aforementioned Launceston printer Thomas Eyre, serving his indentures of seven years before working in London for two years. He returned to Launceston in 1831 and went into business as a printer in Westgate Street, subsequently moving to Broad Street and it is here that he published his Supplement and eventually the ‘East Cornwall Times.’ With the aid of two apprentices (George Robbins, who would go on to have a distinguished journalistic career in London, being one of them) he did all the reporting, editing, setting of type and printing of the paper, which was produced on an old fashioned, even for those days, Eagle press in the cellar of what is now Webbers Estate Agents in the Square.
The political nature of each of the two Launceston papers was taken very seriously in those days, for politics were very much of local application and not confined to national affairs. The Town Council elections were fought along party lines, and practically every local issue saw the Conservatives lined up on one side and the Liberals on the other. William Philp, in those early days, fought many a battle for freedom in his columns, as indeed did John Brimmell in his paper, although each was careful never to support the other. William Philp’s greatest achievement was his success in securing the admission of a press representitive to the meetings of the Town Council in 1861, which was a feat in itself when the victory was won against someone such as the then almost all-powerful Town Clerk, Mr. Charles Gurney.
Over a decade the battle raged between the entrenched champions of the old way of life, with privilege rampant, and the newer adherents of a wider franchise, bearing the sneering title of Radicals as a badge of honour. Mr. Richard Peter, was the principal opponent of Charles Gurney; elected a Town Councillor, he refused for a year or more to attend any meetings because he was summoned to them by a printed notice bearing the printed signature of the Town Clerk. He won his point in the end, and that was the thin end of the wedge, with Charles Gurney eventually being ousted and Richard Peter himself eventually becoming Town Clerk, to face in his turn a campaign of abuse and attack from his political enemies. But an important principle had been established: that the Town Clerk was the servant of the Council and not its master, and from those forgotten battles of nearly 150 years ago stem the freedom to conduct our own affairs, free from any form of despotism, benevolent or otherwise, that we enjoy today. Richard Peter was to become a frequent contributor to both papers in those early days, while Richard Robbins was another prolific writer on local affairs, followed in this by his son Alfred Robbins.
So the respective papers continued their stormy ways, but a chance was to come in 1877 and a more familiar name makes its first appearance. In December of that year ‘The East Cornwall Times’ issued its last number, and the Phoenix that arose from its ashes was ‘The Cornish and Devon Post.’ That incorporated ‘The East Cornwall Times’ and the change in title was to suit the wider role it was intended to play, for it began to circulate not only in Launceston, but in Callington, Camelford, Boscastle, Bude, Stratton, Holsworthy, Okehampton, Lifton and to quote its early masthead, ‘etc.,’ which covered the villages and hamlets of the wide area of North Cornwall and West Devon.
The first issue of the new publication was, according to its imprint, ‘printed and published by W. L. Powell for the proprietors, W. S. Cater and Co., At their Machine Printing works, Westgate Street, Launceston, in the parish of Saint Mary Magdalene, in the Borough of Dunheved, otherwise Launceston, in the County of Cornwall.’ Astute enough to see their opportunity and to plan accordingly, the producers of the new paper, which as they had hoped, ‘sold like hot cakes,’ were able to announce with pride ‘arrangements are completed for printing the paper by Steam Power.’ Prior to that, the machine was turned by relays of men! With eight pages and still priced at 1d. it still gave plenty of national and international news. William Smale Cater, the proprietor, was Launceston born of a Launceston family, and was educated at Horwell Grammar School. In early life he sought his fortune in London, and was for some years employed with a London firm of publishers. He returned to Launceston and engaged in the printing business with a Mr. Eveleigh, taking over the business in Westgate Street which had been conducted by Messrs. Cory. But although he did bring about the first publication of ‘The Cornish and Devon,’ it was not long before he severed his connection with the paper, and in 1883 he established a business in Church Street and also a printing business in Race Hill, from which he produced ‘The Penny Marvel,’ an annual publication which was well worthy of its title apparently. William Smale Cater has another claim to fame as at the age of 18, he, with Dr. Wise and another local man, was the first to ride out of Launceston on a penny-farthing bicycle.
William Lydra Powell, as mentioned above, was associated with the birth of ‘The Cornish and Devon Post,’ and he soon became its proprietor as well as its editor. His was a journalistic career, born at Exeter, he started on ‘The Devon Weekly Times’ moved later to ‘The Torquay Times’ and later to ‘The North Devon Journal’ at Barnstaple. Then he became associated with the National Press Agency, London, and subsequently started papers in the Home Counties. It was from ‘The Mid-Surrey Times’ at Richmond that he came to Launceston, and was instrumental in converting the purely local ‘East Cornwall Times’ into the wider sphere of ‘The Cornish and Devon’ building it eventually into what he called ‘A Newspaper Circle’; with separate ‘Posts’ for the different towns and areas. His was the age of expansion for ‘The Cornish and Devon’, he published not only the ‘Bude and Stratton Post,’ ‘Holsworthy Post,’ ‘Callington Post,’ ‘Camelford and Delabole Post,’ ‘Okehampton Post’ and ‘Wadebridge Post,’ but also the ‘Bodmin Post’ and the ‘Padstow Post.’
William Lydra Powell found time, too, to fight and win the battle for the narrow gauge railway in North Cornwall; he sat for nine years on the Town Council; he wrote various guide-books and directories; he campaigned vigorously for his beloved Liberal Party. The papers prospered under his expert leadership, and growing, it was necessary for larger premises and so in 1895 the papers were moved to the more commodious building in what was then Western Road and also called the Western Assembly rooms (below). New machinery was installed for the purpose of more expeditious production.
William Lydra Powell died in April, 1904, at his home, Devonia, Dunheved Road, at the early age of 51. His eight paged paper, still only 1d. and now containing local news on all pages, was produced for the interim period on behalf of his widow and executors, and then was acquired by a man that was to become an integral apart of the town, Charles Orchard Sharp (below).
In his first editorial, July 23rd, 1904, when, to cast a glance at the contemporary scene, the Launceston Horse Show was striving to survive the disaster of a thunderstorm which had cut its attendance, and General Booth, the founder of the Salvation Army, was including Launceston in his triumphal itinerary, Orchard Sharp told his new readers that “no pains will be spared to supply an interesting variety of local news, as well as a careful summary of general intelligence; and, further, it is promised that comment, however searching as to principles, will never be bitter as to persons.” And, he added, “it is hoped to fulfil the law of Christian charity even in the political sphere,” going on to declare stoutly: “This is a Liberal journal, which will appeal to Liberalism with backbone in it.”
Charles Orchard Sharp had already achieved a distinguished journalistic career in Fleet Street when he came to Launceston: he had become Assistant Editor of ‘The Daily Chronicle’. He was a Fellow of the Institute of Journalists, and maintained an exceedingly high standard of editorial ability. Fair and just in his comments, he was respected alike by his political friends and opponents. He was a great Baptist, holding many lay offices, and a local preacher of eloquence and conviction. Until his death in 1942, he retained undimmed his vital interest in the affairs of his adopted town and district, and his great worry in his final illness was his inability to write his usual leaders. In 1908, Charles Sharp took into partnership Mr. Glanville H. Scantlebury, who came from a Launceston family, with connections at Stoke Climsland. Glanville was a young man who had served his journalistic apprenticeship on ‘The Post’ in the days of Powell and after gaining further experience in London, returned to the paper. He became its editor, with Charles Sharp becoming a ‘sleeping partner,’ and in fact moving to Plymouth as Assistant Editor of ‘The Western Daily Mercury.’ In 1912 Glanville Scantlebury died at the tragically early age of 28, leaving a widow and three young children. He too played his part in the life of the community, in addition to his vital role as editor, and was widely mourned.
It was then that Charles Sharp relinquished his post at Plymouth to return to Launceston and again take over the editorship of his paper. At this time (1913), he formed a private company, taking into partnership Maurice Prout (below left) and Arthur Bray Venning (below right), two young Launceston men who had already been with the paper from the days of William Lydra Powell. Under his guidance and with their energetic and able support, the paper flourished even more, surmounting the difficulties of the 1914-18 war period and going on to even greater triumphs in the post war years.
All this time, ‘The Launceston Weekly News’ had contained as a family business, with John Brimmell being succeeded by his sons, A. W. D. Brimmell and S. D. Brimmell, both gifted journalists. From the original Broad Street of the early days, it had shifted its headquarters to Church Street opposite the Church. It had carved out a place for itself in the hearts of Launcestonians especially, but progress brings change and in 1931 it was acquired by the larger ‘Cornish and Devon Post,’ to become a part of the newspaper circle extending so far beyond the borough boundaries of Launceston and so much a part of the weekly life of thousands of people in both Devon and Cornwall. That amalgamation came with the first issue of the joint ‘Post and Weekly News’ on July 4th, 1931, when, to take another look at the contemporary scene, the ‘Talkies’ were superseding silent films at Launceston; when the old established Dunheved College and Horwell Grammar School for Boys had reached the end of their careers, and Mr. Henry Spencer Toy had just been named as the first headmaster of the new Launceston College which was to succeed them. In the first joint editorial, tribute was paid to the great days of the past, but the change was hailed as a further sign of progress. And in its new role as the sole organ of the town and district, the flag of political allegiance was hauled down, with ‘The Post and Weekly News’ pledging itself to a policy of independence, to represent, as it stated, all parties, by being ‘conducted along lines philosophical rather than polemical.’ That leader went on to state the paper’s line, still maintained to this day. “We shall not be unmindful of the editorial responsibility to be fair all round, not by excluding political discussion, but by giving every reasonable point of view a fair show. The editor will seek to be an interpreter rather than an advocate.”
The union proved a successful one and although World War Two proved difficult with paper and labour shortages along with difficulties in securing machinery replacements, the paper continued to be produced on a weekly basis. In 1955 the installation of a Cossar press (seen below working with Jack Uren collecting the printed Newspapers in 1985) at a cost of £10,000, provided the paper with up to date printing equipment well before many other provincial papers in the country. The paper was also the first in Cornwall to introduce the Linotype, which brought mechanisation into type setting instead of the laborious former method of picking out each character by hand.
The death of Charles Orchard Sharp in 1942 was a great blow for the paper, but in Maurice Prout, there proved to be an ideal replacement. In fact Maurice for many years had been shouldering the major burden of occupying the editorial chair, maintaining the high standards established by his distinguished predecessors down the years and in conjunction with his partner, Arthur Bray Venning, who directed the advertising side, continued to run the paper successfully. Maurice passed away in 1961 and Arthur in 1968.
Later Geoff Seccombe became editor with Adrian Ruck his deputy.
In 1985 the paper installed a new web offset press which enabled a print of more than the 12 page limit of the Cossar press (seen being removed below left). The following year ‘The Cornish & Devon Post’ came into the ownership of Tindle Newspapers and a new era for the series began and which continues to this day.
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Following up on “PART I: Education and the challenge of building a more sustainable world” that I summarized here, and the first part and second part of the summary of “PART II: Choosing teaching content and approaches”, and my first part of a summary of
PART III — Designing and implementing teaching and learning practices
here comes my last bit of summary of this book!
Teaching as a matter of staging encounters with literary texts in environmental and sustainability education
Petra Hansson writes about how to use reading and writing in teaching about sustainability. One problem we often encounter is that students are so deeply socialised into fact-based traditions, that they feel very uncomfortable and out of their depth when they are asked to interpret and make personal choices of priorities, for example when reading literature. They are expecting that there is a correct answer that the teacher wants them to find, and cannot imagine that there are many valid answers, especially when it comes to the effect that a text has on them in connection to their own experiences etc, as long as they can explain the reasons behind their choices. That each student might take something different away from reading the same text, and that that is exactly what a teacher might want, seems weird when students are used to science text books where there is exactly one correct way of understanding. But sometimes, meaning is only created when students respond to a text, for example by writing reflections about a text. The author suggests four pedagogical steps to make that happen:
- getting actors on stage: Having set an environment to encounter texts in, the stage, the teacher needs to encourage students to get involved with texts, for example by looking at an image of a small island and describing what life would be like on it, and sharing ideas with peers, in preparation of reading Robinson Crusoe — motivating why they should want to read. At this stage, the quality of writing is not important, just eliciting ideas, sharing and collecting them.
- getting students into the play: This step is encouraging students to do something with the text while reading it; taking positions to it, relating it to their own experiences, choosing favourite passages, and finally summarising it.
- re-viewing the play: Now the work done in 2. is connected to sustainability themes by the teacher, who lets students write about them for a couple of minutes, and choose relevant passages in the original text and reflect on them.
- re-acting the play: Finally, the students write for a new, public target audience, communicating the points developed before.
The author writes “students need to be accustomed to a view of reading and writing as not only being tools for extracting and expressing knowledge about the state of the world but also as means for discovering multiple perspectives of experiencing the world, with the final aim of developing solid and firm opinions that can be used in real-life sustainability discussions“.
Next chapter by Sund and Pashby:
Taking up ethical global issues in the classroom
Even though one advice for teaching about sustainability is to focus on local challenges, this might be good advice for when people are first exposed to the topic or reluctant to see the relevance for them personally, but it does hold forever since sustainability is a global challenge. But thinking globally is obviously even more complex since then much larger contrasts between rich and poor, much more different impacts like sea-level rise or desertification, very different cultures, all come together, and this creates the risk of an “us” and “them” thinking between the Global North and Global South that separates between who causes and is a victim, helps and needs help, etc.. Also the SDGs, meant and commonly used as starting point when teaching about sustainable development, are not without criticism, for example because they basically propagate for “business as usual” and implicitly uncritically support values like individualism and competition, as well as contributing to colonial systems of power.
The authors offer a didactical reflective tool (“DiRe tool”) for teaching global issues which contains the four key aspects of a critical engagement with global issues:
- contextual-historical: how do I relate the present problem to the historical context of global injustice, roles, and positions?
- affective: how do I include wanting well for others without falling into us/them relationships and charitable donations, how can we use empathy, responsibility, and other emotions constructively?
- political: how do I address power relations (and that they might not be given and unchangeable) and encourage students to become agents of change?
- epistemological: how can I include pluralistic perspectives, other ways of knowing, seeing, interpreting, and how do I avoid going for a quick fix that doesn’t actually fix anything in the long run?
While using such a tool is obviously a lot more vague and challenging than following the learning outcomes suggested with the SDGs, it also opens up for much better outcomes.
The next chapter is by Lundegård on
Students as political subjects in discourses on sustainable development – a glimpse from Sarah’s classroom
The author suggests value-clarifying exercises to help students see that they always have choices, that there is no absolute right or wrong, and also let them become aware of the choices they do make without consciously reflecting about their values. In the example, students are instructed to read up on topics like climate change and gene technology, and present on it. They then present two conflicting options and ask their peers to position themselves in the room according to their opinions (“taking a stand”, a bit similar to sociometry, but potentially also with the option to opt out), and then articulate their arguments, elaborate on them, discuss, and maybe even change position at some point. All of these are helpful steps in encouraging students to “become someone” — letting themselves become visible in relation to a topic under debate. And when the topic is culturally (i.e. corresponding with other activities within society) and personally (meaningful for learners) authentic, then teaching is relevant for the here and now and these types of debate can last long beyond the end of a lesson.
The next chapter by Pernilla Andersson elaborates on methods for embodied experiences:
Embodied experiences of ‘decision- making’ in the face of uncertain and complex sustainability issues
In working for sustainability, we are faced with uncertainty and complexity in wicked problems where there are no guidelines for how to make the correct decision (and where there most likely isn’t even one). So how do we make decisions then, and how do we help students learn how to make decisions? A method described in this chapter is ‘Four Corners’, which lets students to experience the political dimension of sustainability issues:
- The teacher presents an issue and three pre-defined (reasonable, not obviously “wrong”) responses to it in three corners of the room, and an “open corner”
- Students individually and in silence pick the corner that most closely resembles their own opinion and then move there. The teacher has to make sure that everybody feels safe to express their opinions by moving, and in later steps by talking!
- Students can now explain why they chose a specific corner. The teacher needs to support and care for students who take social risks for example by standing alone in one corner, by for example providing arguments for that specific statement in that corner.
- If students now want to change corners after having listened to the other students’ arguments, they are welcome to do so, and to elaborate on what made them change their mind
Another method for embodied exploration of decision-making is “Forum Play”, a role play with these steps:
- Acquiring background knowledge and inspiration by engaging with real or constructed cases, media, documentaries, …
- Preparing a short play (5 minutes) that has an un-sustainable ending. The teacher can set the roles involved or suggest some. Students prepare by thinking about themselves in their role: who am I? Where? What do I want and why? How could I be convinced to change my behaviour?
- The play is then played once as prepared, and afterwards everybody reflected on what happened, why it was unsustainable, how could one or some of the roles have acted differently for a better outcome?
- Then, the play is re-played, except now the audience can say “stop” when something unsustainable happens and they have suggestions of how a role should act differently. They can either suggest that to the actor of the role, or step into that role themselves. This can happen repeatedly with different alternatives, and after each intervention there is a reflection on how it felt. If no suggestions come, the teacher can “freeze” the situation to give people time to think individually or in pairs, in order to find as many alternative suggestions as possible.
- After this, the played-out strategies are analysed in terms of how sustainable they were — according to students’ own definitions, or relevant conventions.
- Then, there can be a reflection on the ethics involved whenever someone said “stop”, and the new suggested strategies.
In some situations, it is not clear how to go on, and routines don’t work any more. Those moments can become traumatic (as someone loses trust in how things have always worked) but also freeing (since they gain a little independence from their socialisation). In those moments students have to rethink who they want to become, and that can be painful. The author suggests a didactic model for how to think about “business as un-usual”
- Emergence of a dislocatory moment: The teacher needs to realise they are happening (for example noting a trembling voice, or hesitation, or anger) to find out where exactly the confusion comes from. Which guiding principles don’t hold any more?
- Closure of a dislocatory moment: Does the student find other arguments, logics, … to cope?
- Change of guiding principles/logics: During this painful and exhausting step, the teacher needs to “stand by” the student and give them enough time to process. And maybe even follow up with them later and check in?
And with this, we have reached the book’s last chapter, by Tryggvason and Mårdh:
Political emotions in environmental and sustainability education
The authors define “political emotions” as those bodily experiences that a person is aware of, that deal with a) the us/them boundary and b) very different versions of what society should look like. In contrast to a diffuse mood, emotions are directed at someone.
As teachers, we need to deal with emotions that students experience in response to our teaching, and trying to suppress them is not a good idea. However, they can also not take over everything all the time, so what can we do? The authors suggest two strategies, simplification and circulation.
Simplification is a strategy for getting students into feeling their political emotions as to get students (more) engaged in discussions and possibly carrying them beyond the classroom. Simplification is really about reducing the complexity of the discussion by taking moves that simplify
- the conflict by drawing a line, thus creating two opposing positions of what different groups of people might want (for example, describing the Deepwater Horizon disaster as “accident” vs “environmental crime” as two main positions, in contrast to giving more nuances at this stage; or people vs profit as an either/or conflict, not “on the one hand, … on the other …”)
- the complexity by equalising differences, meaning rearranging perspectives so that they can be seen “as being of the same kind”, so if the teacher wants to talk about the Deepwater Horizon case as an accident, then it could be discussed together with other accidents. Whereas if it is to be seen as an environmental crime, other cases might be brought into the discussion based on that.
But of course, both those moves and more generally, what decisions a teacher makes, come down to the teacher’s values etc, and are in the end executing power over what opportunities for learning are presented to the students.
But there is this second strategy:
Circulation is a strategy for keeping students’ political emotions alive, to maintain and orient them into a direction that the teachers deep constructive for the discussion. Here, the author suggests two types of moves:
- Moves that confirm the intensity of students’ emotions, for example when there are positive emotions about solar power, pointing to when nuclear power plants failed.
- Moves that historicise students’ emotions and (re)orientate them toward other objects, by pointing out how we for example have become used to, and attached to, eating meat, but how a happy life could also be caused by eating something more sustainable. So the point here is that emotions towards objects are not static and natural, but have grown over time and can continue growing and changing in the future. This move really resonates with me!
And with this, we have read the whole book! Phew! Feels like an achievement, even though it was totally meaningful all the time, to the point where I kept reading despite a lot more important and urgent tasks piling up.
So my plan are two next steps, which I am sharing for accountability:
- Summarize this whole book in one blog post
- Reading another book on sustainability teaching that has been on my desk for far too long already, and writing summaries of that one, too
Van Poeck, K., Östman, L., & Öhman, J. (Eds.). (2019). Sustainable Development Teaching: Ethical and Political Challenges (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351124348
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If a member of your family has passed away and was in the military, they are eligible for military funeral honors. Military funeral services celebrate and recognize the contributions made by a serving or retired military person. As long as the service member was not dishonorably discharged or engaged in a capital offense, the service member’s rank or status on active duty is irrelevant.
An essential component of showing respect for deceased and retired military men and their families is awareness of how the American flag is utilized at funeral rituals. For a family going through one of their most challenging days, receiving these honors can mean the world.
Here’s everything you should know about flag etiquette at military funerals.
The History of Military Funeral Flags
The American Flag represents more than just lofty liberties and ardent patriotism. It is also a significant national expression of respect, admiration, gratitude, and appreciation for all members of the American armed forces, past and present, especially those who have made significant sacrifices for the country on the battlefield or in other contexts.
Flags play an important role in funeral ceremonies for deceased or honorably discharged warriors all around the world, and military funerals in the United States of America have traditionally included flags.
During the Napoleonic wars in the late 1700s, it became customary to drape an American flag over a deceased veteran. Flags were first used to cover them to make the dead on a battlefield easier for both sides to recognize. This custom is now used to remind surviving family members and friends of the deceased’s military service instead of being connected to battle.
Since the Napoleonic Wars, draping the veteran’s casket has become customary before presenting it to the surviving family members. When the American flag is folded, the stars point upward to serve as a visual reminder of the country’s slogan, “In God We Trust.”
“Military funeral celebration
The military burial flag ceremony represents the respect shown to both the living family and the deceased. The ceremony commemorates the sacrifice made by the family and the departed veteran for their country. The most prominent customs in a military burial service are as follows:
1. The military funeral flag is usually draped over the deceased’s coffin, its stars covering the side of the coffin closest to the left shoulder.
2. A horse-drawn caisson is used to transport the casket for specific members of certain ranks.
3. Three rifle volleys are fired once the casket arrives, signifying that their guns will no longer cause harm. Exactly three rounds are fired simultaneously.
4. Another custom is to play the Taps. A bugle call known as “The Taps” is usually performed around midnight.
5. The flag is removed from the coffin after the musical interlude, and a folding ceremony follows.
6. Each of the 13 folds on the military burial flag has a special significance. The flag is delivered to the military chaplain after being folded. The chaplain then goes to the relatives and offers the flag and condolences.
7. An officer will then bow down and say:
It is my great honor to give this flag to you as a representative of the U.S. service branch. Let it stand as a testament to how grateful this country is for the heroic service your loved one provided to us and our flag.
Etiquette for Military Funeral Flags
Below are the typical flag etiquettes for military funerals.
Covering the casket with the flag
Serving members and veterans who have passed away have a flag of the United States draped over their coffin in recognition of their service to the nation.
Only when used as a funeral cloth over the coffin of a veteran who has served the country honorably in uniform does the field of blue dress invert from left to right. The blue canton of the flag with the stars standing in for the states where our soldiers served in service is the part of the flag that symbolizes honor.
Casket and flag etiquette
The VA now specifies how the American flag ought to be flown when a deceased person is placed in a casket:
•Closed casket: The union (blue field) should be at the head and over the deceased’s left shoulder when the American flag is used to drape a closed casket. One may say that the departed person who served the flag in life is being embraced by the flag.
• Half couch casket: When the American flag is used to cover a half-couch coffin, it should be arranged in three layers such that the blue field is the top fold, adjacent to the open part of the coffin on the deceased’s left.
• Full couch casket: The flag should be folded into a triangle and put in the center of the head plate of the casket cap, right over the deceased’s left shoulder, when used to drape a full-couch casket.
In the case of cremation, the flag will be folded into the traditional triangle can be placed next to the cremated remains during a service.
Folding the flag
To conclude the ceremony, the flag is skillfully folded into the symbolic tricorner shape after the playing of Taps and handed over to the deceased’s next of kin as a memorial.
The guards make a total of 13 clean, accurate folds. Each of the 13 folds, like every other feature of our country’s most iconic image, has a specific meaning.
Although there are several stories as to why the flag is folded thirteen times, the flag-folding method’s origin and its date are unclear. While some accounts credit an Air Force chaplain stationed at the United States Air Force Academy, others credit the Gold Star Mothers of America. Some historians say it’s a tribute to the initial 13 colonies.
Here’s what each fold represents.
- The flag’s initial fold represents life.
- The second fold represents faith in everlasting life.
- The third fold is done in honor and memory of the veteran who is leaving the ranks and has sacrificed a part of their life to protect our nation and bring about world peace.
- The fourth fold symbolizes our weaker side; as Christians in America who put our faith in God, He is the one we look to for His heavenly direction both in peacetime and during times of war.
- The fifth fold pays homage to our nation. Stephen Decatur once said, “Our country may not always be correct in its dealing with other countries, but it’s still our country, whether right or wrong.”
- The sixth fold represents the location of our hearts. We firmly swear allegiance to the American flag and the republic it represents: a united, indivisible nation based on the principles of liberty and justice for all.
- The seventh fold is an homage to our armed services because it is through them that we defend our nation and our flag from all foes inside and beyond our republic’s borders.
- The eighth fold honors our mother, for whom it flies on Mother’s Day, and pays homage to the one who crossed over to the greater beyond so that we may see the light of day.
- The ninth fold is a celebration of female strength. The characteristics of the people (men and women) who have made this nation great have been shaped by their faith, love, loyalty, and commitment.
- The tenth fold is a homage to the father, who has contributed to his sons and daughters since they were born to defense the country.
- The 11th fold honors the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and represents the lower section of King David and Solomon’s seals.
- The 12th fold honors God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost by serving as an image of eternity.
- The stars are uppermost on the 13th and final fold, which serves as a visual reminder of our country’s slogan, “In God We Trust.”
When the flag is fully tucked in and folded, it resembles a cocked hat, constantly reminding us of the soldiers that served with Gen. George Washington as well as the sailors and Marines who served with Captain John Paul Jones, and their shipmates and comrades in the U.S. Armed Forces and who preserved the privileges, rights, and freedoms we have today.
Etiquette for a family presentation
Once properly folded into a triangle, the flag is presented to the deceased’s family on behalf of the nation and the U.S. President. This procedure is crucial to military honors.
These are the typical presentations for various military outfits.
• U.S. Air Force: “Please accept this flag as a token of our gratitudefor the honorable and devoted service of your loved one on behalf of the President, the United States Air Force Corps, and a grateful nation.”
• U.S. Army: “Please take this flag as a token of our gratitude for the honorable and devoted service of your loved one on behalf of the President, the United States Army, and a grateful nation.”
• U.S. Marine Corps: “Please take this flag as a token of our gratitude for the honorable and devoted service of your loved one on behalf of the President, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, and a grateful nation.”
• U.S. Navy: “Please take this flag as a token of our gratitude for the honorable and devoted service of your loved one on behalf of the President, the United States Navy, and a grateful nation.”
• U.S. Coast Guard: “Please take this flag as a token of our thanks for your loved one’s service to the country and the Coast Guard on behalf of the President, the Commandant of the Coast Guard, and a grateful nation.”
Note: Before 2012, the Department of Defense employed various funeral service languages for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. Since then, the language has been standardized. The U.S. Coast Guard has been requested to employ the same terminology.
Who receives the military funeral flag?
The flag is given to the deceased’s surviving family members at the funeral, specifically the next of kin. The family members are usually expected to preserve the flag after receiving it for indoor display in honor of the deceased. Some families donate or provide their flags for national veteran holidays like Memorial Day.
Selection of the next of kin
Active duty troops designate their next of kin prior to deployment, so there’s often no debate over who should receive the flag.
However, in a situation when the next of kin passes away before the service member, the flag will be given to the next person in the hierarchy:
1. The Spouse
2. Children, starting with the oldest.
3. Oldest guardian or parent
4. An adopted relative with legal custody
5. Oldest grandparent
Any relative or close friend can accept the flag in line with the deceased’s domicile certificate if none of these relatives are available.
Handling the memorial flag
Remembering a fallen service person by flying a memorial flag is different ways. Commemorative burial flags are frequently placed over the caskets of members of the armed forces who died in the line of duty, as mentioned above.
The flags are then taken off the casket and then folded to be given to the family right before burial. (It is crucial to note that burying the American flag is not permitted under congressional code, except when burning a damaged or torn flag would be impractical.
Generally, burning is the sole sanctioned method for getting rid of American flags, and it is formally mandated to happen at a ceremony for retiring the flag. Many Boy Scout troops educate their members to lead these ceremonies and organize them occasionally for people in their community who own old flags to dispose of.
The options for using the memorial flag are practically limitless once it has been folded into the customary triangle and given to a family. These flags are frequently placed on permanent display vase in a home or other public location, like an office or facility where the deceased had his or her headquarters. Still, they are often only flown again on extremely rare occasions out of respect for the deceased.
Typically, when displayed, they are put in wooden boxes with a plastic or glass protective covering built-in, giving the impression that the flag is being framed.
These funeral flag cases often include a silver or bronze plaque on top that is inscribed with the deceased person’s service dates and, perhaps, their favorite saying. They come with a side box where you can keep medals and other keepsakes.
Does the same military etiquette apply to police officers’ and emergency responders’ funerals?
Flag protocol at police officer funerals dates back to the American Civil War when soldiers who had served their country would join the local police department. So the flag etiquette for military funerals is commonly followed in funerals for police personnel.
When it comes to these procedures, the police chief typically has the last say. Similarly, firefighters and emergency medical technicians can use similar flag rituals at funerals. However, these customs are considerably more recent and are still developing.
Are flags used when letting the family know when a serving military officer dies?
Military personnel are in charge of breaking the terrible news when a life is lost in battle. The veteran’s relatives present the American flag when designated notifiers pay them a visit, saying, “Your son fought bravely.” “Please accept this on behalf of the president of the United States.”
The funeral service is then organized by the military in collaboration with the family and also includes a presentation of the military flag to the deceased’s heirs.
What are the rituals included in a veteran’s funeral?
Veterans who have passed away have a flag of the United States draped over their coffin in recognition of their service to the nation. The flag is skillfully folded into the symbolic tricorner shape after the playing of Taps. The next of kin are then given the folded flag as a souvenir.
Frequently asked questions about military funeral flags
What is the size of military funeral flags?
The military funeral flag is 5 feet by 9 feet in size, roughly twice as big as a typical home flag. The American flag is folded thirteen times into a triangle that is 24′′ (bottom) by 16-3/4′′ (diagonal) by 2-3/4′′ during the service, right after TAPS is played.
Who provides the flags?
Veterans who fulfill their service requirements are given flags by the V.A., provided they complete the appropriate forms and the processes of acquiring an American flag that meets military standards.
Regional VA offices and US Postal Service locations typically deliver these flags. However, they will only give one flag to each Veteran; hence, families who want more than one should speak with their nearby funeral home to buy more flags.
Could you open the flag?
Normally, you should maintain the flag folded. But it is perfectly acceptable to raise or fly the American flag, even during a funeral!
To do this, you must either display the flag flat on a wall or fly it correctly from outside a flagpole.
Can you fly the flag?
Legal and historical scholars have differing opinions on this issue. Some believe that once a flag is folded, it should stay that way, while others have come to the conclusion that it is a noble and patriotic manner to commemorate the life of the military service member. The subject is not addressed in the official flag code.
Again, although the flag code does not explicitly address the use of funeral flags, it does not restrict the flag from being unfurled and flown after the funeral service.
How do you fly a flag during a military funeral?
As was already indicated, you can hang the folded flag against a wall, fly it from a flagpole, or show it off in a case. The 5′ x 9.5′ flag should be flown from a flagpole that is at least 20 feet tall because it is much larger than most “home” flags.
You can also use the flag as a wall decoration. Decide whether to hang the flag vertically or horizontally. In either case, the viewer’s perspective calls for the stars to be in the upper-left corner of the flag.
How should I dispose of a surplus funeral flag?
There are several ways to contribute flags; alternatively, you might inquire with friends and relatives to see if they would like it. Ask questions at the American Legion, the Department of Veteran’s Affairs, or any other nearby veterans’ groups. Do not disrespect the flag in any way. Never forget the insignia that your loved one served under.
How do you apply for a flag?
You’ll have to fill out VA Form 27-2008, Application for United States Flag for Burial Purposes, to get a flag. A flag is available at any regional V.A. or U.S. Post Office. The funeral director will typically assist you in getting the flag.
Can a flagged be draped over the coffin of someone who didn’t serve in the military?
Any patriotic person is entitled to request and receive the same honor as military members by having a flag draped over their coffin. However, only individuals who have served in the military are given the flag at no cost. During the service, it would be advised to mention that the flag is draped over the coffin as a symbol of the deceased’s love for their country and patriotism.
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https://www.memorials.com/info/military-funeral-flag-etiquette/
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Voltairine de Cleyre
Anarchism and American Traditions
“Nature has the habit of now and then producing a type of human being far in advance of the times; an ideal for us to emulate; a being devoid of sham, uncompromising, and to whom the truth is sacred; a being whose selfishness is so large that it takes the whole human race and treats self only as one of the great mass; a being keen to sense all forms of wrong, and powerful in denunciation of it; one who can reach in the future and draw it nearer. Such a being was Voltairine de Cleyre.”
What could be added to this splendid tribute by Jay Fox to the memory of Voltairine de Cleyre?
The real biography of Voltairine de Cleyre is to be found in the letters she wrote to her comrades, friends and admires, for like many other women in public life, she was a voluminous writer.
Born shortly after the close of the Civil War, she witnessed during her life the most momentous transformation of the nation; she saw the change from an agricultural community into an industrial empire; the tremendous development of capital in this country with the accompanying misery and degradation of labor. Her life path was sketched when she reached the age of womanhood; she had to become a rebel! To stand outside of the struggle would have meant intellectual death. She chose the only way.
Voltairine de Cleyre was born on November 17, 1866, in the town of Leslie, Michigan. She died on June 6, 1912, in Chicago. She came from French-American stock on her father’s side, and of Puritan on her mother’s. Her father, Auguste de Cleyre, was a native of Western Flanders, but of French origin. Being a freethinker and a great admirer of Voltaire, he named his daughter Voltairine. She did not have a happy childhood; her earliest life was embittered by want of the common necessities, which her parents, hard as they tried, could not provide. A vein of sadness can be traced in her earliest poems — the songs of a child of talent and great fantasy.
Strength of mind did not seem to have been a characteristic of Auguste de Cleyre, for he recanted his libertarian ideas, returned to the fold of the church, and became obsessed with the idea that the highest vocation for a woman was the life of a nun; so he sent her to the Convent of Our Lady of Lake Huron at Sarnia, Province of Ontario, Canada. But Voltairine’s spirit could not be imprisoned in a convent. After she was there a few weeks she ran away. She crossed the river to Port Huron but as she had no money she started to walk home. After covering: seventeen miles, she realized that she could never do it; so she turned around and walked back, and entering the house of an acquaintance in Port Huron, asked for something to eat. They sent for her father who afterwards took her back to the convent. After a while, however, she again ran away, this time never to return.
Reaction from repression and the cruel discipline of the Catholic Church helped to develop Voltairine’s inherent tendency toward free thought; the five-fold murder of the labor leaders in Chicago in 1887 shocked her mind so deeply that from that moment dates her development toward Anarchism. When in 1886 the bomb fell in the Haymarket Square, and the Anarchists were arrested, Voltairine de Cleyre, who at that time was a free thought lecturer, shouted: “They ought to be hanged!” They were hanged, and now her body rests in Waldheim Cemetery, near the grave of those martyrs. Speaking at a memorial meeting in honor of those comrades, in 1901, she said: “For that ignorant, outrageous, blood-thirsty sentence I shall never forgive myself, though I know the dead men would have forgiven me, though I know those who loved them forgive me But my own voice, as it sounded that night, will sound so in my ears till I die — a bitter reproach and a shame I have only one word of extenuation for myself and the millions of others who did as I did that night — ignorance.”
She did not remain long in ignorance. In “The Making of an Anarchist,” she describes why she became a convert to the idea and why she entered the movement. “Till then,” she writes, “I believed in the essential Justice of the American law and trial by jury. After that I never could. The infamy of that trial has passed into history, and the question it awakened as to the possibility of Justice under law has passed into clamorous crying across the world.”
Voltairine spent the greater part of her life in Philadelphia. Here, among congenial friends, and later among the Jewish immigrants, she did her best work, producing an enormous amount. Her poems, sketches, propagandist articles and essays may be found in Open Court, Twentieth Century, Magazine of Poetry, Truth, Lucifer, Boston Investigator, Rights of Labor, Truth Seeker, Liberty, Chicago Liberal, Free Society, Mother Earth, and in The Independent.
In an exquisite tribute to her memory, Leonard D. Abbott calls Voltairine de Cleyre a priestess of Pity and of Vengeance, whose voice has a vibrant quality that is unique in literature. We are convinced that her writings will live as long as humanity exists.
* * * * *
Anarchism & American Traditions by Voltairine de Cleyre
American traditions, begotten of religious rebellion, small self-sustaining communities, isolated conditions, and hard pioneer life, grew during the colonization period of one hundred and seventy years from the settling of Jamestown to the outburst of the Revolution. This was in fact the great constitution-making epoch, the period of charters guaranteeing more or less of liberty, the general tendency of which is well described by Wm. Penn in speaking of the charter for Pennsylvania: “I want to put it out of my power, or that of my successors, to do mischief.”
The revolution is the sudden and unified consciousness of these traditions, their loud assertion, the blow dealt by their indomitable will against the counter force of tyranny, which has never entirely recovered from the blow, but which from then till now has gone on remolding and regrappling the instruments of governmental power, that the Revolution sought to shape and hold as defenses of liberty.
To the average American of today, the Revolution means the series of battles fought by the patriot army with the armies of England. The millions of school children who attend our public schools are taught to draw maps of the siege of Boston and the siege of Yorktown, to know the general plan of the several campaigns, to quote the number of prisoners of war surrendered with Burgoyne; they are required to remember the date when Washington crossed the Delaware on the ice; they are told to “Remember Paoli,” to repeat “Molly Stark’s a widow,” to call General Wayne “Mad Anthony Wayne,” and to execrate Benedict Arnold; they know that the Declaration of Independence was signed on the Fourth of July, 1776, and the Treaty of Paris in 1783; and then they think they have learned the Revolution — blessed be George Washington! They have no idea why it should have been called a “revolution” instead of the “English War,” or any similar title: it’s the name of it, that’s all. And name-worship, both in child and man, has acquired such mastery of them, that the name “American Revolution” is held sacred, though it means to them nothing more than successful force, while the name “Revolution” applied to a further possibility, is a spectre detested and abhorred. In neither case have they any idea of the content of the word, save that of armed force. That has already happened, and long happened, which Jefferson foresaw when he wrote:
“The spirit of the times may alter, will alter. Our rulers will become corrupt, our people careless. A single zealot may become persecutor, and better men be his victims. It can never be too often repeated that the time for fixing every essential right, on a legal basis, is while our rulers are honest, ourselves united. From the conclusion of this war we shall be going down hill. It will not then be necessary to resort every moment to the people for support. They will be forgotten, therefore, and their rights disregarded. They will forget themselves in the sole faculty of making money, and will never think of uniting to effect a due respect for their rights. The shackles, therefore, which shall not be knocked off at the conclusion of this war, will be heavier and heavier, till our rights shall revive or expire in a convulsion.”
To the men of that time, who voiced the spirit of that time, the battles that they fought were the least of the Revolution; they were the incidents of the hour, the things they met and faced as part of the game they were playing; but the stake they had in view, before, during, and after the war, the real Revolution, was a change in political institutions which should make of government not a thing apart, a superior power to stand over the people with a whip, but a serviceable agent, responsible, economical, and trustworthy (but never so much trusted as not to be continually watched), for the transaction of such business as was the common concern and to set the limits of the common concern at the line of where one man’s liberty would encroach upon another’s.
They thus took their starting point for deriving a minimum of government upon the same sociological ground that the modern Anarchist derives the no-government theory; viz., that equal liberty is the political ideal. The difference lies in the belief, on the one hand, that the closest approximation to equal liberty might be best secured by the rule of the majority in those matters involving united action of any kind (which rule of the majority they thought it possible to secure by a few simple arrangements for election), and, on the other hand, the belief that majority rule is both impossible and undesirable; that any government, no matter what its forms, will be manipulated by a very small minority, as the development of the States and United States governments has strikingly proved; that candidates will loudly profess allegiance to platforms before elections, which as officials in power they will openly disregard, to do as they please; and that even if the majority will could be imposed, it would also be subversive of equal liberty, which may be best secured by leaving to the voluntary association of those interested in the management of matters of common concern, without coercion of the uninterested or the opposed.
Among the fundamental likeness between the Revolutionary Republicans and the Anarchists is the recognition that the little must precede the great; that the local must be the basis of the general; that there can be a free federation only when there are free communities to federate; that the spirit of the latter is carried into the councils of the former, and a local tyranny may thus become an instrument for general enslavement. Convinced of the supreme importance of ridding the municipalities of the institutions of tyranny, the most strenuous advocates of independence, instead of spending their efforts mainly in the general Congress, devoted themselves to their home localities, endeavoring to work out of the minds of their neighbors and fellow-colonists the institutions of entailed property, of a State-Church, of a class-divided people, even the institution of African slavery itself. Though largely unsuccessful, it is to the measure of success they did achieve that we are indebted for such liberties as we do retain, and not to the general government. They tried to inculcate local initiative and independent action. The author of the Declaration of Independence, who in the fall of ’76 declined a re-election to Congress in order to return to Virginia and do his work in his own local assembly, in arranging there for public education which he justly considered a matter of “common concern,” said his advocacy of public schools was not with any “view to take its ordinary branches out of the hands of private enterprise, which manages so much better the concerns to which it is equal”; and in endeavoring to make clear the restrictions of the Constitution upon the functions of the general government, he likewise said:
“Let the general government be reduced to foreign concerns only, and let our affairs be disentangled from those of all other nations, except as to commerce, which the merchants will manage for themselves, and the general government may be reduced to a very simple organization, and a very inexpensive one; a few plain duties to be performed by a few servants.”
This then was the American tradition, that private enterprise manages better all that to which it IS equal. Anarchism declares that private enterprise, whether individual or cooperative, is equal to all the undertakings of society. And it quotes the particular two instances, Education and Commerce, which the governments of the States and of the United States have undertaken to manage and regulate, as the very two which in operation have done more to destroy American freedom and equality, to warp and distort American tradition, to make of government a mighty engine of tyranny, than any other cause, save the unforeseen developments of Manufacture.
It was the intention of the Revolutionists to establish a system of common education, which should make the teaching of history one of its principal branches; not with the intent of burdening the memories of our youth with the dates of battles or the speeches of generals, nor to make the Boston Tea Party Indians the one sacrosanct mob in all history, to be revered but never on any account to be imitated, but with the intent that every American should know to what conditions the masses of people had been brought by the operation of certain institutions, by what means they had wrung out their liberties, and how those liberties had again and again been filched from them by the use of governmental force, fraud, and privilege. Not to breed security, laudation, complacent indolence, passive acquiescence in the acts of a government protected by the label “home-made,” but to beget a wakeful jealousy, a never-ending watchfulness of rulers, a determination to squelch every attempt of those entrusted with power to encroach upon the sphere of individual action — this was the prime motive of the revolutionists in endeavoring to provide for common education.
“Confidence,” said the revolutionists who adopted the Kentucky Resolutions, “is everywhere the parent of despotism; free government is founded in jealousy, not in confidence; it is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited constitutions to bind down those whom we are obliged to trust with power; our Constitution has accordingly fixed the limits to which, and no further, our confidence may go... In questions of power, let no more be heard of confidence in man, but bind him down from mischief by the chains of the Constitution.”
These resolutions were especially applied to the passage of the Alien laws by the monarchist party during John Adams’ administration, and were an indignant call from the State of Kentucky to repudiate the right of the general government to assume undelegated powers, for said they, to accept these laws would be “to be bound by laws made, not with our consent, but by others against our consent — that is, to surrender the form of government we have chosen, and to live under one deriving its powers from its own will, and not from our authority.” Resolutions identical in spirit were also passed by Virginia, the following month; in those days the States still considered themselves supreme, the general government subordinate.
To inculcate this proud spirit of the supremacy of the people over their governors was to be the purpose of public education! Pick up today any common school history, and see how much of this spirit you will find therein. On the contrary, from cover to cover you will find nothing but the cheapest sort of patriotism, the inculcation of the most unquestioning acquiescence in the deeds of government, a lullaby of rest, security, confidence — the doctrine that the Law can do no wrong, a Te Deum in praise of the continuous encroachments of the powers of the general government upon the reserved rights of the States, shameless falsification of all acts of rebellion, to put the government in the right and the rebels in the wrong, pyrotechnic glorifications of union, power, and force, and a complete ignoring of the essential liberties to maintain which was the purpose of the revolutionists. The anti-Anarchist law of post-McKinley passage, a much worse law than the Alien and Sedition acts which roused the wrath of Kentucky and Virginia to the point of threatened rebellion, is exalted as a wise provision of our All-Seeing Father in Washington.
Such is the spirit of government-provided schools. Ask any child what he knows about Shays’ rebellion, and he will answer, “Oh, some of the farmers couldn’t pay their taxes, and Shays led a rebellion against the court-house at Worcester, so they could burn up the deeds; and when Washington heard of it he sent over an army quick and taught ’em a good lesson” — “And what was the result of it?” “The result? Why — why — the result was — Oh yes, I remember — the result was they saw the need of a strong federal government to collect the taxes and pay the debts.” Ask if he knows what was said on the other side of the story, ask if he knows that the men who had given their goods and their health and their strength for the freeing of the country now found themselves cast into prison for debt, sick, disabled, and poor, facing a new tyranny for the old; that their demand was that the land should become the free communal possession of those who wished to work it, not subject to tribute, and the child will answer “No.” Ask him if he ever read Jefferson’s letter to Madison about it, in which he says:
“Societies exist under three forms, sufficiently distinguishable.
Without government, as among our Indians.
Under government wherein the will of every one has a just influence; as is the case in England in a slight degree, and in our States in a great one.
Under government of force, as is the case in all other monarchies, and in most of the other republics.
To have an idea of the curse of existence in these last, they must be seen. It is a government of wolves over sheep. It is a problem not clear in my mind that the first condition is not the best. But I believe it to be inconsistent with any great degree of population. The second state has a great deal of good in it...It has its evils too, the principal of which is the turbulence to which it is subject. ...But even this evil is productive of good. It prevents the degeneracy of government, and nourishes a general attention to public affairs. I hold that a little rebellion now and then is a good thing.”
Or to another correspondent:
“God forbid that we should ever be twenty years without such a rebellion!...What country can preserve its liberties if its rulers are not warned from time to time that the people preserve the spirit of resistance? Let them take up arms... The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.”
Ask any school child if he was ever taught that the author of the Declaration of Independence, one of the great founders of the common school, said these things, and he will look at you with open mouth and unbelieving eyes. Ask him if he ever heard that the man who sounded the bugle note in the darkest hour of the Crisis, who roused the courage of the soldiers when Washington saw only mutiny and despair ahead, ask him if he knows that this man also wrote, “Government at best is a necessary evil, at worst an intolerable one,” and if he is a little better informed than the average he will answer, “Oh well, he [Tom Paine] was an infidel!” Catechize him about the merits of the Constitution which he has learned to repeat like a poll-parrot, and you will find his chief conception is not of the powers withheld from Congress, but of the powers granted.
Such are the fruits of government schools. We, the Anarchists, point to them and say: If the believers in liberty wish the principles of liberty taught, let them never entrust that instruction to any government; for the nature of government is to become a thing apart, an institution existing for its own sake, preying upon the people, and teaching whatever will tend to keep it secure in its seat. As the fathers said of the governments of Europe, so say we of this government also after a century and a quarter of independence: “The blood of the people has become its inheritance, and those who fatten on it will not relinquish it easily.”
Public education, having to do with the intellect and spirit of a people, is probably the most subtle and far-reaching engine for molding the course of a nation; but commerce, dealing as it does with material things and producing immediate effects, was the force that bore down soonest upon the paper barriers of constitutional restriction, and shaped the government to its requirements. Here, indeed, we arrive at the point where we, looking over the hundred and twenty five years of independence, can see that the simple government conceived by the revolutionary republicans was a foredoomed failure. It was so because of:
the essence of government itself;
the essence of human nature
the essence of Commerce and Manufacture.
Of the essence of government, I have already said, it is a thing apart, developing its own interests at the expense of what opposes it; all attempts to make it anything else fail. In this Anarchists agree with the traditional enemies of the Revolution, the monarchists, federalists, strong government believers, the Roosevelts of today, the Jays, Marshalls, and Hamiltons of then — that Hamilton, who, as Secretary of the Treasury, devised a financial system of which we are the unlucky heritors, and whose objects were twofold: To puzzle the people and make public finance obscure to those that paid for it; to serve as a machine for corrupting the legislatures; “for he avowed the opinion that man could be governed by two motives only, force or interest”; force being then out of the question, he laid hold of interest, the greed of the legislators, to set going an association of persons having an entirely separate welfare from the welfare of their electors, bound together by mutual corruption and mutual desire for plunder. The Anarchist agrees that Hamilton was logical, and understood the core of government; the difference is, that while strong governmentalists believe this is necessary and desirable, we choose the opposite conclusion, No Government Whatsoever.
As to the essence of human nature, what our national experience has made plain is this, that to remain in a continually exalted moral condition is not human nature. That has happened which was prophesied: we have gone down hill from the Revolution until now; we are absorbed in “mere money-getting.” The desire for material east long ago vanquished the spirit of ’76. What was that spirit? The spirit that animated the people of Virginia, of the Carolinas, of Massachusetts, of New York, when they refused to import goods from England; when they preferred (and stood by it) to wear coarse, homespun cloth, to drink the brew of their own growths, to fit their appetites to the home supply, rather than submit to the taxation of the imperial ministry. Even within the lifetime of the revolutionists, the spirit decayed. The love of material ease has been, in the mass of men and permanently speaking, always greater than the love of liberty. Nine hundred and ninety nine women out of a thousand are more interested in the cut of a dress than in the independence of their sex; nine hundred and ninety nine men out of a thousand are more interested in drinking a glass of beer than in questioning the tax that is laid on it; how many children are not willing to trade the liberty to play for the promise of a new cap or a new dress? That it is which begets the complicated mechanism of society; that it is which, by multiplying the concerns of government, multiplies the strength of government and the corresponding weakness of the people; this it is which begets indifference to public concern, thus making the corruption of government easy.
As to the essence of Commerce and Manufacture, it is this: to establish bonds between every corner of the earths surface and every other corner, to multiply the needs of mankind, and the desire for material possession and enjoyment.
The American tradition was the isolation of the States as far as possible. Said they: We have won our liberties by hard sacrifice and struggle unto death. We wish now to be let alone and to let others alone, that our principles may have time for trial; that we may become accustomed to the exercise of our rights; that we may be kept free from the contaminating influence of European gauds, pageants, distinctions. So richly did they esteem the absence of these that they could in all fervor write: “We shall see multiplied instances of Europeans coming to America, but no man living will ever seen an instance of an American removing to settle in Europe, and continuing there.” Alas! In less than a hundred years the highest aim of a “Daughter of the Revolution” was, and is, to buy a castle, a title, and rotten lord, with the money wrung from American servitude! And the commercial interests of America are seeking a world empire!
In the earlier days of the revolt and subsequent independence, it appeared that the “manifest destiny” of America was to be an agricultural people, exchanging food stuffs and raw materials for manufactured articles. And in those days it was written: “We shall be virtuous as long as agriculture is our principal object, which will be the case as long as there remain vacant lands in any part of America. When we get piled upon one another in large cities, as in Europe, we shall become corrupt as in Europe, and go to eating one another as they do there.” Which we are doing, because of the inevitable development of Commerce and Manufacture, and the concomitant development of strong government. And the parallel prophecy is likewise fulfilled: “If ever this vast country is brought under a single government, it will be one of the most extensive corruption, indifferent and incapable of a wholesome care over so wide a spread of surface.” There is not upon the face of the earth today a government so utterly and shamelessly corrupt as that of the United States of America. There are others more cruel, more tyrannical, more devastating; there is none so utterly venal.
And yet even in the very days of the prophets, even with their own consent, the first concession to this later tyranny was made. It was made when the Constitution was made; and the Constitution was made chiefly because of the demands of Commerce. Thus it was at the outset a merchant’s machine, which the other interests of the country, the land and labor interests, even then foreboded would destroy their liberties. In vain their jealousy of its central power made enact the first twelve amendments. In vain they endeavored to set bounds over which the federal power dare not trench. In vain they enacted into general law the freedom of speech, of the press, of assemblage and petition. All of these things we see ridden roughshod upon every day, and have so seen with more or less intermission since the beginning of the nineteenth century. At this day, every police lieutenant considers himself, and rightly so, as more powerful than the General Law of the Union; and that one who told Robert Hunter that he held in his fist something stronger than the Constitution, was perfectly correct. The right of assemblage is an American tradition which has gone out of fashion; the police club is now the mode. And it is so in virtue of the people’s indifference to liberty, and the steady progress of constitutional interpretation towards the substance of imperial government.
It is an American tradition that a standing army is a standing menace to liberty; in Jefferson’s presidency the army was reduced to 3,000 men. It is American tradition that we keep out of the affairs of other nations. It is American practice that we meddle with the affairs of everybody else from the West to the East Indies, from Russia to Japan; and to do it we have a standing army of 83,251 men.
It is American tradition that the financial affairs of a nation should be transacted on the same principles of simple honesty that an individual conducts his own business; viz., that debt is a bad thing, and a man’s first surplus earning should be applied to his debts; that offices and office holders should be few. It is American practice that the general government should always have millions [of dollars] of debt, even if a panic or a war has to be forced to prevent its being paid off; and as to the application of its income office holders come first. And within the last administration it is reported that 99,000 offices have been created at an annual expense of 1663,000,000. Shades of Jefferson! “How are vacancies to be obtained? Those by deaths are few; by resignation none.” [Theodore] Roosevelt cuts the knot by making 99,000 new ones! And few will die — and none resign. They will beget sons and daughters, and Taft will have to create 99,000 more! Verily a simple and a serviceable thing is our general government.
It is American tradition that the Judiciary shall act as a check upon the impetuosity of Legislatures, should these attempt to pass the bounds of constitutional limitation. It is American practice that the Judiciary justifies every law which trenches on the liberties of the people and nullifies every act of the Legislature by which the people seek to regain some measure of their freedom. Again, in the words of Jefferson: “The Constitution is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the Judiciary, which they may twist and shape in any form they please.” Truly, if the men who fought the good fight for the triumph of simple, honest, free life in that day, were now to look upon the scene of their labors, they would cry out together with him who said:
“I regret that I am now to die in the belief that the useless sacrifices of themselves by the generation of ’76 to acquire self-government and happiness to their country, is to be thrown away by the unwise and unworthy passions of their sons, and that my only consolation is to be that I shall not live to see it.”
And now, what has Anarchism to say to all this, this bankruptcy of republicanism, this modern empire that has grown up on the ruins of our early freedom? We say this, that the sin our fathers sinned was that they did not trust liberty wholly. They thought it possible to compromise between liberty and government, believing the latter to be “a necessary evil,” and the moment the compromise was made, the whole misbegotten monster of our present tyranny began to grow. Instruments which are set up to safeguard rights become the very whip with which the free are struck.
Anarchism says, Make no laws whatever concerning speech, and speech will be free; so soon as you make a declaration on paper that speech shall be free, you will have a hundred lawyers proving that “freedom does not mean abuse, nor liberty license”; and they will define and define freedom out of existence. Let the guarantee of free speech be in every man’s determination to use it, and we shall have no need of paper declarations. On the other hand, so long as the people do not care to exercise their freedom, those who wish to tyrannize will do so; for tyrants are active and ardent, and will devote themselves in the name of any number of gods, religious and otherwise, to put shackles upon sleeping men.
The problem then becomes, Is it possible to stir men from their indifference? We have said that the spirit of liberty was nurtured by colonial life; that the elements of colonial life were the desire for sectarian independence, and the jealous watchfulness incident thereto; the isolation of pioneer communities which threw each individual strongly on his own resources, and thus developed all-around men, yet at the same time made very strong such social bonds as did exist; and, lastly, the comparative simplicity of small communities.
All this has disappeared. As to sectarianism, it is only by dint of an occasional idiotic persecution that a sect becomes interesting; in the absence of this, outlandish sects play the fool’s role, are anything but heroic, and have little to do with either the name or the substance of liberty. The old colonial religious parties have gradually become the “pillars of society,” their animosities have died out, their offensive peculiarities have been effaced, they are as like one another as beans in a pod, they build churches — and sleep in them.
As to our communities, they are hopelessly and helplessly interdependent, as we ourselves are, save that continuously diminishing proportion engaged in all around farming; and even these are slaves to mortgages. For our cities, probably there is not one that is provisioned to last a week, and certainly there is none which would not be bankrupt with despair at the proposition that it produce its own food. In response to this condition and its correlative political tyranny, Anarchism affirms the economy of self-sustenance, the disintegration of the great communities, the use of the earth.
I am not ready to say that I see clearly that this will take place; but I see clearly that this must take place if ever again men are to be free. I am so well satisfied that the mass of mankind prefer material possessions to liberty, that I have no hope that they will ever, by means of intellectual or moral stirrings merely, throw off the yoke of oppression fastened on them by the present economic system, to institute free societies. My only hope is in the blind development of the economic system and political oppression itself. The great characteristic looming factor in this gigantic power is Manufacture. The tendency of each nation is to become more and more a manufacturing one, an exporter of fabrics, not an importer. If this tendency follows its own logic, it must eventually circle round to each community producing for itself. What then will become of the surplus product when the manufacturer shall have no foreign market? Why, then mankind must face the dilemma of sitting down and dying in the midst of it, or confiscating the goods.
Indeed, we are partially facing this problem even now; and so far we are sitting down and dying. I opine, however, that men will not do it forever, and when once by an act of general expropriation they have overcome the reverence and fear of property, and their awe of government, they may waken to the consciousness that things are to be used, and therefore men are greater than things. This may rouse the spirit of liberty.
If, on the other hand, the tendency of invention to simplify, enabling the advantages of machinery to be combined with smaller aggregations of workers, shall also follow its own logic, the great manufacturing plants will break up, population will go after the fragments, and there will be seen not indeed the hard, self-sustaining, isolated pioneer communities of early America, but thousands of small communities stretching along the lines of transportation, each producing very largely for its own needs, able to rely upon itself, and therefore able to be independent. For the same rule holds good for societies as for individuals — those may be free who are able to make their own living.
In regard to the breaking up of that vilest creation of tyranny, the standing army and navy, it is clear that so long as men desire to fight, they will have armed force in one form or another. Our fathers thought they had guarded against a standing army by providing for the voluntary militia. In our day we have lived to see this militia declared part of the regular military force of the United States, and subject to the same demands as the regulars. Within another generation we shall probably see its members in the regular pay of the general government. Since any embodiment of the fighting spirit, any military organization, inevitably follows the same line of centralization, the logic of Anarchism is that the least objectionable form of armed force is that which springs up voluntarily, like the minute men of Massachusetts, and disbands as soon as the occasion which called it into existence is past: that the really desirable thing is that all men — not Americans only — should be at peace; and that to reach this, all peaceful persons should withdraw their support from the army, and require that all who make war shall do so at their own cost and risk; that neither pay nor pensions are to be provided for those who choose to make man-killing a trade.
As to the American tradition of non-meddling, Anarchism asks that it be carried down to the individual himself. It demands no jealous barrier of isolation; it knows that such isolation is undesirable and impossible; but it teaches that by all men’s strictly minding their own business, a fluid society, freely adapting itself to mutual needs, wherein all the world shall belong to all men, as much as each has need or desire, will result.
And when Modern Revolution has thus been carried to the heart of the whole world — if it ever shall be, as I hope it will — then may we hope to see a resurrection of that proud spirit of our fathers which put the simple dignity of Man above the gauds of wealth and class, and held that to, be an American was greater than to be a king.
In that day there shall be neither kings nor Americans — only Men ; over the whole earth, Men.
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Ehud was a judge and deliverer of Israel who saved the Israelites from oppression by the Moabites. Here is what the Bible tells us about Ehud:
Ehud was a left-handed man from the tribe of Benjamin (Judges 3:15). During Israel’s subjection to Eglon the king of Moab, Ehud was chosen to deliver a tribute to Eglon. Ehud made a double-edged sword about a cubit (18 inches) long and strapped it to his right thigh under his clothes. After delivering the tribute, Ehud told Eglon he had a secret message for him. Eglon dismissed his attendants and Ehud said, “I have a message from God for you.” As Eglon rose from his seat, Ehud reached with his left hand and took the sword from his right thigh and stabbed Eglon in the belly. The sword went so deep that even the handle sank in and the fat closed over the blade. Ehud left the sword in Eglon’s belly and locked the doors of the roof chamber as he left.
Ehud escaped to Seirah while Eglon’s servants waited outside the locked doors, assuming Eglon was relieving himself. Finally the servants took the key and opened the doors to find their king dead. During that time, Ehud passed by the idols and escaped to Seirah in the hill country of Ephraim.
When Ehud returned, he led the Israelites to capture the fords of the Jordan leading to Moab and prevented anyone from crossing. They struck down about ten thousand Moabites, securing peace for Israel for eighty years (Judges 3:12-30).
From this account, we learn a few things about Ehud:
1. He was from the tribe of Benjamin, known for being fierce warriors (Genesis 49:27).
2. He was left-handed, which made it easier for him to conceal a sword on his right thigh without the guards noticing. This also surprised Eglon when Ehud stabbed him.
3. Ehud was clever in how he gained a private audience with Eglon and assassinated him before making his escape.
4. God used Ehud’s slyness and willingness to deliver Israel from oppression by their enemies. Ehud responded in faith to God’s calling to save his people.
5. Ehud inspired and led the Israelites to decisively defeat the Moabites who had been oppressing them for 18 years. This gave Israel peace for 80 years.
6. Ehud’s legacy was that of a deliverer raised up by God to save Israel in a time of distress and lead them to victory over their enemies when they cried out for help.
In summary, Ehud was an unlikely hero whom God empowered and used in a mighty way to rescue His people from bondage. Though left-handed and seemingly at a physical disadvantage, Ehud stepped out in faith and allowed God to work through him. The Bible upholds Ehud as a prime example of how God can use anyone with a willing heart to accomplish His purposes and be an instrument of deliverance. Ehud answered the call and made his life count for God’s glory.
Ehud’s story is a testament to how God equips the humble and uses the unlikely. It is both an inspiration and a challenge to be ready to step out in faith when God calls us to courageously advance His kingdom. Like Ehud, we may feel ill-prepared or incapable, but God sees beyond outward appearances. If we wholly trust and obey Him, He will use us in ways we cannot imagine. Ehud’s exemplary faith, valor, and willingness to follow God’s direction provide an outstanding model to emulate.
The account of Ehud reminds us that anyone can be a hero in God’s story. His calling goes far beyond human qualifications. When we make ourselves available to the Lord, He can embolden and strengthen us to rise above our fears and perceived limitations. Ehud’s life inspires everyone with a heart for God to believe that He can work powerfully through them. We may feel common or inadequate, but the Almighty delights in using the weak to accomplish the extraordinary and receive all the glory.
Like Ehud, even the most unlikely person faithfully answering God’s call can courageously execute His purposes and be used mightily to advance His kingdom. As vessels yielded to divine hands, the story of Ehud compels us to trust that God can make the weak strong, turning unassuming heroes into deliverers for His people and champions of the faith. May Ehud’s story stir our hearts to bravely follow God’s direction and believe that He desires to work mightily through anyone who wholly trusts in Him.
Additional Details on Ehud’s Story
Here are some additional details that the Bible provides about Ehud’s story:
– Ehud was the son of Gera from the tribe of Benjamin (Judges 3:15). Benjamin was known for producing fierce warriors (Genesis 49:27) which helps explain Ehud’s fighting skills.
– Eglon the king of Moab had allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites to capture the City of Palms and conquer Israel (Judges 3:12-13). Their domination lasted 18 years indicating Israel’s oppression under Moabite rule.
– Ehud crafted a 18-inch double-edged sword specially designed for the assassination. Being left-handed gave him the advantage of stealth and surprise in wielding the sword strapped to his right thigh (Judges 3:16).
– After delivering Israel’s tribute payment, Ehud invented a pretense to return and gain a private audience with Eglon claiming he had a “secret message” for him (Judges 3:19). This was part of his clever plan.
– Ehud told Eglon, “I have a message from God for you.” This statement likely referenced a divine revelation or prophecy Ehud received about assassinating Eglon.
– As Eglon rose from his seat, Ehud reached with his left hand to draw the sword from his right thigh stabbing Eglon in his ample belly (Judges 3:21-22).
– Ehud plunged the sword so deep that the handle sank into Eglon’s belly and the fat closed over the blade so he couldn’t remove it (Judges 3:22). This ensured Eglon’s death.
– After locking the doors to Eglon’s roof chamber, Ehud quietly passed by the Moabite idols escaping safely to Seirah in the hill country of Ephraim (Judges 3:26-27).
– Ehud then rallied the Israelites to seize control of the fords of the Jordan which cut off Moabite reinforcements. This let Israel take the upper hand militarily (Judges 3:27-28).
– The Israelites struck down about ten thousand Moabite soldiers securing peace and rest for the land of Israel for eighty years (Judges 3:29-30).
These extra scriptural insights help provide context and details surrounding Ehud’s successful mission to assassinate Eglon and save Israel from oppression under Moabite rule. God equipped and empowered this left-handed judge to bravely deliver His people in their time of need.
Ehud’s Character and Leadership as a Judge of Israel
Ehud’s selection as a judge of Israel and the manner in which he delivered the Israelites from their enemies reveal key aspects of his character and leadership:
Courage – Ehud demonstrated courage in how he devised the plan to assassinate Eglon and executed it without flinching despite the danger. This courage stemmed from his confidence in God’s calling.
Ingenuity – Ehud revealed cleverness and ingenuity in how he designed the concealed sword, gained access to Eglon, and escaped safely after the assassination.
Boldness – Ehud acted decisively and boldly plunged the sword into Eglon showing no hesitation. His boldness inspired the Israelites in battle.
Faith – Ehud stepped out in faith believing God empowered him as a deliverer. His faith overcame self-doubt and led to God’s promised deliverance.
Humility – Ehud readily accepted this difficult assignment from God despite seeming unqualified as left-handed and from the smallest tribe.
Obedience – Ehud obeyed the Lord’s instructions completely which was key to the mission’s success. His example spurred Israel’s obedience.
Leadership – Ehud rallied and led Israel in securing victory after the assassination. His leadership fostered peace and rest for the land.
Wisdom – Ehud carefully planned and carried out the assassination while managing its aftermath to protect Israel. This revealed his wisdom.
Tenacity – In the face of great odds Ehud tenaciously accomplished his mission while refusing to quit or compromise.
Patriotism – Ehud’s passion to save Israel from Moabite domination drove his zeal to deliver them at all costs.
Ehud’s blend of courage, ingenuity, boldness, faith, humility, obedience, leadership, wisdom, tenacity, and patriotism offer an outstanding example for all who desire to serve God’s purposes. His character strengths overcame his limitations. Ehud inspires us to rise above our inadequacies and answer God’s call.
Parallels Between Ehud and Christ
While Ehud and Jesus served very different purposes, several aspects of Ehud’s story contain parallels or foreshadowings of Christ:
– Ehud’s left-handedness made him an unlikely hero parallel to perceptions of Jesus as an unlikely Messiah. God uses the unexpected.
– Ehud laid down his life risking death to save Israel just as Christ sacrificed himself to save people from their sins.
– The sword piercing Eglon’s belly foreshadowed the sword that would pierce Christ’s side at His crucifixion.
– Ehud sounded the trumpet rallying Israel after Eglon’s death just as Christ’s resurrection represents a trumpet call rallying believers.
– Ehud leading Israel to victory over Moab parallels Christ leading believers to ultimate victory over Satan, sin and death.
– Peace followed Ehud’s deliverance of Israel just as Christ’s sacrifice brings peace between man and God.
However key differences exist – Ehud delivered through physical death whereas Christ overcomes through spiritual life. Ehud rescued Israel temporarily but Christ eternally. Ehud executed God’s judgment but Christ took that judgment upon Himself on our behalf.
While Ehud reflected traits that would characterize the coming Messiah, ultimately all honor is due to Jesus who offers the perfect sacrifice and eternal deliverance that Ehud merely foreshadowed for a time. Any similarities serve to exalt Christ and reveal how the Old Testament prepared the way for the fulfillment found in Him alone.
Lessons We Can Learn from Ehud
The account of Ehud provides several important lessons for our lives today:
1. God can use anyone – Ehud’s left-handedness made him an unlikely choice but God empowered him. We should never limit who God can use.
2. Obedience brings deliverance – Ehud’s obedience to assassinate Eglon led to Israel’s deliverance from oppression. Our obedience positions God to work.
3. Faith defeats fear – Ehud courageously confronted his assignment despite the risk. With faith in God, we can act boldly.
4. Deliverance requires action – Ehud devised and executed the plan for Israel’s deliverance. We must combine trust and action.
5. Be ready when God calls – Ehud was ready to deliver Israel when opportunity arose. We must prepare for divine opportunities.
6. Use what God has given – Ehud employed his left-handedness. We should use all God has equipped us with for His glory.
7. God’s power in our weakness – God used Ehud despite his limitations. His strength is made perfect in our weaknesses.
8. Small things bring great victories – Ehud’s small concealed sword enabled a great victory. God uses small acts of faithful obedience to accomplish big things.
9. Trust divine strategies – Ehud implemented God’s strategy despite looking foolish. God’s ways often appear foolish from a human perspective.
10. God rewards courageous obedience – Ehud was courageous and obedient to God’s directives, resulting in reward and impact for good. When we follow God’s leading, He promises to reward our faith and use us for His purposes.
Ehud’s story offers encouragement, wisdom, and inspiration for our walk with God today. As we reflect on his example, we can learn important spiritual lessons that help us live out our faith with courage, trust, obedience, and readiness to answer God’s call.
How Ehud Points Us to Christ
While Ehud lived centuries before Christ, there are aspects of his life and legacy that symbolically point us to Jesus:
– Ehud’s willingness to risk his life to liberate Israel from oppression foreshadows Christ’s willingness to die to free humankind from sin’s oppression.
– Eglon’s death at Ehud’s hand pictures the death blow Christ dealt to Satan’s power through His sacrificial death and resurrection.
– Ehud sounded the trumpet of victory after Eglon’s death like Christ’s resurrection sounding the ultimate victory over sin and death.
– The peace Israel enjoyed after their enemy’s defeat reminds us of the peace believers enjoy with God through Christ’s finished work.
– Ehud’s leadership guiding Israel to possess their land points ahead to Christ as the ultimate leader and deliverer guiding believers to their eternal inheritance.
– The Bible highlights Ehud was left-handed, an unexpected trait for a hero, just as people did not expect the Messiah to come from humble means as Jesus did.
– Ehud’s reliance on God despite his limitations foreshadows how Christ’s power is perfected in human weakness.
– Ehud’s obscure origins yet mighty calling mirrors Christ’s origins in Bethlehem yet mighty divine purpose.
– Ehud defeating a threatening enemy king parallels Christ defeating Satan, the enemy of our souls.
– Ehud’s moral courage parallels Christ’s spiritual courage to endure the cross despising its shame for the joy set before Him.
While Ehud himself was not a perfect savior, aspects of his deliverer role pointed Israel to their need for the ultimate Deliverer. In many ways, Ehud’s life foreshadowed the coming Messiah who would offer complete salvation. Ehud’s story reminds us God can use ordinary people to accomplish His extraordinary purposes. Even in Judges’ imperfect heroes we see glimmers pointing to the perfect Hero.
Ehud and Today’s Culture
Ehud’s actions and example present some challenges and opportunities for relating to today’s culture:
– His assassination of Eglon could seem morally dubious by today’s standards of justice.
– His use of deception conflicts with some modern values of honesty and transparency.
– As a violent military leader, Ehud represents ideals that our culture finds unsettling.
– Ehud’s zealotry in some ways modeled problematic ends justifying means thinking.
– His story includes political assassination, violence, and militarism that contemporary societies frown upon.
– Ehud’s courage provides a model for standing uncompromisingly for righteousness in a relativistic age.
– His leadership offers an example of rising to meet urgent needs during a national crisis.
– Ehud’s trust in God’s direction challenges current self-reliance and pride.
– His delivering the oppressed can inspire defending the vulnerable and marginalized today.
– Ehud’s perseverance and resourcefulness provide models for overcoming obstacles and setbacks.
– His victory over evil and oppression represents justice and hope still needed in suffering contexts today.
In interpreting and applying Ehud’s story, we must filter his actions through Christ’s perfect example. Ehud acts as a divinely appointed judge under the old covenant, whereas Christians operate under Christ’s new covenant of grace and truth. So we acknowledge God worked through Ehud in his cultural context while not condoning all his actions today. We can affirm Ehud’s courageous faith and leadership for God while recognizing only Christ offers the ultimate model of righteous zeal tempered by love, justice and mercy.
Significance of Ehud for Israel’s History
Ehud’s leadership and deliverance of Israel held unique significance for their history:
– He represents the second judge God raised up to deliver Israel after they sinned and suffered under foreign domination. This began a pattern seen throughout Judges.
– Ehud demonstrated that Israel could overcome its oppressors through the power of the Lord rather than military might alone. This inspired national hope.
– God used a left-handed man from the smallest tribe of Benjamin to show He can use unexpected people powerfully.
– Ehud’s assassination of Eglon broke the 18-year Moabite hold on Israel, allowing their liberation.
– Under Ehud, Israel experienced 80 years of peace – one of their longest periods without foreign rule in Judges.
– Ehud pioneered key strategies for delivering Israel such as assassination of enemy leaders and controlling the Jordan River.
– His leadership unified the fractious tribes for a decisive victory over Moab, renewing their sense of national identity.
– Ehud represents one of only two Judges specifically designated to save Israel from the Moabites (along with Jephthah).
– His legacy likely inspired later judges and deliverers to step forward when Israel faced oppression.
– Ehud’s faith and obedience set an important example of courageously following the Lord’s direction.
For these reasons, Ehud represents a pivotal early judge and military leader in Israel’s history. His daring, decisive actions broke Moabite domination, delivering Israel and granting them lasting peace. Ehud’s legacy had an indelible influence in shaping Israel’s national life and identity for subsequent generations. He epitomized the Judges role of bold liberator guided by God against all odds.
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The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs : implications for the treatment of mood disorders
Franz X. Vollenweider and Michael Kometer
Perspectives, www.nature.com, 2010, 11, 642-651.
After a pause of nearly 40 years in research into the effects of psychedelic drugs, recent advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of psychedelics, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and ketamine have led to renewed interest in the clinical potential of psychedelics in the treatment of various psychiatric disorders. Recent behavioural and neuroimaging data show that psychedelics modulate neural circuits that have been implicated in mood and affective disorders, and can reduce the clinical symptoms of these disorders. These findings raise the possibility that research into psychedelics might identify novel therapeutic mechanisms and approaches that are based on glutamate-driven neuroplasticity.
Psychedelic drugs have long held a special fascination for mankind because they produce an altered state of consciousness that is characterized by distortions of perception, hallucinations or visions, ecstasy, dissolution of self boundaries and the experience of union with the world. As plant-derived materials, they have been used traditionally by many indigenous cultures in medical and religious practices for centuries, if not millennia (1).
However, research into psychedelics did not begin until the 1950s after the breakthrough discovery of the classical hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) by Albert Hofmann (2) (timeline). The classical hallucinogens include indoleam- ines, such as psilocybin and LSD, and phenethylamines, such as mescaline and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodo-amphetamine (DOI). Research into psychedelics was advanced in the mid 1960s by the finding that dissociative anaesthetics such as ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP) also produce psychedelic-like effects (3) (BOX 1). Given their overlapping psychological effects, both classes of drugs are included here as psychedelics.
Depending on the individual taking the drug, their expectations, the setting in which the drug is taken and the drug dose, psychedelics produce a wide range of experiential states, from feelings of boundlessness, unity and bliss on the one hand, to the anxiety- inducing experiences of loss of ego-control and panic on the other hand (4–7). Researchers from different theoretical disciplines and experimental perspectives have emphasized different experiential states. One emphasis has been placed on the LSD-induced perceptual distortions — including illusions and hallucinations, thought disorder and experiences of split ego (7,8) — that are also seen in naturally occurring psychoses (9–11). This perspective has prompted the use of psychedelics as research tools for unravelling the neuronal basis of psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia spectrum disorder. The most recent work has provided compelling evidence that classical hallucinogens primarily act as agonists of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 2A (5-HT2A) receptors (12) and mimic mainly the so-called positive symptoms (hallucinations and thought disorder) of schizophrenia (10). Dissociative anaesthetics mimic the positive and the negative symptoms (social withdrawal and apathy) of schizophrenia through antagonism at NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) glutamate receptors (13,14).
Emphasis has also been placed on the early observation that LSD can enhance self-awareness and facilitate the recollection of, and release from, emotionally loaded memories to psychiatrists as a unique property that could facilitate the psychodynamic process during psychotherapy. In fact, by 1965 there were more than 1,000 published clinical studies that reported promising therapeutic effects in over 40,000 subjects (17). LSD, psilocybin and, sporadically, ketamine have been reported to have therapeutic effects in patients with anxiety and obsessive– compulsive disorders (OCD), depression, sexual dysfunction and alcohol addiction, and to relieve pain and anxiety in patients with terminal cancer (18–23) (BOX 2). Unfortunately, throughout the 1960s and 1970s LSD and related drugs became increasingly associated with cultural rebellion; they were widely popularized as drugs of abuse and were depicted in the media as highly dangerous. Consequently, by about 1970, LSD and related drugs were placed in Schedule 1 in many western countries. Accordingly, research on the effects of classical psychedelics in humans was severely restricted, funding became difficult and interests in the therapeutic use of these drugs faded, leaving many avenues of inquiry unexplored and many questions unanswered.
With the development of sophisticated neuroimaging and brain-mapping tech- niques and with the increasing understand- ing of the molecular mechanisms of action of psychedelics in animals, renewed interest in basic and clinical research with psyche- delics in humans has steadily increased since the 1990s. In this Perspective, we review early and current findings of the therapeutic effects of psychedelics and their mechanisms of action in relation to modern concepts of the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders. We then evaluate the extent to which psychedelics may be useful in therapy — aside from their established application as models of psychosis (3,11).
Current therapeutic studies
Several preclinical studies in the 1990s revealed an important role for the NMDA glutamate receptor in the mechanism of action of antidepressants. These findings consequently gave rise to the hypothesis that the NMDA-antagonist ketamine might have potential as an antidepressant (24). This hypothesis was validated in an initial double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study in seven medication-free patients with major depression. Specifically, a significant reduction in depression scores on the Hamilton depression rating scale (HDRS) was observed 3 hours after a single infusion of ketamine (0.5 mg per kg), and this effect was sustained for at least 72 hours (25). Several studies have since replicated this rapid antidepressant effect of ketamine using larger sample sizes and treatment-resistant patients with depression (26–30). Given that 71% of the patients met response criteria (defined as a 50% reduction in HDRS scores from baseline) within 24 hours (26), this rapid effect has a high therapeutic value. In particular, patients with depression who are suicidal might benefit from such a rapid and marked effect as their acute mortality risk is not considerably diminished with conven- tional antidepressants owing to their long delay in onset of action (usually 2–3 weeks). Indeed, suicidal ideations were reduced 24 hours after a single ketamine infusion (28).
However, despite these impressive and rapid effects, all but 2 of the patients relapsed within 2 weeks after a single dose of keta- mine (26). Previous relapse prevention strategies, such as the administration of either five additional ketamine infusions (29) or riluzole (Rilutek; Sanofi-aventis) on a daily basis (30), yielded success only in some patients and other strategies should be tested in further studies. Moreover, the use of biomarkers that are rooted in psychopathology, neuro- psychology and/or genetics might help to predict whether ketamine therapy will be appropriate for a given patient with depression (31). In line with this idea, decreased activation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during a working memory task (32) and increased activation of the ACC during an emotional facial processing task (33), as well as a positive family history of alcohol abuse (27), were associated with a stronger antidepressant response to ketamine.
Ketamine therapy could be extended to other disorders in which NMDA receptors are implicated in the pathophysiology — for example, bipolar disorder34 and addiction (35). The use of ketamine for the treatment of bipolar disorder is currently being tested (Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT00947791). Its poten- tial as a treatment for addiction is supported by results from a double-blind, randomized clini- cal trial in which 90 heroin addicts received either existentially oriented psychotherapy in combination with a high dose (2.0 mg per kg) or a low dose of ketamine (0.2 mg per kg). Follow-up studies in the first 2 years revealed a higher rate of abstinence, greater and longer-lasting reductions in craving, and a positive change in nonverbal, unconscious emotional attitude in subjects who had been treated with a high dose, compared with a low dose, of ketamine (36).
In contrast to the rapidly increasing number of clinical studies with ketamine, studies with classic hallucinogens are emerging slowly. This slow progress may be due to the fact that classic hallucinogens are placed in Schedule 1 and therefore have higher regulatory hurdles to overcome and may have negative connotations as a drug of abuse.
A recent study by Moreno and colleagues (37) evaluated case reports and findings from studies performed in the 1960s that indicated that psilocybin and LSD are effective in the treatment of OCD (22,38–40). They subsequently carried out a study show- ing that psilocybin given on four different occasions at escalating doses (ranging from sub-hallucinogenic to hallucinogenic doses) markedly decreased OCD symptoms (by 23–100%) on the Yale–brown obsessive compulsive scale in patients with OCD who were previously treatment resistant37. The reduction in symptoms occurred rapidly, at about 2 h after the peak psychedelic effects, and endured up to the 24-h post-treatment rating (37). This symptom relief was not related to the dose of the psychedelic drug or to the intensity of the psychedelic experience, and extended beyond the observed acute psychological effect of 4–6 h, raising intriguing questions regarding the mecha- nisms that underlie this protracted effect (37). Further research on how this initial relief of symptoms in response to psilocybin — and the subsequent return of symptoms — is linked to functional changes in the brain could contribute not only to a mechanistic explanation of the potentially beneficial effects of psychedelics but also to the development of novel treatments for OCD. The chronicity and disease burden of
OCD, the suboptimal nature of available treatments and the observation that psilocybin was well tolerated in OCD patients are clear indications that further studies into the duration, efficacy and mechanisms of action of psilocybin or of related compounds in the treatment of OCD are warranted.
Encouraged by early findings (BOX 2), several clinical centres have begun to inves- tigate the potential beneficial effects of psilocybin (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00302744, NCT00957359 and NCT00465595) and LSD (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00920387) in the treatment of anxiety and depression in patients with terminal cancer, using state of the art, double-blind, placebo controlled designs. One of these studies has recently been completed and revealed that moder- ate doses of psilocybin improved mood and reduced anxiety and that this relief variably lasted between 2 weeks and 6 months in patients with advanced cancer (C.S. Grob, personal communication). Finally, another recent study reported that psilocybin and LSD aborted attacks, terminated the cluster period or extended the remission period in people suffering from cluster headaches41. Taken together, these findings support early observations in the 1960s that classical hallucinogens have antinociceptive potential and may not only reduce symptoms but also induce long-lasting adaptive processes.
Neurobiology of psychedelic drugs
The enormous progress that has been made in our understanding of the mechanisms of action of psychedelics (12,42–45) and the neurobiology of affective disorders (34,46,47) has enabled us to postulate new hypotheses regarding the therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics and their clinical applications. Here we focus on the glutamatergic and serotonergic mechanisms of action of psychedelics with regard to their most promising indications — that is, their use in the treatment of depression and anxiety.
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‘A wind, cutting as a knife, chilling as an icicle, moaned over the moors, Sobbed around masses of rocks, and hissed in the wiry grass and rushes. Fastened to a stout oak beam, that was planted deep in the soil and wedged with stones, was a young man without jerkin, in his course linen shirt, the sleeve of the left arm rolled back to the shoulder, and the left hand attached above his head to the post by a knife, driven through his palm.’, (Baring Gould, 2000, p.1).
The unfortunate young man described above in Baring Gould’s novel was a fictional Dartmoor tinner of the Elizabethan era called ‘Eldad Guavas’. The reason he found himself in such a dire situation was simply because he had broken one of the many stannary laws and was then reaping his ‘just’ deserts. Ah, but that came from a work of fiction didn’t it, yes it did, a very well researched work of fiction by an eminent Dartmoor authority.
Possibly since prehistoric times man has wrested tin ore from the streams and river beds of Dartmoor and as the centuries slowly ticked by this resource became a very valuable commodity. The following lines sum up the worth of the ‘shining ore’:
‘The tin from Dartmoor mines at this time (1238) exceeded in quantity that produced by the whole of Cornwall; and much of the enormous wealth which Richard afterwards (1257) expended in procuring for himself the barren honour of King of the Romans, was the “gathered store” from these Devonshire mines.’, (King, 1866, p.305).
But why so valuable? Basically tin was used in the production of bronze (tin and copper) and pewter (tin and lead) and certainly by the medieval period pewter was used in the manufacture of everyday plates, cups, tankards, jewellery, and ornaments of varying kinds. Since the prehistoric Bronze Age the alloy was used in similar ways and in later years was utilised for casting bells, making cannons and firearms. It did not take long for people to realise that there was money to be made from the Dartmoor tin industry and for the Crown to want a share of it. As most of the land on which the tin ore was found belonged to the Duchy of Cornwall it was felt that the Crown naturally were due some revenue. In 1198 the Crown sent William de Wrotham to Dartmoor in order to reorganise the tin industry with a focus on maximising the Crown’s revenue. One of the first changes Wrotham brought about as Warden of the Stannaries was to increase the tax along with which came a new set of mining laws which were overseen by stannary courts. Previously to his appointment the Dartmoor tinners were overseen in financial and legal matters by the Sheriff and the Forest Courts but these were replaced by the Warden of the Stannaries. In 1201 King John issued a ruling that the Warden of the Stannaries has: ‘over the tinners plenary power to them justice..’. To this end there was a chief stannary court established at Lydford Castle and then under this were 4 district courts held at each of the stannary towns; Chagford, Ashburton, Plympton and Tavistock. The district courts would meet 13 times a year of which there were two law courts held sometime in the spring and autumn. It was at these where all the misdemeanours, administrative matters, etc were heard by a jury of tinners who were overseen by a steward that had been appointed by the Warden of the Stannaries.
Over the following centuries the various taxes, regulations and overseers changed but effectively the tin industry and its tinners were a law unto their selves, responsible directly to the stannaries. If a tinner committed any crime concerning, ‘land, life or limb’ they could be tired by the ordinary courts but the unfortunates had to be kept in custody at the infamous stannary prison at Lydford Castle, In effect, by 1305 the tinners had: ‘become an independent community seperate both from the ordinary systems of local government and law-enforcement, and from the rest of rural society under its manorial lords.’, (Hambling, 1995, p.26).
However, although the tinners were effectively taken out of the national legal system that did not mean they had things easy, granted there were many privileges to be gained from being a tinner such as tax exemptions, immunity from serfdom and the right to extract tin virtually anywhere. However, when these men did transgress their punishments were just as harsh if not harsher than anything handed out by the normal legal system. The worst punishments were for those trying to cheat the tax regulations, selling tin illegally, selling any gold they found whilst tinning (all gold found on Dartmoor was deemed to be the property of the Crown and must be surrendered) or ‘bounding’ (stealing) other tinners claim.
Any tinner caught transgressing would initially be sent to the stannary prison at Lydford Castle where they would come under the now world infamous Lydford Law by which, ‘in the morn they hang and draw, and sit in judgment after‘. This basically meant that due to the long length of time between the courts meeting and to some extent the cost of keeping prisoners it was often the case that a man was presumed guilty so why wait to try him when the outcome was obvious. Conditions in the prison were dire, during the reign of Henry VIII it was been described as, ‘one of the most heinous, contagious and detestable places in the realm.’, (St.Ledger Gordon, 1973: p.113). The ‘cells’ would have been dark, damp, cold and unsanitary, the only drinking water came was collected from the roof run-off which was strictly controlled and heaven knows what the food was like. Well we do know what the food was like, basically there were two choices, if you were rich enough to pay the warders then it was just bread and water and if you weren’t you went hungry, (Walmesley, 1982, p.49).
Once a sentence had been handed out it was then duly carried out, for the smaller offences the defendant would have varying degrees of fines imposed on them or their mining sett confiscated. In later years the severity of these sentences increased insomuch as the cost of the fines rose and not only did the tinner lose his claim but his house and all his possessions along with it. Additionally he was expelled from the tinner’s guild and should anyone later employ the man then they too were at risk of losing their goods as well. Either way it would mean financial burden or total loss of income which in both cases would be a hardship. Another way that a tinner could forfeit his claim was to leave it unworked for a period of 21 days, it would then be sold to another tinner. Stealing tin ore or tin from another tinner was something that didn’t go down too well in a stannary court and for this crime a hefty fine was reserved as with anything it’s never good to steal from your own. It seems that the severity of punishments rose when crimes were committed against the Crown or Duchy as opposed to the ordinary man.
Some may argue that the worst possible outcome would be death by hanging and for this purpose it has been suggested that a gallows site stood just up from the castle. However, some of the ‘lesser’ punishments seem to have been much, much worse than hanging, for instance if a tinner was caught trying to sell impure tin this would have been smelted down and a quantity of the molten metal was then poured down the offenders throat, gives a whole new meaning to the term ‘hot lips’.
Another punishment handed out was that as is described by Baring Gould above, the prisoner would be taken out to the moor where a large stake would be firmly planted in the ground. Depending on whether the prisoner was left or right handed, his dominant hand would be pinned to the stake by means of a knife firmly stuck through his palm. The other hand would then be tied behind their back and there they would be left to make a hard choice. The unfortunate wretch could either stay at the stake and die from starvation or exposure, somehow manage to fee his tied hand and pull the knife out which was highly unlikely or simply drag his hand down the knife blade and cut through his tendons. If he opted for the latter it would mean that his ripped hand would be useless and he would be unable to effectively work again. In the above fictional case the man was caught trying to sell a small quantity of gold he found whilst streaming which should have been surrendered to the Crown. A small aside here, gold was never found in huge quantities on the moor and never in nugget size, but it was the practice for tinners to hide the grains of gold in the quills of goose feathers to avoid detection.
This whole judicial system was a kind of ‘Catch 22’ situation because year after year the taxes imposed on the tinners rose which then gave a greater inducement to evade the system wherever possible which in turn led to more arrests and punishments being doled out, for the Crown and later the Duchy of Cornwall this became a lucrative business.
Baring Gould, S. 2000. Guavas the Tinner, Walterstone: Praxis Books.
Hambling, P. 1995. The Dartmoor Stannaries, Chudleigh: Orchard Publications.
King, R. J. 1866. The Forest of Dartmoor, in The Fortnightly, Vol – VI, Chapman and Hall.
St. Ledger-Gordon, R. 1972 The Witchcraft and Folklore of Dartmoor, Wakefield: EP Publishing.
Walmesley, M. & J. 1982. The Old Men of the Moor, Ilfracombe: A. H. Stockwell Ltd.
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Did you know that Henry Ford wanted to make a flying car? And he came very close to doing it, too. This video tells the story of how flying cars almost became a thing, as well as other technologies we really thought we’d have by now. Why didn’t they work? And will they ever work? Let’s take a look.
The Art of Prediction
At the beginning of this year, I did a video where I looked to the year 2100 and imagined what the future will be like 80 years from now, and in that, I took a look back at predictions that people had made in the past about today. Some of which are hilarious now.
But these predictions weren’t just hopes and dreams, they assumed we’d have those technologies because people were working on it at the time.
Some of the brightest scientists and engineers in the world were trying to make these things happen. Flying cars, space habitats, a cure for cancer. Which got me wondering… Why didn’t they?
Like what went wrong when we tried to make these things happen? What were the pivot points where things went the wrong direction?
