
This publication was prepared in the framework of a technical assistance project aimed at strengthening the capacity of least developed countries to mobilize resources through venture capital funds. It is intended for use in the training of senior and middle management in business planning and as a reference manual for individual enterprises to prepare their business plans, for submission to investors for funding, including venture capital funds.
Working out the business plan…………………………….2 B.. Monitoring the process……………………………………. Setting goals……………………………………………….3 D. How to prepare a business plan?……………………………………. Purpose of the business plan……………………………………….9 b. 10 d.2 A.. 23 PART TWO: BASIC ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS PLAN CHAPTER II: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………. Why a business plan?………………………………………………. 13 G.. 11 f... Format and organization of a business plan………………………. 19 I.Contents Page Preface………………………………………………………………… iv PART ONE: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I: THE ABC OF A BUSINESS PLAN…………………..6 2.. 29 A. Assessing the situation……………………………………….. What is a business plan?……………………………………………. Setting employee objectives………………………………. Different types of business plans…………………………………. 12 E..9 c.. Content and structure of a business plan…………………………….2 C.. 30 v . Developing a mission……………………………………….. What is expected from the investor/lender?…………………………13 F.. Who prepares a business plan?…………………………………. 17 H. 11 e.... Who reads the business plan?………………………………………. 6 1... Planning period…………………………………………………….. What are the steps in the planning process?…………………… 7 a. Getting ready………………………………………………. 12 g..
.. Main highlights……………………………………………………. Key data……………………………………………………………... Costing………………………………………………………... ownership and management…………………………. Legal form. 60 A. Quality assurance and control……………………………………… 57 H. Product attributes…………………………………………………. 40 CHAPTER IV: PRODUCTS AND SERVICES……………………. Location and premises………………………………………………37 C. Intellectual property……………………………………………….. Historical development and track record of the business…………. Positioning…………………………………………………………. Example of an executive summary………………………………… 33 CHAPTER III: BACKGROUND…………………………………… 36 A. 50 b. General organization/operating units………………………………. 55 G. Production process…………………………………………………. Market strategy……………………………………………………. 58 I. Buyer's standpoint………………………………………. Product life cycle……………………………………………………46 E. Pricing………………………………………………………… 50 a. CLIENTS AND COMPETITORS….... 43 C.. Seller's point of view……………………………………. 31 C. 58 CHAPTER V: MARKETS...63 F. 32 D. Sourcing……………………………………………………………. 42 B.. Financial requirements…………………………………………….65 G.. Costing and pricing………………………………………………… 48 1. 60 B. 48 2. 38 E.B.. 42 A. Business strategy and mission……………………………………… 40 G.. 46 D.. Competition………………………………………………………… 62 E. 38 D. Market characteristics……………………………………………… 61 C. 52 F.. markets and clients………………………………… 36 B. Product description and history…………………………………….. Research and development………………………………………….. Main products. Projected sales……………………………………………………… 69 vi . Clients……………………………………………………………… 62 D. Introductory remarks……………………………………………….39 F.
70 1. Practical issues venture capitalists will check………………………. 70 A. 109 vii . 106 B. Project management………………………………………………. Order processing and inventory control……………………………. 79 F.… 86 CHAPTER VII: HUMAN RESOURCES…………………………. 104 4. Company structure………………………………………………….CHAPTER VI: BUSINESS OPERATIONS AND ORGANIZATION……………………………………………………. Approvals and licensing requirements……………………………. 81 G. Executive management………………………………………… 90 4. 73 B. Promotion and advertising…………………………………….. Selling methodology………………………………………………… 76 D. Social compliance issues…………………………………………… 107 C. External support services……………………………………… 94 B. Premises………………………………………………………..… 84 I.. 88 1. 75 C. Location……………………………………………………….… 74 1... Middle management…………………………………………… 92 5.. 82 H..... Marketing…………………………………………………………. Team spirit…………………………………………………….. Location and premises………………………………………………. 78 E. 74 2. Attitudes and human characteristics of managers……………… 100 3. Distribution…………………………………………………………. Manufacturing………………………………………………………. 106 A.. Values and norms of the firm…………………………………. Development and social benefits…………………………………. 70 2. 95 1. 96 2.. AND ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS………………….. 94 C.. Board of directors……………………………………………… 89 3. General remarks……………………………………………….. Technical skills and competencies of managers………………. Labour………………………………………………………………. Management information system/reporting………………………. 104 CHAPTER VIII: LEGAL FRAMEWORK..… 88 A. Management………………………………………………………. Shareholders…………………………………………………… 89 2.
Important financial ratios…………………………………………. 141 b. How to prepare a cash flow projection………………………. 146 d. 111 3. 119 C. 120 D.117 A. Total assets turnover ……………………………………. Fixed assets turnover …………………………………… 147 e. Examples of questions lenders and investors may ask………. Debt to equity ratio …………………………………….. 117 B. 135 F. Financial history…………………………………………………….. Dividend payout ………………………………………… 154 4. 145 c. Net profit margin ………………………………………. Some more hints for preparing/improving your cash flow……. 140 a. Operating profit margin ………………………………… 151 d. Designing a cash flow worksheet………………………. Inventory turnover ……………………………………… 144 b. 112 CHAPTER IX: FINANCIAL PLANNING…………………………. Profitability ratios ……………………………………………. Tools for cash flow projections…………………………... 155 viii .. The concerns of investors……………………………………. 110 1. 132 E.. Accounts receivable turnover …………………………. Introductory remarks……………………………………………….. 150 c.. 122 2. 132 4.D. Return on equity ………………………………………… 153 f. Efficiency ratios ……………………………………………… 143 a.. 148 3. 127 3.. The concerns of lenders………………………………………. 139 1. Environmental risks………………………………………………. What is cash flow……………………………………………. 149 b. 129 a. Why do you need cash flow planning?……………………….. Accounts payable turnover ……………………………. Return on assets ………………………………………… 152 e. Liquidity ratios………………………………………………. 142 2.. 122 1. 131 c... 155 a. Gross profit margin ……………………………………. Income statement projections………………………………………. Quick test ratio ………………………………………….111 2. Cash flow projections………………………………………………. Current ratio ……………………………………………. Balance sheet projections………………………………………….. Solvency ratios ………………………………………………. Steps in preparing your cash flow projections…………. 148 a. 129 b..
Internal rate of return ………………………………………… 163 H. Interest coverage ratio …………………………………. 159 G. 187 C. Political/regulatory……………………………………………. Request for funds and other supporting information………………. Risk assessment ……………………………………………… 165 3. Subcontracting………………………………………………….b. Request for funds……………………………………………. Methods for ranking investment projects………………………….. Total assets to total liabilities ratio ……………………. SWOT analysis……………………………………………………. Payback period ………………………………………………. 157 d... 160 2. Managing opportunities……………………………………………... 178 B. Quality/production problems…………………………………… 185 9.. 184 7. 180 3. 183 6. 187 D. General economic environment………………………………… 179 2. Capitalization ratio ……………………………………… 158 e. 179 1...186 10.188 GLOSSARY………………………………………………………….. Client-related……………………………………………………. 164 1. Market………………………………………………………….. Law suits………………………………………………………..182 4. Introductory remarks……………………………………………….. 164 2. Total assets to equity ratio ……………………………… 156 c.. Start-up business financial information ……………………… 167 I..... Changes in public opinion……………………………………….. 185 8. Staffing…………………………………………………………. Net present value ……………………………………………. 160 1. 192 ix .. Types of risks………………………………………………………. Technological…………………………………………………… 183 5. 161 3. Numerical example………………………………………………… 168 PART THREE: CONTINGENCY PLANS CHAPTER X: RISK AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS…………… 178 A..
66 Position in the market…………………………………………67 Matrix of strategies………………………………………….2.2.2.1. 163 Tables IV.1. IX.. VI. IX. Where did the habit of five-year planning originate?……….9.6. IV. V. 47 Chain of product cycles………………………………………. IX. 96 Characteristics for success…………………………………… 100 Income statement……………………………………………. 68 The basic characteristics of managers………………………. V.. Making a good impression………………………………….1.3.4.. Regulatory surprises………………………………………… Figures I. IV.4. 122 Sources and uses of cash flows……………. VI.Boxes I. IX.3.8. VII. Comparison of different pricing options…………………….5.1.1. V. 48 The method for setting the price of your product……………. 54 Typical organization chart of a production company…………83 Example of a project plan: construction of a plant for production of mango concentrate………………… 85 Determination of IRR………………………………………. Example: fish processing…………………………………… Example: executive search…………………………………. IV.2.1. IX.3.. 134 Balance sheet………………………………………………….1.1.. 138 Current ratio………………………………………………….2. 66 Analysis of market attractiveness……………………………. 141 Quick test ratio……………………………………………….7..1. III. IX..1. IV.. V.1. Role of the employees in the business planning process…….1. VII.. IX.2. 12 Example: Legal shareholding structure of SBTP Ltd………. 39 Accumulated income during the life cycle of a product……. IX..………………… 126 Example: reconciling cash revenues and disbursements……... 131 Cash flow statement…………………………………………. 53 Analysis of competitive advantages…………………………..1. VII. IX. IV. IX.. X. 142 Inventory turnover…………………………………………… 144 Accounts receivable turnover………………………………… 145 21 55 56 100 182 x .
23.2.20. 159 Income statement: an example……………………………… 171 Balance sheet: an example…………………………………..22.21.18..30.………………. IX... 153 Dividend payout……………………………………………. IX. X.146 Fixed assets turnover………………………………………. 154 Debt to equity ratio…………………………………………. 174 Reconciliation of shareholder's equity……………………… 174 Calculation of provisions for tax: an example……………… 175 Financing plan: an example……………….25. IX.11. 147 Total assets turnover…………………………………………148 Gross profit margin…………………………………………. IX. IX.14.. 152 Return on equity……………………………………………. IX.31. 155 Total assets to equity ratio…………………………………. IX.26.IX.24. IX. 172 Cash flow statement: an example…………………………… 173 Investment and depreciation plan: an example…………….. IX.27. X.28. 189 Opportunities and threats…………………………………… 190 xi .. 183 Strengths and weaknesses…………………………………. IX. Accounts payable turnover…………………………………. 156 Total assets to total liabilities ratio………………………….1. 149 Net profit margin……………………………………………...13.29. IX. 150 Operating profit margin…………………………………… 151 Return on assets……………………………………………. IX. IX. X. IX. IX. 157 Capitalization ratio………………………………………….10. IX.16.17..15. IX. 158 Interest coverage ratio……………………………………….. 176 Examples of damage………………………………………. IX.. 175 Ratio summary sheet……………………………………….19.12.. IX.. IX.3. IX..
PART ONE INTRODUCTION .
For example. well structured and reader-friendly. It is a detailed report on a company's products or services. requirements in respect of infrastructure and supplies. sincere.UNCTAD. By preparing your business plan. It is normally updated annually and looks ahead for a period of usually three to five years. Also. and sources and uses of funds. Some of the most significant are the following: • Getting an integrated view of your business. markets and clients. but its main purpose is to present the future of an enterprise. it should be complete. outline your market segment. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 3 CHAPTER I THE ABCs OF A BUSINESS PLAN A. B. depending on the type of business and the kind of entity. Committing your plans to paper. marketing strategy. It is a crucial element in any application for funding. the business plan process often leads to the discovery of a competitive advantage or new opportunities as well as deficiencies in the plan. you get an integrated view of all issues regarding your business. ensures that your overall ability to manage the business will improve.Why a business plan? There are many important reasons for drawing up a business plan. organization. You will be able to concentrate your efforts on any deviations from the plan before conditions . financing requirements. shape your pricing strategy and define the competitive conditions under which you must operate in order to succeed. Business planning ensures that all these considerations are consistent and properly harmonized. human resources. What is a business plan? A business plan is a comprehensive. The business plan describes the past and present status of a business. Therefore. it helps you to identify better your target clients. whether to a venture capital organization or any other investment or lending source. factual. written description of the business of an enterprise. production techniques.
Using the business plan in informing business partners and other relevant organizations.4 UNCTAD. • Approval from board of directors/shareholders. type and sources of financing and when it is required. selected business partners. In preparing this manual. • Informing employees. Who reads the business plan? Among the readers of your business plan will most probably be key employees. Determining the amount. C. and current or . • Informing lenders. • Recruiting. Using it in recruiting and introducing new members of the management and staff. it has been assumed that the primary objective of preparing a business plan is to determine the financing requirements of your business and to apply for external funding. • Deriving objectives for employees. How to Prepare Your Business Plan become critical. Deriving from the business plan measures and objectives for units and individuals in the organization (management by objective). Using the business plan in the process of application for funds. Using it as a basis for getting approvals from the company board and shareholders. • Mutual understanding within the management team. • Informing partners. Giving it to banks/investment funds that have financed your business in the past and require periodical information for monitoring purposes. • Determining financial needs and applying for funds.. You will also have time to look ahead and avoid problems before they arise. the board of directors and shareholders.
Such venture capital funds are established and supported primarily by Governments or governmental institutions and have a social and macroeconomic development objective. for example through appointing one of their staff members to the board of directors of your company. infrastructure (land. Some of the most important target readers may well be potential lenders or investors. In some cases. you should be restrictive in distributing copies of it. the bank may require the loan to be covered with 200 per cent or more of their value. you may request the recipient to sign a confidentiality declaration. is that they can finance your business by placing equity without requiring collateral. Give it only to persons who you are confident will not pass on information without your consent. Experience has shown that interest rates demanded by commercial banks in some countries can often be too high to be really supportive of the development of a business. Recent years have seen a rapid increase in the number of private venture capital funds that operate on a commercial basis. The interest rate depends on the prevailing macroeconomic conditions in a country. A particular advantage of such funds. tradable securities. buildings. Which parts of your business plan should be distributed to which persons depends on its confidentiality and on the particular responsibility of the persons concerned. Particular characteristics of these funds are: . If you include in your business plan confidential strategic decisions or secrets. They are normally very risk-conscious and require adequate coverage by means of collateral. in the order of preference of the banks. there are many possible sources you can approach with your business plan. cash accounts. as compared with bank loans. they will expect a good share of the profit and will demand a control function in your business. machinery). precious metals. On the other hand. and they will scrutinize your business until they are convinced that they can get substantial return on their equity at a calculable risk. accounts receivable and inventory. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 5 prospective lenders and investors. If you are looking for outside financing to develop your business.UNCTAD. Commercial banks provide loans to viable businesses on standard market terms and conditions. The most important of these are the following: • Commercial banks. • Private investment funds. This may consist of. If some of these assets are accepted as collateral. but also on the risk the bank attributes to a project. • Development funds. The objective of these funds is to make a profit.
6 UNCTAD. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). if you address yourself to such a fund you have to cover these issues well in your business plan. Côte d´Ivoire. Among the most prominent multilateral development institutions are: The International Finance Corporation (IFC). They exit when the business is financially self-sufficient. The African Development Bank (ADB). etc. are only ready to finance a project if the business plan shows the viability and profitability of the business. They participate in the business only for a limited period of time. United States. Their philosophy and their objective are similar to those of the development funds mentioned above. . like all other funding institutions.). They tend to finance directly large projects (with equity and/or loans) costing $5-10 million or more. Therefore. most development funds. Their common goal is to assist the social and economic development of the regions they cover. located in Washington DC. DC. The Asian Development Bank (ADB). United Kingdom. located in Manila. How to Prepare Your Business Plan They are willing to take more risks than commercial/private venture capital funds. located in Abidjan. They also cover smaller investment projects through intermediaries such as local commercial banks and leasing companies. United States. transferring a substantial amount of know-how. Nevertheless. The share capital of these institutions is held by many Governments. Philippines. located in London. including a strong value-added component. The Inter-American Investment Corporation/Inter-American Development Bank. which is part of the World Bank Group located in Washington. They particularly favour businesses with special social and environmental benefits (creating many jobs. • Multilateral development institutions. being friendly to the environment.
Ultimately. Donors wish their grants to be given only to wellplanned and viable ventures. those employed by the business will assume some of the responsibility in implementing the plan. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 7 • Private investors. implementing a pilot project prior to an investment. the donor will most probably assess your business plan before taking a decision. the planning work and the drafting of the document have to be done by the managers and owners themselves. In a very small company. How to prepare a business plan? 1. and secondly no plan will be implemented successfully unless key employees identify themselves with the targets set and the means committed. Typical examples of applications for such soft loans or grants are for training your personnel. preparing a feasibility study. Firstly. psychological and team-building point of view to involve them at an early stage of the process. Therefore. Quite often they allocate a percentage of their fortunes for start-up or expansion projects. and making environmentalprotection-related improvements. it makes sense from a technical. there may be some possibilities to access government funds that provide soft loans or grants. employees have the best knowledge of the different aspects of the company's operations. • Technical assistance credits/grants. the less the chance that non-viable solutions will be arrived at. Placing money in diverse businesses reduces the overall risk in their investment portfolio. Company employees contributing to the preparation of a business plan are typically: . microeconomic and macroeconomic impact. Their incentive is to get a higher return on investment than on marketable securities or investing in a fund. Nevertheless. Private investors are usually independent and wealthy individuals who are seeking opportunities to put money in promising businesses. even for a grant. They rightly believe that these are the ones that can have a substantial social. contributions have to come from different people.UNCTAD. In larger organizations. Who prepares a business plan? The answer to the question about who contributes to the preparation of a business plan depends very much on the type of business and the structure and size of the entity. The larger the number of management and staff members involved in the preparation of a business plan. Depending upon the type and location of your business. D.
The best skills available within the company should then be used for synthesizing and harmonizing the input provided by the above team members and for producing the actual report. who provide input of central importance for the business plan. and is one of the key figures in talking to investors and lending institutions. • The development and production managers. these persons inform their personnel about the business planning process and ask them to assist by contributing data. works out the financing requirements of the firm. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • The Chief Executive Officer (CEO). This work should not be allocated simply to the least useful member of staff who happens to have time available. who understands best the demand of the market. the prices that they are ready to pay.8 UNCTAD. • The financial manager. Many large entities have highly competent business development managers whose main tasks are to coordinate the business planning process and edit the relevant documents. etc. Most successful ventures prepare a three-to-five year business plan every year. What are the steps in the planning process? A business plan should not be something you prepare once. requirements for new production machinery and equipment. information. This system approach of mobilizing a large part of the organization has the great advantage of stimulating the awareness and motivation of the firm as a whole. Other enterprises do not have adequate internal resources and hire external consultants to guide and facilitate the business planning process. the specific requirements of clients. such as lead times for developing new products. opinions and ideas. personnel needs and raw material requirements. Dynamic planning should be an integral part of managing your business. who should have the main responsibility for supervising the business planning process. then put on a shelf and forget. . who usually puts the financial data of the business plan together. This involves updating last year’s business plan by comparing the planned figures and goals with results achieved and taking into account changes. the moves of competitors. In some ventures. • The marketing and sales manager. its growth potential. 2.
Setting employee objectives 7.UNCTAD. experiences and new ideas. Assessing the situation 2. Getting ready 4. Developing a mission 3. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 9 new information. Monitoring the process . The steps involved in the business planning process are the following: 1. Setting goals 5. Working out the business plan 6.
employees. shareholders and the community as a whole.10 UNCTAD. employees and business partners can be better motivated and support the mission if they know what it is. It states the benefits your business will bring to clients. Developing a mission Before proceeding further you should formulate a clear mission statement for your enterprise. the organization may lose its original raison d’être and its mission may change. A business is often founded on the vision of an individual. partners. It expresses what you want your company to become. Assessing the situation This should be an assessment of how your customers. • Your mission defines what you want to achieve. This should be providing an updated picture of what you are trying to achieve and answering questions such as: . • Your strategy indicates how to get there. Missions are intended to provide a sense of purpose and act as a tool for communicating where the business is heading.. Shareholders. Developing your mission is often the most valuable part of the dynamic planning process since it can change or reconfirm the direction of your business. The mission should be reviewed regularly and if necessary adapted. • Your vision says how you see yourself in the far future. • Your philosophy expresses the values and beliefs of your organization's culture. As the entity grows. competitors and suppliers view your business. A vision shared by all the people concerned with the business is an important factor for its successful development. How to Prepare Your Business Plan a.
Appoint the staff member who will be responsible for coordinating the business planning process and for delivering the final document (business planning project manager) in time. This person should be knowledgeable about the requirements of the readers of the business plan. sometimes at an off-site location has many benefits (getting away from the day-to-day distractions for the purpose of this process). . Getting ready After the mission and the philosophical basis have been defined. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 11 • What business are you in? • What do you do best? • Whose needs do you meet? • What needs do you meet? • What benefits do you generate? Philosophies or values should be included in the written business plan. People are motivated by more than just getting a salary.neutral and independent . The vision. A consistent corporate culture and a good understanding of the entity's direction and values can improve decision-making and staff productivity. Hire one if you do not have a staff member who is available and has the relevant experience and talent in guiding complex business planning processes.can be of value in moderating complex consensus-seeking sessions. Staff may feel better about what they do. Consider the value of an experienced facilitator. c. Very often an external person . Some important matters you need to address when getting ready are: • Appointing a coordinator. They are an important foundation that should be communicated to all levels within your organization and to your outside business partners. mission. • Hiring a facilitator.UNCTAD. you need to start the actual work of preparing the business plan. philosophy and strategy of a firm are usually developed by the top management.
etc. operations and financing targets in such a way as to enable the enterprise to meet its overall objectives. • In the coming year reduce production costs by 10 per cent through greater automation of production lines.12 UNCTAD. sales.). databases and specialized consultants to be considered. Examples of such goals can be: • Over the next three years increase sales volume by an average of 20 per cent per year by intensifying marketing and sales effort in the neighbouring countries (export). How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Defining tasks. • Identifying team members. competencies. . • By the end of the second planning year launch three new products on the local market. Setting goals for the future development of the business is a prerequisite for the preparation of the business plan. The goals should be time-bound. they can still be of great value in setting the “tune” and “spirit” for further work. realistic and measurable. e. reports on competition. responsibilities and expected contributions/deliverables. Gather and organize all the basic information that will be required from internal and external sources (market surveys. This “matching work” is usually conducted in an iterative process until full consistency of all elements of the business is achieved. development. Setting goals. In addition to information available in-house. Identify the people who will be involved in the process and define their roles. there are valuable sources and tools such as industry associations. d. Although these goals will have to be adjusted in the iterative planning process. the timing of these and the overall schedule for the work. Working out the business plan Working out the business plan basically involves synthesizing and harmonizing your marketing. new technological developments. Define the different tasks and steps involved in the process. manufacturing. • Gathering information.
g. Monitoring the process. The objective of your sales manager is to achieve the sales volumes set in the plan. to meet the schedules planned for bringing into production the new product. The development staff have. Setting employee objectives. ideas Business planning Objectives Communication Employees Source: UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 13 f. Systematic monitoring of the implementation of your plan is a very important factor for the success of your business. among other things. monitoring systems and constant feedback should be integrated to ensure successful implementation of the plan and achievement of its objectives. Figure I. Action plans. If the business plan is . The production manager has to meet the quality standards and production rates anticipated.UNCTAD. Participation in this process can have a profound effect on the way your team members view their role in the enterprise. One of the most important actions after your business plan has been completed is to use it as a basis for setting the objectives of units and individuals in your firm. These individual objectives should be fixed in writing and the results of the work should be monitored and assessed periodically. These should form the basis for the financial compensation of the employee.1. and can have an immediate impact on their performance. Role of the employees in the business planning process Mission Goals Information.
new ideas and useful advice.14 UNCTAD. the plan must be adjusted. there could be good potential for synergies and partner cooperation in one or more of the following fields: • Entering new markets through the network of the partner. . action and keeping the plan up to date. Different types of business plans The structure. How to Prepare Your Business Plan completed and then locked up in a cupboard and forgotten for a year. If key assumptions change. • Transfer of technical and management know-how. The key to maximizing the benefits of dynamic planning lies in implementation. • If the investor is an operating company in a related business sector. • Adding the products of the partner to your list to enlarge your assortment. • If the investor is a government-sponsored fund with development aims. F. • Joint development and production efforts to take advantage of economy of scale effects. E. • An experienced person from the investor organization should be assigned to the supervisory board of your entity. your company may get additional political and lobbying support. etc. He/she could bring to the business new contacts with the market. investors and bankers can provide support such as that described below. such as: • The main objective of the business plan. content and depth of a business plans depends on many factors. your employees will never take business planning seriously again. mid-term corrections are recommended. What is expected from the investor/lender? In addition to contributing funds required to run and further develop the business as envisaged in the business plan. Accordingly.
The brief discussion below gives some examples of relevant factors. etc. storage and so forth become less significant as the product/service mix moves towards a pure service business.. complexity and effort spent in producing the business plan have to be kept within limits. If you are in trade. your business plan should cover standard issues such as development of human resources and marketing. In any case. Issues covered in the business plans of transnational corporations are: Global image promotion strategies. . the size. Expansion through acquisition of other companies/mergers. The mix of products and services to be offered can also affect the content of a plan. The corporate business plan of a transnational corporation with an annual sales volume of several billion dollars does not put emphasis on the same issues as an average medium-size company with an annual turnover of a few million dollars. If you are a sole proprietor of a small business. your business plan will not be dealing with issues such as manufacturing process or investments in machinery. • Type of business/industry. etc. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 15 • The stage of the business (start-up or existing company or spin-off). Personal financial information may be required in order to support your statement that you will be allocating a certain part of your own funds as an investment in the business.UNCTAD. You should also provide specific details regarding any personal non-financial assets that you plan to use in your business. In such a case the business plan has to put emphasis on your own person. • Transnational corporation. • Size of the company. You will put more emphasis on obtaining funds to finance the building up of your procurement and sales network and pre-financing the goods you will be trading with. Issues relating to inventory. For a small business. • Type of business/industry. • Financing situation. perhaps you will be drafting the entire business plan yourself. • Sole ownership.