So I looked into it, and it’s kind of a fascinating way to look at how technology evolves. Sometimes it was just way harder than they thought it would be. Sometimes it’s economic forces that work against it. And some may still happen.
Flying Cars Part One
Let’s start with the obvious one, flying cars, which is a much older idea than you might think.
Like, Leonardo DaVinci designed a personal aircraft. You might be familiar with his helicopter design but he also designed an ornithopter. Because even in the 15th century, the spice must flow.
And obviously there were many attempts to build a flying vehicle over the years but it was the Wright Brothers who figured it out in 1903.
It might be weird to imagine now but the first airplanes… Were kinda like flying cars.
And again, I have to set the context here, first of all the people who were alive at that time had seen some of the biggest societal and technological change in human history. The Industrial Revolution and the Victorian age introduced electricity, recorded sound, photography, the combustion engine, indoor plumbing, the radio – and they already had giant airships that were like cruise liners for the sky.
Airplanes were these tiny things that only carried a couple of people at at a time. Compared to airships, they were kinda like cars.
Taking to the sky felt like the next obvious step. So of course the world’s biggest automobile manufacturer wanted in on it.
So in the 1920s, Henry Ford took his shot. He bought the Stout Metal Airplane Company and together they built the Ford Tri-Motor transport plane.
This was a moderate success and was even used by Admiral Richard Byrd when he became the first person to fly over the South Pole in November 1929.
But Henry wanted to go bigger. He wanted to replicate his success from 20 years before, so he brought in the designer of the Tri-Motor, Otto Koppen, to design the Model T for the skies.
He had a few mandatories for this.
I want it to be a single-seater. I want it to be less than 1000 pounds in order to be considered a Class C plane. And I want it to fit in this office.
And what they came up with was the Ford Flivver. It was 15 feet long with wingspan of 23 feet, weighing a mere 350 pounds and powered by a twin cylinder motor cranking out a whopping 35 horsepower.
This is of course more of a personal flying vehicle than a flying car, but it was meant to be used the same way, plus it took up about the same space as a large car. Also, Flivver is kind-of a weird name but apparently it was slang for a cheap car, going back to the Model-T.
They built several prototypes throughout the 1920s and officially unveiled it on his 63rd birthday. The next step was to work out all the bugs so Henry brought in Stout’s test pilot Harry Brooks.
Harry spent the next few years with the Flivver and apparently even commuted to work with it. He was using it exactly like it was designed, you wheel it out of your garage, fly it across town, land it at your destination and park it in roughly car-sized parking spot.
Now I know you may be thinking that there would need to be a lot of infrastructure built out for something like this to work but keep in mind, they were still building out the car infrastructure at the time. Integrating this into it would have been a lot easier back then.
It was starting to look like this thing could actually work. The Flivver was working flawlessly and Ford began drawing up plans for mass-production, which let’s face it, nobody did that better than him.
The plane was performing so well, in fact, that by the third generation prototype, they decided to make the wings a little bit longer so that they could break the world distance record for a Class C airplane.
The goal was to fly 1000 miles on one tank of gas, so they chose a route between Detroit and Miami and in January of 1928, Harry Brooks loaded up the plane and headed south to the land of flamingos and G-strings.
He was not successful.
Bad weather and icy wings forced him to land in Asheville North Carolina, but a month later, they tried it again. And he aaalmost got there.
He ran out of gas and landed in Titusville, Florida, where he had to fix a leaky fuel line and replace the propellor. He didn’t quite make it 1000 miles, but he did make it 930 miles, which was a new world record for a plane of that size. Even if he didn’t make it the whole way, they had proven that the Flivver could be used both as a daily commuter vehicle and as a long-distance vehicle.
The next morning, after repairing the plane, Harry Brooks took off on a short hop to Miami to finish the trip, still reveling in his new status as a world-record holder.
He was never seen again.
The next day, sea planes found the wreckage of the Flivver in the water off the coast of Melbourne, Florida. Harry’s body was never found.
It’s not known what went wrong, some suspect a fuel line issue, some that a rudder wire snapped and he lost directional control. What is known is that Henry Ford took this loss VERY hard and paused his mass production plans. Soon after that the stock market crashed and the US entered the Great Depression, and the whole program was scrapped.
This was the closest we ever came to real personal flying vehicles, with Henry Friggin Ford at the height of his success. The dream wasn’t dead, though.
In 1935, the US Bureau of Air Commerce ran a competition to build an aircraft for everyone. The goal was to design a plane that could retail for $700 – $15,500 in today’s money.
Popular Science hailed some of the designs as “foolproof” and “as easily as an automobile.” But ultimately none of them went into production.
As the airline industry matured and cars became ubiquitous, the need for a “personal airplane” kinda went away. If flying cars were going to be a thing, they would have to change. And in 1962, a new inspiration came along.
Flying Cars Part Two
The Jetsons debuted in 1962, and with them a new idea about what flying cars should be. Small, wingless, and suitable for puttering around a floating city. You might think the anti-grav tech would have stalled efforts, but you’d be wrong.
In 1965, Canadian engineer Paul Moller showed off the XM-2 Skycar. It looked like the real deal, something George Jetson would fly. The problem was, it couldn’t.
The Skycar hovered. It could kind of fly on a tether, but it never really took off. Literally.
By the way, Moller worked on this idea for nearly sixty years, and it changed drastically over time, but he never was able to release one that flies freely.
That is some serious dedication, though, good show, old chap.
A lot of people have tried to crack this nut over the years but it just never took. I actually did a video a while back on inventors who were killed by their inventions and talked about Henry Smolinski, who made his car into a plane, which, it worked, but he died tragically in a crash.
That car was a Ford Pinto, so I guess Ford did eventually make a flying car.
Today there are multiple companies working on personal drones that really can be flown by anybody because they’d be autonomous. Even Uber was working on that concept, they called it Uber Elevate, but they were purchased by Joby Aviation in 2020.
Since then they’ve kind-of been in stealth mode, I wasn’t able to find much about what they’re doing.
And there are others I covered on a video about this topic that I will shamelessly plug.
One flying car I haven’t really talked about is this thing from a company called Alef which is an interesting concept at least. It rolls like a car but the frame is an open mesh with propellers on the underside. So when you want to fly, the propellers engage, the car lifts off the ground and rotates to the side to fly through the air.
Alef calls this car the… Model A.
Didn’t I just joke about that?
These are all just concepts right now, but we might start to see personal flying drone services in the next decade or so, probably ridiculously expensive but it might exist in some capacity.
Or… maybe not. Maybe it’s just an idea whose time will never come. But we got close once.
So, why did the competition planes fail? Because flying is hard, and not everybody should do it. But there’s a deeper problem I think these early attempts failed to address: the rapid growth of car ownership.
In 1935, there were something like 22 million cars on US roads. There are now more than 290 million. Imagine each of those cars with wings and a tail, and I think you see the problem.
Millions of planes in the air is a nightmare. So for flying cars to become a thing, the concept had to change. In the 1960s, it did.
We’re probably going to see flying taxis in the next few years. They’ll be few in number, and each one will have a qualified pilot. I think we have to accept, at this point, that flying cars won’t be coming home anytime soon.
An aircraft for everyone didn’t happen, but there was a time it looked like it would. The closest we probably came was when Ford was pursuing the Flivver. If Harry Brooks had landed safely, all those years ago, the history of transportation might have looked very different.
The film 2001 depicts a future where space travel looks a lot like air travel. The year 2001 came and went 23 years ago and still we don’t have anything close to what we see in the movie.
The main reason is price. Now granted, the cost to orbit has gone way down in recent decades, but still, even with the Falcon Heavy being only fifteen hundred dollars per kilogram, it would cost $100,000 just to launch the weight of the average man.
The other reason people don’t commute regularly to space is there aren’t a lot of places to go. The ISS is nice, but it’s only built for seven people. Those are pretty exclusive accommodations.
There are plans for space hotels and moon bases but… those have been planned for a long time. Kubrick wasn’t crazy to expect them way sooner. For the record, neither was Arthur C. Clark who wrote the book.
In fact, massive space habitats were in the plans from the very beginning. Wernher Von Braun promoted the idea of massive spinning space stations in a series of articles for Collier’s magazine in 1950. This was when NASA was still NACA.
In 1955, von Braun appeared on an episode of Disneyland, which was an early name for The Wonderful World of Disney.
And what he proposed was not a far cry from what Kubrick brought to life.
That model by the way is now on display at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum.
And the wheel station was far from the most out-there space habitat idea. In 1975, a team of researchers from NASA and Stanford university set out to design space habitats that could be built with existing technologies. The head of that project was Dr. Gerard O’Neill.
This is obviously where the idea for the O’Neill cylinder came from. In case you don’t know, the O’Neill cylinder is a giant rotating tube that can house thousands of people, it’s fairly famous, but that same group also thought up Bernal Spheres, the Standford Torus, and some even crazier ideas.
All were meant to rotate, so they could simulate gravity. They were designed to house at least 10,000 people, and were mostly self-sufficient, though some raw materials were expected to be shipped in.
I should be clear that none of these were actual plans, NASA Administrator James Fletcher called them “a vision that will engage our imaginations.” But NASA did have some huge plans for space travel following Apollo.
Again, I did a whole video about this, shameless plug, but NASA wanted to build multiple space stations and moon bases and an infrastructure of transports and shuttles to move people and goods between them.
In fact, a station was planned in the early days of Apollo to serve as a gateway to the moon. The space race accelerated the timeline and Apollo ended up going straight to the moon, instead.
The space shuttle was actually born from the idea. Its original purpose was to shuttle astronauts between earth and an orbital space station. The station itself was supposed to go up on a Saturn V rocket.
A clash with the military changed NASA’s plans. See, the space agency needed the help of the US Air Force to make the shuttle a reality. NASA’s budget shrank after Apollo, but at the same time, the US military budget skyrocketed, due to the Vietnam War.
The Air Force wanted a beefier shuttle that could carry spy satellites. They had the money, so they got their wish. Over time, the redesigned shuttle became the go-to vehicle for NASA
But it came at the expense of plans to build a stopover space station.
The plans weren’t abandoned, but they were massively pushed back.
But the big hurdle has always been cost. Big space habitats means putting a LOT of stuff into space, and the cost is still just way too high.
And while yes, there are some interesting plans for private space stations in the very near future, none of them are remotely at the scale of spinning wheels or cylinders.
Hopefully new megarockets like Starship and New Glenn could change the equation and make our space fantasies finally a reality.
By the way, did you see that New Glenn was on the launch pad recently? I know I’ve given Blue Origin a lot of grief, but I’m excited to see that go up.
The idea of people flying through vacuum tubes at ridiculous speeds feels like a recent thing since the hyperloop idea was put out there by Elon Musk a few years back. But this general idea has been around for a long time. In fact… This might be the oldest idea on this list.
It was 1799, the year Napoleon seized power and George Washington died, English engineer George Medhurst patented a pump that could move coaches by compressed air.
This led to the development of the first atmospheric railway in 1834, between Exeter and Newton Abbot in the UK. Medhurst unfortunately died 7 years before it opened so he never got to see it, but it was a commercial 32-kilometer line that actually worked. For about a year.
But it wasn’t like a hyperloop, the passenger carriage wasn’t inside the pipe, the pipe was only about 15 inches wide, but the carriage attached to a plunger inside of it, through a resealable seam in the pipe. Then, at the opposite end of the line, a pump at the station would suck the air out of the pipe and the vacuum would pull the train down the line. And believe it or not, this thing was capable of reaching 70 miles an hour.
So yeah, it was speedy, but hard to maintain. That resealable seam was made out of leather that had to be constantly greased with tallow. And the tallow attracted rats, who ate the leather, which ruined the seal.
All those maintenance costs added up, and after about a year, it was deemed too expensive.
In 1869, a proper pneumatic subway was built in New York City. It spanned just 312 feet (95 meters) and was operated as a thrill ride.
It was created by an inventor named Alfred Beach, and it was a moderate success, but he wasn’t able to get funding to extend the line, and it wound up closing in 1873.
But! Fun fact, the abandoned tunnel was the inspiration for tunnel sections that appear in Ghostbusters II and two Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles movies.
The idea of tube travel was later revived in 1888 by Jules Verne’s son, Michael. In a short story, he described an underwater tube that could send trains across the Atlantic. The travel time was less than three hours.
By the time the story debuted, the atmospheric railways had closed. The concept has been revived a few times, and small scale examples still exist. But a large scale train-in-a-tube has never happened.
Which is weird, because some smart people pushed for it over the years. One surprising advocate was Robert Goddard, the rocket pioneer.
He wrote about it in a short story and tell me if this sounds familiar – he described it as a high-speed train that ran in partial vacuum and used magnetic repulsion to eliminate friction. He even filed a patent for his design later on.
In the 1970s, an American engineer named Robert Salter proposed something he called a “Planetran,” which was a transcontinental railway using magnets and air to propel cars through tubes.
It was considered too expensive and never made any headway.
He envisioned an underground system of tubes criss-crossing the country, but building it out would have cost $750 billion – 2 trillion dollars in today’s money.
There must have been something in the air in the 70s because over in Switzerland, a guy named Rudolph Nieth designed a similar maglev vactrain in 1974.
He and a team of engineers presented the idea for what they called the Swissmetro in 1980, and this actually got a lot of traction at the time.
The idea was developed over the years by the Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology and a pilot track was planned to be built between Geneva and Lausanne in 1998. But before construction began, the Swiss government put the squash on the idea to focus on expanding existing rail projects.
And in 1991, none other than Gerard O’Neill started work on a vactrain that could reach speeds faster than an airline jet.
What can you say, the man loved tubes.
He filed a patent on this idea but unfortunately died of leukemia two years before winning the patent.
So yeah when Elon wrote that white paper about the Hyperloop in 2012, he was just the last in a long line of people promoting the concept. And for a while there it started to look like it might happen, a lot of companies came out of the woodwork to build a working line, including Virgin, but none of them have really amounted to anything.
I could go into all the reasons why Hyperloop has hyperflopped but there are tons of videos on YouTube that deconstruct all the problems with the idea. No need for me to pile on, but those problems aren’t specific to Hyperloop, it’s the same problems that have prevented all the vactrain concepts over the years.
The point is, the idea is nothing new. Neither are the issues with it.
But once upon a time, pneumatic tubes to transfer mail and small items were the height of technology. It only seemed logical that we’d transport ourselves the same way. But unfortunately the economics are hard to work out
In 2016, Professor Jose Gomez-Ibanez of Harvard called Hyperloop a “utopian vision”. He doubted the vactrain could compete with airlines, and so far, it looks like he’s right.
One last note on this though, the Swissmetro I mentioned earlier is pushing for a pilot line again, this time calling it the Swissmetro-NG. Next generation?
Anyway, I guess time will tell whether or not they’re able to pull it off.
There’s one more I wanted to talk about today and that’s a cure for cancer. And this requires a little bit of nuance.
Because cancer is not just one disease, it’s a whole complicated family of diseases. In fact, according to worldwidecancerresearch.org, there are “more than 200 distinct diseases” under the umbrella of cancer.
And we’ve made huge strides in cancer treatment over the years, including some types of cancers that we actually have, effectively “cured.”
But there was a time when the US took a massive action toward curing cancer, diverting tons of government funds and resources in a way not seen since the Manhattan Project.
It was the US War on Cancer, and the guy who declared war on cancer was Richard Nixon of all people.
In 1971, Nixon announced in his State of the Union address that he was making it his mission to cure cancer in the United States, saying his administration would apply the same “concentrated effort that split the atom” to come up with a cure.
This resulted in the passing of the National Cancer Act of 1971, which directed hundreds of millions of dollars to the National Cancer Institute, supporting research into preventing and treating cancer.
The goal was to have the cure in five years, by the nation’s bicentennial in 1976. Spoiler alert: That didn’t happen.
It’s not a coincidence that this happened right after we landed on the moon. We were still riding high on that victory and felt like we were capable of doing anything.
But it turns out landing on the moon was a lot easier than curing cancer. Cancer changes and mutates, what works in one patient might not work in another. Sometimes patients will have success with a drug for one treatment but later that same treatment doesn’t work.
There were a lot of fundamental understandings of cancer that we just didn’t have yet. As the director of the Institute of Cancer Research at Columbia once said about the War on Cancer,
“an all-out effort at this time [to conquer cancer] would be like trying to land a man on the moon without knowing Newton’s laws of gravity”
Clearly, five years to cure cancer was never going to happen. But the additional funding and research that came out of it did lead to breakthroughs that we’ve built on ever since, like the discovery of the first cancer-causing gene, c-Src.
Thanks to the Cancer Act, we took leaps in our understanding of molecular and cell biology, leading to targeted therapies and personalized medicine.
And today, most cancers are considered treatable. Maybe not curable, but treatable. And while yes, way too many people are still dying of cancer, according to a report from the American Association For Cancer Research in 2022, for the first time in history, more people are surviving cancer than dying from it.
I’ll moderate that statement by saying that’s the 5-year death rate across all types of cancers so it’s kind-of a narrow view but still, progress!
I should also point out that a similar push for a cancer cure was launched in the last year of the Obama administration in 2016. They didn’t call it a “War” on cancer, they called it a Cancer Moonshot and it was focused more on gene therapies and immunotherapies.
And we’ll likely see more progress in the coming years as new mRNA vaccines may make it possible to sequence a specific cancer’s genome and create a vaccine that targets those specific cells. This would be huge and there are dozens of trials going on right now to test them out.
So with a little luck and a lot of research, this may be the one technology on this list that we may actually have in the not too distant future. And thank God, because – and I say this on behalf of everyone currently dealing with this disease or have lost a loved one to it – F*CK Cancer.
So that’s the list. I think it’s worth looking back like this to revisit how I personally, and other people in the past, have pictured the future. But there is a danger to the exercise.
If you asked ten-year-old me what life in the future would look like, I definitely would have mentioned flying cars. I might even have said I’d be flying my car to the spaceport on the way to work. Life today doesn’t look like that, and yeah, that’s disappointing.
A good deal of the research I did for this video was on different ways to measure cancer outcomes. Mortality rates from cancer have gone down, but not as much as anybody hoped. But focusing on just cancer obscures a lot of the progress medical science has made in the recent past.
If we step back from cancer to look at human life expectancy overall, we see a much brighter picture. In 1950, the average life expectancy of a person who reached 10-years-old was 61.2 years. A ten-year-old in the year 2000 can expect to reach 72.4.
Life expectancy has continued to improve, and the numbers I’m quoting are global averages. Some regions have seen even greater improvements. So sure, we haven’t cured cancer, but medical care as a whole has improved by leaps and bounds.
That’s true of all of the categories I could fit my picks for this list into. Medicine, transportation, space travel, renewable energy — all are better than they used to be. Life is so much better, for so many people, I sometimes feel bad for pointing out the exceptions.
If there’s one thing I want to take away from this review of technologies we thought we’d have, it’s that there’s nothing wrong with dreaming big. Remember that James Fletcher quote about space habitats engaging our imaginations? Sometimes achieving the dream is a bonus.
The point of dreaming is to engage imagination. Because engaging imagination is the first step to motivating change, improving our own lives, and doing the best job we can of building the future.
But anyway, imagine if all of this had come true. We might be living in a world where you wake up in New York, take off in your personal flying drone to the doctor’s office to get your yearly cancer vaccine, then hop over to the vactrain station to take a 30-minute ride to Cape Canaveral, where you blast off to your job at the giant rotating space station
And who knows, maybe 10 years in the future… we’ll still be able to imagine it.
The future has a way of surprising us. It never turns out quite the way we expect. Nobody 50 years ago expected the advancements in communication technology that we’ve seen. And who knows what blind spots we have for the future right now. It’ll be interesting to see what those blind spots turn out to be.
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What is the difference between non-technical math and technical math?
Non-technical math refers to basic mathematical concepts and operations that are used in everyday life, such as arithmetic, percentages, and basic algebra. It is focused on practical applications and does not require advanced mathematical knowledge. On the other hand, technical math involves more advanced mathematical concepts and techniques that are used in specific fields such as engineering, physics, and computer science. It often involves complex calculations, equations, and problem-solving techniques that require a deeper understanding of mathematical principles. Technical math is more specialized and is used to solve specific problems in professional and academic settings.
What is the duty for non-technical services?
The duty for non-technical services is to provide support and assistance to clients or customers in areas such as customer service, sales, administrative tasks, and other non-technical functions. This may include addressing customer inquiries, processing orders, managing schedules, and performing other tasks to ensure the smooth operation of the business. Non-technical service providers are responsible for delivering high-quality service and maintaining positive relationships with clients or customers.
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The non-technical administrative service at customs refers to the various administrative tasks and responsibilities that support the overall operations of the customs department. This can include duties such as record-keeping, data entry, document processing, customer service, and general office management. These administrative tasks are essential for ensuring the smooth and efficient functioning of the customs department, and they play a crucial role in facilitating international trade and ensuring compliance with customs regulations.
What is spatial visualization ability?
Spatial visualization ability refers to the capacity to mentally manipulate and comprehend spatial relationships between objects. Individuals with strong spatial visualization skills can easily visualize and understand how objects relate to each other in space, such as rotating or manipulating shapes in their mind. This ability is crucial in various fields such as engineering, architecture, and mathematics, as it allows individuals to solve complex problems and understand spatial concepts more effectively. Improving spatial visualization ability can enhance problem-solving skills and overall cognitive performance.
What are the working hours in the public non-technical service?
The working hours in the public non-technical service can vary depending on the specific organization and position. However, in general, the standard working hours are typically 9:00 am to 5:00 pm, Monday to Friday. Some positions may require occasional evening or weekend work, especially in roles that involve public service or community engagement. Additionally, flexible work arrangements, such as telecommuting or compressed workweeks, may be available in some public non-technical service positions to accommodate individual needs and improve work-life balance.
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Russia’s invasion (illegal) of Ukraine has generated debate regarding how to end the war. It comes as no surprise that arguably the United States’ leading ant-war activist, Professor Noam Chomsky, has given extensive comment on this conflict. Committed already as a boy to opposing state aggression, now at age 93, Noam Chomsky likely is the world’s oldest living person active in anti-war struggles who is on record in print (school newspaper) at the time in opposing the 1938 Munich Agreement, which has become synonymous with appeasement of states engaging in military adventures.
In May of this year, four economists from Ukraine (Bohdan Kukharskyy, Anastassia Fedyk, Yuriy Gorodnichenko, and Ilona Sologoub) working in the United States took umbrage with Chomsky’s comments on the war, or at least what they assumed were the ideas (and “patterns”) he expressed. They held some of his statements to be either inaccurate, or even when true, irrelevant to the conflict and/or giving succor to Russia’s war effort. The Ukrainian economists invited Dr. Chomsky to respond. What follows at bottom are Noam’s responses to their assertions, their rejoinders to his answers, and his following comments.
In the ensuing exchange Professor Chomsky demonstrates several of the positions he was purported to hold by the economists, simply were never articulated by him. Provided with two chances to substantiate remarks attributed to Chomsky, the four economists often could not. Moreover, some points which the four economists asserted were either false or contested, Dr. Chomsky demonstrated were true, with any “contestation” of them chiefly evasions of inconvenient facts. Parts of their debate comes down to points of language and meaning, which the four economists at one point concede that Dr. Chomsky is more precise in his use of.
This then leaves another point: whether referencing contextual, or “background,” information, is relevant to discussion of the war? This point is more complicated, as Russia (or most any other state engaged in aggression) clearly will use such information, or anything else they can, in the service of propaganda. Yet, censorship is also dangerous as it removes capacities to critically engage arguments states use to justify aggression. In short, we can debate the merits of context and to what degree, if any, it plays in understanding a conflict. But, taking the next step to either dismiss out of hand as false, statements that are demonstrably true, or asserting that one is not allowed to provide context out of concern that it somehow supports Putin, goes too far. In short, what defines totalitarianism is the idea that some truths are inadmissible, given threats they pose to some larger cause. A cautionary note must be tendered against those, well intentioned or not, that would take us down this road. Our economists do not go this far in their exchange, fortunately, but others, as we know, will cross that line, as has been done before.
What seems at core in this debate is whether Ukraine is best positioned to continue fighting in order to achieve military victory, or at least improve their negotiating position, against Russia? Or, is this conflict in part a proxy war (with ghastly human costs for Ukrainians) in which the US seeks to fight Russia “to the last Ukrainian”? The last quote characterizing this war is from retired US Diplomat Chas Freeman (former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs), but has been wrongly attributed to Dr. Chomsky. Of course, the messy reality is that there are elements of both positions in play. Thus, the differences in perspectives on the war and the resulting debate.
But, here is the text of the exchange between Noam Chomsky and our four economists. Complaints surely will be registered regarding “readability” of the file. There is a somewhat complicated organizational scheme of the text done by the authors themselves with different colors, italics, bold font etc., with a “key” at the outset of the document indicating author attribution of each comment done by them (Chomsky and Economists). Re-organizing and re-formatting for readability would have created extra rounds of approval from the authors. Therefore, it is submitted here as they themselves created it.
Readers can assess for themselves the veracity of claims and quality of arguments made by Bohdan Kukharskyy, Anastassia Fedyk, Yuriy Gorodnichenko, and Ilona Sologoub against Chomsky on both points of objective fact and on whether points of context (“background) are appropriate in discussion of this war. My own view is that all of them wish this war to end as quickly as possible. However, I also fear that a quick stop to this aggression is not a goal shared by all.
–Jeffrey Sommers is a Professor of Political Economy and Public Policy at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
A Response to Yuriy Gorodnichenko, Bohdan Kukharskyy, Anastassia Fedyk and Ilona Sologoub Regarding Their Critique of Noam Chomsky on the Russia-Ukraine War
by Jonathan M. Feldman
On May 19, 2022, Yuriy Gorodnichenko (a visiting scholar with the Federal Reserve Bank in San Francisco), Bohdan Kukharskyy (City University of New York), Anastassia Fedyk (UC Berkeley) and Illona Sologoub (VoxUkraine) wrote an open letter challenging Noam Chomsky and others for their views on the Ukraine War and conflict. The letter was supported by various Twitter users and circulated widely in social media.
This essay constitutes my response. I will address the seven claims they make against Chomsky. I won’t cover all of their arguments, but provide enough data to suggest that their arguments are filled with holes. My view is that Russia is engaged in a horrible, horrific attack on Ukraine, although the pre-history of this conflict illustrates that there are additional factors to consider when assessing the current Ukrainian government’s actions. There have been various arguments made to simplify this conflict or distort its understanding involving various intellectuals or analysts. The Gorodnichenko and company letter simply continues with this trend.
Claim 1: Chomsky has Denied Ukraine’s “sovereign integrity”
The authors quote Chomsky as follows: “The fact of the matter is Crimea is off the table. We may not like it. Crimeans apparently do like it.” The authors then attempt to refute Chomsky further by arguing that “first, Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 has violated the Budapest memorandum.”
The first problem with the critique we see here is that Chomsky does not deny or even assess Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea when he makes an analysis of what the Russians are likely to give up or not. A diagnosis of Russian intentions does not equate to an assessment of what is desirable or not. Furthermore, Chomsky’s assessments of what people living in Crimea may like is not an endorsement of Russian actions. Therefore, analysis of the Budapest memorandum is irrelevant to Chomsky’s analysis. It may be desirable for the Ukrainian government to make concessions, but the relative desirability of diplomacy is not an absolute statement of what one prefers to be preferable.
On March 18, 2014, the Center for Strategic International Studies explained why the Russians had a motivation to control Crimea. They wrote: “Most importantly, control of Crimea gives Moscow continuing access to the naval base at Sevastopol, home to Russia’s Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol’s warm water port, natural harbor and extensive infrastructure make it among the best naval bases in the Black Sea. While Russia’s current lease of Sevastopol runs through 2042, due to recent events Russia had become increasingly concerned that its future access might be compromised. Operating from Sevastopol, the Black Sea Fleet provides Russia with the ability to project power in an around the Black Sea, while also serving as a potent symbol of Russian power.” In sum, Chomsky’s analysis is consistent with CSIS’s analysis of Russia’s motivations.
The authors continue: “if by ‘liking’ you refer to the outcome of the Crimean ‘referendum’ on March 16, 2014, please note that this ‘referendum’ was held at gunpoint and declared invalid by the General Assembly of the United Nations. At the same time, the majority of voters in Crimea supported Ukraine’s independence in 1991.” This is a red-herring argument. First, Crimeans “liking” is not necessarily a statement of majorities, but could mean liking by some. I will address both senses of the word “like” here. Turning to the word “like” as a preference by some, a report by National Public Radio (NPR) identified individuals liking and not liking the annexation.
The Brookings Institution offered another more thorough account in 2020. They argued: “The conduct of the referendum proved chaotic and took place absent any credible international observers. Local authorities reported a turnout of 83 percent, with 96.7 percent voting to join Russia. The numbers seemed implausible, given that ethnic Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars accounted for almost 40 percent of the peninsula’s population. (Two months later, a leaked report from the Russian president’s Human Rights Council put turnout at only 30 percent, with about half of those voting to join Russia.)” The report continues: “A large number of ethnic Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars — some put the total at 140,000 — have left the peninsula since 2014.” Yet, this number was only a fraction of the 2.28 million inhabitants. By my rough estimate only 6.13% of such ethnic Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars emigrated out. Therefore, even if the referendum were invalid, the minimal migration does point to some level of consensus.
Conclusion on Claim 1: The authors introduce a strawman argument about what Chomsky said, with the only potentially valid claim something about Crimean preferences. Yet, Chomsky never made claims about majorities or specifics about how many liked it. As I shall show, even if he meant “majorities” there is evidence to support that interpretation as well. The limits to the outmigrations does substantiate if not lend support for the view that some or even many have “liked” the Russian presence. The problem, however, for Gorodnichenko and colleagues is that Foreign Affairs, a rather mainstream publication, published a detailed analysis of preferences on April 3, 2020, by John O’Loughlin, Gerald Toal, and Kristin M. Bakke. These authors reported the following: “From our survey data, it is possible to compare how Crimeans saw their future in December 2014 and how they perceived it five years later. Interviewees were asked if they expected to be better off after two years. Russians in Crimea harbored high hopes in 2014 (93 percent expected to be better off in two years), but they were somewhat less hopeful in 2019 (down to 71 percent). The proportion of Tatars who indicated that they thought being part of Russia would make them better off rose from 50 percent in 2014 to 81 percent in 2019. Ukrainians in Crimea remained generally optimistic: 75 percent indicated they expected to be better off in 2014, close to the 72 percent who did so in 2019. These generally high levels of optimism across ethnic groups suggest that most Crimeans are pleased to have left Ukraine for Russia, a richer country.” O’Loughlin and colleagues considered the critique of the original referendum in their analysis.
Please note: Neither I nor Chomsky endorse the Russian invasion and occupation of Crimea.
Claim 2: Chomsky has treated Ukraine as an American pawn on a geo-political chessboard
Gorodnichenko and colleagues write that Chomsky’s “interviews insinuate that Ukrainians are fighting with Russians because the U.S. instigated them to do so, that Euromaidan happened because the U.S. tried to detach Ukraine from the Russian sphere of influence, etc. Such an attitude denies the agency of Ukraine and is a slap in the face to millions of Ukrainians who are risking their lives for the desire to live in a free country. Simply put, have you considered the possibility that Ukrainians would like to detach from the Russian sphere of influence due to a history of genocide, cultural oppression, and constant denial of the right to self-determination?”
This critique has several problems. First, it assumes that Chomsky is unaware of Russian militarism and brutality in Ukraine. Here is one of Chomsky’s statements about Russia related to the coalition led by the U.S. to intervene in Afghanistan: “Russia is happily joining the international coalition because it is delighted to have U.S. support for the horrendous atrocities it is carrying out in its war against Chechnya. It describes that as an anti-terrorist war. In fact it is a murderous terrorist war itself. They’d love to have the United States support it.” He also stated: “The Russians invaded Chechnya, destroyed Grozny, carried out massacres, terror.” These statements were easy to find, further evidence that the Chomsky critics are encouraging a false, misleading and superficial understanding of Chomsky’s views. They could have simply googled: “Chomsky’s critique of Russia” as I did.
Let us turn to Chomsky’s interview on April 14 with Jeremy Scahill in The Intercept which the authors make much of. There Chomsky stated: “I think that support for Ukraine’s effort to defend itself is legitimate. If it is, of course, it has to be carefully scaled, so that it actually improves their situation and doesn’t escalate the conflict, to lead to destruction of Ukraine and possibly beyond sanctions against the aggressor, or appropriate just as sanctions against Washington would have been appropriate when it invaded Iraq, or Afghanistan, or many other cases.” Here Chomsky supports the agency of Ukrainians in contrast to the impression left by Kurharskyy and colleagues.
Even if Chomsky does support Ukrainian agency (or parts of its claims to sovereignty), this does not mean that Ukrainians’ ability and capacity to do things has nothing to do with U.S. support. Chomsky never has said that it is undesirable for most of Ukraine to be independent from Russia. Rather, Chomsky has argued that the U.S. has complicated if not blocked an authentic negotiation process (and he raises questions about what may be the relative preference in diplomacy compared to continuing the war).
The New York Times recently stated in an editorial (May 19, 2022): “Is the United States, for example, trying to help bring an end to this conflict, through a settlement that would allow for a sovereign Ukraine and some kind of relationship between the United States and Russia? Or is the United States now trying to weaken Russia permanently? Has the administration’s goal shifted to destabilizing Vladimir Putin or having him removed? Does the United States intend to hold Mr. Putin accountable as a war criminal? Or is the goal to try to avoid a wider war — and if so, how does crowing about providing U.S. intelligence to kill Russians and sink one of their ships achieve this? Without clarity on these questions, the White House not only risks losing Americans’ interest in supporting Ukrainians — who continue to suffer the loss of lives and livelihoods — but also jeopardizes long-term peace and security on the European continent.”
In any case, the Ukrainian government may have all the “agency” in the world regarding their willingness to detach from Russia’s sphere of influence, but they could not attempt to do so in the matter they have done so (to date) without the U.S.’s influence and encouragement. Any argument to the contrary is patently absurd. And if Ukraine has the right to be independent, they are still a pawn in a U.S. government gambit aimed at Russia. I have analyzed the limits to Ukrainian sovereignty, agency or autonomy in various places, including an earlier essay related to arguments by Gilbert Achcar and Daniel Marwecki. These arguments relate to how Ukraine’s ability to act can’t be clearly separated by actions made by other states, e.g. in arm sales, or how parts of the Ukraine conflict have elements of a civil war. Despite all this neither Chomsky nor I argue that Ukraine does not have the right to defend itself. Rather, the larger consideration is factors that might motivate certain parties to act in certain ways, with these ways having consequences for negotiations or the course of the war itself.
In a guest essay for The New York Times (May 11, 2022), Tom Stevenson wrote: “the United States and its allies have also shifted their position. At first, the Western support for Ukraine was mainly designed to defend against the invasion. It is now set on a far grander ambition: to weaken Russia itself. Presented as a common-sense response to Russian aggression, the shift, in fact, amounts to a significant escalation. By expanding support to Ukraine across the board and shelving any diplomatic effort to stop the fighting, the United States and its allies have greatly increased the danger of an even larger conflict. They are taking a risk far out of step with any realistic strategic gain.” Stevenson’s arguments (and statements by Biden officials if not Biden himself) lead to the impression that Ukraine has become a pawn of U.S. military expansionist interests. More precisely, (a) Ukraine is fighting for independence, (b) is part of a civil war in Donbass, and (c) it gains support from the United States government but this support is tied to objectives other than simply defending Ukraine. These three things can occur simultaneously but Gorodnichenko and colleagues think if you assert (b) or (c), you negate (a). The real story is far more complicated. Ukraine is not simply a pawn of U.S. interests and neither Chomsky nor I assert that.
Conclusions on Claim 2: The critics appear to conflate the rights of Ukraine and a rebuttal about whether the country is simply a free agent independent of U.S. designs. It is hard to see how Ukraine could be entirely autonomous from the preferences of its largest benefactor and it is clear that the U.S. is using the conflict in Ukraine for goals other than simply protecting Ukraine or bringing the conflict to a quicker end. Negotiations without the U.S.’s active and constructive input are unlikely to lead anywhere. Such constructive input requires concessions. All diplomacy requires concessions and peace often requires sacrifice. In contrast, keeping your autonomy going at all costs is another way to keep a war going despite its costs. Some even argue that right-wing nationalist forces in Ukraine aligned with the U.S. help constrain diplomatic solutions. Here is what Andrew E. Kramer wrote in The New York Times on February 10, 2022 in an article entitled, “Armed Nationalists in Ukraine Pose a Threat Not Just to Russia”: “Kyiv is encouraging the arming of nationalist paramilitary groups to thwart a Russian invasion. But they could also destabilize the government if it agrees to a peace deal they reject.”
Claim 3: Chomsky claims that Russia was threatened by NATO
The critics write: “In your interviews, you are eager to bring up the alleged promise by [US Secretary of State] James Baker and President George H.W. Bush to Gorbachev that, if he agreed to allow a unified Germany to rejoin NATO, the U.S. would ensure that NATO would move ‘not one inch eastward.’ First, please note that the historicity of this promise is highly contested among scholars, although Russia has been active in promoting it. The premise is that NATO’s eastward expansion left Putin with no other choice but to attack.”
In contrast to the frame of these critics, Chomsky argues that NATO expansion may have motivated Putin or the escalation of violence, but he never argues that Putin did not have other choices. Chomsky’s views differ from those of John Joseph Mearsheimer whose arguments center more on NATO expansion than Russia’s independent role in projecting war and violence. While Mearsheimer could be used to deny Putin’s responsibility and the agency of the Russian warfare state, downplaying NATO agency in provoking Russia is a similarly flawed position. NATO expansion at the very least can be deployed to legitimate Putin’s actions among various Russian elite actors (even if there is a dissenting movement and even if the action is not legitimate in moral terms). One has to distinguish between sociological (public support) and philosophical (justifiable according to ethical considerations) legitimacy. Uriel Abuhoff in The British Journal of Sociology (Vol. 67, 2016: 371-39) explains that: “Political philosophy regards legitimacy as principled justification, sociology regards legitimacy as public support.”
Gorodnichenko and colleagues imply, however, that NATO expansion is irrelevant to Putin’s considerations. Let us consider that there are various claims made by scholars. For example, Mark Kramer and Joshua R. Itzkowitz Shifrinson wrote separate commentaries in the series, “NATO Enlargement–Was There a Promise?,” in International Affairs, Vol. 42, Issue 1, 2017: 186–192.
In this exchange, Kramer referred to his earlier research: “In an article published in April 2009, I set out to determine whether it was true that, at some point during the 1990 negotiations on Germany, Soviet leaders received a promise that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) would not eventually grant membership to countries beyond the German Democratic Republic (GDR). In the latter half of the 1990s, I frequently heard from Russian officials and from some Western observers that NATO leaders in 1990 had secretly offered ‘categorical assurances,’ ‘solemn pledges,’ and ‘binding commitments’ that no former Warsaw Pact countries (aside from the former GDR) would be brought into NATO. Those allegations continue to be voiced in Russia to this day. Archival documents bearing on those claims were declassified in Germany in the 1990s, but it took much longer for relevant Soviet documents to be released. However, after crucial Soviet materials…became available in the late 2000s, including detailed notes from the negotiations, I sought to determine whether the Russian allegations are well founded. I concluded that they are not. The declassified negotiating records reveal that no such assurances or pledges were ever offered.”
Shrifrinson questions Kramer’s views in his accompanying essay. He writes: “the fact that U.S. and West German leaders discussed in January 1990 how the Soviet Union needed assurances against NATO expansion into East Germany or ‘anywhere else in Eastern Europe,’ before offering Soviet leaders terms in February 1990 premised on this broad non-expansion conception, shows that policymakers were aware of the broader geographic and strategic impact of the 1990 negotiations. Likewise, Kramer argues that the absence of subsequent East-West negotiations on NATO’s future in Eastern Europe demonstrates that policymakers were focused narrowly on the future of Germany. Internal documents suggest, however, that U.S. silence was part of a gambit to let the Soviets believe that prior non-expansion assurances remained in effect while Washington moved to incorporate an U.S.-dominated post–Cold War order.”
Shrifrinson’s approach is backed up by Spiegel International in an essay published in February 2022: “Luckily, there are plenty of documents available from the various countries that took part in the talks, including memos from conversations, negotiation transcripts and reports. According to those documents, the U.S., the UK and Germany signaled to the Kremlin that a NATO membership of countries like Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic was out of the question. In March 1991, British Prime Minister John Major promised during a visit to Moscow that ‘nothing of the sort will happen.’ Yeltsin expressed significant displeasure when the step was ultimately taken. He gave his approval for NATO’s eastward expansion in 1997, but complained that he was only doing so because the West had forced him to.”
The National Security Archive has also weighed in on the matter, backing Shrifrinson’s approach as well: “U.S. Secretary of State James Baker’s famous ‘not one inch eastward’ assurance about NATO expansion in his meeting with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev on February 9, 1990, was part of a cascade of assurances about Soviet security given by Western leaders to Gorbachev and other Soviet officials throughout the process of German unification in 1990 and on into 1991, according to declassified U.S., Soviet, German, British and French documents posted…by the National Security Archive at George Washington University. The documents show that multiple national leaders were considering and rejecting Central and Eastern European membership in NATO as of early 1990 and through 1991, that discussions of NATO in the context of German unification negotiations in 1990 were not at all narrowly limited to the status of East German territory, and that subsequent Soviet and Russian complaints about being misled about NATO expansion were founded in written contemporaneous memcons and telcons at the highest levels.”
In the National Security Archive document, “Record of conversation between Mikhail Gorbachev and James Baker in Moscow,” dated February 9, 1990, Baker tells his Soviet hosts: “NATO is the mechanism for securing the U.S. presence in Europe. If NATO is liquidated, there will be no such mechanism in Europe. We understand that not only for the Soviet Union but for other European countries as well it is important to have guarantees that if the United States keeps its presence in Germany within the framework of NATO, not an inch of NATO’s present military jurisdiction will spread in an eastern direction. We believe that consultations and discussions within the framework of the ‘two + four’ mechanism should guarantee that Germany’s unification will not lead to NATO’s military organization spreading to the east.”
In “The United States and the NATO Non-extension Assurances of 1990: New Light on an Old Problem?,” published in International Security, 45(3), 2021: 162–203, Marc Trachtenberg writes: “The Russian government has claimed that the Western powers promised at the end of the Cold War not to expand NATO, but later reneged on that promise…An examination of the debate in light of the evidence—especially evidence that the participants themselves have presented—leads to the conclusion that the Russian allegations are by no means baseless, which affects how the U.S.-Russian relationship today is to be understood.”
In NATO’s account of its relationship to Ukraine, we find that: (a) Ukraine has “actively” contributed “to NATO-led operations and missions”; (b) “In June 2017, the Ukrainian Parliament adopted legislation reinstating membership in NATO as a strategic foreign and security policy objective,” with “a corresponding amendment to Ukraine’s Constitution” entering “into force” in 2019; and (c) “President Volodymyr Zelensky approved Ukraine’s new National Security Strategy,” which provided “for the development of the distinctive partnership with NATO with the aim of membership in NATO” in September 2020.
Conclusions on Claim 3: Gorodnichenko and colleagues appear to have sided with the weaker side in an academic dispute, yet cover for this by noting that not all agree. Of course, there are always those with weaker arguments who don’t agree with those with stronger arguments. The critics conflate sociological legitimacy (how Putin could utilize NATO expansion as part of his realist if not militarist project) with philosophical legitimacy (whether it is morally justifiable to attack another state when fearing NATO expansion). Some will argue that NATO expansion or Ukraine’s actions in Donbass justify Russia’s actions. Chomsky has not made that argument. A key problem, however, is that a party to a conflict may be a victim of unwarranted aggression but still take specific actions that increase the probability that they will be a victim of such aggression. One can argue against the wisdom or virtue of these specific actions without justifying the aggression.
One of the supporters of the original letter (from Twitter, May 27, 2022)
Claim 4: Chomsky States that the U.S. isn’t any better than Russia
Here the authors write that even if Chomsky described the “Russian invasion of Ukraine a ‘war crime,’” it appeared to them that one could not “do so without naming in the same breath all of the past atrocities committed by the U.S. abroad (e.g., in Iraq or Afghanistan) and, ultimately,” Chomsky was described as spending “most” of his time “discussing the latter.” They go on to say that “not bringing Putin up on war crime charges at the International Criminal Court in the Hague just because some past leader did not receive similar treatment would be the wrong conclusion to draw from any historical analogy.” They see great advantage in “prosecuting Putin for the war crimes that are being deliberately committed in Ukraine” as that “would set an international precedent for the world leaders attempting to do the same in the future.”
There are several problems with this line of argument. First, there is often a tradeoff between what is required for diplomacy and negotiations on the one hand and what may be legally or morally justifiable on the other hand related to the treatment of a specific individual (this partially relates to the distinction made between different kinds of legitimacy). If the opportunity cost of failing to negotiate (assuming success is possible) is greater than the cost of letting a world leader off the hook, then prosecuting a single leader is potentially a limited symbolic gesture. To prosecute just Russian war criminals and not U.S. ones would reduce war crime prosecution to a political gesture as opposed to a moral (lesson advancing) gesture in my view. As a result, also or equally bringing up U.S. war criminals and crimes becomes highly relevant.
A second consideration is that Ukraine is being aided by a military system which historically been associated with committing war crimes in Afghanistan, Iraq, Vietnam, Central America and elsewhere. Ukraine being aided by that system while trying to prosecute Putin is potentially hypocritical. This does not mean that Ukraine does not have the right to self-defense. This does not mean that Putin is not a war criminal. If Putin were to leave office after a regime not sympathetic to him took office, then there might be some consideration of prosecuting him. Yet, even if that were to happen, it would be probably far off in time (and thus would have less utility) from the period of immediate gains from a diplomatic engagement (which of course requires Putin’s involvement). Just prosecuting Putin and letting U.S. war criminals off the hook would help to further legitimate certain war criminals.
Some relevant considerations to these points can be found in the statements of Nina Khrushcheva, professor of international affairs at the New School, in an interview with Amy Goodman and Nermeen Shaikh on Democracy Now (May 19, 2022). She stated: “So I think the United States, it doesn’t seem to be interested, or at least I haven’t seen any interest in…[a]…negotiated position, because they do think Ukraine can win or should win, but also, as one of the anchors, American anchors, TV anchors, told me, is that: ‘How do we get rid of Putin?’ And my response was, ‘We may not, because it’s not a Hollywood movie.’ I mean, you know, not everything ends with a Marvel character victory. But it does seem that the United States thinks that Ukraine should be supported in its war effort, not its negotiation effort, until the very end, because the victories of Ukraine or not defeats of Ukraine are much greater than originally was expected.” So a unilateral prosecution of Putin could be leveraged as a propaganda victory to bolster the U.S. position of not supporting negotiations.
Conclusions on Claim 4: The prosecution of Putin while giving a pass to U.S. war criminals would be utter hypocrisy and would leverage the Ukraine tragedy as part of a whitewash of U.S. (or other nation’s) war crimes. This would potentially lead any criminalization of Putin to become part of a morally ambiguous enterprise at best. Of course the counterfactual argument is that Russia never wants to negotiate and will not negotiate. This claim is not true. The counter argument to the counterfactual is that the Russians won’t negotiate in good faith (or to the fullest extent possible towards reaching a solution) if the U.S. is not involved in an authentic way.
Claim 5: Chomsky is whitewashing Putin’s goals for invading Ukraine
Gorodnichenko and colleagues argue here that Chomsky goes “to great lengths to rationalize Putin’s goals of ‘demilitarization’ and ‘neutralization’ of Ukraine.” They continue: “‘Demilitarization’ and ‘neutralization’ imply the same goal – without weapons Ukraine will not be able to defend itself.”
My response to this argument is as follows. Putin may have multiple objectives (Gorodnichenko and colleagues also bring up the denazification argument) in Ukraine. One of these objectives would be for Ukraine to not align itself with NATO and not gain sophisticated or extensive weapons which could be used against Russia. If Putin has these objectives and Chomsky identifies these, then that does not mean that Chomsky believes that Ukraine should unilaterally disarm. Chomsky and others have discussed neutrality as part of a diplomatic solution to the conflict, with the potential gains of neutrality being an end to Russian attacks on Ukraine. Peace negotiations usually require concessions by both sides, not one side. Disarmament (and arms control) treaties are based on mutually sanctioned negotiations about military disengagement involving the various parties to the treaties. The authors have again distorted a diagnosis with other claims by falsely conflating an analysis of some of Putin’s considerations with sanctioning Putin’s actions. This ploy is disingenuous.
Gorodnichenko and colleagues may believe that Putin’s denazification arguments are a recipe for destroying Ukraine and Ukraine must defend itself from this destruction. They write: “As elaborated in the ‘denazification manual’ published by the Russian official press agency RIA Novosti, a ‘Nazi’ is simply a human being who self-identifies as Ukrainian, the establishment of a Ukrainian state thirty years ago was the ‘Nazification of Ukraine,’ and any attempt to build such a state has to be a ‘Nazi’ act.” There is no doubt that conflating all Ukrainians with Nazis is a tactic of Putin, although Ukraine does have a considerable Nazi presence. Others who may claim to be on the left term the Ukrainian government Nazi, but neither Chomsky nor I belong to that camp.
The underlying question here, however, is whether Putin will: a) hold out until he destroys all of Ukraine, b) is mostly concerned with Donbass or Eastern Ukraine where Ukrainian Nazis have been active, or c) would dispense with his concern for Nazis and Ukraine’s elimination if he got the settlement he wanted. Related to this last point, we can return to Nina Khrushcheva. She stated in the aforementioned interview: “when the negotiations were seemingly doing OK, the Russians withdrew from the areas of Kyiv. And that was — you know, for the Russians, they say it was the idea that they’re just going to help negotiations, but it was taken by the Ukrainian side and the American side as the Russian defeat, and then the more weapons went into Ukraine.” So, one scenario is that the Russians have considered negotiating, not simply destroying all of Ukraine. Nations like Italy, Austria, and Germany as well as Ukraine itself have made diplomatic proposals at various times during the conflict.
Conclusions on Claim 5: The authors don’t really offer any convincing evidence about Chomsky’s views about Putin’s intentions. Chomsky notes some of these intentions which the author’s conflate with Chomsky’s assessment of all of Putin’s intentions. The authors don’t seem to acknowledge how Ukraine’s complicated history of deepening its NATO cooperation undermined their own country’s security. The counter-argument that Russia’s invasion of Ukraine proved the need for Ukraine to be in NATO makes little sense because various countries have been neutral and bordered Russia and were not attacked during the postwar settlement, i.e. Finland. I have argued elsewhere against the embrace of NATO as some kind of liberatory network.
The counterargument (against the Finnish example) is that Russia helped separatists in Donbass (and thus intervened militarily against Ukraine). The response to this counterargument is that the Ukrainian government and military themselves engaged in unjustified or greater than warranted militarist attacks against civilians in Donbass as others have explained (see: Renfrey Clarke in his essay, “The Donbass in 2014: Ultra-Right Threats, Working-Class Revolution, and Russian Policy Responses,” in the book Russia, Ukraine and Contemporary Imperialism, edited by Boris Kagarlitsky, Radhika Desai and Alan Freeman, Routledge, 2017 and 2019, some of which I have summarized elsewhere). In addition, one might argue that Ukrainian agreements with NATO differ from Finnish agreements with NATO, but even if that argument did not hold up, Finland’s internal dealings have not involved severe provocations of some of its Russian speaking population.
Finally, the Donbass war took place in 2014. Ukraine moved towards NATO far in advance of that date according to NATO: “Relations were strengthened with the signing of the 1997 Charter on a Distinctive Partnership, which established the NATO-Ukraine Commission (NUC) to take cooperation forward.” Therefore, one can’t use the Donbass conflict as a reason for why Ukraine moved towards NATO. One would have to refer to Russian aggressions earlier than 2014, but then again parts of Ukrainian history also involve a checkered past.
Claim 6: Chomsky argues that Putin seeks a diplomatic solution
Gorodnichenko and colleagues make their clearest claims in this complaint. Let us quote from their original letter: “we find it preposterous how [Chomsky] repeatedly assign the blame for not reaching this settlement to Ukraine (for not offering Putin some ‘escape hatch’) or the U.S. (for supposedly insisting on the military rather than diplomatic solution) instead of the actual aggressor, who has repeatedly and intentionally bombed civilians, maternity wards, hospitals, and humanitarian corridors during those very ‘negotiations’. Given the escalatory rhetoric (cited above) of the Russian state media, Russia’s goal is erasure and subjugation of Ukraine, not a ‘diplomatic solution.’”
This statement suffers from a number of problems. First, Chomsky has argued that diplomacy should be tried, but offers no guarantees that such attempts will be successful. Second, the authors conflate the desire for diplomacy (something shared by multiple states including Ukraine) with somehow sanctioning Putin. This conflation is absurd.
Chomsky has stated (as quoted in The Daily Star, May 27, 2022: “One option is to pursue the policy we are now following…to fight Russia to the last Ukrainian. And yes, we can pursue that policy with the possibility of nuclear war. Or we can face the reality that the only alternative is a diplomatic settlement, which will be ugly – it will give Putin and his narrow circle an escape hatch.”
We have several key parties to this conflict: Russia, the United States and Ukraine. If the latter two do not make attempts to reach a negotiated settlement, then Russia will continue using military means until it gets what it wants. The a priori conclusion idea that diplomacy will not change the calculus of what Russia wants is a very risky proposition. Chomsky argues that diplomacy must be tested (properly) because the risks of continuing the war are very high for various parties, none the least Ukraine itself. The United States has put a lot of pressure to motivate Putin through sanctions, but this means little if the United States and Ukraine don’t make reduction of sanctions and some concessions as part of their diplomatic moves to end the war.
Essentially a key question here is whether war should be continued as various states assess the benefits of gaining or regaining territory, i.e. will the future be decided on the battle field or in diplomatic solutions? As Nina Khrushcheva stated: “It’s not clear whether the negotiations will rise up again, because, for now, it seems to me that both sides appear to want to have more military victories, or small victories as they are…” Some in the Ukrainian government may think that the military route will benefit them, that Russia will not negotiate, and that the U.S. has no influence on Russia. The risks and costs of the conflict, in contrast, require good faith attempts at diplomacy. Right now Khrushcheva and others argue that the U.S. prefers regime change or weakening Russia. Ukraine’s preferences are not the only considerations that must be considered as I have argued elsewhere.
Conclusions on Claim 6: The authors are in denial about the Biden Administration’s real agenda in Ukraine. This agenda shapes Russian calculations. Therefore, the authors are in partial denial about Russia’s calculations. The authors underplay the opportunity cost of the war to Ukraine and other areas affected by this conflict. Their argument rests on the notion that Putin does not want diplomacy. This notion is belied by Russian participation in negotiations and begs the question about how authentic negotiations have been subverted by the United States, something that now seems to come close to the concerns of The New York Times. Finally, when the Trump Administration tried to hold up or delay weapons shipments to Ukraine, we saw clearly how Ukraine was manipulated by the United States for potential domestic gain of the U.S. leader. There is nothing new here. Even if Russia has failed to negotiate in good faith, so has the United States. To reach a diplomatic solution, which is always preferable to war, requires doing more than identifying who does not negotiate in good faith. Diplomatic agreements are supported by verification systems which are designed to see if parties cheat, lie or violate terms of an agreement.
Claim 7: Chomsky advocates that yielding to Russian demands is the way to avert a nuclear war
This argument rests on the idea that Russia wants to destroy Ukraine and that is their ultimate objective. In contrast, Russia’s strategy is to bombard Ukraine until it gets what it wants, part of that country’s brutal military approach to statecraft. There is a nuanced difference here which is significant. Russia’s attacks on Ukraine are a means to an end, even if some military actions or senseless violence make violence in Ukraine by Russia an end in itself. Chomsky argues for negotiation which by definition involves concessions by both sides. The authors simply pick out one part of Chomsky’s understanding of diplomacy and throw out the other.
Conclusions on Claim 7: The general pattern of the authors is to take one part of an argument and displace or ignore the other part of an argument. Or the authors create axioms about Russian intentions which they don’t prove (or attempt to prove with partial evidence) and then deduce everything from the non-proven intentions, i.e. Russia simply wants to destroy Ukraine and has no other objectives. Chomsky, like others, tries to understand what might motivate Russia so as to promote a diplomatic solution. The risks of not pursuing such a solution might be ignored by the critics because the authors conveniently assume that diplomacy is impossible. Meanwhile we see that one default move is that Russia and Ukraine both try to resolve the conflict with weapons and territorial conquests.
The idea that the United States could not seriously change the rules of the game is absurd. Therefore, the authors prefer to argue (or perhaps seem to argue) that the United States should not try to change the rules of the game. Why would Russia negotiate when the country leading the sanctions movement does not want to make lifting them a key item in diplomatic engagement? I do not write this because I sympathize with Russia. I don’t sympathize with brutal military states. Rather, I try to understand how they operate and how they could be encouraged to take a less brutal path. That is my impression of Chomsky’s approach.
One has to consider many factors in this war: Ukrainian sovereignty, Russian militarist aggression, local regional preferences in areas once controlled by Ukraine, U.S. and NATO militarist expansion, the requirements of diplomacy, the risks of escalation, etc. By focusing solely on the first two factors, one can develop all kinds of indicators and arguments which beg the question about the other factors. Even if we were to assume that Putin is presently disinclined to negotiate (or negotiates in bad faith), what will Ukraine and Zelensky do after the United States decides to stop paying billions to keep the war going, growing tired of the costs of its militaristic solidarity?
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Since it has become clear that ethanol and biodiesel made from food crops are doing more harm than good, the hope for finding a substitute for oil has shifted to algae and cellulose. If we can believe the advocates of this ‘second generation’ of biofuels, these combustibles will deliver way more energy than it takes to make them, without threatening the world’s food and water supplies. Upon taking a closer look, however, this is very hard to believe. They might even cause bigger problems than biofuels made from food crops. Maybe this time around we could sort this out before the damage gets done?
The biofuel disaster
Just two years ago, ethanol and biodiesel were heralded by almost everybody as a green substitute for oil. Today, almost everybody realizes that it is a foolish idea. Several studies have confirmed by now that it takes as much or even more energy to produce biofuels than they can deliver themselves.
That’s because the crops have to be planted, fertilized, harvested, transported, and converted into fuel, all processes that require fossil energy. If one also takes into account the land that is cleared to plant the energy crops, biofuels have become an extra source of greenhouse gases, while they were meant to lower them. Biofuels also helped to fuel a rise in food prices by competing for agricultural land. And very recently it also became clear that their production poisons water bodies.
In spite of this horrible record, both the European Union and the United States keep encouraging ethanol and biodiesel, mainly with the excuse that there is a ‘second generation’ of green fuels on the way, particularly cellulosic ethanol and algal fuel, which have no harmful effects. Sadly, this promises to be another dangerous illusion.
Cellulosic ethanol disaster
It is too early to say whether or not cellulosic ethanol can ever be produced with a net energy gain as a result – at the moment, it is impossible. We can only hope that scientists will never succeed, because what we do know for sure is that cellulosic ethanol will be an even larger threat to the world’s food supply than the first generation of biofuels.
Cellulosic ethanol is not made from the edible parts of crops, but from their stalks, roots and leaves. It can also be made of non-edible plants, like switchgrass. Therefore, at first sight, it seems unlikely that turning cellulose into fuel could present a danger for agriculture. However, there is one, literally invisible problem: the soil.
In nature, the concept of waste does not exist. The so-called “waste” that we plan to transform into fuel, is an essential element to keep the soil productive. Leaves, twigs and stalks are decomposed by underground organisms, which turn it into humus that can feed a next generation of plants.
If you take away this material, the soil will become less and less fertile until all you are left with is a desert. Of course, this process can be offset by adding more and more artificial fertilizers. But, here’s the rub: fertilizers are made from fossil fuels. Almost 30 percent of energy use in agriculture is attributed to fertilizer production (both their production process and their content). This means that the more energy we produce from cellulose, the more energy we will need to keep the soil fertile. In short: this makes no sense.
The first generation of biofuels might endanger the world’s food supply, but that process is reversible. We can decide at any moment to change our minds and use the corn to make food instead of fuel. A similar deployment of cellulosic fuels would destroy our agricultural soils, without any chance to repair them afterwards. We will have mined the soil – a process that is irreversible, because when the soil becomes too exhausted, even fertilizers are of no help. Cellulosic ethanol is a dangerous illusion. And if you don’t believe me, ask any soil scientist.
Nevertheless, as was announced earlier this week, the first cellulosic ethanol plant is scheduled to start working in 2009 (even despite the fact that scientists agree that a net energy gain is not yet possible).
The algae fuel disaster
Also earlier this week, the first algal fuel production facility went online and that generated lots of excitement. If we can believe the hype, it will not take long before we drive our cars and fly our planes on fuel made by algae. The figures sound impressive. Algae are expected to be able to produce 10,000 gallons of fuel per acre per year (some say 20,000 gallons), compared to 700 gallons for palm oil and less than 100 gallons for corn and soy.
Algae could also be used as a jet fuel and as a source to make plastics and detergents. Moreover, all this can be done with nothing more than sunlight and CO2 – and without the need for any potable water. If algal fuel plants are placed next to fossil fuel plants, as some companies are planning to do, the algae could even capture the CO2 from the emissions of the coal or gas plant. As one ecogeek summarized; “Welcome to the future, where single-celled plants eat our pollution and power our cars.”
There are very detailed figures on the amount of energy that will come out of the process, yet it is very hard to find any information on the energy and resources needed to make this energy output possible.
This sounds too good to be true. If you take a closer look at the claims of these companies, essential information seems to be missing. They present very detailed figures on the amount of energy that will come out of the process, yet it is very hard if not impossible to find any information on the energy and resources needed to make this energy output possible.
If algae don’t produce more energy than it takes to produce them, driving cars on algal fuel does not make much sense. And if they also use resources that are needed by agriculture, the game might not be worth the candle. These are important questions, as we have learned from the ethanol and biodiesel fiasco, yet nobody seems to wait for the answers.
Water in the desert
Algae have higher photosynthetic efficiencies than most plants, and they grow much faster. Up to 50 percent of their body weight is oil, compared to about 20 percent for oil-palm trees. They don’t need fertile ground, so that they can be grown on soil that is not suitable for agriculture.
All this sounds very good, but algae also need a few things, most notably: a lot of sunshine and massive amounts of water. To grow algae, you also need phosphorus (besides other minerals), an element that is very much needed by agriculture.
Most algae are grown in brackish or salt water. That sounds as if water is no issue, since our planet has not a shortage of salt water. However, just like solar energy plants, algae plants are best located in very sunny regions, like deserts. But, in deserts, and in very sunny places in general, there is not much water to find. That’s not a problem for solar plants, because they don’t need it. But, how are you going to get seawater to your desert algae plant? Check the websites of all these companies: not a word about it.
There are not that many possibilities. You can transport seawater to the desert, but that’s going to cost you an awful lot of energy, probably more than what can be produced by the algae. You can also take freshwater from more nearby regions or underground aquifers and turn it into artificial seawater. But, you promised that algal fuel would not compete with food production. A third option is to put your algae plant next to the sea.
Algae need a lot of sunshine and huge amounts of water - how do you get seawater to the desert?
Now, there are places which are both close to the sea and have lots of sun. But chances are slim that they are as cheap and abandoned like deserts are. Most likely, they are already filled up with tourists and hotels, to name one possibility. So you might be forced to look for a less sunny place close to the sea – which inevitably means that your energy efficiency is going down. Which again raises the question: will the algae deliver more fuel than is needed to make them?
How much water does algae production need? This information is nowhere to find. “A lot” would be a good bet for an answer, since it’s not enough to fill up the ponds or tanks just once. The water has to be supplemented regularly. Being able to produce 10,000 gallons of fuel per acre per year might sound impressive, but what really counts is how many gallons of fuel you can produce with a certain amount of water.
The water issue is not the only “detail” that threatens the energy efficiency of algal fuel. Compared to other plants, the photosynthetic efficiency of algae is high – almost 3 times that of sugar cane for instance. Compared to solar energy, however, the energy efficiency of algae is very low – around 1 percent, while solar panels have an efficiency of at least 10 percent, and solar thermal gets 20 percent and more.
So why would we choose algae over solar energy? One reason might be that it takes quite some energy to produce solar panels, while algae can be grown in an open shallow pond with nothing else but sunshine and CO2, which the organisms take from the atmosphere. You will still need energy to turn the algae into a liquid fuel, but other than that no energy input is needed.
However, these low-tech methods (comparable to growing corn, soy or palm trees to make ethanol or biodiesel) are being left behind for more efficient ones, using closed glass or polycarbonate bioreactors and an array of high-tech equipment to keep the algae in optimal conditions.
Even though some companies still prefer open ponds (like the PetroSun plant that started production last week), this method has serious drawbacks. The main problem is contamination by other kinds of algae and organisms, which can replace the energy producing algae in no time. Ponds also need a lot of space, because sunlight only penetrates the upper layers of a water body. It’s the surface of the pond that counts, not the depth.
The laws of physics
Transparent aquariums (called closed bio-reactors) solve all the problems of open ponds. These bioreactors can be placed inclined or suspended from the roof of a greenhouse so that they can catch more sun on a given surface. And since they are closed, no other organisms can enter. However, this method introduces a host of other issues. Bioreactors have a higher efficiency, but they also use considerably more energy.
First of all, you have to build an array of structures: the glass or polycarbonate containers themselves, the metal frames, the greenhouses. The production of all this equipment might consume less energy (and money) per square meter than the production of solar panels, but you need much more of it because algae are less efficient than solar plants.
Moreover, in closed bioreactors, CO2 has to be added artificially. This is done by bubbling air through the water by means of gas pumps, a process that needs energy. Furthermore, the containers have to be emptied and cleaned regularly, they have to be sterilized, the water has to be kept at a certain temperature, and minerals have to be added continuously (because also here, just as with cellulosic ethanol, “waste” materials are being removed). All these processes demand extra energy.
Are algal fuel producers taking these factors into account when they claim efficiencies that are 100 times higher than the ones from biodiesel and ethanol? Only they know. It could be that these businesses are greatly overestimating their energy gains in order to attract capital.
One of the few critics of algal fuel, Krassen Dimitrov, calculated that the figures of GreenFuel Technologies are defying the laws of physics. The company says that he is wrong, but his calculations surely look more convincing than the virtually non-existant information on their website (update May 2009: GreenFuel Technologies shuts down).
Feeding algae from smokestacks
Several companies plan to hook up their production facilities to a fossil fuel energy plant, in order to capture the CO2 and nitrogen emissions and “feed” them to the algae. This method is hailed as a way of reducing greenhouse gases emitted by coal and gas plants, which is a ridiculous claim. It’s very curious that this capturing technology is criticized when used in the context of “clean” coal, but applauded when it is used to make algal fuel. In both cases, capturing CO2 from smokestacks raises the energy use of the power plant by at least 20 percent.
It’s curious that capturing CO2 from power plants is criticized when used in the context of ‘clean’ coal, but applauded when it is used to make algal fuel.
That not only makes the technology very expensive, it also means that more coal or gas has to be mined, transported and burned. Algal fuel can even be considered a worse idea than “clean” coal. In the “clean” coal strategy, at least the CO2 is captured with the intention to store it underground.
In the case of algae, the CO2 is captured only with the intention to release in the air some time later, by a car engine. Last but not least, capturing CO2 from power plants ties algal fuel production to fossil fuels. If we switch to solar energy, where will the algal fuel producers get their CO2 from?
Outsourcing energy use
Are algae producers considering the extra use of energy that arises by the capture of the CO2 when they claim that algae can deliver 100 times more energy than first generation biofuels? This seems very doubtful. All these claims have one thing in common: they focus only on a small part of the total energy conversion chain.
A very good example is the story of Solazyme, a company that cultivates (genetically modified) algae in non-transparent steel containers, similar to those of breweries. In this case the algae do not get their energy from the sun, but from sugar that is fed to them. This method, says the company, makes them produce 1,000 times more oil than they do in sunlight, because sugar is a much more concentrated form of energy than sunlight.
But, where does the sugar come from? The researchers simply leave that part of the process out of their calculation, and nobody seems to care. Growing sugar cane of course requires significant amounts of energy, land and water.
In fact, by turning off photosynthesis, the researchers eliminate the only advantage of algae compared to other plants: their higher energetic efficiency. The photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is not even half that of algae, which means that if the whole energy chain would be considered, this process can only be worse than that of algae produced in transparent bioreactors.
Stop this madness
While the first generation of biofuels is wreaking havoc on the environment and the food markets, the second generation is getting ready to make things only worse. Behind the scenes, scientists are already working on the third generation, whatever that may be.
In five or ten years time, when it becomes clear that algal fuel is devouring our water and energy resources and cellulosic ethanol is mining our agricultural soils, we will be promised that the third generation will again solve all the problems of the previous generation.
Producing fuels out of food crops could be a useful and sustainable solution if our energy consumption would not be so ridiculously high
It might be a better solution to bury the whole idea of biofuels right here and now and focus on real solutions. The trouble with biofuels is not the technology, but our unrealistic expectations. Producing fuels out of food crops could be a useful and sustainable solution if our energy consumption would not be so ridiculously high.
All our habits, machines and toys are built upon an extremely concentrated form of energy, fossil oil, and trying to replace that fuel with a much less concentrated form is simply impossible. In 2003, Jeffrey Dukes calculated that 90 tons of prehistoric plants and algae were needed to build up one gallon of gasoline. We burn this amount of organic material to drive 25 miles to pick up some groceries.
In one year, the world burns up 400 years of prehistoric plant and algae material. How can we ever expect to fulfill even a small part of our fuel needs by counting on present plant and algae material? The problem we have to fix is our energy consumption. Biofuels, from whatever generation, only distract us from what really should be done.
Scientists warn of lack of vital phosphorus as biofuels raise demand (June 2008).
How much energy does it take to construct algal factories? Chris Rhodes from Energy Balance made an eye-opening calculation (November 2008).
The water footprint of bioenergy (April 2009): barley, cassava, maize, potato, rapeseed, rice, rye, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet, sugar cane, wheat and jatropha. Algal fuel is not included, but the results are significant. It takes 1,400 to 20,000 litres of water to produce 1 litre of biofuel.
Amid a sea of troubles, ethanol now has an antibiotics problem (April 2009).
GreenFuel Technologies shuts down. (May 2009)
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A “thesaurus experience” is the practice of using a thesaurus to enhance one’s vocabulary and writing skills. It involves exploring synonyms, antonyms, and related words to find the most precise and effective language for expressing oneself. By engaging in this practice, individuals can expand their vocabulary, improve their writing fluency, and enhance their overall communication abilities.
The benefits of a thesaurus experience are numerous. It can help writers find the perfect word to convey their intended meaning, enabling them to express themselves more clearly and concisely. Additionally, thesaurus use can stimulate creativity and inspire new ideas, as exploring different words and their nuances can spark fresh perspectives and insights. Furthermore, a thesaurus experience can be a valuable tool for students, researchers, and professionals who need to communicate complex ideas effectively.
To embark on a thesaurus experience, one can simply select a word and explore its synonyms, antonyms, and related terms. Many online and offline thesaurus resources are available, making it easy to access a wealth of vocabulary options. By regularly engaging in this practice, individuals can gradually expand their vocabulary and improve their writing skills.
Exploring the nuances of language through a thesaurus experience offers a multitude of benefits, enriching vocabulary and enhancing writing skills. Here are eight key aspects that highlight the significance and multifaceted nature of this practice:
- Synonym Exploration: Discovering alternative words with similar meanings, expanding vocabulary.
- Antonym Identification: Identifying words with opposite meanings, enhancing precision.
- Related Term Discovery: Finding words that share a semantic connection, fostering deeper understanding.
- Vocabulary Expansion: Acquiring new words and their shades of meaning, broadening communication abilities.
- Writing Fluency Enhancement: Accessing a wider range of words, enabling smoother and more expressive writing.
- Creative Stimulation: Inspiring fresh ideas and perspectives, igniting imagination.
- Communication Clarity: Choosing the most precise words, conveying messages effectively.
- Professional Development: Enhancing communication skills for students, researchers, and professionals.
Engaging in a thesaurus experience involves exploring the aforementioned aspects, delving into the intricate tapestry of language. By regularly consulting a thesaurus, individuals can refine their writing, expand their vocabulary, and unlock the power of words to communicate their ideas with clarity and impact.
Synonym exploration, a cornerstone of the thesaurus experience, plays a pivotal role in vocabulary expansion. By uncovering alternative words with similar meanings, individuals can broaden their linguistic repertoire and enhance their communication abilities.
- Enriching Word Choice: Synonyms offer a spectrum of options to convey the same idea, enabling writers to choose the most precise and effective word for their purpose.
- Nuance and Subtlety: Synonyms often carry subtle differences in meaning or connotation, allowing writers to convey complex ideas with greater precision and depth.
- Avoiding Repetition: Exploring synonyms helps writers avoid repetitive language, enhancing the flow and readability of their writing.
- Expanding Vocabulary: Regular synonym exploration exposes writers to new words and their meanings, gradually expanding their vocabulary and overall language proficiency.
The thesaurus experience facilitates synonym exploration by providing a comprehensive collection of synonyms for a given word. By delving into the nuances and variations of language, writers can harness the power of synonyms to elevate their writing and express themselves with greater clarity and impact.
Antonym identification, a crucial component of the thesaurus experience, plays a pivotal role in enhancing writing precision and clarity. By identifying words with opposite meanings, writers can effectively contrast and compare ideas, highlight distinctions, and emphasize specific aspects of their writing.
The thesaurus experience facilitates antonym identification by providing a comprehensive list of antonyms for a given word. This allows writers to explore the full spectrum of opposing meanings, enabling them to select the most appropriate antonym to convey their intended message. The ability to identify antonyms is particularly valuable in the following scenarios:
- Creating Contrasts: Antonyms help writers create striking contrasts, juxtaposing opposing ideas or qualities to enhance the impact of their writing.
- Highlighting Distinctions: By using antonyms, writers can emphasize the subtle distinctions between similar concepts, ensuring that their messages are precise and unambiguous.
- Emphasizing Specific Aspects: Antonyms allow writers to emphasize specific aspects of a topic by contrasting them with their opposites, bringing certain qualities or characteristics into sharp focus.
The thesaurus experience empowers writers to harness the power of antonyms, enabling them to write with greater precision, clarity, and impact. By exploring the vast array of antonyms available through a thesaurus, writers can elevate their writing to new heights, effectively conveying their ideas and leaving a lasting impression on their readers.
Related Term Discovery
In the realm of thesaurus experiences, related term discovery stands as a cornerstone, enabling a profound comprehension of language and its intricate tapestry. By uncovering words that share a semantic connection, individuals embark on a journey of linguistic exploration, unearthing new facets of meaning and expanding their understanding of the written word.
- Enhancing Semantic Networks: Related terms help build robust semantic networks in the mind, connecting words and concepts that share common threads, fostering a deeper understanding of how language represents the world around us.
- Unveiling Hidden Connections: By exploring related terms, individuals uncover hidden connections between words and ideas, revealing the underlying structure and organization of language, leading to a more comprehensive grasp of its intricacies.
- Expanding Vocabulary: Related term discovery enriches vocabulary by introducing new words that share a semantic field, broadening the linguistic repertoire and empowering individuals to express themselves with greater precision and nuance.
- Contextual Understanding: Understanding related terms provides context for unfamiliar words and concepts, allowing individuals to grasp their meaning within a broader semantic framework, fostering a deeper comprehension of written text.
The thesaurus experience, through its focus on related term discovery, offers a gateway to a deeper understanding of language, its structure, and its expressive power. By unraveling the semantic connections that bind words together, individuals embark on a journey of linguistic enlightenment, expanding their vocabulary, enhancing their comprehension, and unlocking new possibilities for self-expression.
Vocabulary expansion lies at the heart of the thesaurus experience, as it empowers individuals to acquire new words and delve into their subtle nuances, thereby broadening their communication abilities. The thesaurus serves as a treasure trove of words and their synonyms, antonyms, and related terms, enabling users to explore the vast tapestry of language and enrich their vocabulary.
By engaging in the thesaurus experience, individuals embark on a journey of linguistic discovery, uncovering new words that expand their expressive range and enhance their ability to convey their thoughts and ideas with precision and clarity. The acquisition of new words not only broadens their vocabulary but also deepens their understanding of the language’s structure and organization.
Furthermore, the thesaurus experience fosters an appreciation for the shades of meaning that words possess. By exploring synonyms and related terms, individuals gain insights into the subtle distinctions between words, enabling them to use language with greater precision and impact. This expanded vocabulary and nuanced understanding empower them to communicate more effectively in various contexts, from academic writing to everyday conversations.
In conclusion, the thesaurus experience plays a pivotal role in vocabulary expansion, providing a gateway to new words and their shades of meaning. By harnessing the power of the thesaurus, individuals can broaden their communication abilities, express themselves with greater precision and clarity, and navigate the nuances of language with confidence and competence.
Writing Fluency Enhancement
Within the realm of the thesaurus experience, writing fluency enhancement emerges as a pivotal component, empowering individuals to access a wider range of words and elevate their writing to new heights of smoothness and expressiveness.
The thesaurus serves as an invaluable tool for writers seeking to expand their vocabulary and enhance their writing fluency. By providing a comprehensive collection of synonyms, antonyms, and related terms, the thesaurus empowers writers to explore the nuances of language and discover the perfect words to convey their intended message.
The ability to access a wider range of words through the thesaurus experience yields a multitude of benefits for writers. Firstly, it enables them to overcome vocabulary limitations, ensuring that they can always find the most precise and effective words to express their thoughts and ideas. Secondly, it promotes writing fluency, allowing writers to express themselves with greater ease and confidence, as they no longer struggle to find the right words.
Furthermore, the thesaurus experience fosters smoother writing by eliminating hesitations and interruptions in the writing process. When writers have a wider range of words at their disposal, they can effortlessly transition between ideas and maintain a consistent flow of thought, resulting in smoother and more cohesive writing.
In conclusion, the connection between writing fluency enhancement and the thesaurus experience is undeniable. By providing access to a wider range of words, the thesaurus empowers writers to overcome vocabulary limitations, enhance their writing fluency, and produce smoother, more expressive, and polished written content.
Within the realm of the thesaurus experience, creative stimulation emerges as a potent force, inspiring fresh ideas and perspectives, and igniting the imagination.
- Unveiling Hidden Connections: The thesaurus unveils hidden connections between words and concepts, revealing unexpected relationships and sparking novel ideas. Exploring these connections can lead to creative breakthroughs and innovative solutions.
- Expanding Semantic Horizons: By exposing individuals to a vast array of synonyms, antonyms, and related terms, the thesaurus expands their semantic horizons, providing a fertile ground for creative thinking and imaginative expression.
- Challenging Conventions: The thesaurus challenges conventional language patterns and encourages experimentation with words, fostering a mindset conducive to creative exploration and the generation of original ideas.
- Enhancing Metaphorical Thinking: The thesaurus provides a rich source of figurative language, stimulating metaphorical thinking and enabling individuals to express complex ideas and emotions in vivid and imaginative ways.
In conclusion, the thesaurus experience and creative stimulation are inextricably linked. The thesaurus serves as a catalyst for creative thinking, inspiring fresh ideas, expanding perspectives, and igniting the imagination. By harnessing the power of the thesaurus, individuals can unlock their creative potential and embark on a journey of linguistic exploration and innovation.
Communication clarity is paramount in conveying messages effectively. The thesaurus experience plays a pivotal role in achieving this clarity by providing a comprehensive resource for choosing the most precise words.
The thesaurus offers a wealth of synonyms, antonyms, and related terms, allowing individuals to explore the nuances of language and select the words that best convey their intended meaning. By using the most precise words, writers and speakers can ensure that their messages are easily understood and interpreted, minimizing misunderstandings and misinterpretations.
For example, consider the following sentence: “The politician delivered a powerful speech.” While “powerful” is a commonly used word, the thesaurus can provide more specific synonyms such as “forceful,” “eloquent,” or “persuasive,” each of which conveys a slightly different shade of meaning. By choosing the most precise word, the writer can convey the exact impact and tone of the speech.
Moreover, the thesaurus experience enhances communication clarity by fostering a deeper understanding of word relationships and connotations. By exploring related terms, individuals can gain insights into the subtle differences between words and their usage. This understanding enables them to avoid using words that may have unintended meanings or connotations, ensuring that their messages are clear and unambiguous.
In conclusion, the thesaurus experience is inextricably linked to communication clarity. By providing a comprehensive resource for choosing the most precise words and fostering a deeper understanding of word relationships, the thesaurus empowers individuals to convey their messages effectively, minimize misunderstandings, and achieve greater clarity in their communication.
The thesaurus experience is an integral component of professional development for students, researchers, and professionals alike. Enhancing communication skills is crucial for career success and personal growth, and the thesaurus provides a valuable tool for refining one’s language and expressing ideas with precision and clarity.
For students, the thesaurus is an invaluable resource for expanding vocabulary and improving writing abilities. By exploring synonyms, antonyms, and related terms, students can enhance their understanding of word meanings and usage. This leads to more sophisticated and nuanced writing, which is essential for academic success and professional communication.
Researchers, too, benefit greatly from the thesaurus experience. Clear and concise communication is paramount in research, and the thesaurus helps researchers find the most appropriate words to convey their findings. By using precise language, researchers can ensure that their work is understood and disseminated effectively.
Professionals in various fields also rely on the thesaurus to enhance their communication skills. Whether it’s crafting persuasive presentations, writing compelling reports, or engaging in effective negotiations, the thesaurus empowers professionals to communicate their ideas with impact and clarity.
In conclusion, the thesaurus experience is a valuable tool for professional development, enabling students, researchers, and professionals to refine their communication skills and achieve their goals. By harnessing the power of the thesaurus, they can expand their vocabulary, improve their writing, and communicate their ideas with greater precision and clarity.
Frequently Asked Questions about Thesaurus Experience
The thesaurus experience offers numerous benefits for individuals looking to enhance their vocabulary and communication skills. Here are answers to some frequently asked questions about the thesaurus experience:
Question 1: What exactly is a thesaurus experience?
A thesaurus experience involves using a thesaurus to explore synonyms, antonyms, and related terms for a given word. It helps individuals expand their vocabulary, improve their writing fluency, and enhance their overall communication abilities.
Question 2: How does a thesaurus experience help improve writing skills?
By providing a comprehensive collection of synonyms and antonyms, a thesaurus experience enables writers to find the most precise and effective words to convey their intended meaning. This leads to more sophisticated and nuanced writing.
Question 3: Can a thesaurus experience enhance creativity?
Yes, a thesaurus experience can stimulate creativity by exposing individuals to a wider range of words and their subtle differences. Exploring related terms and synonyms can spark fresh ideas and inspire new perspectives.
Question 4: Is a thesaurus experience beneficial for students?
Absolutely. Students can use a thesaurus to expand their vocabulary, improve their writing abilities, and enhance their understanding of word meanings and usage.
Question 5: How can professionals benefit from a thesaurus experience?
Professionals in various fields can use a thesaurus to refine their communication skills, find the most appropriate words to convey their ideas, and enhance the clarity and impact of their presentations and reports.
Question 6: Is a thesaurus experience accessible to everyone?
Yes, a thesaurus experience is accessible to individuals of all levels. Whether you are a student, researcher, professional, or simply someone looking to improve your communication skills, a thesaurus can be a valuable tool.
In summary, a thesaurus experience is a powerful tool for enhancing vocabulary, improving writing skills, fostering creativity, and refining communication abilities. By exploring the nuances of language and discovering the richness of words, individuals can unlock their full potential as effective communicators.
Transition to the next article section: Exploring the Practical Applications of Thesaurus Experience
Thesaurus Experience Tips
Embarking on a thesaurus experience can greatly enhance your vocabulary and communication skills. Here are some practical tips to help you get the most out of your thesaurus:
Tip 1: Explore Synonyms and Antonyms: Use the thesaurus to find synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with opposite meanings) for your chosen word. This will expand your vocabulary and provide you with alternatives to commonly used words.
Tip 2: Discover Related Terms: Beyond synonyms and antonyms, the thesaurus can also uncover related terms that share a semantic connection to your word. Exploring these related terms will deepen your understanding of the word’s context and usage.
Tip 3: Improve Writing Fluency: When writing, use the thesaurus to find more precise and effective words to express your ideas. This will enhance the clarity and sophistication of your writing.
Tip 4: Enhance Creative Expression: The thesaurus can spark creativity by exposing you to a wider range of words and their subtle nuances. This can lead to fresh ideas and unique perspectives in your writing.
Tip 5: Refine Communication Skills: Professionals and students alike can benefit from using thesaurus to refine their communication skills. By finding the most appropriate words to convey their ideas, they can enhance their presentations, reports, and other forms of communication.
Tip 6: Choose the Right Thesaurus: Select a thesaurus that aligns with your needs and writing style. Different thesaurus resources vary in their depth and scope, so choose one that complements your level of language proficiency.
Tip 7: Use Technology to Your Advantage: Utilize online thesaurus tools and apps to access a vast database of words and their meanings. These tools often provide additional features such as word definitions, example sentences, and pronunciation guides.
Tip 8: Make it a Habit: Integrate thesaurus use into your daily writing routine. Make an effort to consult the thesaurus regularly, even for simple writing tasks. This will gradually expand your vocabulary and improve your overall communication abilities.
Summary: By following these tips, you can maximize the benefits of the thesaurus experience. Remember, expanding your vocabulary and refining your communication skills is an ongoing journey. Embrace the thesaurus as a valuable tool, and you will notice a significant improvement in your writing and overall language proficiency.
Transition to the article’s conclusion: Harness the Power of the Thesaurus for Effective Communication
The thesaurus experience has been thoroughly explored, revealing its multifaceted benefits and practical significance. Through synonym exploration, antonym identification, related term discovery, vocabulary expansion, writing fluency enhancement, creative stimulation, communication clarity, and professional development, the thesaurus empowers us to communicate more effectively and express ourselves with greater precision and impact.
As we navigate an increasingly complex and nuanced world, the ability to articulate our thoughts and ideas clearly and persuasively becomes paramount. The thesaurus serves as an indispensable tool in this endeavor, providing us with a wealth of linguistic resources to enhance our communication skills. By embracing the thesaurus experience, we unlock the power to convey our messages with clarity, creativity, and impact.
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Bloomin’ Algae! How paleogeography and algal blooms may have significantly impacted deposition and preservation of the Marcellus Shale
By: Gregory R. Wrightstone- October 4, 2012
The Marcellus Shale of the Appalachian Basin has been characterized as having geologically favorable rock properties, including high total organic carbon, high porosity and high permeability. These properties are linked directly with the large natural gas reserve projections for individual wells and for the Marcellus play as a whole. The superior rock properties may be explained by the depositional framework of the Marcellus and the significant role that algal blooms may have played in the development of this resource. The Marcellus depositional system likely occurred in a “Perfect Storm” for organic mud creation, preservation and lack of dilution into a nearly enclosed depositional basin. Algal blooms in the Middle Devonian Marcellus Depositional Basin are proposed to have played a key role in the creation, accumulation and preservation of the Marcellus Shale. Algal blooms are suggested to have greatly increased the production of organics and also enhanced preservation by creation of possible basin-wide anoxia. This important role of algal blooms is likely to be applicable to many of the other Shale plays around the world.
During the Middle Devonian, the central Appalachian Basin was located between 15o and 30o south latitude (Ettensohn 1992). Paleogeographic reconstruction by Ettensohn (1985b), Woodrow and Sevon (1985) and Blakey (2005) show that the organic-rich deposition occurred in a large, nearly enclosed sea (Marcellus Basin). The Acadian Highlands bounded the Marcellus Basin to the east and were proposed to have been quite significant, as Bradley (1982) estimated that they may have attained a height of at least 4 km. Ettensohn (1985b) placed the Basin in the path of southeasterly trade winds which would have brought moisture westward from the Iapetus Ocean.
Ettensohn (1985b) proposed that the Acadian Highlands would have created a rain shadow with likely arid conditions on the west flank of the Highlands. These arid conditions would have been a major factor in the quality of the organics deposited, as dilution of the organics by non-aeolian silici-clastics would have been minimized. The arid conditions and prevailing trade winds introduced aeolian siliciclastics into the basin from the landmass east of the Marcellus depositional basin. Werne et al (2002) reported the presence and enrichment of eolian silt grains in the organic-rich facies of the Oatka Creek in western New York and directly related this to a decrease in carbonate and non-eolian siliciclastic sediments. In addition, Sageman (2003) reported a direct relationship between increasing eolian silts and increasing total organic carbon.
Controls on Deposition
Based on petrographic analysis of preserved organic matter from the Marcellus in western New York, Sageman (2003) reported that the Marcellus black mudstone contained 100% marine material. The organic-rich facies of the Marcellus are dominated by short alkanes compared to long alkanes, whereas the reverse is true for the non-organic-rich facies (Murphy, 2000). This indicates that terrestrial input into the basin was dominant during those periods when non-organic-rich muds and carbonate were deposited and that algal marine phytoplankton predominated during depositional periods of the Marcellus organic-rich black mudstones.
Like other organic-rich shales, the creation, deposition and preservation of the organic Marcellus sediments were controlled by three factors (Sageman 2003): 1) primary photosynthetic production, 2) bacterial decomposition, and 3) bulk sedimentation rate. It is proposed that the Marcellus organic-rich units were deposited and accumulated in a “Perfect Storm” scenario of maximum organic production, maximum preservation, and minimum non-aeolian sediment influx. Subtropical warmth and increased solar radiation due to the basin’s paleogeographic location in the sub-tropics would have enhanced the growth of the marine phytoplankton, which was the dominant contributor to organic material in the organic-rich facies. Paleogeographic reconstruction by Ettensohn (1985b), Woodrow and Sevon (1985) and Blakey (2005) show that the organic-rich deposition occurred in a large, nearly enclosed sea. Figure 1 depicts the paleogeographic reconstruction by Blakey (2005) of the Appalachian area during the Middle Devonian at about 385 Ma. The arid conditions that were likely present during deposition of the organic facies led to probable non-aeolian sediment starvation, as evidenced by the decrease in non-eolian siliciclastic deposition in the organic-rich facies, preventing dilution of the accumulating organic material.
The Role of Algal Blooms in Marcellus Deposition/Preservation
Algal blooms in the Middle Devonian Marcellus Depositional Basin are proposed to have played a key role in the creation, accumulation and preservation of the Marcellus Shale. Phytoplankton would have been continuously present in the Marcellus Sea, but would have experienced dramatic population growth or “blooms” due to an influx of nutrients into the system. This sudden increase in the phytoplankton population would have greatly enhanced the amount of organic material available for deposition and accumulation. Associated with modern blooms are widespread anoxia events which may have occurred as basin-wide events during the Marcellus deposition, leading to enhanced preservation of the organics.
Associated with modern algal blooms are large anoxic “dead zones” that are created when an explosion in the algae population occurs. The algae quickly consume all of the available nutrients and die off simultaneously. This mass die-off then stimulates a bacterial process that breaks down the dead algae, using an immense amount of oxygen. This anoxic process creates a “dead zone” that proceeds to kill off and make uninhabitable the area surrounding the “bloom”. In addition, some species of algae produce neurotoxins which have severe biological impacts on the marine organisms of the area. Modern dead zones can exceed 1,600 square km (1,000 square miles) in areal extent.
It is proposed that large scale dust storms occurred in the Marcellus Basin which triggered widespread algal blooms and produced basin-wide anoxic events. Adams, et al (2010) report on a biogeochemical cascade during the Cretaceous that triggered widespread ocean anoxia and may provide a model for the suggested Marcellus basin-wide anoxia. The Cretaceous event was triggered by an influx of nutrients into the sea through an increase of volcanic derived sulphate. This Cretaceous anoxic event lasted less than 1 million years and may have ended with reduction of sulphate levels by mineralization of the sulphur mineral pyrite.
Since the Marcellus depositional basin was nearly land locked, with only a narrow opening to the south, repopulation of the now dead Marcellus Sea would only have occurred over a very long time frame. Phytoplankton growth within the Basin would have continued, with enhanced preservation of the organics due to lack of a developed marine eco-system. Preservation of the organics may also have been aided by the likely presence of a shallow wave base related to the enclosed basin setting, rather than a much deeper wave base in a setting of an open marine environment.