However. sales. you face a special challenge because you do not have an established track record. your plan should include personal information about all persons involved in the start-up venture (previous occupation. etc. In essence. Sales tactics (these could vary in different continents/countries). resources. Long-term product development (5 to10 years or beyond). If you are just starting.).). social and consumer behaviour. in addition to the standard issues covered in the business plan (production. The plan of a business division (unit) of a large corporation does not differ much from the business plan of an independent company. instead of the historical information that an ongoing business would be able to provide.). etc. business achievements. Staff policy (with perhaps the exception of top management in the different countries.16 UNCTAD.. • Start-up business. your ability to sell yourself is a substitute for the historical information that does not exist. you must concentrate heavily on your ability to sell yourself and the partners that you may have as potentially successful businesspersons. Prediction of long-term trends and developments in demographic. experience. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Analysis of global macroeconomic developments and international politics that are likely to influence the business. Instead. etc. It does not matter whether you are using your business plan in an effort to obtain financing or to convince prospective employees to come to work for you. Therefore. • Divisional business plan. . Government relations and lobbying policies.
Obviously. There are also business plans that do not anticipate significant growth or major investments and therefore are not concerned with the issue of raising additional funds. the two following issues have to be properly covered: That the market of the business sector you are targeting has potential for further growth. As has often been mentioned. you need to put less emphasis on the background of the business (which is . and That your entity. • Regularly continuing business. These documents quantify the results you expect to achieve through your operations. Many firms produce such business plans every year. While your business will probably involve certain expenses that are unique to your industry. Regulatory charges (licensing. In such cases. etc. If you are not seeking new money but only intend to keep your present financiers informed. you also need to provide projected profit and loss statements and a cash flow plan.). is well positioned to win a substantial share of this market. Be sure to include any start-up costs that will be incurred prior to the opening of your business. in such business plans. do not forget some of the more common start-up expenses such as: Professional fees (legal or accounting). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 17 As is the case of an established business. less emphasis is put on justifying the market potential to accommodate growth. company registration costs.UNCTAD. If your business plan is produced with the main aim of raising finance to expand your business. on the basis of its history and competitive strengths. • Major expansion of existing business. Market study. one of the primary purposes of producing a business plan is to inform your lenders and investors. • Financing stage. Deposits for rented space. business plans are produced to inform or get approval from the decision-making bodies and existing investors and/or the team of managers write themselves in order to reach a common understanding of their goals and to determine their future priorities and activities.
18 UNCTAD. obviously this will reflect on the project as well. However. Your business plan should be concentrating on the new specific business you are planning. it is important to consider some basic issues regarding its format and presentation. • The cover. Format and organization of a business plan Before discussing the content (substance) of a business plan. Perhaps you are drawing up a business plan not for the entire business of your entity. However. but something as simple as a cover page on good-quality paper may attract their attention (and thus ensure that they give higher priority to the business plan). The cover of the document is often the first impression of a business that any interested parties or investors get. Financiers receive numerous business plans every week. but to emphasize more new developments in the business. then there are a number of points that require special attention. If the plan has to look professional and to be a useful tool. Your cover page is also a way to make your business plan noticed. • Specific project. Starting a new business unit for a set of new products or services. If your company has financial difficulties. G. but only for an isolated one-time investment project such as: Opening a subsidiary/profit centre in a specific country abroad. For such business plans you need only to provide general information about the entire group. The purpose of a cover page is to tell readers what they are about to read and how to reach the author. How to Prepare Your Business Plan already known). as discussed below. if you are approaching new lenders/investors (so-called second and third round and/or the stock market). Your cover should bear the words "Business Plan" and should include: The legal name of the business. lenders or investors will be interested in having a wider picture of your company’s finances in order to assess the overall financial risks. your plan has to contain a more detailed description of the background of your business (including markets and products). .
These are useful to readers for noting their questions and comments. slogan or other identifying graphic or text. Print the plan on good-quality paper. the cover page is the place to put it. and the period it covers.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 19 The entity's logo. Building an identity is vital if you want people to recognize and remember your business. The address.). Be sure to list headings for major sections as well as for important subsections. If you have not considered these basic marketing tools. If you have prepared multiple copies of your business plan. reconsider the length of the entries. Other contact information. The telephone number. If your table of contents is more than one page long. and colour contrasts should be pleasant to the eye. The fonts used should be easily readable. Print on one side of the paper only. Maintain reasonably wide margins. • Table of contents. . you are advised to do so. if any. Be sure to include identifying information for the business and to name the person who should be contacted regarding the plan. • Fonts. Use a typeface that is easy to read and a font size that is large enough to prevent eye strain. The cover should be attractive and look professional. Your table of contents provides readers with a quick and easy way to find individual sections in the plan. • Paper. Any nice graphic or photograph could make it look even more appealing. • Contact person. The fax number. (If you have spent time and effort on a company logo. This may require tables with financial projections to be spread over several pages in order to maintain legibility. The e-mail address and website (Internet address) if applicable. • Margins. you might also put a copy number on the cover page to ensure control of distribution. the length of your plan and the number of documents you have attached. The date of preparation or modification of the document. Optional: a notice advising the reader that the plan is confidential.
• Samples. It is worth while having one or two persons to read and check the text and figures again. and be sure that these numbers are correct in the table of contents. Include in the appendix samples of advertisements. embossing etc. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Terms and acronyms. Keep the plan short and concise. Do not go overboard on expensive binders. Some important criteria and considerations in deciding about the timespan to be planned for are set out below. If your business uses specialized terminology or acronyms. use them sparingly and be sure that you define any terms that someone outside your area of expertise would not know. • Size of document. statistics show that most entities tend to produce business plans projecting from three to five years.use them. H. • Binding. Bind the document so that it lies flat when opened. binding. There are entities planning for only one year. Modern word-processing software provides effective spelling and grammar checking tools . marketing material and any other information that aids the presentation of your plan. • Editing. Planning period One of your first questions would probably be when starting the planning work: “For what period of time should the business plan be prepared?” There is no straight answer to this question. The optimum planning period depends on the type of business and kind of company. Limit the inclusion of extraneous material. • Overall quality of presentation. • Page numbers. Be certain to edit the document carefully. Number the pages. Spelling mistakes and grammatical errors do not make a good impression.20 UNCTAD. if required. But not let it look cheap or sloppy. You can always provide additional detail in an appendix. According the form of the plan more importance than its substance can raise doubts among those reading it. but there are also entities planning for 10 years or more. . However.
• Management fluctuation. if you are planning to lease a farm and equipment to grow tomatoes. A few months after you have leased the farm and planted the tomatoes. This means that your business plan should cover a total of four years. Management fluctuation in an average company varies between 10 and 15 per cent per year. planning periods of 20 to 30 years are often necessary for such businesses. more than half of the managers will have changed. you expect probably to have a net loss for the first one or two years. Maximum output is reached when they are about 10 years old. you are in business earlier. It is important that future managers contribute with their own ideas to the planning of the business for their period of time. On the other hand. it means that. If in your company the turnover is about that rate. Therefore. The appropriate business plan period would also depend on the time scale required in order to develop the infrastructure needed for the business. Therefore. • Infrastructure development (project) period. Rubber trees are usually ready for latex production when they are about six or seven years old. In such a case. Projects with typically long planning periods are infrastructure projects. At the other extreme are businesses that are quickly set in motion and do not require major investments in infrastructure. It is psychologically important that your lender or investor sees at least two consecutive years of profit at the end of which dividends can possibly be paid. and the depreciation of capital expenditure must be spread over a long period. your business plan should go beyond the break-even point and also cover at least two profit-making years. If you are starting a new business or planning a major expansion of your existing business. On the other hand. you can bring the produce to the market and generate cash. Power stations. planting of rubber trees and production of latex. motorways and the like take a long time to construct and require substantial investment. you may be able to plan for a longer period of time. In such a case it does not make sense to plan for any period beyond that. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 21 • Break-even point. you should be thinking of a time frame of at least 10 to 15 years. If the business you are planning is the acquisition of land.UNCTAD. if you are in a family business or if the management is a small team of partners committed to the firm. in this case a planning period of between one and three years may be sufficient. your only . within four years. A typical example is the trade business. If you are an intermediate in exporting textile garments.
1. which was one of the largest in the world at the time. Box I. In such a case. which was to deliver the much-needed raw material. Most business plans show growth of the business over time. Other elements of the plan were the huge Tchelyabinsk agricultural machinery plant and the Dnepropetrovsk hydropower station. energy and heavy machinery production. As a consequence. The "flag ship" of industrialization was the colossal Magnitogorsk iron and steel plant. This national industrialization programme formed the central part of the overall economic plan. output and other industrial achievements at the end of the planning period. In this period. Thus. many Western enterprises adopted the habit of planning their businesses on a five-year basis. These came to be known as "five-year plans". the industrial capacity of the country was in a dire state and far behind that of Western Europe and the United States. the rate of growth of a company depends on the time factor required for making itself or its .3 billion of which was allocated to heavy industry. The entire economic development programme of that country was based on consecutive and centrally planned five-year cycles. you do not necessarily need a business plan for more than a couple of years. 23. You can engage a transportation company to deliver the products directly from your supplier to your buyer and thus you do not even need storage space. The completion period for Magnitogorsk and all peripheral and associated industries was forecast to be about five years. At the end of the revolution. The time frame of the first plan (1928-1932) was chosen so as to include start-up. An important assumption is that the number of buyers will be increasing as the firm becomes better known in the market. This five-year rhythm was adopted later by other socialist Governments. How to Prepare Your Business Plan infrastructure may be a small office.22 UNCTAD. Why did the Soviet leadership choose a five-year cycle? The explanation goes back to the first five-year plan for the years 1928-1932. • Market/client development period. It was during the mid-1920s that the Soviet leaders drafted an ambitious industrialization plan at the core of which was steel. it became customary to plan the development of the Soviet economy on the basis of five-year plans. Source: UNCTAD. Where did the habit of five-year planning originate? The former Soviet Union offers an interesting example of how planning periods are determined by the time scale required to complete infrastructure projects. Furthermore.9 billion roubles was invested in the economy. a total of 64.
people passing in front of your shop (most of them while commuting every day) will very soon discover the appetizing sandwiches in the window. This does not mean that somebody has to plan in detail month by month. But if you are setting up a small firm to provide services in relation to Internet access. • Macroeconomic stability. There can be a danger of more competitors coming into the market but no threat of product substitution. you may find that it would take five to eight years for you to acquire a reputation and for the sales curve to begin to flatten. you can be almost sure that for many years there will be no radical change in the product or the way it is produced. in the case of the gallery. inflation and interest rates over the past five years have been stable (varying only within a band of a “few” per cent). Not only is this market completely open for any competitor to enter without a major investment. you can reasonably plan for a period of another five years. word of mouth plays an important role. Technologies have life cycles. you may need to plan the business for a longer period of time than in the case of the fast food shop. it takes a great deal of time for art lovers from the region to discover your gallery. • Product technology. Here.UNCTAD. In the first case. Consequently. If. The business plan period would also depend upon the type of product. on the other hand. but also technological developments occur so rapidly that projections beyond two to three years would not be sensible. these parameters vary significantly and there is no reason to believe that a more stable and predictable situation can be reached. In the second case. you can afford to make financial projections for a longer period of time. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 23 products known. Average period As a general practice. familiarize themselves with the art you are selling and decide to buy. Therefore. from the product and technology point of view. If you plan an art gallery for selling paintings and sculptures. you may find that you achieve the maximum amount of sales within a few months. you can reasonably plan the business for five years or more. If. If you are operating in an environment of stable and easily predictable macroeconomic conditions. or week . for an "average" business a four-year plan is reasonable. for example. there is no sense in making financial projections over a period longer than two to three years. if you establish a fast food shop in the main passage of the central train station. you cannot be sure how your business will look after two or three years. But. If you consider setting up a facility for producing cotton T-shirts or blue jeans. its technology and the technology used in producing it.
identified opportunities. Executive summary This is arguably the most important single part of your document. I. The above information can be conveniently structured in your business plan in to eight chapters. • The human resources. equipment. etc. the main highlights and the financial resources required. For subsequent years. infrastructure. Content and structure of a business plan After you have considered the purpose of your business plan and have done the necessary background preparation. It provides a high-level overview of the purpose of the business plan.24 UNCTAD. you have to make some assumptions about how sales and costs are expected to develop. For the first year you may have to plan (budget) on the basis of actual costs (actual salaries.) and most probable sales (confirmed orders. as follows: 1. it is time to consider the actual elements that you will include in the written document. the products and/or services you will provide and the position of your competitors. The cash flow that is tracked monthly during the first year of operation may be projected by quarter in the second year. organizational and administrative processes you will apply. raw material and financial resources you need in order achieve your goal in business. How to Prepare Your Business Plan by week. This should contain five types of information as follows: • The mission of your business and the objectives you want to achieve. and annually in the third and fourth years. • The technical. • Your targeted markets and clients. The most usual practice is to update the business plan on a yearly basis. The level of detail will decrease as your plan extends further into the future. etc. • The qualitative and quantitative results you expect to achieve.). . rent. what is going to happen over the next 48 months.
manufacturing. Business operations and organization Location and premises. key data. . Financial planning Financial history (financial statements). competition. social compliance. history. production process. order processing/inventory control. environmental risks. constitution/ownership and management. Background This is the section that provides summarized entity-specific information. It gives the reader an initial overview of the business before specific details are provided later on. cash flow. Human resources Management (shareholders. and business strategy and vision. project management and management information systems/reporting. describing the business organization. executive/operations management. positioning. research and development. middle management. marketing strategy and projected sales. funding requirements and other supporting information. board of directors. external support services) and personnel. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 25 2. clients. 4. 7. Products and services Product description and history. and environmental and social factors Approvals and licensing requirements. principal products and customers. 8.UNCTAD. balance sheet and important ratios. marketing and selling methodology. Markets and clients Market characteristics. costing and pricing. product attributes. 5. distribution. location and premises. company structure/organization. projected income statements. quality assurance and control. 6. development and social benefits. Legal framework. sourcing and intellectual property. 3.
Other relevant and important information. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Appendices Product literature.26 UNCTAD. But do not feel constrained to follow this format exactly if another way makes more sense because of the specifics of your business. Historical financial statements and auditor’s reports. Legal documents (for example. company registration). Market research. Asset valuations. The following chapters in this manual discuss criteria and considerations that may be of use to you when preparing the above-mentioned chapters of your business plan. Curriculum vitae of key management persons. The above chapters are presented in the order in which they usually appear in a typical business plan.
How to Prepare Your Business Plan 27 PART TWO BASIC ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS PLAN .UNCTAD.
28 UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan .
Therefore. and should take only a few minutes to read. • Polish your executive summary. • Even though your executive summary is the first part of your plan. . Not all of these plans are reviewed in depth. It is what most readers will read first.UNCTAD. thus greatly enhancing the chances of obtaining the financing you are looking for. Numerous business plans are submitted to lenders every week. Ask for their opinion and suggestions. Important points regarding your executive summary are as follows: • It should be between one and three pages long. even though your whole business is well described later on. comprehensive and interesting to read. • The words should be chosen carefully and should be crisp. write it last. Lenders or investors in particular read executive summaries before looking at the rest of a plan in order to determine whether they are interested in this business and want to learn more about it. you may include a few sentences from other important sections. only a small fraction of them are read beyond the executive summary. In fact. Have several people read it . a short summary highlighting the key points of your business plan helps to persuade the reader to study the complete document. • In drafting your executive summary.both those who know your business and those who do not. The statements in the summary should be consistent with the information and wording in other parts of the business plan. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 29 CHAPTER II EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The executive summary is probably the most significant part of the entire business plan.
However. . Purpose of the business plan 2. Highlights 3. • To raise new capital from outside investors or lenders (or to inform and assure present investors or lenders about the progress of the business they have financed). When writing your business plan you may have various objectives in mind. Purpose of the business plan This is a short section stating the main purpose for developing and presenting your business plan.30 UNCTAD. The readers you are targeting could also be interested in different aspects. How to Prepare Your Business Plan The contents of the executive summary can be divided into three parts as described below: 1. Financial requirements A. the basic objectives of your business plan that you probably need to mention are threefold: • To ensure for yourself the viability of the business you are planning to start (or expand or simply continue the same way).
UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 31 • To establish the basis for developing a detailed plan of activities..) • Markets and clients What is your primary market? (Local? Regional? Export?) What is the size of the market and its growth potential? What is your market share? How will it develop? Who are your most important clients? Who are your main competitors? ..
realistic or pessimistic assumptions? • Borrowing. the second part.. total assets and equity. Financial requirements If one of the main objectives of your business plan is to mobilize additional funds.. What kind of capital stock is offered to investors? (Preference shares? Common shares? Convertible loans? Other?) What is the anticipated return on . How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Financial features This paragraph should include historical and projected key financial data such as revenues.32 UNCTAD. net profit. What type of borrowing do you require? (Overdraft? Term loan?) How and when do you plan to repay the money? What guarantees or collateral are you able to provide? • Equity. It should also include the main assumptions used in forecasting. etc. • Major action plans In this paragraph you should briefly summarize any major action plans you have for the future.
sterilizers. Example of an executive summary Executive summary of NileJam in Egypt The present business plan is established with a view a to a major expansion anticipated by NileJam. These house the following facilities: • A cool storage unit of 4. NileJam specializes in the production and marketing of jams and marmalades. Together with his wife and three relatives he started producing orange jam.). strawberries. The main products are 250 gram glass jars containing processed fruit of the region (oranges. Its mission is to add value to fruits of the region by producing superior-quality jams and marmalades and sell these to national and international markets at competitive prices. • Fruit processing lines (sorting. sugar and the final product. washing.). figs. mangoes. crushing. his daughter Fatima Machfus and his son Ahmed Machfus took over the . This summary highlights the key points of the business plan. The company is located in a small town called El Amriya. Hassan Machfus established NileJam in 1974. evaporators. • The main storage building for keeping the empty jars. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 33 investment? When may investors expect it? What are the exit terms for the investors? D. This town is situated on the western edge of the Nile Delta and about 30 kilometres south of Alexandria along the desert road to Cairo. etc. The infrastructure consists of four connected buildings constructed on a piece of land of two hectares owned by the company. Its objective is twofold: to be used as a basis for developing cooperation with a new business partner in Europe and to seek bank loans to finance investments planned within the foreseeable future. apricots etc.000 cubic metres capacity.UNCTAD. The fruit was bought from neighbouring farms. • Offices and canteen. He delivered the product in 5 or 10 kilogram plastic containers to pastry shops and hotels in Alexandria. peeling. After his retirement in 1999. filling machines. The company employs 220 full-time and 180 part-time (seasonal) staff.
However. mainly as a result of the company's gaining market share from competitors thanks to faster delivery service and better quality.34 UNCTAD. Delicia was given the option of a 20 per cent participation in the equity of NileJam. 10. administration and sales/marketing functions. The total market for exports in the above-mentioned countries is roughly 90 million Egyptian pounds and the share of NileJam is on average about 6 to 7 per cent. which specializes in the supply of food products to hotels and restaurants in the European Union. while Ahmed is in charge of product development and production. The company now has about 10 per cent of the Egyptian market. NileJam is a joint-stock company with a share capital of 5 million Egyptian pounds. The other one third is exported to surrounding Arab countries. Revenues over the past three years have grown steadily at about 25 per cent per year. A recent major success of the company is its agreement with Delicia Foods Inc. Kuwait and Libyan Arab Jamahioiya. particularly Saudi Arabia. the new cooperation requires the following investments: • Construction of two new production lines according to the quality standards and specifications of Delicia (mainly evaporators/concentrators and filling/packaging equipment). according to the recipe of Delicia. About two thirds of the total production is supplied to the Egyptian market and distributed through five chains of food supermarkets. A decision on this option will be made within two years. Under the agreement NileJam is to produce. which is estimated to be worth about 120 million Egyptian pounds. Fatima supervises the finance. Also. This new cooperation is expected to contribute substantially to the growth of revenues and profitability. . under the brand name and.0. The corresponding net profit margin was 9. Fatima and Ahmed each hold 50 per cent of the shares. Net profits are expected to increase gradually to 15 per cent by the end of the third year. NileJam has an exclusive agreement with a single distributor.0 and 10. How to Prepare Your Business Plan business. Last year’s total sales were 18 million Egyptian pounds. Financial projections are showing Nilejam´s a sustainable growth of 30 per cent over the next three years.5 per cent respectively. For each of these countries. They are jointly responsible for the executive management of the firm. of Denmark. individual portions of jam (30 gram containers). Today.
The fixed assets of NileJam.5 million euro and 3 million Egyptian pounds.000 cubic metres. Therefore. with an estimated value of 9 million Egyptian pounds (including land. buildings and equipment). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 35 • Expansion of the existing cool storage capacity by another 2. . The owners of NileJam are prepared to contribute with a shareholders' loan of 2 million Egyptian pounds. are offered as collateral for the loan. the external financing required is 1. Delicia has agreed to provide a loan of 0. These funds are to be available on 1 January of the coming year.UNCTAD. The assets of NileJam are unencumbered and the company has no debts at the present time.5 million euro. The interest rate assumed in the financial projections is 8 per cent for the euro and 12 per cent for the Egyptian pound loan..
This will be a useful preparation before the details are set out later. this section should briefly describe: • Your most important products or services. Main products. A. how it started. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 36 CHAPTER III BACKGROUND This section of your business plan may consist of a few pages of background information that is specific to your particular business. • Your present and future market share. The reader should be given a rapid overview of what your business is.UNCTAD. national. . • The main strengths and weaknesses of your products and services compared with those of your competitors. • The existing and international/export). markets and clients Without going into much detail. • The size of the target markets and their growth potential. The business background section generally covers the topics discussed below. regional. • Their distinguishing features or innovative characteristics. (Consumers? Which demographic category? Businesses? What type of businesses?). • What they look like and how are they used. targeted markets (local. how it developed over the years and where it is heading. You should also briefly describe how the business is organized and the resources and infrastructure required for running it. • Your customers.
• A refrigeration building with a total capacity of 300 cubic metres. Location and premises Later. The open plan offices on the first and second floors accommodate 80 software developers and information technology consultants.UNCTAD. Typical examples of descriptions of a manufacturing entity and of a service provider are given below. The underground floor contains the air-conditioned computer server rooms.600 square metres. The plant consists of four buildings: • A building covering an area of 900 square metres for storing equipment and fruit before processing. . Production of mango concentrate The main assets of the business are a mango tree plantation and a factory for processing the fruit in Burkina Faso. archives. The third floor is split up in to individual offices for the administrative personnel. The factory is situated at the south-eastern corner of the plantation along the north-south road. a special section will describe in detail the location and premises of your business. • An office and a canteen with a total area of 400 square metres. It is located 30 kilometres south of Ouagadougou on the road leading to the border with Ghana. you should give a short summary only. Software development The offices of the company are located in a new three-storey building four kilometres away from the centre of Chennai on the road to the international airport. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 37 B. management and meeting rooms. The company occupies the entire building of 1. material storage rooms and a canteen. In the present section. • A factory housing two fruit-processing lines. 75 per cent of which are planted with fruit-bearing trees. The plantation covers of 80 hectares.
)? . • Number of countries to which you are exporting. • Number of clients (per category). expertise. tons etc. Typical data are: • Number of personnel. revenues) Key data are useful for quickly grasping the size of the business. the board of directors and the management.).UNCTAD. where? • Who are the shareholders and who holds the majority/control of the company? • Who are the key managers? What is their background and what strengths do they bring to the business (experience.. Legal form. • Number of affiliates (domestic. D. etc. ownership and management The human resources section of your business plan should include detailed information about the owners. • Total production (in numbers of products. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 38 C. special abilities. Key data (personnel. foreign). total production. • Annual revenues and profits.
as shown in figure III. it is easier to convince the reader that there are good chances of success in the future. China 35% 35% 30% SBTP . If your company has done well until now.1. If not. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 39 • Do the management and other employees hold shares? If so.Shanghai Bio-Tablets Production Ltd Shanghai. China Source: UNCTAD. you have to have strong arguments to prove the viability of your business. Germ any SPD-Shanghai Pharma Distribution Ltd Shanghai. An organization chart showing the legal and shareholding structure of the business. and where were subsequent ones? . China 100% BioChem Ltd Shanghai. Example: Legal shareholding structure of SBTP Ltd China-EU Development Fund Beijing. unless there have been very unfavourable developments. it has a reasonably good basis for being successful in the future.1. Figure III. E. Particular questions of interest are: • Who started the business and when? • How did the business idea start? • Where was the first domicile. what is their participation? This short section should give potential lenders or investors enough information to understand which forces drive the business and who the decision makers are. Historical development and track record of the business If your company has a long history and a successful track record. China BioChem Ltd Frankfurt. is an attractive feature.UNCTAD.
" G. The objective is to add value to the product locally and to reduce transportation costs and losses. rising transportation costs and greater losses caused by mangoes rotting while waiting to be sold/transported.UNCTAD. production capacities. number of clients. Business strategy and mission In this section you should summarize your business strategy and mission. sales/revenues. The margins have been declining owing to increasing competition. "The new strategy is to build on the plantation site a plant for processing mangoes and producing dried chips. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 40 • What were the original products? How did these develop into the products of today? • What was the growth rate in the light of key data (number of personnel. development unit. General organization/operating units In this section you should elaborate on the main operating units (production unit. marketing and sales. subsidiaries etc.)? • Are there any particular achievements? F." "The mission is that consumers benefit from buying an extraordinarily tasty and healthy product at a reasonable price.) and the relationship and interactions between each of them. equity. etc." "The vision is to become the largest supplier of high-quality dry mango chips to the European markets. Here is a typical example: Production of dry mango chips A company has been producing and exporting mango fruits to Europe for many years. . total assets.