It is clear from the presence of aeolian silt grains in the western New York area that large dust storms must have been a somewhat regular feature, arising from the arid areas east and southeast of the Marcellus Basin. These dust storms may have been the result of large, basin-wide storms or possibly from Chinook-like winds racing westward down the west flanks of the Acadian Mountain Range (Patterson, 2009). The dust that was blown into the Marcellus Basin was likely derived from the Middle Devonian soils that would have contained naturally occurring nitrates, sulphates and iron which, when introduced into this sub-tropical basin, would have caused algal blooms to form. Mintz, et al (2010) report that soils in the area surrounding the Appalachian Basin were well developed during deposition of the Middle Devonian Mahantango Formation, which is located stratigraphically immediately above the Marcellus Shale.
Localized algal blooms may also explain why organic rock quality varies across relatively small areas of the basin and also why some larger regions have superior productive capabilities. Boyce and Carr (2010) presented evidence of significant local variations in thickness and TOC. It is possible that localized Chinook winds were focused by topography into certain geographic areas of the basin, which led to enhanced localized organic production, preservation and reservoir potential.
Recent dust storms may serve as an analog to the proposed ancient algal bloom triggering events. In September of 2009, eastern Australia experienced its biggest dust storm in 70 years, with a plume of dust 1,500 km long and 400 km wide. The dust originated primarily from the arid central Australian Lake Eyre Basin, an area used primarily for sparse grazing and little agriculture. This Australian dust storm deposited millions of tons of iron-rich red soil in the Tasman Sea east of Sydney and resulted in a giant algal bloom and associated “dead zone” in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand. Algal blooms also occur regularly in the eastern Atlantic Ocean due to large influx of nutrients from dust storms that are sourced from the Sahara desert (Figure 2).
The excellent rock properties of high TOC, porosity and permeability found in the Marcellus Shale are likely related in large measure to the depositional processes in place during the Middle Devonian. These controls on the depositional processes include paleogeography, nutrient sourcing of algal blooms by frequent dust storms, and preservation of the organics by basin-wide bloom related anoxic events.
Adams, D. A., M. T. Hurtgen, B. B. Sageman, Volcanic triggering of a biogeochemical cascade during Oceanic Anoxic Event 2: Nature Geoscience on-line, January 31, 2010, DOI: 10.1038/NGEO743
Blakey, R., Global Paleogeography, 2005, http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/globaltext2.html, (accessed September 24, 2009).Boyce, M. and T. Carr, S, Stratigraphy and petrophysics of the Middle Devonian black shale interval in West Virginia and southwest Pennsylvania: Poster presented at AAPG Denver ACE 2010.
Bradley, D. C., 1982, Subsidence in late Paleozoic basins in the northern Appalachians: Tectonics, v. 2, p. 107-123.
Demaison, G. J., G. T. Moore, 1980, Anoxic environments and oil source bed genesis: AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1179-1209.
Ettensohn, F. R., 1985b, Controls on development of Catskill Delta complex basis facies: in D. W. Woodrow, W. D. Sevon (eds.), The Catskill Delta, Geological Society of America Special Paper 201, pp. 65-77.
Ettensohn, F. R. 1992, Controls on the origin of the Devonian-Mississippian oil and gas shales, east-central United States: Fuel, v. 71, p. 1487-1492.
Ettensohn, F. R., 2008, Tectonism, estimated water depths, and the accumulation of organic matter in the Devonian-Mississippian black shales of the northern
Appalachian basin: AAPG 2008 Eastern Section meeting (abs.).
Macquaker, J., D. McIlroy, S. J. Davies, M. A. Keller, 2009, Not Anoxia! How do you preserve organic matter then?: AAPG 2009 Annual Convention and Exhibition, abs. Mintz, J. S., S. G. Driese, J. D. White, Environmental and ecological variability of Middle Devonian (Givetian) forests in Appalachian Basin paleosols, New York, United States: PALOIS, v. 25, p. 85 – 96, 2010.
Murphy, A. E., 2000, Physical and biochemical mechanisms of black shale deposition, and their implications for ecological and evolutionary change in the Devonian Appalachian basin, Unpublished PhD dissertation, Northwestern University, p. 363.
Patterson, C., Verbal communication, 2009 Sageman, B. B., A. E. Murphy, J. P. Werne, C. A. Ver Straeten, D. J. Hollander, T. W.
Lyons, 2003, a tale of shales: the relative role of production, decomposition, and dilution in the accumulation of organic-rich strata, Middle – Upper Devonian, Appalachian basin Chemical Geology, v. 195, p. 229-273. Werne, J. P., B. B. Sageman, T. W. Lyons, and D. J. Hollander, 2002, An integrated assessment of a “type euxinic” deposit: evidence for multiple controls on black shale deposits in the Middle Devonian Oatka Creek Formation: American Journal of Science, v. 302, p. 110-143.
Woodrow, D. L., F. W. Fletcher, W. F. Ahrnsbrak, 1973, Paleogeography and paleoclimate at the deposition sites of the Devonian Catskill and Old Red Facies: Geological Society of America, Bulletin v. 84, p. 3051-3063.
Woodrow, D. L. and W. D. Sevon eds., 1985, The Catskill Delta: Geological Society of America, Special Paper, v. 201
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What Does the Bible Say About Feminism? Is it a concept that aligns with biblical teachings or does it go against traditional roles and expectations? In this blog post, we will explore the topic of feminism through the lens of the Bible, seeking to understand its relevance and potential benefits for both men and women. Join us as we delve into the scriptures to uncover the wisdom and insights that can be gained from a biblical perspective on feminism.
What Does the Bible Really Teach About Feminism?
Feminism is a social and political movement that advocates for the equal rights and opportunities for women. It seeks to challenge and address gender-based inequalities and discrimination in various aspects of life, including politics, education, employment, and social norms. The Bible, as a religious text, has been interpreted in different ways regarding feminism. While some argue that the Bible supports patriarchal structures and traditional gender roles, others find evidence of female empowerment and equality in its teachings.
One verse often cited in discussions about feminism and the Bible is Galatians 3:28, which states, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” This verse highlights the idea of equality among believers, regardless of their social status or gender. It suggests that in the eyes of God, all individuals are equal and should be treated as such.
Another example of female empowerment in the Bible can be found in the Old Testament with the story of Deborah. Deborah was a prophetess and judge who led the Israelites in battle against their oppressors. Her leadership and courage demonstrate that women can have positions of authority and power.
Additionally, the Bible includes stories of courageous and influential women such as Esther, Ruth, and Mary. These women played significant roles in biblical narratives and were instrumental in shaping the course of history. Their stories showcase the strength, intelligence, and resilience of women.
However, it is important to note that the Bible also contains passages that appear to support traditional gender roles and male headship. For instance, Ephesians 5:22-24 states, “Wives, submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church.” Some argue that these verses perpetuate gender hierarchies and reinforce male authority.
Interpreting the Bible through a feminist lens requires considering the historical and cultural context in which it was written. The patriarchal society of the time undoubtedly influenced certain passages, but it is crucial to distinguish between descriptive passages that reflect societal norms and prescriptive passages that offer timeless moral teachings.
Ultimately, the interpretation of biblical teachings regarding feminism varies among individuals and religious denominations. Some Christians embrace feminist principles and advocate for gender equality within the framework of their faith, while others hold more traditional views. It is important to engage in respectful dialogue and critical analysis when discussing the intersection of feminism and the Bible.
What is femininity according to the Bible?
According to the Bible, femininity is characterized by several qualities and virtues. Proverbs 31:10-31 provides a detailed description of an ideal woman, often referred to as the “Proverbs 31 woman” or the “virtuous woman.” She is depicted as someone who is trustworthy, industrious, wise, and compassionate.
1. Trustworthy: The Bible emphasizes the importance of trustworthiness in women. Proverbs 31:11 states, “The heart of her husband trusts in her, and he will have no lack of gain.” A woman who is faithful and reliable in her commitments is considered feminine in biblical terms.
2. Industrious: The Bible praises women who are diligent and hardworking. Proverbs 31:13-16 says, “She seeks wool and flax, and works with willing hands. She is like the ships of the merchant; she brings her food from afar. She rises while it is yet night and provides food for her household.” A woman who is productive and resourceful is seen as embodying femininity.
3. Wise: Biblical femininity also includes wisdom and discernment. Proverbs 31:26 states, “She opens her mouth with wisdom, and the teaching of kindness is on her tongue.” A woman who demonstrates wisdom in her speech and actions is considered feminine according to the Bible.
4. Compassionate: The Bible emphasizes the importance of compassion and kindness in women. Proverbs 31:20 says, “She opens her hand to the poor and reaches out her hands to the needy.” A woman who shows compassion and care towards others, especially those in need, is seen as embodying femininity.
It is important to note that the concept of femininity in the Bible goes beyond external appearances and focuses on inner qualities and virtues. The Proverbs 31 woman serves as an example of femininity that is rooted in character and behavior.
What does the Bible say about gender equality?
In the context of the Bible, there are several passages that address the concept of gender equality. One of the key verses is found in Galatians 3:28, which states, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” This verse emphasizes the idea that in Christ, all believers are equal regardless of their gender.
Furthermore, the Bible teaches that men and women are both created in the image of God. In Genesis 1:27, it states, “So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.” This highlights the equal value and worth that God places on both genders.
Throughout the New Testament, we also see examples of Jesus treating women with respect and dignity, demonstrating equality. Jesus interacted with women in a way that defied cultural norms of his time. He spoke to the Samaritan woman at the well (John 4), defended the woman caught in adultery (John 8), and had female disciples who traveled with him (Luke 8:1-3).
While there are certain roles and responsibilities assigned to each gender within the Bible, such as leadership positions in the church, it is important to note that these roles do not diminish the inherent value and worth of individuals based on their gender. Rather, they reflect the complementary nature of men and women in fulfilling God’s purposes.
In summary, the Bible affirms the equality of men and women in Christ, emphasizing their equal worth and value as beings created in the image of God.
Who is a feminist in the Bible?
There are several women in the Bible who can be seen as feminist figures, as they challenged traditional gender roles and advocated for women’s rights and equality.
One notable feminist figure is Deborah, who was both a prophetess and a judge in ancient Israel. She played a crucial role in guiding the Israelites and leading them to victory in battle. Deborah’s leadership and courage demonstrated that women were not only capable but also essential in holding positions of power and authority.
Another feminist figure is Esther, who used her position as queen to save her people from extermination. Despite the risks involved, Esther used her influence and intelligence to challenge the patriarchal norms and advocate for justice.
Ruth is also considered a feminist icon in the Bible. She displayed exceptional loyalty and devotion to her mother-in-law Naomi, defying societal expectations and cultural norms. Ruth’s story highlights the importance of female solidarity and the ability to choose one’s own path.
Furthermore, the Proverbs 31 woman is often regarded as a feminist archetype. This passage describes a woman who is praised for her strength, wisdom, and entrepreneurial spirit. The Proverbs 31 woman challenges traditional gender roles by being actively involved in various aspects of society, including business and philanthropy.
While the concept of feminism as we understand it today did not exist during biblical times, these women’s stories exemplify principles of gender equality, empowerment, and the pursuit of justice. Their actions and narratives continue to inspire women and men alike to challenge oppressive systems and work towards a more equal society.
What does Christianity say about women’s rights?
In the context of the Bible, Christianity teaches that men and women are equal before God and are both created in His image (Genesis 1:27). While there are some passages that may seem to portray women in a subordinate role, it is important to interpret them in light of the cultural and historical context of the time they were written.
Jesus treated women with dignity and respect, often challenging the societal norms of His time. He engaged in meaningful conversations with women, such as the Samaritan woman at the well (John 4:1-42), and defended a woman caught in adultery (John 8:1-11). Moreover, women played significant roles in Jesus’ ministry, with some being His disciples and witnessing His crucifixion and resurrection.
The apostle Paul also acknowledged the equality of men and women in Christ, stating that “there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28). He recognized the important contributions of women in the early Christian community, mentioning Phoebe, Junia, Priscilla, and others.
However, there are certain passages in the Bible that have been interpreted to suggest a more hierarchical view of gender roles, particularly in marriage and church leadership. These passages include Ephesians 5:22-24, 1 Corinthians 14:34-35, and 1 Timothy 2:11-15. It’s important to note that interpretations of these passages vary among Christian denominations and scholars.
In modern times, many Christian denominations have adopted different views on women’s rights. Some embrace egalitarianism, affirming the equal worth and value of men and women in all areas of life, including ministry and leadership roles. Others hold complementarian views, believing that while men and women are equal, they have distinct roles and responsibilities within the family and the church.
Overall, Christianity teaches that all individuals, regardless of gender, are valued and loved by God. The interpretation and application of specific biblical passages regarding women’s rights may vary, but the fundamental message of equality and respect remains central to the teachings of Jesus Christ.
Is feminism supported or condemned in the Bible?
Feminism is not specifically addressed in the Bible, but it contains passages that can be interpreted to support gender equality and the value of women.
Does the Bible promote gender equality or traditional gender roles?
The Bible does not explicitly promote gender equality but rather upholds traditional gender roles.
How does the Bible address issues of women’s rights and empowerment?
The Bible addresses issues of women’s rights and empowerment through various passages that highlight the value and equality of women. Genesis 1:27 states that both male and female were created in the image of God, emphasizing their equal worth. Galatians 3:28 affirms that in Christ, there is no distinction between genders, promoting equality. Additionally, Jesus’ interactions with women throughout the New Testament demonstrate respect and dignity towards them. Though some passages may seem restrictive, understanding the cultural context and interpreting them in light of the overarching principles of love, justice, and equality can lead to a more empowering perspective for women.
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Grade Six Discipline Specific Course Model: Earth and Space Science
Engineering Connection: Solar Array Design Chapter 6, p. 599
This concept has important engineering applications for solar energy California hosts several of the world’s largest arrays of solar panels. When people place solar panels on their roofs, the angle of the panels is usually fixed by the angle of the roof. To maximize efficiency at large solar power arrays, the motors constantly turn the panels so that they face the Sun at an angle as close to 90 degrees as possible to get the maximum energy output. Students can experience this effect in a classroom with a small solar panel hooked up to an electric motor. As they rotate the solar panel to change the angle of sunlight, the energy output changes (CCC-7), so that the motor turns at a different speed (New York State Energy Research and Development Authority 2015). Students could engage in an engineering challenge to design a rotating base for solar panels that has the necessary range of movement (both tilting and swiveling) and uses low-cost materials. (MS-ETS1-1, MS-ETS1-2)
Engineering Connection: Solutions To Pollution Moved By The Water Cycle
Chapter 6, p. 617
Moving water often carries pollutants along with it (EP&C IV), but understanding the water cycle allows people to design measures to reduce or stop the flow of pollution. One possible engineering challenge for students, is to deal with the flow of water and pollutants in urban areas. As water runs along road surfaces, it picks up oil, grit, and other pollutants that flow into storm drains and out into local waterways. During heavy rainstorms, those waterways can get overloaded and flood. Allowing a greater fraction of water to infiltrate into the ground can solve two problems:
First it reduces the amount of water on the surface that causes flooding and, second, the soil filters out many harmful contaminants before they enter groundwater or surface water. Students can be given the challenge of designing a system that diverts waters into the ground and provides the maximum filtration of that water (for example, see Engineering is Everywhere, Don’t Runoff: Engineering An Urban Landscape accessed at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link24). Students will have to define specific criteria to measure their success (MS-ETS1-1), brainstorm and compare different possibilities (MS-ETS1-2), test those possibilities (MS-ETS1-3), and make iterative improvements. (MS-ETS1-4)
Engineering Connection: Cement and Sedimentary Rocks
Chapter 6, p. 623
Students may not realize it, but they are already familiar with sedimentary rocks because most materials in the built environment such as roads, sidewalks, bricks, and concrete are essentially artificial sedimentary rocks with small pieces of rock material cemented together. The average American is responsible for the use of nearly 9 tons of crushed rock material every year of their life (USGS 1999b). These artificial materials are carefully engineered to have sufficient strength at the lowest cost. Students can obtain information (SEP-8) about where rock aggregate comes from in their community (it is very heavy and expensive to transport and usually quarried as locally as possible).
The process of cementation of natural sedimentary rocks usually occurs slowly underground as mineral-rich water flows through pore spaces between grains, but it can be sped up by adding concentrated cement minerals and water in a concrete truck. To develop a model (SEP-2) of how sedimentary rocks form (such as figure 6.14; MS-ESS2-1), students can engage in an engineering challenge to create the most durable concrete from plaster of paris and rock pieces of different sizes and shapes (sand, smooth pebbles, angular pebbles, etc.). (A short snippet for this idea is accessed at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link25 ). They decide the ideal proportions (CCC-3) to mix the materials in small paper cup. After letting their “concrete” dry, they remove the paper cup and see whose material is strongest by piling on different amounts of weight or dropping it from different heights (MS-ETS1-2). This process helps motivate the rest of the instructional segment as it provides students a physical model for the steps of sedimentary rock formation as well as introducing them to the idea that rocks are broken down through the process of erosion.
Engineering Connection: Earthquake Early-Warning System
Chapter 6, p. 640
The only part of the process that is not yet predictable is the exact timing of the earthquakes . While scientists have investigated (SEP-3) a wide range of monitoring strategies, it appears that many earthquakes occur without any perceivable trigger. That means that the soonest we can know about earthquakes is the moment that they first start. Earthquake waves do take time to travel through the Earth, so there is one more way that understanding earthquakes can help us mitigate their effects. The moment a seismic recording station detects shaking, it can send a signal at the speed of light to a central processing center that can issue a warning of the impending earthquake. Such warnings can be distributed to schools, businesses, and individuals via the Internet, mobile phones, and other broadcast systems, providing them warning of a few seconds to a minute. Such systems have been in successful operation in Japan and Mexico City, and a prototype is being tested in California.
After investigating patterns (CCC-1) of earthquake occurrence in their region, students can make decisions about where to place seismic recording devices to design their own earthquake early-warning network that provides the maximum advance warning (MS- ESS3-2) (d’Alessio and Horey 2013). Using an online simulator (see Earthquake Early-Warning Simulator at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link36), students test their network’s performance in sample earthquakes, compare network designs with their peers (MS-ETS1-2) and iteratively improve them. (MS-ETS1-3)
Grade Seven Discipline Specific Course Model: Life Science
Engineering Connection: Engineer a Bird Beak
Chapter 6 , p. 690
In elementary school, students constructed arguments about internal and external structures of organisms that help them survive. (4-LS1-1) In this activity, they engineer structures and use their own designs to make inferences about how the internal and external structures of an animal connect and interact. Different animals eat different types of food, and their bodies must have the correct structures (CCC-6) to enable them to eat that food effectively. Birds in particular have large variation in their beak shapes based upon their food source. Students can design a “beak” from a fixed set of materials that will allow them to “eat” as much “food” as possible (for example, see Curiosity Machine, Engineer a Bird Beak at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link46).
They begin by defining the problem and establishing the criteria they will use to measure success. (MS-ETS1-1, MS-ETS1-2) Will they compare the amount of food in one bite or the amount of food obtained in a set amount of time? Which of these criteria is probably a better approximation of what helps birds survive in nature? Are there any specific challenges that the particular type of food presents (powders, foods encased in hard shells, and foods that crumble easily all require different solutions)? Are there any obvious disadvantages to bigger or smaller beaks? (To represent the fact that bigger organisms require more energy (CCC-5) to survive, the activity can be set up so that the number of points a team receives depends on the ratio of food mass eaten to the beak mass). They discuss the process of iterative improvement that they used and then compare and contrast it to evolution by natural selection, which occurs over many generations.
In their own engineering design, students might notice that certain modifications they made allowed them to eat food faster, allowing them to collect more food each day— a serious advantage for survival Scientists have found that seed-eating birds that have the strongest bite force can eat the fastest. What aspects of a bird’s structure allow it to bite more forcefully? Students analyze measurements of different physical characteristics of different species of finches from the Galapagos and compare them to the bite strength scientists measured in laboratories. Different students plot different variables to see if they can identify variables that correlate well with bite strength (Herrel et al 2005). They find that the length of the beak doesn’t matter, but the size of the head does, probably because larger heads can support larger muscles (figure 6 29). They can experiment with different modifications to their bird beaks that mimic these size differences and relate them to levers and forces.
Engineering Connection: Engineer a Bird Beak Figure 6.29. Analysis of Different Physical Characteristics of Finches
Engineering Connection: Using Technology to Enhance an Ecosystem p. 697
Some human activities have negative impacts on ecosystems, but some technologies enhance ecosystem productivity by providing valuable ecosystem services such as the purification of water, reduction of soil erosion, or recycling of nutrients. Students investigate (SEP-3) competing technologies or various design alternatives of a given technology to see which is most beneficial to the ecosystem (MS-LS2-5).
One classroom-friendly possibility is to explore different designs of compost systems (CCC-4) to optimize nutrient recycling. Students can learn more about the valuable role of decomposers by performing a service for their school by collaborating with the campus cafeteria and garden or facilities staff. Students can test competing compost systems (CCC-4) to see which will produce nutrient-rich organic fertilizer the fastest. Their designs might explore different amounts of air circulation, mixing of compost material, ambient temperatures, and additions of water or other materials (such as coffee grounds), all of which might affect the rate of biochemical reactions that decompose food waste.
Grade Eight Discipline Specific Course Model: Physical Science
Engineering Connection: Reducing the Impact of Collisions
Chapter 6, p. 704
The unit begins with a design challenge in which students use a fixed set of materials to reduce the damage during a collision (MS-PS2-1). The classic egg drop could be used, but many of the solutions to that problem involve slowing the egg down before the collision (via parachute). The emphasis for the performance expectation is on applying Newton’s Third Law that objects experience equal and opposite forces during a collision. A variation in which students attach eggs to model cars and design bumpers to protect the eggs, allows for a consistent theme of car crashes throughout the instructional segment and vehicles in general throughout the course. Students will need to identify the constraints that affect their design as wellas the criteria for measuring success (MS-ETS1-1). Such a design challenge could be placed at the end of IS1 as a culmination in which students apply what they have learned from investigations (SEP-3) throughout the instructional segment. However, here the choice is made to explicitly use an engineering task to draw attention to the variables of interest in the problem. By identifying the common features of successful models (MS-ETS1-3), students can identify the physical processes and variables that govern the process. Students will then investigate these variables more systematically throughout the rest of the instructional segment. At the end of IS1, students return to their design challenge and explain (SEP-6) why certain choices they made actually worked (perhaps identifying important structure and function relationships (CCC-6) in their designs) and then use their more detailed models of the system (CCC-4) to refine their design.
Engineering Connection: Reducing the Impact of Collisions (con’t.) p. 709
Students are now ready to return to their design challenge of reducing the impact of a collision (MS-PS2-1). They should be able to use their models of energy (CCC-5) transfer and kinetic energy to make an argument (SEP-7) about why their original design solution worked. Two different processes help bumpers reduce damage during collisions: (1) they absorb some of the energy so that less of it gets transferred to kinetic energy in the target object (the absorbed energy gets converted to heat); and (2) they make the collision last longer, so that the transfer of energy occurs over a longer time interval (since speed changes at a slower rate, Newton’s laws tell us that a smaller force is exerted on the cars). Students can create energy source/receiver diagrams that are more sophisticated than figure 6.31 to describe the energy flow during a collision that includes a bumper. These diagrams should help students describe how Newton’s Third Law helps them design their solution, and begin to ask questions (SEP-1) about where the energy actually goes during the interaction. They should also be able to propose improvements to their bumper (MS-ETS1-2, MS-ETS1-4) using the results of a more sophisticated testing regime and their enhanced understanding of the physical processes .
Engineering Connection: 8th Grade Physical
Engineering Challenge: Design a Vehicle Radiator
Chapter 6, p.740
Many systems (CCC-4) from human bodies to spacecraft operate best when they are neither too hot nor too cold. Living organisms have evolved so that they have mechanisms to avoid overheating (dogs pant, people sweat, rabbits have large ears, etc. ) or becoming too cold (birds have inner down feathers, mammals have layers of fur, penguins huddle in groups, etc. ). Many of these adaptations illustrate how the heat transfer function (CCC-6) is supported by the specific shape or structure (CCC-6) of the organism. Thermal regulation is also important in many different technologies. Obvious examples include keeping the inside of refrigerators cool and the inside of ovens warm, but engineers also include thermal regulation in the designs of a variety of technology. Computer chips that are present in just about every electronic object become damaged when they overheat, so almost all of these everyday objects also include design elements to keep them cool. Students engage in a design challenge in which they plan, build, and improve a system (CCC-4) to maximize or minimize thermal energy (CCC-5) transfer (MS-PS3-3).
Ideas for the challenge include designing well-insulated homes (Concord Consortium, Build and Test a Model Solar House at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link60), a beverage or food container (NASA, Design Challenge: How to keep gelatin from melting at https://www cde ca gov/ci/ sc/cf/ch6 asp#link61), a solar oven (Teach Engineering, Hands-on Activity: Cooking with the Sun at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link62), or even a cooling system for a nuclear powered submarine (Lisa Allen, Historic Ship Nautilus: Submarine Heat Exchange Lesson Plan at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ch6 asp#link63).
This design challenge could also be integrated into the course theme of vehicles by having students design an effective radiator for a car. Their design could take advantage of liquids with different heat capacities flowing through tubes and/or fin-shaped metal heat exchangers, just like the radiators in the cars and buses that might take them to and from school. Students can consider the environmental impact of different materials as one of the many factors constraining their design (MS-ETS1-1). Because the performance of thermal regulation systems is easy to measure with a thermometer, students plan ( SEP-3)pa rigorous testing process (MS-ETS1-4), analyze the data (SEP-4) from the tests (MS-ETS1-3), and evaluate (SEP-8) different potential solutions (MS- ETS1-2) to iteratively improve their final design. Heat flow is also easily simulated on a computer using software that is available for free. (Concord Consortium, Energy2D)
Engineering Connection: Engineering Challenge: Design a Vehicle Radiator con’t. p. 741
Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for Everyone at https://www cde ca gov/ci/sc/cf/ ch6 asp#link64), allowing students to perform some of their planning and initial testing and revision in a simulator before actually building any physical objects. During the design process, students will likely need to become familiar with different mechanisms of heat transport (conduction, convection/advection, and radiation).
While these processes are not explicitly mentioned in the performance expectations for grade eight, students should be applying scientific principles to guide their design; for example, different methods of heat flow require different design strategies to exploit or minimize overall energy (CCC-5) transfer.
Such information could have been introduced during the investigations (SEP-3) of MS-PS3-4, but the emphasis there was on the quantity (CCC-3) of overall energy transfer and different mechanisms were not essential. The distinction becomes more important for this design challenge because effective insulation designs often need to reduce all three mechanisms and effective heat exchange designs typically exploit them all. Students should already have applied models of convection to understanding energy (CCC-5) in Earth’s atmosphere and interior during grade six. (MS-ESS2-1 and MS-ESS2-6)
Students can now relate their macroscopic understanding of heat transport processes to their models of the movement of individual particles. Conduction involves the transfer of energy directly by collision between particles. Energy moves in convection when particles with large amounts of thermal energy move to a different location and take their energy along with them.
Hot particles can also radiate energy as electromagnetic waves, which can be absorbed by other particles during the energy transport process called radiation. Students finish the activity by creating a product information sheet in which they argue (SEP-7) that people should buy their product. They will communicate (SEP-8) the features of their product that allow it to perform better than their imaginary competitors as well as evidence (SEP-7) from their investigations (SEP-3) and testing showing that it actually does.
Engineering Connection: 8th Physical Science
Designing a Hand Warmer Powered by Chemical Reactions
Chapter 6 p. 747
Students now imagine that they will travel to a very cold place to explore and play and that they will want a way to keep their hands warm for as long as possible. Their goal is to analyze data (SEP-4) from the previous experiment to help design a hand-warming pad powered by chemical reactions. (MS-PS1-6) Students will need to define the criteria (SEP-1)for judging hand warmer performance (MS- ETS1-1). Is it best to have the hand warmer reach its peak temperature quickly and cool back down quickly, or to warm slowly to a lower peak temperature?
The engineering challenge works best when the whole class records its findings from the mixtures with two powders and a liquid in a collaborative spreadsheet so that a large number of unique combinations can be tested. Students should discover patterns (CCC-1) in the class observations to identify which two materials consistently react before they select their materials and begin to test them. They then perform iterative tests to determine the relative concentration of the two ingredients that lead to optimal hand warmer performance. (MS-ETS1-2, MS-ETS1-4). By communicating (SEP-8) their findings to the class, teams with different solutions can compare the relative performance of their hand warmers to decide the relative merits of each one. (MS-ETS1-3)
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Part One: The scope and background of 'just transitions'
1.1 Origins of the term 'just transition'
The concept of 'just transition' was developed by North American trade unions to provide a framework for discussions on the kinds of social and economic interventions necessary to secure workers' livelihoods in the shift from high-carbon to low-carbon, climate-resilient economies (E3G 2018). The term 'just transition' is widely thought to have been coined by the US labour and environmental activist, Tony Mazzocchi, who - referencing an existing federal program to clean up environmental toxic waste - had campaigned for the establishment of a similar "Superfund for Workers". The proposed superfund was intended to provide workers exposed to toxic chemicals throughout their careers with minimum incomes and education benefits so as to enable them to transition away from their hazardous jobs. When environmentalists complained that the term 'superfund' carried too many negative connotations, the proposal's name was changed to 'just transition' (Eisenberg 2019).
Until his death in 2002, Mazzocchi and those that worked with him sought to mobilise the just transition campaign as a means of addressing tensions and creating alliances between the labour and environmental justice movements. Where the latter calls for racial equity and other forms of non-discrimination, the just transitions movement, which seeks to mitigate inequitable effects on livelihoods caused by transformations in energy systems and resource use, is concerned with economic and labour equity. The movements are not dissimilar in that each seeks a distributive component on top of traditional environmentalism's conservation priorities (Eisenberg 2019). Mazzocchi duly negotiated partnerships with Greenpeace and environmental justice communities and developed environmental educational programs for workers. In this way, driven by the challenges posed by climate change, the just transition movement enabled unions to align their efforts towards providing workers with decent jobs with the protection of the environment (Ibid.).
Having arisen in the context of the 1970s labour movement, the concept of 'just transition' has evolved and spread to other areas and domains, from environmental justice groups to the international trade union movement, international organisations and the private sector. Since its inclusion in the preamble of the 2015 Paris Agreement, it has also been adopted in global, national and subnational policy circles (Just Transition Research Collaborative 2018).
1.2 What is meant by a just transition? What might a just transition look like?
In general, as suggested above, the concept of 'just transitions' is being used to counter the idea that valuing job security and caring for the environment are two mutually exclusive goals, and to broaden out the debate on low-carbon transitions from technical questions around energy system transformation to its social justice implications (JTRC 2018). However, as the term becomes more popular, it is increasingly understood and used in many different ways. Deployed in the service of a wide variety of ideological views, demands for a just transition can range "from a simple claim for jobs creation in the green economy, to a radical critique of capitalism and refusal of market solutions" (Barca 2015: 392, cited in JTRC 2018). This range "can make it difficult to clearly identify what Just Transition stands for. It also raises a series of important questions: What kind of transition do we want? In the interests of whom? And to what ends? Answering these questions implies an in-depth discussion of the meaning of justice in the age of climate change" (JTRC 2018). Despite the diversity of meanings attached to 'just transition', in very general terms, two broad definitions predominate:
a) The first builds on the term as it arose from the U.S. labour movement in the late 20th century (see above), in part in response to the environmental movement. This foundation shapes the term's stricter definition - the idea that workers and communities whose livelihoods will be lost because of an intentional shift away from fossil fuel-related activities should receive support from the state (Eisenberg 2019).
b) A second broader definition of 'just transitions' calls for justice in more general terms, not just for workers. It emphasises the importance of not continuing to sacrifice the well-being of vulnerable groups for the sake of advantaging others, as has been the norm in the fossil-fuel-driven economy (Ibid.).
In the second definition, the term 'Just Transition' is used to refer to the notion that justice and equity must form an integral part of the transition towards a low-carbon world. This broader, more radical definition of a "just transition" calls for an ambitious social and economic restructuring that addresses the roots of inequality (Ibid.).
1.3 Who and what should be included in a just transition?
How far do the just transition policies of different countries reinforce existing inequalities, such as the under-representation of women and other marginalised groups in fossil fuel governance and employment? Do they transfer biases from one industry to another, without addressing the underlying norms and practices that drive inequality or do they attend to the needs of those who are likely to be most disadvantaged by energy transition? (Piggot et al. 2019). Such questions raise issues around how boundaries should be placed around who and what is included in a 'just transition':
- Drawing a line around particular industries and groups that would be negatively affected by a climate policy and therefore need or merit transitional support is likely to be problematic, given the interdependencies between different sectors and socio-economic groups. A recent study has noted that existing transition policies tend to ignore the potential cascading impacts of industry closure, such as how the loss of jobs in one industry might flow on to affect others. For example, the effects of men's unemployment in former coalfields of the UK in the 1980s and 1990s were highly gendered. When coal jobs dried up, there were significant ripple effects for women in mining regions, such as displacement from manufacturing jobs as unemployed male workers sought out new professions, the need to take on the "double-duty" of paid employment and domestic care to fill holes in household budgets, and psychological impacts resulting from a disruption to home life (Piggot et al. 2019). Elsewhere, in Canada, workers in the fossil fuel sector earn significantly higher incomes than accommodation and food services workers in the same communities. Furthermore, fossil fuel workers are disproportionately white and male compared to other sectors. If and when the fossil fuel industry is phased out in Canada, workers in a wide range of sectors will be negatively impacted, and yet it is predominantly fossil fuel workers who benefit from government transition programmes as they are currently envisioned (JTRC 2018).
- Given the deep entanglements and interdependencies implied by the various effects of globalisation, economic integration (such as the EU single market and shared currency), and global supply chains, there are questions over how far just transitions can effectively be addressed solely at a national level; actions taken in the name of a just transition in one place may lead to problems in others. For example, within the EU, longstanding industry practices such as German unions' participation in wage restraint have been put in place to promote competitiveness and protect jobs during periods of economic instability. However, such approaches have produced a large trade surplus and impeded growth in southern Europe by deflating the euro (Abraham 2019). By propping up the "German economic model of exportism at the expense of other countries", wage restraint brought deindustrialisation and high trade deficits to Greece, Portugal, Italy, and Spain (Candeias 2013: 6-7, cited in Abraham 2019), eroding southern Europe's ability to recover from the European sovereign debt crisis (Abraham 2019). In Greece in particular, an increasing debt burden and European officials' requirement that the country pursue drastic austerity measures (such as enormous wage cuts, spending cuts, and tax increases) have significantly eroded its capacity to decarbonise. Greece is one of Europe's most coal-dependent countries, and the privatisations of its national energy company and utilities (initiated as part of a ranging package of austerity measures) have extended the life of Greek coalfired power plants. Notwithstanding Greece's commitment to uphold the Just Transition framework, undertaking a just transition process whilst also undergoing austerity is extremely challenging, since austerity erodes relationships between union members and environmentalists, decentralises collective bargaining and limits governments' abilities to invest in coal-affected regions and protect coal workers from unemployment (Abraham 2019: 7). In this sense, some point out that European trade unionists and social democrats cannot truly square their advocacy for international solidarity with their commitment to international competition (Panitch 1998). Such analyses suggest that applying a business-as-usual approach that seeks to enable a national-level 'just transition' whilst outsourcing costs elsewhere will not be adequate to the task of implementing a just low-carbon transition in a globalised world.
- Low-carbon technologies can themselves be the source of injustice. For example, whilst the rapid growth in renewable energy schemes in the Lower Franconia region in the Federal State of Bavaria in Germany was initially heavily driven by local cooperatives, they quickly became dominated by big corporate investors from outside the region. This shift had the effect of disenfranchising the local community, separating it from a large proportion of its land and hindering its ownership of low-carbon assets. In large part this situation followed from regulations that govern the funding and siting of renewables, which favour larger investors with a greater capacity to tolerate risk. Other examples of unjust low-carbon transitions include the alleged poor working conditions, including child and slave labour, entailed in the Brazilian biofuels industry, as well as health problems caused by toxic wastes from the manufacture of semiconductors, which are central to the solar PV industry. Meanwhile, the construction of a large solar scheme in Gujarat in India has, through the enclosure, commodification and privatisation of land for the development, led to the land dispossession of vulnerable communities (Gambhir 2018). The decision to increase the installation of onshore and offshore wind turbines in Scotland, which may make sense in the context of lowering emissions and potentially ensuring new forms of technical work for Scottish workforces, may have impacts on indigenous and local communities elsewhere in the world whose land is mined for the mineral and metal resources required to supply turbine and generator parts. Such examples highlight that replacing fossil fuels with low-carbon energy sources will not in and of itself address injustices, including the inequitable distribution of environmental hazards and the lack of influence of communities affected by renewable energy infrastructures (Gambhir 2018: 7).
1.4 Persuading workers/communities to support the transition; ensuring broad inclusion of different workers and groups offsets risks of political/social unrest
Some have warned that if just transition policies are not sufficiently inclusive or wide-ranging, there is a danger that certain groups will benefit over others, in turn raising the risk of populism and political unrest. At the COP 22 Climate Summit in Morocco, Jochen Flasbarth, State Secretary of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety warned that a "poorly managed transition from fossil fuels to cleaner forms of energy and industry will lead to a rise in populist and illiberal forces" so the promotion of renewable energy must "leave nobody behind" (King 2016, cited in Abraham 2019). Labour union officials have at times argued along similar lines. Luc Triangle, the general secretary of IndustriALL Europe, has said that the loss of well-paying, stable, skilled jobs in heavy industry drives the anger behind the increasing popularity of European populist parties. Mazzocchi similarly believed workers facing environmental restructuring without support from a proactive labour movement could find fascism attractive (Leopold, 2007, p. 413, cited in Abraham 2019). Triangle argues that risks of political unrest could be mitigated by guaranteeing income security for workers displaced from carbon intensive jobs and investing heavily in renewable energy to create green jobs (Triangle, 2019, cited in Abraham 2019).
However, Abraham writes that actions taken in the name of 'just transition' can also accentuate inequalities and socio-economic divisions. His criticism seems to be directed particularly at forms of just transition that are being implemented in parts of Germany, particularly the Ruhr Valley, where more precarious coal-workers have not benefitted to the same degree as other, longer-serving workers (this is discussed further in Part Two). Whilst arguing that the concept of just transition maintain its character as a labour policy stemming from the labour movement, Abraham notes that it should include broader social justice goals, including policies such as universal basic income, which would render the government an employer of last resort for those without jobs. Such approaches, he argues, would help to prevent tripartite negotiations over transition policy enabling the "creation of a labour aristocracy, which would fuel contingent workers' resentments of big labour, and abet anti-labour politicians" (Abraham 2019).
1.5 Principles of just transitions: A need for a broader understanding of just transition?
As suggested above, the impacts of energy transitions are likely to extend far beyond just those felt by workers directly employed in the coal, oil and gas industry. This suggests that transition planning should include a broader set of actors and issues, and that more complex interventions than simple job substitution and worker retraining are likely to be needed. Such interventions might include facilitating the introduction of universal basic income, dynamising local communities and economies, and fostering new relationships with land. Such approaches would avoid the need to pick 'winners' and 'losers' of a just transition, and help to generate new regional or sectoral economies, opening the way to more resilient communities that can support the changes to come (Eisenberg 2019).
There is unlikely to be a universal policy approach that ensures an equitable transition in all contexts, given that transitions will look different based on the structure of the industry, workforce and community in each fossil-fuel-dependent region (Piggot et al. 2019). Developing energy transition plans that take into account both climate imperatives and social justice concerns is a challenging endeavour, and there is no simple recipe for a just and equitable energy transition. However, some commentators have established a number of principles that they consider applicable when developing and implementing just transition policies in any context (Piggot et al. 2019). The Stockholm Environment Institute proposes the following:
A. Long-term energy transition strategies that align both with agreed climate goals and commitments to improving social equality
For most countries, this means planning to phase out new fossil fuel development, based on the recognition that further development will likely strand workers, communities and assets as more aggressive climate policies take hold. Ideally, these long-term transition strategies should align with other national development plans focused on social and economic development (such as green job policies and plans for advancing gender equality). Moreover, proactive planning, in a comprehensive way that includes all relevant stakeholders, will help increase the likelihood of an orderly, rather than disruptive, transition (Piggot et al. 2019).
B. Transition planning that takes into account both distributive and procedural justice, and considers those who will be affected throughout the whole system.
Distributive justice is concerned with the fair allocation of the costs and benefits of a transition. There are a number of important distributive justice questions raised by a fossil fuel phase-down, such as: Which coal mines, oil fields and gas reserves should close first? Who should be compensated for losses? How can transition planning account for non-financial losses, such as loss of culture or identity associated with industry closure? What kind of assistance is needed? How should support across companies, workers, households and communities be distributed to ensure that the existing unequal relations of gender, race, class, age and ability are not exacerbated? Who should pay for just transitions? Should the public pay or the employers who have left regions and workers vulnerable? SEI notes that there are no simple answers to these questions — decisions will be based in large part on the way fairness is defined, and the criteria used to determine distribution. For this reason, justice scholars argue that an important component of justice is the process through which decisions are made about how costs and benefits are distributed (Piggot et al. 2019).
The procedural justice dimension of a fossil fuel transition involves consideration of whose interests and what issues are taken into account in transition planning, and who gets to participate and hold power in decision-making forums. The broad spectrum of interests with a stake in transition planning includes people working in related industries, as well as households and communities that are dependent on fossil fuel revenues. It also includes those who will be adversely impacted by fluctuations in fossil fuel prices as a result of transition reforms, such as low-income households or those struggling to gain energy access. Moreover, an equitable transition planning process should also take into account inter-generational justice concerns, such as the impacts of decisions made today on future generations, or the need to support those historically harmed or marginalised by fossil fuel development (Piggot et al. 2019). In practice, this means transition planning will need to involve more than just those directly affected by industry closure (such as fossil fuel companies and workers). It also will need to include those who will be indirectly affected by changes to their local economy or environment, and those who will be disproportionately affected by shifts in energy costs or provision (such as low-income households).
Opening up the energy planning process, and assisting a wider group of affected actors, will involve a more significant investment of time and resources. Governments could support more holistic transition planning by redirecting fossil fuel subsidies, or using revenues generated from resource royalties, permit fees or carbon taxes to fund energy transition efforts. Single instances of legislative reform are unlikely to be adequate for the facilitation of more inclusive forms of transition planning. Whilst administrative law and policy can provide for mechanisms that facilitate communities' ability to pursue transition planning processes, flexible, 'messy', iterative governance approaches that do not necessarily guarantee certain outcomes are likely to be necessary. Such approaches require the involvement of diverse stakeholders in decision-making, equal bargaining between stakeholders, stakeholders with adequate resources and procedural mechanisms to pursue long-term, iterative decision-making or dispute resolution process, information exchange and the pursuit of win-win solutions. These practices would offer more space for recognising the complexity and the inter-relatedness between different aspects of socio-ecological systems (Eisenberg 2019).
C. The planning process should be seen as an opportunity to remedy existing systemic injustices
This could include addressing issues such as the unequal participation of women and other marginalised groups in the energy workforce and decision-making processes, helping households who have struggled with energy access, and improving "sacrifice zones" historically damaged by energy development. The first step in addressing these problems is to gather information about where inequities exist in the current energy system. This requires collecting socio-demographically disaggregated data (that is lacking in most contexts) in order to assess where action is most needed. But data alone will not be sufficient to drive progress — responsive policies and initiatives are also needed. Organisations such as the ILO are leading the charge on creating guidance for developing more holistic transition policies that look beyond simply keeping industry or workers solvent, to also include social dialogue, social protection, and employment rights as key parts of the transition agenda (Piggot et al. 2019).
In summary, Piggot et al. argue, an equitable transition policy should attend to both the distributive and procedural justice dimensions of transition planning. The policy development process should be participatory and designed to ensure the representation of historically marginalised voices, interests and issues in transition plans. What this looks like in practice, however, depends on a number of context-specific factors, including the history of fossil fuel development, the current structure of the industry, the energy mix and availability of alternatives, and existing gender and social inequality norms. Others note that just transition policies should be embedded into national and international frameworks for economic development, climate change and social inclusion.
1.6 Mapping the range of approaches to Just Transition
The Just Transition Research Collaborative, drawing on existing stakeholder and academic classifications from Fraser (1995, 2005), Hopwood et al. (2005) and Stevis and Felli (2015), propose a useful framework for understanding the spectrum of approaches to Just Transition. They identify four ideal-typical forms of just transition, ranging from those that preserve the existing political and economic status quo to those that envision significantly different futures:
Corporations and free market advocates emphasise the business opportunities associated with a green economy. They do not call for changes to the rules of global capitalism, but rather a greening of capitalism through voluntary, bottom-up, corporate and market-driven changes. States or governments are expected to provide an enabling environment for action, through incentives to businesses and consumers, and objectives such as the Paris agreement. The need to compensate and/or provide new job opportunities to workers who will lose out as a result of the shift to a low-carbon economy is recognised; however, issues around job distribution or negative externalities produced by those jobs (such as degraded land and water in mining communities) do not enter in. Support may take the form of corporate-run job retraining programmes, pension schemes and other forms of compensation for affected workers.
The Ruhr, Germany: Displaced workers receive decent compensation and help in acquiring new jobs. Miners who have worked for at least 20 years can retire at 49 and then receive a monthly stipend until they qualify for a pension. Young miners are given another energy or mining job, or else are re-trained while still receiving decent pay.
Greater equity and justice are sought within the existing economic system. While certain rules and standards are modified and new ones can be created - on access to employment, occupational safety and health - no changes are made to the economic model and balance of power. Advocates of this approach recognise that the existing fossil fuel regime generates rising inequalities within fossil-dependent communities, and that existing labour standards are ill-adapted when it comes to securing workers' health and wellbeing. Enterprise-wide planning, as well as social dialogue between unions and employers, are presented as key means to reduce emissions whilst increasing resource productivity.
The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), the ILO's Just Transition Guidelines, a number of national unions, large environmental organisations, and private sector initiatives, including the Sierra Club, support managerial reform rooted in public policies and investments, and call for measures such as skills development, OSH measures, the protection of rights in the workplace, social protection and social dialogue. Workers and their unions are considered both the beneficiaries and drivers of the shift towards a low-carbon world. The ITUC focuses on labour-related issues, but does not question the established economic model. Emphasis is placed on social dialogue and tripartite negotiations between governments, unions, and employers as the process through which rights/benefits can be secured.
A structural reform approach attempts to secure both distributive justice and procedural justice, implying institutional change. Solutions are not solely produced via market forces or traditional forms of science or technology, but emerge from modified governance structures, democratic participation and decision making, and ownership. The distribution of benefits or compensation is not granted via top-down mechanisms, but rather is the result of the agency of workers, communities and other affected groups. This type of transition highlights the fossil fuel energy system's embeddedness in society and the structural inequalities and injustices that it produces. This kind of reform might be found at local levels in small, worker/citizen-owned energy cooperatives. But it also entails implementation of new forms of governance that span political boundaries and reassessment of inequitable institutions and structures governing, for example, energy production and global supply chains.
The Trade Unions for Energy
Democracy initiative advocates for a Just Transition politics that addresses labour-focused transitions in ways that also foreground the need for socioeconomic transformation and transition of the entire economy. However, it calls for a shift away from the social dialogue approach used by the ITUC and mainstream unions towards a social power approach, guided by the belief that current power relations must be transformed and that this can only be achieved through public/social ownership and democratic control over key sectors (especially energy).
A transformative approach to Just Transition implies an overhaul of the existing economic and political system that is seen as responsible for environmental and social crises. In addition to changing the rules and modes of governance, proponents promote alternative development pathways that undermine the dominant economic system built on continuous growth. While workers are an important part of this approach, a transformative Just Transition also involves the dismantling of interlinked systems of oppression—such as racism, patriarchy and
classism—that are deeply rooted in contemporary societies. Common to the different interpretations of transformation is the notion of aiming for positive and progressive change that overcomes systems and structures that reproduce and exacerbate environmental problems and social injustice. However, there is no coherent vision of the pathways needed to arrive at transformative just transition. The processes required to bring about change are context specific and dependent upon the societal baseline from which it emerges.
A range of groups, networks and organisations, such as the US-based Labor Network for Sustainability, Cooperation Jackson , the Oregon Just Transition Alliance, the Just Transition Alliance, the Climate Justice Alliance, Grassroots Global Justice Alliance, the Women's Environment and Development Organisation, the Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN) and Movement Generation argue that economic inequality can be addressed in concert with environmental and climate justice, and the transformation of prevailing power structures, but that the process must be diversified, decentralised, democratic and community-led.
Source: JTRC 2018
The JTRC report further differentiates between these approaches according to how inclusive they are in scope. That is, they take into account how far just transition policies are exclusive (directed at a specific group of actors, in terms of how resources are distributed) or inclusive (designed to benefit society as a whole).
It should be noted that the 'transformative' category presented in the typology of transitions above effectively coincides with 'degrowth' thinking, which aims to overhaul the growth-based economy. In doing so, it sits uneasily with dominant models of sustainable economics and development that are espoused, for example, by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and most particularly SDG 8 on decent work and sustainable growth.
Nonetheless, the JTRC report questions whether all the approaches included in the table above could, in fact, all be constituted as just. They note that it is possible to argue that maintaining the status quo is unjust because of the inequities and injustices associated with the current socioeconomic system. They also point out that past efforts at managerial reform have led to "cases of unjust land grabbing and social exclusion". Accordingly, they argue for "a progressive interpretation of climate justice to overcome exclusionary approaches and rectify the many injustices that result from climate change". They regard reform-type approaches that work to tweak or modify existing systems as valuable steps towards this goal.
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Animations in PowerPoint offer a wide range of effects to make your presentations more engaging and visually appealing. By understanding the different types of animations, you can choose the right effect to enhance your slides and communicate your message effectively. Let’s explore the main categories of animations available in PowerPoint.
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To apply an entrance animation, select the object you want to animate, go to the Animations tab, and choose an effect like "Appear," "Fly In," or "Zoom." You can customize the direction and timing of the animation to match your presentation’s flow. Using entrance animations strategically ensures that your slides remain dynamic without overwhelming your audience.
Exit animations determine how objects leave the slide. These effects are useful for removing elements after they’ve served their purpose, keeping your slides clean and focused. For instance, you can make a bullet point fade out after discussing it or have an image fly off the screen to transition to the next topic.
To add an exit animation, select the object, navigate to the Animations tab, and pick an effect like "Disappear," "Fly Out," or "Fade." Adjust the timing and sequence to ensure a smooth transition. Exit animations help maintain a professional look by preventing clutter and emphasizing the flow of your presentation.
Emphasis animations highlight objects already on the slide. These effects draw attention to specific elements, making them stand out without introducing or removing them. For example, you can make text change color, an image pulse, or a shape spin to emphasize key points.
To use an emphasis animation, select the object, click on the Animations tab, and choose an effect like "Grow/Shrink," "Spin," or "Color Pulse." Customize the effect to align with your presentation’s tone and message. Emphasis animations are powerful tools for reinforcing important information and keeping your audience engaged.
By combining these three types of animations in PowerPoint—entrance, exit, and emphasis—you can create dynamic and impactful presentations. Each type serves a unique purpose, allowing you to control the flow of information and enhance your storytelling.
Motion path animations in PowerPoint allow you to move objects along a defined path on your slide. These animations are ideal for creating dynamic effects that guide your audience’s attention or illustrate processes. For example, you can make an image follow a curved path to simulate movement or have text travel across the screen to emphasize a key point.
To apply a motion path animation, follow these steps:
"Motion paths are powerful tools for adding life to static objects, making your slides more interactive and visually appealing."
Motion path animations enhance your presentation in several ways:
To make the most of motion path animations, keep these tips in mind:
Motion path animations in PowerPoint offer endless possibilities for creativity and engagement. By using them thoughtfully, you can transform your slides into dynamic visual experiences that captivate your audience and reinforce your message.
Adding animations to your PowerPoint slides can make your presentations more engaging and visually appealing. This step-by-step guide will help you understand how to add animations to PPT effectively, whether you’re working with text, images, or shapes.
Animating text in PowerPoint allows you to emphasize key points and control the flow of information. Follow these steps to add animation to PowerPoint text:
"Animating text helps you guide your audience’s attention and ensures they focus on the most important parts of your presentation."
By animating text strategically, you can create a dynamic flow that enhances your storytelling and keeps your audience engaged.
Images can become more impactful when paired with animations. Here’s how to add animations to PowerPoint images:
Animating images can help you highlight visuals and create a seamless connection between different elements on your slide.
Shapes are versatile elements in PowerPoint that can be animated to enhance your presentation. To add animations to shapes, follow these steps:
"Shapes with animations can act as visual aids, helping you explain concepts or processes more effectively."
By animating shapes, you can add depth and interactivity to your slides, making your presentation more engaging.
Animating entire slides in PowerPoint can create a seamless and engaging flow for your presentation. Instead of focusing on individual objects, you can apply animations to the entire slide to enhance transitions and maintain audience attention. This approach ensures that your presentation feels cohesive and professional.
Steps to Apply Animations to Entire Slides
Follow these steps to animate an entire slide effectively:
"Slide animations, when applied thoughtfully, can create smooth transitions between slides and keep your audience engaged."
Benefits of Animating Entire Slides
Animating entire slides offers several advantages:
Tips for Effective Slide Animations
To make the most of slide animations, consider these tips:
By animating entire slides, you can elevate your presentation and create a memorable experience for your audience. Thoughtful use of transitions between slides ensures a cohesive narrative and keeps your audience focused on your message.
Customizing animations in PowerPoint allows you to create a presentation that aligns perfectly with your message. By adjusting timing, sequencing, and advanced settings, you can ensure your slides flow smoothly and captivate your audience. Let’s explore how to fine-tune these elements to maximize the impact of your animation effects.
Timing plays a critical role in how your animations are perceived. Properly timed animations help maintain a steady pace and keep your audience engaged. To adjust the timing and duration of an animation, follow these steps:
"Microsoft emphasizes that grabbing and holding attention is crucial for effective communication. Well-timed animations can help you achieve this by creating a seamless flow."
By controlling timing and duration, you can ensure your animations complement your speaking pace and enhance your storytelling.
The sequence of animations determines the order in which objects appear, move, or disappear on your slide. A logical sequence helps guide your audience through your content without confusion. Here’s how to set the animation sequence:
A well-structured sequence ensures your audience focuses on the right elements at the right time. It also helps you deliver your message clearly and effectively.
Advanced settings allow you to customize animation effects further, giving you greater control over how objects behave on your slides. These settings let you fine-tune every detail to match your presentation’s tone and purpose. To access advanced options:
"Customizing animation effects allows you to tailor your presentation to your audience’s needs. Thoughtful adjustments can transform static slides into dynamic visual experiences."
By using advanced settings, you can create animations that feel polished and professional. These tools help you add animation with precision, ensuring every effect serves a purpose.
Mastering advanced animation techniques in PowerPoint can elevate your presentations to a professional level. These methods allow you to create dynamic effects, enhance interactivity, and captivate your audience. Let’s explore three powerful techniques: combining multiple animations, using animation triggers, and creating custom motion paths.
Combining multiple animations on a single object can add depth and complexity to your slides. This technique allows you to layer effects, making objects appear, move, and emphasize in a seamless sequence. For example, you can make a shape fade in, pulse to draw attention, and then exit with a spin.
To combine animations effectively:
"Layering animations helps you guide your audience’s focus and create a polished, professional presentation."
When combining animations, ensure they align with your message. Overloading objects with effects can distract your audience, so use this technique sparingly and purposefully.
Animation triggers add interactivity to your slides by allowing animations to start based on specific actions. For instance, you can make an object appear when you click a button or hover over another element. This feature is ideal for creating quizzes, interactive diagrams, or step-by-step tutorials.
To use animation triggers:
"Animation triggers transform static slides into interactive experiences, keeping your audience engaged and attentive."
Using triggers allows you to automate animation in a way that feels natural and intuitive. This technique works best when you want to control the flow of information or encourage audience interaction.
Custom motion paths let you move objects along unique trajectories, adding a creative touch to your slides. Unlike predefined paths, custom paths give you full control over the direction and shape of the movement. For example, you can animate a car following a winding road or text moving in a circular pattern.
To create a custom motion path:
"Custom motion paths allow you to automate animation creatively, making your slides more dynamic and visually appealing."
When designing motion paths, keep them simple and purposeful. Overly complex paths can confuse your audience and detract from your message.
By mastering these advanced animation techniques, you can create presentations that stand out. Combining multiple animations adds depth, animation triggers enhance interactivity, and custom motion paths bring creativity to your slides. Experiment with these methods to find the perfect balance for your content.
Enhancing your PowerPoint animations becomes easier with the right tools. These tools not only simplify the animation process but also provide advanced features to make your presentations stand out. Below, you’ll find some of the best tools to elevate your animation game.
Key Features of PageOn.ai
PageOn.ai leverages artificial intelligence to streamline the creation of professional presentations. This tool offers features that enhance your animations and overall slide design. Some of its standout features include:
These features save time and ensure your animations look professional and cohesive.
Step-by-Step Guide to Using PageOn.ai
"PageOn.ai simplifies how to add animation to PowerPoint by automating the process and offering intelligent suggestions."
Features of Canva for PowerPoint Animations
Canva is a versatile design tool that enables you to create visually stunning slides with animations. Its features include:
Canva’s user-friendly interface ensures that even beginners can create professional animations effortlessly.
How to Use Canva for Animations
"Canva bridges creativity and functionality, making it a great tool for enhancing PowerPoint animations."
Features of Visme for Animations
Visme focuses on creating interactive and engaging presentations. It offers advanced animation features that help you captivate your audience. Key features include:
Visme’s focus on interactivity makes it ideal for presentations that require audience engagement.
How to Use Visme for PowerPoint
"Visme transforms static slides into interactive experiences, helping you engage your audience effectively."
These tools provide unique features to enhance your PowerPoint animations. Whether you prefer AI-powered automation, creative design options, or interactive elements, these platforms cater to various needs. Experiment with them to find the one that best suits your presentation style.
Features of Prezi for Animations
Prezi stands out as a dynamic presentation tool that transforms traditional slides into visually engaging, non-linear presentations. Its unique zooming interface allows you to navigate through content seamlessly, making it ideal for storytelling and interactive presentations. Here are some key features of Prezi for animations:
These features make Prezi an excellent choice for creating presentations that captivate and maintain audience attention.
How to Use Prezi for PowerPoint
Using Prezi to enhance your PowerPoint presentations is straightforward. Follow these steps to integrate Prezi’s dynamic animations into your slides:
"Prezi’s zooming animations and interactive features breathe life into static PowerPoint slides, making your presentations more dynamic and engaging."
Features of Powtoon for PowerPoint
Powtoon specializes in creating animated presentations and videos, making it a powerful tool for adding a creative touch to your PowerPoint slides. Its features include:
Powtoon’s features make it an excellent choice for creating visually appealing and engaging presentations.
How to Use Powtoon for Animations
Follow these steps to use Powtoon for enhancing your PowerPoint animations:
"Powtoon’s animated elements and effects transform ordinary PowerPoint slides into captivating visual stories."
Features of SlideDog for Animations
SlideDog is a multimedia presentation tool that allows you to combine various file types, including PowerPoint slides, videos, and PDFs, into a single seamless presentation. Its animation-related features include:
SlideDog’s ability to integrate multiple media types makes it a versatile tool for enhancing PowerPoint presentations.
How to Use SlideDog for PowerPoint
Here’s how you can use SlideDog to enhance your PowerPoint animations:
"SlideDog’s multimedia capabilities elevate your PowerPoint presentations by integrating animations with videos, PDFs, and interactive elements."
Features of Animoto for PowerPoint
Animoto is a powerful tool that helps you create professional-quality videos and animations with ease. It offers a range of features designed to enhance your PowerPoint presentations by adding dynamic visual elements. Here are some of the standout features:
These features make Animoto an excellent choice for creating visually appealing animations that captivate your audience.
"Animoto simplifies the process of creating animations, making it accessible for anyone looking to enhance their PowerPoint slides."
How to Use Animoto for Animations
Using Animoto to create animations for your PowerPoint presentations is straightforward. Follow these steps to get started:
"By following these steps, you can create stunning animations that elevate your PowerPoint presentations and leave a lasting impression on your audience."
Animoto’s user-friendly tools and creative options make it a valuable resource for anyone looking to add professional animations to their slides. Whether you’re presenting to a corporate audience or a classroom, Animoto helps you deliver your message with impact.
Consistency is key when working with animations in your PowerPoint presentations. Using a uniform style across your slides ensures a cohesive and professional appearance. For example, if you choose a "Fade" effect for text on one slide, apply the same effect to similar elements throughout the presentation. This approach prevents your audience from feeling distracted by inconsistent or mismatched effects.
To maintain consistency, stick to a limited set of animation styles. Avoid mixing too many different effects, as this can make your slides look cluttered and unorganized. Instead, focus on creating a seamless flow that aligns with your presentation’s tone and purpose. Consistent animations help guide your audience’s attention without overwhelming them.
"Consistency in animations enhances the visual harmony of your presentation, ensuring your message remains the focal point."
Animations should always serve a clear purpose. They are tools to emphasize key points, simplify complex ideas, or create a logical flow between concepts. Before applying an effect, ask yourself how it supports your message. For instance, use animations to highlight critical data in a chart or to reveal bullet points one at a time for better audience focus.
Avoid using animations purely for decoration. Flashy or irrelevant effects can distract your audience and dilute the impact of your content. Instead, choose subtle and smooth effects that match the tone of your presentation. For professional settings, effects like "Appear" or "Wipe" work well. In more informal contexts, you might experiment with livelier options, but always ensure they align with your goals.
"Purposeful animations enhance communication by drawing attention to what matters most, making your presentation more engaging and effective."
While animations can elevate your presentation, overusing them can have the opposite effect. Too many effects can overwhelm your audience and make your slides appear chaotic. To avoid this, use animation sparingly and only when it adds value to your content. For example, animating every single element on a slide can distract from your message rather than support it.
Stick to one or two animations per slide to maintain a clean and professional look. Reserve more elaborate effects for moments that truly require emphasis. Additionally, ensure that animations do not slow down the pacing of your presentation. Well-timed and minimal animations keep your audience engaged without causing unnecessary distractions.
"Using animation sparingly ensures your presentation remains focused and impactful, allowing your audience to absorb your message without unnecessary interruptions."
Testing your animations before presenting ensures a smooth and professional delivery. Animations that don’t function as intended can distract your audience and undermine your message. By reviewing your slides in advance, you can identify and fix any issues, ensuring your presentation flows seamlessly.
Why Testing Animations Is Essential
Animations enhance your presentation when used effectively. However, poorly timed or misplaced effects can confuse your audience. Testing helps you verify that:
"Animation can enhance your presentation if used wisely and sparingly." Testing ensures that every effect serves its purpose and supports your message.
Steps to Test Your Animations
Follow these steps to review and refine your animations:
Tips for Effective Animation Testing
Testing your animations ensures they enhance rather than hinder your presentation. By dedicating time to this step, you can deliver a polished and impactful performance that keeps your audience focused on your message.
Animations can transform your PowerPoint presentations into captivating visual experiences. By incorporating movement, you can simplify complex ideas and guide your audience’s focus to key points. Experiment with different effects to find what best suits your content. Customizing animations allows you to align them with your presentation’s tone, ensuring a professional and polished look. Tools like PageOn.ai make it easier to add animations to ppt, saving time while enhancing creativity. Start exploring these features today to create dynamic presentations that leave a lasting impression on your audience.
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Nanotechnology in NDT Testing has become a game-changer in the rapidly developing field of nondestructive testing (NDT), shattering stereotypes and completely changing how we identify and evaluate structural integrity. Nanotechnology has unmatched sensitivity and precision due to its capacity to alter and control matter at the nanoscale, making it an effective tool in the field of nondestructive testing.
Nanotechnology is changing how we maintain safety and reliability in a wide range of industries, from finding concealed corrosion in oil and gas pipelines to detecting microscopic flaws in aeronautical components. Researchers and engineers are able to create cutting-edge testing methods and apparatus that surpass the constraints of conventional procedures by taking advantage of the special characteristics and behaviours of nanoparticles.
However, what is nanotechnology precisely, and how does it relate to nondestructive testing? We will go into the realm of nanotechnology and examine how it affects nondestructive testing in this post. We will explore practical applications, unearth the most recent developments, and talk about this innovative technology’s future prospects. Prepare to be amazed by nanotechnology’s extraordinary powers and learn why it has the potential to completely change the NDT industry in the future.
Nanotechnology is an excellent tool for nondestructive testing since it has several benefits. First of all, it offers previously unheard-of levels of sensitivity and precision because to its capacity to manipulate and control matter at the nanoscale. By employing nanoparticles that interact with the material on an atomic level, nanotechnology can close the gap between traditional NDT methods and its ability to identify faults or damage at such small scales. This makes it possible to find even the smallest cracks or defects that could jeopardise the structural integrity of the building.
Second, NDT methods based on nanotechnology are frequently non-invasive, which means that no damaging or invasive methods are needed to evaluate the material or structure under test. This is especially helpful because it reduces the possibility of additional harm while working with expensive or sensitive components. Furthermore, because non-invasive methods cut down on downtime and replacement or repair expenses, nanotechnology is an affordable option for businesses that depend on non-destructive testing (NDT) for quality assurance and safety.
Finally, continual evaluation of structural integrity and real-time monitoring are made possible by nanotechnology. Engineers can monitor the material’s performance and condition in real-time by integrating nanosensors or nanoparticles into it. This allows for the early diagnosis of possible problems and the provision of useful data for predictive maintenance. Proactive NDT reduces downtime and prevents catastrophic failures, improving overall safety and reliability.
Related Topic : Drone Inspection in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in nondestructive testing across multiple sectors. For instance, nanotechnology is employed in the aerospace sector to identify and examine microscopic flaws in vital parts like turbine blades and aircraft frames. These parts are exposed to harsh environments, and even the smallest flaws can have disastrous results. These components’ surfaces can be coated with nanoparticles that have particular qualities, making it possible to identify and characterise cracks that would be impossible to find using traditional techniques.
It is essential for pipeline corrosion detection and prevention in the oil and gas sector. Since corrosion can undermine the integrity of pipelines and cause leaks or ruptures, it is a serious concern. Coating the inside surfaces of the pipelines with nanoparticles creates a barrier that can recognise and react to corrosion in its early stages. With this creative strategy, expensive repairs and environmental catastrophes can be avoided and proactive maintenance can be carried out.
The automobile sector also uses nanotechnology, which is employed to evaluate the structural soundness of car parts. Through the integration of nanoparticles into the material during the production process, engineers are able to oversee the functionality and state of crucial parts like suspension systems and chassis. By detecting possible problems early on, this real-time monitoring helps to prevent accidents and guarantee the safety of both drivers and passengers.
The field of nanotechnology has enabled the creation of novel nondestructive testing (NDT) procedures that exceed the constraints of conventional approaches. Using nanosensors, which are minuscule instruments capable of detecting and measuring particular characteristics or circumstances, is one such method. These nanosensors provide ongoing structural integrity monitoring and evaluation because they can be applied to the material’s surface or incorporated within it. Strain, temperature, and chemical composition are just a few of the many characteristics that nanosensors may monitor, giving useful information for upkeep and quality control.
Another method made possible by nanotechnology is the use of nanoparticles as contrast agents in imaging methods like ultrasound and X-rays. To improve their visibility in imaging studies, these nanoparticles can be engineered to interact with certain flaws or locations of interest. Through the integration of nanoparticles into pre-existing imaging systems, engineers may enhance the precision and dependability of nondestructive testing (NDT) inspections, guaranteeing the accurate identification of possible problems.
Additionally, the production of sophisticated materials with self-healing capabilities is made possible by nanotechnology. Engineers are able to design materials with self-repairing properties, increasing their durability and dependability, by introducing nanoparticles that react to stress or damage. In industries where components are exposed to hostile environments or repeated stress, this self-healing potential is especially valuable.
The core of NDT techniques based on nanotechnology is nanoparticles. These minuscule particles, which usually have sizes between 1 and 100 nanometers, have special characteristics and tendencies that make them perfect for use in nondestructive testing. They may interact with materials on an atomic level due to their small size, which makes it possible to discover flaws or damage that would otherwise go undetected.
The benefits of various nanoparticle kinds for NDT vary. Magnetic nanoparticles, for instance, can be utilised to find flaws or fissures in ferromagnetic materials. To pinpoint problem areas, these nanoparticles can be incorporated into the material or put to its surface. Then, their reaction to magnetic fields can be monitored.
It is also possible to modify nanoparticles such that they react to particular stimuli or circumstances. For instance, pH-sensitive nanoparticles can detect corrosion or chemical damage by changing colour or fluorescence when they are in an alkaline or acidic environment. Furthermore, to improve the way that nanoparticles interact with the material under test and increase their sensitivity and selectivity, they might be functionalized with certain molecules or coatings.
Although nanotechnology offers a lot of promise for nondestructive testing, there are a number of obstacles and restrictions with it. The cost-effectiveness and scalability of nanotechnology-based NDT approaches is one of the main obstacles. Large-scale manufacturing of nanoparticles and nanosensors can be expensive, which prevents their general use. Furthermore, a substantial financial investment and system reconfiguration may be necessary for the integration of nanotechnology into the current NDT infrastructure and processes.
Standardisation and characterisation of nanoparticles and nanosensors present another difficulty. Nanoparticle composition, size, and shape can all affect their characteristics and behaviours. In order to obtain precise and repeatable findings in NDT, it is essential to guarantee uniformity and dependability in the production and use of nanoparticles. While efforts are being made to address this difficulty through standardisation, further study and development are required to provide industry-wide recommendations.
In addition, the effects of nanoparticles on the environment and safety are significant factors. Understanding the possible hazards associated with nanoparticles and making sure appropriate handling and disposal protocols are in place are crucial as these materials are used increasingly frequently in NDT applications. To reduce any possible risks, research into the long-term impacts of nanoparticles on the environment and human health is still ongoing.
Nanotechnology has bright future potential in nondestructive testing, despite its obstacles and limits. Research & development on nanomaterials and nanosensors will continue to spur innovation and produce more scalable and affordable solutions. There will be a more efficient way to incorporate nanotechnology into current NDT systems, making it possible for it to be widely used across sectors.
Furthermore, more complex and intelligent NDT techniques will probably be developed as a result of advances in nanotechnology. Improved nanosensor capabilities, including multi-parameter detection or self-adaptive response, will give important new information on the material’s structural integrity. Predictive maintenance and real-time monitoring will proliferate, cutting downtime and enhancing dependability and safety.
Moreover, nanotechnology may make it possible to create independent NDT systems. Self-contained inspection devices that integrate artificial intelligence and nanosensors could be used to continuously monitor and evaluate an asset’s structural integrity. This would completely change the way maintenance is done by enabling proactive interventions and stopping failures before they start.
Nanotechnology is revolutionising nondestructive testing, as evidenced by a number of real-world case studies. In order to identify and track fatigue fractures in aircraft components, researchers in the aerospace sector have effectively employed nanosensors. The real-time tracking of crack progression was made possible by the embedding of nanosensors within the composite materials, which provided invaluable information for decisions regarding maintenance and repair.
Pipelines in the oil and gas sector have been coated with nanotechnology-based materials to stop corrosion. Because of the nanoparticles in these coatings, leaks and ruptures can be avoided and proactive maintenance can be performed by identifying and responding to early stages of corrosion. This strategy has greatly increased the pipeline networks’ dependability and integrity while lowering the possibility of environmental catastrophes.
Given the continued importance of nanotechnology in nondestructive testing, it is critical to give experts in the field access to sufficient training and educational opportunities. Training curricula must to emphasise safe handling and disposal of nanoparticles in addition to the fundamentals and applications of nanotechnology in NDT. Additionally, specialised training programmes and accreditations can be created to meet the needs of the various sectors that depend on nanotechnology for quality assurance and safety.
Maintaining training programmes current and in line with industry requirements requires cooperation between academic institutions, businesses, and regulatory agencies. To create courses that reflect the most recent developments in NDT and nanotechnology, academic institutions and research centres should actively collaborate with business partners. In order to guarantee the competence and skill of professionals using nanotechnology-based NDT techniques, regulatory organisations might also set rules and certification requirements.
In the field of nondestructive testing, nanotechnology has changed the game by providing unmatched sensitivity, precision, and real-time monitoring capabilities. Its capacity to work with and regulate matter at the nanoscale makes it possible to identify flaws and damage that would otherwise go undetected. Through the utilisation of nanoparticles’ distinct characteristics, scientists and technicians are transforming nondestructive testing methods and apparatus, guaranteeing the dependability and security of vital parts throughout multiple sectors.
Even while nanotechnology has drawbacks and restrictions, continuous research and development is opening the door to more scalable and affordable solutions. With developments in nanomaterials, nanosensors, and autonomous inspection systems imminent, the use of nanotechnology in NDT appears to have bright futures. Training and education programmes must keep up with the rapid adoption of this ground-breaking technology by industry in order to guarantee the competence and proficiency of professionals involved in nondestructive testing using nanotechnology.
In conclusion, with its unparalleled potential, nanotechnology is set to completely transform the field of nondestructive testing. The use of nanotechnology in nondestructive testing has revolutionised the way we ensure safety and dependability in vital infrastructures, affecting everything from oil and gas to aerospace. We may anticipate even more amazing developments as we push the limits of nanotechnology, which will eventually improve the efficacy and efficiency of NDT and make the world a safer and more dependable place.
If you want to learn more about NDT Testing with Nano Technology, Do Feel free to visit us
Oct 26, 2023
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Almost all academic, scholarly, and scientific writing depends on being able to read, understand, think about, and interpret a difficult text. Reading a difficult text differs from what I call skim reading and/or ordinary reading, however.
Skim reading entails reading portions of a text---usually the book (or article) introduction and conclusion; all chapter titles, introductions, and conclusions; individual topic sentences; anything in bold or highlighted text; and anything that is unclear or interesting. You read for general ideas and concepts; you skip the details.
Ordinary reading differs from skim reading. Ordinary reading entails a complete reading of a text---usually you read all portions of the text. You strive to remember the content, both the ideas and details. You often do this type of reading when you want to learn about the specific content. You may not think too deeply about the content, however. You may not consider the implications or consequences of the content, the structure of the text, or the author’s intentions.
Close reading differs from ordinary reading. Close reading entails a very thorough reading ---you may read passages of a text, or an entire text. You observe facts and ideas, just like ordinary reading. But you also strive to notice particular features of the text. You may look for rhetorical features, structural elements, or scientific references. You may also look for similarities, oppositions, or particular questions. In either case, these initial observations start the process of close reading. After you have made a note of your initial observations, you start the second part of close reading: interpreting your observations.
Interpreting your observations of a text requires you to move from the particular to the general. The process of moving from particular observations (or data) to general conclusions is known as inductive reasoning. You note particular facts and details; you then draw general conclusions or interpretations based on your observations and careful thinking and reflection about the meaning of your observations. Basically, you ask yourself the question: What can I make of my observations? You can also ask the question: My observations add up to what?
Here’s how to begin the process based on a close reading of a passage from E. O. Wilson’s (1992) classic book on biodiversity, The Diversity of Life.
1) Start with a pencil or pen in hand as you read. You will annotate the text.
What’s annotating? The process of annotating means you will underline, highlight, or somehow mark anything that you find interesting, surprising, or significant. Also mark anything that raises questions of any type. You can make notes in the margins. Annotating a text makes you pay careful attention to what you read---it also forces you to respond to what the author is saying and doing in the text. You start thinking about how or why the author is saying something. This is the first step in the process of moving from reading a text to writing your own text. Follow along as we closely read this passage:
“But I was glad to be alone. The discipline of the dark envelope summoned fresh images from the forest of how real organisms look and act. I needed to concentrate for only a second and they came alive as eidetic images, behind closed eyelids, moving across fallen leaves and decaying humus. I sorted the memories this way and that in hope of stumbling on some pattern not obedient to abstract theory of textbooks. I would have been happy with any pattern. The best of science doesn’t consist of mathematical models and experiments, as textbooks make it seem. Those come later. It springs fresh from a more primitive mode of thought, wherein the hunter’s mind weaves ideas from old facts and fresh metaphors and the scrambled crazy images of things recently seen. To move forward is to concoct new patterns of thought, which in turn dictate the design of the models and experiments. Easy to say, difficult to achieve.
The subject fitfully engaged that night, the reason for this research trip to Brazilian Amazon, had in fact become an obsession and, like all obsessions, very likely a dead end. It was the kind of favorite puzzle that keeps forcing its way back because its very intractability makes it perversely pleasant, like an overly familiar melody intruding into the relaxed mind because it loves you and will not leave you. I hoped that some new image might propel me past the jaded puzzle to the other side, to ideas strange and compelling.
Bear with me for a moment while I explain this bit of personal esoterica; I am approaching the subject of central interest. Some kinds of plants and animals are dominant, proliferating new species and spreading over large parts of the world. Others are driven back until they become rare and threatened by extinction. Is there a single formula for this biogeographic difference, for all kinds of organisms? The process, if articulated, would be a law or at least a principle of dynastic succession in evolution. I was intrigued by the circumstance that social insects, the group on which I have spent most of my life, are among the most abundant of all organisms. And among the social insects, the dominant subgroup is the ants …” (pp. 4-5).
2) Notice things in the text. Look for repetitions, similarities, contradictions, and oppositions.
What do you notice in this passage? Wilson says he is glad to be alone; he wants to concentrate on finding a pattern. He invites us to think about why he’s looking for a pattern by telling us that good science depends on thinking like a hunter. We must stop and ask ourselves why he is talking about hunters. He mentions the word “metaphor.” Is Wilson using a metaphor? Is the “hunter’s mind” a metaphor? What do hunters do? We realize hunters look for clues about an animal’s location. They observe small, often insignificant, signs as they try and find their prey. This observation tells us that Wilson may be telling us that all good scientists resemble hunters. They observe ideas, facts, and metaphors, trying to make sense of them. Then he says we need to concoct new patterns of thinking before designing scientific experiments. Why does he make this statement? Is he suggesting that he wants to design a model or conduct an experience, but he needs to first find a new pattern? We’re unsure but we continue reading.
3) Ask questions about what you’re noticing. Ask “how” and “why” questions in particular.
Wilson now talks about his obsession and reason for his research trip. He observes that favorite obsessions intrude, like familiar melodies. But he then suggests they intrude on all of us. Why does he make this statement? Is Wilson suggesting we might have similar puzzles that intrude on us, too? Or is he inviting us to concentrate because he is presenting us with a puzzle? Should we look for a pattern in what he is saying? We’re unsure which answer is correct, but we keep reading. He then says that he is looking to move “to the other side, to ideas strange and compelling.” We think this is a perplexing but suggestive statement. We ask ourselves the question: the other side of what? To what strange and compelling ideas? We remember he’s solving a puzzle. We think, “Ah, perhaps he’s tantalizing us by saying the puzzle answer will be most strange.” He thinks his puzzle answer will be strange. But perhaps we were right about our other interpretation; he wants us to concentrate and solve a puzzle in the text, too.
Now Wilson asks us to be patient. He knows we may be getting a little tired of reading so carefully as we try and understand his metaphors and indirect statements. He gets our attention by saying, “I am approaching the subject of central interest.” Now we really pay attention. We realize he will present his puzzle in the open. This is his central research question. He says some species dominant, proliferate, and spread. But other species become rare or go extinct. He tells us his research question: He’s looking for a single formulae that explains this fact. He says he got interested in this question because he likes to study ants. Ants are the most abundant organism, and they are a social insect. Now we wonder, why has he suddenly switched to talking about ants? Why ants? What do ants have to do with this puzzle about species dominance? Surely, he’s not suggesting that ants determine whether other species thrive or die? But we remember he likes metaphors. Perhaps he’s using a metaphor? Do ants stand for something else? We don’t know, so we go back and look at the details about ants. He says they are abundant and social. What other species are abundant and social? We recall that humans are abundant and social. Does he mean the human species? Is he suggesting that humans will eventually mutate into new species? Does that make sense to us? Can humans quickly mutate into new species that will spread over the planet? That answer doesn’t seem quite right, so we go back to the text. Is he saying that the human species determines whether other species thrive or die? Now this statement sounds more likely. We need more evidence before we can reach this interpretation or conclusion, however, so we must go on, reading and searching for clues. But we remember: we think he’s interested in how or why humans cause species extinction.
As we read and respond to the text in this manner, we notice things, watch for clues, ask questions, and formulate an interpretation. This entire process of reading a text closely is central to reasoning toward your own ideas. As we reason toward our own ideas, we write them down so that other individuals may some day read what we have to say and then reason toward their own ideas. In this way, the entire scientific and scholarly process depends on reading closely, thinking critically, and writing carefully about complicated, intriguing, and important research questions.
First read the abstract or introduction of the text. This text will be the very first part of the article; an abstract normally follows the title of an article. It’s a concise summary that describes the article’s main findings and supporting evidence. As you read the abstract, start questioning the text. Ask yourself: What’s the text’s hypothesis, prediction, observation, and uncertainty? Read the abstract slowly and carefully; a good abstract will tell you a lot about the text. When you have finished reading the abstract (make notes and start asking yourself questions in the margins), then read the introduction and then skip over everything and go to the conclusion. The conclusion will normally restate the findings, supporting evidence, and uncertainties. If you read the abstract, the introduction and the conclusion, you should have a good idea of what will be in the article. Be sure and note down anything that is unclear. (There is almost always something that is unclear.) After you have read these sections, you should read the remainder of the text. Your reading approach will differ depending on whether the article is a social or natural/physical science text.
If you are reading a social science text, go back to the beginning and reread the abstract. Then read the article straight through from the introduction to the conclusion. You may skim the methods and the testing sections—read just enough so that you are informed about the general way the author conducted the study. But you should read the results section carefully.
If you are reading a natural/physical science text, go back to the beginning and reread the abstract. Then read the introduction. Then read the discussion section. As you can see, you are reading the text from either end, slowly honing in on the middle sections. After you have read the introduction, results, discussion, and conclusion, then skim the methods and the testing sections, reading just enough so that you are informed about the general way the author conducted the study. But you should read the results section carefully.
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When talking about blockchains, we commonly think of its applications in the future. “Blockchain will solve this, blockchain will achieve that”. It’s easy to forget that blockchains are already deployed in the wild.
Pick an industry, from automobiles to artificial intelligence, and odds are you’ll find examples of blockchains in action. In all quarters and all circles, blockchains are making their mark. Even the US Treasury is in on the act, advocating for more pilot projects and test programs.
The ‘World Economic Forum’ anticipates that 10% of global GDP will be stored on the blockchain by 2025. That means the global executives out there are preparing for this seismic shift, and are ready to completely back its implementation. The impact of distributed ledger technology could be as grand as the internet revolution itself.
The use cases differ, but the benefits derived from using the technology remain unchanged: transparency, immutability, redundancy and security. In 2018, new blockchain initiatives are launched every day. Here are 50 examples of blockchains in use around the globe.
A number of governments have expressed an interest in blockchain technology to store public records on a decentralized data management framework. Blockchain will enable urban and rural citizens throughout Finland to access records.Other use cases include government applications such as education, public records and voting.
Waltonchain’s RFID technology is being used by a Smart Waste Management System in China. Using Walton’s blockchain, the project will enable supervision of waste levels to improve operational efficiencies and optimize resources.
Zug in Switzerland, known as “Crypto Valley” has developed a blockchain project in partnership with Uport to register residents’ IDs, enabling them to participate in online voting and prove their residency.
At present, passengers on the Eurostar train between the two countries undergo border control checks at multiple points. Blockchain would provide a means of ensuring that the data has not been tampered with and is verifiably accurate.
Medical records are notoriously scattered and erroneous, with inconsistent data handling processes meaning hospitals and clinics are often forced to work with incorrect or incomplete patient records. Healthcare projects such as MedRec are using the blockchain as a means of facilitating data sharing while providing authentication and maintaining confidentiality.
Clients of Microsoft Azure Enterprise can access the Ethereum Blockchain as a Service. This provides businesses with access to smart contracts and blockchain applications in a secure hosted environment.
Google is also reported to be working on a proprietary blockchain to support its cloud-based business. Parent company Alphabet is developing a distributed ledger that third parties will be able to use to store data, believed to be in regards to Google’s cloud services for enterprises, with a white label version for companies also in the works.
Medical centers that have digitized their patient records don’t distribute their data across multiple facilities, instead keeping them on-site on centralized servers. These are a prime target for hackers, as evidenced by the ransomware attacks that struck NHS hospitals in the UK. Even if security risks are overlooked, there is still the problem of fragmentation. There are currently more than 50 different electronic healthcare record (eHR) software systems that operate in different hospitals, often with dozens of different packages within the same city. These centralized systems do not interoperate with one other and patient data ends up scattered between disparate centers.
In life-and-death settings, the lack of reliable data and sluggish interfaces may prove devastating. Patient privacy is maintained on a secure decentralized network where access is granted to only those who are medically authorized and only for the duration needed.
One of the main benefits of blockchain technology is the way it removes intermediaries or middlemen. The music business is a prime example of an industry whose inefficiencies have seen artists poorly remunerated for their efforts. A number of blockchain-based projects have sprung up seeking a fairer deal for music creators, including Artbit, overseen by former Guns N Roses drummer Matt Sorum.
As a heavily industrialised nation, China’s environmental footprint is substantial. In March 2017, IBM launched the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain in conjunction with Energy-Blockchain Labs, as a means of tracking carbon assets in China. This creates a measurable and auditable system for tracking emissions, and facilitates a tradable market for companies seeking to offset their energy consumption whilst incentivizing greener industrial practises.
Supply chain management is seen as one of the most beneficial use cases for blockchain, as it’s ideal for industries where goods are passed through various pairs of hands, from beginning to end, or manufacturer to the store . IBM and Walmart have teamed up to launch Blockchain Food Safety Alliance in China. The project, run in conjunction with Fortune 500 company JD.com, is designed to improve food tracking and safety, making it easier to verify that food is safe to consume.
China is proving to be a ripe test bed for blockchain projects, for it’s also home to the world’s first agricultural commodity blockchain. Louis Dreyfus Co, a major food trader, has set up a project with Dutch and French banks which are used for selling soybeans to China, with transactions settled quicker than traditional methods thanks to the use of blockchain technology.
The De Beers Group, the world’s most famous diamond company, now has its own blockchain up and running, designed to establish a “digital record for every diamond registered on the platform”. Given concerns about the source of diamonds, and the ethics concerning their country of origin, coupled with the risk of stones swapped for less value ones along the line, blockchain is a natural fit. Because each record is indelible, it will ensure that data for each stone lasts as long as the diamonds themselves.
Ukraine holds the honor of becoming the first nation to use blockchain to facilitate a property deal. A property in Kiev was sold by prominent cryptocurrency advocate and TechCrunch founder Michael Arrington. The deal was enabled with the aid of smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain, and is intended to be the first of many completed by Propy, a startup specializing in blockchain-based real estate deals.
Blockchain is now being used to support sustainable fishing. Illegally caught fish is an endemic problem within the industry, and distributed ledger technology provides a means of proving where fish were caught, processed and sold. This ‘net-to-plate’ chain allows inspectors to determine whether fish had come from regions notorious for human rights abuses or from countries that are affected by economic sanctions.
Similar to the diamond trade, the art industry is dependant on the provenance and authenticity of artworks. While blockchain cannot authenticate a painting to determine whether it is an original or forgery, it can be used to prove the piece’s previous owners. In addition, blockchain is now used as a means of acquiring art. It’s another example of how blockchain technology can be used to make tangible objects easily tradable and exchangeable from anywhere in the world, without the need to physically transfer them from secure storage.
In the Australian city of Fremantle, an ambitious project focused on distributed energy and water systems is using blockchain technology. Solar panels are being used in the sun-blessed region to capture electricity, which is then used to heat water and provide power, and the data recorded on the blockchain.
Chile’s National Energy Commission has begun using blockchain technology as a means of certifying data pertaining to the country’s energy usage. Sensitive data will be stored on a blockchain as part of an initiative to help modernize and secure the South American nation’s electrical infrastructure.
Blockchain can be helpful in building the “pink economy”, as well as helping the LGBT community to fight for their rights without revealing people’s identities. The latter is an extremely important issue since hate crimes are a recurring problem within the gay community, especially in countries notorious for human rights abuses and where homosexuality is outlawed or at least frowned upon.
Cat bonds can be the only hope for people who have been victims of earthquakes, tsunamis and other natural disasters. Blockchain allows for quick and transparent settlements between parties, and creates certainty that the system will remain operational even without human operation. Blockchain has now successfully been used as a cat bond settlement mechanism.
Blockchain is being researched as a means of improving Hawaii’s economy by giving tourists an opportunity to pay for local goods and services with bitcoin and other currencies. This way the state’s government hopes to attract tourists, especially from Asia, to spend more money and eventually help Hawaii to develop economically.
In 2016, the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a project that would use blockchain as a means of securely storing and transmitting the data it captures. Using the Factom blockchain, data retrieved from security cameras and other sensors are encrypted and stored, using blockchain as a means of mitigating the risk of data breaches. The project is still ongoing.
Blockchain’s suitability to recording shiping data is self-evident. A number of projects have distributed ledger technology to work in this domain, using it within the maritime logistics industry to bring transparency to the unavoidable bureaucracy in international trade. Maersk, one of the largest global shippers, was the pioneer to make use of blockchain and now ZIM have picked up the torch.
As one of the world’s most technologically advanced countries, it’s no surprise China has become one of the first and most prominent adopters of blockchain and everything it offers. It has decided to use the technology to facilitate taxation and electronic invoice issuance in a project headed by Miaocai Network in conjunction with the State Administration of Taxation.
Cryptocurrencies with its underlying blockchain technology is being used to facilitate mobile payments in a wide range of projects. One of the latest initiatives announced, scheduled to launch in the fall of 2018, will involve a consortium of Japanese banks. They’ll be using Ripple’s technology to enable instant mobile payments.
Blockchain once again proves that it’s not just applicable in the crypto space and by small companies. The government of Georgia uses it to register land titles. They have created a custom-designed blockchain system and integrated it into the digital records system of the National Agency of Public Registry (NAPR). Georgia is now taking advantage of the transparency and fraud reduction offered by blockchain technology.
Amazon Web Services have collaborated with Digital Currency Group (DCG) to improve their database security with the help of blockchain. They will provide a platform for DCG’s startups to work, as well as technical support for their projects.
Blockchain in the insurance industry is often talked about, but many don’t know the technology has already been implemented. For instance, Insurer American International Group Inc, in partnership with International Business Machines Corp, has completed a pilot of a so-called “smart contract” multi-national policy for Standard Chartered Bank PLC and plans to manage complex international coverage through blockchain.
Endangered Species Protection
A man is a wolf to another man, and an even bigger wolf to animals. ‘Care for the Uncared’ is an NGO that is working with leading developers to find a way to preserve and protect endangered species using blockchain technologies.
New York Interactive Advertising Exchange in partnership with Nasdaq is using blockchain to create a marketplace where brands, publishers and agencies can buy ads. The process is simple, though as secure as it can potentially be, using an open protocol on the Ethereum blockchain.
Permanence is now a hot topic in the journalism trade. One wrong move and years of hard work and research could go down the drain. Blockchain is one smart solution to the problem. Civil, a decentralized journalism marketplace, apart from obvious blockchain benefits, offers an economic incentive model for quality news content, coupled with the ability to permanently archive content, which will remain accessible at any time in perpetuity.
Smart cities are not the stuff of science-fiction anymore. Taipei is attempting to position itself as a city of the future with the help of Distributed Ledger Technology. It has announced a partnership with IOTA and they are already working on creating cards with light, temperature, humidity and pollution detection.
One of the leading players in the commodity market, S&P Global Platts, is trialling a blockchain solution that’s being used to record oil storage data. Weekly inventories will be stored on the blockchain, reducing the need for manual data management and minimizing the chance of human error.
In Russia, rail operator Novotrans is using blockchain technology with a goal to improve the speed of its operations. The company, which is one of the largest rolling stock operators in the country, will be using blockchain to record data pertaining to repair requests, inventory and other matters pertaining to their operations. The idea is that blockchain records will be more resistant to tampering and data corruption..