How to Prepare Your Business Plan 41 A diagram shoving the main elements and units of your business.UNCTAD. Marketing and sales R&D Production Distribution Service . will be useful for the reader of the business plan. such as the one below.
how long it lasts. How to Prepare Your Business Plan CHAPTER IV PRODUCTS AND SERVICES In this section of your business plan. A similar issue to discuss is how long the product or service will last and whether you intend to upgrade or replace the product or service at some point in the future. A. emphasizing any distinguishing features that may give you a competitive advantage. Another issue to discuss is whether you expect to sell items on a one-time or infrequent basis. There should be a particular focus on how the product or service will be used.42 UNCTAD. describe your products or services. engineering studies and sales brochures. how it works. elevator suppliers. Where appropriate. if any (as annexes to the business plan).). The following specific information should be included. etc. sketches. include photographs. Product description and history Provide a description of your product in detail. but in terms understandable to persons who are not experts in the field. Some business are interested in product updates or after-sales service almost as much as in selling the initial product or even more (software providers. Explain how it looks. general product specifications. you are probably not going to provide the same service to the same client within a short period of time. what it does. Discuss what market demand your products or services will meet. Go into as much detail as necessary for the reader to have a clear understanding of what you are selling. For example. . diagrams. what variations and options are available. If you are selling cars you expect that repairs and routine maintenance will make a considerable contribution to your business. if you are opening a food supermarket you are going to count on the same customers returning on a regular basis. etc. and outline the plans for future development. But if you are a civil contractor specializing in the installation of roof insulation. or whether repeat sales or after-sales services are an important part of your business.
Travel along the river from Kiev to the Black Sea and then back to Kiev. including visiting cities along the way such as. It includes: • • • • • Air travel from abroad to Kiev. Example 1: Tourist tour through Ukraine on a boat Take as an example a travel office that offers package tours to foreign tourists interested in spending a holiday in Ukraine. Important questions to deal with are: When did the first products in the series enter the market? What were the initial difficulties encountered with the product? What are the features of the new product compared with old designs? B. which illustrate this type of analysis through practical examples. • Air travel from Kiev back to the home country. Dnepropetrovsk. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 43 If relevant to your business. Two days sightseeing in Kiev. An effective way to present a particular product or service is to show a features/benefits analysis. Consider the following two boxes. The package offered is a two-week boat cruise along the river Dnieper. Product attributes In this section you should concentrate on the features that make your product or service unique and preferable for customers. Two weeks accommodation on the boat. A feature is a specific product attribute or characteristic. compared with renting a car and making the tour individually).UNCTAD. The tourists wish to see as much as possible of this country within the time and budget available to them. a short history of the product should be included for the reader to understand the evolution of your business. Zaporozhye. Odessa and Sevastopol and Yalta in the Crimea. The table below sets out the features/benefits of the programme (for example. A benefit is the advantage a customer or user will derive from the product or service. Daily excursions to the countryside.
service. Learning about history. Boat will be moving mostly during the night and will be anchored during the day when people go on excursions. cabin and meals. excursions. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Features Boat travels along a low-trafficdensity river in an idyllic and serene part of the country. Relaxation. etc. entertainment on board.44 UNCTAD. Excursions are guided by knowledgeable staff who are accommodated on the boat and do this work regularly. Benefits No inconvenience and waste of time through often packing and unpacking personal belongings. Tourist can plan his/her budget with precision. the country's heritage and Cost (and price) effective means of touring. . The package deal includes everything for a lump sum price: air travel. cultural folklore. Tourists will always sleep in the same rooms (cabins) throughout their vacation. Optimal use of time for seeing as much as possible of the country.
in the car disc player and in the portable player. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 45 Example 2: Recordable compact disc for music Take as another example the vinyl compact discs (CDs) for recording music or data. Large amount of data can be compactly stored within a small and light piece of vinyl material.UNCTAD. Flexible and universal in use. The table below gives a features/benefits analysis of such products. . who most probably also has a compatible player. Clear and clean sound with no effects of electrostatic. scratches. CDs do not take much space to store and are convenient to carry around. . etc. Can be used in the home stereo system. dust. Globally standardized product. Features Digital recording and replaying by using a laser beam technology. Benefits Music can be copied and reproduced with practically no losses. Can be given as a present to a friend.
especially potential investors. Product life cycle Each product has a life cycle. Therefore. D. readers of your plan. Be realistic about the effort and the time it will take to develop it. as well as any plans for development of new or related products in the light of changing market needs. it will become obsolete and will have to be abandoned. These points are often underestimated. The first phase of the cycle is development. Sooner or later the product will reach maturity. . will scrutinize your development plan to determine whether you have taken into consideration all issues that could lead to delays or cost overruns. set up the manufacturing line.46 UNCTAD. Describe the plans for future development of the product. and this leads to serious financial difficulties before the product is ready to be sold and bring in cash. How to Prepare Your Business Plan C.1. Describe the current stage of your product or service development and give a clear indication of the effort/cost involved and the time required for completion. The income in such a cycle is shown graphically in figure IV. etc. Research and development In this section you should describe any research and development activities that are required before you launch your product. Then comes the phase of selling the product. build and test the prototype. During this phase the firm has to invest to develop a concept. design the product and the process for producing it.
personal computers and fashion articles. .1.UNCTAD. Many companies start working on the development of a new product as soon as the previous product enters in the market. or in introducing it into the market. the income from the sales of existing products is partly used to finance the development of new products.2. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 47 F ig u re IV . may result in a serious gap in cash flow or/and affect the overall profitability of a business. A typical chain of product cycles is shown in figure IV. Your financial projections will then show how this timing affects the overall cash flow and profitability of your business. In this example. Being too quick or too slow in starting the development of a new product. it is important that your business plan deals with the timing of the cycles of the future generations of products. Almost every year suppliers put new models of such products on the market. or even before. Therefore. Optimum timing of different product cycles is very important for the overall success of a company. Typical examples of products with limited life cycles are cars. .
2. incur costs in developing methodologies and tools. Costing By estimating the cost of production and the directly connected overheads you set up the basis for developing your pricing policy and for preparing the financial plan of your business. T im e E. training their staff and preparing documentation. This budget may include the costs of any fundamental research. for example. The cost of your business is composed of four basic components that need to be briefly discussed in your business plan. C h ain o f p rod u ct cycles S ource: U N C T A D . Be sure to include labour. Development costs are relevant not only for companies making products. How to Prepare Your Business Plan F igu re IV . Service businesses also incur costs in developing their services. product development and design work as well as the costs of producing and testing a prototype. These are explained below. . materials. Costing and pricing 1. Consulting companies. consulting fees. certification costs and the costs of professionals such as attorneys. • Cost of product development.48 UNCTAD.
You can work out the average "cost of goods" for each product by adding all related costs mentioned above and dividing by the number of products produced. Overheads also include variable expenses. This unit cost will be a useful indicator in developing your pricing policy and assessing your competitiveness. When planning costs. a failure to meet industry standards and mistakes occur. Expense categories include marketing. sales and overheads. • Cost of goods. the cost of goods is the cost incurred in the production of the products. which remain constant regardless of how much business your company does. For a manufacturing company. the cost of goods includes the purchase of inventory and associated costs such as transportation and insurance. In such a case. . • Operating expenses. In such a case those costs can be treated as any other investment of the company (for example. When working out the costs of your goods. In many cases regulations allow for the costs of developing a product or a service to be entered on the asset side of the balance sheet. For a retail or wholesale business. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 49 Design and development costs expected in the future are often underestimated. such as travel expenses. The depreciation period is dependent on the life cycle of the product developed as well as on the tax regulations. Overheads include fixed administrative expenses such as management and secretariat. be alert in identifying any measure that can lower your costs. also provide a contingency plan for what will happen to costs if problems such as delays. equipment leases. To establish the total of your operating expenses. the purchase of machinery and equipment) and thus be depreciated over a period of time. Also. Such problems are common. the costs included are those for materials. you add up all the expenses incurred in running your business. supply of electricity and office material supplies. labour and overheads related specifically to product manufacturing.UNCTAD. the real costs of past development work are often neglected and not fully included in the price of a product.
The value that your product brings to your clients is the primary factor determining the price they are ready to pay. As mentioned earlier.50 UNCTAD. Buyer's standpoint The buyer’s price acceptance will depend upon three main factors: • Value. Pricing When establishing your price policy. part or the whole of the development costs (depending on the stance of the tax authorities) can be entered on the asset side of the balance sheet and then depreciated over a period of time. Suppose you are selling a specific electronic component to a supplier of complete systems. This component part would be of great value to your client if it forms a crucial part for the operation of the entire system and if his/her business is a profitable one. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Depreciation and interest on capital. The examples below illustrate some types of product values.. This includes the depreciation of the equipment and infrastructure that are required in order to operate your business. a. a good balance of these two considerations has to be found. 2. . The interest expense for any loans needed to finance equipment or working capital is also included in this category.
Obviously.e. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 51 The value of a consumer product can often be measured by how much it contributes to cover basic or important needs of daily life. and although your clients can afford to pay the price. Aesthetic and psychological factors can also play an important role. some people are prepared to pay huge sums of money for a piece of art (say a painting) for only one simple reason: they just like it very much. this piece of art is of great value to them. The competitive choice in the market place is an important mechanism that keeps prices under control. For example. • Competitive choices in the market place. if they can afford it and if the price is competitive. Consequently. Your target clients are those who will ask for your products.UNCTAD. People will buy it if it is of value to them. • Affordability. Some products can also be of great value to clients even if they do not meet a primary or practical need in their daily life.. can they include the price of your product or service in the overall price they are charging their clients without being too expensive themselves? The above consideration is also important in differentiating between need and demand in the market. If your product fails to satisfy one of these three conditions you will probably not sell it. Although your product may be good value. those who need them but can also pay for them. . an ordinary pharmaceutical product (such as an aspirin) or a basic food product (say a loaf of bread) can often be of immense value to people when they need it. For example. Your pricing policy should consider all three criteria discussed above if you are to be successful in selling your product. before fixing your own prices you have to examine the products and prices of your competitors. i. you can be sure that they will buy it from elsewhere if it is cheaper there.
Your forecast is as follows: If you set the price of a bike at $310. people in town were buying their bikes in the nearest. a friend of yours. • Then you estimate the costs of production for the different options. You will be the only supplier in town. Your market is your home town with a population of 25. You will be selling them directly to the end users from the shop of your small factory.52 UNCTAD. With option 2. maximizing the volume of sales or maximizing the margin per unit sold. • Together with a marketing consultant.000 inhabitants. Seller's point of view From the seller's point of view. For $400 you could sell 160 per year. or they may make the extra effort and go to buy it cheaper in the neighbouring city. Then. there could be various policy options in setting the price. you have to make a strategic decision and set a price that serves your plans better: . and also because of economies of scale in your overhead expenses. How to Prepare Your Business Plan b. Until now. some people may not buy a bike at all. you have surveyed the characteristics of your target market and analysed the buying behaviour of your potential clients. You came to the conclusion that the number of bikes you may expect to sell will depend upon the price you fix for each bike. you make your overall calculation as shown in table IV. you can maximize profit. you could expect to sell 260 bikes per year. larger city. The above options can be demonstrated by a simple example: • Assume that you are planning to set up a small business assembling mountain bikes. and with option 3. wheels and brakes.1 and you discover the following: With price option 1. Important options are maximizing total profit. Now. you can maximize the margin for each bike you sell. For $350 you could sell 210 per year. The cost per unit will be decreasing with increasing production because for bigger orders you will be getting better prices from your suppliers for components such as frames. Faced with the higher price. you can maximize the overall sales volume.
your decision is also justifiable.1. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 53 • If you wish to gain more clients. Figure IV. • If you choose option 2. . but not necessarily to expand the business. In this way you are also establishing a reputation as a supplier with reasonable prices. It is the preferable option if you are looking to maximize net profits in the foreseeable future. neither sales nor profit are maximized. • With option 3. but you get the best margin for each bike sold. There are not many advantages with this option.UNCTAD. option 1 is perhaps the most appropriate. Comparison of different pricing options Dollar Expected Price per Sales unit (No..3 gives an overview of all considerations discussed above in fixing the price of your product or service. Table IV. except that you have less work to do in managing the business and can still make a reasonable profit. become known quicker in the market and expand the business by introducing more products later on.
operating expenses .54 UNCTAD.development costs . The method for setting the price of your product Define your product Estimate your costs: . . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Figure IV.3.cost of goods .
The description of the process could be as follows: • Catching the fish with a fleet of four fishing boats (200 tons each) by trawling nets through the 400 kilometres long lake. Therefore. Production process Most investors will provide money only for a business that they understand. • The packs are frozen by passing them for 10 minutes through a shockfreezing machine of the “Antarctic” type (maximum capacity 1. the fish packs are quality controlled and a label including the price is attached to them. • Transporting the fish from the harbour to the near by factory in three refrigerated trucks (eight tons each). filleted and vacuum-packed in plastic bags.2 contain examples. Example: fish processing As an example. In the written business plan you only need to state the costs and prices of your products. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 55 The above considerations may be of use in establishing your expected costs and developing your pricing policy. describe the process of delivering the service. processing and selling frozen fish to supermarket chains abroad. Boxes IV.8 tons per hour). starting with the preparation of the raw materials and finishing with the last stage of making your product ready to be sold. • At the end of the process line. . assume a business of catching. Each bag contains one kilogram of fish fillet.1 and IV. giving a breakdown of the main elements and summarizing the key assumptions and methods you have applied. With a service company.UNCTAD. This work is done by 40 people working along both sides of a 25 metres long process line. F. • The fish is manually washed. explain to the reader the different stages of the production of your product. Box IV.1.
Example: executive search As a service example take the search for and selection of executive personnel. Source: UNCTAD. • Further shortlisting through interviews. Source: UNCTAD. . • Pre-selecting candidates on the basis of their credentials. Part of your production process discussion should give a justification of the make-or-buy strategy for the different elements of your product. This should also apply if you are in a service business. A make-or-buy strategy deals with the issue of whether you will manufacture all components of your product in-house. or buy some specific components from outside and integrate them into the final product. The boxes are maintained at a constant temperature of minus 18 degrees Celsius. you might decide to engage an administration service firm to do your invoicing. • Presenting two to three candidates to the client and providing advice in the final selection. This may increase profits by enabling you and your partners to spend more time on money-generating activities.2. Then they are placed in the main deep freezer of the factory until delivery. Box IV. This process would most probably involve the following: • Establishing the job profile together with the client.56 UNCTAD. • Design of the campaign. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • The frozen products are placed manually in cardboard boxes with a capacity of 12 kilograms each. If you are starting a business developing and selling software. • Search via a confidential network and/or the media. accounting and other logistic tasks (buy)..
How to Prepare Your Business Plan 61 B. substitution danger and client loyalty. sex. population shifts and changing customer needs.UNCTAD. This should be a description of your target market. • Market size. company size. Friendly competitors. innovation potential of the industry. Chambers of commerce and industry associations. occupation. Clearly state the sources and assumptions used and try to be realistic in the estimates. Support any growth estimates with factors such as industry trends. Specialized market survey consultants. using lifestyle. business organization and other characteristics to describe the consumers or company clients likely to buy your product or service. susceptibility to recession. Do not overstate either the size of the market or the potential share you expect to get. otherwise the credibility of the entire business plan will be in question. age. geography. You should also include comments about any special features of your target market. possible sources are: Government statistics bureaux. government policy. There are many sources of information to tap in creating a complete picture of your market. medium and long term. In addition to information you yourself have gathered over time. Here you should summarize particulars regarding the current size of your target market and its growth potential in the short. new technological developments. such as industry profitability. socio-economic trends. Data bases accessible through the Internet. Market characteristics In this section you should cover two main aspects: • Market characteristics. . Commercial banks (these can sometimes be very knowledgeable and frank about the market in their region).
naming the companies and their trade marks. C. their . A description of the main competitors.. if you are in the business of delivering office materials to companies. you should provide the following: • Description of competitors. Presenting your business in the landscape of its competitors shows that you understand your industry and are prepared to cope with some of the challenges to your company's success. In this section. Competition This section indicates where your products or services fit in the competitive environment of the market. their size and locations. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Remember to cite all sources for your data.62 UNCTAD. quality and service (are they primarily cost. Particular issues to be covered are: • Who they are? • Where are they located? • Why do they buy? • When and under what circumstances do they buy? What types of concerns do they have? • What are their expectations concerning price. you may not want to target service companies with fewer than 20 employees or manufacturing companies with fewer than 100 employees. D. For example.
If this is the case. and how their products/services compare with yours in price. take care in combining the above features. However.UNCTAD. you will successfully differentiate yourself from most of the competition. It may also be useful to describe briefly which companies in your sector or associated fields you do not consider to be competitors. image. marketing. production capability. Describe also how your competitors could possibly react to your strategy. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 63 annual sales and their market share. • Those whom you do not consider to be competitors. But do not make the mistake of saying that you can provide . You can say that you are providing products of very good quality at reasonable prices. Where possible. • Relative strengths and weaknesses. technology. you will have to dispel that misunderstanding by explaining why these businesses are not in competition with you.. E. quality and other respects. The reader of your business plan may misunderstand who your competitors are. assess the strengths and weaknesses of the competition in areas such as management. distribution networks. Positioning How do you want to position yourself in the market? What do you want your identity to be? How do you want your clients. If you think that there are competitors a share of whose business you can capture. financial resources and cost/price advantages. explain why you can do it better and how you will do it.
Not many people will believe that. The image it acquired in the end was summed up in the words: “Still expensive but not necessary of best quality”. The position you choose will form the basic element of your image promotion. In trying to use the excellent brand name to penetrate the mass-product segment it confused the market. • European shoe manufacturer. Many companies have attempted to include in their portfolio products of different qualities (price levels) and thus target different segments of the market. A shoe manufacturer of traditionally highquality/high-price (niche market shoes) attempted to expand the business by starting production also of medium-quality/medium-price shoes under the same brand. the introduction of the latter did not damage the image of the firm as a supplier of luxury pens. low-price and reliable cars. it started more recently also to produce low-price plastic pens. This has been done successfully. Caran d’Ache was for many decades a supplier of expensive gold-plated pens.64 UNCTAD. but some have failed. it started also producing models to cover the luxury/high-price segment. Some have been very successful. important questions to be examined are: • What are the chances of the market accepting your new product? • What is the potential for damaging the image of existing products? . At a later stage. Toyota was known for many years as a supplier of simple. In an effort to diversify and expand its business. The good brand name of the luxury product helped in penetrating the market for the cheaper product. The following are typical examples: • Japanese car manufacturer. If you are planning to expand your business by introducing new products of a different quality/price level. Furthermore. The lower quality of the cheaper products damaged its image as a supplier of exclusive shoes. With these features it penetrated the world markets and became one of the largest mass-production suppliers. This was done successfully. • European pen manufacturer. How to Prepare Your Business Plan best-quality products at the lowest price and that you are also able to provide the best service in the market. advertising and overall marketing campaign.. Step 2: Rate the features of your target market by using the criteria listed in table V. This could give you interesting hints for developing your business strategy and positioning yourself in the market. The average at the bottom of the table gives an overall rating of the attractiveness of your market. The analysis can be done in four steps as follows: Step 1: Rate your business by using the criteria listed in table V. Step 4: Table V. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 65 • What are pros and cons of introducing the new product under a new brand name? F. Step 3: Mark in table V.2. This exercise can be repeated for different business segments or products of your firm. it is perhaps useful to rate your business through a simple portfolio analysis. Although not every business plan includes a portfolio analysis.4 may give you some indications and suggestions about possible measures you might choose to undertake.3 the position of your firm in the market (by using as coordinates the results from step 1 and step 2).1. You can also try to indicate the position of some of your competitors in this diagram. Market strategy After you have examined the attractiveness of your market and you have examined your competition.UNCTAD.
Branch profitability 4. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table V. Management 7.1. Recession susceptibility 7. Security of supply (materials/spare parts) 10. Own brands.2. Analysis of competitive advantages Competitive advantages/ success criteria 1. Market size 2. Product/service quality 4. Market growth 3. patents. Substitution danger 8. Innovation potential of the industry 5. Regulatory/public opinion risks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 << Very negative very positive >> Overall evaluation/summary Source: UNCTAD. Technological know-how 5. Marketing know-how 6. Analysis of market attractiveness Market evaluation criteria 1.66 UNCTAD. Table V. Client loyalty 9. Competition intensity 6. etc. Financial resources 9. Cost structure/cost advantages 3. 10. Market share 2. Location/distribution advantages 8. Spare capacity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 << Competition is stronger we are stronger >> Overall evaluation/summary Source: UNCTAD.
3. Position in the market 9 Evaluation of market attractiveness 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Evaluation of competitive advantages Source: UNCTAD.UNCTAD. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 67 Table V.
etc. quality upgrading. Selective investment and growth Consider in particular building up strengths (management improvements.). human resources. Harvest/diversify Maintain your position and get as much as you can from the market. possibly through the development of new products. new technologies. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table V. expand geographically etc. Medium Partnership Divest Low Consider joining forces with a partner. networks. Low Medium High Relative competitive advantages Source: UNCTAD. Gradual development Strengthen your competitiveness through incremental improvements (as you earn) and shift emphasis to the most attractive market segments of the business.68 UNCTAD. cost reduction. . perhaps with a strong company interested in entering your type of business/market or you type of clients. perhaps with a company interested in some of the strong features of your company (infrastructure. Specialize in the few products/services that you can do best. location.). Maximize investment and grow Market attractiveness High Partnership Consider joining forces with a partner.). Matrix of strategies Concentrate Concentrate your activities on niches. Selective investment and growth Identify the most attractive growth segments of your market and invest in them (intensify marketing / promotion. etc. Consider diversifying and entering new markets.4.
Your projections derived from this section will be an important input to the financial planning section of your business plan (projected income and cash flow statements). sincere and pragmatic businessperson. Justify your sales projections by explaining the underlying assumptions made.UNCTAD. . the size of your market and the share you expect to get. This should include sales in units and cash for the planning period of your business. being too conservative about the growth of sales will not encourage people to put money in your business. It is therefore recommended that you use "best case". For existing businesses. Projected sales The estimated sales of your business should be based on your assessment of the advantages of your product or service. The first year should be broken down by month or by quarter. Lenders or investors look critically at forecasts of sales since they form the main basis of your income and thus your ability to service your debts and pay dividends. the current client base and client gains anticipated in the foreseeable future form a sound basis for the sales forecast. taking into consideration seasonal effects and variations. Be realistic about your projections in order to maintain your credibility as a serious. "worst case" and "likely" scenarios to create a spread of sales projections. On the other hand. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 69 G. Experienced lenders/investors know that new businesses very seldom experience a sales boom right from the first or second year of operation. whatever is appropriate for your industry.
The way you organize and operate your business is an important factor for your success. most lenders are aware that it needs much more than that to run a profitable business. The sections below discuss some of the most important operational and organizational issues that need to be covered in a business plan. Specific questions to be answered are: . Location and premises 1. despite the superiority of your product and interest in buying it. The same applies if you do not have an appropriate management information system or if the duties and responsibilities of the personnel in your organization are not well defined. a building contractor has to be very well organized in all matters of project planning and control. How to Prepare Your Business Plan CHAPTER VI BUSINESS OPERATIONS AND ORGANIZATION In the previous sections you may have convinced the reader that you have a superior product and that there are sufficient clients that would be willing to buy it at a fair price.70 UNCTAD. you should explain the considerations that made you select the present location of your business. A trader in tropical fruits has to plan carefully storage. it is unlikely that your business will remain profitable for long. However. If you do not have a well-functioning infrastructure in a suitable location and if you do not have an efficient manufacturing and distribution system. For example. A. Location In this part of the business plan. The types of operational and organizational issues you will be facing depend on the type of business you will be operating. transport and distribution.
restaurants. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 71 • Local market. Are raw materials. etc. suppliers of consumables.UNCTAD. shopping facilities.) Is the cost in transportation of raw material and finished products reasonable? Is there any . etc. How do the cost of premises and utility rates compare with those in other areas? Can you get a similar site on more advantageous terms in another area? • Transportation. the owner of a metal processing shop that produced components for foreign toolmakers decided to completely relocate his business. spare parts and other supplies readily available in the region? • Utilities.) • Living conditions. water for industrial use and cooling. The main reason was that a foreign car manufacturer that had recently moved into the area had caused a dramatic rise in salaries. ship. The shop was not able to operate profitably any more in this place. adequate telephone lines. hotels. repair and maintenance workshops. Are the necessary utilities to accommodate the present and future expansion needs of your business available at your location? (Electricity supply. aeroplane. visitors and their families for living and working in the region? (Housing. Can you find in the vicinity skilled managers. schools. rail. Are there the necessary services to support your operations in the region? (Law and accounting offices.) • Cost of premises. components. waste depositories. etc. sink for discharges of effluents. hospitals.) • Material supply. How easily can your location be reached? What means of transportation are available? (Road. etc.) • Supporting services. gas supply. cultural and recreational centres. Are suitable infrastructure and appropriate services available to employees. Is there a market for your products or services in the region? Or have you chosen your location because it is just a suitable place in which to produce? • Availability of workers. religious centres. specialists or workers whom you need to operate the business? Are there any plans for major industrial development programmes that are likely to strongly compete with your business for human resources? Do you see any critical limitations in this respect? (In one case.
This is particularly true for those who have their clients in the region where their company is located. but because you will provide your clients with the image of a real discount shop. Transportation costs were not an important consideration at that time. Are there any plans for changes or projects in the region that may affect your business? (New housing complexes.) • Local authorities. etc. expansion of industry. rapid economic growth in the region often has disadvantages for some businesses. Are there any present or foreseeable competing businesses in the immediate neighbourhood? What could be the impact of their presence? • Image. training schemes for employees and attractive conditions for leasing land and buildings? Are the local regulations reasonably flexible? Are procedures for obtaining permits and licences efficient enough? . They will perhaps see only an increase in their production costs. Is your location compatible with the image of your business? Do clients visit your premises? (For example. However. transportation and associated energy expenses started to be an important issue when planning product costs.) • Economic growth. They will not profit from the enhancement of the local buying power.) • Future development. But if you operate a discount (lowbudget) shop for electrical home appliances. The stimulation of the economy will eventually enhance the buying power of their clients. new motorways.72 UNCTAD. Do the local authorities support the development of business in the area? Do they provide any special incentives such as local tax reductions. After the transition to a market economy. if you have a boutique for highquality and expensive jewellery. The result was that some of these businesses with production facilities in remote areas were not commercially viable any more. Is the area showing high economic growth? (Most entrepreneurs wish to see high economic growth in their region. Not because you will pay less rent. which is a phenomenon accompanying economic growth..) Will these changes have beneficial or detrimental effects? • Competition. you would rather be located in a back street. perhaps you should ideally be located in an exclusive street in the centre of the town.
a permit may be required. Did you apply for it? Have you received it? (Never underestimate the time required to obtain a permit.) • Expandability. etc. Are the premises of appropriate size? Can you expand if necessary? (For example. short transport distances. storage space and office infrastructure. appropriate working environment. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 73 • Site accessibility. Particularly critical are greenfield construction projects. Particular issues to be addressed are set out below. They may be aware of cases in which . if you are running a specialized law practice and you are planning to charge your clients the upper-level rates of the market.) • Layout. simpler facilities on the outskirts of the city would be adequate. The lender or investor will carefully check any permit required. acquiring paintings and sculptures. setting up spacious and representative reception and meeting rooms. you are advised to briefly describe in your business plan your premises and their suitability for your business. Are the layout and the architectural design appropriate to performing the daily operations in an efficient way? (Optimum flow of personnel and materials. adequate storage capacity. In some cases permits were in the end not granted at all. Can the site be accessed easily by employees and clients? Is the transport of materials and goods practical? 2.the procedure for obtaining permits have been very slow. getting elegant furniture. But if you are in the software development business and your clients do not visit you regularly in your offices. • Licences. by having the option of renting nearby some more . you may need to have representative offices in the centre of the city. will be an advantage to the development of your business. Does the appearance of the premises match the type of your business and the image you like to give to it? (For example. etc. Premises Your business operations can be performed in an efficient and effective way only if you have the appropriate production facilities.with or without a good reason .UNCTAD.) • Representation. Can the premises be utilized for the planned business? Is any application to the local authorities necessary in order to change the use for which the premises were previously licensed? Will you make any structural alterations? If so. As your lender or investor is certainly aware of this requirement. In such a case.
Lenders are very sensitive on this matter. It is therefore usual that the work of developing the marketing concept and supervising its implementation is placed under the direct responsibility of top management. if you are starting a new business you may not want to invest immediately in real estate. you may be faced with the choice of renting property or buying it now. Will the premises comply with fire. Marketing consists of the following four major elements: 1. General remarks For many companies. Market study Study the market environment and future trends to understand the demand for products or services in your field. health and safety regulations? • Environmental issues. The trends of the local real estate market could have a major impact on your decision. Marketing 1. Do you have proof that the site you are going to buy or lease is environmentally sound and that there is no existing contamination and liabilities from the past? If you are not sure. an environmental survey has to be carried out. .) Or do you have already have to bear the extra costs of renting more space that you may need in the future? • Safety regulations. How to Prepare Your Business Plan space later on. highly effective marketing is the key to success. On the other hand. buying may provide some protection against the risk of escalating rental expenditure. • Buy or rent. Are you planning to buy or to rent the premises? What are the considerations for this decision? (For example.) B. You might also want to see first how your business develops before you enter into more substantial financial commitments. Identify the geographical markets and types of clients to be targeted.74 UNCTAD. in view of other financing priorities. If real estate prices are rising quickly.
The present section concentrates on describing how you plan to promote and advertise your products. 2. When developing your products. 3. when communicating with your clients and when fixing your prices. Important features that your marketing efforts have to define are . Specific objectives are: • Make your product or service known. Selling and distribution concept Select channels for selling and distributing your products or services in the market. presentation/packaging. Product promotion Develop and execute a promotion.UNCTAD. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 75 2. • Build up its image. you have to keep in mind your marketing concept. advertising and Public Relations campaign to inform the target clients about your products or services and the benefits they can derive from them. etc. An important characteristic of marketing is that elements of it form an integral part in most of your business activities. Promotion and advertising The purpose of your promotion and advertising campaign is to communicate information about your product or service to the market. price.finishing. 4.apart from the technical specifications of the product . It is therefore obvious that marketing elements are to be found in most sections of your business plan. Product development Develop the products demanded by the market.
and have they been professionally trained to sell? Who will define. This section should include a description of all media that you plan to use for advertising (Internet.). If you are employing agencies or outside specialists to assist you in the advertising and Public Relations work. competence and benefits they will provide to the promotion work. Selling is the process for: • Finally convincing your clients to buy it. brochures. The selling section of your business plan has to demonstrate that you are well organized with regard to managing the selling process. coordinate. exhibitions. Who will sell your products. magazines. C. It should also describe your public relations programme. include information about the efforts. radio and TV. trade fairs. • Establishing ways of communicating its attractiveness to your clients. product sheets etc. etc. Selling methodology In marketing you are concerned with: • Assessing the demand for your product. sales/promotional materials (such as brochures and product sheets). monitor and control the overall sales effort? Who will bear the overall responsibility for the sales? . Specific questions to be discussed are the following: • Selling responsibility. it would be an advantage to include some of these as an attachment to your business plan or at least have them available to show when meeting your lender or investor.76 UNCTAD. If you have copies of advertisements. package design. billboards. newspapers. Through such information you will show to the reader that thought has been given to this issue and that the appropriate channels have been chosen for attracting clients to buy the products. direct mailings. etc. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Show benefits to users.
mailings. What hesitation and resistance do you expect from possible clients? How do you consider encountering them? What arguments would defend your position? What are the unique selling points your salespeople have to emphasize? • Client decisions. How do you plan to train the salespersons? How do you plan to transfer the necessary knowledge of the product to them and enhance their selling skills? (Internal or external training. How much time elapses between your clients becoming aware of your product or service and their decision to buy it. • Targets. cold calling/direct client visits.) • Selling process time. on-thejob training programmes. and finally pay for it? (The answer to this question is an important factor for your cash flow projections and for determining the financing requirements of your company. But if you are an auditor and you want to acquire the financial audit. CDs and technical back-up material.UNCTAD. shops. established sales and distribution networks access to valuable clients. brochures. What selling methods will you apply? For example. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 77 • Selling channels.) • Arguments. have you set for each salesperson or selling method? • Selling aids. describe the benefits of using them. What sales volume and activity targets. What special advantages do they bring to the business? (Lobbying connections.) • Selling methods. What selling aids. telephone selling. you cannot by pass the Chief Information Officer. will you provide to the sellers? Include also details of in-house sales support such as technical service. duration. • Training. etc. types of courses. videos. Who exactly makes the buying decision. such as visits per day. participation in fairs/exhibitions. advertisements and mail ordering.) . such as leaflets. and what other people can influence that decision? How can you approach them? (If you sell office material to companies. etc. Will you be selling directly to your clients? Will you be using sales representatives. you know that the procurement officer is the right person to approach. the Chief Financial Officer is your contact person. distributors or agents? If you will be using third parties for selling. If you want to sell PC hardware and software. market knowledge.
• Handling complaints. If you do not do anything.e. On the one hand. What payment terms and conditions are you proposing to your clients? This issue is of the utmost importance for your cash flow development. Describe how you balance these considerations.78 UNCTAD. for the purpose of improving your cash flow you would like your clients to pay you as soon as possible. the odds are that he will stay with you. Which orders are currently on hand (value. by being alert and informing their colleagues if they see an opportunity. you will probably lose him and you may also lose other clients to whom he is talking. it would be convincing to show these to the lenders or investors concerned. Are there any concrete proposals with a reasonable chance of being accepted by the clients? Vague letters of intent from prospective clients are usually not sufficient to convince investors or lenders about the future viability of the business. to initiate the process of selling another product of your company for which they are not directly responsible? (For example. and from whom? Are there any documents that can prove that there is a pipeline of committed orders? If so. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Payment terms. • Incentives. On the other hand. i.) D. etc.) or are expected in the immediate future. Manufacturing If you are in the business of manufacturing products. how do you intend to deal with such problems? • Orders on hand.) • Order processing. with a clear division of responsibilities? Do you have the common problem of production personnel complaining that delivery schedules agreed with the client are too short or the prices too low? If so. What incentives do you have in place for motivating salespeople to meet their targets? How does their compensation depend on the amount they sell? How can you motivate your salespeople to cross-sell. you would like to offer to your clients convenient payment terms so that they can continue buying from you. Important issues to be covered are: . How are the orders transferred from the salespeople to the order processing people? Is this transfer smooth. your business plan should include a section on the manufacturing process. What procedures do you envisage for handling customer complaints? (If you take quick action to satisfy a complaining client.
Briefly discuss the worst and the most probable scenarios of production interruption in your factory. You should demonstrate that you have established appropriate logistics for ensuring that your product will . Which resources and services are required in order to keep the manufacturing line running (energy and cooling media. adjustments and manual control of the production line. testing/inspection of the final product. etc. spare parts. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 79 • Make or buy. Provide a rough layout sketch of your manufacturing unit. Begin with the preparation of raw materials and continue to finishing and packaging the end product. What plant and major equipment will you need and what are the main specifications? (Rated capacity.). showing the ground plan and main dimensions of the facility and the arrangement of the main equipment. • Major equipment. Distribution This section should describe the channels and mechanisms by which your product or service will be reaching the end user. sizes.) E. spare capacity. • Resources and services. maintenance service. Which parts of the product do you make yourself and which parts do you purchase? Do you make the final assembly of the product yourself or do you contract it out? • Manufacturing process.) • Layout. What are the critical factors in achieving the required quality of the end product? (Type of production machinery used. etc. etc.UNCTAD.) What measures are you envisaging to ensure the quality of the final product? • • Interruption risks.) Quality factors. etc. What are the probable incidents (machinery breakdown. power consumption. Briefly describe the different stages of the manufacturing process and the flow of materials and goods. engineering support.
you can sell a new type of floor cleaning chemical through door-to-door selling. sharing scheme for income. How to Prepare Your Business Plan reach the clients in time. Are the distribution channels compatible with the image of your product? (For example.) • Impact on quality. but for fine handmade silk carpets you would want to sell through special galleries/boutiques. door-to-door selling. • Image compatibility. price margins by shops. if you distribute perishable goods such as flowers. the company had to stop advertising the ecommerce service for some time until it switched its logistics and restructured its assets (sold supermarket space). Is the quality of the products adequate when they reach the final consumer? For example. Are the distribution channels chosen compatible with your capacity and the structure of production and delivery? Here is an example of a company in the food business. the demand in the supermarkets dropped considerably. However. etc. in perfect condition and in a cost-effective way.80 UNCTAD. what type of agreements do you have with them? (Division of responsibilities. The demand increased so fast that it could not manage the home delivery logistics properly. Hence. mail order. On the other hand. wholesalers. this kind of distribution is not recommendable for high-quality cosmetics. tropical fruits or fresh fish. Then it decided to start selling through electronic commerce (home delivery for orders received via the Internet). Or you can sell machine-made woollen carpets through a supermarket store.) • Intermediaries. for how long? • Compatibility. electronic commerce/Internet etc. Particular questions that will probably be of interest to the lender or investor are the following: • Distribution channels. What are your primary distribution channels? (Retail stores. It has been using chains of supermarkets to sell its products for many decades. which resulted in an ineffective way of utilizing the infrastructure and equipment invested in over many years.) . Is the entire distribution chain under your control or are you using intermediaries such as supermarkets and distribution agents? If the latter is the case..
Your lenders or investors will most probably be interested to know more about it. Particular questions of interest are: • Registering orders. but if you start delivering to clients in another town 50 kilometres away. This part of the chain is critical to the successful development of the business.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 81 • Costs. Is the packaging of your product suitable for the distribution and transportation channels that you have chosen? Can you be sure that the product reaches the client in a perfect condition? The more stages in the distribution channel and the more loading/unloading. How is a new client order entered into the company system by the sales department? Who takes on the responsibility for delivery in accordance with to the terms and conditions agreed with the client? What are the . An important link between manufacturing and selling is the internal work of your firm in processing the client orders and controlling the inventory of finished products. F. Either you establish a second production unit in this town or you leave the business to somebody else there. Can your products be sold at a price that includes such mark-ups? • Packaging. A basic question that you would be asking yourself is how far you can deliver the pizzas economically. transportation costs. import duties and so forth have to be added. Is the chosen distribution channel cost-effective for the type of products.) Can your product bear the mark-up required by the • Mark-up. A one-kilometre distance is certainly no problem and five kilometres may also be no problem. you are probably not competitive. If the work is done efficiently it ensures the satisfaction of your clients and reduces the costs of your company. quantities and markets that you are targeting? (Suppose that you operate a pizza home delivery business and you produce all the pizzas in one central facility. On top of this. the more robust your packaging has to be. you have described your capability in manufacturing your products and your competence in selling them to the market. Order processing and inventory control In other sections of your business plan. The importer may require another 20-30 per cent. distributors? If you are distributing your products through shops in foreign countries you have to assume that the shops will add a mark-up of say 100 per cent.
the size of the company. An organizational chart is particularly useful in: • Providing evidence to the lender or investor that you have seriously considered the future of your business.82 UNCTAD. divide it in distinct functional units.). What procedures do you apply to monitor whether the client is satisfied with the product or service? • Inventory control. What mechanisms and schemes do you apply to control the inventory of your products? How do you optimize the inventory to ensure that it is not too much (binding cash and occupying a lot of storage space) or too little (reducing flexibility to supply clients fast enough). They enable the reader to quickly grasp the way you plan to structure your business. • Confirming that you have identified the people required for operating the business. Company structure In planning your business you have most probably thought about how you would like to structure the company. G. • Making clear to everybody in or outside the company who is responsible for what. family business etc. the profiles and competences of managers available. They define responsibilities and lines of reporting of middle and higher management. the ownership situation (partner organization. Naming persons in the chart helps to give a sense of reality to your business plan. you should compile an organizational chart and include it in your business plan. Factors that play an important role are the type of business. and the style of management.e. How to Prepare Your Business Plan interfaces and how are the responsibilities split between the salespeople and the people producing the product and delivering it to the client? • Client satisfaction. Organizational charts are very useful pieces of information. If this work has been done. i. There are many different ways to structure a company. . You probably have also identified the head of each of these units. the industry.
These should also meet regularly to discuss and decide about division matters.1. Note: Each box should include the name of the responsible manager and his or her deputy. It consists of three major divisions.UNCTAD. the three division managers and the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) form the higher executive management of the company. . Figure VI. The division manager is the link between middle and higher management. The department managers (middle management) of a division and the responsible division manager form the management of a division. He or she plays an important role in the transfer of information. Typical organization chart of a production company Chief Executive Officer Technical R&D Production Quality control Marketing & sales Marketing Sales Client service Client relations Finance & administration Accounting Human resources Logistics Procurement Information technology Source: UNCTAD. In such an organization. opinions.1 is a typical example of an organization that is often seen in production companies. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 83 Figure VI. suggestions and instructions between the two management levels. This team should meet regularly to discuss and decide on important company issues. Each division consists of a number of departments.
such as developing a new product. the project cannot happen any faster than this. and if so. you may have to demonstrate to your banker or investor that your projects have been thoroughly planned and that you have established schemes for monitoring their progress. . Project management In your business plan you may anticipate the implementation of one or more projects. Each activity on the critical path has to be completed before the next one can begin. Below are some important steps and methods for presenting a plan for such projects. These allow you to record information about the project. There are various cost-effective computer software packages available for drawing up and monitoring project plans. how. establishing a new affiliate abroad or refurbishing your production machinery. For each activity. Therefore. • Assign responsibilities for each activity and for the overall coordination of the project.84 UNCTAD.2. This means that unless the time taken for the different activities can be shortened. The success of your business will depend upon your ability to complete these projects successfully within the budget and according to schedule. • Break the project into small tasks (modules) or clearly defined activities as in figure VI. This path is the longest path through the diagram and indicates the shortest possible period of time for completion of the project. constructing a new building or plant. make changes with relative ease and view project information in various ways. Act immediately if a target is missed or a problem appears. set measurable targets and milestones. • Set up a mechanism for monitoring whether the targets have been met. which shows activities related to the construction of a plant for producing mango concentrate. • Identify the critical path. How to Prepare Your Business Plan H. A project can be anything.
Building painting and finishing works . grass) .Installation of evaporators Commissioning .2.Conceptual design of plant .Engineering .Excavation for building .Contracting/ordering of equipment .Licensing and approvals .Building construction (civil works) .Piping and electrical installation .Detail specifications .Installation of telephone lines .Normal operation = critical path Source: UNCTAD.Site preparation . flowers.Pilot production . .Installation of fruit peeling line .Garden work (trees.Installation of fruit washing/sorting line .System cleaning and flushing .UNCTAD.Functional tests .Installation of water supply and sewer . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 85 Figure VI.Construction of access roads .Installation of power supply lines .Manufacturing equipment by suppliers Construction phase: . Example of a project plan: construction of a plant for production of mango concentrate Activity 1 2 3 4 Months 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Preparation phase .Foundation work for building .
Important questions that need to be briefly answered in this section of your business plan are: • Periodicity. new orders. How to Prepare Your Business Plan I. Status of projects in implementation (in particular.). on-line. proposals rejected. . etc. with projections over the coming months (these are important in confirming that you have sufficient cash to operate the business). Sales (business opportunities identified. etc. Income statement (with breakdown of the revenue and expense sides) and balance sheet (with breakdown of the assets and liabilities). or number and type of clients serviced. It helps you understand of the dynamics of the business and puts you in a good position to guide it in the right direction. Special/unexpected developments/events. What is the content (output) of the MIS reports? Typical reports of special interest to you.) • Content.). depending on the type of business.86 UNCTAD. quarterly. etc. Production output (number and type of products produced. Other information (personnel fluctuation. proposals pending. could be those on the following: Liquidity status. How often will you receive and use the reports produced by your MIS? (Monthly. and production capacity utilized. Your MIS should assist you in monitoring whether your business is developing as anticipated in your business plan. information relevant to cost and schedule control). etc. proposals made. annually. Management information systems/reporting The readers of your business plan are most probably aware that the use of an effective management information system (MIS) is an important requisite for conducting your business successfully. It serves as an early warning system. market indicators. Financial ratios.). It can therefore be expected that lenders or investors may want to see an outline of your MIS.
group discussions. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 87 • Information recipients Who receives reports via the MIS or who has access to them? What kind of information/reports are foreseen for different functions and persons? • Processes/actions. that data are fed into the system in a timely fashion. • Information technology systems. people will lose their motivation to provide the data. information provided is complete and meaningful.) • MIS input/responsibilities.) Experience shows that enforcing the procedures for collecting and feeding the appropriate data into the MIS of a company is one of the most challenging tasks of management. This is particularly true where the data have to be collected throughout the organization. • Persisting in communicating to people the significance of the MIS system. bilateral discussions.UNCTAD. The general tendency is that people who are responsible for providing the information do not give high priority to this task. for example. What processes are used in discussing results and taking actions? (Periodic meetings of the general management. If too much data are required and if their purpose and usefulness are not obvious. • Disseminating MIS output to the people in your organization to whom this information may be useful. Possible improvement measures that often help are: • Reducing the amount of data and information collected to what is really necessary. What kinds of software and hardware are used to process the data and to generate reports? . etc. etc..
skills and experience to achieve the objectives and goals. • Demonstrate that they have the required talents.88 UNCTAD. competence and ethics. Issues such as projections of future market potential. The same will apply if the management presented does not appear to have the required experience. an investor does not have the technical knowledge necessary for judging with confidence the viability of a specific business. there is a common belief that the qualifications of the management are one of the most important criteria for a lender or investor in deciding to invest in a venture. if they believe that the management has the necessary experience. the management section of your business plan should: • Show that the key members of the management team have been identified. regardless of how great the business opportunity appears to be. How to Prepare Your Business Plan CHAPTER VII HUMAN RESOURCES A. For the above reasons. competence and reputation. On the other hand. are available and keen to join the team. It often happens that despite a well-presented business plan. It is also important that the individual skills of the members of your team complement each other and that they can cover jointly all the functions and disciplines necessary for running the business. . product competitiveness or technological trends can often be very difficult for persons not directly involved in the business. Management Most lenders and venture capitalists base their investment decisions mainly on the strength of the company's management. they will be more inclined to finance the business. no serious lender or investor will ever finance a business before the management has been properly examined. In general. However. track record.
Depending upon the structure of a company and the role of its shareholders in the business. etc. the lender will be keen to have more information about your and your partner’s background. In this case. 2. Its role and responsibilities are. for example. management functions and input/support to management are provided by the following groups: • Shareholders. In addition to standard information on personal assets and liabilities. paying particular attention to the private financial situation. Suppose. some lenders or investors may go so far as to require copies of tax declarations. Board of directors The shareholders of the company appoint the board of directors. court cases. records of unpaid debts. • Middle management. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 89 Depending on the structure and type of business. lenders or investors may require more detailed information about their background. among others. to: • Take overall responsibility for the company on behalf of the shareholders. • Executive management. Shareholders In this section you should briefly describe the individuals who own and control your entity (their name. • External support services. . • Board of directors. 1. that you are starting a new entity as a sole owner or together with a few partners and that all of you will be active in the business. • Develop a company strategy. Therefore. the management section of your business plan should present the key persons of these groups as discussed below.UNCTAD. activity/occupation and equity participation) and their involvement in strategic or operational decision-making processes.
good reputation or special knowledge relevant to your business. • Ensure the implementation of an appropriate accounting. search for board members who can provide this know-how. business activity. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Ensure the establishment of an appropriate organization. responsibilities and competencies of each individual. It adds credibility to your business since a strong board of directors is always considered to be a valuable asset to a company. financial control and financial planning system. The general practice in many countries is that members of the board are not employed by the entity and are not engaged in the daily business operations. the managers of many small and medium-size businesses use the skills of board members to receive expertise and support which they cannot afford to hire. 3.90 UNCTAD. and any special tasks they may have. If. including the expertise. you operate a small engineering company and you do not have any experience in finance. Executive management In this section you should describe the structure of executive management. education and expertise. statutes of the company and specific objectives. In any case. Demonstrating that your executive management team possesses complementary skills will help to convince investors that your business has a promising future. If you can choose or suggest such members yourself. • Report to the shareholders in required format and at the required intervals. If the board members have special industry connections. • Supervise the management to ensure that it complies with the laws and regulations. considering that the board exercises all strategically important functions listed above and bears the ultimate responsibility for the company. • Nominate and dismiss the executive management of the entity. In this section you should outline who are the members of your board. Do not forget that the individual members of the board can help enhance the standing of your business if they enjoy high esteem in the business community and/or work for reputable organizations. it is worth briefly mentioning these facts in your business plan. lenders and investors will ask who its members are. for example. listing their names. select those who complement existing management. However.
you should also describe the skills of these individuals. is highly specialized in the production of concentrates from tropical fruits. other functions that may need to be represented in executive management are technology management. Depending on the type of business. • Production management. For example. how many years. • Special experience. what type of business. talents and areas of high competence (examples: has excellent understanding of the Russian market and has many contacts in the Russian Federation. • Any special achievements (examples: as a sales manager of company X doubled the sales volume within three years. in concise sentences. If your firm is in biotechnology and develops new medical products. has long experience in general management of companies with over 100 employees. quality management. your chief research and development officer is a key person in the organization. registered four patents in the food processing sector. • Professional history (which company.UNCTAD. etc. • Marketing and sales management. your IT manager will be a central figure in the management of the company. In such cases. developed and implemented a programme which . if you are in the electronic commerce business. which functions). should relate to the following: • Present employment and function. • Financial management (Chief Financial Officer-CFO) and administration. information technology management. research and development management. Specific information to be given for each of the above managers.). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 91 Readers will be particularly interested to know who will be managing the following important functions: • General management (Chief Executive Officer-CEO). etc. • Education.
team-based decision-making processes. 4. you are probably thinking seriously about developing middle management capacity. In such a case. open information policy. etc. It could be advantageous to include complete résumés of the key persons as an attachment to the business plan. etc. fairness in personnel assessment.). many of the functions mentioned above have to be combined and performed by yourself or only partially shared with the others. you should explain what amount of time you expect to allocate to each type of activity and what the priorities are.92 UNCTAD. You should also mention what you are planning to do when the business has grown so much that you are not able to deal alone with all these functions any more. stocks and stock options as an incentive. respect for individuals. fringe benefits. How to Prepare Your Business Plan resulted in reducing the costs of production by 20 per cent within one year. . etc. • Training schemes.). The management section should also include a short description of the company's policies for enhancing the performance of its managers and for ensuring their strong commitment to the business. Since one-person business will be hard to sell to the lenders or investors. • Cultural elements promoted by top management (regular and efficient communication. success-based bonus schemes. sales and even managing the finances of your business. Particular issues to be mentioned are: • The main criteria and the process for selecting managers. If you have a small business and you work on your own or with only few other persons. • Specific measures to retain key experts. try to dispel fears by appointing a well-regarded supervisory body and experienced partners/employees. • Policies for remunerating managers (proportion of fixed to variable salary.). Middle management If your company will be growing from a small to a medium-size enterprise. You may have to assume responsibility yourself for production.
the quality of the work deteriorates. 75 employees. this team may have some difficulties in managing the business successfully. The sensitive process of change should be accompanied by a well-conceived information and . there would be only three department (middle) managers reporting to him or her and the rest of the employees in the division would be reporting to the department managers. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 93 In such a case. the obvious thing for a growing company to do is to introduce a second (middle) level of management. your considerations and the measures you plan to implement should be adequately discussed in your business plan. efficiency and finally profitability. for example.. But if the business grows to. The result is that no proper supervision is provided. In such a case instead of 15 persons reporting to the division manager. Therefore. In such cases the executive managers keep assuming more responsibilities and overload as the business grows. the motivation of the employees diminishes and the managers get burned out too quickly. Difficulties often arise in growing companies that do not implement measures to develop sufficient capacity of middle management early enough. what are your plans to recruit suitable middle-level managers from outside? • Introducing another level of management is a major step with important repercussions on the structure and culture of your firm. The rule of thumb says that one manager cannot effectively supervise the work of more than 7-10 subordinates fulfilling different functions. to divide a division of 12-15 persons into three departments of 4-5 persons each. In a company with 35 employees. say. with repercussions on the working climate. They end up managing directly more people than they really can.UNCTAD. a team of 3-5 division managers may be able to operate the business without needing to have a middle level of managers. Experienced lenders and investors have often seen the difficulties some companies fall when the number of their employees increases from 30-40 to 7080.
as well as what experience and/or contacts they provide to your business. from where and how will you recruit them? • Are the workers trained? If not. how will you train them? • What are your plans for ongoing training? . B. accountants or public relations/marketing agencies. Whether you are going to start a new business or intend to expand an existing one. mention which strengths the firm or individual possesses. • You are a manager who is capable of integrating and building up the indispensable networks. Other important questions that have to be answered are: • Are there sufficient local workers available? If not. By properly selecting and effectively using external support services you demonstrate to the reader that: • You have acquired and are utilizing all the knowledge and resources necessary for running the business. name these and mention what type of service you will be getting from them.94 UNCTAD. Labour This section of the business plan provides details of the workforce you need in order to run your business. you need to indicate the number of people required and what skills they need to possess. lawyers. How to Prepare Your Business Plan consultation scheme with employees throughout the organization. In your description of each support service. 5. External support services If you are using or plan to use external support such as specialized industry consultants. They will form the pool of talents from which your business can draw the executive managers of the future. Have you developed such a scheme? Developing competent middle managers is also significant for the longevity of your business.
not in ideas . C. no expected growth. they will be critically observing your management team in order to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses and to assess the values. In the negotiation process and during the due diligence stage the investor will be examining in detail the success and failure factors of your business. An investor may even particularly ask to meet all key people before a final decision is made.UNCTAD. In particular. And they will probably have plenty of time and many opportunities to do this as the negotiation and due diligence processes are often long and intense. They involve many functions and disciplines.). current and prospective? • Which benefits. no restructuring etc. The general impression from the people in your business will certainly influence the final decision to invest or not. norms and overall culture of the firm. As a prominent venture capitalist once said: I invest in people. incentive plans and other schemes do you envisage for motivating people to work for you? In other words. Practical issues venture capitalists will check The final decision of a venture capital fund to invest in your business will not be based on your business plan alone. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 95 • What are the labour costs. Therefore. many of the senior managers of the company have to become involved in them and thus exposed to the investor. you still need to answer some of the above questions in your business plan.. Investors would be interested to know whether your existing employees and present staff policies are adequate to ensure successful continuation of your operations.