One of the most influential companies in the gaming industry, Ubisoft, is researching on how to implement blockchain into its video games. Specifically, it’s focusing on the ownership and transfer of in-game items such as rewards and digital collectibles. These have already been successfully demonstrated in action using the Ethereum blockchain.
Blockchain’s distributed ledger technology is ideally suited to registering records of any kind in a secure and unalterable manner.
One of the biggest challenges facing the energy industry, companies in the habit of trading surplus supply need infallible record keeping. Tracking energy allocations in real time, and ensuring efficient distribution through the supply chain requires multiple data points, and also mandates close cooperation between all entities.
Every day, the number of blockchains used in real world scenarios grows. From logistics to fine art, it’s hard to find a sector that hasn’t been touched by this transformative technology. We have reached a point where the technology has proven itself to be superior than the current modus operandi.
The ‘WEF’ predicts that by 2025 the world will see mainstream blockchain adoption. But after examining the use cases already in the implementation stages we have to ask, we have to ask, will it really take that long?
There’s only one small kink in the chain holding everything back. That kink is known as interoperability.
Think of a river that has peacefully flowed along for the past 15 years, then all of a sudden a storm appears and it rains for weeks on end, turning the river into a raging torrent, sweeping away everything in its path. That river is the Web 2.0 and the storm of blockchains have already changed the internet landscape. So what remains? When the rain stops and the floods subside, with the old foliage swept away, a vast swathe of fertile land awaits to be farmed.
The river, which facilitated the flow and interoperation within the natural ecosystem is gone. And the same goes for the Web 3.0, we can see growth in various sectors but they are still largely incompatible with each other. But ‘hey presto’ there’s already a solution in the works for that.
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This blog will explore Types of Indicators, what is indicator, the concept of the universal indicator in share market, and dive into what is a universal indicator in trading contexts.
The world of share trading relies heavily on indicators to help traders make informed decisions. But what is an indicator? In essence, an indicator in the share market is a mathematical tool or a graphical representation derived from price, volume, or open interest data that helps investors and traders analyze trends and potential price movements. Indicators act as guiding lights in navigating the complex world of stocks, enabling smarter, data-driven investments.
In the 2024 share market, indicators play a crucial role in helping traders analyze price movements and trends. The main types of indicators are trend indicators, momentum indicators, volume indicators, and volatility indicators. Trend indicators, like Moving Averages, identify the direction of price movements; momentum indicators, such as the RSI (Relative Strength Index), show the strength of price shifts and potential reversals. Volume indicators, including On-Balance-Volume (OBV), measure the power of buying or selling pressure, while volatility indicators like Bollinger Bands reflect market stability and potential breakouts. Each indicator type provides unique insights, making them essential for informed trading strategies.
An indicator in financial trading refers to a statistical measure or visual representation that interprets patterns and trends within the stock market. These indicators analyze historical price data and current trading volume to provide insights that help traders anticipate future price movements. In simple terms, indicators in the share market act as tools to identify signals for buying or selling, thus supporting decision-making based on mathematical analysis rather than mere speculation.
Indicators can be broadly categorized based on their functions, and each type serves a unique purpose. In essence, what is an indicator is best understood by examining the various types that traders frequently use in the stock market.
Types of Indicators in Share Market
The types of indicators commonly used by traders are generally classified into four categories:
Trend Indicators: These indicators analyze the direction and strength of a stock’s movement. Examples include Moving Averages (MA), Average Directional Index (ADX), and Parabolic SAR.
Momentum Indicators: Measuring the speed of price movement, these indicators help traders gauge the potential for reversals. Key momentum indicators include Relative Strength Index (RSI), Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD), and Stochastic Oscillator.
Volume Indicators: Volume indicators focus on trading volume as a crucial signal of stock strength or weakness. Popular examples include the On-Balance Volume (OBV), Volume Price Trend Indicator (VPT), and Chaikin Money Flow.
Volatility Indicators: Volatility indicators assess the rate of price fluctuations. Common tools here are Bollinger Bands, the Average True Range (ATR), and the Volatility Index (VIX).
Detailed Look at Key Indicators by Category
Certainly! In the stock market, indicators are divided into various types based on their purpose, calculations, and the type of data they analyze. These can be broadly grouped into four main categories: Trend Indicators, Momentum Indicators, Volume Indicators, and Volatility Indicators. Each type serves a unique function in helping traders interpret market data, assess trends, and make informed trading decisions. Let’s dive into each of these categories with a detailed look at their core indicators.
1. Trend Indicators
Trend indicators are designed to help traders identify the overall direction of the market or a specific stock’s price over a given period. They are particularly useful in determining whether the market is in an uptrend, downtrend, or moving sideways (no clear direction).
Key trend indicators include:
Moving Averages (MA): One of the most popular trend indicators, a Moving Average smooths out price data over a set number of periods (e.g., 20-day, 50-day, or 200-day). There are several types of moving averages, such as:
Simple Moving Average (SMA): A straightforward average of the prices over a specific period.
Exponential Moving Average (EMA): Gives more weight to recent prices, making it more responsive to new information.
Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD): A trend-following momentum indicator, MACD uses two moving averages (usually the 12-day and 26-day EMAs) and a signal line (usually a 9-day EMA of the MACD line) to indicate trend direction and potential reversals.
Average Directional Index (ADX): ADX measures the strength of a trend rather than its direction. Values above 25 indicate a strong trend, while values below 20 suggest a weak trend or range-bound market. ADX is often used in conjunction with the Directional Movement Index (DMI) to indicate trend direction.
These indicators are crucial for trend traders who aim to ride long-term price movements. Trend indicators help traders avoid going against the dominant market direction and improve the likelihood of entering profitable trades.
2. Momentum Indicators
Momentum indicators measure the speed or strength of price movement in a given direction. They are particularly useful in determining if an asset is overbought or oversold, which can hint at a potential reversal.
Key momentum indicators include:
Relative Strength Index (RSI): RSI is one of the most widely used indicators for assessing overbought and oversold conditions. It is calculated over a set period (usually 14 days) and oscillates between 0 and 100. An RSI above 70 indicates overbought conditions, while an RSI below 30 signals oversold conditions.
Stochastic Oscillator: This momentum indicator compares a particular closing price to a range of prices over a specific period, helping traders identify potential reversal points. It has two lines—the %K line (fast line) and the %D line (slow line). When %K crosses above %D, it signals a potential buying opportunity, and when it crosses below %D, it signals a potential selling opportunity.
Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD) (also categorized as a trend indicator): MACD can also serve as a momentum indicator, as it shows the relationship between two EMAs. When the MACD line crosses above the signal line, it indicates a bullish trend; when it crosses below, it suggests a bearish trend.
Momentum indicators are especially useful for swing traders who capitalize on short-term price movements. They help traders identify potential entry and exit points based on shifts in price momentum.
3. Volume Indicators
Volume indicators focus on the amount of trading activity for a particular asset. Volume is a crucial indicator of market interest, as higher volume often validates price movements, whereas lower volume may signal a lack of conviction.
Key volume indicators include:
On-Balance Volume (OBV): OBV uses cumulative trading volume to assess buying and selling pressure. It adds the day’s volume if the price closes higher than the previous day, and subtracts it if the price closes lower. An increasing OBV signals buying pressure, while a decreasing OBV suggests selling pressure.
Accumulation/Distribution Line (A/D Line): The A/D Line combines both price and volume to indicate whether a stock is being accumulated (bought) or distributed (sold). It’s calculated by adding or subtracting a portion of the day’s volume based on the stock’s close relative to its price range. A rising A/D Line indicates accumulation, while a falling line suggests distribution.
Chaikin Money Flow (CMF): CMF assesses the money flow into and out of a stock over a specific period. Positive CMF values suggest buying pressure, while negative values indicate selling pressure. It’s particularly useful for determining whether trends are supported by strong buying or selling activity.
Volume indicators are invaluable for confirming trends and signaling potential reversals. If a price movement occurs on high volume, it’s more likely to be sustained than a similar movement on low volume, as it reflects stronger market conviction.
4. Volatility Indicators
Volatility indicators measure the rate at which the price of an asset moves up and down over a given period. These indicators help traders assess the risk and potential profit associated with a trade by understanding price variability.
Key volatility indicators include:
Bollinger Bands: This indicator consists of a simple moving average (usually a 20-day SMA) and two standard deviations plotted above and below it, forming a “band.” When the bands widen, it indicates higher volatility; when they contract, it signals lower volatility. Price movements that touch or cross the bands can indicate potential reversal or breakout points.
Average True Range (ATR): ATR calculates the average range of price movements over a specific time period (often 14 days). It does not provide trend direction but rather signals potential volatility. A rising ATR indicates increased volatility, while a falling ATR suggests a calmer market.
Keltner Channels: Similar to Bollinger Bands, Keltner Channels consist of an EMA (usually 20-period) with bands set at a multiple of the ATR. When prices touch or cross the upper or lower bands, it can signal a breakout or reversal.
Volatility indicators are beneficial for traders who prefer high-risk, high-reward trades, as they help in determining the likelihood of large price swings. They are also essential for adjusting stop-loss and take-profit levels in response to market volatility.
Summary of Key Indicators
MA, ADX, MACD
Identify trend direction and strength
RSI, Stochastic Oscillator, MACD
Measure speed and strength of price movements
OBV, A/D Line, CMF
Confirm trends and assess buying/selling pressure
Bollinger Bands, ATR, Keltner Channels
Measure rate of price fluctuation (volatility)
Each indicator type has unique strengths and is best used in conjunction with others for a comprehensive view of the market. For example, combining a trend indicator (e.g., Moving Average) with a volume indicator (e.g., OBV) helps confirm the strength and direction of a trend. Meanwhile, pairing momentum and volatility indicators can alert traders to potential breakout points and reversal opportunities.
Understanding these types of indicators and how they complement each other allows traders to create robust strategies that account for diverse market conditions.
What is Universal Indicator in the Stock Market?
While most indicators are unique to their specific functions, some traders seek a universal indicator—one that can be widely applied across different contexts and asset classes to provide reliable buy or sell signals. In a way, what is a universal indicator can be understood as an adaptable tool capable of analyzing multiple asset types effectively.
In the context of financial markets, a universal indicator refers to a technical analysis tool or indicator that is highly versatile and can be effectively applied across various asset classes (stocks, commodities, forex, etc.) and in different market conditions. Unlike niche indicators that may be specialized for certain types of securities or specific market phases, a universal indicator is widely used to gain insights regardless of the type of asset being analyzed or the state of the market.
Characteristics of a Universal Indicator
A universal indicator typically has the following attributes:
Adaptability Across Markets: It can be applied to multiple asset classes and still provide meaningful data. For example, an indicator like the Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD) or Relative Strength Index (RSI) can be used effectively in the stock market, commodities market, forex market, and even cryptocurrency market.
Insight into Key Market Dynamics: Universal indicators tend to provide insights into core market dynamics, such as trend strength, momentum, or overbought/oversold conditions. These factors are relevant to almost any tradable asset, making these indicators widely applicable.
Usability in Multiple Time Frames: They work well across various time frames, from short-term (intraday) to long-term (months or even years). This flexibility allows traders with different strategies, whether day trading or investing, to use these indicators as part of their analysis.
Reliability Across Market Conditions: Universal indicators provide useful insights in both bullish and bearish markets, helping traders spot trends or reversals no matter the market direction. This reliability makes them invaluable tools for consistent analysis, regardless of prevailing market conditions.
Common Examples of Universal Indicators
Several indicators are considered “universal” due to their broad applicability and reliability. Here are a few widely recognized ones:
Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD): The MACD is often considered a universal indicator because it combines trend-following and momentum indicators. It shows the relationship between two moving averages of a stock’s price, indicating potential bullish or bearish movements.
Relative Strength Index (RSI): The RSI is commonly used as a universal indicator because it measures the speed and change of price movements, helping traders identify overbought or oversold conditions across various assets.
Bollinger Bands: Bollinger Bands are a type of volatility indicator that can be applied to any asset class. They reflect the standard deviation around a moving average, giving insight into market volatility.
Simple Moving Average (SMA): The SMA is widely applicable due to its simplicity and effectiveness in showing trend direction. It’s used by investors and traders across all asset classes and is often combined with other indicators for clearer signals.
How to Use a Universal Indicator
To effectively use a universal indicator, it’s important to:
Set Proper Time Frames: Determine which time frame aligns best with your trading or investing strategy. For example, a daily RSI or MACD might work well for swing traders, while intraday traders might focus on shorter time frames.
Combine with Other Indicators: While universal indicators are versatile, they tend to be most effective when paired with other complementary indicators. For instance, using the RSI with Bollinger Bands can help confirm overbought or oversold signals.
Adjust Parameters as Needed: Many universal indicators allow for parameter customization. For example, in the MACD, traders can adjust the time periods for the moving averages to better reflect the asset’s typical price movement or current volatility.
Understand Limitations: Although they are versatile, universal indicators are not foolproof. They should be part of a broader trading strategy, ideally one that includes both technical and fundamental analysis.
Why Universal Indicators are Important
The flexibility of universal indicators makes them essential tools in a trader’s toolkit. They allow traders to move between markets with confidence, as the fundamental concepts of these indicators apply across different assets. Universal indicators also streamline analysis; instead of learning numerous specialized indicators, a trader can apply a smaller, powerful set of universal indicators to understand a variety of markets.
In conclusion, what is a universal indicator can be summarized as a broadly applicable technical analysis tool that provides insights across multiple markets and time frames. Using universal indicators like the MACD, RSI, and Bollinger Bands can help traders and investors gain a clearer picture of market dynamics and make more informed decisions, no matter the market they’re trading in.
Types of Universal Indicators in the Stock Market
Some indicators are versatile and widely regarded as universal indicators because they can be applied to various markets, such as stocks, commodities, or forex.
Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD): Often called a universal indicator, MACD works in multiple markets to reveal trend direction and potential reversals.
Relative Strength Index (RSI): RSI is another universal indicator, widely used for its ability to indicate overbought and oversold conditions across different asset classes.
How to Use Indicators Effectively in Trading and Investment
Traders need to use these indicators wisely, often combining multiple types of indicators for a clearer view of the market’s future directions. For example, pairing a trend indicator like the Moving Average with a volume indicator like OBV can help confirm price trends.
Universal indicators like MACD or RSI, though useful across different asset classes, also perform best when combined with more specific indicators for particular market conditions.
Limitations of Indicators and Common Misconceptions
While indicators are powerful, they are not foolproof. Relying solely on them can be risky, as market conditions can shift due to external factors such as economic changes or geopolitical events. Therefore, indicators should be part of a broader trading strategy, supported by fundamental analysis and risk management.
In the realm of the stock market, indicators are indispensable tools that can help traders and investors make informed decisions. By understanding what is an indicator, the types of indicators available, and the concept of the universal indicator, you can better navigate the complexities of stock trading. While there’s no single universal indicator that works perfectly across all markets and conditions, choosing the right indicators and combining them can give you a significant advantage in achieving your trading goals in 2024 and beyond.
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What parts of the U.S. have the most temperature and precipitation variability? This question is actually not so difficult to answer. The National Climate Data Center (NCDC) publishes temperature and precipitation values for nearly 10,000 stations across the country. Figure 1 shows the location of those station.
Figure 1. Location of 9,708 stations that NCDC publishes daily normal temperatures and/or daily normal precipitation. 5,869 stations have temperature data and 8,533 stations have precipitation data.
There are a myriad of methods for computing the variability of temperatures at a location. For temperatures, the NCDC does all of the heavy lifting for us. One of the temperature variables that they compute in addition to the daily normal temperature is a daily normal standard deviation. For the statistically uninitiated, standard deviation is a measure of dispersion from the mean (average). In theory, 68% of daily temperatures at a station will be within 1 standard deviation from the daily mean. For example, is a station's normal temperature on October 1st is 60°F and the daily standard deviation is 8°F on that date, we expect that the temperature on October 1st will fall between 52°F and 68°F on 68% of years. We also expect temperatures to fall within 2 standard deviations approximately 95% of the time. Therefore, mapping the average daily standard deviation (of all 365 days) for all stations is a direct measure of temperature variability. Figure 2 shows the average published NCDC standard deviation for 5,869 stations and Figure 3 shows only stations in Alaska.
Figure 2. Average daily standard deviation for 5,869 stations based on NCDC published values.
Figure 3. Average daily standard deviation forAlaska stations based on NCDC published values.
The largest values of temperature variability are in interior Alaska north of the Alaska Range. Umiat, Alaska, wind the variability contest. On average, Umiat has a daily temperature standard deviation of 12.2°F. In the Contiguous U.S., the largest values are in Montana and North Dakota. Powers Lake , North Dakota has that largest value in the Contiguous U.S. (10.8°F). Stations with the largest values are subject to the widest variations of temperature whereas stations with the lowest values have very constant temperatures. The 44 lowest variability stations are all in Hawaii. The Ohe'O 256 station in Hawaii has a standard deviation of 1.5°F. In the Contiguous U.S., the lowest values are right around San Franciso, California. Several station there have standard deviations under 3.5°F. In Alaska, Shemya has the lowest average annual standard deviation of 2.7°F.
Unlike temperature variability, precipitation variability is much more difficult to measure. Since precipitation does not fall on every day, the distribution of precipitation events has a skewed distribution. If a station averages 30" of precipitation a year that falls on 100 days a year, that works out to a daily average of 0.08" per day. What that also means is that on 265 days, when no precipitation fell, they are below normal in terms of precipitation. Probable 30 or 40 of the other days had under 0.08" so those days were below normal too. This is why the NCDC does not compute a precipitation daily standard deviation.
A much better method is to look at monthly precipitation values and see how much they change over the course of the year. In many cases there are substantial difference between wet and dry months. Some stations in California and Alaska receive 60% of their annual precipitation in a three-month window. On the flip-side, many stations in the Northeast and mid-Atlantic have precipitation evenly distributed across all months.
Figure 4 shows the month-to-month variability in precipitation values across the year for the entire U.S. and Figure 5 shows Alaska only.. To make this map we calculated the difference between the NCDC normal precipitation for each month and compared it to the value that would occur if each month received 1/12th of the annual precipitation. For example, image two stations that each average 24" of precipitation per year. One station averages 2" for each of the 12 months. The other station receives 80% of their annual precipitation between May and August. In this hypothetical, the first station has very low monthly precipitation variability while the second station has very large precipitation variability. This type of assessment is called a goodness-of-fit test. In this case we used the chi square goodness-of-fit-test. The values produced by this test are unitless and are evaluated against a table of significance values. To avoid confusion, the values are left off the map and substituted with "high" to "low" labels.
Figure 4. Intra-annual precipitation variability based on monthly totals of 8,533 stations. Stations with consistent precipitation values throughout the year are shown in green and stations with large month-to-month variation (e.g., distinct wet and dry seasons) are shown in red.
Figure 5. Intra-annual precipitation variability based on monthly totals of Alaska stations. Stations with consistent precipitation values throughout the year are shown in green and stations with large month-to-month variation (e.g., distinct wet and dry seasons) are shown in red.
As you can see, some areas have low month-to-month variability and others have quite a bit. The precipitation variability winners are mostly in California. Of the 188 stations with the most variability, 185 are in California. This is due to the strong seasonal concentration of precipitation during just a few winter months. The highest variability a non-California station is Kuparuk. The second highest non-California station is Northway. On the flip side, the stations with the least precipitation variability are in eastern New England and the North Carolina Piedmont. In Alaska Kodiak and Kitoi Bay have the lowest monthly precipitation variability.
I had assumed that all cold regions would have low winter precipitation values due to the moisture capacity of the air being greatly reduced. However, that is only the case in the Northern Great Plains and Alaska – not in New England. The other quite surprising finding is the low month-to-month variability in the Great Basin. Perhaps this is an artifact of multiple synoptic-scale parameters in other regions that all converge in this region.
So which regions have the overall highest variability? To combine the maps, we need to make a few assumptions and do a few calculations. First we need to arbitrarily declare that 50% of a station's variability is based on the precipitation variability and 50% is based on the temperature variability. On the calculation side of the equation, we have a problem combining datasets with different units – especially since the precipitation variability calculation is unitless! Therefore, we scaled all temperature variability values (standard deviations) to a maximum score of 50 and scaled all temperature variability values to a maximum score of 50. We then added the two together and rescaled the results on a scale from that maxes out at 100 (8 to 100). Figure 6 shows the final variability score for the entire U.S. and Figure 7 shows the score for Alaska only.
Figure 6. Precipitation-climatology combined variability score. Values are scaled up to 100.
Figure 7. Precipitation-climatology combined variability score for Alaska only. Values are scaled up to 100.
At the large scale, much of California, most of Alaska, and a large part of the northern Great Plains have high values of variability. The very highest values are in northern Alaska. The lowest values of climate variability are found across all of Hawaii, the western Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
The station with the highest annual climate variability is the U.S. is Kuparuk – their value is 100. They have the 34th largest temperature variability (of 5,869 stations) and the 57th largest precipitation variability (of 8,533 station). Their precipitation variability is the largest of any non-California station. In the Contiguous U.S., Sandberg, California, has the highest climate variability. They are located at 4,000' in the high desert east of Los Angeles. Sandberg has a pronounced winter precipitation concentration and due to their elevation, they have a surprisingly large annual temperature variation.
The station with the lowest value is Ohe'O 256 on the island of Maui. Their combined value was 8.3. All of Hawaii has uniform temperatures and this portion of Hawaii has very consistent precipitation. Outside of Hawaii and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, the station with the lowest value is Dauphin Island, Alabama. Their combined value is 26.5.
Greatest and Least Variability by State
Earlier we noted which stations had the greatest and lowest values. However, if we limit the analysis to cities with at least 25,000 people, it becomes a little easier for people to relate to. Table 1 below shows the station with the largest variability score (max =100) for each state. Santa Clarita, California, has the largest value of any city in the nation. At the bottom of the list is Hilo, Hawaii. Their variability score is less than half that of the second lowest statewide value.
Table 2. Smallest variability score for each state when looking at cities with at least 25,000 people.
Greatest and Least in Alaska
That analysis was limited to cities with over 30,000 people. However, Alaska has only three such cities. Therefore, a proper analysis of Alaska needs to drop the threshold substantially. In this case, we decided on a value of 100. Table 3 shows the list of the 25 cities with the larges values (left side) and the 25 cities with the smallest values (right side).
Table 3. Largest (left) and smallest (right) variability scores for Alaska cities with at least 100 people. These are "cities" as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau. We make no distinction between a city, Census defined place (CDC), a village, or a Native village.
The maps in Figures 6 and 7 clearly show maximum variability along the North Slope and the eastern interior. Why is there so much variability in these locations? The answer is twofold. First, interior areas have an extreme continental climate. This results in very large temperature differences between summer and winter. Also, winter temperatures can vary by 100°F or more from one year to the next on the same calendar date. This is reflected in the very large temperature standard deviation values (see Figures 2 and 3). On the precipitation side of the equation, the extreme cold of winter dramatically reduces precipitation in areas with monthly temperatures below 0°F. Most of these areas receive 60% to 80% of their total annual precipitation in 3 to 4 months. The extreme concentration of precipitation in a small number of months gives those places large precipitation variability scores.
Some stations live up to the "just wait 15 minutes" saying and others don't. The variability in the northern Great Plains is not surprising but the variability in much of Alaska and especially California was somewhat unexpected. At the other end of the scale, the low measures of variability in the Great Basin was entirely unexpected. This region has nearly even precipitation throughout the entire year. The very low precipitation variability overwhelmed the modest temperature variability. Was there anything here that surprised you?
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Aren’t fruits the first food?
According to history and research, the first humans consumed the same foods as chimpanzees do now, including fruits, leaves, flowers, bark, insects, and meat.
Many academics and spiritual teachers believe raw fruits and vegetables are enough for human bodies.
Arguments aside, fruits have essential nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and everything else that you require to stay healthy in any weather. Because of this, various fruits are available at different times of the year.
Winter is one of the much-loved seasons in this tropical country. This three months break from the heat is rejuvenating. Colds, coughs, sore throats, etc. are characteristic of this season. You can count on winter fruits to fend them off.
Today’s blog is about those winter fruits that help us stay healthy. We will cover the following in today's blog: -
- Reasons why fruits are good for your health
- List of winter special fruits in India
- Useful tips for winter special fruits
Let’s get started then.
Reasons Why Fruits are Good for your Health
Apart from taste, there are many reasons to include fruits in your diet. Those reasons are cited below: -
Weight loss & management
Most fruits contain more than 80-85% water, and they are also low in fat and calories. Plus, they are rich dietary fibers in them. All of these help with losing weight and maintaining a healthy weight.
Combat gastrointestinal problems
Indigestible fiber, found in both fruits and vegetables, absorbs water and expands as it travels through the digestive system. Insoluble fiber's bulking and softening effects also lower digestive tract pressure and may help prevent diverticulitis.
Reduces blood pressure
Fruits contain potassium in a good amount that helps lower blood pressure. Consuming seasonal fruits immediately offsets salt's ability to elevate blood pressure because salt contains sodium.
Promotes healthy heart
Lots of seasonal fruits are good for a healthy heart because they are low in saturated fats and high in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. These nutrients can help lower blood pressure, reduce inflammation, and improve cholesterol levels, which all contribute to a healthier cardiovascular system.
Fruit contains carbohydrates as well as fructose, a type of natural sugar that can cause an increase in blood sugar. But still, fruits are recommended in a moderate amount for diabetics. Several fruits are also rich in fiber. Since fiber slows digestion, blood sugar spikes are less likely to occur.
Apart from all these current seasonal fruits, they also help with better vision, flawless skin, lustrous hair, and a refreshing mind. So, keep the seasonal fruit chart of India chart ready at your fingertips so that you never miss out on these juicy and nutritious food items.
List of Winter Fruits in India
Here is a list of winter special fruits in India that you cannot miss: -
We all have heard, “an apple a day keeps the doctor away.” This proverb stands true because apples are a powerhouse of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Apples promote good gut health and prevent the risk of cancer. Don’t miss this winter seasonal fruit at any cost.
- Apples are the ideal fruit for weight loss due to their high fiber and water content as well as their anti-obesity polyphenols.
- Quercetin from apples may protect your brain from oxidative damage.
- Apple polyphenols may protect the heart and reduce the risk of diabetes.
India is one of the top five coconut producers in the world. In raw form, as a dip, or in desserts, we Indians know how to have coconuts – right? This sweet and nutty fruit is a rich source of protein, fiber, iron, magnesium, manganese, copper, potassium, etc. In winter, various laddoos are made with coconut and other dry fruits since ancient times and now you know why.
- The medium-chain fatty acids present in coconuts have antibacterial effects and can help avoid infections brought on by root canal procedures and other dental problems.
- Coconuts have anti-oxidants called polyphenols that may help shield your cells from cellular deterioration and prevent chronic disease.
- Coconut is low in carbohydrates and high in antioxidants, good fats, and fiber, all of which may help with blood sugar regulation.
A large, fleshy, slightly heart-shaped tropical fruit, the custard apple is a wintertime genius. It is a sweet fruit with a vanilla-like aroma. Most people are fans of this subtle, creamy, and custard-like winter special fruit that originated in America and the West Indies.
- Eating custard apples may improve your level of vitamin B6, which may elevate your mood and lower the risk of depression.
- The carotenoid antioxidants in custard apples, such as lutein, may be very potent in improving eye health and lowering the risks of heart disease and several types of cancer.
- This fruit has anti-inflammatory properties and is also an immunity booster.
Figs or Anjeer
The fig or Anjeer tree is grown for its fruits and ornamental value. It is a tear-shaped fruit with green skin that can develop into purple or brown and sweet, soft crimson flesh with numerous crunchy seeds. Figs are eaten in both dried and fresh forms.
- Figs are low in calories and fat, making them a good snack for weight management.
- Anjeer contains calcium, which is important for bone health and can help prevent osteoporosis.
- Figs are a good source of iron, which is important for maintaining healthy blood and preventing anemia.
Who doesn’t like these fresh, juicy, sweet, and slightly sour fruits of the winter season? There is something royal about grapes! This green, red, or black colored fruit is a great source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, making it a healthy snack option during the winter months.
- Flavonoids found in grapes have been shown to improve cognitive function and memory.
- The high fiber content in grapes can improve digestive health and reduce the risk of constipation.
- Resveratrol, a compound found in grapes, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and may reduce the risk of inflammation-related diseases such as arthritis.
Depending on the species, guavas can be long, spherical, or oval. They have a strong, distinctive scent that is reminiscent of lemon peel but less astringent. The outer green part is hard to semi-soft (depending on when you are harvesting), while the inner white part is soft with many edible seeds.
- Guavas have anti-inflammatory properties that can reduce the risk of inflammatory conditions like arthritis and asthma.
- This fruit is a rich source of vitamins C and A, which boost the immune system.
- Guava has high fiber content that promotes digestive health and prevents constipation.
Indian Gooseberry or Amla
Everyone in India knows about this miraculous fruit, or "superfruit." The lustrous, spherical, light green fruit has a high vitamin C content. 100 grams of amla are equivalent to 20 oranges. It tastes sour, and people eat it in raw or cooked form across India.
- The high percentage of vitamin C and antioxidants in Indian gooseberries supports healthy skin and hair.
- Indian gooseberry aids in managing diabetes by regulating blood sugar levels and improving insulin sensitivity.
- The vitamin C in amla helps boost immunity, protect against infections, and elevate energy levels.
With furry brown skin and juicy green inside, kiwifruit is tasty, sweet, and slightly sour. It is native to China. In India, it is grown in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, Kerala, etc. Add it to your breakfast or lunch plate, in salad bowls or smoothie glasses, and enjoy its various health benefits.
- Kiwifruits have 230% of the daily recommended value of vitamin C. So, your immunity will improve with regular consumption of kiwifruit.
- This fruit contains folate and other B vitamins that support brain function and may reduce the risk of cognitive decline.
- Kiwis may support skin health and reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles due to its high vitamin C content.
This round, orange-colored bright and juicy fruit is a winter favorite. Orange, which is loaded with vitamins C and A, calcium, potassium, and fiber, is the healthiest fruit of the winter season. You simply cannot miss it.
- Drinking fresh orange juice can provide instant energy and improve mental alertness.
- The high water content in oranges helps keep the body hydrated, which is important for healthy skin, joints, and organs.
- Oranges also contain flavonoids, which have anti-inflammatory properties and can help reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke, and certain cancers.
People love strawberries' distinctive aroma, vivid red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. Large amounts of it are consumed, either fresh or in prepared meals like jam, juice, pies, ice cream, and milkshakes, among others.
- Because strawberries have a low glycemic index, they are a pleasant choice for those trying to manage or lower their blood sugar levels.
- Strawberries are rich in antioxidants and so they can help reduce oxidative stress and prevent the formation of cancer cells.
- This fruit may support a healthy cognitive function preventing diseases like dementia.
Useful Tips for Winter Fruits
Store fruits properly
Most winter fruits can be stored at room temperature for a few days, but if you want to keep them fresh for longer, store them in the refrigerator. Oranges, for example, can last up to two weeks in the fridge.
Handle with care
Winter fruits, especially pomegranates, can be delicate and easily bruised. Handle them with care to avoid damaging the fruit.
Clean before eating
Before eating any winter fruit, rinse it thoroughly under running water to remove any dirt, pesticides, or bacteria. Use a produce brush to scrub firm-skinned fruits like apples.
Freeze for later
If you have an abundance of winter fruits, consider freezing them for later use. Wash and dry the fruits, then slice or chop them as desired and freeze them in an airtight container or freezer bag.
If you have fruits that are starting to go bad, use them up in recipes like smoothies, juices, or baked goods. You can also make jams or chutneys with overripe fruits. Don't let them go to waste!
Nature has a unique way of keeping us fit and fine, and that’s the reason why doctors, physicians, nutritionists, and everyone else related to the health and fitness industry suggests we consume seasonal fruits because they are loaded with nutrients. Each season has its own flavor, and so does winter. Have lots of winter seasonal fruits and stay safe!
FAQs Related to Winter Fruits
What are some popular winter fruits available in India?
Some popular winter fruits available in India include oranges, pomegranates, guavas, strawberries, grapes, apples, etc.
How should I choose the best winter fruits?
You should look for fruits that are firm, heavy for their size, and have a vibrant color. Please avoid fruits with soft spots or bruises.
What are seasonal fruits?
Seasonal fruits are fruits that are only available during specific times of the year when they are in season. These fruits are typically grown and harvested locally, and their availability can vary depending on factors such as weather and climate.
What are summer seasonal fruits?"
Summer seasonal fruits are those that are available during the summer months when they are in season. Examples are mangoes, watermelons, muskmelons, pineapples, litchis, and papayas.
What are monsoon seasonal fruits in India?
Monsoon season seasonal fruits in India include jamuns, plums, peaches, cherries, and pomegranates, which are available between June and September.
What are the health benefits of eating winter fruits?
Winter fruits are a good source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that can help boost your immune system, improve digestion, and promote overall health and well-being.
Which winter seasonal fruits can be grown at home?
You can grow strawberries, lemons, oranges, etc. kind of winter seasonal fruits at home.
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Specialists of the early national period are likely familiar with Absalom Jones and Richard Allen’s A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People, During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia, in the Year 1793: And a Refutation of Some Censures, Thrown Upon Them in Some Late Publications (1794). Although Jones and Allen’s account describes a very specific “awful calamity”—the yellow fever epidemic that struck Philadelphia in 1793—their narrative is equally concerned with a larger constellation of overlapping crises stemming from the Atlantic slave trade, including the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, the Haitian Revolution that began in 1791, and what Joanna Brooks has described as the racial panic following Pennsylvania’s Gradual Manumission Act of 1780. Like many of us, I anticipated that Jones and Allen would be particularly relevant to teach during our most recent public health crisis, but I’ve found that their text resonates beyond the theme of pandemic writing. A Narrative is written less to make sense of a past temporary crisis than to mark and anticipate the present and future effects of partial accounts of that crisis. A Narrative uses graphic sensory imagery to return readers to past scenes of distress, but with the goal of correcting the historical frame that is already informing their understanding of those events. Throughout their account Jones and Allen shift between urgently registering the pressing material effects of crisis and contextualizing those effects within a longer, unfinished history. I’m interested in what Jones and Allen’s narrative strategies can offer students in the face of adjacent crises experienced as both immediate and ongoing, including the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, economic precarity, and white supremacist violence.
For Jones and Allen, the problem was not a lack of information, but stubbornly partial accounts of that information.
Most immediately, Jones and Allen’s account of the yellow fever epidemic can be understood as a corrective to publisher Mathew Carey’s slanderous account of the actions of Black Philadelphians in his A Short Account of the Malignant Fever, Lately Prevalent in Philadelphia (1793). In that account, Carey reproduced the incorrect theory that people of African descent were immune to yellow fever and accused Black residents who served as nurses and gravediggers of exploiting the crisis for financial gain. Jones and Allen’s response to Carey can serve as historical precedent for understanding the sharp rise in hate crimes targeting Asian Americans in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Jones and Allen positioned the experiences of Black Philadelphians during the yellow fever epidemic within a larger history of racial violence. Likewise, Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) scholars and activists have positioned these hate crimes within centuries of scapegoating rhetoric weaponized against the AAPI community in response to economic, political, and public health crises. They have also argued that this most recent threat of violence might be partially responsible for higher COVID-19 mortality rates among Asian Americans.
In addition to this direct connection between past and present, I find Jones and Allen’s narrative strategies useful for thinking about our narratives of crisis more generally. As Derrick Spires has recently argued, it’s important to understand Jones and Allen as not only responding to Carey, but as also proposing their own radical and expansive theories of citizenship. Building off this work, I’d also like to enlarge our understanding of Jones and Allen as critics of a certain kind of reaction to crisis that, as Kyle Whyte has shown, in its misunderstanding of crisis as unprecedented, justifies the expendability of certain populations. Jones and Allen’s Narrative forces readers to confront what Lauren Berlant has described as the environmental conditions of slow death, recontextualizing the yellow fever epidemic within a broader and ongoing history of violence and neglect.
Jones and Allen append to their account of the epidemic “An Address to those who keep slaves, and approve the practice” (23). This address offers a theory for why the white citizens of Philadelphia have been so “willfully blind” in their characterizations of Black health and civic duty (24). Capturing the slippage between “those who keep slaves” and those who “approve the practice,” the opening sentence of this address seamlessly shifts from description to direct address: “The judicious part of mankind will think it unreasonable, that a superior conduct is looked for, from our race, by those who stigmatize us as men, whose baseness is incurable, and may therefore be held in a state of servitude, that a merciful man would not doom a beast to; yet you try what you can to prevent our rising from the state of barbarism, you represent us to be in.” The shift in pronouns links “those who keep slaves” to the “you” of Jones and Allen’s readers: both “prevent our rising from” a “state of barbarism” that is itself a fictional construction that justifies white supremacy. The city’s post-slavery racial hierarchy depends on diagnosing Black residents as suffering from “incurable” “baseness.” Only this widened historical lens provides sufficient context for understanding why the Black residents of Philadelphia were impressed into service during the epidemic and how their public service continues to be portrayed in its aftermath.
The incorrect theory that people of African descent were immune to yellow fever led large numbers of the city’s Black residents to be impressed into service caring for the sick and disposing of bodies. The idea that Black residents were inherently immune was convenient because it justified both the impressment of Black residents as front-line health care workers and their enslavement and disenfranchisement through polygenist definitions of race. Jones and Allen open their Narrative noting that this theory of immunity was always in doubt, characterizing it as only “a kind of assurance,” while attributing their own service to “our sense of duty to do all the good we could” rather than to any confidence in their safety (3). Although the Narrative highlights that Black Philadelphians’ “distress hath been very great, but much unknown to the white people,” it also argues that this position of unknowing is one of deliberate cultivation rather than innocence (15). Although the theory of Black immunity was quickly disproven in the early weeks of the epidemic, “it is even to this day a generally received opinion in this city.” Jones and Allen note that when “it became too notorious to be denied” that Black residents were in fact dying of yellow fever, “then we were told some few died but not many.” This new claim could have been disputed by “any reasonable man” who examined the burial records of 1792 and 1793. Carefully documenting the shifting nature of the justifications for the impressment and neglect of Black residents, Jones and Allen attribute the incoherence of the medical discourse to a purposeful strategy of having “our services extorted” rather than a lack of information.
Mathew Carey did eventually revise subsequent editions of his Short Account to correct the theory of Black immunity and to temper the charges of extortion he leveled against Black nurses. Jones and Allen did not anticipate that these future editions would sufficiently counter the proliferating versions of misinformation that have already stigmatized the Black residents of Philadelphia: “Mr. Carey’s first, second, and third editions, are gone forth into the world, and in all probability, have been read by thousands that will never read his fourth—consequently, any alteration he may hereafter make, in the paragraph alluded to, cannot have the desired effect, or atone for the past; therefore we apprehend it necessary to publish our thoughts on the occasion” (13). Confirming Jones and Allen’s skepticism about the efficacy of future corrections, in the fourth edition of his Short Account (1794) Carey acknowledges that the theory of Black immunity turned out to be wrong, but he also argues that this mistake was ultimately beneficial to the city’s white residents, because it meant Black nurses were not afraid to serve. This correction only emphasizes the expendability of Black residents in the face of crisis and continues to ignore that the Black nurses described by Jones and Allen served despite understanding the risk of infection.
For Jones and Allen, the problem was not a lack of information, but stubbornly partial accounts of that information. Critiques of partiality appear throughout the Narrative: Jones and Allen refer to “partial” accounts, relations, representations, paragraphs, and men eight times. As Carey’s corrections in his fourth and fifth editions demonstrate, partial’s dual meanings of biased and incomplete operate together, as Carey’s racial bias kept him from seeing a complete picture of the epidemic, including the ways that Black residents suffered and the civic duty they performed. Although Carey accuses “the vilest of the blacks” of extortion, from his very first edition he also specifically praises “Absalom Jones and Richard Allen” for their service, declaring “it is wrong to cast a censure on the whole for this sort of conduct” (77). Refusing to serve as exceptions that prove Carey’s rule, Jones and Allen respond by claiming that being praised individually for their exceptional service, “leaves these others, in the hazardous state of being classed with those who are called the ‘vilest’” (12-13). Speculating about the “bad consequences” of this “partial relation of our conduct,” Jones and Allen again expand our incomplete historical frame, but this time towards the future, as they imagine a Black resident who served as a nurse during the epidemic being “abhorred, despised, and perhaps dismissed from employment” (10). In this vision of “some future day,” the problem is not only that Carey’s “partial relation” has served to “prejudice the minds of the people in general against us,” but that “it is impossible that one individual, can have knowledge of all” other individuals. Because no one individual can have knowledge of the whole, how the part is represented becomes lethally important. Jones and Allen’s single, definitive, copyrighted account of the yellow fever epidemic does not suggest that there’s no way of knowing the truth or that one partial account is as good as the next. Instead, Jones and Allen claim a kind of “power” from their own particularized “situation” to chronicle the material consequences and foreclosed possibilities of a historical record that is congealing before their very eyes (3).
There is also an even more radical implication to Jones and Allen’s refusal to accept Carey’s partial praise: if virtue can be so easily misread as criminal, then insurgency can also be misread as contentment. Although Jones and Allen argue that any “alteration” made in the “hereafter” cannot “atone for the past,” they do suggest that imagining the future can impact the present (13). Rather than a sentimental futurism that defers action in the present to an ever-receding horizon, Jones and Allen claim that imagining future possibilities—possibilities of both equality and vengeance—should have an immediate effect on the present. While Jones and Allen firmly contrast the moral excellence of Black residents to the moral failure of white residents, they find Biblical precedent for considering “the contrary effects of liberty and slavery upon the mind of man,” and tell their readers “it is in our posterity enjoying the same privileges with your own, that you ought to look for better things” (24). But they also caution readers about their partial knowledge of what lies in the “hearts” of enslaved Black Americans: “We have shewn the cause of our incapacity, we will also shew why we appear contented; were we to attempt to plead with our masters, it would be deemed insolence, for which cause they appear as contented as they can in your fight, but the dreadful insurrections they have made, when opportunity has offered, is enough to convince a reasonable man, that great uneasiness and not contentment, is the inhabitant of their hearts” (25). Here surely “the dreadful insurrections” Jones and Allen refer to are in Haiti, a vision of a certain future for the United States should slavery not be ended in the immediate present, and a hyperlinked invocation of xenophobic associations between the contagion of fever and the contagion of insurrection. Collapsing geographic and temporal distance, this passage imagines Haiti’s past as America’s future.
This was not only the warning of a jeremiad, but also a reminder of the insurrectionary action that has already been taken by the enslaved and self-emancipated in the Atlantic world, and yet another recontextualization of that history as a just response, as a future to be anticipated rather than feared. The present perfect tense—“the dreadful insurrections they have made, when opportunity has offered”—and another seamless shift in pronouns from “our” to “they”—renders this history not so much a warning sign of a distant future to be averted as a proximate past that is catching up to the present. Just as readers can’t be sure where Haiti’s past-present ends and America’s future-present begins, they also can’t be sure of what lies beneath the “contented” appearances of Black Americans. Although the community Jones and Allen speak for privileges deliberation in the face of fear—the Narrative opens recounting that “we and a few others met and consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy an occasion”—the Narrative also cautions against an expectation of a “superior good conduct,” of resiliency and mercy, that dissociates deliberation from “insurrections” (3, 23, 25).
Even as Jones and Allen contextualize the treatment of Black residents during the epidemic within a larger history of enslavement, oppression, and revolution, they also anchor the reader in the scene of immediate crisis by punctuating their narrative with the sights, sounds, and smells of the epidemic: “lunacy,” “ordure and other evacuations of the sick,” “vomiting blood, and screaming” (8, 9, 14). Their narrative forces the reader to experience the crisis as ongoing rather than complete. Jones and Allen do not use narrative to contain the disruptive effects of crisis, but to position those effects as part of an incomplete past and undetermined future. This theorizing of how to narrate crisis is what I have found so useful for thinking alongside Jones and Allen at a regional public university with students who are already well-equipped to recognize how unevenly the effects of crises accumulate across lives and institutions. By documenting the partial nature of the judgment that distinguishes between past and present, Jones and Allen empower students to see that perspective does not require detachment.
“The Blame Game: How Political Rhetoric Inflames Anti-Asian Scapegoating,” Stop AAPI Hate, October 2022.
Lauren Berlant, “Slow Death (Sovereignty, Obesity, Lateral Agency),” Critical Inquiry 33 (no. 3, Summer 2007): 754-80.
Joanna Brooks, American Lazarus: Religion and the Rise of African-American and Native American Literatures (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
Mathew Carey, A short account of the malignant fever, lately prevalent in Philadelphia: with a statement of the proceedings that took place on the subject in different parts of the United States (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1793).
Mathew Carey, A short account of the malignant fever, lately prevalent in Philadelphia: with a statement of the proceedings that took place on the subject in different parts of the United States, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1794).
Absalom Jones and Richard Allen, A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People, During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia, in the Year 1793: And a Refutation of Some Censures, Thrown Upon Them in Some Late Publications. By A.J. and R.A. (Philadelphia: William W. Woodward, 1794).
Stephen Knadler, “Narrating Slow Violence: Post-Reconstruction’s Necropolitics and Speculating beyond Liberal Antirace Fiction,” J19: The Journal of Nineteenth-Century Americanists 5 (no. 1, Spring 2017): 21-50.
Thomas Koenigs, “The ‘Mysterious Depths’ of Slave Interiority: Fiction and Intersubjective Knowledge in The Heroic Slave,” J19: The Journal of Nineteenth-Century Americanists 8 (no. 2, Fall 2020): 193-217.
Samuel Otter, Philadelphia Stories: America’s Literature of Race and Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
Derrick Spires, The Practice of Citizenship: Black Politics and Print Culture in the Early United States (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019).
Kyle Whyte, “Against Crisis Epistemology,” in Handbook of Critical Indigenous Studies, ed. Brendan Hokowhitu et al. (London and New York: Routledge, 2020).
Brandon W. Yan et al. “Death Toll of COVID-19 on Asian Americans: Disparities Revealed,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 36 (no. 11, 2021): 3545-49. doi:10.1007/s11606-021-07003-0.
This article originally appeared in August 2023.
Laurel V. Hankins is Associate Professor of English & Communication at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, where she teaches and publishes work in early American literature. Her work can be found in African American Review, Legacy: A Journal of Women Writers, and Nineteenth-Century Literature.
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What Does Kiting Mean?
Are you interested in understanding the concept of kiting and its implications? Look no further. This article delves into the meaning and significance of kiting, addressing any confusion or questions you may have. In today’s fast-paced world, financial frauds such as kiting have become a major concern, making it crucial to be well-informed about such practices.
What is Kiting?
Kiting is a fraudulent activity that takes advantage of the time delay between writing a check and the funds being deducted. This is often done between accounts in different banks, with the intention of depositing funds before the check clears. For example, an individual may write a check from Bank A to deposit in Bank B in order to cover an overdrawn account, hoping to deposit funds before the check is processed.
How Does Kiting Work?
- Learn about wind direction and speed.
- Choose a suitable location with consistent wind.
- Properly secure and unroll the kite lines.
- Generate wind speed to launch the kite.
- Use the wind and bar to control the movement of the kite.
To fully understand how kiting works, it is recommended to take lessons from a certified instructor and always follow safety guidelines for an optimal kiting experience.
What are the Different Types of Kiting?
Kiting is a term that is often associated with financial fraud, but it encompasses more than just illegal activities. In fact, there are different types of kiting that are used for various purposes. In this section, we will explore the three main types of kiting: check kiting, credit card kiting, and securities kiting. Each type involves different methods and consequences, and understanding them can help us better recognize and prevent potential kiting schemes.
1. Check Kiting
- Make sure you have a thorough understanding of the concept of 1. check kiting and the potential implications it can have.
- Regularly review bank statements to identify any suspicious or abnormal transactions.
- Establish internal controls and supervision to prevent and detect instances of check kiting.
- Educate all staff and employees about the dangers and repercussions of participating in or facilitating check kiting.
2. Credit Card Kiting
- Credit card kiting is a method of taking advantage of the delay in credit card transactions clearing. To prevent and address credit card kiting, follow these steps:
- Regularly check credit card statements to catch any unusual transactions.
- Set credit limits to prevent large balances that could be used for kiting.
- Utilize real-time transaction monitoring to quickly identify any suspicious activities.
3. Securities Kiting
- Regularly review all securities transactions for any inconsistencies or irregularities.
- Implement strict internal controls to monitor securities activities and prevent any unauthorized or fraudulent actions.
- Conduct regular audits to ensure compliance with regulations and identify any potential signs of securities kiting.
What are the Signs of Kiting?
Kiting is a fraudulent activity that involves manipulating bank accounts to artificially inflate the available balance. But how do you know if someone is engaging in kiting? In this section, we will discuss the key signs to look out for. These include frequent large deposits and withdrawals, overdrafts and bounced checks, and suspicious transactions. By understanding these warning signs, you can protect yourself and your finances from being affected by kiting.
1. Frequent Large Deposits and Withdrawals
- Regularly review bank statements and look for a pattern of frequent large deposits and withdrawals.
- Investigate the source of these transactions and assess their legitimacy.
- If necessary, seek the assistance of a financial advisor or accountant to analyze the financial activities.
2. Overdrafts and Bounced Checks
- Monitor Account Balance: Keep track of your account balance to avoid overdrafts and bounced checks.
- Set up Alerts: Utilize banking alerts to receive notifications for low balances and pending transactions.
- Understand Check Clearing: Be aware of the time it takes for checks to clear to prevent overdrafts and bounced checks.
3. Suspicious Transactions
- Review Account Statements: Regularly examine bank statements for irregular or unauthorized transactions, especially those that may be considered suspicious.
- Report Unusual Activity: Notify your financial institution promptly if you notice any unusual or suspicious transactions.
- Implement Security Measures: Utilize secure payment methods and two-factor authentication to safeguard against fraudulent activities and suspicious transactions.
Being attentive to your financial accounts and staying informed about potential red flags are crucial in identifying and addressing suspicious transactions, ensuring the security of your funds.
What are the Consequences of Kiting?
Kiting, a deceptive financial practice, can have serious consequences for individuals and businesses alike. In this section, we will discuss the potential repercussions of kiting and how it can impact your financial well-being. From legal penalties to damage to credit scores and loss of financial stability, we will explore the various consequences that may arise from engaging in kiting.
1. Legal Penalties
- Understand the laws: Familiarize yourself with the legal statutes and regulations concerning kiting in your jurisdiction, including potential legal penalties.
- Seek legal advice: Consult a legal professional to understand the potential legal consequences and options for defense.
- Cooperate with authorities: If under investigation, fully cooperate with law enforcement and financial regulatory agencies.
Safeguard your financial interests by staying informed and seeking professional guidance when dealing with kiting allegations.
2. Damage to Credit Score
Damage to credit score from kiting can have long-term financial repercussions. To mitigate the impact, it is important to take the following steps:
- Regularly check your credit report for any suspicious activity or inaccuracies.
- Address any outstanding debts and make timely payments to improve your credit score.
- Avoid opening multiple new accounts in a short period of time, as this can have a negative impact on your credit score.
In 2009, a well-known case of kiting involving a major financial institution resulted in significant damage to the organization’s credit scores and reputation.
3. Loss of Financial Stability
The consequences of kiting can be devastating, resulting in a loss of financial stability. This can lead to bankruptcy, business failure, and personal financial ruin. The effects are not limited to legal penalties and damage to credit scores, but also have a long-term impact on one’s financial health.
How Can Kiting be Prevented?
In the world of finance, kiting refers to the act of fraudulently inflating the balance of a bank account by transferring funds between accounts. This deceptive practice can have serious consequences for both individuals and businesses. To protect yourself and your finances, it is important to understand how kiting occurs and how it can be prevented. In this section, we will discuss three key strategies for preventing kiting: regularly monitoring bank accounts, setting up alerts for suspicious activity, and educating yourself and your employees about the risks and warning signs of kiting.
1. Regularly Monitor Bank Accounts
To ensure the regular monitoring of bank accounts, follow these steps:
- Set up online banking for real-time access to account activity.
- Review bank statements and transaction history regularly for any unauthorized or suspicious activity.
- Keep track of account balances to quickly identify any unexpected changes.
- Utilize mobile banking apps to receive alerts for large transactions or unusual account activity.
By consistently monitoring bank accounts, any signs of potential kiting or fraudulent activities can be swiftly identified and addressed.
2. Set up Alerts for Suspicious Activity
- Regularly review account activity to detect any unusual patterns or transactions.
- Utilize bank alert services to receive notifications for large transactions, multiple overdrafts, or suspicious activities.
- Set up specific alerts for suspicious activity, such as check kiting or credit card kiting, to prompt immediate action.
3. Educate Yourself and Employees
- Gain a thorough understanding of the concept of kiting and its implications for financial institutions.
- Educate employees on how to identify potential signs of kiting, such as frequent large deposits and overdrafts.
- Provide training for staff to monitor transactions for any suspicious activity and to promptly report any concerns.
What to Do if You Suspect Kiting?
Have you ever heard of the term “kiting” in relation to financial fraud? If so, you may be wondering what it means and how to protect yourself from it. In this section, we will discuss what to do if you suspect someone is engaging in kiting, a form of fraudulent check writing. We will cover the necessary steps to take, including contacting your bank, filing a report with the authorities, and potentially hiring a professional investigator to help resolve the situation. Don’t let kiting go unchecked – stay informed and take action if you have suspicions.
1. Contact Your Bank
- Inform your bank immediately about any suspected kiting activity.
- Provide all relevant details and documentation to support your claim.
- Request the bank to initiate an investigation into the matter.
Always stay vigilant and take prompt action to safeguard your financial interests by contacting your bank.
2. File a Report with Authorities
- Contact local law enforcement or the police department to report the suspected kiting activity.
- File a report with the authorities, providing all relevant details and evidence of the suspicious transactions and activities.
- Cooperate with the authorities during the investigation process, offering any necessary information or documentation.
3. Hire a Professional Investigator
- Research and Identify Investigators: Look for licensed investigators with experience in financial fraud investigations.
- Check Credentials: Verify the investigator’s credentials, including licenses, certifications, and professional affiliations.
- Hire a Professional Investigator: Schedule a meeting with the investigator to discuss the specifics of the kiting suspicion and assess their understanding of the situation.
- Review Strategy and Cost: Request a detailed investigation plan and cost estimate before proceeding.
- Agree on Terms: Finalize terms of engagement, including fees, confidentiality, and reporting frequency.
Frequently Asked Questions
What Does Kiting Mean?
Kiting refers to the practice of intentionally writing checks for more money than is currently available in a bank account, with the expectation of making a deposit to cover the check before it is processed.
Is Kiting Illegal?
Yes, kiting is considered a form of check fraud and is illegal in most countries. It is a serious offense that can result in criminal charges and penalties.
Why Do People Engage in Kiting?
People may engage in kiting to artificially inflate their bank account balance or to temporarily cover expenses until they have the funds available. However, it is a risky and illegal practice that can have serious consequences.
How Does Kiting Affect Banks?
Kiting can create significant losses for banks, as they may process fraudulent checks and provide funds that do not actually exist. This can also lead to increased fees and charges for legitimate bank customers.
How Can Kiting Be Detected?
Banks have strict measures in place to detect kiting, such as monitoring for unusually high numbers of checks being written or deposited, as well as tracking account balances and check clearing times.
What Are Some Other Names for Kiting?
Kiting may also be referred to as check kiting, float, or check floating. In some cases, it may also be called playing the float or paper hanging. Regardless of the term used, all forms of check fraud are illegal and can have serious consequences.
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From the mineral waters of Birštonas that claim to heal, Amber washed up on shore and preserved 13th-century towns, the Baltic States offer much to explore.
Table of Contents:
- The Baltics overview and facts
- Highlights of places to visit
- Baltic Amber
- Cost of traveling the Baltic States
The Baltic Countries
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are often referred to as the Baltic states. The terms “Baltic states” or “Baltic countries” are common but not official. All three countries rest on the east shore of the Baltic sea, but only Lithuania and Latvia are ethnically Baltic and speak a Baltic language. Estonia has a culture and language that is based on a Finnic background.
The combined geographical area of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, pictured in blue, red, and yellow, imposed over the map of Washington State below shows that the Baltic States are slightly bigger than the state of Washington. However, the population of the three Baltic States is lower than Washington State in the USA.
Each country has a long and rich history, with ancient buildings that could tell stories. The countryside is spotted with farms and woodlands of both pine and deciduous trees. I could almost imagine that I was back in the northeast of the USA, except for the occasional castle reaching up beyond the tree line.
The latitude line of these three countries rests just below Alaska on the other side of the globe. The further north we traveled the more daylight encroached on each night. Our sleeping pattern struggled to align with the sun setting around 11 PM and coming back up around 4 AM. Between sunset and sunrise is a twilight, not quite fully dark. My Russian friend Olga calls this a “white night.”
The Baltics FAQs
The three countries that are usually referred to as the Baltic states are Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. They are located just below Finland and above Poland. Russia and Belarus are on their eastern borders. See map below.
Yes, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are unofficially referred to as the Baltic states. It is a term that started after World War I when these three distinct countries on the Baltic Sea gained independence from Russia. They each have their own languages and distinct history.
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania all became part of NATO on March 29th, 2004. All three countries became part of the European Union on May 1st, 2004.
Birštonas, the Town of Healing Waters
In 1854 the town of Birštonas, Lithuania was given the permit to establish itself as a resort. Its claim to fame is the mineral springs all over town purported to have healing properties. Nearly 500 years before this resort status was granted, the town was mentioned in 14th-century writing that spoke of a fortified wooden castle founded by the salty waters of the Nemunas River (source: VisitBristonas).
An observation tower rises high in the sky at the edge of town giving tourists a chance to see the famed winding Nemunas river through the sensational landscape. It’s only 300 steps to the top.
Walking paths crisscross throughout Birštonas. Some meander through the woods or along paths decorated with sculptures. The town is filled with art and places to recline, places to contemplate. Along these walks, mineral water huts provide an opportunity to relax and drink the waters of Birštonas.
My favorite water hut is the Druskupis open-air mineral water evaporation structure. It is a circular structure. Branches from local trees fill the walls, creating a separation from the noise outside but allowing the breeze to waft through. Mineral water flows over the walls creating soothing dripping sounds. Airflow evaporates the droplets filling the space with salty air like that of the sea. I rested on one of the reclining benches inside, breathed deeply, listened to the sound of nature, and watched the top of the trees sway back and forth above me.
Then I got up and took a picture of Trin inside the hut. 🙂
Evidence of Healing?
There is little scientific evidence to support the claims. Yet most of us are drawn to the ocean, breathing in the salty air, listening to the rhythm of the waves, and relaxing in the sand. It all does feel a bit healing. Maybe it is just the time in nature, taking time to be rather than do. Taking time to be still which we do so little of in our culture.
At the end of our walk on the mineral water route, we stopped to enjoy the park on the edge of town. I laid back on the wooden seat and looked at the blue sky above. A few clouds drifted high above and a breeze cooled the rays of the sun on my skin. The stream gently meandered, its sound barely perceptible. There is something in Bristonas that lives up to its hype about being a place of healing but maybe it’s not about what is in the water.
The Birštonas website is one of the best town websites I’ve seen for nature lovers. We walked 23 miles of trails, many I would do again and all of them had something different, be it water rooms, art, or vistas overlooking the river.
Note: Birštonas was founded as a resort based on the mineral springs throughout the town. All the springs have since dried up. Bore water from deep wells has replaced the springs providing water to the huts. They are said to have similar mineral properties to what the springs had in the past.
Vilnius, capital of Lithuania
Vilnius was one of the largest Jewish centers in Europe. In 1812 Napoleon called it the “Jerusalem of the north.” Just before World War II, the Jewish population of Lithuania was 265,000. German units and Lithuanian Nazi collaborators murdered 95% of the Jewish population of Lithuania by the end of the war (Wikipedia-Vilnius). Only one synagogue survived the war without significant damage. If one looks closely inscriptions on old buildings throughout the city still bear the mark of what now seems to be a forgotten past. (-Guardian-Steele).
Medieval architecture is the most prominent historical architecture in Vilnius.
The Gate of Dawn built between 1502 and 1522, is the last remaining watchtower that remains of the defensive wall surrounding Vilnius. Lithuania’s most famous Renaissance painting, called Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn, was installed inside the chapel of the gate in the 17th century. Locals and visitors still worship the painting today. As we walked through the gate we noticed a few locals coming through to bow, cross themselves, and mouth a few words before continuing on their journey.
The castle is what drew us to Kaunas, but I found the courtyard art gallery (Keimo Galerija) to be more moving.
Pre-war communities knew each other well, were warm, celebrated holidays, and helped each other during difficult times. Over time the communities became isolated. Vytenis and other artists created yard art to bring communities back together and remember those who were lost during the war.
Our first sighting as we got off the bus in Riga was the massive market. Old German hangars have been upgraded to house the largest market in Europe.
Latvia is home to one of the most strategic trading ports in the Baltics. Riga, the strategic port, is located at the junction of the Baltic sea and the Daugava River. Vikings used this river and it continued to be a major trading route through the centuries. Due to its valuable location, Latvia is highly prized and has been fought over. The most recent invasion was by the Soviet Red Army in 1944. Latvia remained under Soviet control until 1991.
Riga was founded in 1201 and has a beautiful Old Town with cobblestone streets and ancient architecture.
Tallinn, a long time ago
Old Town Tallinn is so much fun to explore. It is an exceptionally intact 13th-century city. Wandering up and down the streets was a feast for the eyes and fodder for the imagination of what it might have been like to live here a few hundred years ago.
Not that long ago
On the eastern outskirts of Tallinn along the bay is a large memorial called Estonia’s Victims of Communist Terror. Between 1940 to 1991 Estonia lost a fifth of its population. Over 75,000 were victims of communist terror. They were murdered or deported and never heard from again.
The main hall of the memorial stretches up from the Baltic Sea to a garden of remembrance. Thousands of names were engraved on the black walls reaching up to the sky. We walked through the narrow passage slowly. A woman before me gently touched a name on the wall. Silence aside from an occasional footfall engulfed us inside. Between the sea and the far end of the hallway, the highway sounds drifted through indicating the continuing of life even amid the remembrance of terror and loss.
The outer wall of the hallway recounts horror stories of the Russian occupation. The sun seemed relentless against the black facade but not as mercilessly as what I had just read on the walls.
The path of the garden wound around the hillside. There were white flecks on the outside wall that, upon closer inspection, turned out to be tiny silver bees in the hundreds, in clusters of varying sizes. They represent a community sticking together despite everything.
Did you know that 90% of the world’s amber is Baltic amber? From Poland, all the way to Estonia, shops devoted to amber dotted the cities.
What is Amber?
Baltic Amber is thought to come from an extinct conifer tree that grew in the Kaliningrad Oblast region (part of Russia, in red on the map below). Most resins break down in adverse weather, but this conifer tree produced a resin that has more chemical stability.
It is possible that rapid climate change caused these trees to produce a large amount of resin after which the area was flooded causing the trees to be buried under seawater. There they were submerged under sediments. The lack of oxygen in these sediments would have helped to preserve the resin. Heat and pressure would drive out the terpenes and fossilize the resin.
How is Amber formed?
Amber is a fossilized tree resin. Tree resin is a thick and sticky substance not to be confused with tree sap. Sap is thinner and contains more sugar. Keep enjoying maple syrup on your pancakes. It is a sap and no matter how long you wait it will never become amber.
Some of the more well-known resins are Frankincense which is a resin from the genus Boswellia, and Myrrh which is a resin from the genus Commiphora.
Trees secrete resin to protect themselves from damage or attack from parasites or insects. Resin is antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antifungal. It functions as the immune system of the Pinaceae trees (mostly evergreens). This is the main reason so many claim that wearing Amber can be healing. It seems logical, but I haven’t found any studies to prove it.
Where can Baltic Amber be found?
Since amber floats, large storms can unearth and break off resin buried in the Baltic Sea. The most common shores to find washed-up amber are in Poland (Gdansk area), Lithuania, and even Latvia.
Casual beach combing seekers should make sure they understand the difference between amber and white phosphorus left over from WWII. Small stones of white phosphorus can wash up on shore from time to time and look similar to amber. They can spontaneously combust once dry.
Cost of traveling the Baltic States
Our average travel cost per day since 2016 (excluding USA visits) is $47 USD a day. Two and a half years in South America helped us keep our average very low to date. See details on travel in other countries here.
We fully expect Europe to increase our overall average but we also traveled through the Baltics much faster than we normally would. There were other towns that we would have visited, and we might circle back yet, but we had a prior commitment that crammed our timeline. Slow travel spreads out the transport costs over more days and gives us a better feel for each country.
We enjoyed the Baltics and felt very safe. The streets and old towns had us constantly pointing out cool architecture or art and snapping hundreds of pictures. The monuments were a heavy reminder of the value of personal and political freedom.
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You want to cut a cake fairly? Take a knife, count the people at the party, cut the slices and hand them out. Even if the pieces are a bit uneven, who cares? What person above the age of 10 would have the nerve to stop a party and complain that his slice wasn't as big as someone else's? Welcome to the field of fair division. It is full of incipient party poopers: mathematicians, economists, political scientists and mediators who care deeply about cake-cutting, down to the frosting and rosettes.
The field doesn't end with cake. It extends to heirs fighting over their inheritance, ex-spouses haggling over property in a divorce, children shirking chores, pirates splitting their loot, warring parties partitioning land and companies merging.
You would think this kind of thing would have been boiled down to a science by now. Splitting booty, after all, is as old as the Bible. In “The Win-Win Solution: Guaranteeing Fair Shares to Everybody,” Steven J. Brams and Alan D. Taylor recount one of the earliest documented cases of the algorithm (or step-by-step method) for splitting known as “I cut, you choose.” Lot and Abraham are arguing over grazing land. Abraham cuts the land into north and south with this proposal: “Let us separate: If you go north, I will go south; and if you go south, I will go north.” And Lot chooses. The problem of fair division is thousands of years old, but the mathematical theory is still young, according to “Cake-Cutting Algorithms: Be Fair if You Can,” a book by Jack Robertson and William Webb that surveys the known methods of cake cutting. These include moving-knife algorithms (somebody shouts “Stop!” when he thinks a knife that's moving across a cake is hovering over his fair share), dirty-work modifications (for dividing up things nobody wants) and divide-and-conquer algorithms.
The formal theory of fair division began in the 1940's, when three Polish mathematicians — Hugo Steinhaus, Stefan Banach and Bronislaw Knaster — came up with a brilliant question: What happens when it's not two people fighting over a cake, but three? This stumped the world for 20 years. “They realized that it got complicated quite quickly,” said Mr. Taylor, the Marie Louise Bailey Professor of Mathematics at Union College. They found a way to cut the cake proportionally, so that every person would feel that he or she got at least one-third of the cake. But they couldn't insure that one of the cake-eaters would not want to swap his or her piece of cake for someone else's.
This was the problem: Say Tom, Dick and Ann set out to cut a cake into thirds. Tom might cut a slice that he thinks is at least one-third of the cake and then watch as the rest of the cake is split so that Dick gets a bigger piece than his and Ann a smaller one. Tom might feel that he got his proportional share but still envy Dick. The slice would be, in the lingo of fair division, “proportional” but not “envy-free.” It was not until 1960 that two mathematicians, John H. Conway and John L. Selfridge, found a way to guarantee envy-freeness (and proportionality) for three people. (All envy-free solutions are proportional.) Their method also guaranteed crumbs.
Tom cuts the cake into what he thinks are three equal slices. Then Dick sizes up the situation. If he doesn't think the slices are even, he trims the largest slice until he thinks it's same size as the next largest slice. Then the slices are claimed in this order: first Ann, then Dick (who must take the piece he trimmed if Ann didn't take it), then Tom. The problem is what to do with the trimmings. Should they be divided in the same manner? And when do trimmings become worthless crumbs? A variant of the trimming procedure was used after World War II, according to “The Win-Win Solution.” When the Allies partitioned Germany into zones, Berlin was viewed as too valuable a piece to hand over to the Soviet Union even though it was in the Soviet zone. Thus Berlin became the trimmings, leftovers to be further divided.
In the 1990's, Mr. Taylor and Mr. Brams came up with an envy-free way to divide cake among — yes — four people. And if you can cut a cake for four people in an envy-free way, Mr. Taylor says, you can do it for millions. When Mr. Taylor was asked if he could explain it, he said, “Whoa! Not easily.”
Basically it involves cutting extra slices. As the number of cake-eaters increases, the number of slices you have to cut increases exponentially. For four cake-eaters, cut five slices; for five eaters, nine slices; for six, 17 slices; for 22 eaters, more than a million. The trimmings and additional slices are distributed later in an even more complicated way. For all the muss, these algorithms don't always produce satisfied customers. Say one person likes frosting and cake, but another person finds frosting nauseating. If a cake is divided with equal parts frosting and cake for all, the frosting-hater will see that the person who likes both cake and frosting is happier. The frosting-hater doesn't want the other person's slice; he wants that person's happiness with his slice.
That is, there is more to a truly great cut than envy-freeness and proportionality. There's the gloating quotient. If you really want to be fair, you have to insure that no one feels happier with his slice than anyone else. (This is called an “equitable” distribution.) And if you want to dole out the maximum amount of happiness, you should also make sure no other division would make things better for one party without making it worse for another. (This is called an “efficient” division.)
Oddly enough, the more people disagree about what's tasty in a cake, the easier it is to make everyone happy. If one person adores frosting but not cake and the other loves cake but not frosting, you can make both happy by giving one frosting, the other the cake.
The question is how to produce wonderful cuts where some tastes overlap and others don't. The first step is to stop talking about cake. Instead of looking at a single item, like a cake, look at piles of things, like property in a divorce.
In “The Win-Win Solution,” Mr. Brams and Mr. Taylor describe their new algorithm to help two parties — countries, divorces, siblings, companies — divide in a way that's envy-free (and thus proportional), equitable and efficient. It is called adjusted winner, or A.W., and the authors have already patented it, just to avoid getting into a little property dispute of their own. (As far as the authors know, this is the first patent for a method of resolving disputes.)
This is how A.W. works. Two parties list all the items and issues to be divided. Each one gets 100 points to spend on the things listed, spending the most points on those things the player values most. Each player wins (at least temporarily) the items that he has placed more points on than his opponent. Then the adjustments begin. Both players add up the number of points they have spent for the things they have got. If one party has more, they start transferring items back and forth (and sometimes dividing them or cashing them in for money) until their point totals are identical.
“Generally, it pays to be honest about what your valuations are” when using this algorithm, said Mr. Brams, a professor of politics at New York University. And of course it also pays to keep your valuations a secret from your opponent. Otherwise he could spite you by, say, putting just one more point on something he knows you want.
“The more different the preferences, the more both gain,” Mr. Brams says. Applying the A.W. method to Donald and Ivana Trump's divorce, Mr. Brams and Mr. Taylor calculated that both would have won nearly 75 percent of what they wanted because their preferences were so different. She wanted the Connecticut estate and the Trump Plaza apartment. He wanted the Palm Beach mansion and the Trump Tower triplex. If A.W. had been applied to the Camp David peace talks, Egypt and Israel would have each gotten about 65 percent of what they wanted.
That sounds wonderful, but fittingly for a field that deals with disputes, there is some dispute about whether A.W. really promotes harmony. Roger Fisher, who wrote “Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In” with William Ury, is troubled. “A point system,” he said, “takes the articles in conflict as fixed, and that's not necessarily good for any relationship.” In mediation, he says, “emotional needs are often more important than material wants.”
For example, in a diplomatic dispute, perhaps one country wants an apology rather than land in a diplomatic dispute. In an estate settlement, maybe one person wants the summer house only for July and another person wants mother's dress only for her wedding. Mr. Taylor said that it doesn't matter what is being divided up — apologies, sovereignty or wearing mother's dress for a day — as long as everything is put on the list.
Mr. Fisher still has doubts. He said that a point system can help heirs divide antiques but doesn't produce creative solutions for complicated political conflicts. “Apologizing and showing respect, tolerance, understanding and openness to the ideas of others,” he said, “are not units to which partisans can easily assign mathematical points.” The adversarial and secretive nature of the method can work against peace too. In negotiation, it's better to ''play with the cards face up,” to make all your wants clearly known, he said. “The biggest concern is to eliminate the idea that your partner in negotiation is your enemy.” “Most of the world is not made better by dividing things,” Mr. Fisher says. All the secretiveness and jockeying is okay if the parties are going to “live on different planets,” he says. But it's no way to produce harmony and end war. “God bless them if they can find a mathematical solution for that.” Cake, anyone?
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John LaFarge | |
John La Farge, 1902 | |
Born | March 31 1835 New York City, New York |
Died | November 14 1910 (aged 75) |
Nationality | American |
Field | Painting, Stained glass art, Decorator, Writer |
Training | Mount St. Mary's University |
John LaFarge (March 31, 1835 – November 14, 1910) was one of the most innovative and versatile American artists of the nineteenth century. While recognized largely for his paintings, stained glass, and interior decoration, LaFarge also drew attention during the American Renaissance as an illustrator, muralist, world traveler, art critic, author and close friend of prominent men, including Henry James.
He was the first American to devote himself extensively to mural painting and his stained glass windows were unprecedented.
A founder and leader of the American watercolor movement by the late 1870s, LaFarge used watercolor to make studies for illustrations and decorative projects, to record his travels, and to paint floral still-life exhibition pieces.
As a result of the great variety of his work it has been difficult to assess his importance overall, but it is thought that as each work must be judged individually then he can be called a quintessential "Renaissance man" of the American Renaissance.
Born in New York City, New York, of French parentage, he grew up speaking several languages in a home full of books and paintings. His interest in art was inspired early by his grandfather, the minatiurist Louis Binsse de Saint-Victor, who had him accurately copy engravings at age six. Later as a teenager at Columbia Grammar School, he was taught by an English watercolorist and a few years later he studied drawing with Regis-Francois Gignoux, who had also taught George Innes.
During his training at Mount St. Mary's University and St. John's College (now Fordham University) his main interest was the study of law until he left for Europe on his Grand Tour. There he met his cousin, Paul de Saint-Victor with whom he enjoyed the most brilliant literary society of the day. In France he also briefly studied painting with Thomas Couture, visited French medieval cathedrals and then traveled in Germany, Belgium and Denmark where he copied drawings in the printrooms of museums. He was much influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites led by John Ruskin, who focused on the importance of art being morally and spiritually uplifting.
In the autumn of 1857 he returned home to a seriously ill father who would die a year later. Soon afterwards LaFarge became friends with the architect Richard Morris Hunt, a brilliant student from L'Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, who recommended him to his brother William Morris Hunt, who was looking for pupils to teach painting. He'd also studied with Couture and had been influenced by Jean-François Millet and the Barbizon school and its principles. LaFarge felt that it was a chance to study painting more seriously. Even his earliest drawings and landscapes, done after his marriage in 1861 to Margaret Mason Perry, sister-in-law of Lilla Cabot Perry, show marked originality, especially in the handling of color values and his use of Japanese influences. While the French Impressionists were also fascinated with Japanese art LaFarge had actually spent time in Japan and became a pioneer in using its techniques.
LaFarge's inquiring mind led him to experiment with color problems, especially in the medium of stained glass. LaFarge became the greatest innovator in modern stained glass history. He was the first to develop opalescent glass for windows and pioneered the use of thin copper wire or foil to replace heavy lead lines, techniques that made possible the work of Louis Comfort Tiffany. Though Tiffany’s financial resources and commercial inclinations made him far better known, it was LaFarge who was recognized then and since as the great innovator in the field.
In the early 1880s, LaFarge received a number of very prestigious stained glass commissions, including the houses of William H. Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt II in New York, the Darius Ogden Mills house in New York, Harvard University’s Memorial Hall, and windows for Trinity Church in Boston. By 1885, however, his decorating career was dealt a severe blow by legal trouble with the directors of his firm, the LaFarge Decorative Art Company, which resulted in his arrest for grand larceny. Although the charges were soon dropped, the stigma of arrest, which made front-page news, attached to LaFarge until at least the end of the decade.
By the early 1890s, however his clientele improved, with commissions like Judson Memorial Church, a second major window, call Wisdom, for the Ames family’s Unity Church in North Easton, Massachusetts (the earlier window was called, The Angel of Help), an impressive Resurrections window for the First Congregational Church of Nethuen, Massachusetts, and a pair of large allegorical windows depicting Spring and Autumn for William C. Whitney’s Long Island estate.
Illustrations and interiors
In 1876 he began receiving commissions to decorate the interiors of churches, mansions, and private and public buildings that were being constructed or refurbished in response to post-Civil War prosperity and urban growth.
Breadth of observation and structural conception, and a vivid imagination and sense of color are on display in his mural decorations. His first work in mural painting was done in Trinity Church, Boston, in 1873. His decorations in the Church of the Ascension (the large altarpiece) and St. Paul's Church, New York soon followed. For the State Capitol at St. Paul he executed, in his seventy-first year, four great lunettes representing the history of religion, and for the Supreme Court building at Baltimore, a similar series with Justice as the theme. In addition there are his vast numbers of other paintings and watercolors, notably those recording his extensive travels in the Orient and South Pacific.
The earliest recorded exhibition of paintings by LaFarge was in Boston in 1878. There were 48 paintings in the exhibition, all but four of them done by LaFarge. The other four were from his own collection. This exhibition and the ensuing auction resulted in LaFarge's first public recognition as a landscapist.
In the late 1850s and early 1860s, LaFarge became a pioneer in collecting Japanese art and incorporating Japanese effects into his work. He may have purchased his first Japanese prints in Paris in 1856, and this interest was probably encouraged by his marriage in 1860 to Margaret Perry, niece of the Commodore who had opened Japan to the West. By the early 1860s, LaFarge was not only collecting Japanese prints, but was also making use of Japanese compositional ideas in his paintings to create effects which looked strange, empty, and unbalanced by Western standards. In 1869, LaFarge published an essay on Japanese art, the first ever written by a Western artist, in which he particularly noted the asymmetrical compositions, high horizons, and clear, heightened color of Japanese prints.
In 1887 and 1888, following his trip to Japan, La Farge executed a series of monochromatic ink drawings based on photographs that he had purchased or that Henry Adams had taken for him. The drawings were then made into wood engravings for use as magazine illustrations.
In An Artist's Letters from Japan he reported that of all the art he saw there he was most moved by the images of the bodhisattva Kannon "When shown absorbed in the meditations of Nirvana." He and Adams took a second trip to Asia in 1891, traveling to the Buddhist temples of Ceylon.
His labors in almost every field of art won him the French Government the Cross of the Legion of Honor and membership in the principal artistic societies of America, as well as the presidency of the National Society of Mural Painters from 1899 through 1904.
Enjoying an extraordinary knowledge of languages (ancient and modern), literature, and art, by his cultured personality and reflective conversation he greatly influenced all who knew him. Though naturally a questioner he venerated the traditions of religious art, and preserved always his Catholic faith and reverence.
The critic Royal Cortissoz said of LaFarge: "I have heard some brilliant conversationalists, Whistler among them, but I have never heard one remotely comparable to LaFarge." Henry Adams said of him, "LaFarge was a great man-this is rarely true of artists, LaFarge needed nothing but his soul to make him great."
In 1904, he was one of the first seven chosen for membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
LaFarge died in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1910, the year of his large retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. LaFarge was interred in the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York.
His eldest son, Christopher Grant LaFarge, was a partner in the New York-based architectural firm of Heins & LaFarge, responsible for projects in Beaux-Arts style, notably the original Byzantine Cathedral of St. John the Divine, the Yale undergraduate society, Saint Anthony Hall (extant 1893-1913) and the original Astor Court buildings of the Bronx Zoo.
His son Oliver Hazard Perry LaFarge I became an architect and real estate developer. Part of his career in real estate was in a Seattle partnership with Marshall Latham Bond, Bond & LaFarge. During the year 1897 to 1898 Seattle real estate which had gone through a bubble was in a slump. The partners left and participated in the Klondike Gold Rush. Among the camp fire mates at Dawson City during the fall of 1897 was Jack London who rented a tent site from Marshall Bond. In Seattle the Perry Building designed after LaFarge returned is still standing. Later on in his life O. H. P. LaFarge designed buildings for General Motors.
Another of his sons, John LaFarge, S.J. became a Jesuit priest and a strong supporter of anti-racial policies. He wrote several books and articles before the war on this subject, one of which caught the eye of Pope Pius XI who summoned him to Rome and asked him to work out a new encyclical, Humani Generis Unitas, against Nazi policies. John LaFarge completed work on the encyclical, but unfortunately it reached the Pope only three weeks before the pope's death. It remained buried in the Vatican Archives and was only rediscovered a few years ago. His most famous books are The Manner is Ordinary (1953), Race Relations (1956), and Reflections on Growing Old (1963).
At the time of his death, LaFarge was considered an artist of great renown and one obituary called him 'one of America's great geniuses, who had revived lost arts.' However, different admirers loved his works for different reasons and for as diverse reasons as the works themselves. After World War I and the advent of Abstract art, his work began to be seen as old-fashioned and not without a smattering of class envy for a by-gone set of standards. His European and 'old master' influences, delicate, painterly and eclectic approach, did not fit with the realism that became known as the 'American style.'
On the other hand, in the 1960s, his Newport paintings became for some, 'avant-guarde' for their period and were praised as such. It was found also that LaFarge preceded many of the French developments; collecting Japanese prints long before others, such as Whistler, etc., making plein-air paintings before the Impressionists and painting in Tahiti, one year before Paul Gauguin. Other innovations anticipated modernist Europeans; a new school of wood engraving, the invention of opalescent stained glass and a type of art criticism utilizing new discoveries in psychology and physiology. As a conservative he was a revivalist and his religious painting was unheard of in American tradition. Called an "eccentric conformist," this oxymoron seemed to describe one of the most creative minds in American art, seemingly a bridge between the old nineteenth and the new twentieth centuries.
During his life, he maintained a studio at 51 West 10th Street, in Greenwich Village, which today is part of the site of Eugene Lang College.
Portrait of Faase, the Taupo of the Fagaloa Bay, Samoa (1881)
Portrait of Henry James, the novelist (1862)
Selection of LaFarge's writings
- The American Art of Glass (a pamphlet)
- Considerations on Painting (New York, 1895)
- An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)
- The Great Masters (New York, 1903)
- Hokusai: a talk about Japanese painting (New York, 1897)
- The Higher Life in Art (New York, 1908)
- One Hundred Great Masterpieces (1904 - 1912)
- The Christian Story in Art
- Letters from the South Seas (unpublished)
- Correspondence (unpublished)
- Works by Mount Saint Mary's Alumnus to be Featured in Exhibit. emmitsburg.net. accessdate 2007-07-06
- Crossroads of Culture The Angel of Help Thedreaming.info. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- John La Farge and the windows of Judson Memorial Church Judson.org. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- Henry A. LaFarge, 1983, John LaFarge Metmuseum.org. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- John LaFarge and the 1878 Auction of His Works Jstor.org.
- John LaFarge Butlerart.com. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- Thomas A. Tweed, The American Encounter with Buddhism, (1844-1912) Books.google.com. Retrieved April 17, 2009.
- Yale's Lost Landmarks Saint Anthony Hall, 1894-1913 Yalealumnimagazine.com
- The Reverend John LaFarge, S.J. Catholicauthors.com. Retrieved April 17, 2009.
- Kenneth T. Jackson. The Encyclopedia of New York City. (The New York Historical Society, Yale University Press, 1995), 650.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- An Artist's Letters From Japan. 2007. Reprint Services Corp. ISBN 9780781236836.
- Adams, Foster, La Farge, Weinberg, Wren and Yarnell. John La Farge. Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), New York, NY: 1987. ISBN 0896596788.
- Cortissoz, Royal. 1971. John la Farge: A Memoir and a Study. Library of American Art. New York: Kennedy Graphics + Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306714051.
- Jackson, Kenneth T. The Encyclopedia of New York City. The New York Historical Society, Yale University Press, 1995.
- La Farge, John. 1968. John LaFarge: Oils and Watercolors, January 24-February 14, 1968. New York: Kennedy Galleries. OCLC 297446026
- Tweed, Thomas A., The American Encounter with Buddhism, 1844-1912: Victorian Culture & the Limits of Dissent. UNC Press, 2000. ISBN 0807849065.
- Waern, Cecilia. John La Farge: Artist and Writer. London: Seeley and Co. Limited, 1896. OCLC|185172480.
All links retrieved August 3, 2022.
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A few hundred metres downstream from the Liteiny Bridge the Bolshaya Nevka, the Neva’s longest northern effluent, forks off to the right.
Here, within some hundred metres from the Neva, the cruiser Aurora is moored forever at the quay wall, while just beyond it the Sampsonievski Bridge, built between 1954 and 1956 to replace the old nineteenth century wooden span, links the two banks of the Bolshaya Nevka. V. Demchenko and L. Noskov, who designed the bridge, sought to give it the traditional contours of the bridges of St. Petersburg’s older districts. The five central spans of the seven-span Sampsonievski Bridge, with the movable span in the middle, deliberately repeat the construction of the Kamenno-Ostrovsky and Ushakov bridges, both of which had been completed a year earlier. The Sampsonievski Bridge has some interesting architectural features, but its spans seem too narrow when compared with the width of the river at this point.
A distinct achievement of St. Petersburg’s civil engineers and architects is the new Birzhevoj Bridge spanning the Malaya Neva (the right-hand branch of the Neva) between Vasilyevsky Island and the Petrograd Side, completed in 1960. The project had been a particularly difficult and responsible assignment in civil engineering, for the new bridge replacing the old timber structure had to fit into the architectural landscape of the Vasilyevsky Island Spit, which has largely retained its original aspect. The smoothly rounded point of the island (the so-called Spit) splits the Neva into two branches of approximately equal width: the Bolshaya Neva and Malaya Neva. This circumstance accounts for the strictly symmetrical lay-out chosen for this part of the island by the early nineteenth century Russian architects. On the suggestion of A. Zakharov, one of the architects concerned, the monumental building of the former Stock Exchange (now housing the Central Naval Museum), built by Thomas de Thomon, was aligned strictly with the axis of the Spit. Two rostral columns were erected on either side of a semicircular square; and two evenly graduated ramps led down to the water. Developing the principle of strict symmetry that governed the architectural planning of the area, I. Luchini erected, in the late 1820s, two similar warehouses, one on each side of the Stock Exchange, and a custom-house (now the Institute of Russian Literature) north of it, whose dome seen in the skyline corresponds to the tower of Peter I’s Kunstkammer. The austere monumentality of the architectural whole harmonized perfectly with the fine balance of the individual edifices. It was this principle that determined the architectural aspect of the Birzhevoj Bridge.
The left-hand branch of the Neva is crossed at the Spit by the five-span metal Palace Bridge; hence the decision that the Builders’ Bridge, too, should be a five-span metal structure with a contour generally similar to that of the Palace Bridge. However, its engineers (V. Demchenko and B. Levin) and architects (L. Noskov and P. Areshev) decided in favour of improved, more modern structural elements, and used steel arches. The length of the spans increases gradually towards midstream, as in the case of the Palace Bridge; here, too, the central span is the movable one. Constructed in such a way that it is nearly indistinguishable from the other arches when closed, it does not break the rhythmic lines of the bridge. The Birzhevoj Bridge fits perfectly into the architectural landscape of the Spit and the broad sweep of the Neva.
In November, 1965, five years after the completion of the Birzhevoj Bridge, a second major bridge spanning the Malaya Neva was built. This was the Tuchkov Bridge, which received its name from that of a leading lumber dealer, owner, in the eighteenth century, of a large timber-yard, who had financed, back in 1758, the building of the first wooden span on the same spot. Incidentally, if its name dates back to times past, the bridge itself offers an example of the employment of quite modern engineering techniques. The movable central span comprises two upward-swinging steel bascules. The two side spans measuring seventy-four metres each are bridged by prestressed ferro-concrete structures. Their originality and economy facilitated construction while the graceful lines of the unusually slender girders set off the massive granite piers, convincingly demonstrating the great strength of reinforced concrete. Designed by the authors of the Birzhevoj Bridge, V. Demchenko, B. Levin, L. Noskov and P. Areshev, the Tuchkov Bridge is rightfully considered to be one of St.Petersburg’s handsomest. It is an outstanding example of the modern trend in bridge architecture, which emphasizes austerity and elegance of contour and calls for a new approach to designing problems. The long spans of the bridge together with its simple and clear-cut lines harmonize well with the expanse of the river, striking a new and modern note in the panorama of the Neva’s embankments.
A different tonality, if one may say so, has been given the series of bridges and quays of the Karpovka, a distributary that separates the main part of the Petrograd Side from Aptekarsky Island, its northern fringe. These bridges are on a more modest, more intimate scale, in keeping with the modest width of the Karpovka and its picturesque meanders. At first only timber bridges spanned the Karpovka. The first bridge of reinforced concrete, given the name of Pioneers’ Bridge, was built over it in 1936. This is a handsome arched span, elliptical in shape, faced with granite; the selection of so impressive a finish was dictated by the location of the bridge on Kirovsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of the Petrograd Side.
In the 1960s work was begun on a granite facing for the Karpovka’s embankments. Its new quays have a graceful railing with a pattern which, though quite original, is nevertheless reminiscent of St. Petersburg’s old canals. Concurrently with the work on its embankrtients the Karpovka’s bridges were reconstructed. The graceful contours of these new bridges, built chiefly of the standard sectional ferro-concrete structures suggested by “Lengiproinzhproekt”, fit nicely into the Karpovka’s architectural surroundings. The northern reaches of the Neva delta comprise three large islands, namely, Stone Island, Yelagin Island and Krestovsky Island. The area is largely given over to spacious parks.
Here the Neva breaks up into several rather wide subsidiary streams, i. e. the Bolshaya, Malaya and Sredniaya Nevkas and the Krestovka; and into many nameless narrow creeks that criss-cross the islands to link the inland ponds. There is water and greenery wherever one turns, which makes this part of the city particularly picturesque. At present these northern islands of the Neva delta are the realm of recreation and sports.
Bridges, too, are particularly numerous in this region of St. Petersburg. The great majority are relatively small timber footbridges, though there are also a few city-type spans of steel and reinforced concrete. The year 1955 saw the completion of an original pair of bridges at the eastern tip of Stone Island (Kamenny Ostrov), designed by V. Demchenko, B. Levin, P. Areshev and V. Vasilkovsky. These are the five-span metal Kamenno-Ostrovsky Bridge with a movable central span, which links the banks of the Malaya Nevka; and the Ushakov Bridge, named in memory of the famous eighteenth century Russian admiral, which spans the Bolshaya Nevka. The latter is the longer of the two, and in the interests of structural unity the designers made its central five-span part an exact replica of the Kamenno-Ostrovsky Bridge, adding two granite-faced arched spans on either side.
In the early 1950s Soviet architects favoured classical forms; the architecture of the two bridges is an example of this trend. The designers of the Kamenno-Ostrovsky and Ushakov bridges were bent on following the architectural traditions of St. Petersburg’s bridge engineering of the early nineteenth century, and therefore designed the face of the steel girders in the shape of flattened arches. Both of the bridges at the tip of Stone Island present an integrated architectural composition, and their stylized exteriors show good taste. The serenely flowing lines of the bridges are consonant with the surrounding parkland scenery.
By the early 1960s, however, Soviet architects had rejected their stylized imitation of Classicism and had struck out determinedly on a quest of rfew forms that should reflect the characteristic properties of modern building materials and structures. Severity, simplicity and structural logic became the fundamental features of the contemporary sttyle in architecture. These features were reflected in the exteriors of many new ferro-concrete bridges built 6ver St. Petersburg’s canals in the past decade. One of the most interesting examples is the Malb-Krestovsky Bridge, designed and built by Yu. Yurkov and L. Noskov in 1962. It spans the Krestovka, a short creek separating Krestovsky Island from Stone Island. The severe simplicity of its architectural composition goes hand in hand with a kind of dynamic grace; it seems to have been stopped short in an impetuous leap; and there is, indeed, a sort of sportive air about it, quite in harmony with its setting of park and athletic grounds.
An on-line compilation of a photographic study of the bridges in Leningrad (the former name of Saint Petersburg), published by Aurora Art Publishers, Leningrad, 1975.
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Trust, transparency, and traceability are all connected and vital for building and maintaining relationships.
- Trust is the foundation of any relationship. It means that you believe in someone or something's honesty, reliability, and sincerity.
- Transparency is being open and honest. It helps to foster trust by allowing people to make informed decisions.