96 UNCTAD. • Values and norms of the firm.1 summarises the basic characteristics managers should have in order to be of value to their firms. It is therefore very probable that the prospective investor will be looking at these characteristics. The ability to listen.1 The basic characteristics of managers Position General management Responsibilities Communicating Necessary abilities The ability to communicate clearly and effectively in written and oral form. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Particular features on which an investor will be placing emphasis are: • Technical skills and competences of managers. Technical skills and competencies of managers Table VII. • Attitudes and human characteristics of managers. • Team spirit. You should be aware of these while planning your business or when interfacing with venture capitalists later on. Detailed criteria and considerations that investors will apply in assessing the above features are summarized below. receive input from others. Follow up to ensure that these decisions are implemented. consider all relevant factors and make decisions quickly. The ability to explain ideas and put forward arguments. 1. • Compatibility of business type and people’s culture. Table VII. Ensure that major decisions are taken in agreement with the other members of the management. Making decisions .
Negotiating Planning Problem solving Objective setting Team selection Leadership Inventory and quality control Operations . and follow up thoroughly. The ability to establish suitable inspection standards and quality control procedures. anticipate problems and know how to avoid them. hirer and appoint or promote the right managers to the appropriate positions. and set up effective systems for managing the inventory of raw material. The ability to solicit different points of view from all sides. etc. The ability to develop and implement action plans. The ability to understand the strengths and weaknesses of people. The ability to properly define and set objectives with management (derived from the overall business objectives of the firm) and to monitor and assess their completion. establish attainable goals. The ability to gather and analyse facts. select. moderate and arbitrate fairly for mutual benefit (everybody should feel satisfied with the result). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 97 Overview Good overview of most of the key disciplines and functions involved in the business. production. finance.UNCTAD. implement solutions effectively. it is necessary to have substantial knowledge of product development. human resources. balance opinions. marketing. The ability to develop a vision. define tasks and assign them to the management team. define a business mission and inspire and motivate others to pursue it. identify obstacles. finished goods or goods in process. Although they are not directly responsible.
The ability to produce detailed up-to-date and projected income and cash flow statements and balance sheets as well as to analyse and monitor the overall performance of the business by using financial ratios. short. Maintain close contacts with the clients and be quick and flexible in responding to their requirements. Purchasing Financial management Statements and ratios Control of funds and cash Fund planning and raising Marketing/ sales management Evaluation and research Client orientation Planning . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Manufacturing Experience of the manufacturing process. Have an understanding of the needs of the clients and make an effort to satisfy them. advertising and sales programmes with sales representatives and distributors. material and people’s skills in an effective way. Make sure that costs remain within budget and cash flow is under control. and ability to use machinery. openness to continuing improvements. The ability to conduct thorough market studies by using the best available information. cost and quality needs of the client.and service-oriented. understanding of time. and to derive clear and correct conclusions. The ability to forecast financing needs and structure debt/equity. The ability to identify the most appropriate sources and suppliers (considering cost.98 UNCTAD. delivery time and quality) in order to effectively negotiate contracts and to optimally manage the schedule of buying products and services. etc. The ability to develop effective promotion. Familiarity with sources of funds and procedures for obtaining them. The ability to be client.versus long-term loans. The ability to design and implement overall and individual systems for effectively executing and monitoring all money operations and particularly spending of the firm. to properly interpret and analyse the results.
supervising and. motivating the sales force. human resource development concepts. The ability to obtain market share by organizing. etc.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 99 Product continuation The ability to determine service and spare parts requirements. scheduling and planning techniques. to assess situations in which help is needed and to initiate actions and follow them up. Support Engineering and R&D management Development Engineering Research Technical skills Human resources management Culture Conflict Help . people and performance assessment schemes. most important. testing and manufacturing. track customer complaints. The ability to listen to and understand human problems and needs. The ability to guide product development so that a product is introduced on time and within budget. outplacement. and supervise the establishment and management of the service organization. keeping a bottom-line balance. In-depth knowledge of recruiting strategies. and meets the customers' needs. Ability to deal with differences openly and resolve them through teamwork. with attention to costs. Product distribution The ability to manage and supervise product flow from manufacturing through the channels of distribution to the end user. The ability to supervise the final design through engineering. The ability to create an atmosphere and attitude conducive to high performance and rewarding good work verbally and monetarily. The ability to distinguish between basic and applied research. modern compensation and incentive schemes. training procedures.
patents. the moderator of the negotiations asked the investors: “What was the main reason that made you finally decide to invest in this firm?” The answer of the head of their delegation was short but meaningful: “These guys make an honest impression”. federal and. a deal was made and an agreement was signed. etc. liabilities and points of potential conflict and in developing measures for protection against these. United States. Some investors place even greater emphasis on such characteristics. potential investors will be assessing the attitudes and human characteristics of the managers in your firm. The investor United States investor was planning to use the Swiss firm as a basis for entering into the rapidly growing electronic banking business in Europe. warranties. international regulations concerning all aspects of employment and business operations. 2. While saying good bye at Zurich airport. Attitudes and human characteristics of managers In addition to technical and administrative skills and entrepreneurial competencies. was negotiating to invest $13. general managers and lawyers). Experienced in and knowledgeable about the intricacies of incorporation. Intellectual property rights Compliance Source: UNCTAD. State. After two weeks of intense and complex negotiations involving six to seven persons from each side (accountants. specializing in computer software and services for processing inter-bank payments and security transactions. licences. Making a good impression An investor from New Jersey. incentives. in identifying all possible pit falls.5 million in a firm in Baden. Knowledgeable about regulations and procedures of commercial law. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 100 Legal management Contracts Experienced in structuring clear and complete agreements. Box VII. copyrights. Switzerland. Source: G.1.UNCTAD. . Experience in compliance with local. default. technical specialists. etc. Malcotsis. marketing and sales managers. if necessary.
Not afraid to admit they are wrong or have made a mistake. they work hard but they also know how to keep a good balance and do not neglect family life. religions or ethnic groups or nationalities. motivation or the momentum of work if things for the future are suddenly not very clear or if a situation involving paradoxes and discrepancies arises. Can quickly adapt to changing situations and implement changes. Have no prejudice against people of other cultures. Can take advice from others. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 101 On the other hand. Characteristics for success Characteristics Orientation Distinctive success traits Do not lose orientation. Collective spirit Balanced life Problem solving Objective thinking Cultural sensitivity . They are committed to their work.2 lists some typical characteristics of managers that play an important role. Table VII. If necessary. Integrate in to the company and the management team and feel part of it. Once a CEO placed a banner with the following slogan in her office: “If you do not have a solution for your problem. Respect and are sensitive to other cultures and are able to operate across cultural barriers. many cases are known in which investors walked out of negotiations and no deals were concluded despite the high potential of the businesses and the experience of the management. and follow their own way and interests. They will always look at options to solve problems that stand in their way and they take the initiative in implementing solutions. Try to make individual objectives compatible with the overall objectives of the business. personal hobbies and interests. effectively and with confidence. social responsibilities. mistakes and failures.2. Try to understand themselves and assess their performance on a continuous basis and learn from their successes. Maintain optimism and positive attitudes for the future even in adversity. they ask for advice from others but do not overwhelm them with their problems. They do not isolate themselves. Wrong attitudes and character deficiencies of management are good reasons for investors not to invest in a business. They know how to solve problems quickly. Table VII.UNCTAD. and health. then you are also part of the problem”.
Ability to cope with changes. Social responsibility and environmental consciousness Trusting others No power need Realism Coping with overload Have the stability to withstand stress and strain. Willingness to assist others in self-improvement. setting realistic attainable goals. Criticism is accompanied with suggestions for improvement. Conscious in complying with social standards and in making a contribution that benefits people. No aggressive attitude or narrow. Ability to occasionally distance oneself from the business. face problems directly and promptly. Ability to delegate responsibility and not keep everything under direct control. rigid thinking. prestige. Appreciation of strengths of others. Good and stress health and physical stamina to work long hours. others and even competitors. Take initiative and charge of a given situation. no fear of failure and no preoccupation with own concerns. Direct in criticism and substantiate this with concrete facts and reasoning. highest priority and less urgent. suppliers. authorities. Avoid rumours and gossip. employees. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 102 Fairness and openness Honest and fair attitudes and conduct towards everybody: own firm. Pro active and not just following. Pragmatic and down-to-earth forecasting on targets and achievements that can be reached. Responsibility Independence Achievement orientation . Focus on achieving a standard of excellence. No false optimism. status. high demands. commitment to making things better. Tendency to guide the actions of others rather than dictate. to relax and recover. not feeling guilty about real or imaginary mistakes. optimism regarding what people can accomplish. Strong tendency to take responsibility. clients. society as a whole and the environment. belief in their potential for improvement. No tendency to feel threatened by perceived attempts to undermine authority. obstacles and work overload. inspire others by being an example.UNCTAD. shareholders. Ability to trust and inspire people. influence and control. No great need for power. knowledge of the individual effort it takes to achieve something. Not easily influenced and not any difficulties in taking decisions. asking for honest feedback and use this for further improvements. Ability to distinguish between important and less important.
Competitiveness Perfectionism Originality Not oppositional Relationships Enthusiasm Self-approval and motivation Source: UNCTAD. no tendency to cover mistakes. No excessive need to be liked or approved by others. . Develop ideas and initiatives of their own. No tendency to place excessive demands on self and others. no need to look for flaws and criticizing everything. no negative cynical attitude or sarcastic sense of humour. not seeking the feelings of security within a bureaucracy. They are diligent in planning activities properly. Become fascinated and enthusiastic about things and are able to spread positive attitudes and enthusiasm to others. Form healthy. take losing in good part and try to learn from experience.UNCTAD. strong desire to know about things and to experience things directly. Do things as well as necessary but not as well as possible. fixed ideas and a “win-loose” orientation that distorts perspective and goals. positive interpersonal relationships that are meaningful and reciprocal. but on the other hand they do not slow processes and make them extra costly by over-planning. No excessive concern to avoid mistakes. No preoccupation with detail that distorts perspective and judgement. Give and derive satisfaction from interactions with others. Maintain competitive spirit and happiness in winning but do not develop “winning obsessions” and aggressiveness. No preoccupation with the opinions of others and no tendency to say and do only what others think and expect. no tendency to view rules as a source of comfort and security. freedom from feelings of guilt and worry. Strong intuition. No need to win at all costs. Able to be selfmotivated without the need for compliments or influence of other people. Not scrutinizing everything. not systematically asking tough questions. No preference for staying unseen and unnoticed. energetic approach to life. Do things well but are not perfectionists. do not tend to make others feel uncomfortable. positive about the future and ability to enjoy things. do not always have to be right and to be the best. openness to new experience. Leave space for improvisation. Fair. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 103 Self-actuation Self-directed individuals with strong self-discipline.
• All are clear about their role and the division of responsibilities. • Core team includes at least three members. prospective investors may be interested to see how the management team works as a whole. • All team members share the same vision: success! • The team has a consensus about the mission. Team spirit In addition to assessing characteristics of individual managers. 4. Characteristics of a successful management team are: • Strengths and weaknesses of team members complement each other. objectives and strategy.UNCTAD. • Core members know their weaknesses and are ready to fill the gaps. . Examples are: • We strive to do the best for the benefit of our clients. • They bonded together. • We are always available to our clients. • They work in a spirit of mutual respect and friendliness and support each other. • The team covers all core disciplines and functions of the business. • The ownership structure is clarified between team members (shareholders). very seldom more than six. Values and norms of the firm Successful companies have specific values and norms by which all employees live and which the top management cultivates. • Most team members have been working together for a long time. including in difficult times. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 104 3.
• Bringing value to our shareholders is a major objective. • Our integrity is uppermost. even if we lose money. not individual goals. and if so. • We strive to be market leader in volume/in quality. Investors will most probably seek to ascertain whether the firm has made a commitment to endorse any such values and norms.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 105 • Our knowledge and work should benefit our community and society as a whole. • Team results are uppermost. whether these are indeed applied in practice. • Our employees are our most valuable assets. .;
new water supply lines. • Development of products or processes that have a positive impact on the environment (i. The sections below briefly describe the concerns of lenders and investors and give a list of typical questions asked by them before they decide to finance a project. encourage more recycling.). • How your business could be affected and what would be the consequences for the lenders or investors. Your business plan needs to contain answers to the above questions.e. school/kindergarten. The lenders or investors will probably come back and ask for more details. etc. • Whether the management of your entity is aware of them.110 UNCTAD. Experienced lenders and investors are aware of these risks and therefore wish to know: • Whether there is an audited environmental report available. products and processes that use less energy. the financial consequences have been so serious that investors have lost their investment. In a number of cases when investors had to pay enormous amounts of money to resolve problems they did not anticipate when investing in the business. fewer material resources. Typical examples of such situations are: cleaning up contaminated soil on factory sites. water purification plant. In some cases. new electric/telephone lines. • Which measures are planned to prevent or mitigate damage. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Infrastructure/services established by your firm which can be shared by the community (new access roads. . • What the environmental risks of your business are. medical service. You should be prepared to provide them. Environmental risks Loans to entities plagued by environmental problems have become a major concern for lenders and investors in recent years. or lenders never got back their loans. etc. D.). upgrading production systems releasing hazardous wastes exceeding given limits and modifying environmentally unacceptable products.
The lender's maximum potential loss in this case is also limited to the principal and accrued interest of the loan. fines etc. product or production equipment not in compliance with present or future environmental standards or market expectations). • Risk of high compensation payments and even bankruptcy. In addition. The concerns of investors The risk involved in equity participation is mainly related to the: • Risk of the company's reduced earning power. a potential image . In the case of equipment being used as collateral. The potential losses of investors are limited to the amount paid for their investment. compensation payments. • Risk of the potentially reduced value of collateral. the environmental risk is related to the loss of its value if the product or the process involved is environmentally problematic (e. The concerns of lenders The environmental risk involved for the lender is mainly related to the: • Risk of the customer's potentially reduced solvency. 2. The risk of reduced value of collateral becomes easily apparent in cases of real estate. including income lost since payment. impairing the creditworthiness and solvency of the business of the borrower. • Risk of degradation of the company's assets. when potentially contaminated sites are involved. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 111 1. loss of market share. As long as the lender does not take possession of the real estate the maximum potential loss of the lender is limited to the principal and accrued interest of the loan.g.. Non-compliance with environmental standards may cause serious economic damage through withdrawal of permits.UNCTAD. • Risk of losing reputation.
give details. Treatment of waste. the general public and other pressure groups? • Legislative information Which of the following environmental laws and regulations in your opinion apply to your business? How are you going to comply with them? General protection of the environment.112 UNCTAD. give details. Air pollution control. If the investor is actively participating in the management of the company. Handling and storing of hazardous materials. customers. Other. 3. Disaster prevention (factories and plants are a potential risk to the environment because of possible operational accidents). Examples of questions lenders and investors may ask • General information What are the main environmental issues that your business faces from the points of view of legislation. Waste water discharge. and pressure from suppliers. If investors control the business. Has the business ever been prosecuted for failure to comply with environmental legislation? If so. Are you aware of any impending changes to the laws and regulations that will affect your operations? If so. the personal liability of the responsible management members may arise. Noise abatement. How to Prepare Your Business Plan loss could be associated with the case. . depending on the applicable laws. their liability might even go further.
treatment and disposal of waste. are they within the limits? Has the company ever violated the regulations? Are any gases.. Has the company ever been subject to any legal action in connection with air pollution (including nuisance complaints)? • Liquid effluents Are there any liquid effluents that are produced by the entity? If so.UNCTAD. Are any significant environmentally related changes planned in the entity’s operations or regarding materials used. and storage areas for hazardous materials. waste incineration or waste treatment activities on site? If so. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 113 • Site details What was the site used for prior to the company’s current occupation? Has a survey for potential contamination/groundwater monitoring been carried out? If so. what are the results? • Operations with environmental relevance Include information with regard to generation. Are there any power generation. comment on how they conform to laws and regulations related to the protection of the environment. effluents and emissions. provide details with particular emphasis on the costs to be incurred for the implementation of the necessary changes. where are they discharged to? . produced and/or stored? What precautionary measures have been taken in case of plant failure with potential environmental consequences? Is there a written accident prevention plan? Is there any emergency response plan? • Air emissions Are any of the air emissions subject to regulation? If so.
were they satisfied with the monitoring and control procedures in place? Are changes in the control and monitoring procedures planned? If so. and period of storage. procedures to prevent and monitor leakage / spills. how will they affect the plant? What will the costs be? .. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Are discharges subject to licensing and regulation? If not.114 UNCTAD. provide details of any containment measures.. Are effluents stored on the site prior to disposal? If so. provide details. has confirmation of this been obtained from the regulators? If so..
was the fire officer satisfied with the precautions taken? Is the store adequately ventilated? Are there any hazardous wastes generated which require a disposal licence? If so. Are the containers protected from accidental damage and corrosion? Are the measures to contain accidental spills/releases adequate? Are drums adequately labelled? Is there evidence of previous spills/releases? Are inflammable substances located in a contained store? Are fire precautions adequate to control fire risks. has this licence been obtained? Have the terms of the licence ever been broken? ..UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 115 Are there any above.or underground storage tanks on site? Is the entity aware of any leaks or spills. when. and what was the result? Do the tanks have alarms/level indicators/cut-off devices? How often are tanks emptied? Is there a spill prevention plan? Is such a plan required by the regulators? If so. taking into consideration the quantities stored? Is the store licensed? If so.
e.116 UNCTAD.. dust. smell. where is it and in what condition is it? Do any of the batteries. fumes. transformers or other electrical installations on the site contain PCBs? .g. noise.
Your lender or investor will particularly want to know what you will be doing with the money you get and how you plan to generate the necessary cash flow to pay it back. when you will need it and when you will pay it back. change the advertisement mix. Introductory remarks Financial planning is a key element of your business plan. The two most important features of your financial planning are: • An indication of how profitable your business is expected to be in the future. and possible financial risks involved. • A definition of additional funds required for developing your business. It is as important for you as it is for your lender or investor. change your human resource policies. etc. For you Financial planning is an integral part of your overall business management concept.. each one of these actions will eventually have an impact on your financial statements. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 117 CHAPTER IX FINANCIAL PLANNING A. and if so on what terms and conditions. change the focus to new markets. how much money you need. you must keep in mind a number of critical considerations. While developing your financial plan.UNCTAD. will depend on how attractive and convincing the projected financial results of your business are. For your lender or investor The financial statements presented in your business plan (historical and projected) are the principal tools that will be used to analyse the performance of your business. A decision on whether your business will be funded or not. All decisions and assumptions you make will be reflected in the financial projections which are to be included in your business plan. as follows: . If you introduce new products. i.e. refurbish your machinery.
It is a great advantage that financial statements are standardized and regulated documents. since your business has probably only a few assets and no financial history. Your projections warn that if these costs rise by more than 25 per cent. • Standardization and regulation of financial statements. a cash shortage can cause the early termination of your business. suppliers. Even if revenues from sales are higher than expenses. rents. Let us say that you plan to start a business for growing pineapples. frequently involve start-up costs that are not applicable to on going businesses. Assessing your expenses.118 UNCTAD. you need to assess your assets and borrowing capacity. wages. the actual receipt of cash has to occur in time to meet expenses when they are due. Regardless of how good the idea of the business is. pesticides and insecticides. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Adequate back-up reserves. The timing of revenues and expenses is critical to all businesses. • Contingency plan for unexpected costs. payments to suppliers) and non-recurring (e. The inability to service liabilities causes companies to fail. without adequate capital it will probably fail. • Basis for start-up businesses. both recurring (e. The type of financial information that you will need for preparing your financial plan depends on whether your business is an established enterprise or is just starting. Without adequate cash reserves. You must have a contingency plan. banks etc. whether new or established. borrowing capacity or other means of meeting expenses. unexpected repairs). Inability to pay in due time may damage your reputation and trustworthiness with employees.g. If you are writing a plan for a new business. or business expansions. However. herbicides. you are probably going to experience a period during which cash outflow exceeds cash inflow. • Timing of cash movements. These start-up costs should be included in your projected financial statements. Statistics on the reasons for business failures (bankruptcies) show that the single most common cause is shortage of cash. You used your financial statement projections to study the impact of changes in the cost of fertilizers. This might include securing credit from a bank until the costs decrease again or until the market price of pineapples possibly increases.g. your lender or investor is going to have to rely almost entirely on financial projections. your monthly revenues might not be sufficient to pay your suppliers and employees if you cannot increase the price of your pineapples in due time. This issue will be discussed extensively in the cash flow section. Start-up businesses. is vital. . Whether you are starting a new business or whether you are taking a large step in expanding your existing business.
UNCTAD. If so. • Income statement projections/budget. • Cash flow projections. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 119 "Standardized" means that there are no surprises or inventive and difficult computations involved in their preparation. "Regulated" means that the format of your financial documents will be dictated in large part by accounting conventions in your country and the specific requirements of your auditors. It is also fortunate that the use of the International Accounting Standards (IAS) is becoming increasingly common practice in most countries around the world. • Request of funds and other supporting information. most of your work is already done. B. They include standard terms that only have to be worked out mathematically for each specific business. The following sections provide guidance for preparing these elements. A proven track record is persuasive evidence of your chances of continuing success. you have been creating and maintaining financial records since the inception of your business. Financial history Results of past and ongoing operations will support the credibility of your business plan. • Important financial ratios. Most probably. • Balance sheet projections.. If you are preparing a business plan for an existing business.
expenses and net profit of your business. and the cash balance at the end of the period (per month or quarter for the last year. It shows your revenues from sales. If you have scattered the data in such a way that they have to search everywhere and piece together information that was supposed to be in one place. For the third and following years estimates can be presented on an annual basis. the cash you spent. An income statement for a business plan should be broken down by month or by quarter for the first year. It is an advantage if the format and type of information included in the financial history section are similar to those of the financial projections (discussed below). liabilities and shareholders' interest. and per year for the years before). • A balance sheet. Income statement projections The income statement is also called the profit and loss statement. these financial statements are the most objective pieces of evidence that most lending institutions and venture capitalists will look at in order to support or to contradict your forecasts for future performance. This projection (which is basically your budget) should include seasonal effects (for example. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • An income statement. expenses and net profit (or loss). This will enable the reader and yourself to get a better overview and quicker understanding of the development of your business. The second year can be broken down quarterly. Analyse the results of the income statement briefly and include . • A cash flow statement. which lists the sales revenues. they will not look favourably upon the rest of your plan. concise and easy to follow. which lists the cash you generated. For existing businesses. if you are in the pharmaceutical business you may have higher sales in the cold months of the year owing to the higher consumption of medications and vitamins). C. you are going to make sure that you present them in a format that is accurate. The net profit (or loss) is equal to revenues minus expenses.120 UNCTAD. which lists the type and book value of your business's assets. • The financial ratios derived from your income statement and balance sheet. With this in mind.
you need to document why such growth can be attained. Avoid large sales or expense categories that are lumped together without backup information about the components. If this is also the case with your plan. It can be because similar companies have had this growth path.UNCTAD. In other words. . If your business already exists. Many business plans tend to show rapid annual growth projections of 30. if you say you expect your firm to grow by 30 per cent in the first year and by 40 per cent in the second. 40. or because of projections from a specific market researcher. industry association or other sources. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 121 this analysis in your business plan. because the industry is growing at this rate (indicate the source for these data). 50 per cent or more. include income statements for previous years (financial history section). provide the basis for your assumptions.