- Traceability is the ability to track something through a process. It supports trust and transparency by letting people see where something came from and how it got to where it is now.
Trust is a powerful human emotion. When people develop a trusted relationship, a key attribute is openness. That's why trust is so important for building a strong brand and maintaining customer loyalty.
In business, traceability is what makes trust and transparency possible. By tracking items through a verifiable audit trail, businesses can demonstrate transparency and build trust with their customers.
For the food and beverage industry, trust, transparency, and traceability are critical for ensuring food safety and quality. Consumers expect their food to be safe and of high quality, and traceability enables businesses to track the movement of food through the supply chain, identify issues, and take action quickly.
Here, you'll learn how to use traceability as a strategic tool to grow your Shopify food and beverage business.
Traceability in the food & beverage industry
What we eat directly relates to our health. Quite literally, ‘you are what you eat,’ so, for health-conscious consumers, making healthier dietary choices is an important lifestyle consideration.
However, when it comes to trust and transparency, it isn’t just a question of the nutritional content of food. Consumers also need to avoid food products that contain known allergens, as well as constituents or additives that they do not wish to eat.
Ultimately, food labeling is a crucial component of food safety and consumer protection. It should provide shoppers with complete information about the contents of the food they purchase, including the ingredients, nutritional value, potential allergens, unhealthy additives, production information, and 'use-by' or 'best-before' dates.
- Nutrition - Many people are concerned about the nutritional value of the foods they consume, and they rely on food labeling to make informed decisions about what and how much to eat. Misleading or inaccurate labeling can result in consumers unknowingly consuming unhealthy or potentially harmful ingredients, such as excessive amounts of sodium or sugar.
- Allergens - Accurate and trustworthy food labeling is particularly important for individuals with food allergies or intolerances. For them, even small amounts of certain ingredients can be life-threatening. Accurate labeling helps people avoid potentially harmful foods and reduces the risk of severe reactions.
- Additives - Many unhealthy additives and preservatives are commonly used in food processing to extend shelf life and enhance flavor, texture, or appearance. Consumers have the right to know what they are consuming and to be made aware of the presence of any harmful additives that could negatively impact their health.
- Production - For many consumers, how our food is produced has become an increasingly important consideration. Animal welfare, farming methods, the use of pesticides, organic certification, and concerns about the environmental impacts of food production all contribute to the wider complexities of traceability in the food industry.
Consequently, across these health and ethical factors, there has to be absolute trust that a product is labeled correctly. Accurate and trustworthy food labeling ensures consumers are correctly informed about the food they purchase and consume.
Trusted food labeling helps protect the health and safety of those with allergies and intolerances, and it enables all consumers to make informed decisions about their diet and nutritional intake, and the wider issues that are associated with food production.
Building consumer trust with traceability
Traceability is essential for building consumer trust in the food and beverage industry. By providing trusted information on allergies, nutrition, additives, and production, companies can address concerns and alleviate anxieties that consumers may have.
- Transparency - Traceability provides transparency into the origin and quality of products. By providing clear and accurate information, consumers can make informed decisions about the products they purchase.
- Food safety - Traceability helps identify and contain food safety issues, such as contamination or adulteration, and quickly remove affected products from the market, providing confidence in the safety of the food supply.
- Quality assurance - Traceability ensures consistent quality in products by allowing companies to track and verify the source and production processes of their ingredients. This can lead to higher-quality products, which can build consumer trust and loyalty.
- Sustainability - Traceability helps companies demonstrate their commitment to sustainability by providing information about the environmental and social impacts of their products. This supports brands by building consumer trust and preference for products from companies that prioritize sustainability.
Food safety issues and reputational damage
Trust is a pillar on which the good reputation of a company or brand stands. The reputational damage that may arise from food safety issues sometimes poses an existential threat. Here are some well-known examples:
- Example 1: Peanut butter - In 2011, a salmonella outbreak linked to peanut butter products made by the company Peanut Corporation of America made over 700 people ill and killed nine. The outbreak caused a major recall of peanut butter products and led to the company's bankruptcy.
- Example 2: Romaine lettuce - In 2015, an E. coli outbreak linked to romaine lettuce made more than 200 people ill and killed five. The outbreak caused a major recall of romaine lettuce and led to a decline in consumer confidence in the product.
- Example 3: Cantaloupes - In 2018, a listeria outbreak linked to cantaloupes grown in Colorado made over 140 people ill and killed 33. The outbreak caused a major recall of cantaloupes and led to a decline in consumer confidence in the product.
It is unlikely that we will ever entirely eliminate the risk from instances of foodborne illness. It is, however, within the reach of every business in the food supply chain to adopt traceability that minimizes the impact of such events once they become apparent.
Regulatory requirements - the FSMA and the Final Rule
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) is designed to prevent food-related safety issues. Many other countries have implemented similar legislative instruments that largely harmonize the effort internationally.
The FSMA was enacted in 2011 and is intended to improve the safety of the food supply in America by shifting the focus to the prevention of foodborne illnesses, rather than reacting after the event.
Most recently, the FSMA has implemented the Final Rule. This was developed through a public process that lasted for several years. The final rule is based on the best available science and the input of stakeholders from all sectors of the food industry.
The FSMA Final Rule makes key provisions that enshrine compliance in law, including:
- Preventative controls - Food companies must develop and implement preventative controls to identify and control hazards that could cause foodborne illness
- Food safety plans - Food companies must develop and implement food safety plans that document their preventative controls.
- Traceability - Food companies must be able to trace their food products from farm to fork.
- Inspection - The FDA will increase its inspections of food facilities.
- Civil penalties - The FDA will be able to impose civil penalties for violations of FSMA.
- Criminal penalties - The FDA will be able to bring criminal charges for willful and knowing violations of FSMA.
Using traceability to grow your Shopify food and beverage store
In the supply chain for food, the main types of business may be classified as growers and suppliers, manufacturers and processors, distributors and wholesalers, or as retailers and food service providers.
The larger-scale companies among them have adopted and enjoyed the benefits of ‘enterprise-grade’ traceability. They have had the budgets to support the use of high-cost application software or to develop custom solutions to support traceability.
This has been a value differentiator, enabling these companies and their brands to thrive by creating greater trust in their products and services. This industry-standard traceability is now affordable and easy for smaller food & beverage sellers on Shopify to implement.
Using traceability to demonstrate transparency and win trust for a Shopify food and beverage store brand provides excellent strategic benefits, including:
- Better Customer Experience (CX) - Providing customers with more information about their food, such as origin, production, and transportation helps customers to make more informed decisions about what they eat.
- Increased customer satisfaction - Better CX increases satisfaction and boosts social approval ratings. This pays off in the shape of greater customer loyalty, helping to boost repeat and complementary product sales, as well as attracting new customers.
- Improving food safety - Tracking the movement of food through the supply chain simplifies the identification of potential food safety hazards, allows faster compliance with the FDA, and allows the rapid recall of products from customers to prevent the spread of foodborne illnesses.
- Reducing costs - Tracking food inventory to move SKUs through the supply chain in accordance with 'use-by' or 'best-before' dates reduces costs by preventing the need to dispose of food that has spoiled, as well as making sure that out-of-date food is not shipped to customers.
In short, these benefits arising from traceability equate to competitive advantage. Traceability is a valuable strategic tool that helps Shopify food and beverage store brands to improve their business in a number of ways.
By accurately tracking the movement of food through the supply chain, Shopify food and beverage store brands improve food safety, reduce costs, increase sales, and enhance customer loyalty, all of which underpin growth and increased profitability.
Implementing traceability in your Shopify food and beverage store
As an e-commerce platform, Shopify brings together many features that are essential for enabling stores to successfully trade in just about any type of product. This includes Inventory Management (IM) suitable for small and medium-sized businesses.
Shopify offers a number of Inventory Management features that help businesses to track their SKUs, manage their stock ordering, and fulfill their customer orders. However, Shopify does not include traceability amongst its features out of the box. To obtain traceability functionality it is necessary to use a third-party software tool.
Choosing the right traceability solution
Selecting the appropriate traceability solution for your Shopify food and beverage store is crucial. There are three primary third-party traceability tools that work with Shopify:
- Utilizing a traceability app as a Shopify add-on
- Integrating an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system
- Implementing a standalone traceability solution
Traceability apps like Freshly Inventory are typically easy to install and use. They are designed to simply plug and play with Shopify, without the need for a major IT project. They tend to have a lower cost than ERP systems, with some offering freemium plans that allow certain levels of functionality without any costs at all. Additionally, these apps enable faster implementation, allowing businesses to start using traceability features sooner.
On the other hand, integrating an ERP system offers a wider range of features and functionality than apps, add-ons, and plugins. It’s a good option for large businesses that may need more than Shopify provides at scale and need to integrate with other systems. ERP systems offer centralized management of multiple business processes, including traceability, inventory, accounting, and more. However, they can be complex to implement and set up, often requiring a major IT and change management project. ERP platforms tend to have high recurring costs as well as integration and setup charges.
Lastly, standalone traceability solutions offer highly specialized features and functionality designed to address traceability challenges. They may integrate better with existing traceability hardware or software, such as barcode scanners or IoT devices. However, these solutions may require additional resources to manage and maintain, as they operate separately from other systems. Integration with other business processes might not be as seamless as with an ERP system.
When evaluating these options, consider your business size, specific traceability requirements, and available resources to determine the best solution for your Shopify food and beverage store.
Attaining Enterprise-Level Traceability for Growing Businesses
Freshly Inventory empowers small and growing Shopify food & beverage stores with the same enterprise-level traceability that large businesses in the food supply chain have leveraged for years. As an easy-to-integrate app for your Shopify store, Freshly Inventory simplifies the process of meeting compliance requirements for FSMA Rule 204, also known as the Food Traceability Final Rule.
Freshly extends its benefits not only to food manufacturers but also to distributors, wholesalers, retailers, and food service providers who sell products using Shopify. By providing comprehensive traceability capabilities, Freshly Inventory ensures that your growing business stays ahead in the competitive food and beverage industry, meeting regulatory standards while enhancing supply chain efficiency.
Leveraging Freshly Inventory's Benefits to Align with FSMA Requirements
Freshly Inventory offers numerous advantages that seamlessly align with the FSMA requirements, enhancing your food & beverage business operations:
- Streamlined record-keeping: Freshly maintains comprehensive and easily accessible traceability records, including details such as batch name and number, invoice number, received date, barcode, description, quantity, and expiry date for each product.
- Effortless tracking and tracing: The app provides seamless batch and expiry date tracking features, allowing businesses to trace high-risk foods from production to consumption and meet FSMA's supply chain traceability requirements.
- Automated stock rotation: Employing stock rotation methods like FEFO (First Expiry, First Out) or FIFO (First In, First Out), Freshly minimizes the risk of spoilage and potential food safety issues.
- Optimized inventory management: With demand forecasting and automatic discounting capabilities, Freshly helps businesses efficiently manage their perishable inventory, reduce waste, and ensure compliance with food safety standards.
- Enhanced transparency: Allows businesses to optionally display expiry dates on product pages, fostering transparency and building trust with consumers.
- Improved documentation and shipping processes: Freshly streamlines the shipping process by enabling businesses to bulk print and edit packing slips with batch details, ensuring accurate traceability information is included in the documentation.
Get affordable industry-standard traceability with Freshly Inventory
In the world of food and beverage, trust and transparency are crucial elements that foster strong consumer relationships. Traceability within the food supply chain bolsters this trust by offering vital information about ingredients, nutrition, allergens, additives, and production processes.
The FSMA Final Rule sets clear traceability compliance standards for all participants in the food supply chain. For years, larger companies with substantial resources have utilized traceability as a unique value proposition. Now, with Freshly Inventory, even smaller, growing Shopify food & beverage stores can enjoy the benefits of enterprise-grade, industry-standard traceability at an affordable price.
Freshly Inventory is not only cost-effective but also easy to integrate and simple to use. Experience the difference that traceability can make in your business by installing Freshly Inventory today.
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Stomach pain is a common symptom of various health conditions. Infections are one of the leading causes of stomach pain. When an infection affects the gastrointestinal tract, it can lead to discomfort and pain in the stomach.
An infection can be caused by various microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These microorganisms can enter the body through contaminated food or water, poor hygiene, or close contact with an infected individual.
The presence of an infection in the stomach can cause inflammation and irritation of the stomach lining, leading to pain. Infections can also disrupt the natural balance of bacteria in the gut, further contributing to stomach pain.
Common symptoms of stomach pain due to infection include abdominal cramps, bloating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. These symptoms can vary in severity depending on the type and extent of the infection.
Bacterial Infections and Stomach Pain
Bacterial infections in the stomach can cause significant pain and discomfort. The stomach is a vital organ responsible for the digestion of food, and any infection in this area can disrupt its normal functioning, leading to various symptoms, including abdominal pain.
Bacterial infections such as Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) are one of the main causes of stomach pain. H. pylori is a common bacterium that can infect the lining of the stomach and cause inflammation. This infection is usually acquired through contaminated food or water and can lead to conditions such as gastritis or stomach ulcers.
Symptoms of Bacterial Infections
When a person experiences a bacterial infection in their stomach, they may experience a range of symptoms, including:
- Abdominal pain
- Loss of appetite
The severity of the symptoms can vary depending on the specific bacterial infection and its impact on the stomach. In some cases, the pain may be mild and intermittent, while in others, it can be severe and persistent.
Treatment and Prevention
Treating bacterial infections in the stomach typically involves a combination of antibiotics and acid reducers to kill the bacteria and reduce stomach acid levels. It is crucial to complete the entire course of antibiotics prescribed by a healthcare professional to ensure the infection is fully eradicated.
Preventing bacterial infections in the stomach can be achieved by practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands before meals and ensuring food is thoroughly cooked. Avoiding the consumption of contaminated food and water sources can also reduce the risk of acquiring a bacterial infection.
If you experience persistent stomach pain or suspect a bacterial infection, it is important to seek medical attention for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
Viral Infections and Stomach Pain
Stomach pain can be caused by various factors, and one of them is viral infections. Viruses are microscopic organisms that can invade and infect the body’s cells, including those in the stomach.
When a person contracts a viral infection, such as the norovirus or rotavirus, it can lead to stomach pain as one of the symptoms. These viruses can be transmitted through contaminated food or water, or by close contact with an infected person. Once inside the body, they can cause inflammation and irritation in the stomach, leading to pain.
Viral infections can also affect the functioning of the digestive system, disrupting the normal processes in the stomach. This can result in symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps, all of which can contribute to the overall stomach pain experienced by the infected individual.
It is important to note that not all viral infections cause stomach pain, and the severity of symptoms can vary depending on the specific virus and the individual’s immune response. In some cases, the stomach pain may be mild and resolve on its own, while in others it can be severe and require medical treatment.
If you experience stomach pain along with other symptoms of a viral infection, it is recommended to seek medical advice. A healthcare professional can provide a proper diagnosis and recommend appropriate treatment options to alleviate the symptoms and promote a faster recovery.
Parasitic Infections and Stomach Pain
A parasitic infection can cause stomach pain in individuals. Parasites are organisms that live and feed off another organism, known as the host, and can infect humans through various means. When these parasites invade the digestive system, they can lead to a range of symptoms, including stomach pain.
There are several types of parasites that can cause stomach pain. One common example is the presence of intestinal worms, such as roundworms, hookworms, or tapeworms. These parasites can latch onto the lining of the intestines and cause inflammation, resulting in abdominal pain.
In addition to intestinal worms, protozoa parasites can also cause stomach pain. Protozoa are single-celled organisms that can be found in contaminated food or water. When ingested, they can multiply in the intestines and cause digestive symptoms, including stomach pain.
The symptoms of a parasitic infection can vary depending on the type of parasite involved. Alongside stomach pain, individuals may experience symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, bloating, and weight loss. In severe cases, parasites can lead to complications such as intestinal obstruction or malabsorption of nutrients.
It is essential to seek medical attention if you suspect a parasitic infection as the cause of your stomach pain. A healthcare professional can diagnose the infection through a stool sample or blood test and prescribe appropriate treatment, such as medication to kill the parasites.
Common Parasitic Infections | Symptoms |
Intestinal Worms | Stomach pain, diarrhea, bloating |
Giardiasis | Stomach pain, diarrhea, nausea |
Amoebiasis | Stomach pain, bloody diarrhea |
Foodborne Illnesses and Stomach Pain
Foodborne illnesses can cause an infection in the stomach, leading to stomach pain. These illnesses are typically caused by consuming contaminated food or water.
An infection in the stomach can result from the ingestion of bacteria, viruses, parasites, or toxins present in contaminated food. Common foodborne illnesses include salmonella, E. coli, listeria, and norovirus.
Symptoms of Foodborne Illness
When someone contracts a foodborne illness, they may experience various symptoms, including:
- Stomach pain and cramps
- Nausea and vomiting
The severity and duration of these symptoms can vary depending on the specific foodborne illness and the individual’s immune system.
Preventing Foodborne Illness
To reduce the risk of contracting a foodborne illness and experiencing stomach pain, it is essential to take proper precautions when handling, preparing, and storing food.
Some key steps to prevent foodborne illnesses include:
Step | Description |
1 | Washing hands thoroughly before and after handling food |
2 | Cooking food at the appropriate temperature to kill bacteria |
3 | Storing food at the correct temperature to prevent bacterial growth |
4 | Avoiding cross-contamination by keeping raw and cooked foods separate |
5 | Using clean utensils, cutting boards, and surfaces when preparing food |
By following these guidelines, individuals can significantly reduce the risk of developing an infection that could cause stomach pain.
Gastroenteritis and Stomach Pain
Gastroenteritis is an infection that can cause stomach pain. It is commonly known as the stomach flu and can be caused by a variety of viruses, bacteria, or parasites. The infection typically affects the stomach and intestines, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps.
The main cause of gastroenteritis is the ingestion of contaminated food or water. This can happen when consuming raw or undercooked meat, seafood, or eggs, as well as fruits and vegetables that have been contaminated with fecal matter. Poor hygiene practices, such as not washing hands properly, can also contribute to the spread of the infection.
The stomach pain associated with gastroenteritis can range in severity and may be accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea and loss of appetite. The pain is often described as crampy or sharp and can be felt in the lower abdomen. It may come and go or be constant, depending on the individual.
If you are experiencing stomach pain and suspect that it may be due to gastroenteritis, it is important to stay hydrated and rest. Over-the-counter medications, such as anti-diarrheals and pain relievers, may provide temporary relief. However, it is recommended to seek medical attention if the symptoms persist or worsen.
Gastroenteritis can be a highly contagious infection, so it is important to take precautions to prevent its spread. This includes practicing good hand hygiene, properly cooking and storing food, and avoiding close contact with individuals who are sick. By taking these measures, you can reduce your risk of developing gastroenteritis and experiencing stomach pain.
Gastric Ulcers and Stomach Pain
Infection can be a common cause of stomach pain. One specific type of infection that can lead to stomach pain is a gastric ulcer. A gastric ulcer is an open sore that forms on the lining of the stomach.
These ulcers can occur due to an infection with a bacteria called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) or from the use of certain medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
The presence of a gastric ulcer can cause an intense, burning pain in the stomach area. This pain may worsen after eating or when the stomach is empty. It can also be accompanied by other symptoms such as bloating, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss.
If left untreated, gastric ulcers can lead to complications such as internal bleeding, perforation of the stomach wall, and an increased risk of developing stomach cancer.
If you experience persistent stomach pain or suspect you may have a gastric ulcer, it is important to seek medical attention. A healthcare professional will be able to diagnose the underlying cause of your stomach pain and recommend appropriate treatment options.
Appendicitis and Stomach Pain
Appendicitis is a condition that can cause severe stomach pain. It occurs when the appendix, a small organ located in the lower right side of the abdomen, becomes infected.
The exact cause of appendicitis is not always clear, but it is believed to be due to a blockage in the appendix, usually caused by a buildup of mucus, stool, or parasites. This blockage can lead to inflammation and infection, resulting in stomach pain.
Symptoms of Appendicitis
The most common symptom of appendicitis is abdominal pain. The pain usually starts around the belly button and then moves to the lower right side of the abdomen. It may also be accompanied by other symptoms such as:
- Loss of appetite
- Constipation or diarrhea
- Inability to pass gas
Seeking Medical Attention
If you experience severe stomach pain, especially if it is localized to the lower right side of your abdomen, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Appendicitis is a serious condition that requires prompt medical treatment. Left untreated, a burst appendix can lead to life-threatening complications such as peritonitis.
Gallstones and Stomach Pain
Gallstones can be a cause of stomach pain. Gallstones are hardened deposits that form in the gallbladder, which is a small organ located in the upper right side of the abdomen. Gallstones can vary in size and shape and can block the normal flow of bile, leading to pain.
When gallstones block the bile ducts, it can cause intense pain in the upper abdomen, known as biliary colic. This pain can come and go and may last for several hours. It can be accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and fever.
In some cases, gallstones can cause inflammation of the gallbladder, known as cholecystitis. This can result in severe pain, tenderness in the abdomen, and fever. If left untreated, cholecystitis can lead to more serious complications.
If a gallstone gets stuck in the common bile duct, it can cause a blockage, leading to a condition called choledocholithiasis. This can cause abdominal pain, yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), and fever.
If you experience severe or persistent stomach pain, it is important to seek medical attention. A healthcare professional can diagnose and treat the underlying cause of the pain, including gallstones, to alleviate your symptoms and prevent further complications.
Kidney Stones and Stomach Pain
Kidney stones are a common cause of stomach pain. These hard deposits form in the kidneys and can cause severe discomfort when they travel through the urinary tract. Although kidney stones primarily affect the urinary system, they can also lead to stomach pain.
The pain usually occurs as the kidney stone passes through the ureter, which is the tube that connects the kidney to the bladder. The stone may get stuck in the ureter, causing a blockage and resulting in pain. This pain can be sharp and intense, often radiating from the back or side towards the lower abdomen.
In addition to the pain caused by kidney stones, other symptoms may include blood in the urine, frequent urination, and a persistent urge to urinate. These symptoms can further contribute to the discomfort and distress associated with this condition.
It is important to note that not all kidney stones cause stomach pain. Some stones may be small enough to pass through the urinary tract without causing any symptoms. However, larger stones or stones that cause blockages can lead to significant pain.
If you suspect you have kidney stones, it is crucial to seek medical attention. A healthcare professional can diagnose the condition through imaging tests and provide appropriate treatment options. Depending on the size and location of the stone, treatment may involve medications, changes in diet, or even surgical intervention.
In conclusion, kidney stones can be a cause of stomach pain. This pain is typically felt as the stone travels through the ureter and may be accompanied by other urinary symptoms. Seeking prompt medical attention is essential to manage kidney stones effectively.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Stomach Pain
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a common disorder that affects the large intestine. It is characterized by symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, gas, and changes in bowel movements. While the exact cause of IBS is unknown, it is thought to be a combination of factors, including genetics, stress, and abnormal muscle contractions in the intestines.
Stomach pain is one of the key symptoms of IBS. Individuals with IBS often experience cramping and discomfort in the abdomen. This pain can vary in intensity and may come and go. It is often relieved by bowel movements and can be accompanied by changes in bowel habits, such as diarrhea or constipation.
It is important to note that while IBS can cause stomach pain, it is not related to an infection. Unlike an infection, IBS is a chronic condition that does not have a cure. However, there are treatments available that can help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life for individuals with IBS.
If you are experiencing stomach pain and suspect it may be related to IBS, it is important to see a healthcare professional for a proper diagnosis. They can help determine the cause of your symptoms and develop a treatment plan tailored to your needs.
Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Stomach Pain
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic condition that causes inflammation in the digestive tract. It can affect different parts of the digestive system, including the stomach. The inflammation in the stomach can lead to stomach pain and discomfort.
One of the main causes of inflammatory bowel disease is an autoimmune response, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the healthy cells in the digestive tract. This can lead to chronic inflammation and damage to the stomach lining, resulting in stomach pain.
The symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease can vary from person to person, but stomach pain is a common symptom. It can range from mild to severe and may be accompanied by other symptoms such as diarrhea, bloating, and nausea.
Types of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
There are two main types of inflammatory bowel disease: Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Both can cause stomach pain.
Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the digestive tract, from the mouth to the anus. The inflammation can be deep and can involve multiple layers of the digestive tract. This can cause intense stomach pain and cramping.
Ulcerative colitis, on the other hand, primarily affects the colon and rectum. The inflammation is usually limited to the inner lining of the colon, but it can still cause stomach pain and discomfort.
Managing Stomach Pain Due to Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Managing stomach pain due to inflammatory bowel disease can involve a combination of medication, lifestyle changes, and dietary modifications. Medications such as anti-inflammatory drugs and immunosuppressants may be prescribed to reduce inflammation and alleviate stomach pain.
Lifestyle changes, such as stress management and regular exercise, can also help manage stomach pain. Additionally, certain dietary modifications, such as avoiding trigger foods and incorporating a well-balanced diet, can help reduce inflammation and improve digestive health.
If you are experiencing stomach pain due to inflammatory bowel disease, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment. They can help develop a personalized treatment plan tailored to your specific needs.
Pancreatitis and Stomach Pain
Pancreatitis, an inflammation of the pancreas, can cause stomach pain. The pancreas is an organ located behind the stomach that produces enzymes and hormones important for digestion and blood sugar regulation. When the pancreas becomes inflamed, it can lead to various symptoms, including stomach pain.
Infection is one of the potential causes of pancreatitis. Bacterial or viral infections can affect the pancreas, causing inflammation and triggering stomach pain. In some cases, the infection may spread to the pancreas from other organs, such as the gallbladder or intestines.
Symptoms of Pancreatitis
Along with stomach pain, individuals with pancreatitis may experience other symptoms. These can include:
- Abdominal tenderness
- Nausea and vomiting
- Rapid heartbeat
- Loss of appetite
- Weight loss
The severity of the symptoms can vary depending on the underlying cause of pancreatitis. In some cases, the pain can be mild and intermittent, while in others it may be severe and constant.
Proper diagnosis and treatment are important in managing pancreatitis and alleviating stomach pain. Treatment options may include:
- Medications to reduce inflammation
- Antibiotics to treat underlying infections
- Pain relievers
- Dietary changes to reduce stress on the pancreas
- Surgical intervention in severe cases
If you are experiencing stomach pain, it is essential to consult a healthcare professional for a proper evaluation and diagnosis. They can determine the underlying cause of your symptoms and recommend appropriate treatment.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease and Stomach Pain
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the female reproductive organs, including the uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. It is usually caused by sexually transmitted infections, such as chlamydia or gonorrhea.
PID can cause stomach pain in women. The infection can spread from the reproductive organs to the abdomen, leading to inflammation and pain. The pain may be dull or sharp and may be accompanied by other symptoms, such as fever, abnormal vaginal discharge, or pain during sexual intercourse.
Causes of PID
As mentioned earlier, PID is usually caused by sexually transmitted infections. When these infections are left untreated, the bacteria can travel from the vagina and cervix to the uterus and other reproductive organs, causing an infection. Other factors that can increase the risk of developing PID include having multiple sexual partners, a history of PID or other sexually transmitted infections, and using an intrauterine device for birth control.
Symptoms of PID
In addition to stomach pain, other common symptoms of PID include abnormal vaginal discharge, painful urination, painful sexual intercourse, fever, and fatigue. Some women may also experience irregular menstrual bleeding, nausea or vomiting, and pain in the lower back or thighs. It is important to note that not all women with PID experience symptoms, and the severity of symptoms can vary from mild to severe.
Ovarian Cysts and Stomach Pain
Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs that can form on the ovaries. While most ovarian cysts are harmless and do not cause any symptoms, some can lead to stomach pain and discomfort.
One possible cause of stomach pain associated with ovarian cysts is when the cyst becomes large and starts to press on the surrounding organs. This pressure can lead to aching or sharp pain in the lower abdomen.
In some cases, ovarian cysts can become infected, leading to a condition known as an ovarian abscess. This infection can cause severe abdominal pain, along with other symptoms such as fever, nausea, and vomiting.
Another way ovarian cysts can contribute to stomach pain is through torsion, which occurs when the cyst twists and cuts off its blood supply. This can cause sudden and intense pain in the lower abdomen, often requiring immediate medical attention.
If you are experiencing stomach pain and suspect that ovarian cysts may be the cause, it is important to see a healthcare provider for a proper diagnosis and treatment. They may recommend imaging tests such as ultrasound to confirm the presence of cysts and determine the appropriate course of action.
In some cases, treatment for ovarian cysts may involve watchful waiting, as many cysts will resolve on their own without intervention. However, if the cysts are causing significant pain or other complications, surgery may be necessary to remove them.
Overall, while ovarian cysts can potentially cause stomach pain, it is important to remember that not all stomach pain is necessarily related to ovarian cysts. It is always best to consult with a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment plan.
Endometriosis and Stomach Pain
Endometriosis is a condition that affects many women and can cause stomach pain. This condition occurs when the tissue that normally lines the uterus grows outside of the uterus. The tissue can attach to organs in the abdomen, such as the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and intestines, causing pain.
Stomach pain related to endometriosis is often cyclical, meaning it occurs in a pattern that is linked to the menstrual cycle. The pain may be dull and cramp-like or sharp and stabbing. It can also vary in intensity, lasting hours or even days.
In addition to stomach pain, endometriosis can cause other symptoms such as heavy or irregular periods, pain during intercourse, and infertility. These symptoms can greatly impact a woman’s quality of life and may require medical attention.
Common Symptoms of Endometriosis |
Stomach pain |
Heavy or irregular periods |
Pain during intercourse |
If you are experiencing stomach pain and suspect endometriosis, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional. They can evaluate your symptoms, perform necessary tests, and develop a treatment plan tailored to your needs.
Treatment options for endometriosis may include pain medication, hormone therapy, or surgery. The goal of treatment is to alleviate symptoms and improve quality of life. Your healthcare provider can help determine the best course of action based on your individual situation.
In conclusion, endometriosis is a condition that can cause stomach pain. It is characterized by the growth of uterine tissue outside the uterus, leading to symptoms such as stomach pain, heavy periods, pain during intercourse, and infertility. If you suspect you may have endometriosis, seek medical attention for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
Abdominal Hernias and Stomach Pain
Abdominal hernias can cause stomach pain in some cases. An abdominal hernia occurs when an organ or tissue pushes through a weak spot in the abdominal wall. This can lead to discomfort, pain, and other symptoms.
Types of Abdominal Hernias
There are different types of abdominal hernias that can lead to stomach pain. Some common types include:
Type of Hernia | Description |
Inguinal Hernia | Occurs when a part of the intestine or bladder protrudes through the inguinal canal in the groin area. |
Incisional Hernia | Develops at the site of a previous surgical incision, when the tissues or organs push through the weakened scar tissue. |
Umbilical Hernia | Occurs when part of the small intestine or other abdominal tissues push through the abdominal wall near the belly button. |
Hiatal Hernia | Develops when the upper part of the stomach bulges through the diaphragm into the chest cavity. |
Symptoms of Abdominal Hernias
Along with stomach pain, abdominal hernias may cause other symptoms, which can include:
- Visible bulge or swelling in the abdomen or groin area.
- Pain or discomfort when lifting, bending, or coughing.
- Nausea or vomiting.
- Heartburn or acid reflux.
- Difficulty swallowing.
If you experience stomach pain and suspect you may have an abdominal hernia, it is important to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment. Treatment options may include lifestyle changes, medications, or surgery, depending on the severity of the hernia.
Stress and Stomach Pain
Stress is known to be a common cause of stomach pain. When someone experiences high levels of stress, it can lead to changes in the body that can affect the stomach. Stress can cause an increase in stomach acid production, which can lead to irritation and inflammation. This can result in stomach pain.
Furthermore, stress can also affect the digestive system, leading to changes in gut motility and increased sensitivity of the intestines. These changes can cause discomfort and pain in the stomach area.
In some cases, stress can weaken the immune system, making the body more susceptible to infections. This can include infections in the stomach, such as Helicobacter pylori, which is a common cause of stomach ulcers. If the infection is present, it can cause inflammation and pain in the stomach.
Moreover, stress can also worsen the symptoms of an existing stomach infection. The combination of stress and infection can lead to increased stomach pain and discomfort.
Managing Stress and Stomach Pain
It is important to find ways to manage stress in order to reduce the risk of experiencing stomach pain. This can include practicing relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing exercises, meditation, or yoga. Engaging in regular physical activity and getting enough sleep can also help reduce stress levels.
In addition, maintaining a healthy diet and avoiding foods that can irritate the stomach, such as spicy or fatty foods, can also contribute to managing stress-related stomach pain.
It is recommended to seek medical advice if stomach pain persists or worsens, as it could be a sign of a more serious underlying condition.
Question and answer:
What are the common causes of stomach pain due to infection?
The common causes of stomach pain due to infection include gastroenteritis, bacterial infection like salmonella or E. coli, viral infection like norovirus or rotavirus, and parasitic infection like giardiasis or cryptosporidiosis.
What are the symptoms of stomach pain caused by infection?
The symptoms of stomach pain caused by infection may include abdominal cramps, diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, loss of appetite, fever, and fatigue.
How can gastroenteritis cause stomach pain?
Gastroenteritis, which is inflammation of the stomach and intestines, can cause stomach pain by irritating the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, triggering spasms in the muscles, and causing inflammation and swelling of the organs.
How can bacterial infections like salmonella or E. coli lead to stomach pain?
Bacterial infections like salmonella or E. coli can lead to stomach pain by releasing toxins that irritate the lining of the intestines and trigger inflammation, as well as by invading the tissues and causing damage to the digestive system.
What are the symptoms of giardiasis, a parasitic infection that can cause stomach pain?
The symptoms of giardiasis, a parasitic infection that can cause stomach pain, may include diarrhea, gas, bloating, greasy stools, abdominal cramps, and weight loss. Some people may also experience fatigue and vomiting.
Can stomach pain be caused by an infection?
Yes, stomach pain can be caused by an infection. Infection in the stomach can lead to an inflammation of the stomach lining, which can result in pain and discomfort.
What are the common causes of stomach infections?
The common causes of stomach infections include bacteria like H.pylori, viruses like norovirus and rotavirus, and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium. These pathogens can enter the body through contaminated food or water.
What are the symptoms of a stomach infection?
The symptoms of a stomach infection can vary, but common symptoms include stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Some infections may also cause dehydration.
How are stomach infections diagnosed?
Stomach infections can be diagnosed through various methods, including stool tests to identify the presence of pathogens, blood tests to check for signs of infection, and endoscopy to examine the stomach and take tissue samples for analysis.
How can stomach infections be treated?
Treatment for stomach infections depends on the cause. Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, while viral infections usually resolve on their own with rest and hydration. Parasitic infections may require specific medications. It is important to consult a medical professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.
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Throughout history, Masonic Lodges have always played a role in shaping society, promoting ethical values, supporting charitable causes, and promoting a sense of brotherhood among its members. Today, Masonic Lodges, such as Reading Masonic Lodge, continue to be an active institution that strives to promote the concepts and customs of Freemasonry while adjusting to modern-day times.
History of Freemasonry And Its Origins
Freemasonry has a rich and mystical history that stretches back centuries. Its origins can be traced to the middle ages stonemasons guilds that ran in Europe throughout the construction of cathedrals. These guilds, called operative lodges, had rigorous policies and practices to ensure the high quality of their workmanship.
As societal changes took place, these guilds started accepting non-masons as members, generating speculative lodges, such as Reading Masonic Lodge.
The values of Freemasonry, such as brotherly love, truth and charity, were embedded into its structure and have remained true throughout its history. Gradually, Freemasonry spread internationally and progressed into a large network of Masonic Lodges, such as Reading Masonic Lodge, that continue to maintain these principles while adapting to modern-day times.
Structure Of Reading Masonic Lodge
Reading Masonic Lodge, has a unique structure that offers governance and organization for their members. At the heart of Reading Masonic Lodge is the Worshipful Master, who is responsible for supervising the lodge’s activities and keeping order throughout meetings. Helping the Worshipful Master are other elected officers such as Treasurer, Junior Warden, Senior Warden and Secretary.
Reading Masonic Lodge, is divided into 3 principal areas: the East, West, and South. The East represents wisdom and is where the Worshipful Master commands meetings. The West represents strength and acts as the station for the Senior Warden. The South represents beauty and is where the Junior Warden stands.
Within Reading Masonic Lodge, there are likewise various committees, such as the Charity Committee, that concentrate on particular areas of work or interest. These committees play a crucial function in arranging events, educational programs, and charitable initiatives supported by the lodge.
In general, Reading Masonic Lodge operates under a structured structure that enables members to collaborate, gain from each other, and add to their neighborhoods while upholding the concepts of Freemasonry.
Functions and hierarchy within a Reading Masonic Lodge,
Within a Reading Masonic Lodge, there is a clear hierarchy and different functions that members meet. At the top of the hierarchy is the Worshipful Master, who is accountable for leading the lodge and commanding conferences. The Junior Warden and Senior Warden help the Worshipful Master and may presume management in their absence.
Other important officer positions include the Treasurer, who handles the finances of Reading lodge, and the Secretary, who manages administrative jobs and keeps records. Additionally, there are officers such as the Chaplain, who supplies spiritual assistance, and the Tyler, who safeguards the entrance to guarantee just qualified individuals get in.
Each officer has specific tasks and responsibilities, outlined in the lodge’s bylaws and traditions. Their specific roles may consist of carrying out routines, handling committees, organizing events, and preserving order throughout Reading Masonic Lodge conferences.
The hierarchical structure ensures effective governance within the lodge and permits each member to contribute their skills and abilities for the improvement of the organization. By collaborating in their particular functions, members develop a unified and purposeful Reading Masonic Lodge neighborhood.
Symbolism And Rituals In Reading Masonic Lodge.
Symbolism And Rituals play a substantial role in Reading Masonic Lodge, adding depth and implying to the total experience. Masonic significance utilizes numerous symbols, such as the square and compass, the apron, and the lambskin, to communicate ethical and philosophical teachings. These symbols represent important values like virtue, integrity, and knowledge, advising members of their duty to lead respectable lives.
Rituals are an integral part of Reading Masonic Lodge conferences, serving both practical and symbolic purposes. They involve a scripted series of words and actions that are thoroughly performed by the officers and members. These particular rituals have been given through generations and help create a sense of continuity and tradition within the brotherhood.
Masonic Rituals In Reading Masonic Lodge
These frequently include elements such as ritualistic clothing, handshakes, passwords, and dramatic discussions. Through these rituals, members reinforce their shared concepts while experiencing a sense of unity and connection.
Furthermore, the ceremonial nature of Reading Masonic Lodge meetings cultivates an atmosphere of respect and motivation, motivating personal reflection and development. It permits members to participate in a deeper understanding of themselves and their location within society.
Overall, symbolism and the rituals in Reading Masonic Lodge enhances the sense of fraternity amongst members while promoting ethical advancement and self-improvement.
Reading Masonic Lodge Degrees
Reading Masonic Lodge degrees play a substantial role in the journey of a Freemason. Each degree represents a various level of knowledge, teachings, and experience within the fraternity. The degrees are structured to provide members with moral and philosophical lessons as they progress through the ranks.
The very first three degrees, known as the Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and Master Mason, are thought about the fundamental degrees. These degrees concentrate on the values of brotherhood, individual growth, and moral conduct.
As Freemasons advance to greater degrees in Reading Masonic Lodge, such as the Scottish Rite or York Rite degrees, if they available, they delve deeper into esoteric teachings and meaning. These additional degrees provide further insights into Masonic principles and values.
The procedure of advancing through the degrees at Reading Masonic Lodge includes a mix of study, memorization of rituals, and involvement in ceremonies. It is a progressive journey that permits members to deepen their understanding of Masonic mentors and apply them to their lives.
Ultimately, the Reading Masonic Lodge degrees serve as a path for individual growth and knowledge, guiding members towards progressing people and contributing favorably to their communities.
Description of Masonic Degrees And Their Significance At Reading
In Reading Masonic Lodge, degrees play a vital function in the progression of Freemasons. Each degree represents a phase of initiation and imparts important mentors and lessons.
The Gotten in Apprentice degree concentrates on the significance of self-improvement and discovering essential ethical concepts. It represents the beginning of the Masonic journey and emphasizes the duty to perform oneself with stability.
The Fellow Craft degree digs much deeper into the study of understanding, specifically concentrating on the sciences and arts. It encourages members to pursue intellectual development and understanding, cultivating individual advancement.
The Master Mason degree is the greatest and crucial degree within Reading Masonic Lodge It symbolizes knowledge, completion, and proficiency over oneself. This degree interacts crucial styles of death, resurrection, and immortality.
Through these degrees, Freemasons discover vital values such as brotherhood, moral conduct, self-control, and personal growth. The significance depends on their ability to assist individuals towards progressing versions of themselves, both within Reading Masonic Lodge and in their every day lives outside it.
Process Of Improvement Through Different Degrees.
In Reading Masonic Lodge, members progress through different degrees as they deepen their understanding and dedication to the concepts of Freemasonry. The improvement through these degrees is a significant journey of self-discovery and personal growth.
To advance from the Entered Apprentice degree to the Fellow Craft degree, a member must demonstrate their dedication to knowing, ethical values, and involvement in Reading Masonic Lodge activities. Likewise, to obtain the Master Mason degree, individuals should exhibit proficiency in the rituals and teachings of the preceding degrees.
This development guarantees that members slowly soak up the teachings and philosophy of Freemasonry while reinforcing their commitment to maintaining its principles. The procedure of advancing through the degrees assists individuals develop a stronger bond with their fellow Masons at Reading and encourages them to actively add to the well-being of the Lodge and its members.
Each degree builds upon the lessons discovered in the previous ones, guiding members towards higher insight, understanding, and responsibility within the fraternity. This progressive progression ensures that Freemasons continue their individual development while protecting the traditions and values of Reading Masonic Lodge.
Reading Masonic Lodge Symbolism
Reading Masonic Lodge is abundant in significance, with each sign holding a much deeper significance and representing essential aspects of Freemasonry. These signs serve as reminders to members of the concepts and values they are anticipated to maintain.
Some typical signs utilized at Reading Masonic Lodge, include the square and compasses, which represent morality and virtue, and the pillars, which symbolize wisdom, strength, and charm. The apron used by Masons at Reading Masonic Lodge is another sign that represents the purity of heart and dedication to the craft.
The architecture and layout of Reading Masonic Lodge also hold symbolic significance. The lodge space represents a spiritual area, while the east-west orientation represents the journey from darkness to light, signifying the pursuit of knowledge and knowledge.
As Freemasonry has actually progressed with time, some adjustments have actually been made in the symbolism utilized within Reading Masonic Lodge Nevertheless, the core values and concepts stay unchanged.
In addition to their symbolic practices, Reading Masonic Lodge also takes part in neighborhood involvement and charitable work, embodying the values of brotherhood, compassion, and service to others.
Suggesting behind typical symbols used at Reading Masonic Lodge. The signs utilized at Reading Masonic Lodge hold deep meaning and communicate important principles to their members. One such sign is the square and compasses, representing morality and virtue. The square symbolizes honesty and fairness in all transactions, while the compasses advise Masons at Reading to keep their desires and passions within due bounds. Together, they serve as a consistent reminder for members to lead upright lives.
Another typical sign in Reading Masonic Lodge is the pillars, usually illustrated as two columns, representing wisdom, strength, and beauty. These pillars are suggestions for Masons to look for understanding, empower themselves with self-control, and value the appeal that exists on the planet.
The apron worn by Masons at Reading are likewise a considerable symbol. It represents the pureness of heart and devotion to the craft. It serves as a visual reminder of the Masonic worths of humility, stability, and commitment to self-improvement.
These symbols, together with many others used at Reading Masonic Lodge, work as effective tools to inspire members to embody the concepts of Freemasonry and live significant lives rooted in brotherhood, empathy, and service to others.
Significance of Reading Masonic Lodge architecture and design
The architecture and layout of Reading Masonic Lodge are abundant with importance, reflecting the principles and values of Freemasonry. One key element is the orientation of the lodge, generally dealing with east. This direction represents the dawn of knowledge and new beginnings, signifying the constant pursuit of understanding and spiritual development.
The lodge space itself is decorated with numerous symbols, such as the altar, which works as the center of focus during ceremonies and represents a dedication to ethical and spiritual teachings. The pillars at the entrance, typically imitated those in King Solomon’s Temple, represent strength and knowledge.
The plan of seating within the lodge room also brings significance. The Junior Warden’s chair is put in the south to symbolize the heat of passion and younger energy, while the Senior Warden’s chair is in the west to signify maturity and reflection. The Master’s chair, situated in the east, represents leadership and knowledge.
These architectural elements and their positioning communicate crucial lessons to Masons at Reading throughout their rituals and meetings, reminding them of their commitment to look for wisdom, develop strong character, and nurture their spiritual growth.
Adaptations And Modifications In Modern Masonic Lodge Practices At Reading.
In action to the changing times and evolving social needs, contemporary Masonic Lodges, such as Reading Masonic Lodge have embraced adaptations and made changes to their practices. One considerable change is the inclusion of innovation in lodge conferences and interaction. Lots of lodges now utilize e-mail, social networks platforms, and online forums to stay gotten in touch with members and share details. This enables greater performance and benefit in preparation occasions and coordinating efforts.
Furthermore, Reading Masonic Lodge has actually broadened their concentrate on neighborhood involvement and charity work. Lodges frequently organize fundraisers, volunteer efforts, and charitable donations to support various causes within their communities.
These adjustments and modifications show the determination of Reading Masonic Lodge to adjust to the needs of the present while remaining true to their core principles of brotherhood, service, and personal advancement.
Community participation and charity work by Reading Masonic Lodge have a enduring custom of community involvement and charity work. These lodges recognize the significance of returning to the communities they are a part of and strive to make a positive impact.
Through different initiatives, Reading Masonic Lodge take part in charitable activities such as fundraising events, volunteer efforts, and charitable donations. They actively support causes that deal with societal issues and work towards promoting general well-being. Whether it’s arranging food drives for regional food banks, supporting education programs, or providing assistance to those in need, Reading Masonic Lodge objective to enhance the lives of people and communities.
In addition to their direct participation in charitable activities, Reading Masonic Lodge typically provide financial support through scholarships, grants, and sponsorships, if possible. By partnering with other community companies, they combine their resources to make a greater influence on social causes.
The neighborhood involvement and charity work by Reading Masonic Lodge exemplify their commitment to service and the improvement of society. Their efforts add to creating a stronger and more thoughtful neighborhood for all.
Becoming Part Of Reading Masonic Lodge
Intrigued in signing up with, then simply contact Reading Masonic Lodge, either via email, phone, through another member or even connect with the Provincial lodge for your county.
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Using Traps and Ambushes How Apache Hunters Captured Coyotes with Precision
In the vast, arid landscapes where the Apache once roamed, survival was intertwined with natures rhythm. Picture a lone coyote, slinking through the moonlit desert, unaware of the Apache hunters silent presence. For the Apache, hunting was not merely a means of sustenance but an intricate dance with the natural world, honed through generations. Mastered the art of setting traps and ambushes, blending wisdom and instinct to capture their quarry with unparalleled precision.
Indeed, the Apache method of hunting was rooted in an intimate understanding of their surroundings. They read the land like a map, interpreting signs invisible to the untrained eye. With skills passed down through oral tradition, they employed strategies that were deceptively simple yet ingeniously effective. A successful hunt required patience, timing, and the ability to anticipate the movements of both prey and nature.
Using natural materials, Apache hunters crafted traps that harmonized with the environment, making them nearly indistinguishable from the landscape. Observing animal behavior was crucial–they knew when coyotes were most active and how they navigated their territory. This knowledge allowed the Apache to set snares in prime locations, increasing the likelihood of a successful catch. It wasn’t merely about necessity; it was about maintaining a balance with the earth and the animals that shared their world.
The secret of our success lies in the speed of our ambushes and the silence of our tracks. We became one with the land, waiting patiently, as it guided us to victory.
The Apache approach to capturing coyotes offers fascinating insights into a world where survival and spirituality were deeply connected. It reflects a profound respect for nature and the creatures that inhabit it, valuing, above all, the wisdom that comes from living in harmony with the wild. Such practices not only ensured survival but also shaped a cultural identity rooted in ingenuity and respect for all living things.
The Apache people have a rich history woven into the landscapes of the American Southwest, an expansive terrain ranging from deserts to mountainous regions. Their survival skills mirror the harsh yet bountiful environments they called home. In particular, the Apaches deep understanding of nature allowed them to hone hunting techniques that were both sustainable and precise. Relying on keen observation, they used the lands features to their advantage, a practice born out of necessity and fueled by respect for the balance between hunter and prey.
Coyotes, often considered both a nuisance and a resource, provided a notable challenge to Apache hunters. These cunning creatures required equally cunning strategies to capture. The Apache employed a combination of knowledge, patience, and improvisation, utilizing traps and ambushes that seemed to not just anticipate the coyotes movements but almost choreograph them. This tactical prowess ensured successful hunts, allowing the Apache to manage coyote populations and glean valuable resources from them.
A key component of the Apaches’ success lay in their ability to camouflage within the environment, becoming part of it rather than a force acting upon it. This skill extended not just to attire and movement but also to the psychological aspect of hunting, where understanding the preys mind became as important as knowing its tracks. As a respected Apache wisdom teaches,
Listen to the wind, for it carries the sound of footsteps and the whisper of leaves that speak the path of the hunter and the hunted.
Such principles guided their approach, ensuring each hunt was both an act of skill and a cultural ritual steeped in tradition.
Using traps involved intricate designs, often crafted from natural materials like wood and sinew, and positioned with meticulous care. Meanwhile, ambushes required silent coordination and were executed with precision akin to a finely tuned dance. These methods showcased the Apaches ability to adapt and innovate, skills passed down through generations. This legacy of knowledge not only highlights their tactical brilliance but also underscores a deep-seated respect for the intertwined fate of humans and nature.
Apache Coyote Hunting Techniques: Traps Ambushes
An Apache Story
The Apache people have long been revered for their deep understanding of the natural world and their exceptional hunting skills. Rooted in tradition and survival, they developed strategic methods to capture prey, one of which involved the clever use of traps and ambushes. Among their quarry, coyotes posed a unique challenge due to their cunning nature and keen senses. Apache hunters adapted, observing the intricate behaviors and habits of these elusive creatures.
By blending their knowledge of the land with patience and precision, Apache hunters crafted traps that mirrored nature itself. They often used natural depressions or crafted pits, covering them with lightweight materials that seamlessly integrated with the environment. This keen attention to detail ensured that coyotes would unsuspectingly venture into their strategically placed traps. Such methods not only highlighted their ingenuity but also their respect for the natural balance, taking only what was necessary for survival.
In conducting ambushes, Apache hunters displayed remarkable teamwork and silent communication. They moved with stealth, understanding how to mask their scent and remain out of sight, patiently waiting for the perfect moment to strike. Through these coordinated efforts, they could corner coyotes, driving them towards anticipated routes where traps awaited. This approach showcased the blend of strategy and spatial awareness that defined Apache hunting practices.
True wisdom is found where the wild things are, and in the silence of the hunt, the path to harmony and sustenance becomes clear. — An Apache Proverb
The wisdom drawn from generations of hunting and survival manifests not only in their methodologies but also in their respect for all creatures. For the Apache, hunting was more than a means to an end; it was an integral part of their culture and their connection to the world around them. Embracing this deep bond, they taught each successive generation to honor the animal spirits, ensuring that every action taken was done with gratitude and reverence. Stories passed down through the ages serve as a testament to their profound relationship with nature.
Deep in the heart of the Apache lands, under an endless sky, the people prepared for the age-old dance between hunter and coyote. This sacred ceremony, led by the skilled healer KOI, combined the art of survival with spiritual guidance. It was a night when the boundary between worlds thinned, and the spirits whispered through the air.
The Craft of the Hunter: Parks Preparation
On the eve of the hunt, Park, known for his sharp wit and agility, walked the arid landscape. Dry earth crunched beneath his feet as he scanned for tracks. Here, he murmured to Antennae, his friend and fellow hunter, pointing to signs of a coyotes recent passage. We set the traps where the wind carries our scent away.
Antennae nodded, feeling the cool breeze rustle the mesquite trees. Together, they crafted cunning snares, using supple willow branches and sinew. Park whispered a prayer to the spirits, seeking guidance and strength. May our hands honor the earth that feeds us, he intoned, the setting sun casting long shadows around them.
Lois Sacred Ritual: Breath of the Earth
Meanwhile, KOI prepared the ritual ground. Healer arranged stones in a sacred circle, their surfaces warm from the suns gentle touch. As night descended, a fire flickered to life, painting Lois face with shadows that danced to the rhythm of unseen drums. The air was thick with the sages earthy perfume.
KOI began to chant, her voice rising like smoke into the star-pierced sky. Spirits of the hunt, we call upon you. Guide our hands, guard our hearts, she sang, her words echoing in the silence that enveloped the desert. Those gathered around felt the harmonious blend of the worlds energies, a calming reminder of the balance between life and survival.
The Lesson of the Hunt: Wisdom in Silence
The coyote, ever watchful, approached the snares with the delicate steps of a moonlit dancer. Park and Antennae observed with bated breath, hidden under a canopy of juniper. In the quiet, they learned patience, the truest mark of a skilled hunter.
Lastly, at a whispered signal from Park, they sprang their trap with precise timing. The coyote, caught but unharmed, locked eyes with Park. At that moment, a silent exchange of respect passed between hunter and hunted–a mutual acknowledgment of lives tapestry.
As Park released the coyote back to its freedom, Lois ritual came to its end. She addressed the gathered people with a gentle smile. The coyote teaches us resourcefulness and respect. Today, we are reminded that in listening, we learn the deepest truths. With her words, the stars shone a little brighter, and the fires embers glowed with warmth.
The nights teachings lingered, urging all who witnessed to carry this wisdom forward. How will the echoes of nature lessons shape your journey?
Implementing the Principles of Apache Hunters in Daily Life
The Apache people were renowned for their expert use of traps and ambushes to capture coyotes, demonstrating precision and adaptability. By applying these principles, you can enhance strategic thinking and problem-solving in daily life. Here show you can do it step-by-step.
- Identify Your Goal
Just as Apache hunters knew their prey, start by defining what you aim to achieve. Whether it’s a work objective, personal development, or a relationship goal, clarity is crucial. Take time to visualize the outcome and consider breaking it into smaller, actionable targets.
- Study the Environment
Apache hunters understood their surroundings deeply. In your context, this means analyzing the environment related to your goal. Look for patterns, resources, and potential obstacles. This preparation helps you anticipate challenges and opportunities.
- Plan Strategically
With an understanding of your goal and environment, devise a strategic plan. Consider the timing, necessary resources, and potential allies. Just as hunters set traps meticulously, your plan should be thorough and adaptable.
- Set Traps for Success
In daily life, this means establishing systems or habits that lead you toward your goal. For instance, if aiming for better fitness, set morning alarms and pre-plan meals. These traps keep you aligned with your objectives automatically.
- Be Patient and Observe
Hunters waited patiently after setting traps. Allow your plans and habits time to take effect. Regularly observe your progress and feedback from your actions. Patience is key to understanding what is working and what might need adjustment.
- Adapt as Needed
If the initial strategy isn’t yielding results, be ready to adapt. Apache hunters were flexible, adjusting techniques based on their observations. Similarly, be open to trying new approaches or modifying your goals as you gather more information.
- Reflect and Learn
After achieving your goal or completing a phase, reflect on the experience. Analyze what strategies worked well and what could improve. This reflective practice not only enhances personal growth but prepares you for future endeavors.
Potential Challenges and How to Overcome Them
One major challenge is remaining adaptable when plans go awry. Combat this by cultivating a mindset open to change and viewing setbacks as learning opportunities. Overanalyzing and fear of failure can also be hurdles; balance strategizing with action to move forward.
Tips for Maintaining Consistency
Consistency can be bolstered by setting clear, manageable milestones and regularly reviewing progress. Consider establishing accountability measures, like sharing goals with a friend or mentor. Lastly, celebrate small victories to maintain motivation.
How can these principles of strategic thinking and adaptability be applied in another area of your life? Reflect on a current goal and think about how you could apply the Apache method of traps and ambushes for better results.
Apache Coyote Hunting Techniques: Traps Ambushes
The Apache people, with their rich legacy of strategic hunting, demonstrate the art of blending insight with action to capture coyotes effectively. Their methods, honed over generations, reflect a deep understanding of the natural world, showcasing how strategic planning and patience lead to success. By observing the natural behaviors of coyotes and adapting their techniques, Apache hunters exemplify wisdom in harmony with nature, turning the act of hunting into a profound expression of cultural heritage.
Apache hunters exemplified a mastery of balance between natures rhythms and human ingenuity. Demonstrated respect for the coyote, recognizing its vital role in the ecosystem, while also meeting their own needs with skill and precision. This respectful coexistence reveals a profound understanding that every creature plays a specific role in the grand tapestry of life. Such insights encourage modern conservation efforts, teaching the importance of working with, not against, the natural world.
Drawing on these practices, modern hunters and conservationists alike can find inspiration in Apache wisdom. By prioritizing sustainability and ecological balance, It’s possible to honor this ancient knowledge while applying it to contemporary challenges. The Apache example urges an embrace of patience, respect, and strategic thinking in all human endeavors. Consider adopting these principles in interactions with nature, striving to understand and learn from the environment.
The land is the real teacher. All we need as students is mindfulness. – Robin Wall Kimmerer
The lessons from the Apache way of hunting resonate beyond the hunt itself, encouraging a thoughtful approach to life and nature. Aligning actions with the flow of natural systems can lead to more sustainable outcomes and enriched experiences. Embrace the wisdom of those who lived in harmony with the land, and let it guide toward future endeavors that respect and preserve the world around us. This mindful approach invites everyone to become stewards of the earth, using ancestral knowledge to shape a harmonious future.
Dive deeper into the fascinating world of Apache wisdom and its modern applications. Explore these thought-provoking questions to expand your understanding of the concepts discussed in this article.
Explore Further with Google
- What ancient healing practices are being rediscovered by modern medicine?
- How do ancestral teachings contribute to personal growth?
- How can we respect sustainable living in our climate change?
Discover Insights with Perplexity
- How can we embrace indigenous wisdom in our mental health?
- How do traditional storytelling methods convey timeless wisdom?
- How can we learn from indigenous knowledge in today’s world?
By exploring these questions, you’ll gain a richer appreciation for indigenous cultures, environmental stewardship, and mindfulness practices. Each link opens a gateway to deeper knowledge, helping you connect ancient wisdom with contemporary life.
Thank you for reading!
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Book Banning: Why This Dangerous Trend Must Stop Now
In a world where opinions are as diverse as the books that line our shelves, the growing trend of book banning is turning libraries into modern-day dungeons, and you won’t find any dragons or brave knights here—just a lot of angry readers! Imagine being told you can’t dive into the pages of a beloved novel because it might challenge your thinking, or worse, because it features a talking dog with radical ideas about social justice. Not only does this practice restrict our access to knowledge, creativity, and empathy, but it also ignores a fundamental truth: books are the windows through which we view the world. So, grab your favorite literary weapon—a good book—and join us as we unravel why book banning is the villain of our story and why we must band together to stop this dangerous trend once and for all!
- The Historical Context of Book Banning and Its Impact on Society
- Understanding the Motivations Behind Modern Book Bans
- The Consequences of Censorship on Education and Literacy
- Voices Silenced: The Real Stories Behind Banned Books
- Promoting Intellectual Freedom: The Role of Libraries and Educators
- How Communities Can Stand Against Book Banning
- The Importance of Diverse Perspectives in Literature
- Empowering Parents and Book Lovers to Advocate for Access to Literature
- Strategies for Engaging in Productive Conversations About Controversial Books
- Taking Action: Mobilizing Support for Banned Books and Free Expression
- To Conclude
The Historical Context of Book Banning and Its Impact on Society
The practice of book banning is as old as the written word itself, tracing back to ancient civilizations where authorities sought to control knowledge and suppress dissenting ideas. In various historical contexts, books have been condemned not merely for their content but for the potential they hold to provoke thought, inspire change, or challenge prevailing norms. The Spanish Inquisition, for example, targeted texts that questioned religious orthodoxy, while the censorship of the Soviet Union eliminated works that portrayed the state unfavorably. Across these examples, a clear pattern emerges: the fear of knowledge often ignites a reactionary impulse to silence voices deemed dangerous.
The ramifications of such censorship ripple through society, affecting not only the immediate access to literature but also shaping cultural and social values. When specific books are removed from shelves, communities lose diverse perspectives and critical discussions about issues such as:
- Human Rights: Exploring the narratives of marginalized communities.
- History: Understanding past injustices to inform present actions.
- Identity: Representing different cultures and experiences.
Disallowing access to controversial literature doesn’t just inhibit literary freedom; it also fosters an atmosphere of intellectual stagnation, where citizens may become less equipped to engage in informed debates or challenge systemic inequities. Furthermore, the cultural impact often leads to a homogenization of thought, stifling creativity and innovation as society retreats from the very dialogues that could lead to progress.
Understanding the Motivations Behind Modern Book Bans
As we navigate an increasingly complex landscape marked by cultural shifts and differing societal values, the motivations behind modern book bans reveal a troubling trend that extends beyond mere censorship. Many advocates of censorship often claim to protect children or uphold community values, yet these arguments often mask deeper, more insidious motivations. Understanding the underlying factors is crucial to combating this dangerous trend.
Book bans frequently stem from:
- Fear of Divergent Ideas: The anxiety over differing beliefs and perspectives can lead to efforts to suppress material that challenges the status quo.
- Political Agendas: Some groups seek to restrict access to literature that contradicts their political or ideological narratives.
- Cultural Conservatism: The desire to uphold traditional values often results in the elimination of texts that explore modern issues, such as gender identity or racial inequality.
- Misinformation: Misunderstandings or false information about a book’s content can provoke unnecessary alarm and lead to calls for its removal.
This growing phenomenon reflects a broader concern about intellectual freedom and the evolution of societal norms. As institutions grapple with what to include in their collections, the implications of these decisions reach far beyond library shelves.
Motivation | Impact |
Fear of Divergent Ideas | Creates an echo chamber, hindering critical thinking |
Political Agendas | Skews public discourse, leads to polarization |
Cultural Conservatism | Limits diversity of thought and voice in literature |
Misinformation | Spreads fear, legitimizing unfounded bans |
The Consequences of Censorship on Education and Literacy
The phenomenon of book banning has far-reaching implications for education and literacy, leaving profound scars on the intellectual landscape of schools and libraries. When specific titles are removed from curricula and shelves, students are deprived of the opportunity to engage with diverse perspectives and complex ideas. This restriction breeds a culture of ignorance, where critical thinking is undermined and the ability to empathize with others is diminished.
Among the most significant consequences are:
- Limited Access to Knowledge: Students lose access to a wide range of topics, stifling their curiosity and understanding of the world.
- Stunted Literacy Development: Engaging with varied texts is essential for developing reading proficiency and comprehension skills.
- Discouragement of Open Dialogue: Censorship creates an environment where students may hesitate to express their thoughts or explore contentious issues.
- Lack of Representation: Many banned books address marginalized voices, leaving students without relatable figures or stories.
Moreover, banning books presents a troubling paradox: while it aims to shield students from certain content, it inadvertently strips them of the very tools needed to navigate the complexities of society. This literary deprivation constrains intellectual freedom, ultimately fostering a generation ill-equipped to think critically or challenge the status quo.
Voices Silenced: The Real Stories Behind Banned Books
Across the nation, students are finding themselves caught in the crossfire of a growing trend that seeks to stifle thought and restrict access to literature. These are not just stories of lost pages or empty shelves; they are narratives of lives interrupted, individuality suppressed, and creativity suffocated. Each banned book carries a weight of **deep personal significance**, reflecting the voices of those who have faced their own battles with authority, identity, and autonomy.
Consider the true impact behind the headlines. The decision to remove a book is often justified by claiming to protect young readers from **controversial ideas** or **harmful content**. Yet, behind these decisions lie **real stories** that echo the struggles many individuals face:
- A young LGBTQ+ student who discovers their identity in the pages of a novel, only to find that book banned from their school library.
- A child of immigrants who sees their own story reflected in a narrative that addresses cultural themes, only to be denied that representation.
- A teenager grappling with mental health issues who finds solace and understanding in characters navigating similar challenges, only to have those discussions silenced.
The implications of book banning extend far beyond individual titles; they undermine the very fabric of education and intellectual freedom. When diverse perspectives are excluded, entire generations are robbed of the opportunity to engage with **crucial societal issues** and learn to navigate the complexities of the world. It is imperative to recognize that the power of a book lies not just in its content, but in the conversations it ignites and the lives it can change.
Reason for Banning | Impact on Students |
Profanity | Sparks curiosity about real-world language and its context. |
Sexual Content | Shuts down important discussions about consent and relationships. |
Political Views | Inhibits critical thinking and understanding of diverse perspectives. |
Promoting Intellectual Freedom: The Role of Libraries and Educators
In an era where information is more accessible than ever, libraries and educators stand as the bastions of intellectual freedom, crucial in safeguarding the right to explore diverse ideas and perspectives. They empower individuals to make informed choices, helping to cultivate critical thinking and a love for learning. This role is particularly paramount in the face of rising book bans that threaten to curtail these freedoms, making it essential for libraries and educators to advocate for unimpeded access to literature.
Libraries are not just repositories of books but are vibrant community hubs that promote inclusive education. They host programs that encourage discussions on challenging subjects, allowing individuals to engage with different viewpoints. Some key roles they play include:
- Providing Access: Libraries ensure that a wide range of materials is available to all, catering to diverse community needs.
- Supporting Free Inquiry: They uphold the principle that all ideas should be explored, enabling patrons to engage with controversial topics.
- Facilitating Learning: Educators and librarians work together to create curricula that reflect a multiplicity of voices, fostering critical engagement among students.
Moreover, as centers of learning, educators have a responsibility to instill the values of intellectual curiosity and critical analysis in their students. They must advocate against censorship in all its forms, ensuring that the right to read and think freely is preserved. This includes:
Action | Description |
Advocacy | Stand against policies that seek to restrict access to literature in educational settings. |
Curation | Select a diverse range of materials that reflect various perspectives and experiences. |
Discussion | Create platforms for open dialogue around sensitive topics to encourage understanding. |
By uniting their efforts, libraries and educators can inspire generations, reinforce the message that the freedom to read is fundamental, and empower individuals to navigate the complexities of the world with confidence.
How Communities Can Stand Against Book Banning
Communities can play a pivotal role in challenging book banning by fostering an environment that values diverse perspectives and encourages open dialogue. Here are some effective strategies communities can implement:
- Organize Reading Events: Create book clubs or literary festivals that focus on banned literature, helping to raise awareness about censorship and its implications.
- Engage Local Schools: Collaborate with educators to promote curriculum inclusivity, advocating for access to a broad range of texts that reflect various cultures and viewpoints.
- Utilize Social Media: Harness the power of social media to spread awareness, share personal stories, and mobilize support against banning initiatives.
- Start a Petition: Circulate petitions emphasizing the importance of intellectual freedom; this can serve as an effective tool for rallying community support.
Moreover, establishing community coalitions that unite diverse groups—libraries, parents, teachers, and local businesses—can amplify the message. These coalitions can host community forums to discuss the critical importance of access to literature and to spotlight notable authors whose works have faced challenges.
Action | Impact |
Reading Events | Promotes understanding and appreciation of diverse literature |
Collaborate with Schools | Ensures a varied and inclusive educational experience |
Social Media Campaigns | Increases awareness and engages a wider audience |
Community Forums | Encourages dialogue about censorship and freedom of expression |
The Importance of Diverse Perspectives in Literature
The realm of literature thrives on the richness of diverse perspectives, offering readers a window into experiences and cultures far removed from their own. This array of voices challenges the notion of a singular narrative, instead inviting us to embrace complexity and ambiguity. When literature reflects a multitude of backgrounds, it fosters empathy, understanding, and critical thinking. Here are some reasons why diverse perspectives are indispensable in storytelling:
- Enhances Empathy: Encountering characters from different backgrounds helps readers develop a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by others, breaking down prejudices and fostering compassion.
- Encourages Critical Thinking: Varied narratives prompt readers to question their own beliefs and the societal structures around them, encouraging a more analytical approach to information.
- Strengthens Community: Diverse stories can highlight common struggles and themes, reminding us of our shared humanity despite disparate experiences.
The act of banning books that represent diverse viewpoints not only stifles individual growth but also impoverishes society as a whole. By limiting access to a range of narratives, we risk creating echo chambers devoid of the rich conversations and insights that differing viewpoints can provide. In this digitally interconnected world, championing diverse literature is more crucial than ever, as it empowers individuals and communities to engage with the complexities of the human experience.
Empowering Parents and Book Lovers to Advocate for Access to Literature
In an era where knowledge, storytelling, and imagination should thrive, the rise of book banning poses a significant threat not just to young readers but to the very framework of our society. **Parents and avid readers alike must unite to challenge these restrictions**, advocating for unrestricted access to literature that informs, educates, and inspires. Literature opens doors to diverse perspectives and fosters critical thinking, essential skills for navigating our complex world.
To effectively combat this alarming trend, consider taking the following steps:
- Engage in Discussions: Share insights about the importance of literature with fellow parents, educators, and community members.
- Support the Banned Books Movement: Familiarize yourself with titles that have been challenged or banned. Stand in solidarity with authors who face censorship.
- Attend School Board Meetings: Voice your opinions and advocate for inclusive reading materials that represent all voices.
By actively participating in these initiatives, parents can protect their children’s right to read freely while empowering future generations to appreciate the power of literature. A well-rounded education encompasses a broad spectrum of ideas and narratives, encouraging young minds to dream bigger and think deeper.
Advocacy Strategies | Impact |
Form or join book clubs | Creates a robust community support network. |
Organize local reading events | Fosters engagement with diverse literature. |
Write to local representatives | Influences policy changes regarding educational content. |
Promote literacy through social media | Spreads awareness and mobilizes more supporters. |
Strategies for Engaging in Productive Conversations About Controversial Books
Engaging in discussions about controversial books requires a thoughtful approach to foster understanding rather than divisiveness. Here are some effective strategies to consider:
- Establish Ground Rules: Create an environment where everyone feels safe expressing their opinions. Guidelines can include respect for differing viewpoints and a focus on constructive criticism.
- Active Listening: Encourage participants to listen attentively to one another. This allows for a more profound understanding of different perspectives, which can help bridge gaps in opinion.
- Ask Open-Ended Questions: Facilitate deeper dialogue by posing questions that encourage reflection rather than simple yes or no answers. This promotes critical thinking and richer conversations.
- Share Personal Experiences: Invite participants to share how a book affected them personally. Connecting literature to real-life experiences can help humanize the conversation.
Additionally, using visual aids such as charts can clarify complex arguments or present statistics regarding book banning trends. Below is a simple table highlighting key statistics surrounding the impact of book bans:
Year | Number of Banned Books | Common Reasons for Bans |
2020 | 273 | Sexual Content, Political Views |
2021 | 330 | Racial Issues, LGBTQ+ Themes |
2022 | 450 | Violence, Offensive Language |
By incorporating these strategies into discussions about controversial literature, we can create a more informed and respectful dialogue that not only acknowledges differing viewpoints but also seeks common ground in our shared love for reading.
Taking Action: Mobilizing Support for Banned Books and Free Expression
In the face of rising censorship and book banning, it’s essential for individuals and communities to come together to advocate for the fundamental right to read. Mobilizing support involves more than just raising awareness; it requires actionable steps to create a culture that values free expression. Here are some ways we can take action:
- Host Community Events: Organize read-outs, discussions, or workshops that focus on banned books and the importance of free expression. These gatherings can serve as platforms for dialogue and education.
- Partner with Local Organizations: Collaborate with libraries, schools, and non-profits to create campaigns that highlight the implications of censorship and advocate for access to diverse literature.
- Utilize Social Media: Use platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook to share information about banned books and promote campaigns that support freedom of speech. Hashtags such as #BannedBooks and #FreeExpression can amplify your message.
Additionally, consider creating petitions that can be submitted to school boards and local governments, demanding the reversal of book bans. This direct form of advocacy can trigger important conversations about literature’s role in education and society.
Action | Description |
Educate Yourself | Learn about the specific books being banned and the reasons behind the bans. |
Support Authors | Purchase, read, and promote works by authors whose books have been banned. |
Engage in Advocacy | Join or form advocacy groups focused on protecting literary freedom. |
Q&A: Book Banning – Why This Dangerous Trend Must Stop Now
Q1: What is book banning, and why is it becoming more prevalent?
A1: Book banning refers to the practice of prohibiting access to certain books, often based on their content, themes, or perspectives. This trend has been gaining momentum due to a variety of factors, including heightened political polarization, increased scrutiny of educational curricula, and the rise of social media platforms, where individuals can mobilize quickly around issues they deem controversial. As a result, many schools and libraries face pressure to remove books that some perceive as inappropriate or offensive.
Q2: What types of books are being banned?
A2: Books that face bans often fall into categories discussing race, LGBTQ+ issues, sexual education, political ideologies, or those that challenge traditional norms and perspectives. Classic literature that addresses complex societal issues, such as “To Kill a Mockingbird” or “1984,” has also faced scrutiny. Essentially, any book that encourages critical thinking or presents an alternative viewpoint is at risk.
Q3: What are the implications of book banning for society?
A3: Book banning poses significant dangers to society as it stifles free expression and limits diverse perspectives. This trend can adversely affect education, as students are denied access to the richness of ideas that literature provides. It fosters an environment of censorship, where only certain viewpoints are permitted, ultimately hindering critical thinking and open dialogue. Historical patterns show that censorship often leads to the oppression of marginalized voices and can create a culture of fear regarding intellectual exploration.
Q4: How does book banning affect students’ education?
A4: When books are banned in schools, students miss out on valuable educational opportunities. Literature opens doors to understanding complex social issues, developing empathy, and fostering critical thinking skills. Exposure to diverse narratives can help students find their own voices and understand the world around them. Without these tools, they may struggle to engage with differing perspectives, ultimately diminishing their ability to participate fully in a democratic society.
Q5: What can individuals do to combat book banning?
A5: Individuals can take various actions to resist book banning. First and foremost, advocating for intellectual freedom is crucial. This could involve supporting local libraries and schools by attending board meetings, voicing concerns against bans, and participating in book clubs that celebrate diverse literature. Additionally, parents and educators should promote open discussions about controversial topics, emphasizing critical thinking over censorship. Supporting organizations dedicated to upholding free speech, like the American Library Association, can also be impactful.
Q6: What message do you want readers to take away from this discussion?
A6: It’s imperative for readers to understand that book banning is not just an issue affecting libraries and schools; it’s a fundamental challenge to our right to access information and diverse ideas. By taking a stand against censorship, we protect not only the voices that are being silenced today but also the rights of future generations to think critically and express themselves freely. Staying informed, engaged, and proactive is crucial in ensuring that literature remains a vibrant and powerful force in our society.
As we reflect on the implications of book banning, it becomes clear that this trend endangers not only our individual rights but also the very fabric of our society. Books challenge us, spark dialogue, and expand our understanding of the world around us. By curtailing access to diverse perspectives, we risk stifling the critical thinking and empathy that are vital for a thriving democracy. It is imperative that we stand together to advocate for intellectual freedom and resist the urge to censor. Let us champion the right to read, ensuring that future generations inherit a world rich with ideas and creativity. The time to act is now—because the stories we choose to tell and the voices we allow to be heard shape our collective future. Together, we can put an end to this dangerous trend and celebrate the power of literature in all its forms.
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A commodity appears, at first sight, a very trivial thing, and easily understood. Its analysis shows
Footnotes Abridged. Yesterday's reading is a good introduction. After we're done reading this heady chapter, we're going to give you a treat.
that it is, in reality, a very queer thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties. So far as it is a value in use, there is nothing mysterious about it, whether we consider it from the point of view that by its properties it is capable of satisfying human wants, or from the point that those properties are the product of human labour. It is as clear as noon-day, that man, by his industry, changes the forms of the materials furnished by Nature, in such a way as to make them useful to him. The form of wood, for instance, is altered, by making a table out of it. Yet, for all that, the table continues to be that common, every-day thing, wood. But, so soon as it steps forth as a commodity, it is changed into something transcendent. It not only stands with its feet on the ground, but, in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and evolves out of its wooden brain grotesque ideas, far more wonderful than “table-turning” ever was. 26
26. Note by editors of Marx and Engels Collected Works: In the German edition, there is the following footnote here:“One may recall that China and the tables began to dance when the rest of the world appeared to be standing still – pour encourager les autres [to encourage the others].” The defeat of the 1848–49 revolutions was followed by a period of dismal political reaction in Europe. At that time, spiritualism, especially table-turning, became the rage among the European aristocracy. In 1850–64, China was swept by an anti-feudal liberation movement in the form of a large-scale peasant war, the Taiping Revolt.
27. Among the ancient Germans the unit for measuring land was what could be harvested in a day, and was called Tagwerk, Tagwanne (jurnale, or terra jurnalis, or diornalis), Mannsmaad, &c.
The mystical character of commodities does not originate, therefore, in their use value. Just as little does it proceed from the nature of the determining factors of value. For, in the first place, however varied the useful kinds of labour, or productive activities, may be, it is a physiological fact, that they are functions of the human organism, and that each such function, whatever may be its nature or form, is essentially the expenditure of human brain, nerves, muscles, &c. Secondly, with regard to that which forms the ground-work for the quantitative determination of value, namely, the duration of that expenditure, or the quantity of labour, it is quite clear that there is a palpable difference between its quantity and quality. In all states of society, the labour time that it costs to produce the means of subsistence, must necessarily be an object of interest to mankind, though not of equal interest in different stages of development.27 And lastly, from the moment that men in any way work for one another, their labour assumes a social form.
Whence, then, arises the enigmatical character of the product of labour, so soon as it assumes the form of commodities? Clearly from this form itself. The equality of all sorts of human labour is expressed objectively by their products all being equally values; the measure of the expenditure of labour power by the duration of that expenditure, takes the form of the quantity of value of the products of labour; and finally the mutual relations of the producers, within which the social character of their labour affirms itself, take the form of a social relation between the products.
A commodity is therefore a mysterious thing, simply because in it the social character of men’s labour appears to them as an objective character stamped upon the product of that labour; because the relation of the producers to the sum total of their own labour is presented to them as a social relation, existing not between themselves, but between the products of their labour. This is the reason why the products of labour become commodities, social things whose qualities are at the same time perceptible and imperceptible by the senses. In the same way the light from an object is perceived by us not as the subjective excitation of our optic nerve, but as the objective form of something outside the eye itself. But, in the act of seeing, there is at all events, an actual passage of light from one thing to another, from the external object to the eye. There is a physical relation between physical things. But it is different with commodities. There, the existence of the things quâ commodities, and the value relation between the products of labour which stamps them as commodities, have absolutely no connection with their physical properties and with the material relations arising therefrom. There it is a definite social relation between men, that assumes, in their eyes, the fantastic form of a relation between things. In order, therefore, to find an analogy, we must have recourse to the mist-enveloped regions of the religious world. In that world the productions of the human brain appear as independent beings endowed with life, and entering into relation both with one another and the human race. So it is in the world of commodities with the products of men’s hands. This I call the Fetishism which attaches itself to the products of labour, so soon as they are produced as commodities, and which is therefore inseparable from the production of commodities.
This Fetishism of commodities has its origin, as the foregoing analysis has already shown, in the peculiar social character of the labour that produces them.
As a general rule, articles of utility become commodities, only because they are products of the labour of private individuals or groups of individuals who carry on their work independently of each other. The sum total of the labour of all these private individuals forms the aggregate labour of society. Since the producers do not come into social contact with each other until they exchange their products, the specific social character of each producer’s labour does not show itself except in the act of exchange. In other words, the labour of the individual asserts itself as a part of the labour of society, only by means of the relations which the act of exchange establishes directly between the products, and indirectly, through them, between the producers. To the latter, therefore, the relations connecting the labour of one individual with that of the rest appear, not as direct social relations between individuals at work, but as what they really are, material relations between persons and social relations between things. It is only by being exchanged that the products of labour acquire, as values, one uniform social status, distinct from their varied forms of existence as objects of utility. This division of a product into a useful thing and a value becomes practically important, only when exchange has acquired such an extension that useful articles are produced for the purpose of being exchanged, and their character as values has therefore to be taken into account, beforehand, during production. From this moment the labour of the individual producer acquires socially a two-fold character. On the one hand, it must, as a definite useful kind of labour, satisfy a definite social want, and thus hold its place as part and parcel of the collective labour of all, as a branch of a social division of labour that has sprung up spontaneously. On the other hand, it can satisfy the manifold wants of the individual producer himself, only in so far as the mutual exchangeability of all kinds of useful private labour is an established social fact, and therefore the private useful labour of each producer ranks on an equality with that of all others. The equalisation of the most different kinds of labour can be the result only of an abstraction from their inequalities, or of reducing them to their common denominator, viz. expenditure of human labour power or human labour in the abstract. The two-fold social character of the labour of the individual appears to him, when reflected in his brain, only under those forms which are impressed upon that labour in every-day practice by the exchange of products. In this way, the character that his own labour possesses of being socially useful takes the form of the condition, that the product must be not only useful, but useful for others, and the social character that his particular labour has of being the equal of all other particular kinds of labour, takes the form that all the physically different articles that are the products of labour, have one common quality, viz., that of having value.
Hence, when we bring the products of our labour into relation with each other as values, it is not because we see in these articles the material receptacles of homogeneous human labour. Quite the contrary: whenever, by an exchange, we equate as values our different products, by that very act, we also equate, as human labour, the different kinds of labour expended upon them. We are not aware of this, nevertheless we do it. Value, therefore, does not stalk about with a label describing what it is. It is value, rather, that converts every product into a social hieroglyphic. Later on, we try to decipher the hieroglyphic, to get behind the secret of our own social products; for to stamp an object of utility as a value, is just as much a social product as language. The recent scientific discovery, that the products of labour, so far as they are values, are but material expressions of the human labour spent in their production, marks, indeed, an epoch in the history of the development of the human race, but, by no means, dissipates the mist through which the social character of labour appears to us to be an objective character of the products themselves. The fact, that in the particular form of production with which we are dealing, viz., the production of commodities, the specific social character of private labour carried on independently, consists in the equality of every kind of that labour, by virtue of its being human labour, which character, therefore, assumes in the product the form of value – this fact appears to the producers, notwithstanding the discovery above referred to, to be just as real and final, as the fact, that, after the discovery by science of the component gases of air, the atmosphere itself remained unaltered.
What, first of all, practically concerns producers when they make an exchange, is the question, how much of some other product they get for their own? In what proportions the products are exchangeable? When these proportions have, by custom, attained a certain stability, they appear to result from the nature of the products, so that, for instance, one ton of iron and two ounces of gold appear as naturally to be of equal value as a pound of gold and a pound of iron in spite of their different physical and chemical qualities appear to be of equal weight. The character of having value, when once impressed upon products, obtains fixity only by reason of their acting and re-acting upon each other as quantities of value. These quantities vary continually, independently of the will, foresight and action of the producers. To them, their own social action takes the form of the action of objects, which rule the producers instead of being ruled by them. It requires a fully developed production of commodities before, from accumulated experience alone, the scientific conviction springs up, that all the different kinds of private labour, which are carried on independently of each other, and yet as spontaneously developed branches of the social division of labour, are continually being reduced to the quantitative proportions in which society requires them. And why? Because, in the midst of all the accidental and ever fluctuating exchange relations between the products, the labour time socially necessary for their production forcibly asserts itself like an over-riding law of Nature. The law of gravity thus asserts itself when a house falls about our ears.29 29. “What are we to think of a law that asserts itself only by periodical revolutions? It is just nothing but a law of Nature, founded on the want of knowledge of those whose action is the subject of it.”The determination of the magnitude of value by labour time is therefore a secret, hidden under the apparent fluctuations in the relative values of commodities. Its discovery, while removing all appearance of mere accidentality from the determination of the magnitude of the values of products, yet in no way alters the mode in which that determination takes place.
Man’s reflections on the forms of social life, and consequently, also, his scientific analysis of those forms, take a course directly opposite to that of their actual historical development. He begins, post festum, with the results of the process of development ready to hand before him. The characters that stamp products as commodities, and whose establishment is a necessary preliminary to the circulation of commodities, have already acquired the stability of natural, self-understood forms of social life, before man seeks to decipher, not their historical character, for in his eyes they are immutable, but their meaning. Consequently it was the analysis of the prices of commodities that alone led to the determination of the magnitude of value, and it was the common expression of all commodities in money that alone led to the establishment of their characters as values. It is, however, just this ultimate money form of the world of commodities that actually conceals, instead of disclosing, the social character of private labour, and the social relations between the individual producers. When I state that coats or boots stand in a relation to linen, because it is the universal incarnation of abstract human labour, the absurdity of the statement is self-evident. Nevertheless, when the producers of coats and boots compare those articles with linen, or, what is the same thing, with gold or silver, as the universal equivalent, they express the relation between their own private labour and the collective labour of society in the same absurd form.
The categories of bourgeois economy consist of such like forms. They are forms of thought expressing with social validity the conditions and relations of a definite, historically determined mode of production, viz., the production of commodities. The whole mystery of commodities, all the magic and necromancy that surrounds the products of labour as long as they take the form of commodities, vanishes therefore, so soon as we come to other forms of production.
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Behavioral veterinarians are professionals who specialize in the study and treatment of animal behavior. They work to understand the behavior of animals and develop strategies to modify or treat unwanted behaviors. Behavioral veterinarians may work with a variety of animals, including pets, livestock, and wildlife.
However, a behavioral veterinarian and a Veterinary behaviorist are not the same thing, although their roles may overlap to some extent. A behavioral veterinarian is a licensed veterinarian who has undergone additional training and education in animal behavior. They may be certified by organizations such as the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior (AVSAB) or the American College of Veterinary Behaviorists (ACVB). They are able to diagnose and treat behavioral problems in pets, such as aggression, anxiety, and compulsive disorders.
A Veterinary behaviorist, on the other hand, is a veterinarian who has completed advanced training and residency programs in Veterinary behavior. They have also passed a certification exam and are recognized by the ACVB as specialists in Veterinary behavior. They are experts in diagnosing and treating complex behavioral problems in animals, and may also work closely with trainers, pet owners, and other veterinarians to develop comprehensive treatment plans for pets with behavior issues.
So while both a behavioral veterinarian and a Veterinary behaviorist have specialized knowledge and training in animal behavior, a Veterinary behaviroist has completed a more rigorous and specialized training program, and is recognized as a specialist in the field of Veterinary behavior.
Behavioral veterinarian jobs: work settings
Behavioral veterinarians work in a variety of settings, each with its own unique challenges and opportunities. Some of the most common work settings for Behavioral veterinarians include private practice, academic institutions, animal shelters, research facilities, and government agencies.
One of the most common work settings for Behavioral veterinarians is private practice. In this setting, Behavioral veterinarians work with clients to diagnose and treat behavioral issues in their pets. They may work in general Veterinary practices or may specialize in behavior medicine. Behavioral veterinarians in private practice may also work closely with trainers and other animal behavior specialists to develop treatment plans that address the underlying causes of behavioral issues.
Behavioral veterinarians may also work in academic institutions such as Veterinary schools and research universities. In these settings, Behavioral veterinarians may teach courses on animal behavior, conduct research on animal behavior, and provide clinical services to animals in need. They may also work with students and other researchers to develop new approaches to treating behavioral disorders in animals.
Another common work setting for Behavioral veterinarians is animal shelters. In these settings, Behavioral veterinarians work with animals that have been surrendered by their owners or rescued from abusive situations. They may assess the behavior of these animals and develop treatment plans to address behavioral issues that may make them difficult to adopt. Behavioral veterinarians in animal shelters may also work with adoption counselors and other staff members to help match animals with suitable adopters.
Behavioral veterinarians may also work in research facilities, where they conduct studies on animal behavior and develop new approaches to treating behavioral disorders. They may work with laboratory animals or may conduct studies on wildlife or other animals in their natural habitats. Behavioral veterinarians in research facilities may also collaborate with other scientists and researchers to develop new treatments and therapies for behavioral disorders in animals.
Finally, Behavioral veterinarians may work for government agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). In these settings, Behavioral veterinarians may work to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, promote animal welfare, and develop policies and guidelines for the care of animals. They may also work with law enforcement agencies to investigate cases of animal cruelty or neglect.
Overall, Behavioral veterinarians work in a variety of settings, each with its own unique challenges and opportunities. Whether working in private practice, academic institutions, animal shelters, research facilities, or government agencies, Behavioral veterinarians play an important role in promoting the well-being of animals and helping to ensure that they are able to lead happy and healthy lives.
Behavioral veterinarian jobs: duties and responsibilities
Behavioral veterinarians are specialists in animal behavior and work to diagnose and treat behavioral issues in a wide range of animals, including dogs, cats, horses, and exotic animals. Their duties and responsibilities vary depending on their work setting, but in general, they are responsible for assessing animal behavior, developing treatment plans, and working with owners and other animal care professionals to improve the well-being of animals in their care.
Assessment of animal behavior
One of the primary duties of Behavioral veterinarians is to assess the behavior of animals in their care. This may involve observing an animal’s behavior in various settings, conducting physical exams to rule out underlying medical issues, and administering various behavioral tests to assess an animal’s temperament, anxiety levels, and other behavioral traits. Behavioral veterinarians may also review the animal’s medical and behavioral history, as well as information provided by the animal’s owner or other caregivers.
Development of treatment plans
Once a behavioral veterinarian has assessed an animal’s behavior, they will develop a treatment plan tailored to the animal’s specific needs. This may involve behavioral modification techniques, such as counter-conditioning or desensitization, or medication to treat underlying anxiety or behavioral disorders. Behavioral veterinarians may also work with owners to develop management strategies that can help prevent or manage behavioral issues, such as crate training, environmental enrichment, or training exercises.
Collaboration with owners and other animal care professionals
Behavioral veterinarians also work closely with animal owners and other animal care professionals to ensure the best possible outcomes for the animals in their care. They may provide training and education to owners on how to manage and prevent behavioral issues, as well as work with trainers and other animal behavior specialists to develop comprehensive treatment plans. Behavioral veterinarians may also collaborate with other veterinarians, such as primary care veterinarians, to provide coordinated care for animals with complex medical and behavioral issues.
Record-keeping and documentation
Behavioral veterinarians are responsible for keeping accurate and detailed records of their assessments, treatment plans, and progress notes for each animal in their care. This documentation helps to ensure that all aspects of the animal’s care are well-coordinated and provides a comprehensive record of the animal’s medical and behavioral history.
Professional development and continuing education
Behavioral veterinarians are also responsible for staying up-to-date with the latest research and techniques in animal behavior. This may involve attending conferences and workshops, reading scientific journals, or pursuing additional training and certifications. By continuing to learn and expand their knowledge and skills, Behavioral veterinarians can provide the best possible care for the animals in their care.
Research and innovation
Behavioral veterinarians may also be involved in conducting research to advance the field of animal behavior and develop new approaches to treating behavioral disorders. This may involve collaborating with other researchers or conducting independent studies on specific behavioral issues. By staying at the forefront of research and innovation, behavioral veterinarians can help to improve the well-being of animals and provide better care for their patients.
Overall, the duties and responsibilities of behavioral veterinarians are varied and complex. These professionals play a critical role in improving the quality of life for animals with behavioral issues and work closely with owners, trainers, and other animal care professionals to develop comprehensive treatment plans that address the underlying causes of these issues. Through their expertise, compassion, and dedication, Behavioral veterinarians help to promote the well-being of animals and advance the field of Veterinary medicine.
Behavioral veterinarian jobs: education
Behavioral veterinarians are veterinarians who specialize in animal behavior and work with animals to identify and treat behavioral problems. They typically have a deep understanding of animal psychology and behavior, as well as the medical and biological factors that contribute to behavioral issues. To become a behavioral veterinarian, individuals must complete a rigorous education and training program that includes coursework in animal behavior, Veterinary medicine, and related fields.
The first step in becoming a behavioral veterinarian is to complete an undergraduate degree in a related field, such as animal science, biology, or psychology. These programs typically take four years to complete and provide students with a strong foundation in the scientific principles that underpin animal behavior and Veterinary medicine. During this time, students may take courses in animal behavior, animal physiology, genetics, neuroscience, and other related topics.
After completing an undergraduate degree, individuals who wish to become behavioral veterinarians must then attend Veterinary school. Veterinary school is a four-year program that provides students with a comprehensive education in Veterinary medicine, including courses in anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, surgery, and diagnostic techniques. During this time, students also gain hands-on experience through clinical rotations and other practical training opportunities.
Specialization in animal behavior
After completing Veterinary school, individuals who wish to become behavioral veterinarians may then pursue additional training in animal behavior. This typically involves completing a residency program in animal behavior, which can take several years to complete. During this time, individuals work under the supervision of experienced behavioral veterinarians and gain hands-on experience working with animals to identify and treat behavioral issues. They may also participate in research projects, attend conferences and workshops, and take additional courses in animal behavior and related fields.
Certification and licensure
After completing a residency program in animal behavior, individuals may then pursue certification through the American College of Veterinary Behaviorals (ACVB). The ACVB is a professional organization that oversees the certification of behavioral veterinarians and ensures that they meet rigorous standards of education, training, and clinical practice. To become certified by the ACVB, individuals must complete a residency program in animal behavior, publish research articles in peer-reviewed journals, and pass a rigorous examination.
In addition to certification, behavioral veterinarians must also be licensed to practice Veterinary medicine in their state of practice. Licensure requirements vary by state but typically involve completing a degree from an accredited Veterinary school, passing a national licensing examination, and completing continuing education requirements.
Behavioral veterinarians must also engage in ongoing continuing education to stay up-to-date with the latest research and techniques in animal behavior. This may involve attending conferences and workshops, pursuing additional certifications or training programs, or engaging in research projects. By staying current with the latest developments in the field of animal behavior, behavioral veterinarians can provide the best possible care for their patients and help advance the field of Veterinary medicine.
Overall, the education required to become a behavioral veterinarian is rigorous and demanding, requiring individuals to complete years of study and training in Veterinary medicine and animal behavior. By pursuing this specialized training, behavioral veterinarians are able to provide compassionate, effective care for animals with behavioral issues and improve the well-being of animals and their owners.
Behavioral veterinarian jobs: skills and qualities
Public health veterinarians play an important role in protecting the health and well-being of animals, humans, and the environment. To be successful in this field, it is important to have a specific set of skills and qualities that enable veterinarians to perform their duties effectively. Below are the skills and qualities needed for public health veterinarian jobs.
Public health veterinarians require a wide range of technical skills to perform their duties effectively. These skills include:
Animal care and treatment: Public health veterinarians must be able to diagnose and treat a variety of animal diseases and conditions.
Epidemiology: Public health veterinarians need to have an understanding of the principles of epidemiology, including disease surveillance and outbreak investigation.
Food safety: Public health veterinarians must have knowledge of food safety and be able to ensure that food products are safe for human consumption.
Environmental health: Public health veterinarians need to understand the relationship between the environment and animal and human health, and be able to identify and mitigate environmental hazards.
Emergency preparedness: Public health veterinarians must be able to respond quickly and effectively to emergency situations, such as natural disasters or disease outbreaks.
In addition to technical skills, public health veterinarians require strong interpersonal skills to communicate effectively with a wide range of stakeholders, including:
Communication: Public health veterinarians must be able to communicate complex technical information to a variety of audiences, including policymakers, animal owners, and the general public.
Collaboration: Public health veterinarians must be able to work collaboratively with other professionals, including veterinarians, public health officials, and environmental health specialists.
Leadership: Public health veterinarians must be able to provide leadership and guidance to other professionals involved in animal and public health.
Cultural competence: Public health veterinarians must be able to work effectively with people from diverse cultural backgrounds, and understand how cultural factors can impact animal and human health.
Public health veterinarians also require certain personal qualities to be successful in their work. These qualities include:
Compassion: Public health veterinarians must be compassionate and empathetic towards animals and humans.
Integrity: Public health veterinarians must have high ethical standards and be committed to the welfare of animals and the public.
Problem-solving: Public health veterinarians must be able to analyze complex problems and develop effective solutions.
Attention to detail: Public health veterinarians must have a high level of attention to detail to ensure that animal and public health issues are identified and addressed appropriately.
Adaptability: Public health veterinarians must be able to adapt to changing circumstances and work effectively in a variety of settings.
Critical thinking: Public health veterinarians must be able to think critically and analyze data to make informed decisions about animal and public health issues.
Time management: Public health veterinarians must be able to manage their time effectively to meet the demands of their work.
Public health veterinarians require a specific set of skills and qualities to perform their duties effectively. These skills include animal care and treatment, epidemiology, food safety, environmental health, and emergency preparedness. Public health veterinarians must also have strong interpersonal skills, including communication, collaboration, leadership, and cultural competence. Finally, they require certain personal qualities, such as compassion, integrity, problem-solving, attention to detail, adaptability, critical thinking, and time management. With the right skills and qualities, public health veterinarians can make a significant contribution to animal and human health and well-being.
Research veterinarian jobs: outlook
The outlook for public health veterinarians is positive due to the growing importance of animal and human health and the increasing demand for professionals with the skills and knowledge to address complex public health issues. Below is the outlook for public health veterinarians, including job growth, salary, and career advancement opportunities.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects a 19% job growth for veterinarians between 2021 and 2031, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. While the BLS does not provide specific data on job growth for public health veterinarians, the demand for professionals in this field is expected to increase due to several factors, including:
Zoonotic diseases: Public health veterinarians play a critical role in preventing and controlling zoonotic diseases, which are diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. With the growing threat of emerging zoonotic diseases, such as COVID-19, the demand for public health veterinarians is likely to increase.
Food safety: Public health veterinarians also play a key role in ensuring the safety of the food supply. With the growing demand for safe and healthy food, there is likely to be an increasing need for professionals in this field.
Environmental health: Public health veterinarians are also involved in identifying and mitigating environmental hazards that can impact animal and human health. With the increasing awareness of the link between the environment and health, there is likely to be a growing demand for professionals in this field.
Career advancement opportunities
Public health veterinarians have several career advancement opportunities, including:
Specialization: Public health veterinarians can specialize in a variety of areas, including epidemiology, food safety, and environmental health. By specializing in a particular area, veterinarians can become experts in their field and earn higher salaries.
Management: Public health veterinarians can also advance into management positions, such as public health director or epidemiology team leader. In these roles, veterinarians can lead teams and make strategic decisions to improve animal and human health outcomes.
Research: Public health veterinarians can also pursue research opportunities to further advance their knowledge and contribute to the development of new treatments and interventions for animal and human health issues.
Teaching: Public health veterinarians can also teach at the undergraduate or graduate level, passing on their knowledge and expertise to the next generation of public health professionals.
The outlook for public health veterinarians is positive due to the growing demand for professionals with the skills and knowledge to address complex animal and human health issues. With job growth projected to be much faster than the average for all occupations, competitive salaries, and opportunities for career advancement, public health veterinarians have a promising future in this field. As the world continues to face new and emerging public health challenges, the role of public health veterinarians will become increasingly important in ensuring the health and well-being of animals, humans, and the environment.
Rewards and challenges
Being a public health veterinarian is a rewarding and challenging career that offers the opportunity to make a positive impact on animal and human health. Below are some of the rewards and challenges of being a public health veterinarian, starting with the rewards.
Improving public health: Public health veterinarians play a critical role in preventing and controlling diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. By identifying and mitigating environmental hazards, promoting food safety, and responding to disease outbreaks, public health veterinarians help protect the health and well-being of both animals and humans.
Making a difference: Public health veterinarians have the opportunity to make a difference in the lives of animals and humans every day. Whether they are working to prevent zoonotic diseases, ensuring the safety of the food supply, or promoting environmental health, public health veterinarians are helping to improve the health outcomes for entire populations.
Diverse opportunities: Public health veterinarians have a variety of career paths to choose from, including working for government agencies, non-profit organizations, or in academia. They can also specialize in areas such as epidemiology, food safety, or environmental health.
Collaboration: Public health veterinarians work collaboratively with other professionals in the field, including epidemiologists, public health officials, and environmental health specialists. This collaboration allows for a multidisciplinary approach to addressing public health issues.
Below are the challenges associated with being a behavioral veterinarian.
Complexity: Public health issues are often complex and require a deep understanding of epidemiology, microbiology, and other scientific fields. Public health veterinarians must be able to analyze data and research to make informed decisions and recommendations.
Time constraints: Public health veterinarians often work under tight time constraints, especially during disease outbreaks or other emergencies. They must be able to work quickly and efficiently to prevent the spread of disease and protect public health.
Emotional toll: Dealing with disease outbreaks and other public health emergencies can be emotionally taxing for public health veterinarians. They may be exposed to high-stress situations and may need to make difficult decisions that can impact the health and well-being of animals and humans.
Public perception: Public health veterinarians may face challenges in communicating the importance of their work to the public. They may encounter resistance or skepticism from individuals who do not understand the role that veterinarians play in promoting public health.
Being a public health veterinarian can be a highly rewarding and challenging career. Public health veterinarians have the opportunity to make a positive impact on animal and human health, collaborate with other professionals in the field, and pursue diverse career paths. However, public health veterinarians also face challenges such as dealing with complex issues, time constraints, emotional tolls, and public perception. Despite these challenges, public health veterinarians play a critical role in promoting and protecting the health and well-being of animals and humans, making this career a highly valuable and fulfilling option for those interested in public health and Veterinary medicine.
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In 2023, the global mean temperature soared to almost 1.5K above the pre-industrial level, surpassing the previous record by about 0.17K. Previous best-guess estimates of known drivers including anthropogenic warming and the El Niño onset fall short by about 0.2K in explaining the temperature rise. Utilizing satellite and reanalysis data, we identify a record-low planetary albedo as the primary factor bridging this gap. The decline is apparently caused largely by a reduced low-cloud cover in the northern mid-latitudes and tropics, in continuation of a multi-annual trend. Further exploring the low-cloud trend and understanding how much of it is due to internal variability, reduced aerosol concentrations, or a possibly emerging low-cloud feedback will be crucial for assessing the current and expected future warming.
Because it is clear that human activities are altering the global climate, researchers have been studying potential effects and predicting declines and extinctions. Understanding the consequences globally requires the synthesis of many studies. Following up on an initial effort nearly 10 years ago, Urban found that we can expect, with increased certainty, that rising temperatures will lead to an increasing number of extinctions, with the highest emission scenario leading to extinction of nearly a third of the Earth’s species, especially those from particular vulnerable taxa or regions. —Sacha Vignieri
Climate change is expected to cause irreversible changes to biodiversity, but predicting those risks remains uncertain. I synthesized 485 studies and more than 5 million projections to produce a quantitative global assessment of climate change extinctions. With increased certainty, this meta-analysis suggests that extinctions will accelerate rapidly if global temperatures exceed 1.5°C. The highest-emission scenario would threaten approximately one-third of species, globally. Amphibians; species from mountain, island, and freshwater ecosystems; and species inhabiting South America, Australia, and New Zealand face the greatest threats. In line with predictions, climate change has contributed to an increasing proportion of observed global extinctions since 1970. Besides limiting greenhouse gases, pinpointing which species to protect first will be critical for preserving biodiversity until anthropogenic climate change is halted and reversed.
First study on Daphnia chronic toxicity for PFAS and MP.
Daphnia genotypes with distinct histories of chemical exposure reveal the compounded effect of pollutants exposure.
PFAS and MP mixtures lead to developmental failures, delayed maturation, and reduced growtho Historical pollution exposure lowers tolerance to chemical mixtures.
The combined effect of the persistent chemicals analyses was 59% additive and 41% synergistic.
Persistent chemicals from industrial processes, particularly perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), have become pervasive in the environment due to their persistence, long half-lives, and bioaccumulative properties. Used globally for their thermal resistance and repellence to water and oil, PFAS have led to widespread environmental contamination. These compounds pose significant health risks with exposure through food, water, and dermal contact. Aquatic wildlife is particularly vulnerable as water bodies act as major transport and transformation mediums for PFAS. Their co-occurrence with microplastics may intensify the impact on aquatic species by influencing PFAS sorption and transport. Despite progress in understanding the occurrence and fate of PFAS and microplastics in aquatic ecosystems, the toxicity of PFAS mixtures and their co-occurrence with other high-concern compounds remains poorly understood, especially over organisms’ life cycles.
Our study investigates the chronic toxicity of PFAS and microplastics on the sentinel species Daphnia, a species central to aquatic foodwebs and an ecotoxicology model. We examined the effects of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and polyethylene terephthalate microplastics (PET) both individually and in mixtures on Daphnia ecological endpoints. Unlike conventional studies, we used two Daphnia genotypes with distinct histories of chemical exposure. This approach revealed that PFAS and microplastics cause developmental failures, delayed sexual maturity and reduced somatic growth, with historical exposure to environmental pollution reducing tolerance to these persistent chemicals due to cumulative fitness costs. We also observed that the combined effect of the persistent chemicals analysed was 59% additive and 41% synergistic, whereas no antagonistic interactions were observed. The genotype-specific responses observed highlight the complex interplay between genetic background and pollutant exposure, emphasizing the importance of incorporating multiple genotypes in environmental risk assessments to more accurately predict the ecological impact of chemical pollutants.
Snow is particularly impacted by climate change and therefore there is an urgent need to understand the temporal and spatial variability of depth of snowfall (HN) trends. However, the analysis of historical HN observations on large-scale areas is often impeded by lack of continuous long-term time series availability. This study investigates HN trends using observed time series spanning the period 1920–2020 from 46 sites in the Alps at different elevations. To discern patterns and variations in HN over the years, our analysis focuses also on key parameters such as precipitation (P), mean air temperature (TMEAN), and large-scale synoptic descriptors, that is, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Arctic Oscillation (AO) and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) indices. Our findings reveal that in the last 100 years and below 2000 m a.s.l., despite a slight increase in winter precipitation, there was a decrease in HN over the Alps, especially for southern and low-elevation sites. The South-West and South-East regions experienced an average loss of 4.9 and 3.8%/decade, respectively. A smaller relative loss was found in the Northern region (2.3%/decade). The negative HN trends can be mainly explained by an increase of TMEAN by 0.15°C/decade. Most of the decrease in HN occurred mainly between 1980 and 2020, as a result of a more pronounced increase in TMEAN. This is also confirmed by the change of the running correlation between HN and TMEAN, NAO, AO over time, which until 1980 were not correlated at all, while the correlation increased in later years. This suggests that in more recent years favourable combinations of temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric pattern have become more crucial for snowfall to occur. On the other hand, no correlation was found with the AMO index.
Carbon Dioxide Removal is essential for achieving net zero emissions, as it is required to neutralize any residual CO2 emissions. The scientifically recognized definition of Carbon Dioxide Removal requires removed atmospheric CO2 to be stored “durably”; however, it remains unclear what is meant by durably, and interpretations have varied from decades to millennia. Using a reduced-complexity climate model, here we examined the effect of Carbon Dioxide Removal with varying CO2 storage durations. We found that storage duration substantially affects whether net zero emissions achieve the desired temperature outcomes. With a typical 100-year storage duration, net zero CO2 emissions with 6 GtCO2 per year residual emissions result in an additional warming of 0.8 °C by 2500 compared to permanent storage, thus putting the internationally agreed temperature limits at risk. Our findings suggest that a CO2 storage period of less than 1000 years is insufficient for neutralizing remaining fossil CO2 emissions under net zero emissions. These results reinforce the principle that credible neutralization claims using Carbon Dioxide Removal in a net zero framework require balancing emissions with removals of similar atmospheric residence time and storage reservoir, e.g., geological or biogenic.
Projections of a sea ice-free Arctic have so far focused on monthly-mean ice-free conditions. We here provide the first projections of when we could see the first ice-free day in the Arctic Ocean, using daily output from multiple CMIP6 models. We find that there is a large range of the projected first ice-free day, from 3 years compared to a 2023-equivalent model state to no ice-free day before the end of the simulations in 2100, depending on the model and forcing scenario used. Using a storyline approach, we then focus on the nine simulations where the first ice-free day occurs within 3–6 years, i.e. potentially before 2030, to understand what could cause such an unlikely but high-impact transition to the first ice-free day. We find that these early ice-free days all occur during a rapid ice loss event and are associated with strong winter and spring warming.
Four linked landfill-wastewater treatment systems were sampled over two consecutive years.
Concentrations of microplastics were estimated in particle counts and mass of plastic per volume or dry mass.
Mass balances for microplastics and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were estimated.
Municipal wastewater treatment removed microplastics effectively, but PFAS removal depended on their chemical structure.
Landfills and wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are point sources for many emerging contaminants, including microplastics and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Previous studies have estimated the abundance and transport of microplastics and PFAS separately in landfills and WWTPs. In addition, previous studies typically report concentrations of microplastics as particle count/L or count/g sediment, which do not provide the information needed to calculate mass balances. We measured microplastics and PFAS in four landfill-WWTP systems in Illinois, USA, and quantified mass of both contaminants in landfill leachate, WWTP influent, effluent, and biosolids. Microplastic concentrations in WWTP influent were similar in magnitude to landfill leachates, in the order of 102 μg plastic/L (parts-per-billion). In contrast, PFAS concentrations were higher in leachates (parts-per-billion range) than WWTP influent (parts-per-trillion range). After treatment, both contaminants had lower concentrations in WWTP effluent, although were abundant in biosolids. We concluded that WWTPs reduce PFAS and microplastics, lowering concentrations in the effluent that is discharged to nearby surface waters. However, partitioning of both contaminants to biosolids may reintroduce them as pollutants when biosolids are landfilled or used as fertilizer.
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December 4, 2023
Elliptical finned tubes
An elliptical finned tube is a heat exchanger element consisting of a base tube, an elliptical tube, and an outer fin. The common ones are elliptical rectangular finned tubes, oval oval finned tubes, oval round finned tubes, spiral elliptical flat tubes, oval H-shaped finned tubes, etc. Elliptical finned tubes are being valued because of their superior performance compared to round-finned tubes, which have been widely used in industrial fields such as ethylene and oil refining. Elliptical finned tubes are used as high-efficiency heat exchange elements in heat exchange equipment. The outflow resistance of the tube is small and the heat exchange efficiency is high, which makes the heat exchange equipment tend to be compact, lightweight, efficient and miniaturized. While much has been achieved on them, much remains to be done.
With the development of science and technology and industry, heat exchanger equipment tends to be compact, lightweight, efficient and miniaturized, but the general heat exchanger can not meet the above requirements, which prompts people to study high-efficiency heat exchanger. Therefore, tube-fin heat exchanger is favored by scholars as a high-efficiency heat exchanger. Tube-fin heat exchanger has been widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning and other industrial fields, the core element is the tube bundle inside the heat exchanger, in order to improve the heat transfer performance in the base tube surface fin is a very effective way to strengthen heat transfer, and compared with the plain tube, the finned tube has the advantages of compact structure, flexible and reasonable material selection (the material selection of base tube and fin can be different), and high heat transfer efficiency.
Types of finned tubes
According to the different fin installation positions, there are two kinds of fin tubes: inner fin tube and outer fin tube, among which the outer fin tube is more commonly used. According to the different fin arrangement, there are two types of finned tubes: longitudinal finned tubes and transverse finned tubes. According to the different shape of the base tube, finned tubes include round finned tubes, oval finned tubes, and flat finned tubes. The round-finned tube heat exchanger occupies a dominant role in the market, but a large number of tests show that compared with the round-finned tube, the return area and windward area of the elliptical tube are much smaller, which effectively reduces the flow resistance and energy consumption on the air side, and when the number of tube bundles is the same, the elliptical tube and the flat tube are more compact than the round tube, and the volume of the heat exchanger is smaller, which reduces the cost. Therefore, the research and development of elliptical tube-fin heat exchangers has attracted more and more attention from scholars.
Research status of elliptical finned tubes
The exothermic and resistance properties of ten kinds of elliptical rectangular finned tube bundles were experimentally studied. Linear regression analysis and F-level significance test were used to analyze the experimental data, and the correlation formula between the air-side heat release and resistance performance of the elliptical rectangular fin tube bundle was obtained. The optimal transverse and longitudinal pipe spacing corresponding to the minimum volume and minimum windward area of the elliptical rectangular finned tube bundles were determined. The experimental data were analyzed to obtain the interaction between the number of pipe rows, the spacing between horizontal and longitudinal pipes and the friction coefficient. Yang Jinbao et al. studied the effect of elliptical tube fin spacing with different ratios of the long and short axes of the ellipse (a/b) on the heat release, and studied the heat release of a rectangular fin elliptical tube with four spoiler holes in the traversing gas. A simple formula that can be used as the basis for engineering calculations is derived. Tu Shan et al. used the steady-state constant-wall temperature method to study the heat transfer and resistance characteristics of three elliptical finned tube air coolers and one circular finned tube air cooler. Through the study and analysis of the experiments, the correlation formula of Nu and Re under different working conditions of the two finned tubes was obtained. The results also show that when the flow velocity of the windward side is equal, the heat transfer coefficient of the elliptical finned tube is about 3~7 times greater than that of the round finned tube, and when the heat transfer coefficient is equal, the pressure drop of the elliptical finned tube is lower than that of the round finned tube, and the elliptical finned tube heat exchanger needs less energy consumption and heat exchange surface. Chen Yaping tested the heat transfer and flow resistance characteristics of the rolled sheet elliptical aluminum-finned steel tube heat exchanger. The test data show that with the increase of the onward wind speed on the side of the finned tube, the pressure drop gradually increases, and the pressure drop of the 4-row tube test piece is significantly greater than that of the 3-row tube, so the increase of the number of tube rows weakens the heat transfer of the finned tube. The test results show that the rolled sheet elliptical aluminum-finned steel tube manufactured by the unique process has good heat transfer, resistance performance and sufficient structural strength, so it has a wide application prospect. Duan Rui et al. experimentally studied the heat transfer and resistance performance of finned tube radiators with unequal fin spacing in the arrangement of tube bundle forks. The steel tube steel fin elliptical tube radiator used in the experiment has two rows of tubes in the heat exchanger, and the arrangement of the fin spacing of the second row is greater than that of the first row to reduce the air resistance outside the second row and increase the heat exchange.
Features of elliptical finned tubes
(1) Compared with the round tube finned tube, the elliptical finned tube is easier to achieve compact arrangement, so that the overall volume of the whole heat exchanger is reduced, thereby reducing the floor space.
(2) Due to the shape characteristics of the elliptical finned tube, the air side resistance is small, and the heat transfer coefficient between the fluids increases, and the thermal resistance in the tube is small, which increases the heat transfer of the fluid in the tube.
(3) The heat exchange area of the elliptical finned tube is larger than that of the round tube with the same cross-sectional area, because the heat transfer periphery of the elliptical tube is relatively long under the same cross-sectional area.
(4) The most commonly used in oval finned tubes is rectangular steel fins, which have high strength, and the base tube should not freeze and crack in winter, and has a long service life.
(5) Because the elliptical finned tube can be arranged more compactly, the influence of the front row tube on the rear row is relatively large, and the outflow resistance of the tube can be reduced by increasing the fin spacing of the rear tube, but the number of tube rows should not be too large.
Calculation method for elliptical finned tube finned efficiency
The elliptical finned tube consists of a base tube, an elliptical tube, and an outer fin. The common ones are elliptical rectangular finned tubes, oval oval finned tubes, oval round finned tubes, spiral elliptical flat tubes, oval H-shaped finned tubes, etc. Elliptical finned tubes are being valued because of their superior performance compared to round-finned tubes, which have been widely used in industrial fields such as ethylene and oil refining.
When calculating the fin efficiency of elliptical tube-fin heat exchanger, people often convert the elliptical finned tube equivalent to the round-fin tube, and calculate and analyze it according to the round-fin tube. There are two ways to select the equivalent round tube, one is to make the cross-sectional area of the equivalent round tube equal to the cross-sectional area of the elliptical tube, and the other is to make the circumference of the equivalent round tube equal to the circumference of the elliptical tube.
Eiro Oyaka replaced the elliptical fins with rectangular fins with elliptical tubes with the same area and eccentricity of the base tube, and the theoretical calculation of the fin efficiency was carried out. Huang Suyi et al. obtained the fin efficiency at different radius of curvature outside the tube according to the formula for calculating the efficiency of the outer round fin of the round tube, and then analyzed and calculated the rectangular fin of the elliptical tube by the method of area averaging. Zhang Chunyu et al. used the finite difference numerical analysis method, and applied the temperature update processing technology to calculate the fin efficiency of the elliptical tube rectangular fin under different turbulence holes. Compared with the method of simplifying rectangular fins with equivalent ellipticals, the results show that the efficiency of the fins is higher by using the equivalent ellipse to simplify the rectangular fins. Min Jingchun et al. verified that the fan method can be used to calculate the efficiency of elliptical tube fins. The fin efficiency of the elliptical tube straight-fin heat exchanger with a long-short axis ratio range of 1~5 under different working conditions was calculated, and the calculated results were compared with the equal circumference method and the equal area method commonly used in engineering, and the regular variation of the difference between the fan method and the equal circumference method and the equal area method was obtained. At the same time, it is obtained that when the elliptical finned tube forks are arranged, the deviation of the equal circumference method is much smaller than that of the equal area method. When the elliptical finned tubes are arranged in a row, the deviations of the equal circumference method and the equal area method are approximately equal.
Elliptical finned tubes are used as high-efficiency heat exchange elements in heat exchange equipment. The external flow resistance of the tube is small and the heat exchange efficiency is high, which makes the heat exchange equipment tend to be compact, lightweight, efficient and miniaturized. While much has been achieved on them, much remains to be done.
(1) Elliptical finned tubes have many advantages, but they are less researched than those of the university.
(2) Fin efficiency plays a key role in heat transfer calculation. There are many ways to calculate the efficiency of elliptical finned tube fins, but basically they are all based on the equivalent method, which has some deviations, and these deviations should be corrected when guiding the actual project. Therefore, in order to obtain more accurate results and guide the project more conveniently, it is necessary to study it more systematically in the future.
(3) The research on the internal and external characteristics of elliptical finned tubes and the heat exchange law has been very comprehensive, and scholars at home and abroad have done a lot of theoretical analysis, experimental research and numerical simulation. However, there are relatively few studies on flat finned tubes, especially on the inside and outside, temperature and velocity fields of flat finned tubes. Although the air side resistance of the flat tube finned tube is relatively small and the heat exchange coefficient is high, its internal fluid resistance is relatively large, and the refrigerant charge is relatively small, which limits the application of flat tube finned tube in heat exchanger. Therefore, how to solve the problem of large internal flow resistance of flat pipes requires more and more in-depth research.
Contact Person : | Mr. Brian Wanqian |
Tel : | +86 13761381662 |
Fax : | 86-25-6952-5709 |
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Unless you’ve been without a computer for the past twenty years, you probably know the internet has its own niche language. From Leet (1337) Speak to texting slang such as LOL, it can sometimes be hard to decipher words and jokes we see online.
Another great example of this almost inside joke is internet memes. Memes are another form of expression on the internet, often sent as hilarious replies in chats and forums. And you’d be mostly correct if you said memes have existed since the internet.
The fact is, memes have origins that date back to before the internet. For generations, people have been communicating with each other using pictures, drawings, and songs. In recent times, a lot of us can remember getting the Oscar Meyer Weiner jingle stuck in our heads. We then go to the playground where we sing it to our friends, and they, in turn, start to sing it, sharing it with their friends. These catchy tunes, funny pictures, and silly gifs can spread like a virus, reaching millions of people worldwide. It’s the same today with internet memes.
In this article, we’ll go back a couple of decades to look at the oldest memes on the internet. We’ll see when these memes were made, by whom, how they gained popularity, and where you can find them.
What is a Meme?
The word meme has an interesting history. So, before we dig into the oldest memes, let’s look at the origin and definition of the word itself.
In 1976, Richard Dawkins, a British scientist, published his book, The Selfish Gene. In this book, he coined the term, “meme,” as being the same as “phoneme.” A phenome is the smallest unit of a sound of speech. Meme is also a shortened version of the Greek word, Mimema, meaning imitated. Dawkins wanted a one-syllable word that was similar to “gene.” Therefore, the term meme was born.
In our times, we regard a meme as an idea or behavior that spreads from person to person within a culture. They take on a life of their own as they self-replicate through our text and speech, either in person or online. For example, a trending meme today is Barbenheimer. Barbenheimer came about because the movies Barbie and Oppenheimer were released in theaters on the same day. And of course, the internet did what it does best — it made memes about it.
The 8 Oldest Memes on the Internet
#1: Dancing Baby Viral Video 1996
While it’s hard to pin down the very first meme on the internet, most people consider it to be the Dancing Baby. When most people think of the Dancing Baby, aka Baby Cha-Cha, they remember the 3D model appearing on the popular TV show, Ally McBeal. However, the baby was shared initially via chat rooms and email chains, grooving to Blue Swede’s Hooked on a Feeling.
The origins of Dancing Baby include its inventors, Robert Luyre and Michael Girard, who created the short movie for the company AutoDesk. The artists intended the bouncing baby to show off the capabilities of the animation plug-in called Character Studio. But, it was when Ron Lussier, an employee at LucasArts, shared an updated version of the file with coworkers that the phenomenon took shape. Suddenly, the baby was shared by people worldwide, culminating in its TV appearance and eventually notable remakes such as Samurai Baby.
#2: All Your Base Are Belong to Us Meme 1998
In 1989, SEGA released their side-scrolling shooter, Zero Wing. During the opening sequence, players can see a hilariously poorly translated discussion in which the main character exclaims, “All your base are belong to us!”
The more accurate translation of the conversation would be something like, “All of your bases are under our control.” This makes much more sense to native English speakers. Still, we love the fond memories of this meme sprouting up online and entering into real life as a sort of inside joke. If you knew the reference, you got the joke.
While the internet meme was picking up steam, it appeared in various news outlets, from print to live broadcasting. And the meme had staying power. For example, in 2006, YouTube engineers are said to have used “ALL YOUR VIDEO ARE BELONG TO US” as a message while launching new features. Additionally, Elon Musk, Tesla’s CEO, launched a blog post regarding patents titled “All Our Patent Are Belong to You.”
All Your Base may also be the original meme that appeared as a photo with big, block text over it. But it’s hard to know if this was the meme that started the Engrish craze, which saw tons of hilariously translated text posted online. However, it’s undoubtedly the first, most well-known instance of it.
#3: The Hamster Dance Website 1998
While the original Hamster Dance website has shut its doors, the image of cartoon hamsters remains in many of our minds. The original song that the hamsters danced to appeared in Disney’s Robin Hood cartoon, but it’s the sped-up version of Roger Miller’s Whistle Stop that many people remember as the Hamster Dance Song.
In 1998, a then-art student, Deidre LaCarte, created the website as a sibling competition to see who could get the most web views. Apparently, the site was also an homage to her pet hamster, Hampton. Around 1999, after about a year of being shared through email, the website was discussed in an article published by the GettingIt webzine. After that, word spread, and in 1999, the site was getting hundreds of millions of views.
Since then, other commercials and blogs have remixed or at least mentioned the song and website. The famous dancing hamsters are now shared via mirrored and derivative sites and memes, forever ingrained into our popular culture.
#4: Pancake Bunny Meme 2001
Remember when no one knew what you were talking about, so they sent you a picture of a bunny with a pancake on its head? Yeah, that dismissive response is known as Pancake Bunny.
It all began when Hironori Akutagawa, the owner of Oolong, started posting pictures of his well-trained bunny balancing things on his head. His posts originally went unnoticed on his daily blog postings until someone posted a link to his blog’s page on a public forum called DVD Talk.
In September 2001, Syberpunk, a Japanese blog, created an English site featuring Oolong. By the time 2003 came around, Oolong was a hit, with bloggers often using it as a snide response to a nonsensical post. Generally, the meme was shared almost as an understood stand-in for the words “What you said made no sense, so here’s something else that makes no sense.”
Since then, the famous bunny has appeared on countless websites and forums and even spurred a one-person pancake art movement of sorts.
#5: One Does Not Simply Walk into Mordor Meme 2001
Originally a quote from The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, this meme quickly made the rounds, with variants of the phrase often substituted for the words “walk” and Mordor.
For example, the original Boromir quote is, “One does not simply walk into Mordor.” Meme makers initially used a movie still featuring Boromir and big, blocky white letters. As the meme morphed, however, we saw many variations, such as “One does not simply cowbell into Mordor.”
Of course, in real life, we can remember substituting pretty much anything for “walk” and Mordor, coming up with somewhat annoying quips. For example, as kids, we may have said, “One does not simply do the dishes.” While this meme is still popular, it has become less so over the years.
#6: Peanut Butter Jelly Time Animation 2002
Initially a flash animation created by Kevin Flynn and Ryan Gancenia Etrata, screen names Comrade Flynn and RalphWiggum, Peanut Butter Jelly Time represents both the absurdity and obnoxiousness that can come from the internet.
The video and the gif feature a cartoon banana dancing (anyone seeing a dancing theme here?) to the song Peanut Butter Jelly Time by The Buckwheat Boyz. The song is perhaps one of the original internet earworms as it still lives in our heads today, making it hard not to think of it whenever someone mentions the delicious sandwich.
By the end of 2002, you could see the meme everywhere, even in sitcoms. It gained traction when Family Guy featured Brian in a banana suit singing and dancing. However, like the Mordor meme, this one has become but a fond memory for most of us.
#7: Fail and Epic Fail Meme 2003
In the early 2000s, a slang term took the internet by storm. The documented verb “fail” as a meme can trace its roots back to a Japanese game, Blazing Star. In the game, players see a poorly translated message, “YOU FAIL IT!” The message appears when the player character dies in the game. Of course, grammar nerds and bandwagoners alike mocked this term relentlessly. Eventually, shortening the meme to just “Fail.”
In 2003, Urban Dictionary added Fail to their terms and defined it as “either an interjection used when one disapproves of something or a verb meaning approximately the same thing as the slang form of suck.” After that, we can see the verb appearing in big block letters over funny images and gaining popularity. 2008 saw the launch of FAILblog, an entire site dedicated to people’s silliness.
Today, we still see Fail and Epic Fail memes. They’ve also inspired some spin-offs. Similar to the Fail memes are the hilarious “You Had One Job” and “Seems/Sounds Legit.”
#8: LOLCats and Caturday Memes
It’s no secret that the internet loves cats. LOLCats is an internet meme consisting of funny pictures of cats with internet slang such as “I cannot brain today, I haz the dumb” or simply, “LOLZ.” LOLCats appear to originate from 4chan when an anonymous user posted a picture of a cat with a caption about waiting for Caturday. Caturday and LOLCats were both created in 2006, becoming side-by-side internet favorites.
2006 also saw the launch of LOLcats.com, featuring funny furry felines and broken and almost nonsensical sayings. In 2007, Time Magazine even published a feature on the cat meme’s popularity. Since then, we’ve seen such iterations as Happy Cat, Limecat, Ceiling Cat, Basement Cat, Business Cat, Nyan Cat, and our personal favorite, Monorail Cat.
The cat popularity phenomenon continues today, and we hope cat memes are one thing that never disappears from “teh interwebz.”
Internet Memes Today
Today, memes are as synonymous with the internet. We still use them as responses in comments and forum threads. And we’re still making memes whenever something happens in our culture. For example, when Will Smith slapped Chris Rock.
If you’re ever without the internet but don’t want to be without your memes, you can check out this game called What Do You Meme to get your funny fix.
- For kids and adults
- The hilarious game you know and love, now with all the R-rated content removed for family-friendly fun
- Ages 8+
- Compete with your friends and family to create the funniest memes. Do this by using one of your dealt caption cards to caption (get it?) the photo card in each round
- Each game contains 300 caption cards and 65 photo cards and instructions
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The image featured at the top of this post is ©Master1305/Shutterstock.com.
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Last Glacial Period
Orfeas Katsoulis | Jul 10, 2024
Table of Content
The last cold period, also called the last glacial (or, somewhat ambiguously, the last ice age), followed in the Late Pleistocene following the last warm period before the present one. It began about 115,000 years ago and ended with the onset of the Holocene about 11,700 years ago. In the last cold period, as in the cold periods before it, there was a cooling of the climate all over the earth, widespread glaciations, large-scale floods and a sinking of the sea level with the formation of land bridges.
The term ice age is easily confused with that of the glacial age and is therefore better avoided.
The last cold period covered about 100,000 years, and within this period there were again short-lived warm phases (interstadials) between cold phases (stadials). Glaciers advanced and retreated repeatedly, and flora and fauna followed the fluctuations accordingly. Many species that could not survive in polar and boreal climates temporarily found new habitats in refugia of warmer regions. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) prevailed about 21,000 to 18,000 years ago. Although the time courses of temperatures and glaciations are similar worldwide, there are differences in details from continent to continent.
Vast landscapes of the earth are still marked by the aftermath of the glaciations of this cold period.
Geologists traditionally work regionally and therefore do not name cold periods as global climate and time periods, but related to a specific region where they are detectable. This is especially the case for the last cold period. Therefore, the cold period has different names in the different regions of the earth. In the Alpine region it is called the Würm, in northern and central Europe the Weichsel, in eastern Europe the Waldai, in Siberia the Zyryanka, in the British Isles the Devensian, in Ireland the Midlandian, in North America the Fraser, Pinedale, Wisconsin or Wisconsinan, in Venezuela the Mérida, in Chile the Llanquihue and in New Zealand the Otira cold period. The respective regional expressions of the cold period are defined and dated individually accordingly and are also subdivided into individual subsections as well as stadials and interstadials.
If the end of the Pleistocene or the beginning of the Holocene is equated with the end of the last cold period, it is about 11,700 years b2k (before the reference year 2000), with an uncertainty of 99 years, based on the stratigraphic reference profile for the lower boundary of the Holocene.
Global temperatures dropped by several kelvins during the last cold period compared to the Eemian warm period before it. It is assumed that the cooling was stronger at high latitudes than near the equator. At the same time, the climate became drier because precipitation decreases when less water evaporates during cold weather.
In the Alpine foothills, mean annual temperatures during the Würm cold period were about 10 K lower than today. The global average temperature in the LGM was about 6 K lower than today.
Based on gas trapping in polar ice, we know that atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2) were 70% and methane (CH4) were 50% of pre-industrial levels (CH4 in the LGM: 350 ppbv, pre-industrial: 750 ppbv, present: 1850 ppbv).
The warm and cold periods are defined differently than the isotopic stages according to the marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy (MIS). Therefore, the beginning of the last cold period falls in the middle of the warm isotope stage "MIS 5". This was followed by the cold isotope stage "MIS 4", the beginning of which is dated to about 71,000 years ago (according to Aitken & Stokes) or 74,000 years ago (according to Martinson et al.). Then the climate warmed slightly again (but this phase was not warm enough to be considered a warm period. Finally, an even stronger cooling followed ("MIS 2", beginning about 24,000 years ago), in which the last glacial maximum is then located. The temperature rise at the end of the last cold period was much more rapid.
Within the last cold period different abrupt climate fluctuations are provable. About their causes and periodicities, and to what extent they affect not only the northern but also the southern hemisphere, there are different theories, but no consensus yet.
The Heinrich events, discovered in 1988, show up in sediment cores of the North Atlantic Ocean. They mark thermal events in which glaciers and icebergs melted and the sediment of continental origin contained in this ice was deposited on the sea floor. Six to seven such Heinrich events are known.
The Dansgaard-Oeschger events show up mainly in ice cores from Greenland. They present themselves in the Northern Hemisphere as periods of rapid warming (within a few decades by several Kelvin) followed by slow cooling (within a few centuries). 23 such events have been found for the period 110,000 to 23,000 BP. There seems to be a connection between these and the Heinrich events.
About 74,000 years ago, the last eruption of the Toba supervolcano led to a cooling by several Kelvin and a dramatic climate change (volcanic winter). According to the Toba catastrophe theory, the population of Homo sapiens was then reduced to a few thousand individuals. This could explain the low genetic diversity of today's humans ( called "genetic bottleneck").
The vegetation on earth changed according to the climate change. Vast areas of land not covered by ice became steppe and tundra, (cold) deserts and grasslands. The forest areas and also the tropical rainforests decreased.
Characteristic of the fauna of the last cold period were large animals (megafauna), especially large mammal species, but also birds, which are now extinct.
In Eurasia lived mammoths, mastodons, saigas, giant deer, saber-toothed cats, cave lions, cave hyenas, and cave bears. In North America, other species included prairie mammoths, the American mastodon, helmeted muskoxen, bush oxen (Euceratherium), giant sloths, and giant armadillos. Australia was home to rhinoceros-sized marsupials such as the diprotodon and zygomaturus, the marsupial tapir Palorchestes, the pouched lion Thylacoleo carnifex, the giant rat kangaroo Propleopus, giant wombats, giant kangaroos up to three meters tall, the large flightless bird Genyornis, and the giant monitor Megalania.
During and especially at the end of the last cold period, many of these species became extinct. This can be explained either by environmental changes, overhunting by humans, or a combination of both.
The glaciations of the last cold period covered northern Eurasia and North America with huge ice sheets, some of which were several kilometers thick. While today about 10% of the Earth's land area is covered by glacial ice, 32% of the land area was covered during the last cold period.
The Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (also called the Scandinavian Ice Sheet) covered northern Europe, and the adjacent Barents-Kara Ice Sheet covered parts of northern Asia. The Laurentide Ice Sheet and the Cordilleran Ice Sheet covered large parts of North America. In the southern hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America. Antarctica remained under the Antarctic Ice Sheet, by which it is still covered today.
Also the large mountains were glaciated, in particular the Alps, the Himalaya Their glacier tongues united to large glacier surfaces and pushed themselves far into the foreland. Glaciers also existed in the mountain ranges of Africa, Tasmania Whether the highlands of Tibet were also glaciated is disputed.
The glaciers of the Alps flowed into the Alpine foothills and united to form an ice stream network. Only the highest peaks still protruded from this.
The enormous weight of the ice sheets pushed the lithosphere downward. The melting of the glaciers raised these areas again, a process called postglacial land uplift, which continues to this day.
Today still visible relics of the glaciations are "flat planed" terrains with swamps, large lakes, lake plates, shallow seas, moraines, gravel fields
The glaciations of the cold period resulted in strong dry-cold downdrafts near the glacier margins due to the cold air masses flowing down from them. These winds carried away large amounts of loose sediment from areas with low vegetation cover, which then accumulated into loess elsewhere.
There were also more inland dunes and sand dunes than today. A relic of this is, for example, the Sandhills region in today's U.S. state of Nebraska.
Despite the lower precipitation, the last cold period was also characterized by large floods. Several rivers of northern Asia, which drain into the Arctic Ocean, could no longer flow away due to the ice sheet that met them and formed huge ice reservoirs. The largest of these lakes, the West Siberian Glacial Lake, was formed in the West Siberian Lowlands near the Ob and Yenisei Rivers and extended about 1500 km from north to south and as far from west to east. West of the Urals there was an ice reservoir in the region of today's Komi Republic and one in today's White Sea. With the retreat of the Scandinavian glacier, the Baltic ice reservoir was formed and enlarged. Through three intermediate phases (Yoldia Sea, Ancylus Sea, Littorina Sea), the present-day connection of this body of water to the world sea was formed, salt water flowed in and the present-day Baltic Sea was formed.
Inland lakes such as the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea also rose significantly in water level, increasing to about twice their present area. It is believed that the Caspian Sea rose to such an extent that it was connected to the Aral Sea via the Aralo-Caspian lowlands and to the Black Sea (which during the cold period was a freshwater lake with no connection to the Mediterranean Sea) via the Manytschniederung to form a single giant body of water. Possibly even the West Siberian glacial lake drained through the chain Aral Sea - Caspian Sea - Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. How the Caspian seal and the Baikal seal got into the inland lakes is not clear and could be explained by the hypothesis of a water connection between the Arctic Ocean and these lakes.
At the end of the cold period, catastrophic floods occurred in the various regions of the earth. These are also called glacial runs, when the dam of an ice reservoir breaks. Among the largest of these events were the Missoula Floods in North America, with the outflow of the ice reservoir Lake Missoula. In Asia, there was a series of devastating glacial runs of similar magnitude, the Altai Floods in what is now the Republic of Altai. Other major floods were those of Lake Bonneville (in present-day Utah) (Bonneville Flood), at the Great Lakes, which are also cold-age relics, and northeast of there, in the Sea of Champlain, where seawater penetrated far inland, previously depressed by the ice sheet.
Due to the enormous water masses bound up in the ice sheets, sea level dropped to more than 100 meters below today's level during the last cold period. Large parts of shelf seas such as the North Sea fell dry. This increased the land area of the continents and islands and created land bridges that enabled animals and humans to reach areas that were later separated again by rising sea levels.
The Beringia land bridge connected Asia with North America, enabling the settlement of the Americas. In Europe, there was a land bridge between Ireland, the British Isles and the European mainland, called Doggerland in the North Sea area. At the lowest sea level, many of today's Mediterranean islands were connected to the mainland.
In the Asia-Pacific region, there was a Southeast Asian land bridge to the western part of Indonesia (Sunda), and another land bridge connecting New Guinea, Australia and Tasmania into one land formation (Sahul). However, there was no land connection between Sunda and Sahul, but a separation, which is still recognizable today by the Wallace line. Therefore, man must have found a way to cross the sea to get from Asia to Australia.
The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Suez fell dry during the last cold period. India and Sri Lanka were probably connected by the Adam's Bridge.
As sea levels dropped, new islands also formed in the middle of the ocean, such as the Mascarene Plateau east of Madagascar, which today lies in 8 to 150 meters of water.
The anatomically modern hunter-gatherer (Homo sapiens) spread during this cold period - coming from Africa - over all continents of the earth (with the exception of Antarctica). In contrast, Neanderthal man, who had colonized the European region during the Eemian warm period, died out during the last cold period more than 35,000 years ago. About 17,000 to 12,000 years ago, the first sedentary societies emerged in Asia Minor, practicing agriculture and animal husbandry (Neolithic Revolution). From the point of view of archaeology, the last cold period falls into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic). The beginning of the cold period is approximately in the middle of the Middle Paleolithic.
The period from the beginning of the migration of anatomically modern humans to Europe (about 45,000 years ago) to the end of the last cold period (about 11,700 years ago) is called the Upper Paleolithic. Prehistory and Early History deals with the archaeological material sources and the cultural development of man in this epoch.
Since man spent most of his time near the coast, many of his settlement sites from this period are now below sea level, making them difficult to access archaeologically.
From fossils and from genetic analyses (molecular clock) it can be deduced that anatomically modern humans already lived in Africa before and at the beginning of the last cold period. Fossil sites from this period are Florisbad (South Africa = "Homo helmei"), Eliye Springs (West Turkana, Kenya), Laetoli (Tanzania) and Djebel Irhoud (Morocco).
North Africa was subject to strong vegetation fluctuations during the last cold period. At the beginning of the cold period 120,000 to 110,000 years ago, the Sahara was a vegetated savanna; then it became a desert. Another savanna phase followed 50,000 to 45,000 years ago. During the peak of the last cold period, the Sahara again expanded as a vast desert even farther south than it does today. After the cold period followed another and so far last fertile phase. Since then the Sahara increases again as the largest dry desert of the earth.
Asia seems to have experienced two waves of human settlement during the last cold period. From the first wave it is assumed that man, coming from Africa, followed the south coast of Asia over the Near East to Australia about 60,000 years ago. However, there are practically no traces of this.
In a second wave of settlement that began about 40,000 years ago, humans spread across Asia. There is evidence of 40,000-year-old traces in the interior of Southeast Asia, 30,000 years ago in China and 26,000 years ago in Northeast Asia.
Humans reached Australia about 50,000 to 60,000 years ago. The oldest human remains in Australia are those of Mungo Man and Mungo Lady, both dated to about 40,000 years ago. Other finds are estimated to be up to 60,000 years old, but these dates are disputed.
The oldest archaeological cultures in Europe are those of Neanderthal man.
The oldest culture of Homo sapiens, in this epoch also called Cro-Magnon man, in the European area was the Aurignacian culture. It existed from about 45,000 years ago to about 31,000 years ago. It overlapped with the Châtelperronian culture, the last culture of Neanderthal man.
The most important cold-age culture in Europe was the Gravettian culture that followed. Its traces are proven on the territories of today's France, Southern Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland and Ukraine and are dated to approximately the period from 28,000 to 22,000 years ago.
In Western Europe, this was followed by the Solutrean culture, during the last cold maximum from about 24,000 to 20,000 years ago. About 15,000 years ago there was the Magdalénien culture. The last cultural groups before the Holocene were the Hamburg Culture, about 15,000 to 14,000 years ago, the Federmesser groups, also called the Azilien Culture, about 14,000 to 13,000 years ago, the Bromme Culture, and the Ahrensburg Culture (about 12,000 years ago).
See also Franco-Cantabrian cave art.
According to current research, the settlement of the Americas by Paleoindians from Siberia across the Beringia land bridge took place in at least three waves of immigration. The first and by far the most significant wave was about 15,500 years ago. The second wave brought the ancestors of the Na-Dené, Diné, and Apache Indians. With the third wave came the ancestors of the Eskimos and Unungun.
The Monte Verde site in Chile is one of the oldest traces of human settlement on the American continent. At the end of the cold period, about 11,000 to 10,800 years ago, the Clovis culture was the first widespread culture in the Americas.
- Last Glacial Period
- Letzte Kaltzeit
- ^ Prior to the 2010s, considerable debate arose on whether Southern Africa was glaciated during the last glacial cycle or not.
- ^ The former existence of large glaciers or deep snow cover over much of the Lesotho Highlands has been judged unlikely considering the lack of glacial morphology (e.g. roche moutonnées) and the existence of periglacial regolith that has not been reworked by glaciers. Estimates of the mean annual temperature in Southern Africa during the last glacial maximum indicate the temperatures were not low enough to initiate or sustain a widespread glaciation. The former existence of rock glaciers or large glaciers is, according to the same study, ruled out, because of a lack of conclusive field evidence and the implausibility of the 10–17 °C temperature drop, relative to the present, that such features would imply.
- Glaziale und Interglaziale der letzten 800.000 Jahre, korrelierend mit CO2-Schätzwerten aus Eisbohrkerndaten
- Temperaturdiagramm und die Beschreibung dazu
- Rolf K. Meyer, Hermann Schmidt-Kaler: Auf den Spuren der Eiszeit südlich von München – östlicher Teil, Wanderungen in die Erdgeschichte, Band 8. ISBN 978-3-931516-09-3
- (en) A. A. Velichko, M. A. Faustova, V. V. Pisareva, Yu. N. Gribchenko, N. G. Sudakova et N. CV. Larantiev, « Glaciations of the East European Plain: Distribution and Chronology », dans Jürgen Ehlers, Philip Leonard Gibbard et Philip D. Hughes, Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology: A Closer Look, Elsevier, 2011 (lire en ligne), p. 337-360.
- François Michel, Roches et paysages, reflets de l’histoire de la Terre, Paris, Belin, Orléans, brgm éditions, 2005, (ISBN 2-7011-4081-1), p. 154.
- CLIMAP Project Members. Seasonal Reconstruction of the Earth’s surface at the Last Glacial Maximum. Map and Chart Series MC-36 (ed. McIntyre, A.) (Geological Society of America, 1981)
- Donald Rapp. Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation and Models. Springer, 2009. С. 85.
- T. Litt u. a.: Stratigraphische Begriffe für das Quartär des norddeutschen Vereisungsgebietes. 2007, S. 45ff.
- William James Burroughs. Climate Change in Prehistory. The End of the Reign of Chaos. 356 p. Cambridge UP, 2005, p.86
- Палеолит СССР. / Отв. ред. П. И. Борисковский. М.: Наука, 1984. 384 стр. (Серия «Археология СССР»), с.32, 109
- 1 2 3 4 5 Большой Кавказ — Великий канал [Электронный ресурс]. — 2006. — С. 528. — 752 с. — (Большая российская энциклопедия : [в 35 т.] / гл. ред. Ю. С. Осипов ; 2004—2017, т. 4). — ISBN 5-85270-333-8.
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First, I think it is crucial to understand that all of the most significant developments had their origins in the first half, one of the most eventful periods in human history. It included: two world wars (1914–1918 and 1941–1945), global economic collapse in the Great Depression of the 1930s, and history’s two greatest revolutions (Russia 1917, China 1949, dated by the years in which the revolutionary forces took power). I don’t think it would be disputed that all of these complicated events were intricately interrelated as both causes and effects. MR was founded in the year of the last of these events, the victory of the Chinese Revolution. Its purpose was the ambitious one of using Marxian methods, historical and economic, to understand what was going on and to take positions consistent with a commitment to socialist principles.
On the domestic front the situation in 1949 was not what might have been expected in a country that had only recently emerged victorious and largely undamaged from a war that had left both its allies and its enemies in a shambles. The United States, militarily secure and economically strong, sat on top of the world as no single power had ever done before. The domestic counterpart, one might have thought would be a mood of relaxation, calm, and optimism. But it wasn’t. Instead, something like the infamous red scare that followed the First World War was in full swing bearing the name of McCarthyism. The reason for these two postwar episodes was very similar. In both cases labor had taken advantage of wartime conditions to improve its organization and bargaining power. From capital’s point of view labor needed to be taught a lesson and put back into its accustomed subservient position. But this was not the only similarity. In each case the only real winner in the war was the United States. Most of the rest of the world was in deep trouble. In these circumstances, revolutionary movements proliferated and actually came to power, in Russia after the First World War and in China after the Second World War, respectively the largest and most populous countries in the world. Thus in the late forties as in the early twenties, the United States, overwhelmingly the most powerful nation, sat on top of a world that seemed to be slipping out from under it.
The combination of a militant working class at home and a revolutionary environment abroad was rightly perceived by the U.S. ruling class as threatening the very existence of the system from which it derived its wealth and power. As such it demanded the most energetic counter-measures, which were duly organized and orchestrated, using all the varied weapons of persuasion and coercion at its disposal. This was the real root of the red scare after the First World War and of McCarthyism after the Second.
But the similarity between the two postwar situations didn’t last very long. The victory of counter-revolution in Germany was a decisive turning point, after which the Soviet Union was effectively isolated and the capitalist world more or less rapidly returned to business as usual. Nothing of the kind happened after the Second World War. The war ended with the Soviet regime intact and the Red Army in occupation of most of Eastern Europe. Washington tried hard to take advantage of the region’s devastation to bring it back into a capitalist Europe. That was one of the main purposes of the Marshall Plan as originally proposed. The Soviet leaders understood the implications and refused. That decision sealed the division of Europe into two antagonistic systems for a long time to come. Meanwhile, revolutionary unrest mounted around the globe, but especially in East and Southeast Asia, the areas occupied by Japan during the war. With the collapse of Japanese rule, deeply rooted revolutionary movements in China, Korea, and Indochina went on the offensive. The United States reacted with a vast, costly, and ultimately unsuccessful military and economic effort to shore up Chiang Kai-Shek’s regime in China. The revolutionary forces there came to power in 1949, and in the other countries the same outcome seemed to be only a matter of time.
The U.S. domestic counterpart of these events in Europe and Asia was McCarthyism, essentially an all-out ideological/political campaign to shock the American people out of a mood of postwar relaxation and to prepare them for a long and bitter struggle against what was depicted as an enemy of their “way of life,” now perceived to have grown to global proportions.
This, in desperate brevity, was the situation into which MR was born. We of course had a very different view of the world than that of the U.S. ruling class. (Let me interrupt here to explain that when I use the pronoun “we” here and in what follows, I include not only those whose names have been listed on the masthead but also a varying number of like-minded thinkers and writers who over the years could be described as a sort of informal collective. Two of the most important of course were Paul Baran and Harry Braverman.) As we saw it, the great upheavals of the first half of the twentieth century, the two world wars, and the intervening Great Depression were the logical outcome of the preceding four centuries of capitalist/imperialist development, and the postwar revolutionary responses were liberatory struggles aimed at putting an end to the rule of capital and laying the foundations of a new world of cooperating socialist societies. This seemed to us to be fully consistent with the basic Marxian view of capitalism as a transitory form of society destined to be replaced by new forms more conducive to the free development and survival of the human species.
Looking ahead in 1949, we felt that domestically the prospect was very grim. We had been among those, including many conservatives, who expected the return of peace to bring back the depressed economic conditions of the 1930s. Signs of a downturn that year strengthened this view. Politically, McCarthyite reaction was riding high. These two developments, we thought, added up to a serious threat of an American brand of fascism. On the other hand the situation in the world at large seemed very promising. The Chinese Revolution was in its final stage. The Soviet Union was making a surprisingly rapid recovery from wartime devastation. Allied and freed from the constraints of capitalism, the Soviet Union and China would surely be able to outperform the capitalist world, if not in strictly economic terms certainly in matters of equity and justice which are more important to the exploited and oppressed peoples of the Third World. It would undoubtedly be a drawn-out and torturous process, but in the long run the victory of socialism seemed attainable even if not assured. It is hard today even to imagine the optimism we felt about the future as the first half of the twentieth century came to a close.
The second half of the twentieth century has been a different story. In retrospect we can see that it has been a much simpler story, one with a unifying theme and a predictable ending. I shall deal with it here briefly and in a few broad strokes.
The unifying theme has been the regrouping and energizing of the global counterrevolutionary forces under the leadership of the United States, the most powerful capitalist nation. Major hot wars in Asia (Korea in the fifties, Vietnam in the sixties and early seventies, both indirectly aimed at China) blocked and distorted the revolutionary process in that part of the world. Cold War in Europe, imposed on the Soviet Union as the alternative to a live-and-let-live settlement based on the military outcome of the Second World War, initiated and then prolonged what was essentially an economic contest, disguised as an arms race, between unequal antagonists. In retrospect we can see that the end result, the collapse of the Soviet Union, was inevitable.
Perhaps the greatest irony of this long period of triumphant counterrevolution was that the characteristic stagnation of mature capitalism which dominated the thirties and threatened a return after the Second World War was kept at bay for another forty years by the wars, hot and cold, of the second half of the twentieth century. It was this relative prosperity that provided capitalism with the surplus needed to fight these wars and submerge the revolutions its earlier wars had ignited.
One of MR’s tasks in these years of counterrevolution has been to use Marxian methods to track and understand major developments on both sides of a polarized world. Another task was to chronicle, encourage, and where possible celebrate the successes of numerous Third World efforts to escape the confines of capitalism and start on a new road for the tragically exploited and oppressed peoples of those unhappy lands. Whatever else happens, these tasks will remain.
As we look ahead, what kind of a picture do we see, and how does it compare with the one that confronted us back in 1949?
Then, as recounted above, the immediate domestic outlook was dark and menacing, while long-term prospects seemed to hold great promise for the vast majority of humankind. Today, as we look ahead, no such contrast exists.
As far as the domestic scene is concerned, not that much has changed. The deep economic stagnation of the 1930s gave signs of returning in 1949. As it happened, this process was interrupted—at the time unexpectedly—by four more decades of wars, hot and cold. Today, following the end of the Cold War, stagnation has returned and as of now nothing likely to produce a reversal is anywhere on the horizon, continuing and deepening economic, social, and political crises seem inevitable.
What differentiates the outlook today from that of 1949 is not that the rest of the world has somehow escaped the global crisis of capitalism—far from it—but that the vigorous post-Second World War revolutionary movements that had already accomplished so much by 1949 and held out so much promise for the future were decimated, ground down, distorted, despiritualized, and eventually rendered impotent by the struggles and defeats of the counterrevolutionary decades from 1950 to 1990. The big difference, in sum, is that in 1949 capitalism was confronted by a powerful enemy, while today it is virtually unopposed.
The short-run implications are all bad. The inherent tendencies of capitalism in its mature monopoly capitalist phase are to intensify exploitation, inequality, polarization, and susceptibility to crises both within and between countries. Historically, these tendencies have been somewhat reined in by opposition from workers and other victims of the system powerful enough to force ruling classes to make concessions. Absent such opposition, these ruling classes tend to adopt policies that make matters worse rather than better.
If we try to look further into the future, we see what appears to be a fork in the road. In one direction lies more of the same, in the other the rebirth of revolutionary opposition to the rule of capital.
Not much needs to be said about the first of these alternatives. In the long run, as in the short, the continued unchecked rule of capital promises nothing but disaster for the human species. The only real hope for improvement lies in the rebirth of a powerful revolutionary opposition. Is this possible? The answer surely is yes: what has happened in history can happen again. The recently defeated opposition to the rule of capital had its origins in the industrial revolution of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, whence it spread to the whole world. It took many forms, achieved successes, suffered losses and defections, shaped the lives and thoughts of hundreds of millions. Its defeat in the great showdown of the second half of the twentieth century owed as much to its own internal divisions and weaknesses as to the strength of its opponent.
Be that as it may, the defeat was not, and in the nature of the case could not, have been a fatal blow. The reason is simple. If the victory of capital meant what its ideologists claim—i.e., the beginning of a new era in which the great mass of humanity can reasonably look forward to a better future—then certainly the opposition would have been knocked out for good. But of course the exact opposite is true. Given its head, capital puts the screws on tighter than ever.
It would be foolish to underestimate the seriousness of the defeat the opposition has suffered, but it would be even more foolish to conclude that it is dead. The truth is that it is alive even if not well, and the fact that the conditions still exist that gave rise to its existence in the first place continue to operate, only more so, guarantees that it will stage a comeback as new generations of exploited and oppressed take the place of those who die or retire.
This renewal will take time. The institutional forms of the old opposition—mass organizations, political parties, sovereign States—will mostly disappear and be replaced by new ones. The same will hold for ideas and ideologies, particularly the falsified and distorted versions of Marxism that acquired the status of orthodoxies in the Social Democratic and Communist movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
All this will take time, and, perhaps fortunately, we cannot predict the ways it will happen, still less the outcomes it will take part in generating. We can only do our best to explain what has happened up to now and help the new upcoming generations to understand what changes are needed if the human species is to survive into a decent future. And, of course, hope for the best.
Paul Sweezy’s comments in 1993 in “Monthly Review in Historical Perspective” were written in a general atmosphere of defeat on the left. The world socialist movement was pulverized, and capitalist triumphalism was everywhere. Nevertheless, the defeat suffered by socialism, Sweezy insisted—going against the tenor of the time—was by no means fatal. Rather, “the revolutionary opposition to the rule of capital” would inevitably reemerge in response to the destructive imperatives of the system itself. This became the message of Monthly Review in the new century.
Nearly thirty years later the power of this analysis is evident, as the planetary destructiveness of capitalism and imperialism, on the one hand, and what Marxist philosopher Georg Lukács called “the actuality of revolution,” on the other, are confronting each other in myriad ways around the globe. From the anti-globalization movement that burst out in Seattle in 1999, to the Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela with its Socialism for the Twenty-First Century, to the reinvigoration of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics in Beijing’s New Era, to the global climate movement now emerging on every continent, to today’s renewed anti-imperialist, anti-racist, and anti-misogynist struggles, to the revitalization of working-class organization—the material bases of revolt are reviving. The world is now facing an acceleration of history in every respect. Nor are the reasons for this obscure. Opposition to capitalism is no longer simply a struggle for equality and self-determination, but also for the survival of humanity itself: Socialism or Exterminism.
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The Dyer’s Polypore, scientifically known as Phaeolus schweinitzii, is a parasitic fungus that is common in conifer forests around the world. It also has a rich history tied to the textile industry. Its common name, “Dyer’s Polypore,” stems from its historical use as a natural dye source for coloring yarn and fabrics.
- Scientific Name: Phaeolus schweinitzii
- Common Names: Dyer’s Polypore, Velvet Polypore, Dyer’s Mazegill, Velvet Top Fungus, Pine Dye Polypore, Cowpie Fungus
- Habitat: On living or dead conifer trees
- Toxicity: Non-toxic, inedible
All About Dyer’s Polypore
For centuries, people have harnessed the vibrant pigments present in various mushrooms to color textiles. Among these mushrooms, the dyer’s polypore was a prized species due to its impressive color range and dyeing properties. The fruiting bodies of this mushroom were used to dye yarn various shades of yellow, orange, and brown, depending on the age of the fruitbody and the type of mordant used to bind the dye molecules to the fabric fibers. This mushroom’s rich, earthy hues were prized by textile artisans. In the 70’s and through today, mushroom dyeing made a comeback that is still strong.
Dyer’s polypore is parasitic on the roots of coniferous trees, mainly pines, spruces, and occasionally larches. It can kill its host tree through root and butt rot, turning saprobic to feed on the dead roots and stumps once the tree topples or is felled.
The scientific name, Phaeolus schweinitzii, honors American botanist-mycologist Lewis David von Schweinitz, who is often considered the founding father of North American mycological science. The genus name Phaeolus translates to “somewhat dusky” or “darkish,” a reference to the mushroom’s typically dark coloration.
Identifying the Dyer’s Polypore
The fruiting season of the dyer’s polypore is from late summer into fall and sometimes early winter. It can persist throughout the year under ideal conditions.
The dyer’s polypore prefers pine and Douglas fir trees, but it can also appear near other conifers. While it primarily grows on the ground from the roots of these trees, it can occasionally be found on decaying stumps or slightly further up the base of a tree. It is more likely to appear on the tree trunk if there is a wound there.
This fungus is widely distributed throughout Europe, North America, Central America, Asia, and Oceania. In the United States, dyer’s polypore is commonly found on Douglas fir in the West, white pine in eastern North America, and loblolly pine in the South.
Dyer’s polypores usually grow individually but can also grow in clusters. If there is one, there are often a few others nearby. It often looks like they are growing from the ground, but they are actually attached to the tree roots underground.
Dyer’s polypore is composed of several circular to irregularly lobed caps gathered together to form an irregular circular or semicircular rosette-like structure. The center is either flat or slightly sunken. The caps grow up to 10 inches in diameter. When fresh, the flesh of the cap is soft, but it becomes tough with age. The surface of the cap is densely hairy (velvety; this is where the common name velvet cap originates) when young; it often smooths out with maturity, losing the velvety texture.
The color of the cap is variable. It ranges from cream to ochraceous, yellow, or green-yellow when fresh and transforms into rusty brown to dark brown as it ages. It is usually much lighter, brighter, and more distinctive when young, often with a deep golden-yellow color.
The colors appear in concentric zones on the cap surface, usually with the edge being much lighter and more attractive. Very old specimens are usually entirely dark brown to black and look nothing like the younger specimens. They are bland or dull-looking at this point and often go unnoticed because they blend into their surroundings and don’t look that interesting.
The cap stains brown to black when touched. The flesh of the cap starts as yellowish-brown but darkens to a rusty brown as it ages.
Dyer’s polypore has a pore surface that extends down the stem. When the fungus is young, the pores are yellowish or orange and often quite brightly so. With age, the pores change to greenish, then rusty brown.
The stem of the dyer’s polypore is stalk-like and may be branched or unbranched, central or off-center, and sometimes even rooting. There is a lot of variance with the stem; sometimes, there is no discernable stem at all. It measures 1/4″-2″ long and is brown. Below the pore surface, the stem is velvety. It bruises a darker brown when handled.
Flesh and Odor
The flesh of the dyer’s polypore is initially soft when fresh but becomes tough as it ages. It often appears zoned, displaying different shades of brown.
The odor can vary, sometimes having a sweet fragrance while other times being relatively odorless.
The spore print is whitish or yellowish.
Dyer’s Polypore Lookalikes
Wooly Velvet Polypore, (Onnia tomentosus)
This fungus looks similar and also grows on the ground near conifers, most often spruce trees at high elevations. However, it lacks the bright yellow or orange colors in young stages. It is light tan to buff colored, but can develop some dark sections. It never has the yellow, though. Also, it’s pore surface is white or grayish, not yellowish.
Oak Heart Rot Fungus (Inonotus dryophilus)
This is another parasitic butt rot fungus that infects trees. It looks similar in color to dyer’s polypore, but it grows hoof-shaped on the side of trees. And, it attacks oaks, not conifers.
Chicken of the Woods, (Laetiporus sulphureus)
Chicken of the Woods is yellow-orange all over and more often grows above the root system of hardwood trees. It grows as shelves or rosettes and is easily differentiated by its bright coloring and growth habit.
Edibility and Culinary Uses
Dyer’s polypore is inedible due to its tough, leathery texture when mature. It also is quite bitter. However, it is not toxic.
Research on the medicinal benefits of dyer’s polypore is limited. Some anecdotal evidence suggests that the mushroom may possess antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory properties, but further scientific studies are needed to confirm these claims.
Textile Dyeing With The Dyer’s Polypore
The use of lichens, minerals, plants, and mushrooms in dyeing fabrics dates back centuries. Dyer’s polypore was one of the common fungi used for dyeing clothes and yarn because of its rich pigments and available color spectrum. In North America, some Indigenous tribes used this fungus to create yellow, brown, and green fabrics.
Another reason this mushroom was used so much in dyeing is because it is widespread and easy to find in significant quantities. Many other valuable dye mushrooms are less common and harder to source. But not dyer’s polypore; this one is all over the place, and so, sometimes, by default, it became a top choice for dyeing fabrics.
In the 1970s, the artist Miriam Rice started experimenting with natural dyes from mushrooms, trying out every fungus she found. This led to a real mushroom dyeing renaissance, including conventions held around the world, the International Mushroom Dye Institute, and several books.
The dyeing process with dyer’s polypore involves extracting the pigment from the mushroom and applying it to the fabric. The resulting colors can range from vibrant yellows to rich greens, depending on the age of the mushroom and the mordant used in the process. Young specimens produce yellows, while older ones give off more brown coloration. There are so many options, too; dry mushrooms create different color schemes than fresh ones. And how long you soak the fabric greatly impacts the final color.
This step-by-step guide is a great place to start if you’re interested in learning more about dyeing with the dyer’s polypore. This video tutorial is also excellent! This compilation of the Best Mushrooms for Color, unsurprisingly, lists dyer’s polypore first.
This is an excellent dive into the history of dyeing with lichens.
Landscape Management: Butt Rot Infected Trees
The dyer’s polypore causes a brown cubical rot in the heartwood of the butt and roots of living conifers. This rot can lead to significant structural weaknesses in trees, making them susceptible to wind storms and other forms of damage. Foresters and arborists employ various landscape management strategies to mitigate the impact of butt rot on tree health and stability.
One common approach is to identify and remove infected trees to prevent the spread of the fungus to healthy individuals. The fungus spreads from tree to tree through spore dispersal and also underground mycelium reaching out to new trees. Proper pruning techniques can help reduce the risk of windthrow by maintaining a balanced canopy structure.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to know a tree is infected until you see the fruiting mushroom body. And, by then, the infection has spread quite far. There is no way to reverse or kill off the fungal infection – the infected tree cannot be saved. But, trees with butt rot from the dyer’s polypore can potentially live many years with the infection.
- Keeping trees healthy is crucial in preventing and reducing the impact of dyer’s polypore. Proper tree care practices, including adequate watering, regular pruning, and appropriate fertilization, can help enhance tree vigor and make them more resilient to fungal infections.
- Maintaining a diverse forest ecosystem with a mix of tree species can help reduce the risk of widespread dyer’s polypore infections. Planting a variety of tree species creates a more resilient forest that can withstand the impact of this fungus.
- Regular monitoring of trees for signs of dyer’s polypore infection is essential. If infected trees are identified, prompt removal and appropriate disposal can help prevent the spread of the fungus to healthy trees.
- Implementing good forest management practices, such as thinning overcrowded stands and promoting proper spacing between trees, can reduce the risk of dyer’s polypore infections. These practices improve airflow and sunlight penetration, creating unfavorable conditions for the fungus to thrive.
Common Questions About Dyer’s Polypore
Is Dyers polypore toxic?
No. This is a nontoxic yet inedible fungus. The flesh is too tough to eat.
Can you eat Dyers polypore?
It is not palatable, It has a tough, woody texture that makes it not fit for eating.
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Discover everything you need to know about water polo pool depth. Learn why standard depths are crucial, the physical demands of the sport, and much more. Click here to explore the world of water polo and find recommended gear!
Water polo, a thrilling and physically demanding sport, requires a specific environment for optimal play. One of the key elements in creating this environment is the depth of the water polo pool. Understanding the standard depth of a water polo pool is essential for players, coaches, and enthusiasts of the sport. In this comprehensive article, we will delve into various aspects of water polo pool depth, its implications for the game, and related topics that will give you a deeper appreciation of this intense sport.
Standard Depth of a Water Polo Pool
The depth of a water polo pool is typically between 2 and 3 meters, which translates to approximately 6.5 to 10 feet. This depth is maintained uniformly throughout the playing area to ensure fair play and to accommodate the rules and dynamics of the game. The consistent depth across the pool means that players cannot touch the bottom, making the sport more challenging as it relies heavily on swimming and treading water skills.
For official matches and tournaments, adhering to this standard depth is crucial. The Federation Internationale de Natation (FINA), the international governing body for water sports, mandates these dimensions to ensure uniformity in all competitions. This standardization allows players to train and compete under consistent conditions, irrespective of the venue.
Can You Touch the Bottom of the Pool in Water Polo?
No, players are not allowed to touch the bottom of the pool during a water polo game. The depth of the pool, being between 2 and 3 meters, makes it impractical and against the rules for players to stand or push off the bottom. This requirement ensures that players rely on their swimming and treading water skills, adding to the challenge and intensity of the sport.
Touching the bottom of the pool would provide an unfair advantage, as players could use the bottom to propel themselves, rest, or gain leverage over opponents. By prohibiting contact with the pool floor, the rules maintain the sport’s integrity, ensuring that skill, endurance, and strategy remain the determining factors in a team’s success.
Depth of Water Polo Pools in Specific Locations
In major international competitions, such as the Olympics, the depth of the water polo pools adheres to the standard regulations. For example, the water polo pool used in the Paris Olympics is expected to have a depth within the 2 to 3 meters range, ensuring consistency with international standards.
This consistency is crucial for athletes who train for years to compete at the highest levels. Knowing that the competition pool will meet these standards allows them to prepare adequately, honing their skills in a similarly challenging environment. For spectators, understanding these details adds to the appreciation of the athletes’ abilities and the complexities of the game.
Is Water Polo Played in Shallow or Deep Water?
Water polo is played in deep water. The depth of the pool, being uniformly deep, prevents players from gaining any advantage by standing or pushing off the bottom, thus maintaining the integrity of the game. This requirement differentiates water polo from other aquatic sports where shallow water may be used for training or recreational play.
The deep water aspect of water polo significantly impacts the game’s dynamics. Players must constantly tread water or swim, which adds to the physical demands of the sport. This requirement ensures that the game is played at a high intensity, with athletes demonstrating exceptional stamina and skill.
Depth Conversion: Meters to Feet
For those more familiar with the imperial system, the depth of a water polo pool can be converted from meters to feet. The standard depth of 2 to 3 meters converts to approximately 6.5 to 10 feet. This conversion helps in understanding the substantial depth required for water polo pools.
Understanding these conversions is essential for anyone involved in water polo, whether they are setting up a pool for training, spectating, or even just curious about the sport. It provides a clearer perspective on the challenges faced by players and the standards maintained in professional competitions.
Men’s Water Polo Pool Depth
The depth of the pool for men’s water polo is the same as for women’s water polo. Both require a pool depth of 2 to 3 meters. This uniformity ensures that the physical requirements and challenges are consistent across all levels and categories of play.
Maintaining the same depth for both men’s and women’s games promotes fairness and equality in the sport. It ensures that both male and female athletes compete under identical conditions, highlighting their skills and endurance without any gender-based discrepancies in the playing environment.
Common Fouls in Water Polo
While discussing the depth and dynamics of water polo, it’s essential to understand some common fouls that occur during the game. These fouls are critical to maintaining the sport’s integrity and ensuring fair play. Here are ten common fouls in water polo:
- Ordinary Fouls: Minor infractions such as impeding an opponent. These fouls often result in a free throw for the opposing team.
- Exclusion Fouls: Major fouls resulting in temporary exclusion from the game, typically for 20 seconds. The offending player must leave the pool, giving the opposing team a numerical advantage.
- Penalty Fouls: Serious infractions leading to a penalty shot. These fouls occur near the goal area and can significantly impact the game’s outcome.
- Holding: Illegally holding an opponent. This foul prevents the opponent from moving freely and can disrupt the flow of the game.
- Pushing Off: Using an opponent to gain an advantage. This foul is common when players try to push off to swim faster or gain a better position.
- Striking: Striking an opponent. This severe foul can lead to exclusion and disciplinary actions.
- Splashing: Deliberately splashing water in an opponent’s face. This tactic is used to distract or disorient opponents and is penalized to maintain sportsmanship.
- Interference: Interfering with a free throw. Players must allow the free throw to proceed without obstruction.
- Entering the Goal Area: Illegally entering the goal area. Only the goalkeeper is allowed within the 2-meter area directly in front of the goal.
- Conduct: Unsportsmanlike conduct. This category includes various behaviors that violate the spirit of fair play and respect in the sport.
Understanding these fouls helps players, coaches, and spectators appreciate the complexities and rules that govern water polo, ensuring the game is played fairly and competitively.
Why is Water Polo So Hard?
Water polo is considered one of the most challenging sports due to the combination of swimming, treading water, and the physicality involved in playing the game. Players need to have excellent swimming skills, endurance, and the ability to maneuver and strategize while constantly moving in deep water.
The constant movement and physical contact in deep water require players to have exceptional stamina, strength, and agility. The sport also demands a high level of teamwork and communication, as players must coordinate their movements and strategies in a fast-paced and physically demanding environment.
Additionally, the mental toughness required for water polo is significant. Players must stay focused and make quick decisions under pressure, often while being physically challenged by opponents. This combination of physical and mental demands makes water polo one of the toughest sports to master.
Dimensions of a Water Polo Field
In addition to the depth, the size of the water polo field is also standardized. A water polo field typically measures 20 to 30 meters in length and 10 to 20 meters in width. These dimensions provide ample space for gameplay while maintaining a challenging environment for the players.
The size of the field impacts the strategy and pacing of the game. The large playing area requires players to have excellent swimming endurance and the ability to cover a lot of ground quickly. It also allows for a variety of offensive and defensive strategies, adding to the game’s complexity and excitement.
Training for Water Polo
Training for water polo involves a combination of swimming drills, strength training, and strategic practice. Given the sport’s physical demands, players must maintain peak physical condition. Here are some key elements of water polo training:
- Swimming Drills: Essential for building endurance and speed. Drills often include sprints, long-distance swims, and technique improvement exercises.
- Treading Water: Players practice eggbeater kicks to stay afloat and maintain balance. This skill is crucial for staying in position and preparing for sudden movements.
- Strength Training: Focuses on building core, upper body, and leg strength. Exercises include weightlifting, resistance training, and bodyweight exercises.
- Ball Handling Skills: Players practice passing, shooting, and dribbling the ball. These skills are vital for effective gameplay and coordination.
- Strategy and Teamwork: Teams practice offensive and defensive strategies, communication, and positioning. Understanding team dynamics and strategy is essential for success in matches.
Training is rigorous and requires dedication and consistency. Players often train multiple times a week, combining pool sessions with dry-land workouts to ensure comprehensive fitness and skill development.
Equipment for Water Polo
Water polo requires specific equipment to ensure safety and enhance performance. Here are some essential items for water polo players:
- Swimwear: Players wear specialized water polo suits that are durable and designed to minimize drag in the water.
- Caps: Caps protect players’ heads and ears and help identify team members. They are typically color-coded with numbers to distinguish players.
- Ball: The water polo ball is designed for grip and buoyancy. It is slightly smaller and lighter than a standard soccer ball, making it easier to handle in the water.
- Goals: Goals are positioned at each end of the pool. They are typically made of durable materials to withstand the impact of the ball.
- Goggles and Mouthguards: While not always mandatory, some players choose to wear goggles for eye protection and mouthguards to prevent dental injuries.
Investing in high-quality equipment is crucial for performance and safety. If you’re looking to purchase water polo gear, consider this recommended link for a wide selection of water polo equipment and accessories.
Water Polo Competitions
Water polo is played at various levels, from amateur leagues to professional competitions. Some of the most prestigious water polo tournaments include:
- Olympic Games: Water polo has been a part of the Summer Olympics since 1900 for men and since 2000 for women. It is one of the oldest team sports in the Olympic program.
- FINA World Championships: Organized by FINA, this international competition features the world’s best water polo teams.
- European Championships: A major competition for European teams, showcasing top talent from across the continent.
- NCAA Championships: In the United States, college water polo teams compete in the NCAA championships, a highly competitive and prestigious event.
- Professional Leagues: Various countries have professional water polo leagues, such as the Serie A1 in Italy and the Liga Nacional in Spain.
These competitions draw large audiences and provide a platform for athletes to showcase their skills on the world stage. The intense and fast-paced nature of the sport makes it a thrilling spectacle for fans.
History of Water Polo
Water polo has a rich history, dating back to the late 19th century. It originated in Great Britain, where it was played in rivers and lakes as a form of rugby in the water. Over time, the sport evolved, and formal rules were established to govern play.
The first official water polo match was played in Scotland in 1877. The sport quickly gained popularity, spreading across Europe and eventually to other parts of the world. Water polo was introduced to the Olympics in 1900, solidifying its status as a recognized competitive sport.
Throughout its history, water polo has seen significant developments in rules, equipment, and playing styles. The sport continues to evolve, with innovations in training methods and strategies contributing to its dynamic nature.
Benefits of Playing Water Polo
Playing water polo offers numerous physical and mental benefits. Here are some of the key advantages:
- Physical Fitness: Water polo is an excellent full-body workout. It improves cardiovascular health, builds muscle strength, and enhances flexibility and endurance.
- Teamwork and Communication: The sport requires effective teamwork and communication, helping players develop these essential skills.
- Mental Toughness: The intense and competitive nature of water polo builds mental resilience and the ability to stay focused under pressure.
- Coordination and Agility: Handling the ball and maneuvering in the water improve coordination and agility.
- Social Interaction: Being part of a water polo team provides opportunities for social interaction and building friendships.
These benefits make water polo a rewarding sport for individuals of all ages. Whether you’re playing competitively or recreationally, the skills and fitness gained from water polo are invaluable.
Water Polo Around the World
Water polo is played and enjoyed worldwide, with strong followings in Europe, North America, Australia, and parts of Asia. Different regions have their own unique styles and strategies, contributing to the sport’s diversity.
In Europe, countries like Hungary, Italy, and Serbia are known for their dominant water polo teams and rich histories in the sport. The United States has a strong collegiate system that produces top-tier talent, while Australia is known for its competitive national teams.
The global nature of water polo fosters international competition and cultural exchange. Major tournaments often feature teams from various countries, providing a platform for showcasing different playing styles and fostering camaraderie among athletes.
How to Get Started with Water Polo
If you’re interested in playing water polo, here are some steps to get started:
- Find a Club or Team: Look for local water polo clubs or teams in your area. Many communities have recreational leagues for beginners.
- Learn the Basics: Familiarize yourself with the basic rules and techniques of water polo. Watching games and instructional videos can be helpful.
- Improve Swimming Skills: Strong swimming skills are essential for water polo. Consider taking swimming lessons or joining a swim team to improve your technique and endurance.
- Attend Practices: Join practice sessions to gain experience and learn from more experienced players. Practice is crucial for developing skills and understanding the game’s dynamics.
- Stay Consistent: Consistent practice and training are key to improving in water polo. Dedicate time each week to training and honing your skills.
For those looking to purchase equipment or learn more about water polo gear, check out this affiliate link for a selection of recommended products.
Understanding the depth of a water polo pool and the related aspects of the sport is crucial for anyone involved in or interested in water polo. With a standard depth of 2 to 3 meters, the sport ensures a challenging and fair environment, requiring players to rely on their skills and endurance. Whether you’re a player, coach, or fan, appreciating these details adds to the enjoyment and respect for this demanding sport.
Water polo’s rich history, competitive nature, and physical demands make it a unique and thrilling sport. By understanding the intricacies of the game’s environment, equipment, and rules, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the athletes and the sport itself. If you’re inspired to get involved or want to support your favorite players, consider exploring water polo gear and accessories through this recommended link.
Whether you’re watching a high-stakes match or diving into the pool yourself, the depth of water polo extends beyond the pool’s measurements, encompassing the dedication, skill, and passion of everyone involved. Dive into the world of water polo and experience the excitement and challenge of this incredible sport.
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Overview of Exploring the Great Barrier Reef, Australia
The Great Barrier Reef, a UNESCO World Heritage site and one of the seven natural wonders of the world, stretches over 2,300 kilometers along the coast of Queensland, Australia. It’s the largest coral reef system on the planet, home to an unparalleled array of marine life. Visitors to the reef can indulge in a variety of activities, ranging from snorkeling and diving to educational tours and cultural experiences. This majestic natural wonder not only offers breathtaking beauty but also a chance to learn about marine conservation and the importance of preserving our natural world.
Aspect | Details | Additional Information |
Best Time to Visit | June to October (Australian Winter) | Ideal for diving & snorkeling due to clear visibility and mild weather. Outside jellyfish season. |
Address | Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia | Exact location varies as the reef spans over 2,300 kilometers. Use Google Maps for specific destinations. |
Ticket Charges | Varies by tour operator; ranges from AUD 150 to AUD 600+ for standard tours | Prices depend on the type of tour (snorkeling, diving, boat tours) and duration. Check with specific operators. |
Snorkeling and Scuba Diving
Snorkeling and scuba diving are quintessential activities for exploring the underwater marvels of the Great Barrier Reef. The clear, warm waters provide visibility for up to 30 meters, offering an unobstructed view of vibrant coral gardens and a myriad of marine species. Divers can explore famous dive sites like the Cod Hole, Ribbon Reefs, and the SS Yongala wreck. These sites offer encounters with giant clams, manta rays, and myriad tropical fish. For beginners, numerous dive schools offer certification courses, ensuring that even novices can safely experience the wonders of the reef. Meanwhile, snorkeling is accessible to people of all ages and skill levels, requiring minimal equipment. Guided tours often include educational components, teaching participants about the reef’s biodiversity and the importance of its preservation.
Glass-Bottom Boat Tours
For those who prefer to stay dry while exploring the reef, glass-bottom boat tours offer a unique opportunity. These boats, equipped with transparent floors, provide a window into the diverse ecosystem below. This is an excellent option for families with small children or anyone unable to swim. Tour guides often provide commentary on the types of coral and marine life visible beneath the boat, making it an educational experience. The tour routes are carefully designed to showcase a variety of coral types and marine habitats. Some tours even include stops at pontoon platforms, allowing passengers to step out and get a closer look at the reef from a stable structure. These tours are also an excellent opportunity for photography enthusiasts to capture the underwater landscape without getting wet.
Helicopter or Seaplane Tours
Aerial tours of the Great Barrier Reef, conducted via helicopter or seaplane, offer a breathtaking perspective of this vast marine ecosystem. From the air, the sheer scale of the reef becomes apparent, with its intricate patterns of coral atolls, clear blue waters, and sandy cays. These tours provide unique photo opportunities of the reef’s stunning array of colors and shapes. Many helicopter tours offer the option of landing on a secluded sand cay for a private beach experience. Seaplane tours might include a low-flying journey over iconic landmarks like Heart Reef, a naturally heart-shaped coral formation. These tours are not only visually spectacular but also educational, as pilots often share information about the reef’s ecology and the challenges it faces due to climate change and other environmental pressures.
Educational Visits to Marine Stations
The Great Barrier Reef is not only a natural wonder but also a significant scientific research site. Several marine stations and research centers on the islands offer educational tours. These tours provide insights into the scientific studies conducted on the reef, covering topics like coral bleaching, marine biodiversity, and conservation strategies. Visitors can interact with marine biologists, witness laboratory work, and sometimes even participate in citizen science projects. Educational visits are particularly valuable for children and young adults, fostering a deeper understanding of and appreciation for marine ecosystems. Some tours also cover the history and impact of human activities on the reef, highlighting the importance of sustainable tourism and conservation efforts.
The Great Barrier Reef is dotted with numerous islands, each offering unique experiences. From luxurious resorts on islands like Hamilton and Hayman to the untouched natural beauty of Whitsunday and Lizard Islands, there’s something for every type of traveler. Island hopping allows visitors to experience the diversity of the reef’s ecosystem. Many islands offer additional activities like hiking, bird-watching, and cultural tours. Accommodations range from camping and budget options to exclusive, eco-friendly resorts. Island stays often include opportunities for water sports, reef tours, and relaxation on pristine beaches. This activity is an excellent way to combine the exploration of the reef with a relaxing holiday in a tropical paradise.
The Great Barrier Reef, with its clear waters and abundant marine life, is a paradise for underwater photographers. Whether you’re a professional or an enthusiast, the reef presents endless opportunities to capture stunning images. The diverse marine life, from tiny nudibranchs to large pelagic fish, provides a range of subjects. Coral formations with their myriad colors and patterns also make for compelling photographs. Many dive operators offer specialized photography tours, providing guidance on techniques and the best spots for capturing unique shots. Equipment rental services are widely available, offering high-quality gear suitable for underwater photography. Capturing the beauty of the reef not only creates lasting memories but can also help in raising awareness about the importance of preserving this fragile ecosystem.
Sustainable Tourism Activities
Participating in sustainable tourism activities is crucial in preserving the Great Barrier Reef for future generations. Many tour operators in the region are committed to eco-friendly practices, such as limiting the number of visitors to sensitive areas, using environmentally friendly fuels, and educating tourists about conservation. Visitors can engage in reef clean-up dives, coral planting activities, and educational workshops. Choosing eco-certified operators and adhering to responsible tourism practices, like not touching the coral and using reef-safe sunscreen, significantly reduces the environmental impact of your visit. By engaging in sustainable tourism, visitors can enjoy the natural beauty of the reef while contributing to its preservation.
Night tours on the Great Barrier Reef offer a unique and enchanting experience. As the sun sets, the reef transforms, with different species of marine life becoming active. Night dives and boat tours allow visitors to observe nocturnal creatures like sleeping turtles, bioluminescent plankton, and predatory fish in action. The experience of seeing the reef under the moonlight is vastly different from daytime tours and is often described as magical. For those who prefer to stay dry, some operators offer night tours on boats equipped with underwater lights, illuminating the reef and its nocturnal inhabitants. These tours are not only a thrilling adventure but also provide insight into the different aspects of the reef’s ecosystem.
Cultural Experiences with Indigenous Communities
The Great Barrier Reef is not only a natural habitat but also a region of cultural significance, particularly for the Indigenous communities of Australia. Engaging with these communities provides a deeper understanding of the reef’s cultural and spiritual importance. Many tours offer the chance to learn about the traditional uses of marine resources, storytelling, and the historical connection of Indigenous people to the reef. Participating in cultural tours led by Indigenous guides is an enriching experience, offering a unique perspective on the reef and its significance beyond its ecological value. This cultural exchange not only enhances the visitor experience but also supports the local communities and their efforts to preserve their heritage and the natural environment.
Frequently Asked Questions About the Great Barrier Reef
What is the best time of year to visit the Great Barrier Reef?
The best time to visit the Great Barrier Reef is during the Australian winter (June to October). During this period, the weather is mild, and the water visibility is at its best, making it ideal for snorkeling and diving. It’s also outside the jellyfish season, reducing the risk of stings.
Do I need a special certification for diving at the Great Barrier Reef?
If you plan to scuba dive, a basic open water diving certification is required. Many operators in the area offer certification courses that can be completed in a few days. For snorkeling, no special certification is needed.
Can beginners participate in diving or snorkeling?
Yes, beginners can participate in both activities. There are numerous tour operators who cater to beginners, providing necessary training and equipment. Introductory diving courses are available for those who have never dived before.
Are there any restrictions on touching the coral or marine life?
Yes, visitors are strongly advised not to touch the coral or any marine life. Touching coral can damage the delicate organisms, and some marine creatures can be dangerous if provoked.
How can tourists contribute to the conservation of the Great Barrier Reef?
Tourists can contribute by choosing eco-friendly tour operators, respecting all wildlife, using reef-safe sunscreen, and participating in conservation activities such as reef clean-up dives. Educating oneself about the reef and its challenges also helps in spreading awareness.
Is the Great Barrier Reef wheelchair accessible?
Many tour operators and facilities are equipped to accommodate visitors with mobility issues, including those in wheelchairs. It’s best to check with tour providers in advance about specific accessibility accommodations.
Are there activities for children at the Great Barrier Reef?
Yes, the Great Barrier Reef is family-friendly, with many activities suitable for children. Glass-bottom boat tours, shallow water snorkeling, and educational programs at marine stations are popular options for families.
How much time should I spend at the Great Barrier Reef?
To fully experience the reef, a stay of at least 3 to 5 days is recommended. This allows time for multiple activities such as snorkeling, diving, island visits, and educational tours.