The two basic elements of your business's cash flow are the cash inflows and cash outflows.1 contains an example of the major items included in an income statement. Table IX.... ..... ..... How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX.. etc.......... ............. general and administrative expenses = Operating profit (EBITDA)* - (Dollars) Planning years. ...1. *EBITDA: earnings before interest.... . ...122 UNCTAD.. income not yet received in cash..new company Xxx1 . ........ ........ ....... .... ...Selling......... . . ... .. ... ... ... . . .... ........ .... ... .... ... xxx2 .... . .. xxx4 . . ... depreciation and amortization.... . .. . Income statement Item Total net sales + Other operating revenues = Total revenues .Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . ........ ... . D.... ...... ....... .... .. It contains non-cash items such as accruals........ Xxx3 .. .... Cash flow projections 1... ..... .... What is cash flow? An income statement shows the profit (or loss) made during an accounting period..... ...... tax...... A cash flow statement shows a company’s in-and-out flow of cash and how cash is generated to cover outgoing payments. ...... Depreciation Interest expenses / + income Extraordinary charges / + credits Corporate tax = Net profit (loss) Source: UNCTAD.............
Rental payment for premises. A manufacturing business's largest outflows will most likely be for the purchase of raw material and other components needed for the manufacturing of the final product. Examples of typical sources of cash revenues are: • • • • • • • • Cash from direct sales (sales against cash) of products and services. an inflow occurs only when you collect money from the customers. Collection from accounts receivable. . Professional fees (legal. Cash dividends to shareholders in the business. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 123 Cash inflows are the movement of money into your business. your largest outflow is most likely to be for the purchase of retail inventory. training and consulting). If you grant payment terms to your customers. Purchasing fixed assets. Management bonus. If your business involves reselling goods. Patents. trade marks and distribution agreement fees. Rental (or lease) payments for equipment and furnishing.UNCTAD. Inflows are from the sale of your goods or services to your customers. Interest earned from bank deposits. audit. Licences. Personnel salaries. Capital increases in cash (new money put into the business by shareholders). registrations and permits. Dividends received from financial investments of the business itself. for example purchasing equipment. Examples of typical cash disbursements are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • Payments for raw material procurement. Outflows are generally the result of paying expenses or investing. paying back loans and settling accounts payable are also cash outflows. Proceeds from new loans. Advertising and promotion expenses. Cash outflows are the movement of money out of your business. Payments for procurement of finished/semi-finished products. Payments for buying machinery and equipment. Proceeds from sale of real estate or equipment. Commissions and/or royalties to agents. Other cash revenues from business operations. The funds received from a bank loan are also cash inflow.
Interest payments to the bank for working capital credits. Utilities (electric. Offering discounts for immediate or fast payments might be one way of improving your cash flow. equipment.124 UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • • • • • • • • • • • • Other rental payments (including vehicles). etc. etc. Credit terms are the time limits you set for your customers' promise to pay for the merchandise or services purchased from your business. • Accounts receivable. To manage your cash flow properly. Interest (and principal) payments to the bank for mortgages. Postal expenses (mail. Insurance premiums (for premises. • Inventory. courier. Accounts receivable represent sales that have not yet been collected in the form of cash. you must know the time it takes your customers to pay. gas and water).). Some of the most important elements that need special attention when you are preparing your cash flow projections and in managing your cash flow are: • Credit terms and policy. tariffs. Other business expenses (not elsewhere listed). Communications (telephone. Inventory describes the extra merchandise or supplies that your business keeps in stock for meeting demands of customers. Tax payments (duties. fax. telegrams. A credit policy is the blueprint you use when deciding to extend credit to a customer. Cash payments for office supplies. equipment. Motor vehicle expenses. An appropriate credit policy is necessary in order to ensure that your cash flow does not become the victim of a credit policy that is too strict or one that is too lenient. Credit terms affect the schedule of your cash inflows. An excessive amount of inventory hurts your cash flow by binding funds that could be used for other purposes. Repair and maintenance expenses paid (for premises. This is done through well-timed and highly coordinated production . on income. Internet provider). Although your credit terms and policy may say that clients have to pay within 30 days of receiving the product.). vehicles). vehicles). An account receivable is created when you sell something to a customer in return for a promise to pay at a later date. The “just-in-time” concept introduced by many companies in recent times has as a main objective to minimize the amount of inventory (stock of products). you may find that some of them take 60 or 90 days or more.
• Accounts payable. "near" meaning 30 to 90 days. you need to examine regularly your schedule of payables and have tight control of them. Accounts payable are amounts that you owe to your suppliers and are usually payable in the near future.UNCTAD. . Arranging for favourable (longer-term) credit terms and paying on time (and not earlier) improve the cash situation of your company. For the best cash management. Without trade credits you would have to pay for all goods and services at the time you purchase them. The above-mentioned sources and uses of cash can be conveniently divided into three categories as indicated in table IX. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 125 and distribution processes involving all major suppliers of raw materials and clients in the planning and execution work. This reduces the costs of storage space but also improves cash flow.2.
others) ♦ Patents.2.. others) ♦ Patents.126 UNCTAD. plant and equipment) ♦ Long-term financial investments (shares. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX..
including the lender himself. you can arrange in advance for other sources of funds to get you through temporary cash shortages. It also shows the net cash amount available at any time. a cash flow projection will provide you with the tool to keep your business decision-making on track and your inventory purchasing under control. It is possible to show a good profit at the end of the year. and when. Improving your cash flow will make your business more successful. Through proper cash management you may find that you have some spare cash. you need to look at each of the important components that make up the cash flow cycle in order to determine whether it is a problem area. It will also serve as an early warning indicator when your expenditures are out of line or your sales targets are not met. For you Used properly. It will specifically tell you how much money is needed when it is needed. on which you could earn some interest if you place it in a bank deposit account. and yet face a significant money squeeze at various points during the year. and where it will come from. Why do you need cash flow planning? A cash flow projection shows sources and uses of cash for the period under consideration. Analysing your cash flow will also help you to spot any problem areas in your business. 2..UNCTAD. As in any good analysis. Handling any cash surplus is just as important as the management of money into and out of your cash flow cycle. the completed cash flow forecast will clearly show your lender what additional . If your cash flow estimates show that you will occasionally not have enough money to pay your bills. It shows which amounts of cash are expected to come in and go out. Accelerating your cash inflows and delaying your cash outflows (but still paying within the time frame agreed with your creditors) are necessary measures for improving and managing your business. A proper cash flow forecast will give enough time to devise remedies. A cash flow projection is an important instrument for you as well as for your lender. Furthermore.
When making your cash flow projections you may have to distinguish between three different time frames as follows: Short-term cash flow accounting. They are made on a month-to-month basis and will help you to predict the amount of any short-term loans required for covering. These cover the entire period of your business plan (3-5 years) and are of use in establishing requirements for long-term bank loans or equity. This will give you some indication of your business's capacity to generate the resources necessary for expansion. If the performance projections are realistic. you can always work harder to please the next customer or regain the disappointed one. expansion in infrastructure. If you fail to satisfy a customer and lose that customer's business. if any. putting it in a deposit account which gives you higher interest than your settlement account). These are typically made for the first year of your business plan (or your budget for the coming year). A sound cash flow is essential for any successful business. This predicts the anticipated cash revenues and disbursements of your business on a week-to-week or even a day-to-day basis. they will also provide support for the feasibility of a term loan for purchasing equipment or for building up a distribution network. Medium term cash flow projections. This is typically the case when planning long-term product development. for example. A very important purpose of long term cash flow planning is to predict your business's ability to take in more cash than it pays out. How to Prepare Your Business Plan working capital. Some business people claim that appropriate cash flow management is even more important than the ability of the business to deliver goods or services. such projections show a substantial liquidity surplus over several months. If.128 UNCTAD. Long term cash flow projections. buying of new machinery. This is to ensure that your bank account is optimally managed and has sufficient cash to cover payment transactions over the coming weeks. you have to discuss with your banker the best way to invest some of this money (for example. Your business plan will probably not be concerned with such short-term operational control. It is obvious that management of cash flow is a very important element in making your business successful. seasonal liquidity shortages. the business may need. etc. Proper treasury management is important for enhancing the profitability of your business. But if you fail to pay your suppliers or your employees. you may soon be out of business. . on the other hand.
For existing operations. It is also recommended that you make adjustments for this year's predicted trend in the industry if any such information is available and you can get it. be sure to reduce your figures by about 40-60 per cent a month for the start-up months in the first year.UNCTAD. it will be entirely acceptable to show each month's projected sales at least 5 per cent higher than your sales of the previous year. Steps in preparing your cash flow projections Preparing a cash flow projection involves three steps as follows: Step1. sales revenues from the same month in the previous year provide a good basis for forecasting sales for that month of the following year. . the forecast sales to identified client groups should be the foundation for your projected revenues and should be based on existing sales of competitors of similar size. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 129 3. if analysts of the economy and the industry predict a general growth of 5 per cent for the next year. Furthermore. Forecasting cash revenues Step 2. For example. Reconciliation of cash revenues and cash disbursements Step one: Forecasting cash revenues Find a realistic basis for estimating your sales each month. How to prepare a cash flow projection a. Projecting cash disbursements Step 3. For new operations. Include notes to the cash flow to explain any unusual variations from the numbers of the previous year.
This is an important principle of the cash flow projection and should be applied whenever you are in doubt about the amount to enter and when to book it.200 in July that is how it must be shown on the cash flow spreadsheet. Normally. This involves linking the cash flow status of each month to the cash flow status and respective activity of the preceding and succeeding months. total cash payments for goods purchased and any other expected expenses have been estimated for each month of operation. If it is to be paid in two instalments $1. if you plan to pay your supplier invoices in 30 days. cash outlays will appear two or even three months after the goods purchased have been received and invoiced.400 annually. Exactly the same principle applies to all other cash expenses. it is necessary to reconcile the cash flow. Step three: Reconciliation of cash revenues and cash disbursements . follow the principle of not averaging purchases. For example. Your insurance expenditure is an example of a different type of expense. Your commercial insurance premium may be $2. How to Prepare Your Business Plan If you sell products on credit terms or with instalment payments.200 in January and $1. It is important that sales be considered only at the moment when cash is received. this would be treated as a $200 monthly expense. If you can obtain trade credit for longer terms. Once total collection of cash. beginning with a summary for each month of the cash payments to your suppliers (accounts payable). Each month must show only the cash that you expect to pay in this particular month to your suppliers. But the cash flow will not see it this way. The cash flow wants to know exactly when it will be paid. you must be careful to enter only the part of each sale that is to be collected in cash in the specific month you are considering (realized accounts receivable).130 UNCTAD. Step two: Projecting cash disbursements Project each of the various expense categories. Any amount to be collected after 30 days will be termed as “collections on accounts receivable” and will be shown in the cash flow projection in the month in which it will be collected. the cash payments for January's purchases will be shown in February. Again.
Example: reconciling cash revenues and disbursements (Dollars) Planned Actual April April Item Opening cash balance 12 000 Total cash revenues 10 000 Total cash disbursements 15 000 Closing cash balance 7 000 (carry forward to next month) Source: UNCTAD. b. Then add the total of the current month’s revenues and subtract the total of the current month’s expenditures. Remember that the income statement. Designing a cash flow worksheet There are various ways of structuring a cash flow worksheet.4. as the latter will be based on data and assumptions made in the other two financial statements. The reconciliation example given in table IX. balance sheet and cash flow worksheet have to be consistent. To derive the optimum benefit. In another part of your worksheet there will be all the details of cash inflow and cash outflow for your own purposes. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 131 The reconciliation section of the cash flow worksheet begins with the balance carried forward from the previous month’s operations. An appropriate format is given in table IX.3. This adjusted balance will be carried forward to the first line of the reconciliation part of the next month to become the base to which the next month’s cash flow sources and/or uses will be added and/or subtracted..3 indicates that there is a need to borrow funds in order to cover the cash shortage in June. The cash flow statement shows the main headings (aggregate amounts) that are appropriate to be included in a business plan. it is recommended that it be structured to show separately the inflows/outflows from (a) operating (b) investing and (c) financing activities. .UNCTAD. Table IX.
This can lead to under funding. One of the great advantages of these spreadsheets is that they allow you to change input parameters easily and to see immediately how your business and the cash requirements respond to different assumptions about the course of the business. • Compare planned and real figures. Lotus 123 or any other standard business software can be very useful for creating cash flow worksheets. Most companies experience a gradual increase in sales. 4.. • Include effects of seasonal variations and business cycles in all cash flow projections. patterns of cash movement emerge. For example. • Avoid large cash flow categories that are lumped together without backup information about the components. if you are in the accounting business. Look for significant discrepancies between “planned” and real figures. Some more hints for preparing/improving your cash flow When developing cash flow projections. if you are in the business of selling winter sports articles. As the true strengths and weaknesses of your business unfold before your eyes. Seasonal variations are particularly noticeable in the agricultural business. How to Prepare Your Business Plan c. if the figures of . Tools for cash flow projections Computer spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel. On the other hand.132 UNCTAD. which means that your funds will prove inadequate for meeting your obligations. • Do not underestimate cash flow needs. the following important considerations are to be kept: • Avoid an unrealistically rapid increase in sales that generate cash. it will be useful to have a second column for the actual figures alongside each column of the planned figures. Since you will use the cash flow forecast to compare regularly each month's projected figures with each month's actual figures. spring and summer months are those with the least flow of cash in your business. For example. your cash flow will show peaking values in spring when you charge your clients for preparing their annual reports and assisting with their tax declarations. in which farmers harvest.
The most obvious measure is to minimize expenses. Two of the most common uses of extra cash are paying of your debt and investing the cash surplus. . It may be necessary to delay stock replenishment. • Improving your cash flow. • Using cash surplus. • Negotiating deferment of larger payments in the event of a cash flow emergency. • Negotiating longer terms for payables to your suppliers.e. • Trying to borrow from the bank the necessary additional funds (however. • Decreasing accounts receivable (through faster invoicing. leaving your business occasionally short of cash. or apply to the bank for an increase in the limit of your credit line. The cash flow gap represents an excessive outflow of cash that might not be covered by a cash inflow for some time. Deciding how to use your cash surplus requires some planning and is also part of the business planning process. may experience a cash flow gap from time to time. cash inflows lag behind your cash outflows. Although business. Think of this money shortage as your cash flow gap. Other important steps are: • Decreasing inventory.. How you handle your cash surplus is just as important as the management of money going in and out of your cash flow cycle. offering a discount for quicker payments. Cash outflows and inflows rarely occur at the same time. Preparing a cash flow budget is the best way to eliminate the cash flow gaps in your business. you will have to show your lender when and how you will be able to repay the loan). this is an unmistakable signal that it is time to revise the year's projections. etc. large or small. More often than not. the amount of operating expenses. etc. A cash surplus is a situation when the cash coming into the business exceeds the cash required for covering the expenses of your day-to-day operations. it does not necessarily mean that the business is in financial trouble.UNCTAD. Never leave cash inflow to chance. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 133 the business fail to meet your cash revenue projections for three consequent months.). Approaching the bank should be done well in advance of the day on which the additional funds are required. Improving your cash flow means increasing or accelerating your cash inflows or decreasing or delaying your cash outflows. i.
... ….. .. ….. …. ….. …..134 UNCTAD. ….... …. *EBITDA: earnings before interest..... …. …..... …. …. ….. …. ….. …. depreciation and amortization.. …. ….. Cash flow from operating activities: Operating profit (EBITDA)* .... …... …. …. …. …. …. …. …...Extraordinary charges / + credits . …. ….... ….4 contains an example of the major items included in a cash flow statement... …. ….. Xxx3 …. …..Interest expenses / + income . …... …. ….. ….....Dividends paid out = Total cash flow from financing activities Total net increase (decrease) in cash Cash balance (beginning of the year) Cash balance (end of the year) Source: UNCTAD. …. ….. Table IX.... ….. …... ….. …. …. ….. …. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX.. ….. ….... …. …. ….. …. ….new company xxx1 ….. ….. ….. …. …. …. ….Repayment of funds borrowed + Sale (purchase) of marketable securities + Increase (decrease) in share capital ... …. ….. …. Xxx2 ….... ….. ….. ….. …. ….. ….Corporate tax Changes in working capital: + Decrease (increase) in accounts receivable + Decrease (increase) in inventories + Increase (decrease) in accounts payable = Total cash flow from operating activities Cash flow from investing activities: Sale (purchase) of property. …. …... …...... ….4. plant and equipment + Sale (purchase) of long-term financial investments + Sale (purchase) of patents. ….. Xxx4 ….. ….. …. …. tax. …. trademarks and licences = Total cash flow from investing activities: Cash flow from financing activities: Proceeds from new loans . …. Cash flow statement (Dollars) Item Planning years.. ….. …. …. ….
but does not in itself reveal how the business got there or where it is going next. Balance sheet projections The balance sheet is a statement of your company's relative wealth or financial position at a given date (say 31 December of each year). Assets must be valued in money terms and they must . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 135 E. You must also look at the information in each of the other financial statements (including historical information) in order to get an overall picture of the financial situation of the business. • Assets. That is one reason why the balance sheet is not the whole story. • Retained earnings. If your business already exists. Analyse the balance sheet briefly and include this analysis in your business plan. Liabilities • Long-term liabilities.UNCTAD. • Reserves. • Current assets. It is often referred to as a “snapshot” because it gives you the picture of the business at a specific moment. you will need to include an “opening” balance sheet. • Current liabilities. Assets are those things owned by your business that carry a certain value. They include all the physical and monetary items that are necessary for operating your business. The balance sheet of a company limited by share capital consists of the following categories of items: Assets • Long-term assets (called also fixed assets). If your business plan is for a start-up business. include the balance sheets of the last two to three years. Shareholders' equity • Share capital. As in the case of the other financial statements. avoid large asset or liability categories that are lumped up without detailed information.
followed by marketable securities. it is entered the first. Current assets Current assets are entered in the balance sheet in the order of their liquidity. Liabilities are generally divided into two groups. etc. or they can sustain losses from the business operations. Over time the value decreases by the accumulated depreciation. Assets are generally divided into two groups. it leaves a business in one of two ways: the owners can withdraw assets from the business. • Liabilities. Liabilities are obligations/debts of your company to third parties. longterm assets and current assets (short-term).136 UNCTAD. Since cash is the most liquid of all assets. It enters a business in one of two ways: through investments by the owners (shareholders) or through profits retained in the business. long-term liabilities and current liabilities (short-term). How to Prepare Your Business Plan be valued at their original cost. Liabilities come from two sources. inventory. They are claims that creditors have on your business. Long-term liabilities Long-term liabilities are those that must be paid during periods longer than one year. They can be placed in the business through a borrowing process. The process by which they are “consumed” in the financial statements and therefore disappear from the balance sheet is termed “depreciation of fixed assets”. The three important positions in the balance sheet are: Share capital Paid in by the shareholders/owners. . or they can be unpaid expenses incurred during business operations. accounts receivable. Current liabilities Current liabilities are those that must be paid within one year from the statement date. Shareholders' equity (or net worth) represents those assets that were placed at the disposal of the business by the owners of the company. Long-term assets Long-term assets (fixed assets) such as plant and equipment are being “consumed” by the business over a number of years. • Shareholders' equity. Accordingly.. Assets = liabilities + shareholders' equity . For any business and at any point in time the assets of the company should be balanced with the liabilities plus the shareholders'/owners' equity (that is the reason for the name “balance sheet”).UNCTAD. The retained earnings remain as wealth to the company.
…...… ….. …. …. …. ….. …. …. …. ….. …. xxx3 …. …. …. xxx4 …... …. …. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX. …. …. ….. ….... ….138 UNCTAD. …. …. …. …. …. ….. …. ….. …. ….. ….. ….. …. …...... …. …. ….... ….. …. …. …. ….. …....... ...... ….... …. ….. ….. …. …. Long-term assets: Land.. …. …. ….. Xxx2 ….. ….... …. …... …... …. …. …. …... . …. trademarks and licences) = Total long-term assets Current assets: Cash and and equity Source: UNCTAD. …. Balance sheet (Dollars) Item Planning years-new company Xxx1 …... …... …... ….. ….… ….. plant and equipment + Long-term financial investments (stocks. ….. …......... …. Table IX. ….. …. ….. bonds) + Goodwill (patents.. …...5 shows the major items included in a balance sheet.5. .. …. …. …........ ….
so that you compare and spot important trends. In many cases.000 of assets to generate those sales. • Monitoring the changes in the performance of your business over a certain period of time.000. it does not seem too good (5 per cent). Lenders use financial ratios to assess a business that is applying for a loan.000 sales figure may seem impressive.000. By routine calculation and recording specific ratios at the end of every accounting period chosen you may see possibilities for improvement in key areas. In order to assess how your business is doing. . • Comparing the performance of your business with other businesses in the industry. A $3. Such comparisons are the reason why financial ratios have been developed. How good is that? If this profit is earned on sales of $250.000. • Assessing whether certain operations of your business need fine-tuning.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 139 F.000.000. These are used as indicators for: • Providing a picture of the financial health of your business through evaluating its ability to generate profit. Important financial ratios Financial ratios are derived from information included in the income statements and balance sheets of your business plan.000. your income statement may show a net profit of $50. ratios are computed for a number of years (past and future projections). but not if it takes $3. pay its bills on time and utilize its assets efficiently. When developing your business plan you will be looking at ratios derived from both historical financial statements and financial projections. you will need to examine some of the figures in the financial statements not only in absolute terms but also in relation to other parameters of the business.000 are required to yield a net profit of $50. For example. but if sales of $1. and some suppliers use them to determine whether to extend credit to you. it may be very good (20 per cent).
The liquidity ratios are: • Current ratio. Your creditors may often be particularly interested in them because they indicate the ability of your business to generate the cash needed to pay your bills. Solvency ratios These ratios are explained in the following sections. there are only 15-20 ratios that are regularly used in business planning. These can be grouped in to four different types as follows: 1. However. This information should also be highly interesting for you. since inability to meet your short-term debts is a problem that deserves your immediate attention. Liquidity ratios 2. Liquidity ratios Liquidity ratios are probably the most commonly used of all financial ratios. Profitability ratios 4. 1.140 UNCTAD. . • Quick test ratio. Efficiency ratios 3. Liquidity ratios are sometimes called working capital ratios. How to Prepare Your Business Plan There are several dozens standard ratios that can be worked out.
Hence. This assures them that you will have enough working capital to run your business in the foreseeable future.Extraordinary charges / + credits .6 exemplifies the current ratio. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents.Selling. trademarks & licenses) / Current liabilities Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + = Long-term assets Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. Generally.Depreciation . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 141 Lenders commonly examine liquidity ratios when they are assessing loan/credit line applications. Once a loan/credit line is allocated to you.6. accounts receivable and inventory. say over the coming one-year period. or a combination of both. Current ratio Table IX. your current ratio shows the ability of your business to generate cash to meet its short-term obligations. plant & equipment . your lender may request that you continue to maintain a certain minimum ratio as part of the credit arrangements. Lenders often require that you have a current ratio of 2:1 or better. stocks and bonds.UNCTAD. provisions + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders equity Source: UNCTAD. A decline in this ratio can be attributed to an increase in shortterm debt. steps to improve your liquidity ratios are sometimes necessary. Table IX. This ratio indicates the amount of current assets. that can be converted into cash to pay your short-term liabilities. a. . Current ratio Current ratio = Current assets Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . such as cash.Interest expenses / + income . a decrease in current assets.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit .
which is rather low.25. p la n t & e q u ip m e n t .P r o v isio n s fo r in c o m e ta x e s = N e t p r o fit (.E xtr a o r d in a r y c h a r g e s / + c r e d it s . . For example.000 in current liabilities). If you manage to get $15.00 (you will have $50. . if the total amount of your current assets is $50.lo s s ) P r o p e r ty. p r o v isio n s = L o n g . g e n e r a l & a d m in istr a tiv e e xp e n s e s = O p e r a t in g p r o fit .S e llin g .000 the current ratio is equal to. Quick test ratio Table IX. long-term borrowing to repay the short-term debt can also improve this ratio.in v e n to r ie s I n c o m e s ta te m e n t A s s e ts R e v e n u e s (sa le s ) .000 as a long-term loan in order to refinance an equal amount of short-term debt. How to Prepare Your Business Plan If your business lacks the cash to reduce current debts.I n te r e s t e xp e n s e s / + in c o m e . + L o n g -te r m in v e stm e n ts + G o o d w ill (p a te n ts . For example. The difference between the two is that the quick test ratio subtracts inventory from current assets and compares the resulting figure with current liabilities.D e p r e c ia tio n .7.C o st o f g o o d s s o ld = G r o s s p r o f it . The idea is simply to take steps to increase total current assets and/or decrease total current liabilities as of the balance sheet date.t e r m lia b ilitie s + B a n k lo a n s (o v e r d r a fts ) + P a ya b le s + T a xe s. Other possibilities may appear if you carefully scrutinize the elements in the current asset and current liability sections of your company's balance sheet.000 in current assets to $25. the ratio will increase to 2. Quick test ratio Q u ic k te s t r a tio = C u r r e n t a s s e ts .7 exemplifies the quick test ratio.142 UNCTAD. The quick test ratio serves a purpose that is similar to that of the current ratio.000 and your current liabilities are $40. Table IX.
and where there is room for improvement. by looking at the following ratios: • Inventory turnover. • Accounts payable turnover. you should keep in mind that they give only a general picture of your business's ability to meet short-term obligations. In evaluating the current ratio and the quick test ratio.UNCTAD. . you are concerned with optimizing the use of your assets and being a cost-effective producer. which may not be sold so easily. Efficiency ratios As a business owner/manager. • Total assets turnover. This signals that your quick current assets can cover your current liabilities. This can be obtained only through a detailed cash flow projection. In general. a stable current ratio with a declining quick test ratio may indicate that you are building up too much inventory. Converting inventory to cash or accounts receivable also improves this ratio. a quick test ratio of at least 1:1 is satisfactory. 2. The quick test ratio can be improved through many of the same actions that would improve the current ratio. • Fixed assets turnover. You can determine how efficient your business uses its assets. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 143 Many lenders are interested in this ratio because it does not take into account inventory. Over time. • Accounts receivable turnover. They are not an indication of whether each specific obligation can be paid when due.
g. Inventory is the amount of merchandise. To compute this you need to estimate the average inventory over the year. provisions + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD. the efficiency of your inventory management may have a significant impact on your cash flow and on the overall performance of your business.Interest expenses / + income .Extraordinary charges / + credits . parts. For example. The shorter the period. A high inventory turnover is a sign of having slow moving or obsolete items in the inventory.000. trading.Depreciation . Table IX.8. multiply by 365 days and divide by the cost of goods sold.144 UNCTAD. if the total inventory of your computer equipment business is $300. plant & equipment .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. service). + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. supplies or other goods your business keeps in stock for meeting the demand of its customers. How to Prepare Your Business Plan a.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . trademarks & licenses) = Long-term liabilities + = Long-term assets Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes.000 on average. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . The most significant inventory ratio is the inventory turnover in days. These are the days (on average) before inventory is turned into accounts receivable or cash through sales.8 exemplifies the calculation of inventory turnover. the . Inventory turnover Inventory turnover = Inventory X 365 days / Assets Cost of goods sold Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) Income statement Revenues (sales) . and if the cost of goods sold in a year is $500. the more efficient the inventory management of your firm (the more liquid the inventory). Depending on the nature of your business (e. Inventory turnover Table IX. manufacturing.Selling.
Extraordinary charges / + credits . + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders equity Source: UNCTAD.9 exemplifies calculation of accounts receivable turnover.Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. Accounts receivable represent sales for which payment has not yet been collected.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit .Interest expenses / + income . A ratio that is high by industry standards will generally indicate that your business needs to improve its credit policies and collection procedures. Account receivable turnover Accounts receivable turnover = Accounts receivable Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . If your business normally extends credit to its customers. b. which may be quite high for the business you are in.Selling. The result is divided by your annual credit sales. It is calculated by multiplying the average current accounts receivable by the number of days in the year. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit .Depreciation . Accounts receivable turnover Table IX. the payment of accounts receivable is likely to be your most important source of cash inflows. The turnover of receivables in days represents the average period of time it takes your business to convert credit sales into cash. Table IX. The resulting ratio shows the average number of days it takes to collect your receivables.UNCTAD.9. plant & equipment . . trademarks & licenses) X 365 days / Sales Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 145 average inventory turnover is 219 days.
How to Prepare Your Business Plan If your average value of accounts receivable is say $100. plant & equipment . The resulting ratio shows the average number of days it takes you to pay your bills. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. Accounts payable correspond to materials and goods your company has bought for which no payment has been made yet. Accounts payable turnover Table IX. The result is divided by the total cost of goods sold (assuming that most of the accounts payable are related to expense items indicated in the cost of goods sold). Accounts payable turnover Accounts payable turnover = Accounts payable Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) .Interest expenses / + income . the receivables turnover is 90 days.Extraordinary charges / + credits .Cost of goods sold = Gross profit .Selling.10. c. If you are in the construction business this may be acceptable. accounts payable are likely to be one of the most important items in the current liabilities position of your balance sheet. If suppliers extend credit to you. It is calculated by multiplying your current accounts payable by the number of days in the year.000 and your total annual sales is $400.10 exemplifies the calculation of accounts payable turnover.Depreciation .000. trademarks & licenses) X 365 days / Cost of goods sold Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. this may be too high and you may have to take measures to reduce it. A ratio that is low by .146 UNCTAD. Table IX. Accounts payable in days represent the average period of time it takes your business to pay its creditors. If you are in the retail business of selling electrical appliances. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD.
machinery. provisions = Long-term assets + C ash & cash equivalents + M arketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders equity Source: UNCTAD. the higher the ratio the better.Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . A declining ratio may indicate that you have over invested in plant.Interest expenses / + income . trademarks & licenses) / Fixed assets Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes.UNCTAD. plant & equipment . or delaying payments beyond the agreed dates. trying very hard to get advantageous terms.Depreciation . d. trade marks. Table IX.Extraordinary charges / + credits . equipment.Selling. Generally speaking. On the other hand. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 147 industry standards will generally indicate that there is still room to negotiate better terms with your suppliers. can spoil your reputation and make you an unattractive business partner. Terms with long schedules for payables are good for the cash flow and profitability of your business. Here again an optimum has to be achieved. equipment or other fixed assets. also called long-term assets). buildings. Long-term investments + + Goodwill (patents. because a high ratio indicates that your business has less money tied up in fixed assets for each dollar of sales revenue. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . Fixed assets turnover Table IX. Fixed assets turnover is the ratio of sales shown in your income statement to the fixed assets on your balance sheet (land. It indicates how well your business is using its fixed assets to generate sales. patents.11 exemplifies the calculation of fixed assets turnover. . licences etc. Fixed assets turnover Fixed assets turnover = Net sales Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) .11..
it is always useful to compare the fixed asset turnover of your business with industry standards or that of your competitors if the data can be obtained. 3. The ratios listed below and explained on the following pages are probably the most important indicators of the financial success of your business.Depreciation .Selling. Profitability ratios You can use a set of ratios to assess the profitability of your business.Extraordinary charges / + credits .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. plant & equipment . How to Prepare Your Business Plan As in the case of the other ratios.12 exemplifies the calculation of total assets turnover. + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. provisions = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . Lenders and investors will be interested in these ratios as they demonstrate the performance and growth potential of the business: • Gross profit margin.Interest expenses / + income . The ratio of the sales in your income statement to the total assets in your balance sheet indicates how well you are using all your overall business assets to generate revenue (rather than just inventories or fixed assets). Table IX. Total assets turnover Total assets turnover = Net sales Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . trademarks & licenses) / Total assets Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . Total assets turnover Table IX. .12. e.148 UNCTAD.
Extraordinary charges / + credits . general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . The gross profit margin ratio is an indication of your business's ability to manage the production costs (or cost of goods sold) at a given amount of sales.13 exemplifies the calculation of the gross profit margin. • Return on assets. Table IX. • Dividend pay-out. + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. The gross profit is the amount of money remaining from sales after the cost of goods sold has been deducted. • Return on equity.13. • Operating profit margin.Interest expenses / + income .Selling.Depreciation .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. if your profit margin has been diminishing over consecutive . Gross profit margin Gross profit margin = Gross profit Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 149 • Net profit margin. a. trademarks & licenses) / Net sales Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. plant & equipment . For example. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD. Gross profit margin Table IX.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit .UNCTAD.. If your net profit is $500. b. including depreciation. it means that you are buying more expensive or/and you are selling cheaper. Net profit margin N et p ro fit m a rgin = N et p ro fit In co m e sta tem en t A ssets R even u es (sa les ) . It is probably the figure you are most interested in looking at. In such a case. a comparison with your competitors or with the average ratio in your sector may give you useful hints about your situation. .150 UNCTAD. Your net profit margin shows you the bottom line: how much money is ultimately available for you to withdraw from your business.P rov is ion s for in co m e ta xe s = N et p rofit (-lo ss) P rop erty.. If you are a manufacturer.S ellin g . The net profit margin ratio takes into account all your costs.E xtra o rd in a ry ch a rg es / + c red its . you may want to take a close look at your production costs to see if they can be reduced without affecting sales. If you are in the trade business and your gross profit margin is diminishing with time.14. interest expenses. g en era l & a d m in istra tiv e exp en se s = O p era tin g p rofit . Table IX.25 (or 25 per cent). L on g -ter m in v estm en ts + + G ood w ill (p a ten ts.In te re st exp en se s / + in co m e . your net profit margin ratio is 0.C ost of g ood s s old = G ros s p rofit .000. How to Prepare Your Business Plan periods and sales have remained the same. Net profit margin Table IX.000 and sales are $2. extraordinary charges and provisions for income taxes. and adjustments on either side (or both) are necessary. It may also mean that your selling prices are not rising as fast as the costs of purchasing or manufacturing the goods. it means that your costs of production are rising faster than your prices. p la n t & eq u ip m en t .D ep rec ia tion .14 exemplifies the calculation of the net profit margin.000.
general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . It shows the percentage of money remaining in the business after all regular costs of operations have been deducted from the .Interest expenses / + income . The operating profit is lower than the gross profit but higher than the net profit. or it could mean that something is not going too well (excessively high costs of production.Selling. plant & equipment .15. It is an indicator of the profitability of the business itself. trademarks & licenses) / Net sales Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . Operating profit margin Table IX. interest expenses and taxes. independent of investment plans and how the business is financed. If you fail to meet your target.15 exemplifies the calculation of the operating profit margin. overheads.Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. This should be determined by taking into consideration the industry standards.UNCTAD. Table IX. it could mean that you have set an unrealistic goal. high overheads or/and low selling prices).). c. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 151 You should have some idea of the range within which you expect your profit margin to be.Extraordinary charges / + credits . Operating profit margin Operating profit margin = Operating profit Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . but before depreciation. Long-term investments + + Goodwill (patents. The operating profit ratio is designed to give you an accurate idea of how much money you are making on your primary business operations. etc. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD.Depreciation . It is the profit remaining after deduction of the cost of goods and other operating costs (personnel.
therefore. + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. A high return on assets can be attributed to a high profit margin or a rapid turnover of assets. plant & equipment . businesses gearing up for future growth invest in operating assets that do not immediately generate additional sales and. trade marks & licences) / Total assets Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. Return on assets Table IX. On the other hand. By looking at the changes in this ratio over time. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD. Table IX. you can get information on whether your overall costs are trending up or down.Depreciation .Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . How to Prepare Your Business Plan revenues. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . d. will result in a lower return-on-assets ratio. or a combination of both. This ratio indicates the rate of return generated by the assets of your business. consecutive periods of diminishing ratios may indicate poor utilization of your plant and operating equipment. and why.16 exemplifies the calculation of return on assets. In many cases. . This ratio can be viewed as a combination of two other ratios net profit margin (ratio of net profit to sales) and asset turnover (ratio of sales on total assets). In some cases.Selling.Extraordinary charges / + credits . Return on assets Return on assets = Net profit Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) .Interest expenses / + income .152 UNCTAD.Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. one or two periods of a lower ratio should not necessarily cause concern
21.D epreciation .21 exemplifies the calculation of the total assets to total liabilities ratio Table IX.Provision s for incom e taxes = N et profit (-loss) Property.Extraordin ary ch arges / + credits . If shareholders as part of the operating management are committed to making a substantial equity contribution from their own money.In terest expen ses / + in come . A ratio of 2 means that 50 per cent of the assets are financed by the shareholders themselves and 50 per cent are financed by externally borrowed money.UNCTAD. in expanding the business (increasing the assets in the balance sheet) but without providing any more funds of your own. c. gen eral & adm in istrative expen ses = O perating profit . you are perhaps interested in a higher ratio. + Lon g-term investmen ts + G oodwill (patents. i. Here again. Here again.e. a higher share of equity. . Total assets to total liabilities ratio Table IX.Sellin g.e. as this means higher equity (more commitment by the shareholders) and therefore a greater ability to absorb any financial losses. Lenders prefer to see higher such ratios. Total assets to total liabilities ratio T otal assets to total liabilities ratio = T otal assets Incom e statem ent Assets R evenu es (sales) . On the other hand. lenders feel more comfortable with lower ratios. The ratio of total assets to total liabilities is another indicator by means of which some lenders are accustomed to assess the debt-equity relationship. plan t & equipm en t . trade m ark s & licences) / T otal liabilities Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loan s (un -/secu red) = Long-term liabilities + B ank loan s (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. The above and the other solvency ratios discussed earlier are examined very carefully by lenders also for another reason. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 157 between 2 and 4. More equity (including reserves and accumulated profit) means higher margins to survive difficult business times in the future. a proper balance has to be found between these conflicting interests. i.C ost of goods sold = G ross profit . lenders will tend to trust the whole business more..
22.Extraordinary charges / + credits . Here again. It examines.Selling. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit . How to Prepare Your Business Plan d. like the other ratios above. it disregards short-term assets and liabilities and looks only at the long-term debts of the company in relation to the long term committed capital equity. .Interest expenses / + income .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) Property. Table IX. lenders would like to see that this ratio does not exceed certain levels that are standard for well.158 UNCTAD.22 exemplifies the calculation of the capitalization ratio.capitalized companies. plant & equipment . Capitalization ratio Table IX.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit .Depreciation . + Long-term investments + Goodwill (patents. Capitalization ratio Capitalization ratio = Long-term debt /( Equity + Long-term debt ) Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) . This ratio is concerned with the capital structure of the company. However. the debt-equity relationship. Such levels depend upon the type of industry and the kind of company. trade marks & licences) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes.
If this ratio is declining over time.Extraordinary charges / + credits . It shows whether the expected income from your operations is adequate to pay comfortably the interest expenses. The higher the ratio. Interest coverage ratio Table IX. .23 exemplifies the calculation of the interest coverage ratio.UNCTAD. it is a clear indication that your financial risk is increasing. Interest coverage ratio Interest coverage ratio = Operating profit Income statement Assets Revenues (sales) .Depreciation . Long-term investments + + Goodwill (patents. the bigger your cushion and the more the business is able to meet interest payments when due. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 159 e. Table IX.23. general & administrative expenses = Operating profit .Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . By comparing the operating profit with the interest expense you measure how many times your interest charges are covered by earnings from your operations. This ratio is particularly useful when planning to borrow money for making investments.Selling. provisions = Long-term assets + Cash & cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Receivables + Inventories (goods and materials) = Current liabilities + Share capital + Reserves + Retained earnings = Current assets = Shareholders‘ equity Source: UNCTAD.Interest expenses / + income .Provisions for income taxes = Net profit (-loss) Property. trade marks & licences) / Interest expenses Balance sheet Liabilities & equity Loans (un-/secured) = Long-term liabilities + Bank loans (overdrafts) + Payables + Taxes. plant & equipment .
000 in a project.000 per year over a period of five years. A year later you invest another $50.000 + $ 45.$ 50. Methods for ranking investment projects Investors use a number of methods to evaluate investment projects. • Net present value.000 + $ 45.000 + $ 45. The cash flow is as follows: Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Net cash flow .000. From the second year onwards the net cash you receive is $45. • Internal rate of return.000 Cumulative cash flow -$ 100.000 +$ 30.000 . rank them and select the most attractive among them to finance.000 -$ 60. This was the first formal method developed for evaluating capital investment projects.000 + $ 45.000 -$ 15.000 +$ 75.000 + $ 45.000 . Payback period The payback period is defined as the number of years it will take to recover the original investment from the future net cash flows.000 -$ 150.160 UNCTAD. 1.000 -$ 105. Example Assume that you invest $100. How to Prepare Your Business Plan G. This section discusses three of the most popular criteria applied: • Payback period. it may be advisable to work out these criteria and include them in your business plan. Depending on the type of investment you are anticipating. The easiest way to calculate the payback period is to accumulate the project's net cash flows and see when they sum to zero.$ 100.
discounted at an appropriate percentage rate. 2. 2. The discount rate is based on the cost of capital for the project. including the initial outflow. The steps for obtaining the NPV are as follows: 1. Its disadvantage is that it ignores cash flows beyond the payback period (i. In general. minus the present value of the cost of the investment. . One advantage of this method is that it is easy to calculate and apply. 3. The advantage of this method is that it takes into account the time value of money and takes into consideration the potential of the business over the entire planning period of the investment. The NPV is equal to the present value of future net cash flows discounted at the cost of capital. The NPV can be expressed as follows: NPV = CF0 /(1+k)0 + CF1 /(1+k)1 + CF2 /(1+k)2 + CF3 /(1+k)3………Fn /(1+k)n Where: • CFt is the expected net cash flow at time t. their sum is defined as the project's NPV. and if two projects are mutually exclusive. the project can be normally accepted. Add up all discounted net cash flows over a defined planning period. it has to be rejected.e. The latter depends on the level of interest rates in the economy. investment projects with a relatively short payback period are preferable. the one with the higher positive NPV should be chosen. Net present value The net present value (NPV) method is a useful method for evaluating investment projects.UNCTAD. if negative. If the NPV is positive. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 161 The cumulative total becomes positive in year 5. and so the investment is recovered in that year. the riskiness of the project and several other factors. Find the present value of each net cash flow. it is biased against long-term projects) and ignores the time value of money.
094 + 45.710. Therefore.00 $45.000.13 $29.00 $45.710.000. Take again the example discussed above in the payback period section.875. or the project's cost of capital.03 NPV = $14.37 In this example your original wealth as an investor will increase by $14.000/1.000/1. it is probably a beneficial investment. .710.095 + 45.00 -$50.093 + 45.000.162 UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • k is the expected discount rate.00 $45.26 $31.00 -$45.000.00 $45.879.000/1.090 .000/1. Assuming the cost of capital to be 9 per cent and a planning period of six years the NPV is calculated to be as follows: NPV = .100.871.096 = $ 14.37 The above calculation can also be expressed in a time line as follows: Year Cash flow 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -$100.832.000/1.50.56 $37.246.000.91 $26.000.60 $34.000.00 $45.000/1.091 + 45.000/1.092 + 45.748.37.
A convenient method for finding IRRs involves plotting a curve that shows the relationship between a project's NPV and the discount rate used to calculate the NPV.04 per cent.).04 Discount rate (% ) Source: UNCTAD. This value of discount rate is defined as the internal rate of return (IRR). Such a curve is defined as the project's net present value profile. This is the upper limit of the cost of capital for which the wealth of the investor would increase. The present value profile for the example described above is shown in figure IX.1. The IRR value is found to be 12. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 163 3.e. Investors obviously expect to see business plans with a cost of capital below the IRR value. Determination of IRR 70000 Net Present Value (NPV) 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 -10000 0 -20000 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 IRR= 12. the point at which the present value profile crosses the horizontal axis. . The IRR is at the point at which NPV equals zero.UNCTAD. Figure IX. i.1.
If the company's founders have invested in the company. create an exit plan that describes how investors will get their money back. when the money is needed. A common mistake in some business plans is that no clarity is provided in this section. Investors would also like to know who will be making decisions for paying dividends and what criteria will be applied.164 UNCTAD. • Tax advantages/benefits for investors. • Exit plan/strategy. Finally. Request for funds and other supporting information 1. • Minimum or maximum amount of financial participation. • Information on current investors. • Collateral being offered if any. • How new capital and future investors' funds will dilute current and subsequent ownership. How to Prepare Your Business Plan H. • Arguments to prove the soundness of the investment. A common worry of investors is that even if a business is profitable. Request for funds In this section of the business plan you should clearly define the amount of funding and the type (debt or equity) of investment you seek. . the assurance that the company will become a strong candidate to be taken over or an initial public offering are what many venture capitalists will insist upon. • Access to additional funding sources (for further expansion). Investors or lenders will also want to know what they will receive in return for their capital. it may be difficult for them to get a price for their shares remunerating them adequately for the risks incurred and the length. Discuss what effect the capital will have on the potential of the business to grow and to possibly increase profit. include this fact in your plan. of time during which the funds were locked in. It is important to provide a breakdown of how the money will be used. Some investors are encouraged if they see that the promoters are risking their own money in the business. A cash-out option in five years' time or so. In your request include also the following elements as appropriate. which turns potential investors away. • Payback period and return on investment. and what investments have already been made in the company.
Make sure that you do not ask for less money than you think you will need because you think that this will help you to get the money. 2. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 165 Include also future financing needs.UNCTAD. Changes in the rates of exchange affect your exports unfavourably. it will undermine the credibility of your plan and reduce your chance of raising finance and other support. Be sure to document how investors will make money and what return they will get. It is better to ask for more money than having to go back to your lenders and investors and to ask again when you have run out of cash. Should a potential investor discover any non-mentioned negative factors. . Important subcontractors fail to make deliveries. Your sales projections are not achieved. The industry's growth rate drops. Your competitors introduce a new. A key customer cancels a major contract. Risk assessment No business is without risks. This cannot be stressed enough. Design or manufacturing costs exceed your projections." You need to show how much money they may expect to make on their investment and what the risks involved in this investment are. but give an idea of the funds you will require in the future to take your company to the next step to success. you cannot just say something like: "You will make lots of money from this. Your competitors cut their prices. In other words. do not just look at what you need today. better product or service at a lower price. An economic crisis decreases the purchasing power of your customers. An important advertising campaign fails. You will show that you have taken the initiative to raise these issues and are capable of handling them. If you are asking for money. New unforeseen regulatory requirements have a negative impact on sales. The following list of problems is by no means complete. Your ability to identify and discuss them demonstrates your skills as a manager and increases your credibility. but should give you an idea of some possible risks you run and have to cope with: • • • • • • • • • • • • Key employees leave the business. The opposite may also be true.
• Underestimating costs. • You cannot find skilled labour. • Hiring friends rather than the most qualified candidates. if possible. Consider some common mistakes as potential risks. • Underestimating competition. To generate a complete list of risks.166 UNCTAD. examine all your assumptions about how your business will develop and what the chances and opportunities are. the opposite of many of these chances and opportunities may be risks for you. As each coin has two sides. Put yourself in a "what if" situation and then. small companies innovate and large companies copy and get the benefit. Think of ways you can stay ahead of your competitors and retain your unique selling position. you could discuss possible long lead times for subcontracted parts in the "manufacturing process" section of the plan. • Overestimating the growth of sales. . • Trying to do everything for everybody. develop contingency plans to deal with this situation. or the impact of a lower than anticipated response rate to a direct mail campaign in the "sales tactics" section. Evaluate your risks honestly. Some of the most important ones are: • Paying employees too much or too little. For instance. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Public opinion with regard to your product or service changes to your disadvantage. In many industries. • Underestimating the length of the sales cycle. If you like. This is always a risk you need to consider. you may incorporate the analysis of risks and contingency measures into the various parts of your business plan. • Fast growth which cannot be properly dealt with by the organization.
This personal financial information should identify the amount and source of funding that you have available and are prepared to invest in the business. Therefore. This part of the manual discusses potential risks in more detail. In large part. Be sure to include any start-up costs that will occur prior to opening your business. etc. While your business will probably involve certain expenses that are unique to your industry. your ability to sell yourself is a substitute for the historical information that does not exist. Instead. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 167 It may be wise to produce three different versions of your financial projections. particularly if you are trying to obtain outside financing. are your personal income tax returns for the last few years. Other documents that may be required. • Regulatory charges (licensing. Start-up business financial information If you are just starting a new business as an individual entrepreneur or together with a few partners. Nobody will trust your business ideas unless you are prepared to make a considerable contribution and risk your own money. your plan should include personal financial information instead of the historical information that an ongoing business would be able to provide. It will assist you in identifying and evaluating the uncertainties and risks of your business and in developing suitable contingency plans. cost of incorporation). 3. .UNCTAD. You need to convince whoever reads your plan that you have a genuine opportunity for success. do not forget some of these more common start-up expenses: • Professional fees (legal or accounting). There is no history of operations. an average and a pessimistic scenario. comprising an optimistic. you must rely heavily on your ability to sell yourself (and your partners) as a potentially successful business owner. you face a special challenge because you do not have an established track record. The plan should provide specific details regarding any personal assets that you intend to use in running your business. It does not matter whether you are using your business plan to obtain financing or to persuade prospective employees to come to work for you. The pessimistic scenario should take into consideration the most probable risks. • Security deposits for rented space.
The company is planning to invest in infrastructure. 3rd year. 70 per cent. . The sale of products is the only source of revenue. The sales in the first year are estimated to be $300. These are expected to be about 30 per cent of sales in the first year. three important parameters: The total investment per year as input into the cash flow projection. 30 per cent.168 UNCTAD. cars.25) and cash flow projections (table IX. An investment and depreciation plan is drawn up. • Depreciation. 25 per cent. • Cost of goods (income statement). This plan provides. and 4th year. balance sheet (table IX. also 50 per cent).26) are structured and reconciled. 20 per cent. 60 per cent. The “net book asset value” after subtracting the yearly depreciation. 50 per cent. general and administrative expenses (income statement). furniture and computers. and 4th year. 3rd year.27. In the following years. The basic assumptions and steps are as follows: • Sales (income statement). However. Here again. owing to the effects of mass production (increasing volume of production) this percentage is expected to gradually decrease (2nd year. and 4th year. which is introduced in to the long-term assets position of the balance sheet. • Selling. the business is forecast to grow substantially as the new company establishes itself in the market (growth: 2nd year. also 20 per cent). owing to learning and economy of scale effects this percentage is expected to gradually decrease (2nd year. The primary objective of the entrepreneur is to estimate how much money has to be borrowed from banks in order to develop the company.24). There are no other revenues such as commissions. This is for a new (start-up) company that is planning the first four years of its operation. How to Prepare Your Business Plan I. 35 per cent). The cost of goods in the first year is estimated to be about 70 per cent of total sales. The depreciation per year being introduced into the income statement.000. production machinery. Numerical example Below is a numerical example that shows how the income statement (table IX. as shown in table IX. 3rd year. subletting facilities income from special services. as a result.
. it will be noticed in the cash flow statement that the growth of business (growth of sales and therefore growth of accounts receivable) causes cash to be absorbed. • Accounts receivable (balance sheet). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 169 • Interest expenses (income statement). Thus. • Extraordinary expenses/income (income statement). The assumptions with regard to the inventory are similar to those with regard to the “accounts receivable”. • Inventories (balance sheet). growth of cost of goods and therefore growth of inventory) absorbs cash.28). the company makes losses in the first and second years of its operation. the taxable income is estimated in a separate table (table IX. the first two years include initial costs such as legal fees for setting up the company and establishing an accounting system. 50 days in the third year and 45 days in the fourth year. The accounts payable turnover is assumed to be 75 days throughout the four-year business planning period.UNCTAD. In this particular example. • Accounts payable (balance sheet). It is therefore assumed that tax will be paid for the first time in the third year.. These are usually non-recurring expenses/income. It is assumed that the company will be able to operate with reduced stock owing to improvements in logistics and delivery service. However. Unlike in the case of receivables and inventory. The inventory turnover is 60 days in the first year. 80 days in the second year. Here again the growth of the business (growth of sales. • Tax (income statement). 55 days in the second year. It is also assumed that the authorities accept that the losses of the first two years can be deducted from the profits of the third year. This gradual improvement is expected as a result of the “quickening” of the invoicing and collecting processes with time and also as a result of the increase in the proportion of clients that are “good” payers. The accounts receivable turnover is taken to be 90 days in the first year. As indicated in the income statement. the growth of the business will cause the accounts payable to increase steadily and thus be a source of cash in the cash flow statement.