Is swimming with sharks safe at the Great Barrier Reef?
Shark encounters at the Great Barrier Reef are generally safe, especially with reef sharks, which are commonly seen and are not aggressive towards humans. Guided tours ensure the safety of participants during such encounters.
Can I visit the Great Barrier Reef on a budget?
Yes, there are options for budget travelers, including day trips, snorkeling tours, and visits to more affordable islands. Camping on some islands can also be a cost-effective way to experience the reef.
Remember, the Great Barrier Reef is a delicate ecosystem. As a visitor, you play a crucial role in its preservation by respecting the environment and following sustainable tourism practices.
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Stay Hydrated, My Friends takes a look at all things hydration, dehydration and the different ways to meet your daily water needs.
Many of us try to hack our way to better hydration, whether that means carrying a reusable water bottle, tracking our fluid intake or infusing our H2O with some fruit. But even if you know you should be staying hydrated, you might still be wondering, "How much water should I drink a day, exactly?"
Although there's no one equation for proper hydration (as it varies from person to person), there are some guidelines you can consider as you gauge the amount of water to drink daily.
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How Much Water Should Adults Drink a Day?
Good hydration is crucial for your health because every part of your body needs water in order to function properly, according to the Mayo Clinic. In fact, you lose water every day through breath, sweat, urine and bowel movements.
However, it turns out that the classic recommendation of 8 cups of water per day doesn't apply to everyone.
According to the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, the average adult should get anywhere from 11.5 cups to 15.5 cups of water per day, from drinking and water-rich foods.
(Note: Although this is an older recommendation, it's still widely regarded as a good guideline.)
While this may seem like a lot of water to guzzle on the daily, keep in mind that about 20 percent of your daily recommended fluids will probably come from other foods and drinks.
You can also use the following water intake calculator to find just how much water you need to function per your body weight, according to the University of Missouri System:
How to Calculate How Many Ounces of Water You Should Drink a Day
Body weight (in pounds) ÷ 2 = minimum ounces of water you should drink per day
If you're looking for a quick conversion, 8 ounces of water means 1 cup of water.
For example, if you weigh 180 pounds, you should aim for a minimum of 11.25 cups of water each day.
Although this is a general hydration guideline, the exact amount of water you should drink each day will vary from person to person and day to day, depending on factors like overall health, diet, activity and if you live in hot/humid weather or at high altitudes, per the Mayo Clinic.
Signs of Dehydration in Adults
- Dark-colored urine
- Peeing less frequently
- Feeling tired
You may also notice constipation and dry skin if you're dehydrated over longer periods.
How Much Water Should Babies and Children Drink a Day?
Like adults, children need water to function their best. But how much water does a child need? Here's how the daily hydration recommendations for children breaks down by age, per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP):
- Younger than 6 months: No additional water needed (these babies should only drink breast milk or formula)
- Babies ages 6 to 12 months: 4 to 8 ounces of water per day (in addition to breast milk or formula)
- Toddlers ages 12 to 24 months: 1 to 4 cups (8 to 32 ounces) of water per day
- Children ages 2 to 5: 1 to 5 cups (8 to 40 ounces) of water per day
Plain water and milk are the best drink choices for children, per the AAP. Kids older than 1 should meet their hydration needs from a combination of plain water and cow's milk.
Your child may need more or less water depending on their size, climate and whether or not they're sick. Talk to your pediatrician to determine precisely how much water your 1-year-old (or children of other ages) needs.
A good way to help ensure children ages 1 and older are meeting their daily fluid requirements is to offer milk with their meals and water in between, says pediatrician Jennifer Shu, MD.
A 1-year-old may not be able to tell you how much water they need or when they're thirsty, so try offering them a small amount every hour they're awake. Serving it in a training cup or with a straw may also make them more receptive to drinking water if you're having difficulty.
Your child still needs the calories and nutrients they get from milk and solid foods, so make sure they're not only filling up on water, per the CDC.
Signs of Dehydration in Young Children
Per the National Health Service, you should also visit your doctor if your child shows signs of dehydration, including:
- Infrequent urination or dark yellow pee
- Excessive sleepiness
- Sunken eyes
- No tears when they cry
- Dry mouth
- Cold or splotchy hands or feet
- A soft spot on their head that sinks in
4 Factors That Affect How Much Water You Should Drink
The amount of water you should drink daily will depend on your body size but will also vary based on these factors:
1. Physical Activity
In just one hour of exercise, your body can lose up to a quart of water, depending on your exercise intensity and the temperature, according to the American Council on Exercise (ACE).
So, if you're an active adult who exercises daily or even several times per week, you'll need a little more water than the recommended minimum to keep your body hydrated.
You'll also want to drink your fluids strategically when you're exercising to keep your body fueled, according to ACE. If you have an intense training session or other strenuous exercise like a soccer match or run planned, it's advised that you drink a little more fluids than usual in the 24 hours leading up to the activity.
But how do you properly hydrate for sports, exactly? While the precise amount varies based on your circumstances, this is about how much water a runner or other athlete should drink before, during and after exercise to stay hydrated, according to ACE:
- Before exercise: 17 to 20 oz of water at least 2 hours prior to exercise
- During exercise: 7 to 10 oz. of water for every 10 to 20 minutes of exercise
- After exercise: 16 to 24 oz of water for each pound lost due to sweating
And if you're going on a summer hike, always bring more water than you think you'll need. According to a small June 2020 study in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, most hikers did not bring enough fluid with them on their hike to compensate for their sweat loss in the summer heat, which resulted in dehydration.
Although water is generally the best source of hydration, some people opt for sports drinks for energy and extra sodium to encourage more fluid retention.
2. Your Environment
Where you reside is another element you should consider — especially if you live in warm temperatures.
Again, your levels of perspiration affect the amount of water you'll need to stay hydrated, so those living in warm, humid climates will probably need more fluids to replenish those lost from sweating, per the Mayo Clinic. The same goes for people living at a high elevation.
If you live in a warm climate or at a high altitude, make sure you're meeting your minimum hydration requirement (body weight in pounds divided by two equals the minimum ounces to drink) and look for signs of dehydration to make sure you're getting enough.
This is another factor you must consider in gauging your daily water needs, according to the Mayo Clinic.
For instance, if you're vomiting or sick with a fever, you'll probably be depleted of fluids and need to drink more. Doctors may advise people with certain bladder conditions to drink extra water, too.
So, how much water should you drink when you're sick? Though there's no one amount that works for everyone, you should drink more than your usual number of ounces per day to replenish fluids lost from symptoms like vomiting or diarrhea, per the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. In other words, drink enough to avoid dehydration, because remember, you can also feel sick from not drinking enough water.
4. Pregnancy or Lactation
People who are pregnant or chestfeeding may need to bump up their water intake, per the Mayo Clinic.
Hydration is important for anyone, but especially when you are pregnant. It can help form amniotic fluid around the fetus and help nutrients circulate throughout the body, per the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG).
ACOG recommends pregnant people aim to drink 8 to 12 cups (64 to 96 ounces) of water per day, and the Institute of Medicine recommends about 10 cups (80 ounces).
During lactation (chestfeeding), a person's water needs increase because their body uses water to make breast milk. The Institute of Medicine recommends lactating people get about 13 cups of water or other beverages each day.
- Pregnancy: 8 to 12 cups of water per day
- Lactation: About 13 cups of water per day
How Much Water Is Too Much?
If water makes you feel sick, nauseous or you throw up from drinking too much, you may be dealing with overhydration, per University of Utah Health. This condition — called hyponatremia — can occur when too much water dilutes your electrolyte levels. Though it's rare, it's most common in cases of extreme endurance activities like marathon running.
Besides stomach upset, symptoms of hyponatremia include:
- Muscle weakness or cramping
- In severe cases, coma or seizures
To avoid hyponatremia, don't force yourself to over-drink, and remember to replenish electrolytes during extreme exercise. If you're already showing symptoms of overhydration, like bloating from water, talk to your doctor about how to treat it.
Benefits of Hydration
Water does a lot for your body besides quench your thirst. After all, your body contains around 60 percent water, per the U.S. Geological Survey.
Here are the benefits of drinking enough water each day, according to Harvard Health Publishing:
Water and Weight Loss
While there have been general associations between increased water intake and weight loss, one doesn't necessarily result in the other. In other words, there's no direct relationship between drinking more water and weight loss.
Basically, drinking water cannot help you lose weight without making other changes to your nutrition and exercise.
However, if you're making changes like eating more nutritious foods and working out more, drinking water may come with some benefits that can help you toward your weight-loss goal, including:
- Water has zero calories, which makes it a better choice for weight loss than higher-calorie drinks like soda or juice
- In some cases, you might confuse thirst for hunger, which can lead to unnecessary snacking, according to the Polycystic Kidney Disease Foundation
- Water supports healthy digestion and a healthy metabolism, per the Mayo Clinic, so your body can more efficiently turn the calories you eat and drink into energy
- Drinking enough water keeps you hydrated during exercise, which helps you get the most out of your workouts
How to Drink More Water
If you're rarely thirsty and notice your urine is clear or light yellow in color, that's a sign you're probably drinking enough, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Although it's evident that drinking water is necessary for good health, some people may struggle to guzzle down sufficient water each day. Luckily, there are a few tricks you can try to increase your hydration.
1. Add Flavor
Try infusing your water with lemon juice, fruit or herbs. Fresh fruits or citrus can add some zest to your glass without tacking on added sugars.
You can also fill your shopping cart with these healthy flavored waters.
2. Make Your Water Readily Accessible
Keep a full pitcher in your fridge or on your counter at all times, per the Mayo Clinic. And consider investing in a reusable water bottle you can carry with you wherever you go.
In some cases, people tend to just forget to drink water. But if it's always within eyesight, hydration will be less likely to slip your mind.
3. Keep Track of Your Fluid Intake
Keep a little notepad or journal near your fridge or in your kitchen.
You can also download a water intake calculator or reminder app like the Daily Water Tracker Reminder that will help you monitor your cups and can send you reminders when it's time for another sip.
4. Mix In Other Fluids and Water-Rich Foods
If you're still struggling to stay hydrated, you can swap a few cups of plain water throughout the day for other hydrating beverages, per the Mayo Clinic, such as:
- Herbal tea
- Coconut water
- Carbonated water
And drinks aren't the only route to getting enough fluids — you can also munch on the following hydrating foods:
- Bok choy
When to See a Doctor
If you are unsure about the amount of water you need based on your overall health, environment, weight and activity level, consult with your doctor or a registered dietitian, who may be able to point you in the right direction and offer tips.
If you are experiencing symptoms of chronic dehydration or over-hydration, call your doctor, who may suggest you visit your nearest emergency room if symptoms worsen.
1. How Do I Know if I'm Drinking Enough?
You'll know you're drinking enough water if you rarely feel thirsty or your urine is colorless or light, pale yellow. If in doubt, you can also drink water with each meal and between meals; before, during and after exercise; and whenever you feel thirsty, per the Mayo Clinic.
Signs you are dehydrated include the following, per the U.K.'s National Health Service (NHS):
- Dark or strong-smelling urine
- Dry mouth
- Less frequent urination
- Muscle cramps
2. Is It OK to Chug Water?
While there may be times where you're incredibly thirsty and need to chug water, drinking water gradually throughout the day is more ideal. Too much water at once can increase the risk of hyponatremia, per the Mayo Clinic.
This is why it's important to keep a water bottle or cup handy throughout the day and take sips to help you stay hydrated, instead of chugging it all at once.
3. Is It Healthy to Drink a Gallon of Water a Day?
For most people, drinking a gallon of water a day is not harmful. A gallon is 128 ounces, or about 16 cups, which is just slightly over the high end of the daily recommendation for adults, according to the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
But if you have underlying conditions like congestive heart failure or end-stage kidney disease, it could be dangerous to drink a gallon of water, because your body is already holding onto so many fluids. Your body can't process all that extra water correctly, per the Cleveland Clinic.
That said, what about a half gallon? Is 64 ounces of water a day enough? This amount may be right for some people, but it will vary depending on your health, body size, physical activity and other factors.
4. Can You Absorb Water Through Your Skin?
No, water can't penetrate your skin enough to rehydrate you, per West Texas A&M University. It's better to stick to drinking water and eating hydrating foods.
5. Why Are You Retaining So Much Water?
Diet, medications and underlying medical conditions can all cause your body to trap excess fluid in your tissues, which is a condition called edema. Per the Cleveland Clinic, you can tell if you're retaining water from edema if you have these symptoms:
- Swollen, stretched or shiny skin in the affected area
- Pressing on the swollen area leaves a dimple
- Trouble walking if you have edema in your legs
- Coughing or trouble breathing if you have edema in your lungs
If you're retaining water, talk to your doctor about how to proceed, as treatment may depend on the underlying cause of edema (which does not include simply drinking too much water). Potential reasons your body is retaining fluid include:
- Heart, lung, liver or kidney disease
- Thyroid disease
- Allergic reactions
- Too much salt in your diet
- Weak valves in your leg veins
- Certain blood pressure and pain medications
- Mayo Clinic: "Water: How Much Should You Drink Every Day?"
- American Council on Exercise: "Healthy Hydration"
- Mayo Clinic: "Does Drinking Water During or After a Meal Disturb Digestion?"
- Polycystic Kidney Disease Foundation: "Hunger vs. Thirst: Tips to Tell the Difference"
- Mayo Clinic: "Dehydration"
- Mayo Clinic: "Tips for drinking more water"
- University of Missouri System: "How to Calculate How Much Water You Should Drink"
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health: "Hiking Time Trial Performance in the Heat with Real-Time Observation of Heat Strain, Hydration Status and Fluid Intake Behavior"
- American Council on Exercise: "How Hydration Affects Performance"
- Cleveland Clinic: "Dehydration"
- University of Utah Health: "Too much water? It's possible, and a problem."
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health: "Water"
- Cleveland Clinic: "Edema"
- West Texas A&M University: "Why do my fingers absorb water and become wrinkled?"
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Foods and Drinks to Encourage"
- National Health Service: "Dehydration"
- Harvard Health Publishing: "How much water should you drink?"
- U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine: "Report Sets Dietary Intake Levels for Water, Salt, and Potassium To Maintain Health and Reduce Chronic Disease Risk"
- Mayo Clinic: "Mayo Clinic Q&A: What to Drink to Stay Hydrated"
- ACOG: "How Much Water Should I Drink During Pregnancy?"
- Cleveland Clinic: "Dehydration Risk for Seniors"
- U.S. Geological Survey: "The Water In You: Water and the Human Body"
- NHS: "Dehydration"
- Cleveland Clinic: "Here’s Why Alkaline Water Doesn’t Live Up to the Hype"
- University of Michigan: "The Importance of Water While Exercising"
- American Academy of Pediatrics: "Recommended Drinks for Children Age 5 & Younger"
- Institute of Medicine: "Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate"
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First Aid for Burns and Scalds
Burns are damage caused to the body’s tissues due to factors such as heat, UV radiation, electricity, chemicals, and hot liquids. Scalds are usually caused by wet elements, such as steam or hot water. Both can be treated in the same way.In this article, we will be discussing various subjects related to burns and scalds, how to treat them, the symptoms to know about, and more.
Thermal burns happen when a person touches something hot, such as fire or flames, hot and molten steam or liquid, and hot items, such as irons, cooking utensils, and heated appliances.
These burns increase the temperature of the victim’s tissues and skin and cause charring. If someone experiences a thermal burn, help them by putting out the flames or fire and breaking their contact with the hot source.
Cool the burned region by using cold water. Make sure not to use ice in such cases, as it can damage the victim’s skin further. If the situation is mild, it can be handled through a wet and cold compress, after which the victim can use ointments or creams, as directed by a doctor.
In severe cases, loosely cover the burned area with a clean cloth or sterile bandage. Make sure the region isn’t tampered with at all till the arrival of medical help.
Radiation burns can either occur from prolonged exposure to UV rays or when a patient is going through radiation therapy for cancer treatment. Since high-energy radiation helps in shrinking or killing cancerous cells, it can cause damage to a patient’s body as it passes through their skin.
When frequent radiation treatments are involved, a person’s skin doesn’t get enough time to regenerate, thereby leading to sores and ulcers. It usually takes about two to four weeks for the healing of mild skin reactions, whereas the deeper reactions can take a couple of months to heal completely.
Radiation burns can be treated by avoiding UV exposure, wearing loose clothes, covering wounds with a bandage, cleaning them, and moisturizing them as well.
Burns from radiation therapy can also cause internal issues, which is why a patient should seek medical help immediately in such cases.
Friction burns happen when a person’s skin scrapes against a hard surface or rubs against another surface. Any first-degree friction burns usually heal in about three to six days using ointments or creams. However, second-degree friction burns should be treated with medical care immediately.
Cold burns or ice burns can occur when a person is exposed to cold or below-freezing temperatures. To treat ice burns, soak the affected region in warm water for about 20 minutes, making sure the water’s temperature is not more than 42 degrees Celsius.
The process of soaking can be repeated if necessary, and be sure to maintain a break of 20 minutes between each soak. Make use of warm compresses and blankets, along with treating the area with warm water.
Electric burns can be more severe than they first appear, with extensive damage to deeper tissues. They frequently show “entry” and “exit” burns at the point of contact. In the management of electrical accident casualties, the priorities are:
- Check for “Danger” & call for EMS/Rescue
- Turn off the electricity supply if possible.
- Avoid any direct contact with the skin of the casualty or any conducting material touching the casualty until he is disconnected
- Once the area is safe, check if the victim is breathing normally. If not, commence CPR.
- If the victim is conscious, treat any burns or other injuries.
- Flood the affected area with water for 20 – 30 minutes.
- Remove contaminated clothing.
- If possible, identify the chemical for possible subsequent neutralization.
- Call for EMS and contact the local poison control center.
- Avoid contact with the chemical.
There are special First Aid measures for some corrosive chemicals. Where they are used regularly, specific information should be provided for the management of accidental burns.
Burns to the Airway
If the face or front of the trunk is burnt, there could be burns to the airway – there is a risk of swelling of the air passage, leading to breathing difficulties. Medical assessment is essential because breathing difficulties may develop hours or days later.
Symptoms of Burns and Scalds
Symptoms of burns and scalds depend on the degree of damage. Accordingly, a patient can display the following symptoms:
First-degree burns: First-degree burns usually cause red and painful blisters.
Second-degree burns: Blisters can develop in second-degree burns, too, and can be quite painful. Along with swelling and scarring, the patient can also display skin that is white, red, or splotchy.
Third-degree burns: Third-degree burns can cause a person’s skin to appear brown, black, or white. The skin can develop a leathery appearance.
Causes of Burns and Scalds
Burns and scalds can be caused due to various reasons. Some of them are as follows:
· Contact with fire or flames
· Hot beverages and hot steam or water from pots, kettles, or taps
· Contact with hot appliances, such as irons, stoves, and hair straighteners or hair curlers
· Chemicals such as bleach, acids, gasoline, batteries, or drain cleaners
· Exposure to UV rays from sunlight or tanning beds
· Electrical currents
Treatment for Scalds
- Immediately flood the burn area with cold water (under a tap or hose – low pressure) for up to 20 minutes to limit tissue damage.
- If no water is readily available, remove clothing immediately as clothing soaked with hot liquids retains heat.
- Evaluate how serious the scald is and call for EMS if necessary for transport to medical aid.
Treatment for Flame Burns
- Smother the flames with a coat or blanket, get the casualty on to the floor or ground, that is, Stop, Drop and Roll.
- Prevent the victim from running if their clothing is on fire.
- If water is available, immediately cool the burn area with cold water (under a tap or hose – low pressure) for up to 20 minutes. If no water is available, remove smoldering clothing (if it is not stuck to the skin) but avoid pulling clothing across the burnt face.
- Cover the burn area with a loose, clean, dry cloth (pillow-case, handkerchief, sheet) to prevent contamination.
- Do not break blisters. Do not remove clothing that is stuck to the injury. Do not apply lotions, ointments, creams or powders – these make the assessment of a burn difficult. 6. Evaluate how serious the burn is and call EMS for transport without delay to hospital.
When to Seek Emergency Care
A patient should be taken to a hospital when:
· The burns cover their feet, hands, groin, face, buttocks, a large area of the body, or a major joint
· The burns are caused due to electricity or chemicals
· The burns make the victim’s skin look leathery, have brown or black, or white patches, or look charred
· The victim has difficulty breathing due to burns in their airways
· The burns are deep and affect deeper tissues or all the layers of the patient’s skin
· The patient displays signs of shock, such as sweating, clammy skin, dizziness, weakness, or shallow breathing
· The patient shows signs of dehydration, including headache, dry skin, thirst, nausea, lightheadedness, or decreased urination
Listed below are the cases that require immediate medical attention in terms of burns and scalds:
· The victim is a child below the age of 10
· The person has other medical conditions, such as diabetes, lung or liver disease, or heart disease
· The victim has a weakened immune system, perhaps due to HIV or chemotherapy
How to Treat Minor Burns
After calming the person who has suffered minor burns, proceed to do the following to treat them:
· Remove their clothes if they are stuck in the burned region. In cases of chemical burns, take off all the clothes that have the chemicals on them.
· Cool the burn with cold compresses or cool water. Continue this for about 10 minutes till the pain goes away.
· Clean the minor burn using water and soap.
· Never break the blisters since open blisters can get infected.
· Apply a thin layer of ointment using aloe vera or petroleum jelly.
· Cover the burned area with a sterile bandage.
· Get them over-the-counter pain medications.
· Protect the burned region from harmful UV rays once the area heals. Make sure they apply sunscreen with SPF 30 or higher and wear loose and protective clothing.
How to Treat Major Burns Till Help Arrives
If a person has suffered major burns, take the following steps till the arrival of the emergency medical services:
· Use a thick material to wrap the patient, such as a blanket, rug, or a coat made of cotton or wool
· Pour water on the victim
· Ensure that the patient is not touching the burning items
· Don’t remove the burned clothes that are stuck to the victim
· Make sure the victim is breathing and provide CPR if needed
· Use a clean cloth or sterile bandage to cover the burned area, making sure no ointments are applied to the region
· If the victim’s toes or fingers have been burned, separate them using sterile and dry bandages
· If a person has suffered an electrical injury, make sure not to touch them directly and instead use a non-metallic object to move them away from any exposed wires before administering any first aid
Burns and scalds can be prevented by being careful. Whenever you use an electrical item, make sure to unplug it after using it. If you’re using chemicals such as cleaning agents, always wear protective clothing and gear to ensure they don’t spill on you.
Check the temperature of the water before washing your hands or taking a bath. Ensure to install smoke detectors in your home and keep a fire extinguisher around in cases of emergencies.
When you come across a person who has been burned in some way, use the necessary measures to help them, be it covering them with a blanket, turning off the electricity, or taking off contaminated clothes and washing the affected area of the body.
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Did the American Civil War start because southern states were angry because of the Morrill tariff enacted by President Abraham LIncoln and not because of a fight to preserve the institition of slavery? No, that's not true: The Morrill tariff was passed by congress AFTER seven states already seceded from the Union and BEFORE Lincoln was sworn in as president. It was signed into law by President James Buchanan on his last day in office. In fact, its passage was assured only by the withdrawal of the southern delegations to congress.
The revisionist history lesson has echoed through the decades since the war ended in 1865, but it has been revived on social media posts in recent years. One such attempt includes a poorly-produced video included in a post (archived here) published on in 2015 under the title "What people don't want you to know about the Civil War." The video opened (Keep in mind, we are fact checkers, not spell checkers):
One of the things that happend following the electon of Lincoln is Congress and Lincoln passed a tarriff known called the Morrill Tarriff"The worst the country ever seen and forced many southerners into bankruptcy the tax was so bad it more than doubled the tax rate from 20% to 47%.Though the Southern states only made up about 30% of the population they paid more than 80% of the tax.Facing such a Tyranic government the south did the Legal act of Seceding from the Union in order to gain a government wich they would be represented in.
This is what social media users see:
There are many factual errors in this re-interpretation of history. One obvious mistake is that while the Morrill tariff bill pass the house in 1860, it was bottled up in a Democratic-controlled senate committe until after the Republicans gained the majority by the secession of seven southern states, starting with South Carolina on December, 20, 1860. The tariff which was, according to the video, the "worst the country ever seen and forced many southerners into bankruptcy," actually had no opportunity to impact southerners since they were gone from the Union before it could be collected. Tariff rates had been significantly higher in the 1820s and were at a low point in the 1850s. It was not until 1862, after the tariffs were raised again to pay for the war effort, that the rates became higher, according to a historical charts.
The video continued:
Following the withdraw of the South from the Union the only way the North could collect this tax is for them to take it by invading southern land and property and taking it by gunpoint.
So since the North was invading their country the South had no choice but to defend it and they fought hard and honorable.
Then after gaining a horrible reputation Lincoln tried to pin the while thing on slavery when it had nothing to do with it.
A confederate leader might be taken aback by the idea that protecting the institution of slavery was not central to their rebellion. Any doubters can read each of the declarations passed by five of the seceding states at this link.
The second sentence for Georgia's declaration reads:
For the last ten years we have had numerous and serious causes of complaint against our non-slave-holding confederate States with reference to the subject of African slavery.
Mississippi's second and third sentence:
Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery-- the greatest material interest of the world. Its labor supplies the product which constitutes by far the largest and most important portions of commerce of the earth.
South Carolina's first paragraph:
The people of the State of South Carolina, in Convention assembled, on the 26th day of April, A.D., 1852, declared that the frequent violations of the Constitution of the United States, by the Federal Government, and its encroachments upon the reserved rights of the States, fully justified this State in then withdrawing from the Federal Union; but in deference to the opinions and wishes of the other slaveholding States, she forbore at that time to exercise this right. Since that time, these encroachments have continued to increase, and further forbearance ceases to be a virtue.
Texas declared in its third paragraph how it was welcomed into the confederacy:
She was received as a commonwealth holding, maintaining and protecting the institution known as negro slavery-- the servitude of the African to the white race within her limits-- a relation that had existed from the first settlement of her wilderness by the white race, and which her people intended should exist in all future time.
And Virginia withdrew from the Union in April 1861 (a month after the Morrill tariff was signed) with no mention of it, but these words about slave-holders being threatened by the federal government:
The people of Virginia, in their ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America, adopted by them in Convention on the twenty-fifth day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight, having declared that the powers granted under the said Constitution were derived from the people of the United States, and might be resumed whensoever the same should be perverted to their injury and oppression; and the Federal Government, having perverted said powers, not only to the injury of the people of Virginia, but to the oppression of the Southern Slaveholding States.
Lincoln did not write these declarations. He was not the one pointing to slavery as the trigger for the war. It was the southern leaders making the complaint.
The video then offers another time-worn myth, that only a small percentage of confederate soldiers owned a slave. This is purported evidence that they were not fighting to preserve the institution of slavery:
When the truth is that at the start of the War only 6% of Southerners owned slaves so tell me what the other 94% of them fighting for?The sad truth is that Lincolns War cost us the lives of more than 600,000 Americans.They were fighting for a just cause wich was against a unrepresentative government a tax that was killing their economy and for the denial for state rights were the main reasons for the south's fight for Independence.
To debunk this myth, we point you to statistics from the census of 1860, the last before the war began. More 32% of white families living in the future confederate states owned slaves. The percentages varied from state to state, depending on agriculture and development. In Arkansas, 20% of white families owned slaves, while in South Carolina nearly half -- 46% -- were slave owners. The rate was 49% in Mississippi. The video is very wrong with the 6% figure. See the full chart here.
As for the 68% of southerners whose families did not own slaves, their lives and economy were closely tied to the institution. The prospect of those 4 million slaves being freed from bondage was chilling to many of the 9 million whites in the confederate states, even if they were not owners themselves.
While there were significant economic arguments between northern and southern states, the expansion and preservation of slavery was the hottest fire. When compromises were offered in the years before and even days after the secession of southern states, the proposals centered on slavery issues, not tariffs.
The myth about tariff's influence on the secession of states grew partly out of a campaign by southern states to convince Britain to lend support to the confederacy during the war. British economic interests were opposed to higher American tariffs, as it made the American markets less lucrative for the British. Southerners made this argument to the British at the time. Read more about this here.
Another video misrepresenting history of the Morrill tariffs purports that Abraham Lincoln, in his first inaugural address, "stated his resolve in collecting these taxes no matter what. He said the power confided in me will be used to hold, occupy and possess the property in places belonging to the government and to collect the duties and imposts -- tariffs other words -- but beyond what way may be necessary for these objects, there'll be no invasion, no using force against or among the people anywhere."
Yes, Lincoln's first inaugural address did include a passage in which he stated his intention to collect "duties and imposts." But it was not in the context of the Morrill tariff alone -- which had been signed by his predecessor President Buchanan just the day before. It was in the context of all taxes and tariffs. It was one of the basic duties of a president. What was left out of the video were the words just ahead of that in which the new president offered that "there needs to be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority." It follows a much longer series of passages about slavery. Read the full Lincoln speech here.
In doing this there needs to be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the Government and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere. Where hostility to the United States in any interior locality shall be so great and universal as to prevent competent resident citizens from holding the Federal offices, there will be no attempt to force obnoxious strangers among the people for that object. While the strict legal right may exist in the Government to enforce the exercise of these offices, the attempt to do so would be so irritating and so nearly impracticable withal that I deem it better to forego for the time the uses of such offices.
This video also claims the Morrill act was passed in 1959, two years earlier than it was actually adopted.
An important note about this author: Alan Duke is the great-grandson of Sgt. Major William Jasper Duke, CSA. Duke has been long familiar with the historical debate over the causes of the American Civil War. He asks that you actually read this story in full and click on the resource links before discarding its conclusions as the work of a carpetbagger or a scallywag.
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Discovering termites in your home, despite having implemented a preventive barrier, can be a deeply concerning experience for any homeowner. These wood-destroying pests are notorious for their ability to silently compromise the structural integrity of a house, making swift and informed action crucial upon detection. A barrier, often made of various materials such as chemical treatments or physical installations, is intended to deter termite activity, yet it is not infallible. Understanding how termites can bypass these defenses, and what steps to take upon their discovery, is vital in safeguarding your property.
Termites are resourceful insects that can exploit vulnerabilities, making them a persistent threat even in homes that have taken precautionary measures. Various factors, including barriers that were improperly installed, environmental conditions, or simply the tenacity of the termites themselves, can lead to infestations despite precautions. Therefore, recognizing the signs of termite presence and understanding your options is essential for effective pest control. Homeowners must remain vigilant, keeping a watchful eye for potential indicators such as discarded wings, hollow-sounding wood, or mud tubes.
When faced with the alarming reality of termites despite preventive efforts, the first course of action should be to assess the situation thoroughly. This involves determining the extent of the infestation and identifying the type of termites involved, as different species may require different remediation strategies. Consulting with a licensed pest control professional is often recommended, as they possess the expertise and tools necessary to effectively evaluate and address the problem. Together with a trusted expert, homeowners can devise a comprehensive plan that may include retreatment of barriers, structural repairs, and ongoing monitoring to ensure that their home remains safe from these relentless invaders.
Assessing the Integrity of the Barrier
Assessing the integrity of the barrier that is supposed to protect your home from termites is a crucial initial step in termite management. Termite barriers can include physical barriers such as steel mesh, concrete, or treated wood, as well as chemical barriers created by applying insecticides in a radio of the home. Over time, due to environmental wear, poor installation, or changes in landscaping, the effectiveness of these barriers can diminish. Regular inspections are necessary to determine if the barrier remains intact and functioning as intended.
To assess the integrity of the barrier, you should start with a visual inspection of the areas around your home where barriers have been installed, looking for any signs of damage or wear. Check for cracks in concrete, disturbed soil that may indicate a breach, or any other signs that might suggest termites could gain access. Additionally, it is wise to consult professionals who specialize in pest control, as they can conduct thorough inspections with specialized equipment and expertise to evaluate the condition of your barriers.
If you find termites despite having a barrier in place, immediate action is required. The presence of termites indicates that the barrier may have failed, either due to deterioration or complete bypass by the pests. First, conduct a thorough inspection to identify the extent of the infestation and assess where the termites are entering. Once you’ve identified the problem areas, it’s essential to involve a licensed pest control professional. They can recommend appropriate treatments that may include the application of targeted insecticides or the reinforcement or repair of existing barriers.
In parallel with these actions, it’s beneficial to review preventative measures to mitigate future infestations. This might include ensuring that the surrounding landscape is managed to deter termites, such as keeping wood piles away from the home and ensuring that no moisture attracts termites. Regular monitoring and maintenance of your barrier’s integrity are also critical, as it will help catch any potential issues before they escalate into a full-blown infestation.
Identifying Signs of Infestation
Identifying signs of a termite infestation is crucial for maintaining the integrity of your property, especially if you have already put in place preventative measures like barriers. Termites can cause significant damage to wooden structures if left unchecked, and recognizing early signs of their presence can help you address the issue before it escalates. One of the most common signs of a termite infestation includes the appearance of mud tubes. These are small, pencil-sized tunnels that termites construct to travel from their nests to their food sources while avoiding exposure to open air. These tubes can often be found on the exterior walls of your home or inside any wooden structure.
Another significant indicator of termites is the presence of discarded wings. After mating, reproductive termites often shed their wings, leaving them in piles around your home. Finding these wings, typically around windowsills or doors, can signal an active infestation nearby. Additionally, you might notice what is referred to as ‘frass’, which is essentially termite droppings. These resemble small pellets and can often be found near the wood that termites are feeding on. The sound of crunching or hollow-sounding wood can also signal an infestation, as termites consume wood from the inside out, leaving only a thin layer of wood intact.
If you do find signs of termite activity despite having a barrier in place, it is important to act quickly. First, try to determine how extensive the infestation is. Look for additional signs in different areas of your home, such as other pieces of wooden furniture or structures. If you suspect an infestation, you should contact a professional pest control service immediately. Even with barriers installed, termites can sometimes find their way through cracks or weak points in the barriers.
In conclusion, being vigilant about checking for the signs of termite infestation is crucial, even after taking preventative measures. Immediate action upon noticing these signs can save you from costly repairs and extensive damage to your home. Regular inspections of your property, particularly in areas where barriers are installed, can help catch issues before they become serious.
Professional Pest Control Options
When dealing with a termite infestation, especially when barriers have seemingly failed, seeking professional pest control options is critical. The complexity of termite biology and their behavior often necessitate expertise that goes beyond what DIY methods can provide. Professional pest control services have access to a variety of advanced tools, techniques, and treatment options that are not typically available to the average homeowner.
One of the primary advantages of hiring a professional is their ability to conduct a thorough inspection of your property. They can identify the species of termites present, the extent of the infestation, and the potential entry points that allow these pests access to your home. Based on this detailed assessment, pest control professionals can recommend targeted treatments that are more effective than generic over-the-counter solutions.
Common treatment options offered by professionals include liquid termiticides, baiting systems, and fumigation, each of which has its own benefits and drawbacks. Liquid termiticides create a chemical barrier in the soil around and under the home, deterring termites from entering. Baiting systems involve strategically placed bait stations around the property that attract and kill termites, preventing them from contributing to colony growth. Fumigation, while typically reserved for severe infestations, can eliminate termites throughout the home by filling the structure with a gas that penetrates all wood surfaces.
If you find termites despite having a barrier in place, it is imperative to act promptly. First, you should document any visible signs of termites and their damage for the pest control professional’s insights. Next, avoid disturbing the area of infestation to prevent termites from scattering further into your home. Do not attempt to spray insecticides, as this can push the termites deeper into hidden areas, making them more challenging to eradicate. Once you have contacted a pest control service, work with them to understand the nature of the infestation and how you can ensure the most effective treatment plan is implemented.
In the aftermath of treatment, consider discussing with your pest control professional about additional barriers or preventative measures that can be put in place to avoid future infestations. Regular monitoring and maintenance will also be crucial to ensure that any barriers, treatments, or inspections continue to protect your property effectively.
Preventative Measures After Treatment
After successfully treating a termite infestation, implementing effective preventative measures is crucial to safeguarding your property from future invasions. A thorough approach includes both physical and behavioral strategies aimed at reducing the risk of termites re-establishing themselves in or around your home. Firstly, ensuring that the barrier method employs a multi-faceted strategy is essential. This may include reapplying chemical barriers or maintaining physical barriers that prevent termites from accessing the structure.
It’s also important to address any environmental factors that could attract termites. This means ensuring that there is no wood-to-soil contact around the perimeter of your home. Wooden structures such as decks, fences, and even mulch should be elevated or positioned away from direct contact with the soil. Additionally, maintaining proper drainage around your property will minimize moisture, as termites are drawn to damp conditions. Inspecting and maintaining gutters and downspouts to ensure they direct water away from the foundation will also help eliminate potential breeding grounds.
Regular inspections are another critical preventative measure. It is advisable to schedule annual inspections with a pest control professional who can detect any early signs of new infestations before they escalate. Furthermore, educating yourself and your family about the signs of termite activity can foster a proactive mindset. Knowing what to look for, such as mud tubes, discarded wings, and frass (wooden sawdust), empowers you to act quickly should you notice anything unusual.
In terms of landscaping, try using plants that deter termites or replacing wooden structures with non-wood alternatives. Concrete or composite materials can be ideal substitutes to reduce the risk due to their inherent resistance to termite damage.
If you find termites despite having a barrier in place, it is critical to act swiftly. First, assess the integrity of the existing barrier; it may not have functioned effectively due to factors such as deterioration or improper installation. Contacting a professional pest control service is recommended, as they can conduct a thorough inspection to identify entry points and determine the extent of the infestation. They may suggest additional treatment methods, including baiting systems or enhanced barriers, to eradicate termites and prevent future occurrences effectively. Remember, early detection and action are key to minimizing damage and ensuring the long-term safety of your home.
Monitoring and Maintenance Strategies
Monitoring and maintenance strategies are essential components of any effective termite management plan. Once a barrier has been installed to protect your property from termite infestation, it is crucial to regularly monitor the effectiveness of this barrier and maintain the surrounding environment to prevent any termite activity. Termites are persistent creatures that can exploit even minor weaknesses or gaps in barriers, so vigilance is necessary.
Regular inspections are key to monitoring for any signs of termite activity or barrier deterioration. Homeowners should be proactive in checking areas that are prone to termite attacks, such as basements, crawl spaces, and around any wooden structures. This includes keeping an eye out for mud tubes, discarded wings, or any unexplained hollow sounds from wooden materials. It may also be beneficial to establish an inspection schedule, such as bi-annually or annually, depending on the local termite risk factors.
In addition to physical inspections, it may be wise to work with a professional pest management service for routine evaluations. These experts can provide advanced tools and techniques that go beyond basic home inspections, such as moisture detection and thermal imaging technology, enhancing the likelihood of early detection. In case of any changes in the ecosystem around your home, such as increased moisture due to plumbing issues or landscape alterations that promote soil contact with wood, take immediate steps to remedy these conditions as they can increase the risk of infestation.
If you find termites despite having a barrier in place, do not panic. First, assess how the termites have bypassed your defense. It could be due to a failure in the barrier, or the termites may have found an alternative route. Take immediate action by contacting a licensed pest control professional who can inspect the area and provide remediation strategies. They may recommend additional chemical treatments or alterations to your current barrier, ensuring that it resumes its protective function. It’s essential to understand that consistent maintenance and reevaluation of your pest prevention strategies are critical to long-term protection against termites, even when you have measures in place.
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Are you a disc golfer looking to improve your game? Then you need to know how to determine if a disc is understable. An understable disc is one that turns towards the right (for right-handed players) when thrown with power, causing it to fly straighter and then drop suddenly. This guide will show you how to evaluate the stability of a disc, helping you choose the right disc for your game and avoid those frustrating out-of-bounds throws. Get ready to take your disc golf game to the next level with this ultimate guide to determining disc flight ratings!
What is a Disc?
Overview of Disc Golf Equipment
Disc golf is a sport that requires specific equipment to play. The main piece of equipment used in disc golf is the disc itself. Disc golf discs are designed to be thrown and caught, similar to a frisbee. They come in various shapes, sizes, and weights, and are made from different materials such as plastic, metal, or rubber.
The discs used in disc golf are specifically designed to have different flight characteristics, which can affect how they fly through the air. The flight ratings of discs are used to describe how the disc will fly, and they are an important factor to consider when choosing the right disc for your game.
There are several different types of discs that are used in disc golf, including drivers, mid-range discs, and putters. Each type of disc is designed for a specific purpose, and they have different flight ratings that can affect how they fly. Understanding the different types of discs and their flight ratings can help you choose the right disc for your game and improve your overall performance.
The Purpose of a Disc
A disc, also known as a frisbee, is a plastic or rubber flying disc used in various games and sports. The primary purpose of a disc is to fly through the air in a controlled manner, allowing players to catch it or throw it to a target.
The design of a disc is carefully crafted to ensure it flies accurately and consistently. It has a flat base and a slightly curved edge, which creates an aerodynamic shape that helps it cut through the air. The disc’s weight and size also play a significant role in its flight patterns.
In addition to being used in recreational activities, discs are also used in competitive sports such as ultimate frisbee and disc golf. These sports require players to have a high level of skill and knowledge of how to throw and catch the disc effectively.
Overall, the purpose of a disc is to provide a fun and challenging way to play games and sports that involve throwing and catching a flying object.
Factors Affecting Disc Flight
Disc flight ratings are heavily influenced by aerodynamics, which is the study of the interaction between a moving object and the air around it. In the case of discs, aerodynamics refers to the way the disc moves through the air, and how the shape, weight, and material of the disc affect its flight.
There are several key factors that impact the aerodynamics of a disc, including:
- Shape: The shape of a disc affects the way air flows around it, and can impact the stability and distance of the flight. For example, a disc with a more rounded shape will have a different aerodynamic profile than a disc with a flatter or more angular shape.
- Weight: The weight of a disc can also impact its aerodynamics, as a heavier disc will have more momentum and may be more resistant to wind. However, a heavier disc may also be more difficult to control, particularly for beginners.
- Material: The material of a disc can also impact its aerodynamics, as different materials have different levels of flexibility and resistance to air flow. For example, a disc made from a more flexible material may be more prone to wind gusts, while a disc made from a stiffer material may be more resistant to wind.
Understanding these factors can help you to better understand how different discs will fly, and can help you to make informed decisions when choosing a disc for your own needs.
Disc flight ratings are heavily influenced by the weight of the disc. The weight of the disc affects its aerodynamic properties and can have a significant impact on its flight path. A heavier disc will typically have a more stable flight path, while a lighter disc will have a more unpredictable flight path.
- Effects of Weight on Disc Flight
- Stability: The weight of the disc plays a significant role in determining its stability during flight. A heavier disc will have a more stable flight path, while a lighter disc will have a more unpredictable flight path. This is because a heavier disc has more mass, which creates more air resistance, resulting in a more stable flight path. On the other hand, a lighter disc has less mass, which creates less air resistance, resulting in a less stable flight path.
- Range: The weight of the disc also affects its range. A heavier disc will typically have a shorter range, while a lighter disc will have a longer range. This is because a heavier disc has more mass, which makes it harder to throw far distances. On the other hand, a lighter disc has less mass, which makes it easier to throw far distances.
- Accuracy: The weight of the disc also affects its accuracy. A heavier disc will typically have better accuracy, while a lighter disc will have poorer accuracy. This is because a heavier disc has more mass, which makes it easier to control during flight. On the other hand, a lighter disc has less mass, which makes it harder to control during flight.
- Choosing the Right Weight for Your Disc
- Flight Style: The right weight for your disc will depend on your personal flight style. If you prefer a stable flight path, then a heavier disc is recommended. If you prefer a more unpredictable flight path, then a lighter disc is recommended.
- Throwing Power: The right weight for your disc will also depend on your throwing power. If you have a strong arm, then a heavier disc is recommended. If you have a weaker arm, then a lighter disc is recommended.
- Purpose: The right weight for your disc will also depend on your purpose. If you are using the disc for recreational purposes, then a lighter disc is recommended. If you are using the disc for competitive purposes, then a heavier disc is recommended.
In conclusion, the weight of the disc is a crucial factor in determining its flight ratings. It affects the stability, range, and accuracy of the disc, and choosing the right weight for your disc is essential to achieve the desired flight path.
The dimensions of a disc are crucial factors that determine its flight ratings. There are three primary dimensions to consider: the diameter, the rim width, and the flight plate.
- Diameter: The diameter of a disc is measured in inches, and it typically ranges from 7 to 17 inches. The smaller the diameter, the faster the disc will fly, while larger diameters will make the disc slower and more stable. For instance, a 7-inch disc will be faster and more overstable than a 17-inch disc.
- Rim Width: The rim width is the distance between the top of the rim and the inner edge of the disc. A wider rim will provide more stability, while a narrower rim will make the disc faster and more overstable. In general, a wider rim will also make the disc more resistant to dents and other impacts.
- Flight Plate: The flight plate is the bottom layer of the disc, and it determines the disc’s aerodynamic properties. The flight plate can be shallow or deep, depending on the disc’s design. A shallow flight plate will make the disc faster and more overstable, while a deep flight plate will make the disc slower and more understable. Additionally, the flight plate can be curved or flat, which also affects the disc’s flight ratings. A curved flight plate will make the disc turn more easily, while a flat flight plate will make the disc straighter and more predictable.
By understanding the dimensions of a disc, you can better determine its flight ratings and choose the right disc for your throwing style and the conditions you’ll be playing in.
How to Measure Disc Flight
Using a Flight Chart
When it comes to determining the flight rating of a disc, using a flight chart is one of the most accurate methods. A flight chart is a graph that shows the relationship between the speed of the disc and the height of its flight. It helps to visualize the disc’s trajectory and determine its maximum distance and height.
To use a flight chart, you need to measure the speed of the disc in miles per hour (mph) and the height of its flight in feet. You can do this by throwing the disc and measuring the distance it travels and the height it reaches. Once you have these measurements, you can plot them on the flight chart to determine the disc’s flight rating.
The flight chart is divided into two main sections: the horizontal axis represents the speed of the disc, and the vertical axis represents the height of the disc’s flight. The chart also includes lines that represent the different flight ratings, such as distance drivers, mid-range discs, and putters.
To determine the flight rating of a disc, you need to find the point on the chart where the speed and height measurements intersect. This point will fall on one of the lines representing the different flight ratings. For example, if the disc is a distance driver, the point will fall on the distance driver line, and you can read the corresponding flight rating from the chart.
It’s important to note that the accuracy of the flight chart depends on the accuracy of the speed and height measurements. Therefore, it’s essential to use a reliable measuring device, such as a radar gun or a laser rangefinder, to obtain accurate measurements.
Overall, using a flight chart is a reliable and accurate method for determining the flight rating of a disc. It provides a visual representation of the disc’s trajectory and helps to ensure that the disc is classified into the correct flight rating category.
When it comes to measuring disc flight, stability is a crucial factor to consider. A stable disc will fly straight and true, while an unstable disc will have a tendency to veer off course. Here are some key things to keep in mind when measuring stability:
- Firm grip: Hold the disc firmly in your hand, but not too tightly. A loose grip can cause instability, while a too-tight grip can affect the disc’s flexibility.
- Level arm: Extend your arm straight out in front of you, with the disc resting on your fingers. Keep your arm level and avoid tilting it up or down.
- Eye on the target: Keep your eyes fixed on the target, and avoid letting your gaze drift away. This will help you maintain a steady hand and a straight arm.
- Slow, controlled release: Slowly and smoothly release the disc, being careful not to snap it or throw it too hard. A gentle release will help ensure a stable flight path.
By following these guidelines, you can accurately measure the stability of a disc and get a better sense of how it will perform in flight.
Measuring distance is an essential aspect of determining disc flight ratings. To accurately measure the distance traveled by a disc, follow these steps:
- Choose a flat, open area without any obstacles.
- Throw the disc in a straight line, ensuring it is not affected by any external factors such as wind or air currents.
- Measure the distance from the point of release to the point of landing using a measuring tape or laser distance meter.
- Repeat the process at least three times to account for any variation in throwing technique or environmental factors.
- Calculate the average distance traveled by the disc, and use this value to determine its flight rating.
It is important to note that measuring distance is just one aspect of determining disc flight ratings. Other factors, such as accuracy and control, also play a crucial role in assessing a disc’s overall performance. By considering all these factors, you can make an informed decision when selecting the right disc for your needs.
Determining Disc Stability
Understanding Disc Stability
When it comes to disc golf, one of the most important factors that can affect the flight of a disc is its stability. Understanding disc stability is crucial for players to choose the right disc for their game and to improve their overall performance. In this section, we will delve into the details of disc stability and its impact on disc flight.
Factors Affecting Disc Stability
Disc stability is influenced by several factors, including the disc’s weight, diameter, rim width, and flight plate. These factors work together to determine the disc’s overall stability, which can be classified into three categories: understable, stable, and overstable.
- Understable: Discs with a lower weight-to-diameter ratio and a shallower flight plate are generally considered understable. These discs tend to have a tendency to turn and fade, making them ideal for players with slower arm speeds or those who need more control over their shots.
- Stable: Discs with a balanced weight-to-diameter ratio and a neutral flight plate are considered stable. These discs have a predictable flight pattern and are suitable for players with a wide range of skill levels.
- Overstable: Discs with a higher weight-to-diameter ratio and a steeper flight plate are classified as overstable. These discs have a tendency to resist turns and have a longer glide, making them ideal for players with faster arm speeds or those who need more distance on their shots.
Choosing the Right Disc for Your Game
By understanding disc stability, players can choose the right disc for their game and improve their overall performance. When selecting a disc, it’s important to consider the conditions, such as wind and terrain, as well as your personal throwing style and skill level.
For example, if you have a slower arm speed, you may want to choose an understable disc to help you maintain control over your shots. On the other hand, if you have a faster arm speed and need more distance, an overstable disc may be a better choice.
In conclusion, understanding disc stability is essential for players to choose the right disc for their game and to improve their overall performance. By considering the factors that affect disc stability and choosing the right disc for your game, you can take your disc golf game to the next level.
Factors Affecting Disc Stability
The stability of a disc is a critical factor in determining its flight ratings. It is essential to understand the factors that affect disc stability to ensure that you select the right disc for your throwing style and preferences. In this section, we will discuss the primary factors that influence disc stability.
- Weight Distribution
The weight distribution of a disc plays a crucial role in determining its stability. A disc with a balanced weight distribution will be more stable in flight, while an unbalanced disc will be less stable. When choosing a disc, it is important to consider the weight distribution and ensure that it is suitable for your throwing style.
- Flatness of the Disc
The flatness of a disc is another factor that affects its stability. A disc that is not flat will not fly straight, and its stability will be affected. When choosing a disc, it is important to ensure that the disc is flat and that it has a consistent shape throughout.
- Diameter of the Disc
The diameter of a disc also affects its stability. A disc that is too small in diameter will be less stable in flight, while a disc that is too large in diameter will be more stable. When choosing a disc, it is important to consider the diameter and ensure that it is suitable for your throwing style.
- Material of the Disc
The material of a disc can also affect its stability. Some materials, such as plastic, are more flexible than others, such as metal. A disc made from a flexible material will be less stable in flight than a disc made from a more rigid material. When choosing a disc, it is important to consider the material and ensure that it is suitable for your throwing style.
By understanding the factors that affect disc stability, you can make an informed decision when selecting a disc for your throwing style.
How to Test Disc Stability
To determine the stability of a disc, you can conduct a few simple tests. Here are some steps to follow:
- Find a flat and level surface to test the disc stability. This could be a golf course, a park, or any other open area.
- Hold the disc in your dominant hand and grip it firmly.
- Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart and your body facing the direction of flight.
- Slightly bend your knees and keep your core engaged.
- Begin the test by taking a few steps forward and then throwing the disc with a smooth, underhand motion.
- As the disc leaves your hand, make a “thumbs up” gesture with your other hand to check the disc’s stability.
- Observe the disc’s flight path and the stability of its movement. If the disc moves too much to the left or right, it is considered unstable.
- Repeat the test a few times to confirm the results.
By following these steps, you can determine the stability of a disc and choose the right one for your playing style.
Understable vs. Overstable Discs
Understanding the Differences
When it comes to disc golf, the flight of a disc is crucial to the success of a throw. Understanding the differences between understable and overstable discs is essential for players to choose the right disc for their throws.
An understable disc is one that turns over or curves to the left for a right-handed player. This means that the disc has a tendency to fly on a more circular path rather than a straight line. Understable discs are often used for shorter throws or when there is a strong headwind.
On the other hand, an overstable disc is one that flies straight and does not turn over. This means that the disc has a tendency to fly on a more straight path, even in the presence of a strong headwind. Overstable discs are often used for longer throws or when there is a strong tailwind.
It is important to note that the stability of a disc can also be affected by the speed and spin of the throw. A slower, spinny throw will make a disc more overstable, while a faster, flatter throw will make a disc more understable.
In conclusion, understanding the differences between understable and overstable discs is crucial for disc golf players to choose the right disc for their throws. Whether you are a beginner or an experienced player, having a good understanding of disc stability will help you improve your game.
How to Determine Disc Stability
When it comes to determining the stability of a disc, there are a few key factors to consider. One of the most important is the disc’s flight path. An understable disc will have a more shallow flight path, while an overstable disc will have a more steep flight path.
Another factor to consider is the disc’s fade pattern. An understable disc will have a more pronounced fade at the end of its flight, while an overstable disc will have a more gradual fade.
Additionally, the weight of the disc can also affect its stability. Generally, heavier discs are more overstable, while lighter discs are more understable.
To determine the stability of a disc, you can perform a few simple tests. One such test is to throw the disc straight ahead and observe its flight path. If the disc fades quickly and has a shallow flight path, it is likely understable. If the disc has a steep flight path and fades gradually, it is likely overstable.
Another test is to throw the disc with a strong hyzer angle and observe how it responds. If the disc flies straight and high, it is likely overstable. If the disc turns over and flies low, it is likely understable.
Ultimately, the key to determining disc stability is to understand the disc’s flight path, fade pattern, and weight. By taking these factors into account, you can choose the right disc for your needs and improve your game.
The Importance of Choosing the Right Disc
When it comes to disc golf, choosing the right disc is crucial to your success on the course. Each disc has its own unique flight characteristics, and understanding these differences is essential to choosing the right disc for your game. In this section, we will explore the importance of choosing the right disc for your game and provide some tips to help you make the best decision.
Factors to Consider
When choosing a disc, there are several factors to consider. The most important factors include:
- Your skill level: As a beginner, you may want to start with a more forgiving disc that is easier to control. As you become more experienced, you can move on to more advanced discs that offer greater distance and accuracy.
- Your throwing style: Different discs are designed for different throwing styles. For example, if you have a strong backhand, you may want to choose a disc that is designed for backhand throws.
- The course conditions: The conditions on the course can also impact your disc selection. For example, if the course is windy, you may want to choose a disc that is more resistant to wind.
Tips for Choosing the Right Disc
Here are some tips to help you choose the right disc for your game:
- Start with a few different discs: Don’t be afraid to try out a few different discs to find the one that feels best in your hand.
- Ask for advice: If you’re unsure which disc to choose, ask a more experienced player for advice. They may be able to recommend a disc that is well-suited to your game.
- Practice with different discs: Once you’ve chosen a disc, practice throwing it to get a feel for its flight characteristics.
- Experiment with different techniques: Don’t be afraid to experiment with different techniques to see what works best for you.
By considering these factors and following these tips, you can choose the right disc for your game and improve your performance on the course.
Final Thoughts on Determining Disc Flight Ratings
Determining disc flight ratings can be a complex process, but with the right knowledge and tools, it can be done with accuracy. Here are some final thoughts on determining disc flight ratings:
- Practice: Like any skill, determining disc flight ratings requires practice. Take the time to throw a variety of discs and observe their flights. Pay attention to factors such as wind conditions, altitude, and terrain. The more you practice, the better you will become at determining disc flight ratings.
- Consistency: It’s important to be consistent when determining disc flight ratings. Use the same method each time you throw a disc, and take note of the conditions at the time of the throw. This will help you to accurately compare and contrast different discs.
- Equipment: Using quality equipment can also help with determining disc flight ratings. Invest in a good disc golf bag and a variety of discs to practice with. Having a range of discs will allow you to compare and contrast different flights and determine ratings more accurately.
- Patience: Determining disc flight ratings can be a slow process. It’s important to be patient and take the time to carefully observe each throw. Rushing the process can lead to inaccurate ratings.
- Consulting Resources: While determining disc flight ratings requires practice and observation, it’s also helpful to consult resources such as flight charts and forums. These resources can provide valuable information on different discs and their flights, and can help you to fine-tune your own ratings.
In conclusion, determining disc flight ratings requires practice, consistency, quality equipment, patience, and consulting resources. By following these guidelines, you can accurately determine disc flight ratings and improve your disc golf game.
1. What is an understable disc?
An understable disc is a disc that has a tendency to turn to the left for a right-handed player and to the right for a left-handed player. This is usually caused by a disc that is not stable enough for the player’s throwing power or skill level.
2. How can I tell if a disc is understable?
One way to tell if a disc is understable is to observe its flight during a throw. If the disc turns to the left for a right-handed player or to the right for a left-handed player, it is likely understable. Another way is to compare the disc’s flight to the same disc model thrown by a more experienced player.
3. What causes a disc to be understable?
A disc can be understable due to a variety of factors, including the material it is made of, the design of the disc, and the player’s throwing technique. Understable discs are often made of softer plastics, which make them more flexible and less stable in flight. Additionally, a disc with a lower glide rating and a higher turn rating is more likely to be understable.
4. How can I improve my understable disc’s flight?
To improve the flight of an understable disc, try adjusting your throwing technique. A common technique is to use a more hyzer angle, which will cause the disc to turn less and fly straighter. Additionally, try using a disc with a higher glide rating and a lower turn rating, which will make it more stable in flight.
5. What are some signs that a disc is overstable?
An overstable disc is a disc that has a tendency to turn to the right for a right-handed player and to the left for a left-handed player. Signs that a disc is overstable include a flat, straight flight, and a tendency to resist turning. Additionally, an overstable disc may have a higher glide rating and a lower turn rating.
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The U.S. wind industry achieved two remarkable milestones in 2019 thanks to the ingenuity and hard work of the country’s wind-energy workforce. First, we now have more than 100 GW of installed capacity. That’s enough wind power to meet the electricity needs of 32 million homes. This success story is decades in the making, and it has created well-paying jobs, new opportunities across rural America, and affordable, reliable, clean electricity.
American wind power was born in the California desert in the 1980s. Over the ensuing years, innovators and pioneers reduced costs, improved reliability and turned wind power into a mainstream energy source. That work paid off — while it took 28 years to build the first 25 GW of wind power, we’ve only needed 11 years to build the next 75. As a result, wind now generates enough electricity to meet the demands of California (the world’s fourth largest economy) and New Jersey combined.
Second, wind is now the largest source of renewable energy in the U.S. In 2019, wind reliably and affordably supplied more than 7 percent of the country’s electricity. Locally, the numbers are even more impressive. Six states — Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Maine — rely on wind to supply more than 20 percent of their electricity. In fact, wind generation exceeds 40 percent in Iowa and Kansas, and in both states, wind is now the largest source of electricity.
The next decade will be seminal for American wind power. We’re on track to meet 20 percent of the country’s electricity demand by 2030, and U.S. offshore wind is burgeoning into a clean-energy powerhouse. Our project development pipeline is at near-record levels, and with your help we can build the clean energy grid of the future. There’s much work that still needs to be done to make this happen, but first let’s look at the ways wind is powering opportunity across America:
Wind Energy is the Preferred Choice for New Power
Wind power was the No. 1 choice of new utility-scale power generation in 2019, capturing 39 percent of new additions. Over the past decade, wind power represents 30 percent of utility-scale power plant installations, and 2019 was the industry’s third strongest year for installations on record. And there’s more on the way — demand for wind energy set a new record as utilities and corporate buyers announced nearly 9 GW of new wind power contracts in 2019.
Overall, the pipeline of wind projects either under construction or in advanced development exceeds 44 GW. Across 33 states, 191 different wind projects are now in the works, representing $62 billion worth of investments. When these wind farms are completed, they’ll generate enough electricity to power another 15 million American homes.
Why has wind become the power source of choice? Economics. Wind’s costs have fallen by 70 percent over the past decade — it’s now the most affordable source of new electricity throughout much of the country. These cost declines are spurred by technological advances that let newer turbines reach stronger, steadier winds, which also makes wind economically feasible in more parts of the country, including those with less robust wind resources. Improved domestic manufacturing also has played an important role in driving costs down, while tapping into cutting edge tools such as predictive analytics and big data that have lowered operations and maintenance costs as well.
Wind’s affordability and long-term price stability is a big reason why Fortune 500 companies across the country are choosing it to power their factories, stores, and data centers. In fact, corporate buyers accounted for 40 percent of the power purchase agreements signed in 2019, and AT&T and Walmart were the year’s top two largest wind buyers. There were many newcomers to enter the wind market as well, representing diverse industries with first-time buyers in 2019 including one of the world’s largest oil field services provider, Baker Hughes; multinational cosmetics manufacturer, Estee Lauder; and McDonald’s, the first fast food restaurant brand to buy wind power.
“For us, that’s kind of a gate,” said Apple CEO Tim Cook, explaining why his company built new data centers in Iowa. “If we couldn’t (power them with wind), we would not be here.”
Wind Powers a Rural Renaissance
All this growth brings nearly unmatched investment to rural America, home to the country’s strongest wind resources and 99 percent of wind projects. Wind brings new revenue that communities can use to fix roads, invest in schools, and upgrade emergency services equipment. In 2019 alone, wind projects paid $1.6 billion in state and local taxes and landowner lease payments.
“We’ll be building three state-of-the-art science classrooms; a new life skills special education wing; a new middle school/junior high wing for our students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grade; as well as a new gymnasium and a new band room. Our current band room shares a wall with our library, which is not the best situation. So that will be out on the edge of the school now and they can blow their horns as loud as they want to,” said Amy Shane, superintendent of Nebraska’s O’Neill School District. “I don’t think we would have been able to do this project, at least not at this time (without wind revenue).”
Land-lease payments also provide landowners with a drought-proof cash crop that helps them weather lean years and invest in and expand their operations during good times.
“It’s a challenge every day if you’re a farmer or a rancher. You depend on the weather in the farming business. Right now, we’re in the midst of a really long, hard drought,” said Storm Gerhart of Curry County, New Mexico. “I get a good feeling when I look at that turbine. I take pride in it. You can get tired of the wind blowing in your face every day for day after day. But now, when you want to grumble a little bit about it, you can look over there at that turbine and you say, ‘Well, that’s good; that’s good.’”
Wind Powers Job Creation in All 50 States
The U.S. wind industry now directly employs more than 115,000 Americans, spread across 50 states. Jobs range from wind technicians to factory workers, engineers, finance experts, and construction workers. Wind-turbine technician remains the second fastest growing job in the country according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, and veterans find wind jobs at a rate 61 percent higher than the average U.S. industry.
Many of these jobs are in rural America, offering young people the opportunity to find rewarding careers that allow them to put down roots and support their families without having to leave home.
“If the wind farm didn’t get built, I’m not sure what I would be doing. To have a job similar to this, I’d be commuting, which isn’t ideal for myself or my family,” said Chelsea Borrette, operations maintenance planner at the Prairie Breeze Wind Farm in Nebraska. “Having this position means that I don’t have to travel out of the community I was born and raised in and want to support. For my family, I’m always around for my son, my husband. I’m able to be present.”
Wind power is one of the few industries creating new American manufacturing jobs as well. Today, more than 530 U.S. factories across 43 states build wind-turbine components, employing more than 26,000 Americans.
Offshore Wind Begins to Take Shape
States up and down the East Coast have made substantial offshore wind commitments as they look to supply many of the country’s largest population centers with competitively priced, reliable, clean energy. From Massachusetts to Virginia, these pledges now total more than 25,000 MW, enough to power millions of American homes and help keep utility costs stable for residents.
Meeting these targets will require constructing thousands of offshore wind turbines, and that means well-paying jobs for dozens of occupations, including welders, wind technicians, electricians, longshoremen, vessel operators, and many more positions. AWEA estimates that building 30,000 MW of offshore wind could support more than 83,000 jobs by 2030. It would also represent $57 billion of investment in the U.S. economy and deliver $25 billion of annual economic activity by 2030.
Many of these jobs will be in the supply chain. As steel goes in the water and American offshore wind farms begin to come online, we’ll need facilities and workers here domestically to build the supplies the industry needs.
While many of these jobs will be on the East Coast near operating wind projects, it’s important to remember offshore wind will create nationwide benefits and job opportunities. We’ll need to tap into the expertise of communities and workers throughout the country to get the job done. For example, several Gulf Coast companies whose primary business involves offshore oil and gas helped construct the first U.S. offshore project, Rhode Island’s Block Island Wind Farm. The Gulf knows how to build ocean energy infrastructure, and workers in the region will play a key role in building East Coast offshore wind projects.
Offshore wind offers legacy energy companies a way to diversify their businesses so they can thrive even during oil and gas downturns, which many are currently experiencing.
Jobs and a supply chain are just the beginning — the community investments are real, too. So far, companies have announced investments of $307 million in port-related infrastructure, $650 million in transmission infrastructure, and $342 million in U.S. manufacturing facilities and supply chain development. These are just the publicly known figures. We’ve seen other announcements to establish offshore wind hubs and factories along the coast that have not yet listed a specific dollar amount but represent millions of additional dollars invested. Companies have also signed contracts to build four new U.S.-flagged crew transfer vessels to support offshore wind project development, which is a preview of the ship building activity to come as we grow our offshore wind pipeline.
Wind Powers A Clean Environment
As the world looks for solutions to combat carbon pollution, wind can play a leading role. In the U.S., wind already voids 42 million cars’ worth of CO2 emissions. It also reduces a substantial amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that create smog and trigger air pollution. Lastly, wind is an enormous water saver. Because wind turbines don’t require water for cooling like conventional power plants, wind avoids 102 billion gallons of water every year.
The Path Forward
We still have work to do to fully harness our wind-power potential. The COVID-19 pandemic is causing unprecedented challenges to the U.S. healthcare system, disruptions to daily life across the country, and deep uncertainty across the economy. Global supply chain disturbances and massive public health interventions are extending these obstacles to the U.S. wind-energy industry as well. We’re working hard to understand the many hurdles our members are facing and the impacts to their businesses this represents.
Ensuring the safety of the wind workforce and protecting American jobs and economic investment remain our primary objectives.
Beyond COVID-19’s uncertainty, modernizing the electric grid and building new transmission to meet 21st century needs will play a crucial role in continuing wind’s success story. Transmission investment allows us to tap into the country’s most wind- and solar-rich areas and deliver that electricity to the towns, cities and manufacturing hubs where energy demand is highest. All of this makes the power system more reliable while lowering costs for American families and businesses, and studies show transmission upgrades more than pay for themselves in the long run. Elsewhere, the rules governing our electricity markets were created for a system much different than today’s energy mix. Wind farms can provide important reliability services such as frequency response, voltage and reactive power support, disturbance ride-through, frequency regulation, and operating reserves, and these services should be valued in the marketplace. We can’t fully harness the reliability services wind offers until market rules are updated to recognize them.
Accurately valuing wind energy’s zero-carbon electricity will also help keep our industry growing. Finally, we’re prioritizing important work to ensure thoughtful, workable permitting policies. Maintaining positive relationships with the communities hosting wind farms is critical for our industry to continue expanding.
Building 75 GW in 11 years is impressive, and we have the potential to do much more in the coming decade. American wind power stands ready to help lead the country’s recovery as we look to get our economy back on track once we defeat the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Welcome to Chinese Face Mapping, where we explore the ancient art of reading the signs in your skin! We thought it would be fun to share all that we have learned about the fascinating world of traditional Chinese Face Mapping. Whether you implement, see a Traditional Chinese Practioner, or are just interested in the concept of Chinese Face Mapping. Join us in learning more about Chinese Face Mapping!
Introduction to Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping, also known as facial diagnosis, is an ancient Chinese practice that uses the face as the window to a person's overall health. By looking at the color, shape and other distinguishing characteristics of a person’s face, it’s possible to make assessments about different parts of their body and even gain insight into psychological disturbances.
This practice is based on the fundamental idea that everything in our bodies is connected and influenced by each other. Any change — whether illness or physical ailment can affect a person’s overall health. While Chinese medicine has been around for centuries and even millennia, it is only recently being validated by modern science as an effective alternative health approach with effective treatments for many ailments.
Chinese face mapping helps to understand how different parts of your body can be affected by certain lifestyle choices like diet, exercise, and stress levels. This practice originated thousands of years ago in China but has since become popular worldwide with many traditional healing practitioners offering treatments in their clinics. When having a facial diagnosis session, your practitioner will evaluate areas such as the eyes, nose, forehead, and lips. These areas are thought to link to specific organs in the body such as kidneys or lungs or can indicate general well-being such as stress or nutrient deficiencies.
Benefits of Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping is an ancient Chinese therapeutic technique that uses various elements of a person's face to assess their physical and emotional health. This technique is known as “Teh Li” and dates back to roughly 3000 BC. By understanding the underlying principles of this practice, you can use the information gained from a facial reading to improve your overall health and well-being.
The Chinese believe that areas on the face reflect problems with our organs. For example, red cheeks are often associated with digestive issues such as indigestion or acid reflux. Similarly, puffy white patches around our eyes can often indicate kidney problems while puffiness near the nose bridge may be associated with liver issues.
In addition, Chinese face mapping examines underlying emotional issues which may be causing particular physical ailments in an attempt to address the source of any ailments rather than just treating symptoms for short-term relief. Understanding this emotional connection may also aid in soothing any emotions which are causing physical discomfort.
By practicing Chinese face mapping regularly and taking note of changes to skin conditions or facial features, you can gain valuable insights into how your body is functioning and what you can do to improve your overall well-being. Ultimately, it is believed that by using Chinese Face Mapping techniques proactively you can prevent medical issues before they become severe enough to require medical attention
History of Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping is an ancient practice that dates back more than 4,000 years. It originated in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and was based on the idea that a person's external appearance reflects their internal health and wellness. Each area of the face was believed to correspond with a specific organ system in the body, allowing practitioners to identify any health imbalances that may be present. By evaluating different areas of the face, TCM practitioners can address underlying health issues and create personalized treatments for their patients.
Chinese face mapping has evolved over time, becoming part of modern medical research. Through various studies, researchers have been able to identify correlations between different facial features and certain diseases or illnesses. For example, certain types of acne are known to be linked to nutritional deficiencies or digestive issues. In addition, changes in pigmentation can provide clues about an individual’s overall health or underlying metabolic issues that may need further investigation.
While Chinese face mapping is still primarily used as a means of assessing internal health concerns within TCM practices, modern research has allowed us to gain insight into how changes in our facial features can reflect our overall well-being. This ancient framework offers an alternative way for healthcare providers to assess patient wellness and provides guidance on creating effective treatment plans based on individual needs and preferences.
Types of Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping is an ancient practice that uses an individual’s facial features to determine potential health risks and skin concerns. By mapping out specific zones and analyzing the condition of each one, a professional skin or beauty therapist can identify potential health risks and offer appropriate treatment solutions. Commonly known as ‘facial diagnosis’, this technique has been used for centuries in Eastern medicine for uncovering underlying health issues.
There are a few different types of Chinese face mapping: The Nine-Grid Method, Eight Trigrams Method, Yin-Yang System, and Five Elements Theory.
Nine-Grid Method: This method divides the entire face into nine sections. Each section corresponds to particular organs within the body, allowing practitioners to diagnose physical issues with ease.
Eight Trigrams Method: This is a popular Chinese astrology system that maps out eight trigrams, or combinations of three lines, on the forehead—each representing eight different energy sources such as prosperity, strong relationships, and luck. Different signs can tell different things about a person’s character traits or their current state of well-being.
Yin-Yang System: According to this system, physiognomy plays an important role in analyzing a person’s character by looking at the facial features associated with yin (dark) and yang (light) elements present on their face. It is believed that if one element appears too dominant over another it could be linked to certain physical disharmonies in the body corresponding with yin or yang imbalance respectively.
Five Elements Theory: This type of Chinese face reading relies heavily on traditional Chinese wisdom which involves harnessing nature's five elements—wood, fire, earth, metal, and water—to establish how related facial features are connected to our physical well-being and even personality traits such as creativity or level of ambition for example.
Popular Chinese Face Mapping Techniques
Face mapping has been practiced by Chinese healers and beauty experts for centuries. Popular Chinese face mapping techniques correlate different areas of your face with various organs and systems in your body, suggesting that a skin problem could be indicative of an underlying health concern. This can help guide you to take action to improve or maintain your overall health and wellness.
Chinese face mapping plays a large role in ancient healing traditions like Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Acupuncture & Moxibustion Therapy (AMT). In TCM, the idea is that if something is wrong with an organ inside your body, it will show up externally on the face in the corresponding area. For example, diagnosing abdominal pain might involve examining the forehead, or evaluating constipation issues might mean looking at the cheek area.
For AMT, practitioners view certain vulnerable spots on your face as "mirror" points that connect directly with internal organs. When one of these points is pressed, it sends a signal to the related organ inside the body via acupuncture meridians or energy lines.
The main focus areas when it comes to popular Chinese face mapping techniques are- eyebrows and forehead (liver/kidney), eyes (gal bladder/lungs), cheeks (stomach/spleen), jaws (teeth/gums/sinus) nose(heart/circulatory system) and mouth(endocrine system). By studying particular patterns or “maps” located on different parts of the face, practitioners aim to get clues about various adjustments that need to be made inside the body for improved wellness.
How to Practice Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping, also known as face reading or physiognomy, has its roots in traditional Chinese medicine. This ancient art forms the belief that your face can reveal information about the state of your health, emotions, and overall energy. By studying the patterns on a person’s face, one can begin to understand how physical discomforts and ailments may be connected.
Practicing Chinese face mapping is not difficult; all you need is a pen and paper. The first step is to draw out the rules of Chinese face mapping on your paper: draw a map of each side of your face, mirroring its features. Make sure to include parts such as eyebrows or start with certain areas (forehead, periorbital area). Label each area so that it’s easier to remember which spot you’re looking at.
Next, observe the features of each area carefully: look for color changes or texture differences that may indicate imbalances in health or energy levels. Try to match what you’re seeing with medical conditions associated with particular areas of the body; for instance, reddish cheeks may indicate digestive issues such as acid reflux disease or irritable bowel syndrome.
Finally, make notes about any possible health issues in an organized way on your paper so that you can refer back to it when needed. You can even use photographs or video footage if they make it easier for you to remember details and interpretations. Through practice and observation over time (you can track changes week-to-week or month-to-month!), you will get better at understanding how Chinese face mapping works – and soon enough the secrets behind how we “see” health will become revealed!
Common Mistakes to Avoid When Practicing Chinese Face Mapping
Chinese face mapping is a traditional Chinese medicine technique that claims to identify a person’s inner health condition based on specific areas of their face. While some practitioners contest the validity of this technique, others practice it regularly and insist upon its effectiveness. Regardless, those who wish to practice Chinese face mapping should be aware of certain common mistakes that can lead to incorrect evaluations.
The first mistake is to not take into consideration the patient’s skin color. Different shades of complexion can cause one area on a person’s face to look different than another area on the same face, skewing an assessment. Additionally, one should not forget to cleanse the skin before performing an evaluation. According to Chinese medicine ideals, the skin should be free from dirt and oils as they can affect an assessment result if they exist in abundance.
Other common mistakes include neglecting to assess the shape or contours of a person’s facial features. Changes in facial shapes or size can present themselves on certain areas of a face and indicate health conditions that might otherwise have been missed had the shape not been considered during an evaluation. Moreover, those who perform Chinese face mapping should avoid making general assumptions about health conditions for everyone with a particular symptom or issue as symptoms and how they manifest are highly individualized based on gender and age differences among other factors unique to each individual patient.
That's a Wrap
When concluding your Chinese face mapping session, there are several points to keep in mind. The most important is that this form of analysis should never be used to make unfounded medical recommendations. The diagnostics provided are meant to alert you to potential areas of concern in order for you to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation.
Additionally, it’s important to consider factors beyond the face map when making health decisions. Each human body is one-of-a-kind and other lifestyle factors can also have an effect on overall health. Finally, since this form of analysis involves obtaining information based on physical characteristics, it’s best to seek a trained practitioner who can provide the most accurate results.
By taking all these points into consideration and using Chinese face mapping as an informational resource, practitioners can help clients make well-informed decisions regarding their individual health needs.
What is Right For You
By analyzing the appearance of your skin, Chinese face mapping can supposedly provide insights into your overall health. While there is some scientific evidence to support the idea that our skin can reflect our internal health, Chinese face mapping should be viewed as more of a symbolic than a diagnostic tool.
If you're interested in exploring Chinese face mapping, it's important to do your research and consult with a trained professional. Pay attention to your body and trust your intuition—if something doesn't feel right, don't hesitate to ask for more information. Chinese face mapping may not be for everyone, but if you’re curious, there’s no harm in giving it a try as long as you do your research and stay safe. Remember, Chinese face mapping is meant to be fun and informative, so relax and enjoy the process.
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This post first appeared on CompetencyWorks on July 21, 2016.
The classrooms are buzzing at The Young Women’s Leadership School in Astoria (TYWLS). It’s one of those schools that brings tears – tears of joy as students feel cared for, respected, supported, and challenged throughout their learning. It feels as if students and teachers alike are in what athletes refer to as the “flow state” or the “zone.” Everywhere you look is deep concentration, deep learning, and deep satisfaction.
TYWLS is using mastery-based learning to break out of many of the organizational structures that bind, and one could argue constrain, our education system. Thanks to Dr. Allison Persad, principal; Caitlin Stanton, arts teacher; Christy Kingham, ELA teacher; Scott Melcher, social studies; Katherine Tansey, math teacher; and Greg Zimdahl for sharing their insights and wisdom.
The Power Of Performance Levels
The Young Women’s Leadership School is focused on skills such as Argue, Be Precise, Collaborate, Communicate, Conclude, Discern, Innovate, Investigate, and Plan. These skills are the primary organizing structure for the school. ELA teacher Christy Kingham was the first to explain the TYWLS strategy. “We began to integrate project-based learning and performance tasks at the same time as we came to mastery-based learning,” she said. “We stay focused on helping students build skills, as those can be transferred into other domains. Content in each of the disciplines is very important, as that is what students use to engage in projects and performance tasks. However, we separate skills from content because of the importance of transferrable skills.”
All teachers use the same rubrics for each of the ten skills that indicate performance levels 6-12. In some cases, such as ELA, they are organized around bands 9-10 and 11-12 rather than grade levels as indicated by the Common Core ELA standards. TYWLS refers to these as spiraled rubrics that are organized and vertically aligned so that students can see their skill development over different performance levels. Thus, an eighth grade student can meet the eighth grade performance level, or they can exceed by meeting the ninth grade performance level. When they enter ninth grade, if they have developed any additional skills, they are now meeting the ninth grade performance level and can strive to meet the tenth grade level. One teacher explained, “Spiraled rubrics allow you to batch by skills, not just age. We can work strategically to help students move from one performance level to the next.”
The TYWLS commitment to personalizing instruction is reflected in the design of the rubric. The Not Yet category on the rubric is left blank, with descriptions for only the meet or exceed categories. Kingham explained, “There are a million reasons why a student is not meeting a learning target or what they could be doing on the way to meeting it. We leave it blanks so that teachers can give individual attention and feedback.”
Benefits of Skills-Focus
There are several other benefits from this focus on skills and school-wide spiraled rubrics. First, the skills-based learning targets aren’t just for grading students. They become “teaching points” that help teachers become more intentional in their instruction and in preparing for helping students in the places they are most likely to struggle. Second, it lends itself easily to interdisciplinary learning. “We all can access the learning targets across the school,” drama teacher Caitlin Stanton explained. “It makes it easy to figure out ways to create joint targets. For example, in science, students are formulating an argument and defending it with evidence, as are students in a social studies or English class. Shared targets create shared language and expectations and push students to truly transfer these 21st century skills.”
The skills-focus also offers teachers flexibility in content as well as opportunity for substantial voice and choice. As one teacher put it, “The content choices can be externally driven by state policy or internally by the interests of students. The content lives in the evidence that students create to demonstrate their learning.” Teachers draw on content in terms of what they think will engage students and offers opportunity for exploring issues and building skills. Of course, in New York, teachers are also cognizant that they have to cover the content as required by the Regents exams. History teacher Greg Zimdahl explained, “In my US History course, I use a project entitled ‘Becoming American,’ which uses six different genres to explore immigration with students making presentations to an audience. We are folding in all the content they need to cover for the Regents and students will be able to co-design projects.”
The number of learning targets is also kept at very manageable numbers. TYWLS largely annualizes learning targets, which range from nine to fifteen per year. There have been concerns that using standards as the primary organizing structure in any school (and especially in competency-based schools) creates too much granularity if teachers are assessing for every standard.
Benefits for Students
It makes a difference for students to have a sharp focus on such a powerful set of skills. For starters, interdisciplinary courses are going to have more depth, especially when driven by fascinating essential questions. Second, reflecting on and building a small set of skills gives students confidence. As Greg Zimdahl explained, “Test anxiety can go away when students are confident they have the skill. So many exams are about content and trying to remember all the content. We remind students that if you forget the facts, you still have the skill.”
Students can also build up evidence of meeting targets in one class and submit to a teacher of another class. This is particularly important when students are coming from behind and have performance levels significantly lower than grade levels. Teachers can see each other’s learning targets and enter information on students’ progress in JumpRope, their grading information system.
A conversation with Rodyna, Misbah, and Naimah, students who range from eighth to twelfth grade, illuminated the value of the mastery-based grading practices. Misbah explained, “Mastery-based grading makes the relationship between the student and teachers more intimate. It becomes a two-way relationship rather than a one-way relationship where the teachers just give you the grades. I can talk about my struggles with my teacher in a very clear way that is focused on specific skills and specific performance tasks. I know what I need to do in order to get the grade I want.” Rodyna added, “The mastery-based grading helps me understand what I need to learn or do differently. In the old way, when I got a number, I wouldn’t know what to do differently. With the learning targets, I can make better choices and revise things.”
All three young women chimed in when we talked about how grades reflect them as learners. “A number can’t represent a person. An average doesn’t reflect who you are. Mastery-based learning shows how we are doing in our learning.” Misbah also pointed out that “the numbers can get in the way. I just wanted to get higher and higher numbers. I wasn’t very interested in building my skills. It was the easy way out. It’s harder this way, to really make sure you are learning, and it is better.”
Beneficial Schoolwide Practices
The spiraling rubrics for skills require two schoolwide practices, not usually found in traditional schools, that can help drive toward mastery-based learning. First, ongoing calibration is particularly important for teachers to credential the different performance levels of each skill consistently. Second, given the flexibility in content, TYWLS is beginning a process of curriculum mapping to look at what content is being covered in each grade. Teachers are beginning to capture the overall curriculum, including topics, essential questions, performance tasks, and the evidence of learning submitted by students. Kingham said, “We are trying to capture the overall student learning experience so that we can become more intentional.” This is an important practice for several reasons: to avoid unintentional duplication, to seek out opportunities to build upon and connect with interdisciplinary curriculum, and to ensure enough breadth.
As TYWLS continues to fine-tune their processes, the teachers are also building confidence. Kingham reflects, “Mastery-based learning help to put to rest the anxiety we feel about how we can know what our students know.” Relying on processes that allow superintendents, principals, teachers, and parents to have confidence that teachers know what students know is one of the cornerstones of embedding accountability into our schools rather than depending on policy to drive it.
Insights and Inquiry: Of course, when students have choice within their performance tasks, there will also be differentiation about the background knowledge (content) that each student brings to the classroom. It’s important for skill-focused schools to keep an eye on the content that is being used – not covered, but used – in the classroom. I can also imagine students beginning to map out the content they are familiar with so they have a growing understanding of the background knowledge they have learned from their life experiences as well as in school.
Simultaneous Skill Building and Preparing For The Regents
Wherever I went in NYC, all schools said the same thing. The global history Regents exam is considered a barrier to mastery-based learning. One teacher explained, “You get students in ninth grade and you have two years to flood them with content regardless of what their skills are.” TYWLS’s skill of “Be Precise” is one of the ways they help students build a skill and come to terms with the idea that they are going to have to remember a lot of facts. Stanton noted, “Discern is also a powerful skill for preparing for the Regents. Students need to be able to read text and make meaning from it.”
Students’ reading skills are important in this process. Zimdahl explained, “We have had to build our ability to support literacy across the curriculum using guided text and close reading.”
You can get a glimpse at how this all comes together by looking at Zimdahl’s course on The Story of American Freedom for eleventh graders. At the end of the course overview, Zimdahl explains that he’s designed for three purposes: to engage in a study of America’s past, to prepare you for college-level work, and to prepare for the American History and Government Regents. However, note that the goals of the course are for students to become skilled, lifelong learners. If you go to unit one on the colonies, you can see how he organizes units so that they are “asynchronous” (i.e., students have flexibility about pace with the understanding that every student needs to be planning for what it will take to complete the course). There is also a performance tracker for students that lists the performance tasks in each unit and an example of a rubric that shows the three categories of Not Yet (open for teachers to provide feedback to students), Meeting, and Exceeding across four skills: collaborate, conclude, discern, and plan. Again, given the spiraled design of the rubrics, Meeting equals eleventh grade and Exceeding means students are demonstrating at the expectations for twelfth graders.
Intensives for Deeper Learning
Twice a year for two full weeks, cross-disciplinary teams of teachers create intensives for students to take a deeper dive into project-based learning. Students get to do things they might not otherwise (given the constraints of school schedules) while also earning one elective credit. Students get to choose among all the intensives, although teachers will encourage students weak in an academic area to focus on something that will allow them to build their skills.
The intensives, like the classes, are organized around essential questions, performance tasks, and assessments of the ten skills. For example, the essential questions driving the intensive Citizen Food 2.0 are:
- How is food a reflection of a society’s values and priorities?
- How does food serve as a foundation for individual, community, and environmental well-being?
- How can food be an avenue to empowerment, citizenship, and social justice?
The performance tasks or deliverables (that’s the first time I’ve seen that word used in a school) include:
- “What I Eat” Photo Essay
- Journal Entries
- Farmscape play performance
- GMO Debate
If you are interested in creating intensives for your school, check out Kingham’s resources available to support teachers in creating their intensives.
Meeting Kids Where They Are
Kingham was adamant, “I do not change my text for any student.” As we entered the conversation about how to meet the needs of students with significant gaps in their learning, Kingham described her approach. “Students have to have text-rich experiences and lives. We want them to have the skills and attitudes that allow them to read anything. I design scaffolding strategies to do close reading for those students who are challenged by complex text. They have to be practicing the skills and performing the skills all the time. Students who struggle with reading have to practice and perform reading strategies the same way that we have our ELL students practice and perform Romeo and Juliet.”
Zimdahl explained that this approach does require “smart planning,” as she has to be prepared for multiple things to be happening in the classroom. In addition, she has to think about the pacing for the class, knowing that some students may take longer to read the central text. Thus, she needs additional activities for other students when they have finished the text. Stanton explained “We lean hard on the Weebly for each course to make it easy for students to find out what other activities they can do. We strive to make our courses completely asynchronous. In order for teachers to personalize in the classroom, we have to hand over the keys to learning. We want students to be responsible and purposeful in their learning. It can be stressful for teachers and students when you do it for the first time. It doesn’t feel or look like learning, but then the products start rolling in. Students can do so much more than we think they can.”
Preparing Teachers for Personalized, Mastery-Based Learning
Our policy talks about all students being ready for college and careers, but we don’t talk as much about what it takes for all teachers to be ready to succeed in a personalized, mastery-based school. At TYWLS, all the teachers have embraced mastery-based learning. However, Kingham noted, “There is a difference between your mastery infrastructure and the school capacity. As teachers, we are always building new skills – that’s an ongoing process, but we are all in.” One teacher described their culture as, “There are always a few teachers who are cheerleaders helping to carry the others through any new change or improvement. Each improvement means we need to learn new skills. So it helps tremendously when we support each other.”
When they hire new teachers, TYWLS seeks those with an open mind, a shared understanding of pedagogical approaches, and a willingness to learn. However, it can still be a bit of a struggle as teachers shake off the assumptions and routines of the education system that they themselves learned in. Principal Allison Persad noted, “We are asking people to go beyond the history of their life experiences. We are asking them to change how they think about teaching, learning, and their role as teachers. We are asking them to make the mindshift to mastery.” Kingham continued, “If a teacher’s mind and heart is in the right place, and once we give them time to see mastery-based learning in action, they can move forward. The other teachers will support them.”
The team at TYWLS pushes themselves to improve the models and processes. Persad noted, “We expect students to revise and revise and we ourselves are in a constant process of revision. How can we deepen the learning? How can we better engage students? How can we offer them even better learning experiences? There isn’t a perfect mastery-based system. It’s a process of continually improving.”
It was interesting to hear about the steps TYWLS has taken in their continuous improvement efforts. Starting with support from Grant Wiggins of Authentic Education, they learned how to develop outcomes and essential questions. Purchasing JumpRope allowed them to track student progress on outcomes. They also realized they were missing the 21st century or higher order skills, thus the shift to using the ten skills as outcomes. Along the way, they introduced student-led conferences. Only last year they realized that the ten skill outcomes were too broad, so they created learning targets. Every course has about nine to fifteen learning targets for the year (three to five per trimester). They created the spiraled rubrics. And now…beginning the process of curriculum mapping across the school.
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Over the past 200 years, occupational safety and health procedures have saved countless lives. Remember that whenever your office teams complain about completing more safety training.
However, the importance of health and safety is no excuse for bad training interventions. Unfortunately, safety training is too often boring, repetitive, or simply irrelevant. Training facilitators should work twice as hard to create effective training material when there are many barriers to organizational learning.
In this article, we’ll explain how to create safety training courses that make a difference. We will:
- Define safety training
- Introduce the major methods of safety training
- Examine how safety training is important in office work, lab-based professions, and manufacturing.
Employee training in today’s businesses should cover a wide range of areas. Don’t let safety training get left behind.
What is safety training?
Safety training educates employees about how to prevent accidents, injuries, and hazards in the workplace. It helps employees identify risks and shows them what steps to take to ensure their safety.
The makeup of safety training is different for every workplace. Some of the topics that might appear include:
- Legal and regulatory requirements
- Hazard recognition
- Emergency procedures
- Personal protective equipment (PPE)
- Electrical Safety
- Hazardous materials handling and storage
- Chemical safety
- Hazard reporting and communication
- Slips, trips, and falls prevention
- Workplace violence prevention
With the right choice of topics, participants will have the knowledge, skills, and awareness necessary to identify and mitigate risks, adhere to safety regulations, and promote a safety culture within an organization.
As 2023 statistics from the UK’s HSE show, even in today’s safety-conscious workplaces, people die at work every single year—and many more suffer injuries. Not only is this disastrous for workers, but businesses are harmed through lost working days, compensation, and reputational damage. Safety training is not a cure-all solution, but it can make a huge difference to your business stability.
What are the different types of safety training?
In this article, we will look at several key safety training methods. They are:
- Video training
- In-person demonstrations
- In-person classroom training
- Soft skills training
Together, these methods can deliver important safety knowledge to your employees.
But as we’ve already suggested, these methods can be delivered badly. Whatever method you choose to deliver safety training, you should make sure that:
- It explains the relative importance of different aspects of work
- The trainer is attentive to the needs of their audience
- It does not repeat irrelevant material.
Too many managers, trainers, and participants treat safety training as a “box-ticking” exercise. Staff sit through the training session just to say they’ve done it. You must use these methods thoughtfully to push for a culture of compliance and safety.
For years, many aspects of safety training have been delivered through videos. However, whether created internally or from third-party sources, videos can have many shortcomings. They can be potentially outdated, repetitive, and unresponsive.
However, video tutorials have some key strengths. Those include:
- Consistency: It ensures uniformity, maintaining compliance throughout learning sessions.
- Availability on-demand: Training is accessible regardless of the trainer’s presence, catering to staff needing immediate support.
- Flexibility: Courses can be self-paced or synchronous, accommodating various learning preferences, whether participants are guided through content or provided materials in advance.
There are plenty of ways to create training videos that employees learn from. Follow the best practices in the field, and your training should improve quickly.
In-person demonstrations are highly effective for safety training. They provide hands-on, real-time instruction that allows participants to witness and practice safety procedures firsthand. By engaging multiple senses and offering immediate feedback, these demonstrations reinforce learning, clarify concepts, and promote safer behaviors in the workplace.
In-person demonstrations can take forms such as:
- Tour of the facilities
- Mock-up activities of unsafe situations
- PPE demonstrations
- Fall protection
- Chemical spill response
If these areas of safety procedures are relevant in your workplace, an in-person demonstration is likely to be effective.
In-person presentations are effective for delivering safety training because they provide direct interaction between trainers and participants, fostering engagement, clarification of concepts, and immediate feedback.
Through face-to-face communication, trainers can tailor their delivery to the audience’s specific needs and learning styles, effectively demonstrating safety procedures, answering questions, and addressing concerns in real-time. This personal connection enhances the relevance and impact of the training, promoting better understanding, retention, and application of safety principles in the workplace.
In-person training can be negative and unhelpful if the facilitators are ineffective. Rigorous training evaluation helps every facilitator understand how they can do their jobs better.
eLearning covers a wide range of modern learning methods. Some of its key features for safety training are:
- Accessibility: eLearning is often asynchronous, self-paced, and available on demand. As such, the same materials can be used at different sites, for any working patterns, or even accessed remotely.
- Flexibility: eLearning is easy to tailor to workers in different situations. If you’re conducting onboarding training with new employees, office workers need a safety training package that is very different from warehouse-based employees. eLearning techniques ensure that employees get everything and nothing they don’t need.
- Integrated multimedia: eLearning can use video, text, images, and assessment tools like quizzes. By combining all these training formats, you can ensure regulatory compliance.
- Scalability: eLearning is easily scalable. Whether that’s across an organization, different sites, or even different countries.
To implement eLearning principles, you might use learning management, workplace safety, and adaptive learning platforms to ensure your staff consistently do the right thing.
Soft skills training
Finally, we must put in a word for soft skills training methods. Soft skills do not seem like an obvious tool for safety training.
But a 2019 commentary from McKinsey points out that mindset is one of the major obstacles in the way of excellent workplace safety. Safety is an inevitable part of technical training – but if staff can’t discuss their safety needs openly, it will be very difficult to process all kinds of things.
In this context, soft skills training can be a vital tool because:
- Staff know how to have difficult conversations with their managers
- Managers understand how safety is a part of their duty of care
- Self-awareness of workplace safety practices makes everyone reflect on their strengths and weaknesses.
Soft skills could significantly affect how safety issues are observed, reported, and resolved in this situation.
What are the practical applications of safety training?
In this section, we’ll introduce three types of workplaces in which HR staff must think carefully about health and safety training. They are:
- Office work
- Lab-based workplaces
- Manufacturing companies
Labs and factories are hazardous places. Offices are less immediately dangerous, and as a result, they need more care and attention when it comes to implementing safety training.
In offices, trainers have got a challenge on their hands. There are very few immediate risks – but plenty of risks could be very dangerous in the wrong situation. For example:
- Preventing falls
- Emergency procedures
- Manual handling
- Electrical safety
- Fire containment
Training office staff in these areas is essential, but it is important not to catastrophize. After all, in most offices, these problems are unlikely to happen in any given week or month. And even if they do occur, they might be solved through common sense, good leadership, and informal cross-training.
Safety training for today’s workers should emphasize other issues that will be pivotal for workers daily. These include:
- Ergonomics and posture – sedentary workers are terrible for this
- Health and wellbeing – mental health safety is important
- Sexual harassment
- Basic first aid.
They will use these tools every single day.
How to implement it
Many training methods can address these office-based safety training needs. For example:
- Videos can cover emergency procedures, manual handling techniques, and electrical safety, providing visual demonstrations and clear instructions that resonate with office staff. Moreover, employees can easily distribute and access videos at their convenience, facilitating widespread training and knowledge retention.
- 1-on-1 consultations can be an excellent tool for improving safety awareness. These sessions allow for personalized attention and tailored guidance on specific safety concerns or ergonomic issues. Trainers can assess individual workstations, address ergonomic challenges, and offer customized solutions to improve posture and reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
- eLearning platforms can deliver interactive modules on ergonomics, mental health awareness, sexual harassment prevention, and basic first aid, allowing employees to learn at their own pace and on their preferred devices. Additionally, eLearning modules can be easily updated, tracked, and assessed, providing valuable insights into training effectiveness and learner progress.
Lab-based workers need a lot of safety training.
There are inherent risks in pharmaceutical plants, hospitals, clinical research centers, and chemical manufacturing plants. These environments often handle highly hazardous chemicals, so safety protocols are extremely serious. Health and safety training is crucial in ensuring the well-being of personnel and the surrounding environment.
Some of the safety hazards you might encounter in a lab environment include:
- Chemical and biological hazards
- Fire and explosion
- Hazardous waste
- Occupational health risks
- Major emergencies
Furthermore, when laboratories employ temporary contractors, these risks are exacerbated if the company does not have a coherent safety training program. You can’t rely on informal training methods to bring everyone up to speed daily.
How to implement it
For great lab-based safety training, think about the following methods and techniques:
- High-quality videos are invaluable for safety training in lab-based activities. They provide visual demonstrations of safety procedures, equipment usage, and hazard mitigation techniques. By simulating realistic scenarios and offering clear examples, videos enhance learners’ comprehension and retention of key safety concepts.
- Investigate the best types of certification for your workers. If you require workers to repeat training every time they go into the lab, they’ll waste a lot of valuable time and get very frustrated.
- An eLearning platform can ensure that incoming workers complete relevant training modules before entering the lab. It can save time and effort and is easy to repeat whenever necessary.
Due to industrial processes and operations risks, safety training is crucial for manufacturing businesses. Manufacturing environments involve many potential hazards, including machinery accidents, chemical exposures, electrical incidents, falls from heights, and ergonomic strains. Effective safety training equips workers with the knowledge, skills, and awareness to identify, assess, and mitigate these risks.
In safety training programs, employees learn proper equipment operation, safe handling of hazardous materials, adherence to lockout/tagout procedures, utilization of personal protective equipment (PPE), and emergency response protocols.
By instilling a safety culture and empowering employees with the tools to address risks proactively, good safety training reduces the likelihood of workplace accidents and injuries, protects personnel and property, ensures regulatory compliance, and enhances overall productivity and efficiency within manufacturing businesses.
How to implement it
To improve your manufacturing safety training, think about the following interventions:
- Make short training videos compulsory before staff even enter a facility. Just like an in-flight safety information briefing, there’s no harm in being reminded of the basics.
- In-person demonstrations are highly effective in a manufacturing context. In a factory, there are all sorts of unpredictable machinery: demonstrations provide hands-on, real-time instruction that allows participants to witness and practice safety procedures directly.
- There’s a valuable place for eLearning, too. Online platforms can deliver targeted compliance training to the right employees.
Think big for excellent safety training
Don’t let workplace safety training get you down. Sure, staff may resist training that doesn’t seem relevant to them. But there are many ways to make this training relevant, engaging, interesting, and enjoyable.
We’ve outlined a few ways you can improve your safety training work.
Don’t forget, though, that this sector has a lot of room for innovation and originality. This was acknowledged in 2023 by the UK government, which launched a major fund to grow new ideas.
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Understanding margin calls and margin accounts for businesses
A margin call is triggered when the value of securities in an investor’s margin account falls below the maintenance margin level required by the brokerage, typically around 25% of the total investment. This level, however, can vary depending on the brokerage’s policies or the type of securities. Margin accounts enable investors to borrow funds to buy additional securities, which can amplify both potential returns and risks. If the value of the investments declines significantly, the account balance may dip below the maintenance margin, prompting a margin call.
When this happens, the brokerage demands that the investor deposits additional cash or securities to bring the a back to the required level. This process is essential for the brokerage’s protection, ensuring it does not suffer losses if the value of borrowed securities plummets. For the investor, meeting a margin call is crucial to avoid forced liquidation, where the brokerage may sell off securities to cover the debt. Therefore, a margin call serves as a critical risk control mechanism, reminding investors of the heightened volatility and financial exposure inherent in leveraged investments. By managing these calls, investors can mitigate potential losses and maintain their margin accounts at a safe level.
Why is understanding margin calls important for businesses?
For businesses that rely on margin accounts for investment purposes, effectively handling margin calls is essential for maintaining financial stability and cash flow. A margin call occurs when the value of investments falls below the maintenance margin required by the brokerage. When this happens, the business must quickly deposit additional funds or assets to restore the account balance. Failing to meet this margin call could lead the brokerage to sell off some or all of the business’s investments, often at a lower market price, which can result in significant financial losses.
From a practical standpoint, a margin call serves as a warning that the investments made on borrowed funds are no longer sufficiently secure. Responding quickly to this warning is essential to prevent further financial strain. Meeting the call ensures that the business can continue its investment strategy without facing forced sales, which may disrupt long-term financial planning.
For businesses using margin accounts, understanding how margin calls work can also guide smarter investment decisions. By keeping a buffer of additional funds or closely monitoring market conditions, businesses can reduce the likelihood of encountering margin calls. Thus, recognizing and managing the risks associated with margin accounts and margin calls not only safeguards the business’s investments but also helps avoid the potential ripple effects on cash flow and overall financial health.
What are margin accounts?
To understand margin calls, it’s crucial to first comprehend what a margin account is. A margin account is a brokerage account that allows investors to borrow money from the brokerage to buy more securities than they could with their own capital alone. This borrowed money lets investors leverage their position, meaning they can potentially increase their investment returns by buying more assets. However, this leverage also introduces greater risk.
In a margin account, the assets purchased—along with any existing cash—act as collateral for the loan provided by the brokerage. If the value of these securities falls, the collateral decreases in value, making the account riskier for both the investor and the brokerage. When this value drops below a specified level, known as the maintenance margin, the brokerage issues a margin call. This call requires the investor to deposit more cash or securities to restore the account to the minimum level.
In essence, while margin accounts enable investors to amplify their purchasing power, they also come with the heightened responsibility of maintaining the account’s required value, as market fluctuations can quickly lead to a margin call and potential forced sales.
How do margin calls work?
A margin call happens when the equity in a margin account drops below the maintenance margin, which is the minimum equity level that an investor is required to keep. This requirement is in place to protect both the investor and the brokerage from excessive losses. When the market value of securities in the account falls, it reduces the account’s equity, and if it drops too far, it triggers a margin call.
Upon receiving a margin call, the investor must quickly deposit more funds or add additional securities to bring the account’s equity back up to the required level. If the investor doesn’t meet the margin call in time, the brokerage has the right to sell some or all of the securities in the account to make up the shortfall, potentially at a loss to the investor. This process ensures that the account remains within safe limits but can be financially challenging, particularly in volatile markets.
Thus, margin calls highlight the risks associated with margin trading, where even slight downturns in the market can require quick actions to protect the investment and avoid forced sales.
What are the factors that lead to margin calls?
Several factors can lead to this situation:
It can significantly affect the value of securities in a margin account. Sudden market downturns can cause the value of these securities to drop, reducing the account’s equity. If the equity falls below the maintenance margin requirement, a margin call is triggered.
Leverage involves borrowing funds to invest in more securities than the investor’s capital alone would allow. While this can increase potential returns, it also amplifies losses. If the investments lose value, the equity in the margin account decreases, potentially resulting in a margin call.
The maintenance margin is the minimum equity that must be kept in the account. If the account’s equity drops below this level due to declining market values, the investor must deposit additional funds or sell assets to meet the margin requirement. Failing to do so triggers a margin call, forcing the investor to take immediate action to restore the required equity level.
Brokerage Policy Change
Brokers may adjust their margin requirements in response to changing market conditions. An increase in maintenance margin requirements can lead to margin calls, even if the account was previously compliant with the broker’s policies.
How should businesses respond to a margin call?
When a margin call is triggered, businesses must act quickly to restore the required equity in their margin account. The following actions are typically necessary:
Depositing additional funds
The most straightforward way to meet a margin call is by depositing more cash into the margin account. This increases the equity in the account and helps maintain the necessary balance above the maintenance margin requirement. Depositing funds can prevent the forced sale of securities and allow the investor to maintain their positions.
Another option is to sell some of the securities held in the account. This liquidation generates cash, which can be used to meet the margin call. While this approach resolves the immediate issue, it may result in selling at a loss, especially if market conditions are unfavorable. It’s a less desirable option as it reduces the investor’s holdings and potential for future gains.
What are the consequences of inaction?
Failing to respond to a margin call can have serious repercussions. If the required equity level is not restored, the brokerage firm has the right to liquidate enough of the account’s securities to bring the equity back to the required level. This process, known as a forced liquidation, can occur without further notice to the investor. The consequences include:
- The broker may sell off securities at possibly low market prices, leading to significant losses.
- The investor loses control over which assets are sold and when, potentially affecting their investment strategy and financial planning.
- The forced sale can deplete the account, reducing the overall value of the portfolio and limiting future investment opportunities.
How can businesses manage and prevent margin calls?
To effectively manage margin accounts and avoid the risks of margin calls, businesses should adopt several key strategies. These strategies include diversifying investments, regularly monitoring account balances, setting stop-loss orders, maintaining adequate cash reserves, using less leverage, and staying informed about market conditions and brokerage policies. By implementing these approaches, businesses can protect their investments, reduce potential losses, and maintain financial stability.
It means spreading your investments across different types of assets, like stocks, bonds, and commodities. This strategy helps reduce risk because not all assets move in the same direction at the same time. For example, if the stock market drops, bonds might not fall as much or could even rise. By diversifying, businesses can protect themselves from big losses that could lead to a margin call.
Regular monitoring and adjustment
Keeping an eye on your investments regularly is crucial. Check your account balance and the value of your investments often. This helps you spot any potential issues early, like a drop in the value of your securities. If you notice your equity getting close to the maintenance margin level, you can make adjustments, such as selling some assets or adding more cash, to avoid a margin call.
Setting stop-loss orders
A stop-loss order is a tool that automatically sells a security when its price falls to a certain level. This can help limit losses by getting out of a losing position before it becomes too costly. It’s like setting a safety net under your investments. If the market turns against you, the stop-loss order helps prevent a big drop in your account’s equity, reducing the risk of a margin call.
Maintaining adequate cash reserves
Having enough cash on hand is important. Cash reserves can be used to meet margin calls without having to sell other investments at a loss. This way, if the market goes down and your account’s equity falls, you can simply add more cash to your account to satisfy the margin requirements, keeping your investments intact.
Importance of communication with your broker
Effective communication is a key aspect of managing a margin account, as it helps ensure that investors understand their broker’s policies, receive timely notifications about potential margin calls, and can take advantage of the resources and tools offered by their broker.
Open lines of communication
Maintaining open and clear communication with your brokerage is crucial for navigating the complexities of margin trading. A good relationship with your broker can provide access to valuable insights and support, especially during times of market volatility or when making strategic decisions about your investments.
Understanding broker policies and alerts
Different brokers have specific policies regarding margin requirements and margin calls. It’s important to be well-versed in these policies to avoid unexpected surprises. Brokers often provide alert systems that notify you when your account is approaching a margin call, allowing you to take necessary actions to maintain your account’s equity level. These alerts are vital for staying proactive and preventing forced liquidations.
Utilizing broker resources and tools
Brokers typically offer a range of resources, including educational materials, webinars, and financial tools, to help investors better understand margin accounts and market dynamics. Using these resources can significantly enhance your ability to manage margin accounts, make informed investment decisions, and respond appropriately to market changes.
Planning for contingencies
Having a contingency plan in place is essential for managing potential margin calls. Discuss possible scenarios with your broker and understand the steps to take if a margin call occurs. This preparation can help you act quickly and effectively, minimizing the financial impact on your portfolio.
Regularly reviewing and updating your strategy
Market conditions and financial goals change over time, so it’s important to regularly review and update your investment strategy. This includes reassessing your risk tolerance, portfolio allocation, and leverage levels. Keeping your broker informed about these updates ensures they can provide relevant advice and support, helping you stay aligned with your financial objectives.
What is the purpose of a margin call?
A margin call serves as a warning that the equity in a margin account has fallen below the required maintenance level. Its primary purpose is to ensure that the account has enough equity to cover potential losses, protecting both the investor and the brokerage firm from excessive risk.
How can I avoid getting a margin call?
To avoid a margin call, maintain a diversified portfolio, regularly monitor your account balance, set stop-loss orders, keep sufficient cash reserves, and use leverage cautiously. Staying informed about market conditions and being proactive in managing your account are also crucial steps.
What happens if I don’t meet a margin call?
If you fail to meet a margin call, the brokerage firm has the right to sell off securities in your account to restore the required equity level. This forced liquidation can occur without further notice and may result in significant financial losses, especially if the assets are sold at unfavorable prices.
Can a broker change the margin requirements?
Yes, brokers can change margin requirements based on market conditions or other factors. These changes can include adjusting the maintenance margin level, which might lead to margin calls even if your account was previously compliant. It’s important to stay updated with your broker’s policies and be prepared for such adjustments.
Are there risks associated with using a margin account?
Yes, margin accounts carry significant risks. While they allow for the potential of higher returns through leverage, they also amplify losses. If the market moves against your position, you could lose more money than you initially invested, and you may face margin calls requiring additional funds or the sale of assets. It’s essential to fully understand these risks before using a margin account.
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Do you ever wonder if coffee beans have any sweetness to them? Or if you can add sweeteners to your coffee for a better taste? Well, you’re not alone! Coffee beans have a long and complex history that goes beyond just the taste.
In this article, we’ll explore the truth behind coffee beans and sugar, and how you can use sweeteners to make your coffee even better.
We’ll cover topics like what coffee beans are, the difference between added sugar and natural sweetness, how to sweeten coffee without sugar, what happens when you add sugar to your coffee, and the benefits of adding sweeteners to your coffee.
So, read on to learn more about the sweet side of coffee beans!.
Table of Contents
No, coffee beans do not have sugar.
Coffee beans are the seeds of the coffee plant and are naturally bitter.
When they are roasted, they develop their complex flavor profiles without the addition of sugar.
Sugar is often added to coffee after it is brewed in order to sweeten the taste.
What are Coffee Beans?
Coffee beans are the seeds of the Coffea plant, which is part of the Rubiaceae family.
The beans are the source of coffee and are processed to create the beverage.
Coffee beans are usually dried and roasted before being ground and brewed to create coffee.
Coffee beans are usually sold in either whole bean or pre-ground form and come in a variety of different flavors, depending on the type of beans and the roast level.
Coffee beans are naturally bitter, but when roasted, they develop the flavor and aroma that makes coffee so enjoyable.
Roasting brings out the oils and aromatics in the beans, and can influence the taste and complexity of the coffee.
Different roast levels will bring out different flavors in the beans, and can create a variety of different flavors in the cup.
Light roasts will be more subtle and sweet, while dark roasts will be more intense and bitter.
Coffee beans can also be flavored with other ingredients, such as chocolate, caramel, or vanilla, to create flavored coffees.
These flavored beans are usually pre-ground, but can also be purchased in whole bean form.
Does Coffee Beans Have Sugar?
No, coffee beans do not contain any sugar.
The sweet aroma and taste of coffee is actually due to the roasting process, which brings out the natural oils and flavors within the beans.
Sugar is not added to the beans themselves, but rather to the brewed cup of coffee.
When it comes to the coffee-making process, the roasting of the beans is what brings out the unique flavor profile of each variety.
As the beans are roasted, their flavor and aroma is enhanced, and the sugars present in the beans themselves are caramelized, providing a natural sweetness to the cup.
Roasting also helps to bring out the body and acidity in the coffee, as well as reduce any bitterness that might be present.
Sugar is not added to the beans themselves, but rather to the brewed cup of coffee.
This is why a cup of black coffee contains no sugar, whereas a cup of coffee with milk, cream, or other sweeteners can have a slightly sweet taste.
The addition of sugar or other sweeteners to the brewed cup of coffee is what gives it a sweet flavor.
In short, coffee beans do not contain any sugar, but the roasting process brings out the natural sweetness of the beans.
However, the sweetness of coffee can be further enhanced by adding sugar or other sweeteners to the brewed cup of coffee.
The Difference Between Added Sugar and Natural Sweetness
Coffee beans are naturally bitter and do not contain any sugar, but that doesn’t mean coffee drinks can’t be sweet.
While coffee beans do not contain any sugar, coffee drinks can be made sweet by adding sugar or other sweeteners during the brewing process.
The sweetness of brewed coffee comes from the combination of the added sweeteners and the natural flavor and aroma that is produced when the beans are roasted.
The difference between added sugar and natural sweetness is that added sugar is a processed sweetener that is added to the coffee drink after it is brewed while natural sweetness is the flavor and aroma that is naturally produced when the beans are roasted.
Added sugar can come in the form of granular white sugar, brown sugar, honey, agave nectar, or even artificial sweeteners.
Natural sweetness is the flavor and aroma produced when the beans are roasted at a certain temperature, which can range from light to medium to dark.
In addition to the sweetness that is provided by added sugar and natural sweetness, coffee can also be flavored with extracts, spices, and other flavorings.
These flavorings can add to the overall sweetness of the drink and make it even more enjoyable.
Ultimately, the decision of whether to add sugar or other sweeteners to your coffee is a personal preference.
Some people prefer the natural sweetness of the beans while others prefer the added sweetness of sugar or other sweeteners.
The important thing to remember is that coffee beans do not have sugar, but the sweetness of brewed coffee can be enhanced with the addition of sugar or other sweeteners.
How to Sweeten Coffee Without Sugar
Coffee beans do not contain any sugar and the sweetness of brewed coffee comes from the addition of sugar or other sweeteners during the brewing process.
However, there are plenty of ways to sweeten coffee without relying on added sugar.
One of the best ways to sweeten your coffee without adding sugar is to use a natural sweetener like honey or maple syrup.
Both honey and maple syrup are naturally sweet and contain natural sugars, so they can be used to add sweetness to your coffee without the addition of refined sugar.
They also add a unique flavor to your coffee that can be quite enjoyable.
Another way to sweeten your coffee without sugar is to add a splash of almond or coconut milk.
These dairy-free alternatives are naturally sweet and provide a creamy texture to your coffee.
For an even richer flavor, try using a flavored almond or coconut milk, such as vanilla or hazelnut.
If youre trying to avoid adding any type of sugar to your coffee, you can also try adding a dash of ground cinnamon.
Cinnamon is naturally sweet and adds a subtle warmth that can be quite enjoyable.
You can also try adding a splash of unsweetened cocoa powder for a more intense flavor.
Finally, you can try adding a few drops of stevia extract to your coffee.
Stevia is a natural, zero-calorie sweetener that can be used to sweeten your coffee without adding any sugar.
It has a slightly bitter aftertaste, so its best to add it in small amounts until you find the right balance.
No matter which method you choose, there are plenty of ways to sweeten your coffee without relying on added sugar.
Experiment and find the right combination of sweeteners that suits your taste and helps you enjoy your coffee without the added sugar.
What Happens When You Add Sugar to Your Coffee?
When you add sugar to your coffee, you can drastically alter the flavor and texture of the beverage.
Sugar helps to bring out the more delicate flavors of the coffee, making it smoother and more palatable for those who don’t like the bitterness of coffee.
Additionally, adding sugar can help to reduce the acidity of coffee, making it easier to drink.
Sugar also helps to add sweetness and a creamy texture to coffee, making it more enjoyable to drink.
While adding sugar to coffee can make it more enjoyable to drink, it’s important to note that sugar can also have a negative impact on your overall health.
Consuming too much sugar can lead to weight gain, increased risk of diabetes and other serious health conditions.
It’s important to be mindful of how much sugar you add to your coffee and to drink it in moderation.
Other Sweeteners to Consider for Your Coffee
When it comes to sweetening your coffee, sugar is not the only option.
There are other natural sweeteners that you can use to add a touch of sweetness to your cup of joe.
For instance, you can opt for honey, agave nectar, maple syrup, or coconut sugar.
All of these sweeteners have their own unique flavor profiles, so you can choose whichever one suits your taste buds best.
If you’re looking for an even healthier alternative, you can also use stevia, a natural sweetener that is much lower in calories than sugar.
No matter which sweetener you choose, it’s important to remember that it should be used sparingly.
Too much sweetener can easily overpower the flavor of the coffee itself, so it’s important to find the right balance between sweet and bitter.
Additionally, always make sure to check the ingredients list of any store-bought sweetener to ensure that it doesn’t contain any artificial flavors or additives.
Finally, even if you don’t use any sweetener in your coffee, you can still enjoy its natural flavor by experimenting with different types of beans.
Different coffee bean varieties have unique flavor profiles, so it’s worth trying a few to find your favorite.
You can also adjust the strength of your coffee by changing the amount of beans you use or the brewing time.
With a bit of experimentation, you will soon discover that your cup of coffee can be just as delicious without any added sweetener.
The Benefits of Adding Sweeteners to Your Coffee
When it comes to coffee, many people enjoy the natural bitterness of the beans.
However, adding sweeteners such as sugar, honey, or other syrups can make your cup of joe even more enjoyable.
Not only does adding sweeteners enhance the flavor, but it can also provide a variety of other health benefits.
For starters, adding sweeteners to your coffee can help to balance out the bitterness, making it more palatable.
This is especially true if you like to drink your coffee black, as the natural bitterness of the beans can be too much for some people.
Sweeteners can also be used to create a variety of different flavors, such as caramel, hazelnut, and even vanilla.
In addition to making your coffee more enjoyable, adding sweeteners to your coffee can also provide a number of health benefits.
For example, honey is a natural source of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, which can help to boost your immunity and overall health.
Similarly, sugar is a great source of energy and can help to give you an energy boost when youre feeling tired or sluggish.
Finally, adding sweeteners to your coffee can help to reduce the acidity of the coffee, making it easier on your stomach.
This is especially beneficial if you suffer from acid reflux or indigestion.
Overall, adding sweeteners to your coffee can be an excellent way to enhance the flavor and provide a variety of health benefits.
So, if youre looking for a way to make your cup of joe even more enjoyable, consider adding a bit of sweetness to your brew.
After learning the truth about coffee beans, you now have the power to make a more informed decision about sweetening your coffee.
Whether you choose to add sugar, a sugar substitute, or a natural sweetener, you can enjoy a flavorful cup of coffee without compromising your health.
So next time you brew a cup of coffee, make sure to consider the type of sweetener you use to make it the perfect cup!.
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A Glance at New Orleans’ Contemporary Hispanic and Latino Communities
Situated near the mouth of North America’s largest river, New Orleans has long served as a major port that advantageously connects the United States’ heartland to the rest of the world. Proximity and access to the Gulf of Mexico strategically place the Crescent City between the large consumption economy of the United States and the extraction economies of Latin America, which have historically been key purveyors of raw materials and commodities to the markets of their northern neighbor. Also, New Orleans served as a jumping off point for numerous military expeditions in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that altered the political landscape of Latin American countries. Yet, even before becoming an “American” city, New Orleans was governed by the Spanish via Cuba (1762―1803). These economic, political, and historical linkages to Latin America and beyond have facilitated the transnational flows of people, products, and cultures over the course of four centuries and have cultivated the unique multinational ethnic kinship the port city holds today with Latin America and Spain . Evidence abounds of these Hispanic and Latino ties in the cultural landscape, especially in one of the Big Easy’s most notable cultural productions: music . Similarly, visitors with a keen eye will be able to discern the Latin American imprint woven into the urban fabric stretching from the French Quarter to the western suburb of Kenner and the riverbanks of St. Bernard Parish .
Contemporary Latino migration and settlement in the southern United States have received considerable scholarly attention―particularly from geographers―over the past three decades. The “Nuevo South” moniker was coined to describe this supposedly new migratory phenomenon taking place. However, before Hurricane Katrina in 2005, New Orleans was often left out of discussions on southern destinations for Latinos, even though it was home to one of the oldest and most diverse Latino populations in the country. Perhaps the lack of attention was because the metropolitan area’s Latino population was relatively stable and mostly integrated. Of the 58,545 Latinos enumerated in Census 2000, four out of five were U.S citizens, more than half were born in the United States, and Latino household incomes were only slightly below the region’s average . Therefore, New Orleans’ Latinos didn’t fit the narrative of a “New Latino South” so often applied to describe emerging Latino communities made up of and sustained by recent immigrants looking for new opportunities. But, in the wake of Katrina, New Orleans gained national attention seemingly overnight as Latino immigrants from Mexico, Central America, and as far away as Brazil and Peru flocked to southeast Louisiana to participate in the reconstruction efforts. Many arriving laborers were undocumented, taking advantage of the temporary suspension of federal and state enforcement of employment eligibility verification. While a study conducted by scholars from Tulane and Berkeley estimated that 14,000 Latinos laborers arrived within the first few months after the storm, local community leaders, social workers, and others engaged in the reconstruction efforts suggested much higher figures. In any case, this demographic phenomenon caught the attention of local officials, denizens, and national media. A Newsweek article posed the question, “Will Latino day laborers locating in New Orleans change its complexion?” . Then-mayor Ray Nagin infamously asked himself in front of a town hall audience, “How do I ensure New Orleans is not overrun with Mexican workers?”. Indeed, Latinos became a prominent fixture in the metropolitan area in the years following Katrina. As laborers gutted and rebuilt flooded homes, taco trucks appeared throughout the city, and new tiendas, taquerías, pupuserías and Latino-themed night clubs opened across Orleans and Jefferson Parishes. Likewise, numerous Latino-focused nonprofits and religious organizations launched legal and language services designed to help arriving Latino immigrants settle and integrate into southeast Louisiana.
New Orleans certainly emerged more Latino than before the storm. Census 2010 counted 91,922 Latinos in the seven-parish metropolitan statistical area―an increase of 57 percent since 2000. But, as reconstruction effort came to an end, the surge of Latino workers that arrived after Hurricane Katrina appears to have receded. According to the Mexican consulate―which reopened in New Orleans in 2008 amid a new demand for administration and diplomatic functions for Mexican nationals in Louisiana and Mississippi―consulate employees were handling 80 to 100 appointments a day in the first years after the storm. Lines regularly formed outside the consulate’s location in the central business district, as Mexican immigrants waited to renew passports or matriculas, or to access other services. A decade later, however, appointments average between ten and fifteen daily which has led the consulate to scale back its number of employees. As demand for construction workers declined, some Latino laborers moved elsewhere within Louisiana such as Baton Rouge, Gonzales, and Alexandria while others relocated to states like Texas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Georgia and Florida and still others returned to their countries of origin.
Although the initial intensity of post-Katrina Latino migration may have subsided, it certainly reinvigorated existing Latin American communities. This is most evident in the metropolitan area’s four core parishes of Orleans, Jefferson, St. Bernard, and Plaquemine which are home to 76,129 Latinos as identified by Census 2010. The settlement and integration of post-Katrina Latinos have put new emphasis on Latin American culture, which has led to new restaurants, stores, festivals, and radio programs that cater to an established ethnic community. Yet, many of the new Latino establishments have found success serving a larger non-Latino clientele. For example, David Montes de Oca, a Mexico City native, came to New Orleans via Houston with a taco trailer in tow. His first patrons were day laborers living and working in suburban Jefferson Parish. Yet in 2007, Jefferson Parish officials began passing measures to restrict street venders. Montes de Oca responded by opening a brick-and-mortar restaurant called Taquería Chilangos in a shopping center home to other Latino-owned businesses in the 2700 block of Roosevelt Boulevard in Kenner. Taquería Chilangos built a strong customer base by serving typical Mexican fare and earning a reputation for the best authentic tacos in New Orleans. Another example is Norma’s Sweets Bakery at 2925 Bienville Street in New Orleans’ Mid-City neighborhood which opened following Katrina to serve the growing number of Latino residents in the area. The bakery’s menu includes a variety of Latin American pastries and lunch options, but Norma’s Sweets becomes a favorite destination for non-Latino customers during Carnival season for its Cuban-style king cake filled with cream cheese and guava paste.
Perhaps one of the more interesting facets of New Orleans’ post-Katrina Latino geographies is the resurgence of Honduran population. New Orleans and Honduras share a long history starting with the once-ripe banana trade. The port city also served as a gateway for Honduran immigration. By the mid-twentieth century, Honduran immigrants residing in the Lower Garden District’s Irish channel neighborhood reached a critical mass, and, within the Latino community, the area became known as the Barrio Lempira (named after Honduras’ currency). By the 1960s and 1970s, upwardly mobile Hondurans were moving to the Mid-City neighborhood and by the 1980s and 1990s many relocated to suburban communities of North Kenner and Metairie in Jefferson Parish. Although the mid-century decennial censuses did not disaggregate persons of Honduran origin, Hondurans were considered the prominent Latin American nationality in the metropolitan area―so much so that erroneous claims of mythic proportions stating that 100,000 Hondurans lived in New Orleans or that New Orleans was home to largest the Honduran community in the United States, became commonplace. Of course, later censuses that enumerated Hondurans proved these assertions false. Census 2000 counted only 8,112 Hondurans in the metropolitan area, more than two-thirds of which were found in Jefferson Parish. In fact, the metropolitan area’s Mexican population had grown larger, numbering 10,202. But following Katrina the number of Hondurans soared. By 2010, Hondurans could accurately claim to be the largest Latin American nationality with a census count of more than 25,000—around 4,000 more than the enumerated 20,729 persons claiming Mexican origin at that time. Although visible residential and small business clusters are found in Jefferson Parish, which is now home to three-quarters of the area’s Honduran population, many newcomers settled in other sectors of the metropolitan area, even venturing into eastern New Orleans neighborhoods like Village de L’Est home to the city’s Vietnamese community and extending as far as St. Bernard Parish. (Figure 5)
Today New Orleans’ Honduran identity and sense of place manifest themselves in various ways. St. Teresa de Avila Catholic Church on Erato Street, which served the Hondurans and other Latin Americans Catholics who lived in the Barrio Lempira, features a statue of Our Lady of Suyapa, the patron saint of Honduras. The church hosts an annual festival in her honor on February 3rd celebrating the virgin as does the Immaculate Conception Church in Marrero on the West Bank where children perform national dances in traditional dress. More frequently, Hondurans gather each weekend in public parks, most notably City Park in Mid-City, to play soccer. For those looking for authentic Honduran cuisine, numerous restaurants can be found throughout the metropolitan area; however, Casa Honduras at 5704 Crowder Boulevard in New Orleans East is noteworthy. Not only does Casa Honduras offer typical Honduran dishes, it serves traditional Garifuna food and drink such as sopa de caracol con coco (coconut curry conch soup) and gifiti (a drink made with rum, herbs, and spices). Casa Honduras has become a de facto cultural center for New Orleans’ Garifuna community and periodically hosts Garifuna musical performers and events . For visitors interested in Afro-indigenous culture from Central America, a meal at Casa Honduras is worth the trip.
Despite Hondurans being the largest Latino group in the metropolitan area, they account for only a little more than a quarter of the total contemporary Hispanic and Latino population. New Orleans has long been home to an assorted Latin American population. Through commerce, social networks, and geopolitics, or due to natural disasters, different groups have arrived to make the city their home, beginning with Los Isleños who first settled in the area in 1778. Indeed, most groups are less conspicuous when compared to the Hondurans and Mexicans, yet they have all contributed the creation of a distinctive pan-Latino identity in the city. While some national-origin groups populations have waxed and waned through the years, others have continued to grow. Between 1980 and 2010, the number of Nicaraguans, Guatemalans, and Salvadorans doubled, and the number of Cubans has slightly increased to 6,440 since 2000. Brazilian immigration to New Orleans began with the coffee trade in nineteenth century. The number of Brazilians in the city, however, was small until post-Katrina reconstruction efforts attracted thousands of Brazilians from other U.S. cities like Boston and Atlanta as well as Brazil. The surge was brief, and many Brazilians left within the first few years following the storm. Nevertheless, those who stayed have established a Brazilian community anchored in Kenner and Chalmette in St. Bernard Parish. A notable establishment for those seeking authentic Brazilian fare such as Feijoada is the Brazilian Market and Café at 2424 Williams Boulevard in Kenner.
While each national-origin group seeks to maintain its own traditions and character, a pan-ethnic identity has emerged to unify those of Hispanic and Latino heritage. Media outlets such as Jambalaya News, Radio Tropical Caliente, and LatiNola.com provide news and entertainment programming in Spanish and work to connect local Latinos with the larger New Orleans community. The Hispanic Heritage Center sponsors Latin American-themed cultural activities and artists in the region and provides scholarships to promising Hispanic high school students. Other annual Latino festivals like Que Pasa Fest, Kenner’s Hispanic Summer Fest, and Carnival Latino attract large numbers of both Latino and non-Latino visitors. Finally, nonprofit and religious organizations like Puentes, Congreso de Jornaleros, and the Archdiocese of New Orleans Hispanic Apostolate advocate on behalf of Latino immigrants (particularly undocumented) and, in turn, help to foster a stronger sense of a pan-Latino community. Thus, as the composite and size of New Orleans’ Hispanic and Latino community will undoubtedly continue to fluctuate, it will remain a significant and dynamic component of New Orleans’ society and unique culture.
— James Chaney, Middle Tennessee State University
. “Hispanic” designates an individual or group of Spanish-language heritage. “Latino” identifies an individuals or groups from Latin America of Spanish- or Portuguese-language origin. For a more detailed analysis of New Orleans’ Hispanic and Latino populations and heritage see Hispanic and Latino New Orleans: Immigration and Identity since the Eighteenth Century. (2015) Andrew Sluyter, Case Watkins, James P. Chaney, and Annie Gibson. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press
. See Case Watkins’ two-part essay Essential Geographies of New Orleans Music in the September 2017 AAG Newsletter for an overview of the evolution of New Orleans’ music culture. DOI: 10.14433/2017.0013
. Anita I. Drever (2008): New Orleans: a re-emerging Latino destination city, Journal of Cultural Geography, 25(3): 287-303. DOI:10.1080/08873630802452632
. Arian Campo-Flores (2005) A New Spice in the Gumbo: Will Latino Day Laborers Locating in New Orleans Change its Complexion? Newsweek. 147(23): 46.
. The Garifuna (or more correctly the Garínagu) are mixed-race descendants of African, Island Carib, European, and Arawak peoples who are found mainly in Honduras, Nicaragua, Belize, Guatemala, the island of St. Vincent and, since the twentieth century, the United States. For more information about New Orleans’ Garifuna community see James Chaney (2012) Malleable Identities: Placing the Garínagu in New Orleans. Journal of Latin American Geography 11(2): 121-144. DOI:10.1353/lag.2012.0049
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The Sufis And The Spirit
This article is all about The Sufis And The Spirit.
The Sufis have defined the spirit as a manifestation or shadow of Divine life, and an immaterial substance; God Almighty has not enabled anybody to have perfect knowledge about its exact identity. While philosophers tend to call it “the speaking soul,” the Sufis prefer designating it as “the spirit breathed,” based on God’s declaration in the Qur’an,
“I have breathed into it (the body) out of My Spirit” (15:29).
According to them, in addition to the spirit’s being the essence of human existence and nature, the perfection of humanity is possible through spiritual perfection, which one can realize by journeying in the heart on the way to God. The spirit is also an important means for the human relationship with God. It is only through the spirit that a human being can travel toward and through the metaphysical realms, feel a relationship with God Almighty, and observe on the horizon of the heart and other inner faculties numerous marvels which are impossible for the body to observe.
The body is the mount of the spirit, and the physical heart is the base of what we call the (spiritual) heart. A person knows and perceives through the spirit, and it is also through the spirit that they become aware of and experience themselves. In sleep or other similar situations, for example, when one is unconscious, the spirit partially cuts its relationship with the body and begins traveling in its own horizon. When death comes, the spirit departs from the body completely, and lives a transitional form of life between this world and the next until the new creation in the other world. It never suffers complete annihilation.
The spirit essentially belongs to the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Commands. The Qur’an declares,
All that is on the earth is perishable (55: 26).
The “death” of the spirit is of a relative nature and must be in the form of absorption. Humans enter and live in the intermediate world of the grave with their spirits still living, and during their long journey, with the “ups” and “downs” after the grave, their spirits command their bodies. As all their eternal physical and spiritual pleasures in the other world depend on living in this world at the level of the spirit, so too, all sufferings and torments will arise from leading a worldly life at the level of animal appetites. A person enters Paradise in the “patronage” of their developed “spirit breathed,” and the completely refined and illuminated body shares this favor. Such a favor may be enjoyed by God’s chosen, best servants in the world as a miracle. The Ascension of the Master of creation, upon him be peace and blessings, is the brilliant example of such a favor.
The spirit has no need to dwell in a body, but the body is its dwelling place in the world. As a Divine reward for its refinement, the spirit has no need to be in a specific place. But this does not mean that it is like the Divine Being, absolutely above being contained in time or space. The body is a mechanism for the spirit to execute its control over, or an instrument with which it voices its feelings. It is not a part of the body, attached to or contained by it. With its roots in the Realm of (the Initial Manifestation of) Divine Commands, its branches and leaves at its worldly address, and in a certain type of relationship with the body that is unknown to us, it speaks, thinks, loves, pities, and if submitted to God, continuously does good deeds, advancing toward Paradise. But if it is made subservient to the body, then whatever a person does, says, and thinks becomes like a growl or a snarl.
The spirit is a subtle, refined being that resembles the angels. It commands all the physical and immaterial senses and faculties of a person. The mind, which materialists and materialist physiologists see as the source of all human “mental” activities, is like a telephone exchange between the spirit and physical organism, a reservoir for the produce of the faculties that are dependent upon the spirit, the center of connection between the sense organs, a library of the intellect and soul that contains worlds, a set of switches for feelings, motions, and activities of perception, and a laboratory to study, distinguish, analyze, and synthesize Divine gifts. It is a dynamic element of the spirit.
According to the majority of Sufis, the spirit is something created, even though it comes from the Realm of (the Initial Manifestation of) Divine Commands. It is the most subtle, purest, and most refined of creatures. It is a mirror for the reflection of Divine Attributes and Names, one that is able to penetrate the densest of things. It reminds us of the Divine Being. Those equipped with the capacity to see and hear the things unseen and unheard by ordinary humans see and hear by means of either the (spiritual) heart or secret (an innermost faculty more subtle and refined than the heart), which is under its control and guidance. The people who have knowledge of the truths that lie in the essence of existence and the Religion rise to the peaks of (spiritual) discoveries and observations on the wings of the spirit. While we can only see the outer dimension of things with the physical sense of sight, the spirit is honored with penetrating the inner dimension through the windows of the (spiritual) heart, and with the observation of what lies behind the manifestations of Divine Attributes and Names through the windows of the secret. Although all believers will be honored with this favor in the other world, the one who has the greatest capacity to receive it is the Master of creation, upon him be the most perfect of blessings and peace, who says, “The thing which God created first is my light.”
Being a breath from the Realm of (the Initial Manifestation of) Divine Commands, the spirit takes on a form according to each individual. It has an energetic or astral envelope and can appear in the form of the double of the individual to whom it belongs. It departs from its body at death, and by God’s will and leave, it keeps waiting for the union.
Life is a manifestation of the Divine Names the All-Living and One Who Gives Life. With respect to humans, it manifests itself as the spirit that is breathed and which displays multifarious activities in the body into which it has been breathed. In its relation with humans, the spirit is an entity created within time, and it can be said that it is breathed every moment in an ever-renewed cycle through the constant, ever new manifestations of the Divine Names the All-Living, the One Who Gives Life, and the One Self-Subsisting and Causing to Subsist. Those who cannot see this reality behind life either attribute the spirit to the physical composition of the body or to the mind or brain, or in heedlessness of the points or inner senses or faculties of support and seeking help on which it is dependent, regard it as eternal (in the past) and independently self-subsisting. However, it is neither valueless, to be attributed to a decaying physical composition or other material causes, nor too arrogant to claim self-eternality and self-subsistence. It exists because God has made it exist, and subsists because He is the One Self-Subsisting and Causing to Subsist. The Prophetic declaration, “The thing which God created first is my spirit (according to another narration, “my light),” indicates to this fact.
In respect of its body and carnal soul being related to the Physical Realm of Creation, of its spirit relating to the Realm of the Initial Manifestation of Divine Commands, of its (spiritual) heart that is open to the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Commands, and of its secret (its innermost faculty more subtle and refined than the heart) turning toward the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Attributes and Names, humanity—this noble being—is a peerless, most comprehensive copy of creation. However, despite or due to this elevated nature, it has both the qualities of excellence and the attributes of carnality. (This division is made by those who regard the spirit and soul as separate entities.) The effects of both the qualities of excellence and the attributes of carnality relate to the materialization of human acts. Belief, intention, resolution, discipline, determination, and first and foremost, turning to God in faith and obedience, or turning away from Him in disobedience, are each like a seed from which good or evil grows and develops, so that a person either rises to the highest of the high, or falls to the lowest of the low.
Those who regard the soul and the spirit as separate entities see the former as the center of human evil attributes and the latter as the source of praiseworthy qualities and values. They consider reason or intellect to be the tongue of the spirit, and insight its translator. According to this approach, reason is connected with the spirit, not with the soul. According to such thinkers, the spirit is the basis of the mechanism of learning, discernment, inspiration, and conscience, and it is the essence of humanity. It is the spirit which in a healthy body sees with the eyes, tastes with the tongue, hears with the ears, touches with the skin, and smells with the nose.
The spirit has a deep, intimate connection with the body beyond consciousness. This connection is of a nature that the spirit experiences by means of the body itself, all bodily attributes and activities, each of which principally originates in a different manifestation of Divine Names, and is able to penetrate the nature of matter with certainty.
However, some Sufis use the spirit and the soul interchangeably. They categorize the spirit as the vegetable soul or spirit, the animal soul or spirit, and the human soul or spirit. They also categorize the soul according to its degree of spiritual evolution as the carnal, evil-commanding soul, the self-accusing soul, the soul receiving inspiration, and the soul at rest, and so on. According to the majority of scholarly Sufis, a soul that has reached the rank of being at rest avoids all evil and makes doing good, praiseworthy deeds a dimension of its nature. Taking another step upwards, it keeps even involuntary occurrences in its mind under control. Angelic qualities and holiness are observed in a hero of truth who has reached this point, and then the doors of the knowledge of the Unseen are slightly opened onto him or her. Over time, such a soul becomes a pure spirit, and its carnality is totally transformed into spirituality.
This point needs further elaboration, as follows:
According to the Sufis, as long as the spirit is supported and strengthened through ever deepening belief, good deeds, the avoidance of sins, and true learning and reflection, the soul begins to display the traces of straightforwardness. When this continues with constant purification of the soul and the “refinement” of the body through regular worship, both the soul and the body can receive the gifts of turning to God Almighty under the guidance of the spirit.
We can also approach this matter from another perspective, as follows: If the animal soul is so powerful as to dominate the body, this causes the “death” of the spirit, while leading a life at the level of the heart and the strengthening of the spirit results in either the “death” or submission of the soul, or even in acquiring an angelic nature in some people of superior spirituality. Seeing the good side of everything, positive thought, sound belief, regular worship, orderly recurring supplications and recitations, and continuous imploring for forgiveness of sins constitute the securest way of strengthening the spirit and compelling the soul into submission. Those who follow this way sincerely have never been witnessed to fall halfway. Far from falling halfway, those who never give up self-supervision on this way and who are always careful of their relationship with God Almighty, continuously advance toward the highest of the high. The scholarly Sufis call them “the people with illuminated and illuminating spirits.” But those who always see the evil side of things and events, who suffer deviances in thought, who spend their lives on worldly ambitions and daydreams, who have never been able to attain truth in belief, who are heedless of worship, who do not strengthen their inclination toward good through prayer, and who cannot overcome their tendency toward evil and sins through asking God for forgiveness inevitably fall to the lowest of the low. Such are called “the bodies of darkness.”
The spirit becomes like a “pigeon” or angel, flying toward the heights of the Hereafter; this is to such an extent that people restrain their carnal desires, fill their heart with knowledge and love of God, and live a life according to the religious rules. If, by contrast, a person lives in dependence on carnal or bodily appetites, then the spirit weakens, the heart fades, feelings become polluted, and the “secret” is silenced. In brief, the dominion of carnality always results in the paralysis of spirituality, and the strengthening of the spirit leads to the submission and purification of the soul. To express this point, some saints say, “Those who care about their bodies cannot care about their spirits, and those who care about their spirits cannot remain as those who care about their bodies.” These saints teach people how to discover their spirits.
An unpurified soul tends to carnality and pursues the satisfaction of bodily desires. Until it becomes a soul at rest and becomes almost identical with the spirit, it displays this characteristic to some extent. But when the spirit reaches the rank of being pleased with God and being pleasing to Him, by God’s help, it begins speaking like the spirit. When a person attains this character, the reason, which is a curious, inquisitive faculty, rises to the horizon of being an analyzer of the proofs and essentials of religious commandments, taking on the “color” of the heart, and begins observing metaphysical realms from the observatory of the spiritual intellect. The heart lies in ambush to hunt the mysteries that pertain to the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Attributes and Names, and the secret breathes with yearning for the Divine Being.
The heart and the secret are like two eyes of the spirit with which we can look on eternity. Along the spiritual journey, the spiritual intellect beats with the dreams of the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Attributes and Names, and the secret with a yearning for the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divinity. When they have obtained what they are enamored of, each becomes intoxicated with what it observes in its horizon in great amazement. When Divine gifts, flowing from the secret to the heart and taking on the color of the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Commands in the receptors of the heart, are transferred to the spirit in the tongue of the heart, they begin to give voice with angelic accent. This may be analogous—even though imperfect and limited—to the conveyance of Divine mysteries to the Prophets by the angels, whom we may liken to spirits with the depth of their secrets and hearts. Indeed, in the verse, He conveys the Spirit (the life-giving Revelation, from the immaterial realm) of His command to whom He wills of His servants (40: 15), the Qur’an sometimes uses the Revelation in the meaning of the spirit. Just as the spirit is the essence of life in the body, so too, the Revelation is the essence and most important means of spiritual life and vitality. The spirit is a Divine breath, direct or indirect, and the Revelation is also a breath issuing from His Attribute of Speech. The most loyal trustees of this Divine secret are the perfect or universal men. The spirit, which the greatest of universal men, the Master of creation, upon him be peace and blessings, received and breathed into his community is the Divine Revelation itself, and the gifts and inspirations that come to relatively universal men following in his footsteps are a means of mercy for the Muslim Community, provided these gifts and inspirations are tested and verified according to the basic standards that are established by the Revelation.
Both of these spirits—the spirit and the Revelation—are of vital importance for humanity. In the same way that the growth, health, and survival of the human body are possible through the spirit, the life and survival of all the worlds depend on the “spirit” that is breathed by the universal man. Before the creation of the first universal man—Adam, the first human being and also a Prophet who would read creation and illuminate reasons and hearts with the breath he conveyed—the world was dark. Especially through the light which the Greatest Spirit and the Spirit of Holiness diffused, the middle part of its history was illuminated. If one day this light disappears, leaving the world in darkness, and things and events begin to be interpreted as playthings of chance, a new way will appear before humanity. That is, like the alternation of night and day, the world, which will have been darkened, will be replaced by the illuminated world of eternity. Let us once more listen to Bediüzzaman:
Just as life is a pure extract distilled from the universe, just as consciousness and sense perception are extracts distilled from life… and just as the spirit is the pure essence of life—indeed, it is life itself stable and autonomous—so too is the physical and spiritual life of the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings, the most refined extract distilled from the sense perception, consciousness, and intelligence of the universe. The Messengership of Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings, is the purest extract distilled from the sense perception, consciousness, and intelligence of the universe. Indeed, as testified to by his works, accomplishments, and legacy, the physical and spiritual life of Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings, the very life of the universe’s life, and his Messengership are the light and very consciousness of the universe’s consciousness.
It is truly so. If the light of Prophet Muhammad’s Messengership departs from the world, the universe will die. If the Qur’an deserts the universe, the universe will go mad. It will lose its mind and cause the destruction of the world by striking its head on a star.
The spirit breathed into a human being potentially means the same as what Islam, the Prophet, and the Qur’an mean for existence, each as a universal spirit which encompasses the universe, and as its consciousness, life, and light. However, in order to manifest itself in the corporeal realm, the spirit needs a system or a mechanism. Whether transparent or dense, all things are receptors of the universal laws that issue from the Realm of the Initial Manifestation of Divine Commands and which are appointed for their creation and operation or life. All living beings, including humans, with their particular composition and capacities, and the universal men with their distinguished nature and the particular favors accorded to them, are where the spirit particular to each rises.
With respect to humanity, the spirit has some stages of rising or birth, as follows:
- Its rise during the initial determination of natures. This stage of its rise has a relation to the truth of Muhammad as Ahmad—his archetypal existence before his coming into the world as Muhammad. This is the view of those who maintain that spirits were created before the bodily existence of humanity.
- Its rise during the creation of Adam—and indeed of every person—which is expressed in, I have breathed into him out of My Spirit (15: 29).
- The rise of the breathed spirit in the horizon of the heart and the secret. This rise also describes humanity’s actual undertaking of the high status of vicegerency. The one who is the perfect representative of this status is the universal man. The body of the universal man, even if it is inferior to the spirit as a corporeal entity, has spiritual refinement. The Ascension of the Master of creation, upon him be peace and blessings, during which his blessed body accompanied his spirit—which he made with his spirit and body together—is an example of this. Even in its everyday activities and states, such a body manifests the Divine Being’s Attributes of Majesty and Perfection, as stated concerning the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings: “When he is seen, God is remembered and mentioned.”
A universal man displays certain distinctions. He is born with the distinctions particular to him, and lives in awareness of them. He tries to fulfill whatever these distinctions require him to do. He advances into the other world in the way he lives. Even his body enjoys its share in his distinctions. For example, the bodies of the Prophets do not decompose or rot in the earth.
The spirit of the Core of Prophethood, upon him be peace and blessings, was the first to be determined and specified at the beginning of creation. However, he was transferred into material existence in the world as the rhyme of the verse of Prophethood, the fruit of the Tree of Creation, the sun of the sky of Divine Messengership, and the conveyor of the final, decisive judgment in all matters, whose advent had been awaited for centuries with great excitement and joy.
He is both the fruit and the seed; both the first signal and the last sign. He has both the secrets of the Basmala (as the beginning of everything), and the mysteries of the Fatiha (the Opening Chapter of the Qur’an). He can also be regarded as the forerunner coming from behind. He describes himself and his Companions, saying, “We are those who have come the last, but who have outstripped the others.” As the community of every Prophet will follow its Prophet on Judgment Day, it must be a most glad tiding for us regarding the station or rank which will be bestowed on those who follow that Greatest Spirit, upon him be peace and blessings. He is the Greatest Spirit, and his community is the happiest, most fortunate community.
In Sufi terminology, the term the Greatest Spirit is generally used in the meaning of the Truth of Ahmad—the meaning or truth that the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings, represented before his coming into the world as Muhammad. Since that most illustrious being is the most polished, purest mirror of Divine Attributes and Names, He is the most radiant “face,” the most resplendent “stature,” of the Visible or Corporeal World and the (invisible) Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Commands. By means of the lights he diffused, all things and events have come to be understood as a thoroughly meaningful book to study, and humankind has clearly learned from where it comes and where it goes, while the human spirit, enamored of eternity, has been re-born and saved from the veils of the darkness of corporeality through his promises of eternal happiness.
However, some regard the Greatest Spirit as the manifestation of universal life, some as the universal manifestation of Divine Majesty, and some, based on the Qur’anic verse,
The angels and the Spirit descend in it (the Night of Power and Destiny) by the permission of their Lord with His decrees for every affair (97: 4),
as the Greatest, Universal Spirit Who descends on a blessed day or night as a means of spiritual expansion and elation for believers. There are still others who consider it to be the most comprehensive representation of spiritual journeying toward God from the beginning to the end, while yet others call Him the First Intellect or the Universal Soul. As a matter of fact, like the Spirit of Holiness, who is the unperceivable being regarded as the source of the radiations of the Prophets, the Greatest, Universal Spirit is unknown to us in His real identity.
The spirit of everyone is in fact open to the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Commands, and has a connection with it. Those having expert knowledge of the matter describe the spiritual discernment and perception through this connection as “the near conquest,” the intuitions and impression of a heart open to and connected with the Divine Attributes and the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Attributes and Names, as “the manifest conquest,” and the observations of the secret turning toward the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divinity, as “the absolute conquest.”
A human being is a candidate for both Paradise and eternity, and for both the “observation” of God in Paradise and gaining His good pleasure, with his or her inner faculties such as the spirit, heart and secret. Since all the favors to be accorded in the other world primarily relate to these faculties, and we are therefore unable to perceive them in our corporeality, they will come as surprises:
“I have prepared for My righteous servants things that no eyes have ever seen, no ears have ever heard of, and that have never occurred to the heart of anyone.”
Certainly, the Divine favors to come in the Hereafter are impossible to perceive by “worldly reason” or “the reason of worldly life”—the reason busied with worldly affairs only. Who knows what surprises the One Who gives the answer,
Therein will be for them everything that they desire, and in Our Presence, there is yet more (50: 35),
to those who ask, “Is there yet more?” in pursuit of more knowledge and love of God, will bestow from the source of the promise,
For those who do good, aware that God is seeing them, is the best (of the rewards), and still more (10: 26).
We think that the infinite Mercy of the One Who has made the contract with humanity, Whoever is for God, God is for him, requires it to be so.
To summarize, life is everything in the universe and it is directly connected to Him, the All-Living and Self-Subsisting (by Whom all subsist). The life of God Almighty is Life Itself, essential to His Being, and eternal in the past and future. His Life is by Itself, not dependent on any spirit. But the spirit of every living being is an immaterial substance and the cause of the life of that being. Being refined, pure bodies, angels continue to exist by means of their spirits, which are almost identical with their lives due to their purity and refinement. For this reason, some scholars maintain that the death of angels is not like the death of corporeal living beings, but like fainting or absorption. According to these scholars, the death of the spirits will be like the death of angels. Since, in their view, the spirits are simple, living, and conscious Divine laws issuing from the Realm of the Initial Manifestation of Divine Commands, they will not decompose or rot like compound or composed entities. However, as declared in the verse,
The Trumpet will be blown, and so all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth will fall dead (39: 68),
they have also been destined to pass over the bridge of death, even in the form of absorption or fainting.
According to the Sufis, like the three separate but interdependent faculties of a complete entity, the spirit is an immaterial entity that has three dimensions as the object of three separate Divine favors. They are as follows:
The first is what they call “the spirit itself.” It is the first manifestation of the all-encompassing Divine Mercy in the name of bringing the spirit into existence. It appears to be subsisting as the result of the mutual, interdependent relations and positions of the elements that form a living being.
The second is the “spirit breathed.” It is what they call “the speaking soul,” which is favored with reason, willpower, spiritual intellect, certain inner senses, and consciousness, and with the capacity for developing through learning and belief. It is a living, conscious Divine law or command breathed into the embryo in a certain stage of its development in the womb of mother. A hadith says that it is breathed by means of an angel. This spirit was breathed into Adam by God Almighty Himself, as stated in,
I have breathed into him out of My Spirit (15: 29);
and into the Prophet Jesus, upon him be peace, by means of Archangel Gabriel. These spirits of human beings are called “the spirits particular.” The spirit of every individual human being has particularities of its own that emanate from particular manifestations of Divine Compassion, and is related to his or her own particular nature, character, and capacity. These spirits may be likened to the different reflections of the sun in earthly objects, varying from one another in nature, capacity, and particularities. The almost limitless diversity and multiplicity of the objects are not contrary to the oneness of the sun that is reflected in them. Each receives a reflection according to its particular capacity, nature, and features from a single sun, which has all of the reflections. Without ignoring the inadequacy of the comparison, we can say that just as all the instances of light, heat, and some other features shared by all the objects on the earth and even other planets, are reflections of the sun’s light, heat, and other features, the spirits having particularities according to each human being are reflections of the Life of the One Who has Attributes of Majesty and Grace, and manifestations of His Names the All-Living and the One Who Gives Life. It is for this reason that as some Sufis living in absorption of Divine Existence and who always consider the Real, Essential Existence even while looking on the shadowy existence, and experience annihilation under the lights of the burning manifestations of the Divine “Face,” state that they feel no existence but Him. Some ecstatics among them go so far as to see existence as if it were the dead reflection of a human being in a mirror, and view it as something imaginary.
In fact, this is confusion that arises from being overwhelmed by spiritual intoxication and absorption. Therefore, such considerations of Muslim Sufi ecstatics should not be confused with the philosophical views of pantheists. Even though there seems to be a similarity between the two views or considerations, while Muslim Sufis have concentrated on Divine Existence as the real existence, and have been annihilated in It, regarding contingent existence as something imagined, the others concentrate on the corporeal existence, either ignoring the Divine Existence or viewing the former as the incarnation of the latter.
The third dimension of the spirit is the “biological spirit,” which the Muslim Sufis call the “animal spirit.” It is an element of connection between the breathed spirit or the speaking soul and the body. This may also be regarded as a veil of the spirit’s subtlety, purity, and dignity that is related to the Divine Name the All-Outward.
The spirit breathed by God is an abstract, non-biological substance. The tides of humans between guidance and straying, good and evil, and happiness and misery, occur in relation to the animal spirit. If it were possible to listen to the spirit breathed, we would always hear it singing tunes of happiness. The sufferings and pains of the animal spirit in those whom the real human spirit dominates are means of perfection for the spirit breathed. If, by contrast, they are weak in respect of their spirit breathed—those who are not alive in respect of their conscience, who are dead in their relationship with God—they gain nothing in return for their sufferings and pains. The most important mechanism of the spirit is the conscience, which is an observatory for the “observation” of God.
O God! Show us the truth as the truth, and enable us to observe it, and show us falsehood as falsehood, and enable us to avoid it. Make us die as Muslims and include us among the righteous. Bestow Your blessings and peace on the Light which rose from the Unseen into existence, having the reality of all existence, and subsisting by You for You in the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divinity, and which was equipped with Your standards of conduct in the Realm of the Transcendental Manifestation of Divine Attributes and Names, and on his Family and Companions, who represent all that the Prophet brought into the Realm of Corporeal Existence.
By M. Fethullah Gulen
al-‘Ajluni, Kashfu’l-Khafa’, 1:311. (Tr.)
For the “Universal Man” see, M. Fethullah Gülen, Emerald Hills of the Heart – Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism, The Light, NJ, 2004, vol., 2, pp., 289–305. (Tr.)
Bediüzzaman Said Nursi, Lemalar (“The Gleams”), “The Thirtieth Gleam, The Fifth Part, the Fourth Sign.” (Tr.)
al-Munawi, Faydu’l-Qadir, 2:528; at-Tabari, Jami’u’l-Bayan, 11:132. (Tr.)
Abu Dawud, “Salah” 201; an-Nasa’i, “Jumu’a” 5. (Tr.)
Basmala is the phrase, “In the Name of God, the All-Merciful, the All-Compassionate,” and mentioned at the beginning of every good, religiously lawful deed. (Tr.)
al-Bukhari, “Wudu'” 68; Muslim, “Jumu’a” 19, 21. (Tr.)
al-Bukhari, “Bad’u’l-Khalq” 8; Muslim, “Iman” 312; at-Tirmidhi, “Janna” 15. (Tr.)
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The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1436. Since then, these remarkable machines have revolutionized the way information is disseminated, forever altering the course of civilization. To really understand the depth and answer the question of who invented this groundbreaking device, we must go back to the 15th century and the fascinating mind of Johannes Gutenberg.
With his ingenious invention, Gutenberg paved the way for the mass production of books and the democratization of knowledge.
Table of Contents
Who Invented the Printing Press?
The invention of the printing press is often attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith and inventor born around 1398 in Mainz, Germany. Gutenberg’s pioneering work in the mid-15th century forever changed the world of book production and dissemination of knowledge.
Gutenberg’s contribution to the development of the printing press was a culmination of years of experimentation and innovation. Building upon earlier printing techniques, Gutenberg introduced a revolutionary concept: movable type. He devised a system in which individual metal characters could be arranged and rearranged to form words, sentences, and entire pages.
Gutenberg’s method of movable type went beyond previous attempts by using a more durable and precise metal type, along with an innovative mold for casting individual characters. This breakthrough allowed for greater efficiency and speed in the printing process.
In addition to movable type, Gutenberg also invented a press capable of exerting uniform pressure on the type, enabling the transfer of ink to paper with remarkable precision. The combination of movable type and the press was a groundbreaking development that transformed the production of books.
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When Was the Printing Press Invented?
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg occurred during the mid-15th century, although the exact year remains a subject of debate among scholars. While no specific documentation or records pinpoint the precise date, it is widely believed that Gutenberg’s breakthrough took place around 1440-1450.
Gutenberg’s journey to perfecting the printing press was not an isolated event but rather the culmination of centuries of innovation and development in printing techniques. The groundwork had been laid by ancient civilizations, such as the Chinese with their woodblock printing, and the Koreans with their movable type made from ceramic or metal.
The Mechanics of the Printing Press
Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press revolutionized the mechanics of book production, introducing a remarkable system that enabled the efficient and precise replication of text. The printing press comprised several key components that worked in harmony to bring about this groundbreaking transformation.
At the heart of Gutenberg’s printing press was the concept of movable type. Gutenberg developed a method to create individual metal characters, each representing a specific letter, number, or symbol. These characters, also known as type, were arranged in a composing stick to form words, lines, and pages.
Gutenberg’s movable type allowed for flexibility and reusability. Instead of carving an entire page or block of text, individual type pieces could be rearranged to create new combinations. This breakthrough enabled faster typesetting and facilitated the production of different texts without the need for extensive manual labor.
The second crucial component of Gutenberg’s printing press was the press itself. The press exerted even pressure on the arranged type, ensuring that ink transferred uniformly from the type to the paper.
Gutenberg’s press consisted of a flatbed where the type was placed, a platen (a flat plate), and a screw mechanism. The platen would press down on the type, allowing the inked characters to make contact with the paper, creating a printed impression. The screw mechanism provided the necessary pressure and facilitated consistent printing across multiple pages.
Ink and Paper
Ink and paper were vital elements in the printing process. Gutenberg developed a specific type of ink that adhered well to the metal type and transferred effectively onto the paper. This ink, typically an oil-based mixture, provided legible and long-lasting impressions.
Paper was another crucial component. Gutenberg sourced quality paper suitable for printing, which was typically made from pulped plant fibers, such as those derived from linen or cotton. The paper needed to be smooth and durable enough to withstand the printing process without tearing or smudging.
Typesetting and Printing Process
The printing process began with typesetting, where the movable type was meticulously arranged in the composing stick. Gutenberg’s innovation in casting individual metal characters and the use of the composing stick facilitated the rapid assembly of the type for each page.
Once the type was set, ink was applied to the raised surfaces of the characters using ink balls or rollers. The inked type was then placed on the press bed, and the platen, with its screw mechanism, was lowered to exert pressure. This pressure transferred the ink from the type to the paper, leaving a clear impression.
For multiple-page books, the process was repeated, with the type rearranged for each page. The result was a printed page ready for binding and distribution.
Gutenberg’s printing press introduced a standardized and efficient method of reproducing texts. The mechanical process of movable type and the press allowed for faster production, higher accuracy, and increased consistency compared to the labor-intensive method of manual copying.
The mechanics of Gutenberg’s printing press laid the foundation for subsequent advancements in printing technology. While the materials and techniques have evolved over time, the fundamental principles of movable type and mechanical pressure continue to shape modern printing methods.
Impacts of the Printing Press on Knowledge and Education
The revolutionary invention of the printing press transformed the landscape of learning and propelled society into a new era of information accessibility.
Democratization of Knowledge
Prior to the printing press, books were scarce and expensive, primarily produced by hand and accessible only to the elite. Gutenberg’s invention democratized knowledge by enabling the mass production of books. As the printing press spread throughout Europe, books became more readily available and affordable. The accessibility of printed materials transcended social classes, allowing a broader segment of society to access previously inaccessible information.
The democratization of knowledge sparked a cultural revolution. People from diverse backgrounds, regardless of their social status, gained the opportunity to engage with literature, scientific treatises, religious texts, and philosophical works. This broader access to information nurtured intellectual curiosity, fostered critical thinking, and laid the groundwork for societal advancements.
Expansion of Education
The printing press played a crucial role in the expansion of education. The availability of textbooks, instructional materials, and reference works revolutionized the teaching and learning process. Schools, universities, and educational institutions could now provide students with standardized, easily reproducible materials. This streamlined the educational system, making education more accessible and consistent across different regions.
The printing press also facilitated the creation of libraries, both private and public. Collections of books could be amassed more rapidly and efficiently, ensuring that knowledge was preserved and made accessible for future generations. As libraries grew in size and scope, they became centers of intellectual exchange, nurturing scholarship, and contributing to the advancement of society.
Preservation of Knowledge
The printing press played a vital role in preserving knowledge and preventing the loss of valuable information. Prior to its invention, texts were often vulnerable to destruction, deterioration, or loss due to fire, war, or the passage of time. By enabling the mass production of books, the printing press ensured the dissemination of knowledge far beyond the original manuscript.
Rare and ancient texts, such as classical works and religious scriptures, could now be replicated and distributed more widely. The preservation of these texts through printing helped safeguard cultural heritage and ensured that important ideas and historical narratives were not lost to posterity.
Moreover, the printing press enhanced the accuracy of reproducing texts. While errors and variations still occurred, the printing process minimized inconsistencies and enabled the exchange of reliable and consistent information. This standardized replication of texts promoted scholarly engagement, facilitated critical analysis, and fueled further intellectual and scientific discoveries.
Cultural and Societal Transformations
The printing press, with its ability to mass-produce books and disseminate knowledge, sparked profound cultural and societal transformations that forever changed the fabric of society.
Rise of Vernacular Languages
One significant impact of the printing press was the rise of vernacular languages. Before Gutenberg’s invention, Latin was the dominant language in which books were written and circulated. However, as the printing press facilitated the production of books in greater quantities, it became more feasible to print works in local languages.
The availability of books in vernacular languages allowed a broader range of people to engage with literature and ideas. It fostered a sense of linguistic identity, as people could read and connect with texts in their native languages. This shift played a crucial role in the development and standardization of national languages, contributing to the formation of distinct cultural identities.
Expansion of Literature and Ideas
The printing press revolutionized the literary landscape by enabling the rapid production and dissemination of literature. It fueled a vibrant literary culture, as writers could reach wider audiences and explore diverse themes and genres.
The accessibility of printed materials also nurtured a flourishing of ideas and intellectual exchange. Scholars, philosophers, and thinkers could engage in debates and exchange their theories and perspectives more widely. The printing press became a vehicle for the spread of intellectual movements, such as the Enlightenment, as ideas circulated and influenced societies across continents.
Transformation of Religious Practices
The printing press had a profound impact on religious practices and played a pivotal role in religious reformations. With the ability to produce religious texts, including the Bible, in greater quantities, the printing press democratized access to religious knowledge.
One notable example is the Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther. Luther’s ideas challenging the practices of the Catholic Church were disseminated through printed pamphlets and books, fueling a movement of religious reform. The printing press provided a platform for the widespread connection of these ideas, which sparked profound changes in religious beliefs and practices across Europe.
The availability of religious texts in vernacular languages also allowed individuals to engage directly with religious teachings, encouraging personal interpretations and fostering religious literacy. It played a role in the diversification of religious thought and the emergence of different sects and denominations.
Cultural Exchange and Global Connections
The printing press facilitated the exchange of knowledge and ideas across regions and nations. Printed materials could be transported more easily and quickly, promoting cross-cultural understanding and the sharing of different perspectives.
As books circulated, they carried with them the cultural influences of the regions where they were printed. This exchange of ideas and information contributed to the enrichment of cultures and the blending of diverse traditions.
Evolution and Legacy of the Printing Press
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg set in motion a chain of advancements and innovations in the field of printing. Over the centuries, printing technology continued to evolve, adapting to changing needs and embracing new possibilities.
Following Gutenberg’s invention, various improvements were made to the printing press and its associated processes. In the 16th century, advancements such as the introduction of rolling presses and the refinement of typecasting techniques enhanced the efficiency and quality of printing.
The industrial revolution in the 19th century brought about a new wave of advancements in printing technology. Steam-powered presses replaced manual labor, increasing printing speed and capacity. Innovations in papermaking, ink production, and press design further improved the overall printing process.
In the 20th century, lithography and offset printing techniques revolutionized the industry. These methods allowed for high-speed, high-quality reproduction and opened up new possibilities for color printing. Modern offset printing remains widely used today, especially for large-scale commercial printing.
The advent of the digital age brought about a paradigm shift in printing technology. Computerized typesetting, desktop publishing, and digital printing transformed the industry in unprecedented ways. Digital printing allows for more efficient, cost-effective, and customizable production, catering to individualized needs and smaller print runs.
The rise of e-books, online publications, and digital platforms has expanded the ways in which information is consumed. Digital printing methods, coupled with electronic formats, have brought about new opportunities for self-publishing, independent publishing, and on-demand printing.
The digital revolution has also seen the development of 3D printing, a technology that allows for the creation of three-dimensional objects, including intricate models, prototypes, and even functional items. This innovation has revolutionized manufacturing processes and offers exciting possibilities for the future of printing.
Continuing Relevance and Importance
Despite the advancements in digital technology, the printing press and its core principles remain relevant and significant. Print materials continue to hold a unique place in society, offering tangible and tactile experiences that digital formats cannot replicate fully.
Printed books, newspapers, and magazines continue to be cherished mediums for reading, learning, and enjoyment. They provide a sensory experience, with the feel and smell of the paper, the weight of the book, and the visual appeal of printed text and images.
Printed materials also serve specific purposes, such as archival preservation, official documentation, and artistic expression. They carry a sense of permanence and authority that lends credibility to information.
Furthermore, the fundamental principles introduced by Gutenberg, such as movable type, standardized page layout, and efficient production techniques, continue to underpin modern printing methods. The expertise and craftsmanship associated with traditional printing processes are still valued and celebrated.
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg stands as one of the most transformative achievements in human history. Gutenberg’s visionary genius revolutionized the way information is disseminated, forever altering the course of civilization.
From its humble beginnings in the mid-15th century, the printing press has left an indelible mark on the world, shaping education, culture, and the exchange of ideas.
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After a record-breaking year of devastating effects of climate change, from record wildfires in Greece and Canada to floods in Libya, the United Nations COP28 conference comes at a decisive moment for international climate action to put us on a safer path.
Temperature records are being beaten and climate effects are felt worldwide. As climate scientist Zeke Hausfather described global temperature data for September, it’s “absolutely gobsmackingly bananas”.
Source: Zeke Hausfather
As seen in Hausfather’s chart, last month’s temperature beat the prior monthly record by over 0.5°C, and was around 1.8°C warmer than pre-industrial levels.
So, what is the world doing about it? How do national governments tackle the climate crisis? The UN COP28 summit will show humanity’s progress in meeting the climate goals first set at the landmark Paris Agreement. Representatives from around 200 countries will come together to talk about it and agree on crucial climate actions.
In case you’ve never heard of COP28 or you most likely have if you’re following the climate change conversation but need a fresher, this comprehensive article will tell you the things you need to know about this defining climate summit.
First, let’s talk about the COP.
What is COP?
The Conference of the Parties to the Convention or COP is the product of the Rio Summit and the launch of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Every year since the creation of the COP, member countries meet to agree how to deal with climate change. Tens of thousands of delegates from around the world gather together at the climate conference. Head of states, government officials, and representatives from international organizations, private sector, civil society, nonprofits, and the media are attending.
The COP’s 21st session led to the birth of the Paris Agreement, a global consensus to collectively achieve three important goals:
- Limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100,
- Act upon climate change, adapt to its impact, and develop resilience, and
- Align financing with a “pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development”.
Here’s the COP in a timeline, alongside global carbon emissions record.
his year’s UN climate convention is the 28th session of the parties or simply COP28.
How Important is COP28?
So what makes this COP session significant and different from the previous climate talks? The Global Stocktake.
The GST is the first ever report card on the world’s climate progress. It shows exactly how far we are in achieving the Paris Agreement goals set in 2015. Are we on or off track?
Though the details won’t be in until COP28 takes place in November 30 – December 12 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE), there’s a hunch that we need rapid climate actions and have to act now. COP28 is our chance to do that.
Plus the fact that UAE is a major oil producing country makes COP28 quite different and controversial. Many are raising concerns that the agenda doesn’t match well with the host country’s plan to increase oil production.
Some environmental groups noted that it could result in weak results leading to a point where curbing fossil fuels has to be ratcheted up rapidly to make the 1.5°C achievable. Their point is valid. About 100+ years ago, there was far less carbon released into the atmosphere than there is today.
The designation of Sultan al-Jaber as COP28 president-designate incited a furious backlash from climate activists and civil society groups. They warned that there could be a conflict of interest and that protesters would be restricted.
Dr. Sultan al-Jaber is a managing director and CEO of the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC). As appointed president, he would lead the talks, consult with stakeholders, provide leadership roles, and broker any agreements produced.
Given his position within the fossil fuel industry, it raised concerns about impartiality in the climate talks.
But putting aside these controversies, it’s more important to know what would be the specific talking points for this year’s climate summit.
What Are the Focus Issues to Watch at COP28?
Similar to previous sessions, the host nation sets the tone and direction of discussion for the conference. For this year’s COP28, here are the major areas to be deliberated.
As the case with the rest of the COPs, climate finance is one of the key issues. More so, if the money involved is worth $100 billion annually which was pledged by developed nations to developing countries.
Climate finance is critical because developing nations need resources, financial and technological, to enable them to adapt to climate change.
It was back in 2009 when rich countries promised to provide $100 billion from 2020 onwards to help poor nations in dealing with the impacts of climate change. However, until now that pledge has never been met, stirring frustrations for many developing countries.
The potential consequences of failing to meet the promised target in a timely manner could extend to the broader negotiations. It heavily affects the trustworthiness of governments to fulfill their commitments.
At COP28, governments will persist in their discussions on a fresh climate finance objective, aiming to supplant the existing $100 billion commitment. Though the deadline for reaching an agreement is 2024, substantial progress in Dubai remains pivotal to establishing a foundation for next year’s COP.
Moreover, financial matters will prominently feature in talks on the Green Climate Fund and on loss and damage.
Ultimately, deliberations and pledges related to the amplification and execution of climate finance may impact various other areas of negotiation. It may also help propel more climate actions or impede progress.
Where’s the ‘Loss and Damage’ Fund?
The concept of ‘loss and damage’ compensation isn’t new; it has been around for some time. It’s an arrangement wherein rich nations should pay the poorer ones that have suffered the brunt of climate change.
It differs from the funds to help poor nations adapt to the effects of climate change. While it gives hope for low-income countries heavily impacted by the climate-related disasters, it left several unanswered questions.
Unsurprisingly, one big question is:
- Who’s going to pay into the fund and who deserves to get it?
This issue has been unresolved for some time and was also discussed in COP27 at Egypt last year. Different organizations have different suggestions as to how much the fund needed to pay for the loss and damage.
- For one study, the funding can be as high as $580 billion each year by 2030, going up to $1.7 trillion by 2050.
Matter experts noted that the fund has been the “underlying climate finance discussions for a long time”. But after years of stalemate, the question hasn’t been resolved still.
Governments decided and agreed to form a ‘transitional committee’ at COP27. At COP28, they expect to come up with the recommendations on how to operationalize the fund.
Putting Food on the Table
Leading up to COP28, there’s been growing attention on food systems and agriculture in global discussions.
The current food systems are failing us; over 800 million people face hunger right now. Climate-related droughts and floods are destroying farmers’ crops and livelihoods. At COP28, world leaders must devise a plan that changes the ways the world produces and consumes food.
The COP28 presidency and the UN Food Systems Coordination Hub launched the COP28 Food Systems and Agriculture Agenda in July. It urges nations to align their national food systems and agricultural policies with their climate plans.
The agenda emphasizes the inclusion of targets for food system decarbonization in national biodiversity strategies and action plans.
Like the other issues above, food systems were also part of the COP27 summit. But there was also still some resistance to fully adopting a holistic approach to them.
Sultan al-Jaber is encouraging both private and public sectors to contribute funds and technology to transform food systems and agriculture. He also emphasized that food systems contribute to a significant portion of human-generated emissions. In line with this, the UAE and the US team up to promote their Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate (AIM4C).
The increased focus on food at COP28 has been well-received. The GST synthesis report even stresses the need to address interconnected challenges, including demand-side measures, land use changes, and deforestation.
It’s important that actions to change food systems work together with efforts to speed up the transition to cleaner energy. Transformations in both sectors are crucial to meeting climate goals.
Moving Cities At the Front
For many years, UN climate summits have historically concentrated solely on national-level climate action, overlooking a crucial aspect.
Urban centers, responsible for around 70% of global CO2 emissions, face heightened vulnerability to climate change impacts, too. To restrict warming to 1.5C, all cities must achieve net zero emissions by 2050.
Research indicates that existing technologies and policies can cut urban emissions by 90% by 2050. But cities alone can realize only 28% of this potential.
Full decarbonization requires robust partnerships between local and national governments, along with engagement in international climate initiatives.
At COP28, it’s crucial for national, regional, and local governments to intensify partnerships, accelerating progress toward climate goals.
Moreover, national governments should also integrate urban areas more effectively into their climate plans. This includes reinforcing city-centric targets in their NDCs and National Adaptation Plans, expanding public transit, enhancing building energy efficiency, and ensuring that subnational actors have easy access to climate finance.
COP28: The Deciding Moment for Climate Action
Leaders at the national, corporate, and municipal levels must not only showcase progress in fulfilling previous commitments but also unveil new, ambitious plans. These plans are vital to curbing the worsening impacts of climate change, safeguarding both people and the environment.
The Global Stocktake was established to reach the objectives of the Paris Agreement. It also particularly highlighted the need to phase out unabated fossil fuels, which are the major culprit in releasing carbon. It will face its inaugural evaluation at COP28, presenting a crucial assessment of decision-makers’ commitment to its goal.
The report card of the world’s collective climate action was out. And the data isn’t good. COP28 is our best chance to make a critical course correction. It isn’t just a conference; it’s a decisive moment for leaders to demonstrate commitment to curbing harmful emissions.
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Health care professionals treat mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with a combination of medications and behavioral therapies. However, some people do not respond to these standard treatments. Ketamine therapy involves using low doses of an anesthetic drug called ketamine in patients with treatment-resistant depression.
What is Ketamine Therapy?
Ketamine is an anesthetic drug that was first patented in Belgium in the 1960s as a veterinary anesthetic. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved ketamine for use in humans in 1970. Because of its efficacy and safety profile, ketamine was widely used as an anesthetic on the battlefield during the Vietnam War.
Therapeutic Uses of Ketamine
Ketamine (brand name: Ketalar) is an anesthetic drug. It is used, in combination with other medications, to induce general anesthesia (a sleep-like state) before and during some types of major surgery.
Therapeutic Uses of Ketamine Beyond Anesthesia
Over the past few decades, researchers have found that ketamine has antidepressant effects. However, ketamine therapy is not approved as a first-line treatment for patients with major depressive disorder. Rather, it is used in patients with treatment-resistant depression, i.e., patients who have not responded to at least two standard treatments. Ketamine may also be used to treat acute suicidality, for example, to calm a person after an attempted suicide.
How is Ketamine Treatment Given for Mental Health Conditions?
Ketamine is given in the form of an intravenous infusion (injection into a vein) to manage psychiatric disorders. It can be a single infusion or a series of infusions.
What is Esketamine (Spravato)?
In 2019, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a new ketamine-derived antidepressant nasal spray. This drug called esketamine (brand name: Spravato) is used along with an oral antidepressant to treat adults with:
- Treatment-resistant depression.
- Major depressive disorder (MDD) with depressive symptoms including suicidal thoughts or behaviors.
How Does Ketamine Therapy Work?
The mechanism of action of ketamine for depression treatment is not entirely clear. Researchers believe the drug binds with n-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the brain. This leads to increased levels of an excitatory neurotransmitter (natural chemical) called glutamate. Glutamate plays a key role in memory formation. Through a complex cascade of events, increased levels of glutamate trigger the formation of new neuronal connections. This, in turn, is believed to improve mood and promote healthy thought patterns.
Experts say that ketamine and esketamine are particularly effective for treatment-resistant depression because they work differently than other antidepressant drugs. For example, anti-anxiety medications such as benzodiazepines (Valium, Xanax) only work while they are in the system. Esketamine, on the other hand, triggers regrowth of connections between brain cells. As a result, the effects of esketamine continue to be present even when the drug is no longer in the body.
How Effective is Ketamine Therapy for Treating Depression?
Studies suggest that a ketamine infusion can result in a significant improvement in depressive symptoms within 72 hours.
Other studies have found that 7 out of 10 people who took esketamine along with an oral antidepressant medication had improvement in their symptoms compared to only 5 out of 10 people who did not receive esketamine with the antidepressant taken by mouth.
Who is Eligible for Ketamine Infusion Therapy?
Ketamine infusions are not for everyone with major depressive disorder or anxiety disorders. This drug is reserved for people with treatment-resistant depression, i.e., depression that has not responded to at least two standard antidepressant drugs. Your doctor may prescribe ketamine infusions for depression if you meet this eligibility criteria.
Is ketamine approved for mental health treatment?
Ketamine infusions are not FDA-approved for mental health treatment. They are used off-label in people with treatment-resistant depression or acute suicidality. As mentioned, treatment-resistant depression is depression that has not responded to two or more standard antidepressant drugs.
However, the FDA has approved a ketamine-derived drug, esketamine (Spravato) nasal spray for adults with treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder with suicidal ideation.
Note: We do not know if esketamine is safe or effective in preventing suicide or reducing suicidal thoughts or actions.
Does insurance cover ketamine infusion treatments?
Insurance does not usually cover ketamine infusion treatments for depression because it is not an FDA-approved therapy for this condition. Ketamine is used off-label for depression. However, esketamine (Spravato) nasal spray may be covered by insurance because it is FDA-approved. Check your health insurance plan for prescription drug coverage.
Common Questions About Ketamine Therapy for Depression
How long does it take for the effects of ketamine therapy to start?
Ketamine therapy for depression starts working within 1 hour. There is a significant improvement in depression and anxiety within 72 hours of an infusion.
Note: In contrast, it can take several weeks to see results after starting other antidepressants.
Moreover, the severity of the mental illness continues to be decreased 2-4 weeks after the last infusion of ketamine. In other words, ketamine has a sustained effect on reducing depressive symptoms.
Is ketamine therapy effective in treating depression?
Studies suggest ketamine therapy can be very effective in treating depression in people who have not responded to other treatments. This drug is not a first-line treatment for depression. It is only used off-label in people who did not get improvement in their depression symptoms with standard antidepressant medications.
What are the benefits of ketamine therapy for depression?
- Ketamine may provide relief from depressive symptoms in people who have not responded to other standard treatments.
- Ketamine starts working within 1 hour and results in significant improvement in depressive symptoms within 72 hours. In contrast, most other antidepressant medications take 2-4 weeks to have an effect.
- The effects of ketamine continue to be present 2-4 weeks after the last infusion.
What is the success rate of ketamine therapy for depression?
Studies suggest that 70% of people report an improvement in their depression symptoms after ketamine therapy for treatment-resistant depression.
Ketamine Therapy Procedure
What is the typical ketamine infusion session like?
A ketamine infusion takes place in a hospital or other healthcare setting. It usually takes 40 minutes to complete. You are monitored by healthcare providers throughout the infusion.
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Esketamine (Spravato) nasal spray is also used under the supervision of a healthcare provider in a healthcare setting. Your doctor will show you how to use the nasal spray device.
The healthcare team will observe you for 2 hours after the treatment. You should plan to have a friend or family member drive you home.
How often do you need ketamine infusions for treating depression?
Your doctor will develop a customized ketamine infusion plan based on the severity of your symptoms. In general, recommendations are to start with two infusions per week, then decrease the frequency to one infusion per week, and ultimately to one infusion every 2-4 weeks, based on response and tolerability.
Your healthcare provider will tell you how much esketamine (Spravato) to take and how often to take it. The recommended dose for most people is two doses per week for weeks 1 through 4, followed by one dose per week for weeks 5 through 9, and then one dose every 1-2 weeks thereafter.
Side Effects and Safety of Ketamine Infusion Treatment
What is a ketamine dissociative experience or “trip”?
Ketamine infusions and esketamine nasal spray can cause feelings of dissociation or euphoria (colloquially called a buzz or trip). For this reason, some people obtain ketamine off the street where dealers sell it as Special K, Super K, K, or vitamin K. It is a club drug and is also added to drinks or smoked or snorted in joints or cigarettes. However, these practices are extremely dangerous and can be fatal.
A ketamine “trip” may consist of visual and sensory distortions, feelings of unreality or dissociation from reality, feeling disconnected from your body, and other unusual thoughts and feelings. These symptoms can last for up to 2 hours.
How do you feel during ketamine therapy in the hospital?
During a ketamine infusion in the hospital, you may make an occasional comment about your surroundings. However, most people don’t move or talk and appear to be asleep. The hospital staff will not disturb you during the treatment unless you need something.
What are the serious risks of ketamine treatment?
Serious side effects of ketamine infusions include high blood pressure, dangerously slow breathing, and loss of consciousness. That’s why ketamine infusions for depression should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional. Obtaining this drug from street dealers can result in life-threatening and fatal health complications.
What are the side effects of esketamine (Spravato) nasal spray?
Side effects of esketamine nasal spray for depression treatment include:
- Nausea and vomiting – Do not eat for at least 2 hours before a dose and do not drink anything for at least 30 minutes after your treatment.
- Decreased alertness and problems with thinking – Do not drive or operate heavy machinery until the next day (after a restful night of sleep) and only if you feel fully alert.
- Bladder problems, such as difficulty urination, frequency, urgency, nocturia (frequent urination at night), or pain with urination.
Tell your doctor immediately or seek emergency medical care if you develop the following serious symptoms after taking esketamine nasal spray:
- Sudden severe headache
- Changes in vision
- Chest pain
- Shortness of breath
Note: If you are using nasal decongestants or nasal corticosteroids, use them at least 1 hour before esketamine nasal spray treatment.
Ketamine Therapy for Addiction Treatment
Can ketamine therapy can help in addiction recovery?
As mentioned, ketamine is an anesthetic drug that acts on the central nervous system by blocking NMDA receptors. In addition to ketamine use in general anesthesia, this drug is also used off-label for rapid treatment of depression and acute suicidal ideation.
More recently, ketamine has been studied for its ability to reduce drug and alcohol use. More clinical research is needed to understand the ability of ketamine to treat addiction, but early results are promising.
Ketamine has been found to prolong abstinence from alcohol in people who have undergone detoxification. It has also been found to prolong abstinence from heroin in people who are dependent on this illicit opioid drug. Additionally, ketamine has been found to reduce cravings for the stimulant drug cocaine in individuals who are not in active treatment for cocaine abuse.
Why is ketamine therapy an effective addiction treatment method?
Possible ways in which ketamine works to treat addiction may include:
- Increased formation of new nerve cells and nerve cell connections.
- Disruption of certain functional neural networks that play a role in substance abuse.
- Blocking reconsolidation of drug-related memories.
- Provocation of mystical experiences and enhanced efficacy of psychotherapy.
Comprehensive Treatment Plans Incorporating Ketamine Therapy
Ketamine therapy for mental health conditions is considered experimental. This drug is used off-label in people with treatment-resistant depression and acute suicidality. The FDA has, however, approved esketamine nasal spray (Spravato) for these conditions.
Mental health conditions such as depression frequently co-occur with substance use disorders. Dual diagnosis and treatment of both conditions is vital for sustained recovery.
Ketamine therapy can therefore be part of a holistic mental health treatment plan that includes detoxification, psychotherapy modalities such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and antidepressant medications or ketamine therapy for treatment-resistant depression or acute suicidality.
Ketamine Therapy in Washington State
Ketamine is an anesthetic drug that is used off-label to treat depression and anxiety disorders. A ketamine-derived drug, esketamine nasal spray, has been FDA-approved for people with depression that has not responded to at least two other standard antidepressant drugs (this is called treatment-resistant depression). Esketamine is also approved for people with major depressive disorder who have suicidal thoughts or actions.
More research is urgently needed, but early results show that ketamine infusion therapy can prolong abstinence from alcohol, heroin, and cocaine. There may therefore be a role for ketamine therapy in the treatment of substance use disorders.
At Discover Recovery, we use evidence-based treatment for recovery from substance abuse. Our highly experienced team of medical professionals is up-to-date on the latest research findings and FDA-approved drugs. If you think you could benefit from ketamine depression therapy or ketamine addiction treatment, call now to check your eligibility.
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