000 $ 100. How to Prepare Your Business Plan • Share capital (balance sheet). after the net profit has added a substantial amount to the retained earnings.30) (introduced in the position: “proceeds from new loans”) to have a “positive cash amount” plus some contingency at the end of each year. . During the first three years it is assumed that no dividend will be paid. The total dividend is assumed to amount to 50 per cent of the net profit.000 (part of the loan) can be applied as the first repayment at the end of the fourth year.29 shows the reconciliation of shareholders’ equity or the use of profit. In this particular example the needs for additional borrowing are found to be: First year: Second year: Third year: $ 350. The amount placed in the reserves is fixed at 20 per cent of the net profit (see table IX. The primary objective of entrepreneurs is to ensure that they always have sufficient cash (working capital) to operate the business. The business planner has therefore assumed that $70.170 UNCTAD. The first dividend will be paid for the fourth year (to be paid during the fifth year after the annual shareholders meeting has taken place) after two important conditions have been met: The company has made a net profit.000 The first calculation has shown that the cash balance at the end of the fourth year is quite high and more than what is needed in cash to run the company operations. Table IX. Reserves are added only in the fourth year of operation to the shareholders' equity of the balance sheet.000 $ 100. Reserves and retained earnings were built up in the balance sheet. Thus. the final reconciliation of the financial statements can be made by working out the loans required (table IX.000.29). • Reserves (balance sheet). • Loans (cash flow statement). • Dividends. The balance sheet gives the cash available at the end of the year. No changes to the share capital are expected over the four-year planning period. The share capital subscribed and paid in by the shareholders in establishing the company amounts to $100.
The liquidity ratios (current ratio over 3 and quick test ratio over 2) are sufficiently high to ensure that the business will have enough liquid means to cover its running costs. *EBITDA: earnings before interest. depreciation and amortization.. Table IX.new company xxx2 xxx3 xxx4 + Other operating revenues = Total revenues . profitability and solvency ratios show an improving trend as the business grows.UNCTAD. .24. Income statement: an example (Dollars) xxx1 Item Total net sales Planning years.Cost of goods sold = Gross profit . How to Prepare Your Business Plan 171 • Important ratios.31 shows the development of the most important ratios over the four-year period. tax. Table IX.Selling. The efficiency.
plant and equipment + Long-term financial investments (stocks. bonds) + Goodwill (patents. Balance sheet: an example Item (Dollars) Planning year -new company Xxx1 Xxx2 Xxx3 xxx4 Long-term assets: Property.172 UNCTAD.25.. . How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX.
. trade marks & licences = Total cash flow from investing activities: Cash flow from financing activities: Proceeds from new loans .Interest expenses / + income . Note: The dividend from the business of the fourth year is effectively paid during the fifth year of operations. Cash flow statement: an example Item Planning years.26. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 173 Table IX. plant and equipment + Sale (purchase) of long-term financial investments + Sale (purchase) of patents.new company (Dollars) xxx1 Xxx2 xxx3 Xxx4 Cash flow from operating activities: Operating profit (EBITDA)* .UNCTAD..Repayment of funds borrowed + Sale (purchase) of marketable securities + Increase (decrease) in share capital . *EBITDA: earnings before interest.Extraordinary charges / + credits . after the shareholders' meeting. depreciation and amortization.
27. Investment and depreciation plan: an example Item Planning years.new company (Dollars) xxx1 200 000 200 000 80 000 80 000 36 000 316 000 10.174 UNCTAD.28. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX.000 8. Reconciliation of shareholders' equity (Dollars) xxx1 Item Planning years new company xxx2 xxx3 xxx4 Beginning shareholders equity + Net profit + Additions to capital . 286 000 328 000 480 000 468 000 .Dividends/withdrawals Ending shareholders' equity Reserves (year end) Retained earnings Source: UNCTAD.
-77 000 -11 500 20 20 -77 000 -88 500 0 0 0 0 95 900 165 515 20 20 0 0 7 400 165 515 1 480 33 103 Table IX.UNCTAD.new company xxx2 xxx3 xxx4 Loans drawn (beginning of year) Basis for interest calculation Interest rate (%) Interest expenses Loan repayment (year end) Loan balance (year end) Source: UNCTAD. Financing plan: an example (Dollars) Xxx1 Item Planning years.30. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 175 Table IX. Calculation of provisions for tax: an example (Dollars) Planning years.new company Xxx1 Item xxx2 xxx3 xxx4 Net profit after extraordinary items Corporate tax rate (%) Net loss carried forward Taxable income Corporate tax Source: UNCTAD.29. 350 000 100 000 100 000 0 350 000 450 000 550 000 550 000 10 10 10 10 35 000 45 000 55 000 55 000 0 0 0 -70 000 350 000 450 000 550 000 480 000 .
0 40% -2% 15% -2% -100% 0% 44.1 2.4 55 80 75 1.7 4.8 6.6 1.4 0.176 UNCTAD.2 60 90 75 1.9 50 70 75 1.9 0.3 4.7 xxx3 3.0 2.2 0.9 50% 14% 30% 13% 89% 0% 5.3 0.6 2.9 1.0 1.8 1.0 0.0 1.0 2.2 50% 15% 30% 18% 77% 50% 3.31.1 1.6 45.6 xxx4 3.7 30% -26% 0% -19% -335% 0% 17.8 3. .4 45 60 75 1. How to Prepare Your Business Plan Table IX. Ratio summary sheet Item Liquidity ratios Current ratio Quick test ratio Planning years.6 1.new company xxx1 3.1 0.3 1.0 Xxx2 3.1 18.
UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 177 PART THREE CONTINGENCY PLANS .
While your assumptions may have been realistically made. Some of these may be relevant to your business and some may not. Making alternative assumptions and planning around them is the best way to deal with possible events that are out of your control. For example. In your business plan you have made assumptions about future interest rates. see what will happen to your financial statements if the banks increase the interest rate to 15 per cent. For each scenario you take parameters that deviate from your original assumptions and then you check what would be the impact on the financial performance of your business. the probability of everything going exactly according to plan is very small. you know the actual result will not be precisely what you have predicted. Introductory remarks Your business plan is based on a number of assumptions. Some are qualitative in nature. profitability and balance sheet will deteriorate so much that your whole firm is seriously endangered?” To be able to answer possible questions you need probably to look at a range of scenarios. etc. your market share.UNCTAD. No matter how carefully you have made these assumptions. Then make a third check and see what will happen if both these disadvantageous deviations occur at the same time. if you have assumed an average interest rate of 10 per cent for your bank loans. The sections below give some examples of the types of risks usually considered in contingency plans. market growth. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 179 CHAPTER X RISK AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS A. see what would happen to your financials if the increase were only 3 per cent. Some can be expressed in quantitative terms and thus can be used to analyse how sensitive the financial statements are to a major deviation. If you have assumed an annual growth in sales of 8 per cent. A contingency plan is an . The purpose of sensitivity analysis is to help you to develop a contingency plan that you may or may not include in the business plan. behaviour of competitors. The questions your lender or investor will ask are: “What will happen if one or more of the parameters deviate significantly from your original estimates? How will your financial situation be affected? What is the risk that your cash flow. exchange rates. tax rates.
If you have already considered possible responses to changes in the market. Thus. How can relative movements of currencies affect your production costs or sales? Assume that you source raw material from the United States and you pay for it in dollars. Your cost of production will decrease and margins on sales will increase. etc.). Assume as an example that you are a building contractor. the market potential for construction of new houses may drop by about 20 per cent. But if the opposite happens. If you have a contingency plan. you may have difficulties. excavators. The maximum rate has been fixed at 12 per cent. You have recently invested in new construction machinery (cranes. It is therefore wise to repeat your original financial planning calculation by assuming an interest rate for your loan of 12 per cent (instead of 8 per cent) and a reduction in your original sales volume by 20 per cent. However. concrete mixing machines. How can your business be affected by a substantial increase in the interest rates? Here you need to consider the effect on client demand as well as the necessity to make higher interest payments to your lenders. B. It is critical that you have identified those areas to which your business is vulnerable. It would be interesting to see what would happen in this case to your overall profitability and if and when there would be any critical shortage of cash in your business. Types of risks 1. you are ready to act. you can react more quickly than if you have never even thought of the consequences. General economic environment Interest rates. • • Currency fluctuation. you have already identified the likely causes and impact and considered your responses. whether things go better or worse than expected. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 180 effort to avoid having your business disrupted when market or economic conditions change beyond what you are prepared to handle without major adjustments to your operations. If the dollar becomes weaker or the yen becomes stronger in relation to your currency. in your loan agreement the bank reserves the right to increase the interest rate if the market rates increase. .UNCTAD. For this investment you have borrowed money from the bank at an interest rate of 8 per cent. You also know from previous experience that if the market interest rate increases to over 10-12 per cent. you will profit from the situation. and you sell your final product to Japan and you receive yen.
exporting.1. cotton and iron prices)? 2. importing raw materials and machines.1). • Raw material prices.UNCTAD. it is wise to study how the last recession cycles affected your industry.). The discounting procedure applied under the net present value method (see financial planning section) is a practical way to assess the impact that inflation may have on your investment. In some cases it is found easier to produce financial projections in dollars or other hard currencies. sugar. there may be unpleasant surprises (box X. How cyclical is the industry of your business? How does it relate to the general economic cycle? How do you expect the next recession to affect your business? Although not every recession cycle affects the same industries in the same way every time. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 181 • Recession. etc? How could this affect your business? Importing machinery or raw material for production is an issue that requires particular attention in planning a business. • Inflation. Are there any possibilities that the Government will not issue. How can major changes in world prices of raw materials affect your business (for example. It is probably the best forecast of what will happen next. will withdraw or not renew any licences and approvals or that it will introduce restrictions for entering the market. wheat. Some economies are often confronted with hyperinflation. otherwise. Box X. Political/regulatory • Licences and approvals. oil. Regulatory surprises .
UNCTAD. assets. • Tariffs and quotas. insert them manually into envelopes and sending them directly to the consumers abroad on behalf of the telecom companies. processing of the data by high-capacity computers available in the entrepreneurs' firm. Source: UNCTAD. Are there any government grants or subsidies that are supporting your competitors but not you? How critical can this competitive disadvantage be for your business? • Increase in taxes. When the factory was about ready to begin operating the management set-out importing the highquality steel necessary. and printing monthly invoices. The authorities refused to grant an import licence. A similar problem happened to an entrepreneur who established a business for conducting the invoicing work of foreign telecommunications companies (outsourcing).? How would any such increase affect the overall profitability or viability of your business? . As this was proved not to be suitable. Is there the possibility of a major increase in the tax on your revenues. as the import licence was finally granted. The inability to deliver on time inflicted also considerably damage the image of the firm. the entrepreneur was contemplating abandoning the business. duties/tariffs on your products or equipment? • Government grants. However the issue was resolved. The mistake was that the issue of steel import was not examined with the authorities in the early planning stages of the project. It was an unpleasant surprise to find that the firm was prohibited from importing steel because national regulations protected local steel suppliers. etc. the investor decided to abandon the business at a great financial loss. Could the Government impose new import or export quotas. net profit. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 182 An entrepreneur set up a factory for producing razor blades. but the long delays inflicted great financial damage on the business. As the quality of local steel could not meet the specifications for producing high-quality blades. There was no problem in importing the computer equipment or getting the licence for the international transfer of data. The problem occurred as the company wanted to import the special paper for the printing of the invoices by high-speed printers. insisting on the use of locally produced paper. The service involved the following: receiving from the telephone companies electronic raw data on telephone calls made by their customers.
Possibility of the Government's changing policy with respect to exchange rates (as a result of which. Changes in public opinion • Taste and fashion. for example. ethical or "green" issues that can affect your business? For example. the fur coat business has suffered a lot in recent years because large parts of the population in numerous countries became sensitive about killing rare species for clothing and fashion purposes. • Health (tobacco industry. • New economy (new business principles and beliefs). client protection and free competition will affect some of your products? If so.UNCTAD. foreign currency can be exchanged only at specific banks at an exchange rate fixed by the Central Bank). . Are there any moral. how do you judge their effect on the overall financial situation of your business? • Exchange rate controls. pills for everything. • Communication (Internet. related to environmental protection.). mobile telephones). How to Prepare Your Business Plan 183 • New regulatory requirements. Is your industry stable or is it affected by changes in social taste or fashion? • Ethical and "green" issues. less stress). • Energy (attitudes towards nuclear power generation). safety. Is it possible that new regulatory requirements for example. more fun. eating habits). • Lifestyle (more leisure. 3.
However. Examples of damage Industry Oil/chemical Food processing/catering Transportation (airlines. Could the underlying technology of your product become obsolete and be likely to be superseded by better new products? For example. In most cases. Could the process technology which you are using be subject to fundamental change in the years to come? If so. individual persons inside or outside the company or the community as a whole. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 184 4. Such damage can be mitigated through insurance.) Pharmaceutical Tobacco Damage Pollution caused through spills Food poisoning Injuries or deaths through crashes Health damage through inappropriate drugs Cancer effects . in the 1980s and 1990s we saw a number of companies producing drawing instruments and drawing tables going into bankruptcy. The introduction of computer-aided design has made mechanical drawing instruments obsolete. Law suits There are many possible reasons why a company may get involved in a lawsuit and as a result may have to pay large sums to third parties. buses. Table X. in many cases insurance coverage may be limited and companies may still be obliged to cover the rest.1. • Production technology. this is for covering damage that was caused to entities. trains.UNCTAD. The companies that failed were not able to diversify fast enough to new technologies and products. Typical examples of damage are listed in table X.1. etc. Technological • Underlying product technology. would major investments be needed and could there be a complete change in the cost structure of your product? 5.
etc. Replacement of sold products (or specific part in them) due to faulty design Construction General products Source: UNCTAD. Staffing • Management. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 185 Financial audit/consulting Machinery Wrong valuation / failure to identify liability during a due diligence Injury or death of persons due to accident attributed to inappropriate design. inadequate instructions or material failure Structural failure of a building. 6. Client-related . bridge. What is the risk that new enterprises in the region will start competing for workers. How do you minimize the possibilities of major financial irregularity (fraud) that can do a major damage to your firm? 7. finance manager) decided to leave the company? What would be the impact on the operations of your company? What would be the effect if you could find appropriate managers to expand your business? • Workers.UNCTAD. production manager. if for any other reason you cannot find skilled labour? • Financial irregularity. with the result that salaries increase to much higher levels than you had originally anticipated? Or. How would your business be affected if one or more of your key managers (sales manager.
non-availability of raw material or non-availability of energy or water supply? • • Quality problems. If they do not fulfil the necessary requirements.)? Production failures. What would be the situation of your business if one or few major clients did not pay your invoices for an extended period of time? What would be the impact on your cash flow? What measures would you take in order to get paid? 8. owing to failure of process machinery. This is particularly true for goods such as computer software and pharmaceutical products that require extensive testing and certification. difficulty in obtaining spare parts. products. . Developing a new product necessarily involves a number of uncertainties. due to fire. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 186 • Loss of clients. New products have also got to be tested and certified. clients. production processes. Is such a loss possible in your entity? What would be the implications? What measures have you envisaged to ensure that there will be no such loss (back-up system etc. etc. 1 week. It is therefore not unusual that the actual time frame for and. computer failure. some modifications in the design and construction may have to be made. theft. Devising something "new" involves elements of innovation and creativity and therefore it is not always easy to make accurate predictions about the time and effort that will be required. Quality/production problems • Loss of information. What is the structure of your anticipated client portfolio? What will happen if one or two key clients cease buying your products or service? • Client payments. hackers or any other reason may cause a major crisis for many companies. What is the risk of loss of long-term profitable business by not being able to produce the necessary quality to satisfy the clients? • Delays/cost overruns in product development. developing new products exceed by far the budgeted amount. viruses. Loss of information about the market.UNCTAD. longer)? For example. cost of. Can production be interrupted for a longer period of time (1 day. 2-3 months.
Cost overruns happen often. A typical question is what you would do if you had a major problem with a subcontractor on whom you are highly dependent. • They start competing against you. However. what is the risk that the effort and time required will exceed your forecast? If this happens. • They go out of business and will no longer deliver. and the new price cannot be included in the overall price of your products without making them too expensive for the market. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 187 If you are developing a new product.. • The quality of their product or service is no longer satisfactory. • They regularly fail to meet the agreed delivery schedules. There are many reasons for this.UNCTAD. Subcontracting Outsourcing part of your products or services is often a cheaper and more effective way of doing business. 9. What are your alternatives if one of the above happens? Can you find alternative sources of supply within a reasonable amount of time? Are you maintaining close contacts with a network of diverse suppliers? What is the magnitude of the . the time effort and expense involved in winning an order from a new client are much greater than anticipated. there are always potential risks associated with this approach. the actual staff effort in implementing a new accounting system turns out to be much greater than budgeted. Typical examples of problems with subcontractors are: • They decide to increase their price substantially. Typical examples of situations resulting in cost overruns are the following: the construction of a new annex building takes much more time and effort than projected.
if the industry's growth rate drops.. etc. rent and other overheads. Positive increases (more sales than) would require more working capital for inventory. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 188 financial or image damage you will be facing if one of the above events prevents you from fulfilling your obligations towards your own clients? Are your agreements with your subcontractors suitable for minimizing your risks? 10. Here are some examples: • Your sales volume rises much more rapidly than you assumed. What would be the effect of deviating from planned sales in your case? (For example. They may occur for many reasons.UNCTAD. etc. A decrease in sales means difficulties in financing fixed costs such as wages. How can you increase your production capacity in the short term? How do you quickly find additional suitable employees? Can you outsource some of the work? • Your cash flow increases more than expected. However. Such variations can have an important impact on your financial situation whether they are positive or negative. Market • Sales variation. What do you do with your extra cash? Can you negotiate with your bank and repay your long-term debts . In your business plan you have made assumptions about the structure of the competitive situation in your market. Major variations from your planned level of sales cannot be excluded. accounts receivables. You should also think about how you would deal with the challenge if the business developed much better than you assumed. Managing opportunities In your contingency plan you should not only consider possible deviations from your assumptions that would mean extra risks for your business.) • Stronger competition.
Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors over which you have some influence. • Exploit opportunities. etc. . An important competitor decides to sell his business at a good price. • Develop strategies to deal with threats. What would you do? Buy the whole company and integrate it into yours? Buy only the assets? Buy only the clients? A prominent businessperson once said: My job gets difficult in two situations: when the business goes very badly and when the business goes very well.UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 189 earlier? What is the optimum way to invest the money: expand the business of the company. who is retiring. buy securities. opportunities and threats) analysis while you are planning your business. Specifically. Opportunities and threats are external issues that you cannot control. D. a SWOT will be of value in helping you to: • Build on your strengths. • Your weaknesses. SWOT analysis It is recommended that you conduct a SWOT (strengths. weaknesses. A SWOT analysis will help you in structuring your thoughts.? • Your major competitor sells his business. acquire another firm. analysing your risks and setting up your strategy. for example because there is no successor to the owner.
weaknesses. Strengths and weaknesses Area Production process Management Marketing Intellectual property Premises Strength Reliable machinery with good availability.UNCTAD. Trade secrets. Weakness Poor automation and low efficiency. Information technology Poor in-house IT support to users. opportunities and threats are given in tables X. Modern networks and software/hardware of high capacity. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 190 Typical examples of strengths. . Excellent name in the market. Good cash flow. Creative and good at selling. Finance Source: UNCTAD. Low rent and adequate space available for expansion. Expiring patent. Remote location.2. Debt burden. Poor market research capability.3.2 and X. Inadequate experience in finance planning. Table X.
Threat - Change of habits in market enhances interest in product. - Competition Labour market Financial markets Exchange rates Cheaper imported material. Competition fragmented.3. Some small competitors sell at lower prices. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 191 Table X. The analysis can be particularly effective if people are open. Increasing interest rates result in an increase of expenses. A SWOT analysis is performed by the management team of the entity. Opportunity to sell environmentally friendly products. Locally available skills. realistic. Environmental laws Government policies Limitation on imports of some materials prohibits expansion.UNCTAD. No single strong competitor. Source: UNCTAD. Experience shows that strategic workshops held at yearly intervals produce extraordinary results. self-critical and honest to themselves when it comes to identifying and defining their strengths and weaknesses. at best in an informal and relaxing environment outside the company and away from the hectic pace of daily operations. Disruptive strikes. Opportunities and threats Area Economic trend Market Opportunity Growth makes it easy to get higher prices. Prices are not very competitive for some export markets. Reduction of taxes increases profits. .
Or for expenses incurred during the past year but not payable until the following year. Some businesses that sell consumer products such as furniture or television sets will carry accounts for several months and charge interest. credit balances. . Amortization: Gradual reduction of a loan (typically mortgage) through periodic back payments. Companies to write off intangible rights or assets such as goodwill. Accounts receivable can also include revolving accounts.). The “assets” side of the balance sheet provides information on the employment of funds. equipment. inventory. Assets: Accounting term for everything a company owns and which has a monetary value listed in the balance sheet (cash. Appreciation: An increase in an asset's value. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 192 GLOSSARY Accounts payable: Money owed by a company to its suppliers for the purchase of goods or services bought on credit. Accounts receivable: Money owed to a business by its customers. The issuer promises to repay the debt on time and in full. Balance sheet analysis: Assessment of the figures and ratios in the balance sheet and income statement in order to appraise the standing and creditworthiness of a company or to evaluate the securities it has issued for investment policy reasons. such as department store or gasoline credit cards. real estate. patents or copyrights also use this accounting procedure.UNCTAD. etc. However. Balance sheet: A statement of the assets and liabilities of a business at a given date. Accrual liabilities: Items entered on the “liabilities” side of the balance sheet to account for income already received during the past financial year. Bond: Debt instrument denominated in a round amount that pays a set amount of interest on a regular basis. Bonds are bought and sold on the market. the costs of the products to be delivered will occur in the new fiscal year. whereas the “liabilities” side details the procurement of funds (financing) and the composition of the shareholders’ equity.
in which the funds to meet expected expenses were originally stored. whichever is lower. Fixed assets are depreciated in the accounts by regularly reducing their book value in the balance sheet. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 193 Book value: The value at which assets are carried on the books of account. for example. Cash flow: The flow of money payments to or from a firm. This can be. Depreciation: The decrease in value of an asset through wear and tear or other factors limiting its usefulness. Bottom line: Accounting term for the net profit or loss. The name is derived from the leather bag. Generally. At the same time this amount is subtracted from the inventory in the balance sheet. land. securities or accounts receivable. Call option: Agreement that gives an investor the right but not the obligation to buy a stock. Cost of goods sold: A company classifies all goods and services acquired for later sale as inventory. When the company sells goods. machinery. The book value of a share is the company’s net worth (the difference between a company's assets and its liabilities) divided by the number of shares outstanding. . Cash: Money in the company’s current accounts in a bank and petty cash available in the office. fixed assets are shown at cost less normal depreciation while inventories may be made at cost or market. or “bougette”.UNCTAD. the amount that was originally paid for the goods is recorded in the income statement’s “cost of goods sold” account. In an operating budget the planned costs and revenues. Collateral: Property that borrowers are obliged to turn over to lenders if they are unable to repay a loan. expenditures and income are compared. commodity or other instrument at a specified price within a specific time period. Budget: A plan of future income and expenses during a specified period. such as one year. Capital increase: Increasing the capital stock (share capital) by issuing additional shares or participation certificates against cash in the case of a corporation (joint stock company) or adding to the capital of different types of business structures. including in-kind contributions. buildings. Expenditures are sometimes referred to as “negative” cash flow. bond. inventory of finished or unfinished goods..
“sales” refers to cash received over the counter in exchange for pizzas. Short-term bank loan or notes payable: Amounts borrowed from the bank for less than a year. 2. services provided. Revolving credit: A line of credit that may be used repeatedly up to a specified total. Return on equity: An important measure of how much the company earns on the investment of its shareholders. In some cases. For department stores. rents and royalties. Revenue: Money a company takes in. Shareholders’ equity: The cash the shareholders invested in the business to start it. including interest earned and receipts from sales. Share: A form of security representing a portion of the nominal capital of a company entitling the owner to a proportion of distributed profits and of residual value if the company goes into liquidation. Shares further entitle the holder to vote at annual general meetings and elect directors (equity paper). the amount includes receipts from rents and royalties.UNCTAD. 3 or 6 months. Return on investment: An important measure of how much the company earns on the money the company itself has invested. plus any retained earnings and reserves. plus any additional contribution they have made to the business since then. with periodic full or partial repayment. This position can include loans that are outstanding and are due for payment within the next 12 months. Sales: Money a company receives from the goods and services it has sold. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 198 Retained earnings: Accounting earnings that are not paid out as dividends. “sales” includes cash received. . Security: A financial certificate that indicates that the holder owns a share or shares of a company (stock) or has loaned money to a company or government organization (bond). It is calculated by dividing a company's net profit (income) by the total shareholders' equity. but are retained by the firm for reinvestment in its operations. It is calculated by dividing the company's net profit (income) by its total assets. This measure is also called "return on assets". usually 1. charge account purchases and credit card purchases. For a business such as a pizza takeaway. In this case “sales” does not always equal “cash”.
UNCTAD. How to Prepare Your Business Plan 199 Solvency: Ability of a borrower to meet maturing obligations as they become due. this is the number of times an asset is replaced during a set period. as well as some combination of profits. within a stipulated time and for a certain price. the volume of shares traded on the exchange on a given day. Preferred stocks provide no voting rights but have a set. such as through the use of depreciation and amortization of assets. Also. "turnover" refers to the number of employees replaced during a certain period divided by the total number of employees. such as shares of stock. preferred shares or royalties. Venture capital: Financing for new businesses. guaranteed dividend payment. Also. In trading. In some countries the term refers to a company's annual sales volume. Stock: An investment that represents part ownership of a company. In employment matters. Stock option: An agreement allowing an investor to buy or sell something. claims on debtors who have become insolvent are written off. it is a method of employee compensation that gives workers the right to buy the company's stock during a specified period of time at a stipulated exercise price. investors may receive a say in the company's management. Turnover: In accounting terms. Write-off: Charging an asset amount to expenses or losses. There are two different types of stock: common and preferred. Also called shares. In return for venture capital. . Common stocks provide voting rights but no guarantee of dividend payments.
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